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NATURAL 
HISTORY 


THE  JOURNAL  OF 
THE  AMERICAN  MUSEUM  OF  NATURAL  HISTORY 


VOLUME  LXXIII 
1964 


Published  by 

THE  AMERICAN  MUSEUM  OF  NATURAL  HISTORY 

NEW  YORK,  N.  Y. 


CONTENTS  OF 
VOLUME  LXXIII 


January,  No.  1 

Reviews:    T.  Donald  Carter  4 

Three  Books  Survey  the  Fauna  Survival  Problem 

Water  of  the  World  Raymond  L.  Nace  10 

Monies  of  Antiquity  Joan  Fagerlie  20 

Emperors'  Dye  of  the  Mixtecs  Peter  Gerhard  26 

Night  Fighters  in  a  Sonic  Duel  Kenneth  D.  Roeder  32 

Sky  Reporter    Thomas  D.  Nicholson  40 

The  "Man  of  the  Woods"  Vernon  Reynolds  44 

Index  to  Next  Spring's  Growth  Virgil  N.  Argo  52 

About  the  Authors  58 

Nature  in  Rock  and  Mineral  Paul  Mason  Tilden  59 

February,  No.  2 

Reviews: Alfred  Kidder  II  5 

A  Fresh  Approach  to  Man's  Cultural  Background 

Rose-Red  City  of  Petra                        Philip  C.  Hammond  14 

Ornamental  Equines  26 

Fishes  and  Climates  C.  Lavett  Smith  34 

Color  Change:  Chameleon  Camouflage 

Herndon  G.  Dowling  40 

Sky  Reporter                    ,                 Thomas  D.  Nicholson  44 

The  Hawaiian  Monk  Seal  Dale  W.  Rice  48 

An  "Antlered"  Grotesque Lars  Holmberg  56 

Snow  Eaters  of  Alberta  Deryk  Bodington  60 

About  the  Authors   62 

Nature  and  the  Camera  David  Linton  63 

March,  No.  3 

Museum  Memo:  Alexander  M.  White  3 

Report  from  the  President 

Reviews:    William  Vogt  4 

Man  and  Nature  Joined  in  Quiet  Crisis 

Siege  Warfare  in  Pharaonic  Egypt  ..  Alan  R.  Shulman  12 

Grizzly  Territory  A.  W.  F.  Banfield  22 

Insect-Trapping  Plants  Virgil  N.  .\rgo  28 

PsYCHOPHYsics  AND  Hearing  IN  FisH     William  N.  Tavolga  34 

Sky  Reporter Thomas  D.  Nicholson  42 

Tribal  Art  from  Africa  Colin  M.  Turnbull  46 

Naturalists'  Notebook:  Predator  Nets  a  Sugar  Ant    -  54 

About  the  Authors  56 

Nature  and  the  Microscope               Julian  D.  Corrington  58 

April,  No.  4 

Reviews:  Lee  Boltin  4 

Photographer  of  Conviction 
Old  Africa's  "People  of  the  Village":  Part  I 

Arthur  Leipzig  10 

Dinosaurs  of  the  Arctic  Edwin  H.  Colbert  20 

Multicolored  World  of  Caterpillars         Paul  Villiard  24 

Bass  Rock  Gannets  Bryan  Nelson  32 

Cross-Pollination  of  an  Orchid  H.  Lou  Gibson  42 

Naturalists'  Notebook:  Exploration  at  the  Pond 

Photographs  by  Arline  Strong  44 

Megaliths  and  Men Glyn  E.  Daniel  46 

Sky  Reporter  Thomas  D.  Nicholson  54 

Nature  in  Rock  and  Mineral               Paul  Mason  Tilden  58 

About  the  Authors   62 

Science  in  Action: 

Launching  an  Expedition            Richard  G.  Van  Gelder  64 

May,  No.  5 

Reviews:    Colin   M,   Turnbull  5 

Women,  Witchery, and  Rebellion  Color  the  African  Scene 

Bronzes  of  Luristan  Bernard  Goldman  12 

Stalagmites  and  Stalactites  Edward  O'Donnell  22 

Fructivorous  Fliers  Kay  Breeden  26 

Man  Plant's  Return  H.  Lea  Lawrence  34 

Old  Africa's  "People  of  the  Village":  Part  II 

Arthur  Leipzig  38 

Sky  Reporter   Thomas  D.  Nicholson  46 

The  Monarch's  Emergence Alexander  B.  Klots  50 

About  the  Authors     54 

Travel  Far  and  Near:    

The  Meteorite  Search  D.  Moreau  Barringer  56 

Nature  and  the  Camera  David  Linton  60 


June-July,  No.  6 

Books  in  Review:     George  Gaylord  Simpson  4 

Science  v.  the  Humanities 

The  Amazon's  Rate  of  Flow  Luther  C.  Davis,  Jr.  14 

Expositions,  Exhibits  and  Today's  Museums 

Gordon  Reekie  20 
Naturalists'  Notebook:  Birth  of  Two  Whitetails 

Photographs  by  Leonard  Lee  Rue  III  30 
California's  Legacy  of  Indian  Rock  Art 

Campbell  Grant  32 

Hermaphroditism  in  Bahama  Groupers    C.  Lavett  Smith  42 
Astronomy's  Past  Preserved  at  Jaipur 

Derek  J.  de  Sella  Price  48 

Sky  Reporter  Thomas  D.  Nicholson  54 

About  the  Authors   58 

Science  in  Action: 

Preparing  For  Tomorrow  Perez  Malande  Olindo  60 

Washington  Newsletter  Paul  Mason  Tilden  66 

August-September,  No.  7 

Books  in  Review:  Pieter  Fosburgh  6 

A  Naturalist's  Book  List 

"Little  Snake  With  Hands" Charles  M.  Bogert  16 

Management  of  Water  IN  Arid  Lands      George  H.  Davis  26 

Pilgrim  of  the  River  Janis  A.  Roze  34 

Arches  and  Bridges  of  Stone  Willard  Luce  42 

Armor-Plated  and  Jawless  Devonian  Fish 

David  L.  Dineley  48 

Sky  Reporter   Thomas  D.  Nicholson  54 

Science  in  Action: 

On  Ethnological  Tactics  Robert  L.  Carneiro  58 

About  the  Authors   63 

Nature  and  the  Camera  David  Linton  64 

October,  No.  8 

Books  in  Review:                                     Harry  L.  Shapiro  4 
Three  Histories  of  Man 

Sciences  Meet  in  Ancient  Hasanlu  R.  H.  Dyson,  Jr.  16 

Rarely  Seen  Songbirds  of  Peru's  High  Andes 

William  G.  George  26 
Mapping  the  Surface  of  the  Earth 

Morris  M.  Thompson  and  Julius  L.  Speert  30 

Return  of  the  Beaver                                Sydney  Anderson  38 
Tiny  Drifters  of  the  Sea 

John  J.  Lee  and  Hugo  Freudenthal  44 

Migration  in  Maine  Paul  J.  Fournier  46 

Sky  Reporter  Thomas  D.  Nicholson  50 

Place  for  All  Things Paul  Bohannan  54 

Totem  Poles:  Family  Trees  ...  Frederick  J.  Dockstader  62 

About  the  Authors  64 

Nature  and  the  Microscope               Julian  D.  Corrington  65 

November,  No.  9 

1964  Survey  of  Science  Books  for  Young  People  4 

Cannibal  of  the  Pond  Syd  Radinovsky  16 

Strangler  Fig,  Native  Epiphyte  Virgil  N.  Argo  26 

Long  Journey  of  the  Dogfish  Walter  N.  Hess  32 

Bronze  Ace  Seen  in  Granite Holger  Arbman  36 

Sky  Reporter   Thomas  D.  Nicholson  44 

Lake  Erie  Niche  for  Gulls Ralph  S.  Palmer  48 

About  the  Authors  52 

Travel  Far  and  Near: 

Art  of  Ajanta  and  Ellora  Robert  S.  McCully  53 
Science  in  Action: 

The  Biological  Collector  Jack  J.  Rudloe  59 

December,  No.  10 

Books  in  Review:  Joseph  A.  Davis,  Jr.  4 

Wildlife  Under  Seige 
Fire  Ecology  of  the  Giant  Sequoias 

Richard  J.  Hartesveldt  12 

Anatomy  of  Decay  as  Preserved  in  Shale     Leif  St0rmer  20 

Fulton  Fish  Market Photographs  by  Lou  Bernstein  26 

Pompeii  Wilhelmina  Jasheraski  30 

Introduced  Menace  Monica  Shorten  42 

Sky  Reporter  Thomas  D.  Nicholson  50 

Anomalies  in  Africa 

Photographs  by  L.  D.  Vesey-Fitzgerald  54 

About  the  Authors   56 

Science  in  Action: 

Listening  Under  Water  William  A.  Watkins  57 

Washington  Newsletter                      Paul  Mason  Tilden  62 


ITHORS  AND  TITLES 

ams,  A.,  Reviews,  Oct.,  p.  6 

derson,  S.,  Return  of  the  Beaver,  Oct., 

).  38 

bman,  H.,  Bronze  Age  Seen  in  Granite, 

'^ov.,  p.  36  , 

go,    V.    N.,    Index    to    Next    Spring  s 

Ir'owth,   Jan.,    p.   52;    Insect-trapping 

'lants.    Mar.,    p.    28;    Strangler    Fig, 

Vov.,  p.  26;  Reviews,  June,  p.  11 

nfield,    A.   W.    F.,    Grizzly    Territory, 

Vlar.,  p.  22 

rringer,  D.  M.,  The  Meteorite  Search, 

Vlay,  p.  56 

ckwith,  J.,  Reviews,  Oct.,  p.  12 

dington,  D.  K.,  Snow  Eaters  of  Alberta, 

Feb.,  p.  60 

gert,     C.     M.,     "Little     Snake     With 

Hands,"  Aug.,  p.  16;  Reviews,  Apr.,  p. 

5;  June,  p.  12 

hannan,  P.,  Place  for  All  Things,  Oct., 

p.  54 

Itin,  L.,  Reviews,  Apr.,  p.  4 

eeden,  K.,  Fructivorous  Fliers,  May,  p. 

rneiro,  R.  L.,  On  Ethnological  Tac- 
:ics,  Aug.,  p.  58 

rter,  T.  D.,  Reviews,  Jan.,  p.  4 
Ibert,  E.  H.,  Dinosaurs  of  the  Arctic, 
Apr.,  p.  20 

oper,  K.  K.,  Reviews,  Nov.,  p.  12 
rrington,  J.  D.,  Nature  and  the  Micro- 
scope, Mar.,  p.  58;  Oct.,  p.  65 
easer,  E.  P.  Sr.,  Reviews,  Aug.,  p.  14 
iniel,  G.  E.,  Megaliths  and  Men,  Apr., 
p.  46 

vis,  G.  H.,  Management  of  Water  in 
Arid  Lands,  Aug.,  p.  26 
vis,  J.  A.  Jr.,  Reviews,  Dec,  p.  4 
vis,  L.  C.  Jr.,  The  Amazon's  Rate  of 
Flow,  June,  p.  14 

neley,  D.  L.,  Armor-plated  and  Jaw- 
less  Devonian  Fish,  Aug.,  p.  48 
ickstader,  F.  J.,  Totem  Poles,  Oct.,  p.  62 
iwling,  H.  G.,  Color  Change:  Chame- 
leon Camouflage,  Feb.,  p.  40;  Reviews, 
Dec,  p.  10 

■son,  R.  H.  Jr.,  Sciences  Meet  in  Ancient 
Hasanlu,  Oct.,  p.  16;  Reviews,  June,  p. 
10 

senmann,  E.,  Reviews,  Feb.,  p.  10 
:holm,  G.  F.,  Reviews,  June,  p.  6 
gerlie,  J.,   Monies  of  Antiquity,   Jan., 
p.  20 

sburgh.  P.,  Reviews,  Jan.,  p.  7;  Feb.,  p.  9; 
Aug.,  p.  6 

lurnier,  P.  J.,  Migration  in  Maine,  Oct., 
p.  46 

anklin,  K.  L.,  Reviews,  Nov.,  p.  6 
eed,  S.  A.,  Reviews,  Oct..  p.  13 
eudenthal,  H.  D.,  Tiny  Drifters  of  the 
Sea,  Oct.,  p.  44;  Reviews,  Jan.,  p.  7 
;orge,  W.  G.,  Rarely  Seen  Songbirds  of 
Peru's  High  Andes,  Oct..  p.  26;  Reviews, 
Jan.,  p.  8;  Aug.,  p.  10 
;rhard.  P.,  Emperors'  Dye  of  the  Mix- 
tecs,  Jan.,  p.  26 

ibson,  H.  L.,  Cross-Pollination  of  an 
Orchid,  Apr.,  p.  42 
ifford,  P.  C,  Reviews,  Oct.,  p.  12 
jldman.  B.,  Bronzes  of  Luristan,   May, 
p.  12;  Reviews,  Feb.,  p.  11 
rant,  C,  California's  Legacy  of  Indian 
Rock  Art.  June,  p.  32 
all,  E.  C,  Reviews.  Mar.,  p.  8;  Apr.,  p.  6 
amilton,  W.  J.  Jr..  Reviews,  Apr.,  p.  8 
ammond,  P.  C,  Rose-Red  City  of  Petra, 
Feb.,  p.  15 

artesveldt,  R.  J.,  Fire  Ecology  of  the 
Giant  Sequoias,  Dec,  p.  12 
ess,  W.  N.,  Long  Journey  of  the  Dog- 
fish, Nov.,  p.  32 

olmberg,  L.,  An  "Antlered"  Grotesque, 
Feb.,  p.  56 

nbrie,  J.,  Reviews,  Nov.,  p.  10 
ishemski,  W.,  Pompeii,  Dec,  p.  30 
idder  II,  A.,  Reviews,  Feb.,  p.  5 


Klein,  R.  M.,  Reviews,  Oct.,  p.  9 
Klots,  A.  B.,  Monarch's  Emergence,  May, 
p.  50;   Reviews,  Mar.,  p.  9;  Oct.,  p.  14 
Lanyon,  W.  £.,  Reviews,  Feb.,  p.  9;   Apr., 

p.  7;  May,  p.  10 
Lawrence,   H.   L.,   Man   Plant's    Return, 

May,  p.  34 
Lee,  J.  J.,  Tiny  Drifters  of  the  Sea,  Oct., 

p.  44;  Reviews,  Dec,  p.  11 
Leipzig,  A.,  Old  Africa's  "People  of  the 

Village,"  Apr.,  p.  10;  May,  p.  38 
Linton,  D.,  Nature  and  the  Camera,  Feb., 

p.  63;  May,  p.  60;  Aug.,  p.  64 
Luce,  W.,  Arches  and  Bridges  of  Stone, 

Aug.,  p.  42 
McCormick,  J.,  Reviews,  Nov.,  p.  8 
McCully,  R.  S.,  Art  of  Ajanta  and  Ellora, 

Nov.,  p.  53 
Manning,  J.,  Reviews,  Oct.,  p.  11 
Mellink,  M.  J.,  Reviews,  Aug.,  p.  12 
Nace,  R.  L.,  Water  of  the  World,  Jan., 

p.  10 
Nelson,  B.,  Bass  Rock  Gannets,  Apr.,  p.  32 
Newton,  D.,  Reviews,  May,  p.  7 
Nicholson.  T.  D.,  Sky  Reporter,  Jan..   p. 
40;  Feb.,  p.  44;  Mar.,  p.  42;  Apr.,  p.  54; 
May.  p.  46;   June,  p.  54:   Aug.,  p.   54; 
Oct.,  p.  50;  Nov.,  p.  44;  Dec,  p.  50;  Re- 
views, June,  p.  10 
O'Donnell,   E.,    Stalagmites    and   Stalac- 
tites, May,  p.  22 
Olindo,  P.  M.,  Preparing  for  Tomorrow, 

June.  p.  60 
Palmer.  R.  S.,  Lake  Erie  Niche  for  Gulls, 
Nov.,  p.  48;   Reviews,  Apr.,  p.  6;   Aug., 
p.  13 
Pickering,  J.  S..  Reviews,  Apr.,  p.  6;  June, 

p.  6 
Price,  D.  J.  DeS.,  Astronomy's  Past  Pre- 
served AT  Jaipur,  June,  p.  48 
Radinovsky,   S.,   Cannibal   of   the   Pond, 

Nov.,  p.  16 
Reekie,  G.,  Expositions,  Exhibits  and  To- 
day's Museums,  June.  p.  20 
Reynolds,  V.,  The  "Man  of  the  Woods," 

Jan.,  p.  44 
Rice,  D.  W.,  The  Hawaiian  Monk  Seal, 

Feb.,  p.  48 
Rickett,  H.  W.,  Reviews,  June,  p.  8 
Roeder,  K.  D.,  Night  Fighters  in  a  Sonic 

Duel,  Jan.,  p.  32 
Rogers.  D.  J.,  Reviews,  May,  p.  9 
Roze,  J.  A.,  Pilgrim  of  the  River,  Aug., 

p.  34 
Rozen,  J.  G.  Jr.,  Reviews,  Apr.,  p.  7;  Aug., 

p.  14 
Rudloe,  J.  J.,  The  Biological  Collector, 

Nov.,  p.  59 
Schulman,  A.  R.,  Siege  Warfare  in  Pha- 
RAONic  Egypt,  Mar.,  p.  12;  Reviews,  Oct., 
p.  8 
Scott,  N.,  Reviews,  Dec,  p.  9 
Shapiro,  H.  L.,  Reviews,  Mar.,  p.  8;   Oct., 

p.  4 
Shorten,  M.,  Introduced  Menace,  Dec,  p. 

42 
Simpson,  G.  G.,  Reviews,  June,  p.  4 
Smith,  C.  L.,  Fishes  and  Climates,  Feb., 
p.    34;    Hermaphroditism    in    Bahama 
Groupers,  June,  p.  42 
Stern,  C,  Reviews,  Dec,  p.  7 
St0rmer,  L.,  Anatomy  of  Decay  as  Pre- 
served IN  Shale,  Dec,  p.  20 
Tavolga,  M.  C,  Reviews,  June,  p.  8 
Tavolga,  W.  N.,  Psychophysics  and  Hear- 
ing IN  Fish,  Mar.,  p.  34;  Reviews,  June, 
p.  8;  Aug.,  p.  13;  Dec,  p.  9 
Thompson,  M.  M..and  J.  L.  Speert,  Mapping 
the  Surface  of  the  Earth,  Oct.,  p.  30 
Tilden,  F.,  Reviews,  Feb.,  p.  7 
Tilden,  P.  M.,  Nature  in  Rock  and  Min- 
eral, Jan.,  p.  59;  Apr.,  p.  58;  Washing- 
ton Newsletter,  June,  p.  66;  Dec,  p.  61 
Trautman,  M.  B.,  Reviews,  Dec,  p.  6 
Turnbull,  C.  M.,  Tribal  Art  from  Africa, 
Mar.,  p.  46;  Reviews,  Mar.,  p.  6;   May, 
p.  5;  Nov.,  p.  4 
Van  Gelder,  R.  G.,  Launching  an  Expedi- 


tion, Apr.,  p.  64;  Reviews,  Aug.,  p.  10; 
Oct.,  p  6. 

Vaurie,  C,  Reviews,  Mar.,  p.  10 

ViOiard,  P.,  Multicolored  World  of  Cat- 
erpillars, Apr.,  p.  24 

Vogt,  W.,  Reviews,  Mar.,  p.  4 

Watkins,  W.  A.,  Listening  Under  Water, 
Dec,  p.  57 

Wollin,  Goesta,  Reviews,  Jan.,  p.  8 

Zappler,  G.,  Reviews,  Mar.,  p.  9;  Apr.  p.  5 

SUBJECT  MATTER 

Africa,  Mar.,  p.  46;  Apr.,  p.  10;  June,  p.  60; 

Oct.,  p.  54;  Dec,  p.  54 
Amphibians  and  Reptiles 
Amphisbaenids,  Mexico,  Aug.,  p.  16 

Lizard,  chameleon,  Feb.,  p.  40 
Turtle,  Orinoco  River,  Aug.,  p.  34 
Animal  Behavior 

Chimpanzee,  Jan.,  p.  44 

Dogfish,  Nov.,  p.  32 

Gannets,  Apr.,  p.  32 

Moth,  Jan.,  p.  32 

Squirrel,  gray,  Dec,  p.  42 

Turtle,  Aug.,  p.  34 

Water  scorpion,  Nov.,  p.  16 
Archeology 

Bronzes,  Luristan,  May,  p.  12 

Coins,  ancient  Greek,  Jan.,  p.  20 

Egypt,  siege  warfare.  Mar.,  p.  12 

Hasanlu,  Oct.,  p.  16 

Megaliths,  Apr.,  p.  46 

Petra,  Feb.,  p.  14 
Arches,  rock,  Utah,  Aug.,  p.  42 
Art 

Ajanta  and  Ellora,  Nov.,  p.  53 

California,  Indian  rock  art,  June,  p.  32 

Dahomey  tribe,  brasses.  Mar.,  p.  46 

Horse,  Appaloosa,  Feb.,  p.  26 

Pompeii,  Dec,  p.  30 

Swedish  rock  art,  Nov.,  p.  36 
Astronomy 

Crab  Nebula,  Dec,  p.  50 

Gregorian  Calendar,  Mar.,  p.  42 

International  time  standard,  Apr.,  p.  54 

Jaipur  observatory,  June,  p.  48 

Lunar  eclipse,  total,  June,  p.  54 

Moon's  face,  Aug.,  p.  54 

Orion,  Nov.,  p.  44 

Photometry,  Feb.,  p.  44 

Saturn,  rings,  Oct.,  p.  50 

Stellar  brightness,  Jan.,  p.  40 

Venus,  orbit  of.  May,  p.  46 
Bats,  fruit.  May,  p.  26 
Bears,  grizzly,  Mar.,  p.  22 
Beaver,  Oct.,  p.  38 
Birds 

Gannets,  Apr.,  p.  32 

Gulls,  Nov.,  p.  48;  Dec,  p.  26 

Songbirds,  Peru,  Oct.,  p.  26 
Botany 

Animal-trapping  plants.  Mar.,  p.  28 

Buds,  winter,  Jan.,  p,  52 

Ginseng,  May,  p.  34 

Orchid,  Apr.,  p.  42 
Sequoias.  Dec,  p.  12 
Strangler  fig.  Nov.,  p.  26 
Butterfly,  Monarch,  May,  p.  50 
Calendar,  Gregorian,  Mar.,  p.  42 
Caterpillar,  Apr.,  p.  24 
Chameleon,  Feb.,  p.  40 
Chimpanzee,  Jan.,  p.  44 
Chinook,  wind.  Feb.,  p.  60 
Chromite.  Jan.,  p.  59 
Coins,  ancient  Greek.  Jan.,  p.  20 
Dinosaur  footprint.  Apr.,  p.  20 
Dogfish,  Nov.,  p.  32 
Egypt,  siege  warfare.  Mar.,  p.  12 
Ethnology 

African  markets,  Oct.,  p.  54 
Meban  tribe,  Pt.  I,  Apr.,  p.  10; 

Pt.  II,  May,  p.  38 
Indians,  Northwest  Coast,  Oct.,  p.  62 

Tactics,  ethnological,  Aug.,  p.  58 
Expedition,  preparation  of,  Apr.,  p.  64 
Fish 

Brook  Trout,  Oct.,  p.  46 
Dogfish,  Nov.,  p.  32 


Groupers,  June,  p.  42 

Hearing  of.  Mar.,  p.  34 

Fossil,  Feb.,  p.  34;  Aug.,  p.  48 
Foraminifera,  planktonic,  Oct.,  p.  44 
Gannets,  Apr.,  p.  32 
Ginseng  roots.  May,  p.  34 
Groupers,  June,  p.  42 
Gulls,  Nov.,  p.  48;  Dec.,  p.  26 
Hasanlu,  Oct.,  p.  16 
Horses,  spotted,  Feb.,  p.  26 
Hydrophones,  Dec,  p.  57 
Insects 

Butterfly,  May,  p.  50 

Caterpillars,  Apr.,  p.  24 

Moth  hearing,  Jan.,  p.  32 

Spider  webs,  Mar.,  p.  54 

Stag  beetle,  Feb.,  p.  56 
Invertebrates 

Collecting,  Nov.,  p.  59 

Marine  snails,  purple  dye  of,  Jan.,  p.  26 
Jaipur,  observatory.  June,  p.  48 
Luristan  bronzes.  May,  p.  12 
Mammals 

Bat,  Australian,  May,  p.  26 

Bears,  grizzly.  Mar.,  p.  22 

Beaver,  Oct.,  p.  38 

Chimpan2ee,  Jan.,  p.  44 

Deer,  birth  of,  June,  p.  30 

Seal,  Hawaiian  monk,  Feb.,  p.  48 

Squirrel,  gray,  Dec,  p.  42 
Maps,  topographic,  Oct.,  p.  30 
Markets,  Africa,  Oct.,  p.  54 
Meban  tribe,  See  Ethnology 
Megaliths,  Apr.,  p.  47 
Meteor  Crater,  May,  p.  56 
Micropaleontology,  Oct.,  p.  44 
Microscopy 

Light  waves,  Mar.,  p.  58 

Slides,  preparation  of,  Oct.,  p.  65 
Mohawk  Island,  gulls,  Nov.,  p.  48 
Museum,  exhibition,  June,  p.  20 
Naturalists'  Notebook:  June,  p.  30; 

Apr.,  p.  44;  Mar.,  p.  54 
Orchid,  pollination,  Apr.,  p.  42 
Ostracoderms,  Aug.,  p.  48 
Paleontology 

Dinosaur,  Apr.,  p.  20 

Ostracoderms,  Aug.,  p.  48 

Scorpion,  Dec,  p.  20 
Peruvian  songbirds,  Oct.,  p.  26 
Petra,  Feb.,  p.  14 
Photography 

Animals,  Feb.,  p.  63 

Landscapes,  Aug.,  p.  64 

Photomicrography,  May,  p.  60 
Pompeii.  Dec.  p.  30 
Reptiles.  See  Amphibians  and  Reptiles 
Rock  and  Mineral 

Chromite,  Jan.,  p.  59 

Novaculite,  Apr.,  p.  58 
Rock  art,  Indian,  June,  p.  32 
Rock,  carvings,  Nov.,  p.  36 
Scorpion,  fossilized,  Dec,  p.  20;   water, 

Nov.,  p.  16 
Seal,  Hawaiian  monk,  Feb.,  p.  48 
Sequoias,  Dec,  p.  12 
Sky  Reporter,  See  Astronomy 
Squirrel,  gray,  Dec,  p.  42 
Stag  beetle,  Feb.,  p.  56 
Stalagmites,  stalactites.  May,  p.  22 
Strangler  fig,  Nov.,  p.  26 
Totem  poles,  Oct.,  p.  62 
Turtle,  Orinoco  River,  Aug.,  p.  34 
Tyrian  purple  dye,  Jan.,  p.  26 
Washington  Newsletter,  June,  p.  66; 

Dec,  p.  61 
Water 

Amazon  River,  June,  p.  14 

Arid  lands,  Aug.,  p.  26 

Distribution,  Jan.,  p.  10 
Book  Reviews 
Africa's  Wildlije,  Dec,  p.  4 
Alps,  The,  Oct.,  p.  6 
Amazing  World  of  Insects,  Oct.,  p.  14 
And  Then  Came  Man,  Oct.,  p.  4 
Animal  Life  and  Lore,  Aug.,  p.  6 
Animals  Worlds,  Mar.,  p.  9 


Animals  of  East  Africa,  Jan.,  p.  4 

Art  Before  Columbus,  May,  p.  7 

Art  of   Warfare  in  Biblical    Lands  in  the 

Light  of  Archaeological  Study,  Oct.,  p.  8 
Between    the    Sunlight    and    the    Thunder, 

Dec,  p.  4 
Biology  of  Birds,  Apr.,  p.  6 
Birds,  The,  Jan.,  p.  8 
Birds  on  a  May  Morning,  Aug.,  p.  10 
Birds  of  the  Ocean,  Feb.,  p.  10 
Birds  of  Wisconsin,  May,  p.  10 
Book  of  the  Hopi,  Oct.,  p.  13 
Byzantine  Aesthetics,  Oct.,  p.  11 
Copper  Town,  Mar.,  p.  6 
Dolphin  in  History,  The,  June,  p.  8 
Downstream,  Dec,  p.  6 
Ecology,  Aug.,  p.  13 
Eloquent  Light,  The,  Apr.,  p.  4 
Eternal  Present,  The,  Feb..  p.  11 
Familiar  Reptiles  and  Amphibians  of  Amer- 
ica, Dec,  p.  10 
Field  Guide  to  Rocky  Mountain  Wildfioivers, 

A,  June,  p.  8 
Fish-shape  Paumanok,  Aug.,  p.  14 
Flight,  Apr.,  p.  4 

From  Ape  Man  to  Homer,  Oct.,  p.  4 
Great  Beach,  The,  Aug.,  p.  6 
Green  Medicine,  Oct.,  p.  9 
Green  Turtle  and  Man,  The,  Mar.,  p.  9 
Harnessing  Space,  June.  p.  6 
Heredity  and  Human  Life,  Mar.,  p.  8 
History  of  Domesticated  Animals,  A,  Aug., 

p.  10 
History  of  Mankind,  Vol.  1,  Feb.,  p.  5 
House  Sparrow,  The,  Feb.,  p.  9 
/  Walk  with  Lions,  Dec,  p.  4 
Insects,  The,  Apr.,  p.  7 
John  Clayton:  Pioneer  of  American  Botany, 

Mar.,  p.  8 
Journeys  in  Green  Places,  Aug.,  p.  6 
Last  Horizon,  The,  Feb.,  p.  7 
Last  Redwoods,  The,  Aug.,  p.  6 
Life  in  the  Sea,  Dec,  p.  11 
Living  Sea,  The,  Jan.,  p.  8 
Long-Shadowed  Forest,  The,  Aug.,  p.  6 
Magic,  Divination   and    Witchcraft   Among 

the  Barotse  of  Northern  Rhodesia,  May, 

p.  5 
Mammals,  The,  Apr.,  p.  8 
Man  and  the  Conquest  of  the  Poles,  June, 

p.  8 
Man  and  Nature  in  America,  Mar.,  p.  4 
Maya  Archaeologist,  June,  p.  6 
Million  Years  of  Man,  A,  Oct.,  p.  4 
Narcotics:  Nature's  Dangerous  Gift,  May, 

p.  9 
Nile,  The,  Dec,  p.  9 
On  Safari,  Oct.,  p.  6 
lOOI    Questions   Answered  About  Flowers, 

Apr.,  p.  6 
Order  and  Rebellion  in  Tribal  Africa,  May 

p.  5 
People  of  Eight  Seasons,  Oct.,  p.  12 
Photographing  Nature,  Oct.,  p.  11 
Place  No  One  Knew:   Glen   Canyon.   The 

Feb.,  p.  7 
Plants,  The,  June,  p.  11 
Politics  and  Conservation,  Aug.,  p.  6 
Pueblo  Gods  and  Myths,  Oct.,  p.  13 
Quiet  Crisis,  The,  Mar.,  p.  4 
Reptiles,  The,  Apr.,  p.  5 
Return  to  the  Wild,  Feb..  p.  9 
Role  of  Science  in  Civilization,  June,  p.  4 
Runes  of  the  North,  Aug.,  p.  6 
Science:  The  Glorious  Entertainment,  June, 

p.  4 
Sea  Birds,  Mar.,  p.  10 
Senses  of  Animals,  The,  Dec,  p.  9 
Simba,  Jan.,  p.  4 
Sioux,  The,  Oct.,  p.  13 
Snake  Lore,  June,  p.  12 
Snakes,  Apr.,  p.  5 
Snakes  of  Africa,  Apr.,  p.  5 
Song  of  Wild  Laughter,  Jan.,  p.  7 
Study  of  Bird  Song,  A,  Apr.,  p.  7 
Sundial  of  the  Seasons,  Aug.,  p.  6 
This  View  of  Life,  Dec,  p.  7 


Treasure  of  the  Great  Reef,  The,  Aug.,  p.  L 

Troy  and  the  Trofans,  Aug.,  p.  12 

Vanishing  Animals,  Jan.,  p.  4 

Vanishing  ffildlife,  Dec,  p.  4 

View  from  a  Distant  Star,  The,  Apr.,  p.  6 

Wasp  Farm,  Aug.,  p.  14 

What  Science  Knows  About  Life,  Jan.,  p. 

Women  of  Tropical  Africa,  May,  p.  5 

Wonders  of  Wildlife,  The,  Mar.,  p.  9 

World  of  the  Past,  The,  June,  p.  10 

1964  Science  Books  for  Young  People- 
November 

Adventure  with  Freshwater  Animals,  p.  1 

Adventuring  in  Archaeology,  p.  4 

Africa:   Adventures  in  Eyewitness  History 
p.  5 

All  About  Rockets  and  Space  Flight,  p. 

American  Lions  and  Cats,  p.  15 

American  Wolves,  Coyotes  and  Foxes,  p.  1 

Animal  Photoperiodism,  p.  12 

Animal  Servants  of  Man,  p.  15 

Animals,  Inc.,  p.  14 

.4ntarctica,  p.  11 

Ant  is  Born,  An,  p.  14 

Art  of  the  North  American  Indian,  The,  p. 

Beetles,  p.  14 

Boy '5  Book  of  Fishes,  p.  14 

Boys    Book    of   Mountains    and    Mountair 
eering.  The,  p.  12 

Butterflies,  p.  14 

Captain  Cook  and  the  South  Pacific,  p.  1 

Charles  Darwin  and  Natural  Selection,  p.  1 

Conservation  and  You,  p.  8 

Conservation:  The  Challenge  of  Reclaimin 
our  Plundered  Land,  p.  8 

Coral  Reefs,  p.  11 

Dinosaur  Hunters,  The,  p.  10 

Eskimo  Adventure,  p.  5 

First  Book  of  Deserts,  The,  p.  11 

First  to  Venus,  p.  6 

Fishes  and  Their  Ways,  p.  14 

Foresters  and  What  They  Do,  p.  9 

Gara-Yaka,  p.  15 

Gemini  and  Apollo,  p.  6 

Globe  for  the  Space  Age,  The,  p.  7 

Gold  and  Gods  of  Peru,  p.  4 

Gregor  Mendel  and  Heredity,  p.  13 

Home  of  the  Red  Man,  p.  5 

Indian  Legends  of  Eastern  America,  p.  5 

Indian  Legends  of  the  Great  West,  p.  5 

Indians  at  Home,  p.  5 

Light,  p.  7 

Louis    Pasteur,    Founder    of   Microbiolog 
p.  13 

Mammals,  p.  14 

Meet  the  Mammals,  p.  14 

Microbes  and  Men,  p.  8 

Monuments  in  Cedar,  p.  4 

Moon.  The,  p.  7 

Ocean,  The,  p.  ll 

Ours  is  the  Earth,  p.  B 

Our  Work  in  Space,  p.  6 

Pioneer  Astronomers,  p.  6 

Planet  Earth,  p.  12 

Plan  ts  in  His  Pack,  a  Life  of  Edward 
Palmer,  p.  9 

Quest  of  Johannes  Kepler,  Astronomer,  p. 

Reproduction  of  Life,  The,  p.  12 

Search  for  Early  Man,  The,  p.  4 

Sense  of  Wonder,  A,  p.  13 

Short  History  of  Biology,  A,  p.  12 

Short  History  of  the  Universe,  A,  p.  8 

Solar  System,  The,  p.  7 

Speleology,  p.  10 

Star  Maps  for  Beginners,  p.  7 

Stone  Age  Peoples  Today,  p.  5 

Stories  from  Africa,  p.  5 

U.S.  Department  of  the  Interior,  p.  9 

Vikings,  The,  p.  5 

Web  of  the  Spider,  The.  p.  13 

When  the  Ice  Came,  p.  11 

Wild  Cats,  p.  15 

Wonders  of  Snow  and  Ice,  p.  11 

Wonders  of  Water,  The,  p.  11 

World  of  Prehistory,  The.  p.  4 

World  of  the  Beaver,  The,  p.  15 

World  of  the  Red-Tailed  Hawk,  The,  p.  1 

Worlds  Lost  and  Found,  p.  4 


January  1964  •  500 


I 


)orating  Nature  Magazine 


"  ■-   ■  :'/^fe*i^-. 


mr, 


'i----A^'^^ 


mii^^^^M^mismt^. 


Passenger-Carrying  FREIGHTERS 
Are  the  Secret  of  Low  Cost  Travel 


Yes.  for 
be-forgot 
along  tilt 


St.   La 


than  you'd  spend  at  a  resort,  you  can  take  a  never-to- 
o  Rio  and  Buenos  Aires.  Or  through  the  West  Indies  or 
ence    River   to   French   Canada.   In   fact,  trips   to   almost 


And  what  accommodations  you  get:  large  rooms  with  beds  (not  bunlis), 
probobiy  a  private  both,  lots  of  good  food  and  plenty  of  relaxation  as 
you  speed  from  port  to  port. 

Depending  upon  how  fast  vou  want  to  go,  a  round  the  world  cruise  can 
he  yours  for  as  little  as  S250-S300  a  month.  And  there  are  shorter  trips.  Fast, 
uncrowded  vovages  to  England,  France,  the  Mediterranean;  two  or  three 
week  vacations  up  and  down  the  Pacific  Coast  or  elsewhere.  Name  the  port 
and  the  chances  are  vou  can  find  it  listed  in  Travel  Routes  Around  the  World. 
This  is  the  book  that  names  the  lines,  tells  where  they  so.  how  much  they 
charge,  briefly  describes  accommodations.  Hundreds  of  thousands  of  travelers 
all  over  llie  world  swear  bv  it.  Travel  editors  and  tra\el  writers  say  "To 
learn  how  to  travel  for  as  little  as  you"d  spend  at  a  resort  get  Travel  Around 
tiic  IVorkir 

It's  yours  for  jusi  $1,  and  the  new  big  llO-page  1964-edition  includes 
practically  every  passenger  carr.ving  service  starting  from  or  going  to  New 
Yorli.  Canada.  New  Orleans,  the  Pacific  Coast,  Mexico,  South  America, 
England,  France,  the  Mediterranean,  Africa,  the  Indies,  .Australia,  the  South 
Seas,  Japan,  Hawaii,  etc.  There's  a  whole  section  called  "How  lo  See  the 
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A  big  51  worth,  especially  as  it  can  open  the  w-ay  to  more  travel  titan  you 
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AMERICA  BY  CAR 


Day   by    day,    America   by   Car   tells   you    where    to    go   from    Alas 


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South  or  the  Southwest,  the  ' 
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rects  you  to  the  important  sights 
the  way  and  in  the  cities. 

In  Niagara  or  Los  Angeles,  Wa 
ton  or  New  Orleans,  the  Black  H 
Montreal.  America  by  Car  tak( 
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names  hundreds  upon  hundreds  c 
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America  is  so  big,  you  can 
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make  many  a  wrong  turn.  So  get 
ica  by  Car,  the  book  that  make 
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America  by  Car  is  fully  170,000 
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ica  as  you've  probably  never  befc 
plored  this  part  of  the  world. 


Bargain  Paradises  of  the  World 

Do  you  know  where  to  find  an  island  right  near  the  U.  S.  so  nearly  like 
Tahiti  in  appearance,  beauty,  and  color  even  the  natives  say  it  was  made 
from  a  rainbow?  (And  that  costs  here  are  so  low  you  can  not  only  reach  it 
but  also  stay  a  while  for  hardly  more  than  you'd  spend  at  a  resort  in 
the  U.  S.?) 

Do  you  know  where  to  find  the  world's  best  mountain  hideways  or  its 
most  dazzling  surf-washed  coastal  resorts  where  even  today  you  can  live 
ior  a  song? 

Do  you  know  where  it  costs  less  to  spend  a  while,  the  surroundmgs  are 
pleasant,  and  the  clunale  well  nigh  perfect  in  such  places  as  Mexico,  the 
West  Indies.  France,  along  tlie  Mediterranean,  and  in  the  world's  other 
low  cost  wonderlands? 

Or  if  you've  thought  of  more  distant  places,  do  you  know  which  of  the 
South  Sea  Islands  are  as  unspoiled  today  as  in  Conrad's  day?  Or  which  is 
the  one  spot  world  travelers  call  the  most  beautiful  place  on  earth,  where 
two  can  live  in  sheer  luxury,  with  a  retinue  of  servants  for  only  S175  a 
month? 

Bargain  Paradises  of  Ihe  World,  a  big  book,  proves  that  if  you  can  afford 
a  vacation  in  the  IJ.  S.  the  rest  of  the  world  is  closer  than  you  think.  Author 
Norman  D.  Ford,  honorary  vice  president  of  the  British  Globe  Trotters  Club, 
shows  that  the  American  dollar  is  respected  all  over  the  world,  and  buys  a 
lot  more  than  you'd  give  it  credit  for. 

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months  on  end  in  the  world's  wonderlands  for  hardly  more  than  you'd 
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for  a  real  rest,  this  book  shows  how  you  can  afford  it. 

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If  you  know  the  seldom-advertised  ways  of  reaching  foreign  countries, 
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S500-S1000  on  a  one-way  luxury  steamer  to  Buenos  Aires — but  do  you  know 
you  can  travel  all  the  way  to  Argentina  through  colorful  Mexico,  the  Andes, 
Peru,  etc.,  by  bus  and  rail  for  just  $179,  in  fares? 

You  can  spend  $5,000  on  a  luxury  cruise  around  the  world.  But  do  you 
know  you  can  travel  around  the  world  via  deluxe  freighter  for  only  a  fourth 
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Norman  Fords  big  new  guide  How  lo  Travel  Without  Being  Rich  gives 
you  the  traveler's  picture  of  the  world  showing  you  the  lower  cost,  comfortable 
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These  Are  America's  Own   Bargain  Paradises 

Norman  Ford's  big  book  Off-the-Beaien-Paih  names  the  really  lo' 
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Fabulous  places  like  that  undiscovered  region  where  winters  are  as 
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all  over  the  United  States  and  Canada  which  visitors  in-a-hurry  ov( 
(SO  costs  are  low  and  stav  low). 

Every  page  of  OFF-THE-BEATEN-FATH  opens  a  different  kind  of 
tioning  or  retirement  paradise  which  >ou  can  afford— places  as  glan 
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these: 

•  France's  only  remaining  outpost  in  this  part  of  the  world — com] 
surrounded  by  Canadian  territory  ...  or  a  village  more  Scottisl 
Scotland  ...  or  age-old  Spanish  hamlets  right  in  our  own  U.  S.. 
no  one  ever  heard  of  nervous  tension  or  the  worries  of  modern  da 

•  Resort   villages  where   visitors  come   by   the   score,   so   you   always 
people  .  .  .  (but  they  never  come  by  the  thousands  to  raise  pri 


owd : 


arkable  town  where  a  fee  of  3c  a  day  gives  you  an  almost  e 

round  of  barbecues,  musicals,  concerts,  picnics,  pot  luck  suppers,  sm 

bord  dinners  and  a  fine  arts  program.  That  southern  island  first  disc* 

by  millionaires  who  had  all  the  world  to  roam  in  .  .  .  and  now  iheii 

aways  are  open  to  anyone  who  knows  where  to  find  them. 

You    read    of    island    paradise    aplenty    in    the    United    States    and    d 

of    art    colonies    (artists    search    for    picturesque    locations    where    cos 

low!),  of  areas  with  almost  a  perfect  climate  or  with  flowers  on  ever; 

Here   are  the  real   U.S. A. -brand   Shangri-Las  made   for  the  man   or  v 

who's   had   enough   of   crowds.    Here,   too.   are   unspoiled    seashore   vi 

tropics-like   islands,   and   dozens  of  other  spots  just  about  perfect   foi 

retirement  or  vacation  at  some  of  the  lowest  prices  you've  heard  of 

the  gone-forever  prewar  days.  They're  all  in  the  United  States  and  C: 

and  for  good  measure  you  also  read  about  Ihe  low-cost  paradise  in  H 

the  Virgin  Islands  and  Puerto  Rico. 

OQ-the-Beaten~Path  is  a  big  book  filled  with  facts  that  open  the  w 
freedom  from  tension  and  a  vacation  or  retirement  you  can  really  ; 
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Mail  to 

HARIAN   PUBLICATIONS,  61    First  Ave., 

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I  iia\e  enclosed  $      (cash,  check  or  monev  ordei 

Please  send  me  the  books  checked  below.  YOU  WILL  REFUND  U 
MONEY  IF  I  AM  NOT  SATISFIED. 

□  TRAVEL  ROUTES  AROUND  THE  WORLD— (the  trav 

er's  directory  of  passenger-carrying  freighters).  $1. 
D  BARGAIN   PARADISES   OF   THE   WORLD.    SI.50. 
D  HOW  TO  TRAVEL  WITHOUT   BEING   RICH.  $1.50. 
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Bargain    Paradises    of    the    World,    and    How    to    Trai 
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Enjoy  10  Days  Exploring 


Tv^o  Billion  Years  of  Evolution 

as  guests  of  the  liU^  Nature  Library 


i  MANY  FACES  OF  MAN.  Although  Man  is  united  in  one 
cies,  it  is  racially  divided  into  more  than  30  subgroup- 
s.  Over  the  past  150,000  years,  as  men  searched  for  new 
iting  grounds  over  the  globe,  they  gradually  developed 
its  that  adapted  them  to  each  environment. 


E  GENETICISTS'  GUINEA  PIG  is  the  common  fruit  fly.  This 
nderful  insect,  Va  inch  long,  produces  new  generations 
>fusely  every  10  to  15  days,  takes  up  little  lab  space,  and 
s  a  simple  genetic  make-up  of  only  4  chromosomes.  By 
Tibarding  its  reproductive  cells  with  X-rays,  biologists 
le  produced  fantastic  new  mutants. 


Why  does  man  seem  so  similar  to  the 
ape?  Why  do  ancient  rocks  contain 
imprints  of  creattires  now  extinct?  What 
causes  giants,  dwarfs,  albinos?  A  little 
over  a  century  ago,  no  one  really  knew. 

Then  an  English  biologist,  Charles  Dar- 
win, published  one  of  the  most  important 
books  in  history.  The  first  1,250  copies  of 
his  The  Origin  of  Species  sold  out  in  a 
day,  and  a  storm  of  controversy  broke 
which  has  never  entirely  died. 

Now  here  at  last— in  the  style  that  LIFE 
has  made  famous,  so  that  it  makes  perfect 
sense  even  to  school  children— is  the 
remarkable  story  of  evolution  in  this  beau- 
tiful introductory  volume  of  the  LIFE 
Nature  Library. 

You  retrace  the  historic  voyage  that 
young  Darwin  made  on  H.M.S.  Beagle, 
and  see  the  very  same  phenomena  that  set 
his  mind  ablaze.  You  see  the  primitive 
Indians  of  Tierra  del  Fuego,  at  the  bottom 
of  the  world,  so  tough  they  sleep  naked 
on  icy  ground.  You  tour  the  Galapagos 
Islands,  Nature's  own  laboratory  of  evo- 
lution, where  complete  isolation  from  the 
rest  of  the  world  has  resulted  in  startling 
species  never  seen  anywhere  else. 

You  see  the  clues  to  bygone  life— shells, 
bones,  tracks,  eggs,  imprints  or  entire 
mummies— preserved  by  Nature  in  tar, 
coal,  ice,  and  stone.  You  see  a  frozen  baby 
mammoth  perfectly  preserved  in  Arctic 
ice  for  22,000  years.  You  share  the  thrill 
of  the  couple  in  Tanganyika  as  they 
uncover  the  bones  of  the  world's  earliest 
known  man— over  a  million  years  old! 

Genetic  scientists  take  you  into  their 
laboratories  to  explain  the  mysteries  of 
the  microscopic  genes  and  chromosomes 
that  determine  the  inheritance  of  charac- 
teristics. You  see  a  human  egg  magnified 
2,000  times.  How  a  living  cell  divides. 

Obviously  so  vast  and  exciting  a  book 
cannot  be  adequately  described  here.  So 


we  invite  you  to  borrow  a  copy  from  us 
for  10  days.  Then  if  you  wish  you  may 
return  it  and  owe  nothing.  Or  you  may 
own  it  for  much  less  than  such  an  expen- 
sively printed  and  handsomely  bound 
book  would  ordinarily  cost.  Thanks  to 
LIFE'S  vast  facilities  and  large  print 
orders,  you  pay  only  $3.95  (plus  ship- 
ping and  handling).  Then  you  will  be 
entitled  to  receive  another  volume  of 
the  LIFE  Nature  Library  for  free  exam- 
ination every  2  months. 

But  you  make  no  commitments,  prom- 
ise to  buy  nothing.  And  you  may  cancel 
this  arrangement  any  time  you  wish. 
However,  the  entire  series  makes  an 
impressive  encyclopedia  of  Nature  that 
your  family  will  increasingly  treasure— 
a  superb  reference  shelf  and  study  aid 
used  in  thousands  of  classrooms  from 
elementary  school  through  college.  To 
examine  the  first  volume,  mail  coupon. 


FRIGATE  BIRD  displays 
red  gular  pouch  to 
t  females.  Attractive 
naracteristics  increase 
g  success,  are  more 
to  be  passed  on. 


■  volumes 
e  op 
re  Library 


OFF  TO  BED  goes  the  gorilla 
with  leaves  and  branches 
for  bedding.  Though  con- 
stantly on  the  move,  gorillas 
build  new  nests  on  ground 
or  in  low  branches  nightly. 


SKELETONS   OF   HORSE   AND 

MAN  reveal  similar  bones  in 
similar  positions.  In  such  re- 
lationships Darwin  saw 
echoes  of  a  primeval  pat- 
tern, modified  by  evolution. 


TO! 

TIME  INC.  BOOKS, 

Oept.   4977 

540  N.  MICHIGAN  AVENUE 

CHICAGO  11,  ILLINOIS 

Please  enroll  me  as  a  subscriber  to  the  LIFE  NATURE 
LIBRARY  and  send  me  Volume  I  (EVOLUTION)  for  a  10- 
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not  to  continue  the  series,  I  will  return  the  book,  canceling  my 
subscription.  If  I  keep  the  book,  I  will  pay  $3.95  (plus  shipping 
and  handling).  I  understand  that  future  volumes  will  be  issued 
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The  10-day  Free  Examination  privilege  applies  to  all  volumes 
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DIRECTOR  DEPUTY  DIRECTOR 

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MANAGING   EDITOR 

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EXECUTIVE  EDITOR 

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ASSOCIATE  EDITORS 

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COPY  EDITORS 

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REVIEWS 

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PRODUCTION 

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EDITORIAL  ADVISERS 

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Natural  History 

Incorporating  Nature  Magazine 

THE  JOURNAL  OF  THE  AMERICAN  MUSEUM  OF  NATURAL  HISTORi 


Vol.  LXXIII 


JANUARY  1964 


ARTICLES 
WATER  OF  THE  WORLD 
MONIES  OF  ANTIQUITY 
EMPERORS-  DYE  OF  THE  MIXTECS 
NIGHT  FIGHTERS  IN  A  SONIC  DUEL 
THE  "MAN  OF  THE  WOODS" 
INDEX  TO  NEXT  SPRING'S  GROWTH 

DEPARTMENTS 
REVIEWS 
SKY  REPORTER 
ABOUT  THE  AUTHORS 
NATURE  IN  ROCK  AND  MINERAL 
SUGGESTED  ADDITIONAL  READING 


No.  : 

Raymond  L.  Nace  1( 

Joan  Fagerlie  2( 

Peter  Gerhard  2( 

Kenneth  D.  Roeder  3'. 

Vernon  Reynolds  4' 

Virgil  Argo  5'. 


T.  Donald  Carter       ' 

Thomas  D.  Nicholson     4( 

5! 

Paul  Mason  Tilden     55 

6' 


CIRCULATION  MANAGER 

Joseph  Saulina 


COVER:  Coins  of  antiquity— staters,  drachms,  didrachms.  and  tetradrachms— al 
display  varied  impresses  of  Greek  city-states,  isles,  and  colonies.  Currency  ir 
the  classical  world  was  thought  of  as  "hard"  or  "soft,"  just  as  today,  and  thf 
money  of  Athens  was  the  desired  hard  currency  in  which  early  Internationa 
commerce  found  a  standard  for  exchange.  The  intrinsic  value  of  one  Greek  coin 
the  gold  stater  of  Macedonia,  is  now  about  six  dollars.  For  a  discussion  of  th« 
symbolic  and  the  commercial  aspects  of  ancient  specie,  turn  to  Joan  Fagerlie'i 
article,  "Monies  of  Antiquity,"  starting  on  page  20.  Photographs  by  Lee  Boltin 

The  American  Museum  is  open  to  the  public  without  charge  every  day 
during  the  year.  Your  support,  through  membership  and  contributions, 
helps  make  this  possible.  The  Museum  is  equally  in  need  of  support 
for  all  of  its  work  in  the  fields  of  research,  education,  and  exhibition. 

Publication  Office;  The  American  Museum  of  Natural  History,  Central  Park  West  at  79th  Street,  New  Yorl 
N.  Y.  100*1.  Published  monthly,  October  through  May:  bimonthly  June  to  September.  Subscription:  85.00  : 
year.  In  Canada,  and  all  other  countries:  S5.50  a  year.  Single  copies:  S.50.  Second  class  postage  paid  a 
New  York,  N.  Y.,  and  at  additional  offices.  Copyright,  1964,  by  The  American  Museum  of  Natural  History 
No  part  of  this  periodical  may  be  reproduced  without  the  written  consent  of  Natural  History.  The  tilli 
Nature  Magazine,  registered  U.S.  Patent  Office.  Unsolicited  manuscripts  and  illustrations  submitted  to  the 
editorial  office  will  be  handled  with  all  possible  care,  but  we  cannot  assume  responsibility  for  their  safety 
The  opinions  expressed  by  authors  are  their  own  and  do  not  necessarily  reflect  The  American  Museum's  policy 


COTTPr^TAA 
\^  J.  jXJJLJ  \_M  m£\L  1 


He's  a  student  at  General  Motors  Institute.  Today,  he's  absorbed  in  higher  mathematics. 
Tomorrow,  perhaps  Plato  and  Aristotle  .  .  .  political  theory  and  psychology  .  . .  humanities 
and  economics — in  short,  whatever  makes  for  a  well-rounded  education.  Next  week,  he 
may  be  on  the  job  in  an  automobile  plant.  Twenty-four  hundred  other  students  like  him 
are  studying  to  be  electrical,  mechanical  or  industrial  engineers,  in  one  of  the  world's 
most  unusual  institutions  of  higher  learning. 

During  their  first  four  coUege  years  at  GMI,  students  alternate  between  six  weeks  of  inten- 
sive study  at  GMI  and  six  weeks  of  paid  work  at  one  of  133  General  Motors  operations 
across  the  nation  and  in  Canada.  Their  fifth  year  is  entirely  in  the  field  .  .  .  preparing 
bachelor  theses  based  on  actual  engineering  projects  of  their  sponsoring  GM  divisions. 

Since  its  small  beginning,  37  years  ago,  GMI  has  graduated  6,000  engineers.  The  great 
majority  chose  to  remain  with  General  Motors  and  today  are  employed  in  a  wide  range  of 
technical  and  managerial  positions  in  GM  plants  throughout  the  world.  The  educational 
investment  in  these  people  has  been  a  beneficial  one — not  only  for  them  and  for  General 
Motors — but  for  the  many  communities  where  they  now  work  and  live. 


GENERAL  MOTORS  IS  PEOPLE . .. 

Making  Better  Things  For  You 


Popular 
CHOSEN  BY  Science 

AS  THE  BEST  HI-FI 
SYSTEM  YOU  CAN  BUY 
(WITHOUT  FRILLS) 


This  photo  and  caption  (the  price  is  an  approxi- 
mation) appeared  in  the  September  1963  POP- 
ULAR SCIENCE  as  part  of  an  article  entitled 
"The  Low-Down  on  Hi-Fi  Stereo."  It  is  a  picture 


700 


•   <      • 

L 

^mum^ 

oe  5  s 

n 

of  those  high  fidelity  components  which,  ac- 
cording to  a  panel  of  experts,  provide  the  best 
sound  possible  today. 

The  panel  carefully  considered  return-for-the- 
money,  but  "where  there  was  a  more  expensive 
component  that  produced  a  detectable  improve- 
ment in  sound,  it  was  chosen." 

These  components  are  recognizable  to  hi-fi  en- 
thusiasts as  the  AR  two-speed  turntable,  the 
Dynakit  PAS-2  preamplifier,  the  Dynal<it  Stereo 
70  dual  power  amplifier,  and  the  AR-3  loud- 
speakers.* 

*They  have  been  on  demonstration  as  a  system  for 
several  years  at  the  AR  Music  Rooms,  on  the  west 
balcony  of  Grand  Central  Terminal  in  New  York  City, 
and  at  52  Brattle  St..  Cambridge,  Mass.  No  sales  are 
made  there;  you  may  asl(  questions  if  you  like,  but 
most  people  just  come  and  listen. 


ACOUSTIC     RESEARCH, INC. 

24  Thorndike   St.,   Cambridge,   Mass.   02141 

Please  send  me  literature  on  Dynakit  and  AR  high 
fidelity  components. 


Reviews 


Three  books  survey  tl 
fauna  survival  proble 

x^       By  T.  Donald  Carter 


Vanishing  Animals,  by  Philip  Street. 
E.  P.  Dutton  &  Co.,  $4.50;  232  pp.,  illus. 
SiMBA,  by  C.  A.  W.  Guggisberg.  Chilton 
Books,  $6.50;  309  pp.,  illus.  Animals  of 
East  Africa,  by  C.  A.  Spinage.  Hough- 
ton Mifflin  Co.,  $7.50;  160  pp.,  illus. 

ANY  thoughtful  book  on  conservation  is 
-  most  welcome  today,  when  the  very 
existence  of  many  forms  of  the  world's 
fauna  hangs  in  the  balance.  Philip  Street, 
a  British  zoologist,  gives  a  very  complete 
picture  of  the  problem  in  his  book  Van- 
ishing .Animals.  He  discusses  the  past, 
present,  and  possible  future  of  many  of 
these  animals  and  proposes  ways  in 
which  they  might  be  preserved  —  con- 
trolled exploitation,  conservation  in  na- 
tional parks  and  nature  resei-ves,  and,  as 
a  last  resort,  protection  in  captivity.  Con- 
servation education  is  also  stressed. 

Conservation  societies  the  world  over 
are  currently  working  independently  and 
in  concert  along  the  above-mentioned 
lines.  Whale  hunting  and,  to  some  extent, 
deep-sea  fishing  are  now  under  control 
of  governments;  numerous  national  parks 
and  reserves,  where  animals  receive  pro- 
tection, have  been  established;  and  rela- 
tively recently,  a  number  of  animals  that 
were  on  the  very  brink  of  extinction  have 
been  placed  in  zoos  in  the  hope  that  a 
breeding  stock  may  be  procured.  To  carry 
out  the  latter  plan,  six  specimens  of  the 
southern  white  rhinoceros  have  been  sent 
to  American  zoos,  and  four  white  oryx 
antelope  were  shipped  from  Arabia  to 
the  Phoenix  Maytag  Zoo  in  Arizona.  The 
few  remaining  wild  Hawaiian  geese  have 
now  been  augmented  by  about  one  hun- 
dred specimens  that  were  raised  in  cap- 
tivity and  later  released  on  the  islands. 
Pere  David's  deer  also  owes  its  existence 
to  captive  specimens. 

Africa,  with  its  great  game  fields,  pre- 
sents a  special  problem,  although  all  the 
continents  are  affected  to  a  greater  or 
lesser  degree.  Since  Africa's  colonization 
by  the  white  man.  the  blaauwbok.  the 
quagga.  and  the  true  Burchell's  zebra 
have  become  extinct;  others,  including 
the  bontebok,  the  blesbok,  and  the  white- 
tailed  gnu,  are  now  found  only  on  pri- 
vately owned  farms  or  game  reserves. 

Most  of  the  large  mammals  of  Africa 
are  in  a  precarious  situation.  The  great 
plains  and  forests  are  being  utilized  for 


agriculture  and  cattle  grazing.  Cc 
quently  the  animals  are  becoming  r 
restricted  in  their  habitats.  The 
hope  for  preservation  lies  in  the  nati 
parks  and  reserves.  Yet  there  is  cons 
demand  to  put  this  land  to  other  use. 
conservationists  are  working  hard, 
with  some  success,  to  impress  on  the 
nations  of  Africa  that  the  animals 
mean  more  to  them  than  so  much  n 
Every  year  thousands  of  money-spen 
tourists  visit  Africa ;  the  chief  attract 
are  the  country's  mammals  and  birc 

Mr.  Street  has  listed  and  describ 
number  of  the  mammals,  birds,  and 
tiles  that  are  in  need  of  protection 
eluded  are  the  Przewalski's  horse, 
three  Asiatic  rhinoceroses,  a  numb« 
antelopes  including  the  white  oryx,  ^ 
David's  deer,  the  European  bison, 
Indian  lion,  the  Tasmanian  wolf  (w 
many  people  think  is  already  extir 
the  kiwi,  the  whooping  crane,  the 
hama  flamingo,  the  Hawaiian  goose, 
Laysan  teal,  and  the  Komodo  drago 

Vanishing  Animals  is  an  interes 
book,  full  of  useful  information, 
thirty-one  carefully  chosen  photogri 
show  many  rare  animals.  There  is 
item  in  the  text,  however,  to  whii 
would  like  to  take  exception.  In  his 
cle  on  the  American  bison,  the  au 
states  that  there  are  probably  over 
million  living  specimens  in  the  w 
today.  I  believe  he  has  overestimated 
population  about  four  hundred  time 

Since  the  writings  of  Aristotle 
Pliny  (and  far  earlier  in  the  Orient) 
lion  has  frequently  appeared  in  lil 
ture.  and  many  strange  and  fanciful  1 
have  been  told.  During  the  last  cent 
when  Africa  was  being  explored 
when  big  game  hunters  began  ma. 
safaris  into  the  lion's  country,  the 
mal  became  notorious  in  the  writing 
the  hardy  men  who  went  afield.  Moi 
these  adventurers  stressed  the  dange 
lion  hunting  and  the  fury  of  their  enr; 
quarry.  Only  in  the  past  few  years 
the  public  learned  that  many  of 
stories  they  read  and  heard  did  not 
a  true  picture  of  this  big  cat.  The  es 
lishment  of  national  parks  and  resei 
where  the  lion  could  roam  at  will 
remain  unmolested,  have  caused  it  to 
much  of  its  fear  of  man.  Here  it  is 
to  live  its  life  as  nature  intended.  Ai 


THE 

THIRD 

ANNUAL 

GARDENS 

AROUND 

THE 

WORLD 

TOUR 

ITING  HAWAII,  JAPAN,  FORMOSA,  HONG  KONG,  THAILAND,  INOIA,  KASHMIR,  GREECE 


vel  is  your  desire,  you  will  enjoy  it  most  in  the  company 
her  congenial  men  and  women,  with  similar  interests.  So, 
ivite  you  to  join  Mr.  and  Mrs.  Fredric  Legler  and  a  limited 
)  on  the  Third  Annual  Gardens  Around  The  World  Tour. 

Legler  is  a  noted  authority  on  flower  arranging  and  is  a 
3n  Club  of  America  judge.  She  and  her  husband  will  be 
hosts.  Their  personal  friendship  with  influential  people  in 
Drient  will  allow  us  entry  to  private  homes  and  gardens 
im  seen  by  the  general  public. 

(/ill  be  overnight  guests  in  the  fabulous  palaces  of  Indian 
irajas  who  have  arranged  royal  entertainment  for  us. 

/ill  view  the  Taj  Mahal  at  sunset,  fly  over  the  Himalayas  to 
/ale  of  Kashmir,  enjoy  the  peaceful  serenity  of  gardens  in 
n,  perhaps  even  take  lessons,  if  you  wish,  in  Japanese  flower 
iging,  shop  for  incredible  bargains  in  Hong  Kong,  or  play 
on  a  championship  course. 


We  will  be  guests  of  the  Princess  Chumbhot  of  Thailand,  and  wit- 
ness a  performance  of  the  bejewelled  Thai  dancers  in  Bangkok. 

To  cap  all  this  splendor,  we  will  visit  ancient  Athens  and  spend 
a  long  weekend  on  a  luxury  cruiser  among  the  fabled  Greek 
Islands. 

All  this  wonderful  adventure  is  detailed  in  a  free  folder.  Send 
for  it!  This  tour  is  deluxe,  and  the  cost  is  low-$3200.00  all 
inclusive.  Jet  flight-46  days-April  llth-May  26th,  1964. 


:     LINDBLAD  TRAVEL,  INC.  1 

East  53rd  Street,  New  York  22,  N.  Y.     '> 

'      1  am  interested  in  joining 

"Gardens  Around  The  World  Tour".     ' 

1      Please  send  free  folder  to 

'       NAIVIF 

1                                                                                                           1 

•       .STRFFT                                                                                                                      ' 

1       r.lTY 

ZnWF       .STATF                                ' 

NHM        ] 

terested  person,  provided  he  takes  cer- 
tain precautions,  is  now  able  to  make 
observations  into  the  daily  life  of  a  lion. 
Such  close  proximity  w^as  hardly  possible 
wrhen  lions  were  constantly  wary  of  the 
hunter  seeking  trophies. 

Recently,  numerous  articles  and  books 
have  been  written  in  which  the  authors 
give  more  accurate  information  about  the 
lion,  based  on  close  contacts.  Simba  is 
such  a  book.  Its  author.  C.  A.  W.  Guggis- 
berg,  is  a  medical  officer  stationed  in 
Nairobi.  Kenya,  who  makes  a  hobby  of 
nature  observation  and  photography.  For 
many  years  he  traveled  around  East 
Africa,  and  most  of  his  spare  time  has 
been  spent  observing  lions.  In  the  Royal 
Nairobi  National  Park,  situated  just  a 
few  miles  from  Nairobi,  he  became  so 
familiar  with  the  lions  inhabiting  the 
region  that  he  came  to  know  their  in- 
dividual "personalities,"  and  even  named 
many  of  them.  For  about  six  years  he 
paid  frequent  visits  to  one  family, 
watched  the  cubs  grow  to  adulthood,  and 
made  many  interesting  observations  about 
their  daily  life.  He  also  visited  the  Seren- 
geti  Plains,  the  Ngorongoro  Crater,  and 
the  Amboseli  National  Reserve— places 
noted  for  their  lion  populations.  Fortu- 
nately. Mr.  Guggisberg  is  an  expert  pho- 
tographer, and  the  book  contains  forty- 
two  of  his  photographs,  seven  in  color. 

But  only  a  portion  of  this  book  con- 


sists of  personal  observations.  The  author 
has  drawn  freely  from  the  accounts  of 
others,  including  many  tales  of  former 
hunters  and  explorers.  He  has  thoroughly 
investigated  his  subject,  a  fact  proved  not 
only  in  his  text  but  also  in  his  ten-page 
bibliography.  The  scope  of  the  text  may 
be  judged  by  the  chapter  titles:  '"History 
of  the  Lion";  "The  Lion  and  its  Prey"; 
"Life  Cycle";  "Lion  Hunting  and  Lion 
Hunters";  "Man-eaters";  "Lions  and 
Camera";  "The  Lion  in  Captivity,  in 
Legend  and  History";  "The  Lion  in  Af- 
rican Folklore  and  Superstition";  "The 
Lion  in  Art." 

Mr.  Guggisberg  admires  and  respects 
the  lion,  and  his  feelings  are  best  ex- 
pressed in  the  last  paragraph  of  his  book : 

"The  lion  is  no  'bloodthirsty  brute,' 
nor  by  the  same  token  is  he  the  "King  of 
Beasts.'  He  is  neither  'bold.'  'magnani- 
mous,' nor  'cowardly'— these  are  epithets 
designating  purely  human  characteris- 
tics and  should  not— must  not— be  applied 
to  an  animal.  True,  a  lion  standing  with 
his  head  held  high  definitely  looks  regal 
—there  is  hardly  anybody  who  can  escape 
this  impression  —  but  the  lion  himself 
knows  nothing  of  it.  and  you  cannot  ex- 
pect 'regal'  behavior  from  him.  If  Friend 
Simba  is  to  be  burdened  with  an  attribute 
taken  from  a  purely  human  sphere,  then 
I  think  I  like  Carl  Akeley's  remark  best: 
'The  lion  is  a  gentleman— if  allowed  to 


go  .  .  .  unmolested,  he  will  keep  his  c 
path  and  will  not  encroach  on  yours 

C.  A.  Spinage.  author  of  Animals 
East  Africa,  first  went  to  Africa  to  fu 
a  two-year  contract  with  the  Kenya  po 
during  the  Mau  Mau  uprising.  The  c 
tinent  and  its  fauna  proved  so  inter 
ing  to  him  that  he  remained  there  for 
more  years.  During  this  time  he  visi 
national  parks  and  reserves  through 
Kenya.  Uganda,  and  Tanganyika  to  p 
tograph  animals.  This  collection  of  fi 
four  superb  pictures  (six  in  color)  is 
result.  Mr.  Spinage's  text  gives  infori 
tion  about  the  illustrated  animals  ; 
also  about  a  few  other  species.  The  f( 
word  was  written  by  Sir  Julian  Hux' 

Included  among  the  photograph 
chiefly  of  the  larger  mammals— are  th 
of  two  rhinoceroses  that  are  of  spe( 
interest  to  me.  Gladys  and  Gertie  — 
latter  the  most-photographed  of  the  s 
cies— are  undoubtedly  the  best-knc 
wild  rhinos  in  the  world.  Both  made  tl 
home  in  the  Amboseli  National  Resei 
a  place  regularly  visited  by  touri 
These  two  rhinos  were  noted  for  tl 
tolerant  dispositions  and  for  their 
tremely  long  front  horns,  which  exten( 
forward  from  the  nose.  Until  1955  Glac 
horn  exceeded  Gertie's  in  length, 
during  that  year  the  former  lost  ab 
eighteen  inches  from  the  tip,  giving  G 
tie  the  distinction  of  carrying  the  Ions 


Qucilar  i-,  the  bcauuful  little  telescope  for  your 
porch  or  garden  table  that  will  bring  the  distant 
world  to  you  as  nothing  else  can.  Let's  take  a 
look  at  the  bird  that  has  just  alighted  on  that 
pole  1000  feet  away.  Presto!  You  are  faced  with 
a  magnificent  hawk.  He  appears  frighteningly 
close,  for  he  seems  now  less  than  seven  feet 
from  your  startled  eyes.  You  see  the  hair-like 
structure  of  each  feather,  the  minute  detail  of 
the  eyes.  Is  that  a  woodchuck?  Indeed  it  is,  so 
close  he  fairly  crowds  your  field  of  view  and 
you  almost  recoil  from  his  nearness. 


And  so  It  goes.  Sit  where  you  are,  or  look 
through  Parallelo-Plate  glass  from  indoors,  but 
from  wherever  you  sit,  the  world  is  yours  indeed 
with  Questar.  Just  settle  down  comfortably  and 
look  around  at  very  distant  things.  Be  prepared, 
as  we  are  by  now.  for  the  most  unexpected  sur- 
prises. With  the  needle-sharpness  of  Questar's 
new  kind  of  optics,  we  now  have  the  power  and 
the  clarity  to  reach  out  and  grasp,  for  our 
delighted  eyes,  a  host  of  things  we  simply  did 
not  realize  were  there.  Thus  in  the  most  unlikely 
landscapes  we  are  apt  to  discover  unsuspected 


wildlife,  that  our  eyes  alone  have  missed, 
enely  unaware  of  us.  Does  a  flight  of  t 
descend  on  yonder  field?  Questar  will  thru; 
right  into  their  midst,  but  for  them  we  do 
exist,  being  hundreds  of  feet  distant.  No 
but  ourselves  is  startled,  no  bird  takes  fi 
no  creature  scurries  at  our  footsteps. 

With  Questar  we  sit  in  the  center  of  a  c 
two  miles  in  diameter,  where  no  object  app 
farther  away  than  33  feet  with  our  power  of  1 

Let  us  now  enter  a  whole  new  world 
Questar  opens  up  in  its  role  as  long-dist 
microscope,  a  world  that  no  one  else  has 
seen.  Let  us  sit  in  your  garden  and  turn  Qw 
upon  bud,  leaf  and  blade  of  grass  or  mosse 
more  than  8  feet  distant.  This  time  we  ai 
fairyland.  Have  you  ever  seen  the  orchid 
flowers  of  plain  crabgrass?  The  gorgeous 
quet  of  Queen  Anne's  lace  at  high  pov 
Things  even  100  feet  away  are  within  a 
reach,  and  as  we  focus  down  to  8  feet  (whic 
other  'scope  can  do)  our  normal  magnil 
powers  soar  to  more  than  200.  The  aphid 
monster:  the  lady  bug,  an  armored  tank 
polka  dots ;  the  bee,  a  fearsome  beast.  The  h( 
of  tiny  flowers  are  huge  caverns  with  str 
landscapes.  You  must  see  this  with  your 
eyes,   this  world,   before  you   quite   believ 

How  can  we  wax  so  lyrical  about  our  prod 
Why  is  it  so  different?  Because  its  sharpi 
power,  definition  is  magnificent.  This  is  th 
strument  to  clearly  show  you  gnat  and  fly, 
and  wasp,  at  a  quarter  mile,  and  the  dowi 
children's  sunlit  faces  at  3  city  blocks.  Of  co 
there  is  reason  for  such  excellence.  Fo 
Questar,  you  have  not  just  a  viewing  or  spo 
'scope,  no  ordinary  kind  of  spyglass,  but  c 
mand  the  powers  and  exquisite  clarity  of  a 
size  seven-foot  astronomical  telescope.  In 
the  owner  of  a  Questar  has  indeed  an  electri- 
driven  observatory,  complete  to  the  last  ci 
clamp  and  slow  motion  of  observatory  in 
ments.  Your  Questar's  twin  is  in  professi 
use  in  great  observatories,  in  schools,  un 
sities  and  research  laboratories,  as  wel 
branches  of  the  Government  and  space  agen 

Questars  still  cost  only  $995.  Send  foi 
32-page  Questar  booklet  which  tells  the  story 
illustrates  it  with  photographs  taken  by  Qu( 
owners  at  tremendous  magnifications. 


TAR 


BOX    60    NEW  HOPE.  PENNSYLVANIA 


of  any  known  living  rhinoceros.  It 
ly  pleasure  to  meet  and  photograph 
;  in  January,  1958.  when  she  was 
ipanied  by  her  two-year-old  calf, 
it  time.  T.  H.  M.  Taberer.  Warden 
iboseli  National  Reserve,  estimated 
he  horn  measured  54%  inches.  On 
1  27  of  that  same  year,  she  lost  about 
of  her  horn,  and  some  four  weeks 
he  remainder  broke  off  at  the  nose 
she  was  fighting  a  male  rhino.  Now 
jertie  has  lost  her  tourist  appeal, 
ill  undoubtedly  live  more  quietly, 
urbed  by  the  constant  click  of  cam- 
Gladys,  regrettably,  was  recently 
by  poachers. 

5  to  be  hoped  that  all  these  books 
e  read,  for  an  informed  public  is 
iCntial  in  any  program  of  preserv- 
e  world's  vanishing  mammals. 

or  Emeritus  of  Mammalogy  at  The 
lean  Museum,  Mr.  Carter  has 
ed  conservation  in  a  world  scene. 


Science  Knows  About  Life,  by 
Wolterack.  Association  Press, 
240  pp.,  illus. 

GEORGE  WALD  of  Harvard  closed 
ne  of  his  lectures  on  the  evolution 
;  with  the  statement  that  "matter 
3W  comprehend  itself."  This  is  es- 


sentially the  theme  of  Dr.  Woltereck's 
book,  in  which  he  briefly  discusses  the 
broad  aspects  of  the  phenomenon  of  life 
—its  origin  and  its  relationsliip  to  the 
universe,  its  many  manifestations,  and 
its  vital  functions.  In  most  places  the 
text  is  accurate,  straightforward,  and 
easy  to  read.  The  chapters  on  nutrition 
and  physiology  are  particularly  good, 
and  there  is  an  interesting  discussion  of 
the  biological  and  social  aspects  of  aging 
at  the  end  of  the  book.  The  American 
reader  may  even  find  the  European 
author's  statement  on  the  activities  of 
our  older  men  and  women  somewhat 
distortedly  amusing. 

There  are  forty-eight  pages  of  dra- 
matic photographs  of  everything  from 
chromosomes  to  insect  eyes.  Unfortu- 
nately, these  do  little  to  amplify  the 
text.  The  legends  do  not  adequately  de- 
scribe the  photographs,  and  their  selec- 
tion seems  to  have  been  based  upon  art 
value  rather  than  information.  There 
are  many  technical  errors  (which  may 
be  in  the  original  or  may  have  arisen  in 
the  translation).  To  correct  a  few:  Vol- 
vox  is  not  a  diatom;  proteins  are  not 
mainly  composed  of  nitrogen ;  foraminif- 
era  do  not  have  an  "exoskeleton"  in  the 
strict  sense;  water  does  not  have  a  mo- 
lecular weight  of  18  million;  and  DNA 
does  not  contain  ribose.  The  chapter  on 
genetics  is  rather  weak,  with  several  mis- 


leading statements.  Many  biologists 
would  take  exception  to  the  author's 
statement  that  the  building  of  new  spe- 
cies is  at  an  end,  and  there  is  a  surpris- 
ing lack  of  consideration  of  the  accom- 
plishments of  microorganisms  in  view 
of  the  author's  high  regard  for  insects 
as  dominant  or  successful  forms  of  life. 
Dr.  Woltereck  has  written  a  book  that 
the  casual  reader  should  find  interesting. 
The  critical  reader  should  look  else- 
where if  he  really  wishes  to  learn  what 
science  knows  about  life. 

Hugo  D.  Freudenthal 

Song  of  Wild  Laughter,  by  Jack  Couf- 
fer.  Simon  and  Schuster,  $5.00 ;  190  pp., 
illus. 

IT  turns  out,  in  the  last  chapter  of  Mr. 
CouSer's  book,  that  the  "song  of  wild 
laughter"'  is  the  raucous  chatter  of  the 
Tasmanian  kookaburra  bird,  or  laughing 
jackass,  and  the  author  speculates  as  to 
what  he  is  laugliing  about. 

Anyway,  Mr.  CouSer  knows  about 
them  firsthand,  being  a  biologist,  a  pho- 
tographer and  editor  for  Walt  Disney, 
and  a  wide-ranging  traveler.  He  also 
knows  about  the  birds  and  animals  of  the 
Galapagos,  which  have  never  learned  to 
fear  man,  about  penguins  and  wildcats, 
spiders  and  wolves.  He  produces  some 
very  convincing  photographs  as  evidence. 


Best  way  to  ATHENS! 


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write  for  interesting  free  booklet 
"World  At  Your  Doorstep" 

AIRSTREAM   INC. 

750   CHURCH   ST.,   JiCKSON    CENTER,   OHIO 
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As  a  research  biologist  who  turned  to  the 
cinema  arts,  he  knows  what  he  is  talking 
about,  and  how  to  record  it  on  film. 

Perhaps  the  most  interesting  parts  of 
his  book  are  the  passages  in  which  he  de- 
scribes the  tricks  and  techniques  used  in 
wildlife  photography,  about  which  many 
viewers  of  Disney  films  must  have  won- 
dered. In  photograpliing  a  wild  animal, 
says  Mr.  CoufEer,  always  focus  the  lens 
on  its  eye;  the  rest  of  the  body  will  at 
least  seem  to  be  in  focus.  To  get  an 
animal  to  do  what  you  want,  bait  is  good, 
and  a  desirable  mate  is  even  better.  And 
so  on.  The  secret  is  out. 

Mr.  CoufEer  confesses  to  being  a  biolo- 
gist and  a  photographer,  but  the  reader 
will  soon  discover  that  he  is  also  a  com- 
petent writer. 

PlETER  FOSBURGH 

The  Living  Sea,  by  Jacques- Yves  Cous- 
teau.  Harper  &  Row,  $6.50;  325  pp., 
ill  us. 

MAN  lives  on  only  one-third  of  the 
earth's  surface.  The  rest  is  covered 
with  the  300.000.000  cubic  miles  of  water 
that  we  call  the  oceans.  These  are  vast 
and  mysterious  realms  —  probably  the 
ancestral  home  of  all  living  things,  a 
marvelous  collection  of  creatures 
stranger  and  more  numerous  than  any- 
thing on  land,  and  an  immense  reservoir 
of  material  wealth. 

Dramatic  and  catastrophic  events  in 
the  earth's  history  have  left  their  traces 
in  the  ocean  bottom  sediments— the  out- 
pouring of  volcanoes,  the  advance  and 
retreat  of  continental  glaciers,  the  burn- 
ing dryness  of  deserts,  the  destruction 
by  floods,  and  past  climate  changes. 

The  Living  Sea,  by  the  noted  French 
undersea  pioneer  Jacques-Yves  Cousteau 
of  The  Silent  If'orld  fame,  is  an  out- 
standing book  that  adds  greatly  to  our 
understanding  of  the  sea.  It  describes 
scientific  underwater  explorations  and 
adventurous  diving  episodes  that  range 
over  the  Atlantic,  the  Mediterranean, 
and  the  Red  Sea. 

The  base  for  everything  recorded  in 
this  book  was  the  oceanographic  research 
ship  Calypso,  well  equipped  with  depth- 
probing  devices,  scientists,  and  a  pro- 
fessional diving  team.  Captain  Cousteau 
wrote  the  book  with  free-lance  writer 
James  Dugan,  and  it  is  excellently  illus- 
trated with  twenty-four  pages  of  color 
photographs  and  sixty-four  pages  of 
black  and  white. 

There  is  something  along  the  way  for 
all  tastes.  Included  are  the  recovery  of 
artifacts  from  a  Greek  galley  sunk  off 
Marseilles  more  than  two  centuries  be- 
fore Christ,  and  trips  to  discover  ocean- 
bed  oil  deposits.  There  are  chapters  on 
the  revolutionary  "Diving  Saucer."  an 
underwater  vehicle,  accommodating  two, 
which  can  operate  at  a  depth  of  one 
thousand   feet.   The   saucer   is   self-pro- 


pelled and  descends  and  ascends  at 
will  of  the  crew.  The  report  on  deep- 
photography  carried  out  under  the 
rection  of  Professor  Harold  E.  Edgar 
is  extremely  interesting. 

In  this  fine  book  you  can  enjoy,  vie 
ously.  submarine  marvels  like  the 
"The  coral  took  unexpected  shapes  ; 
hues.  There  were  skulls  of  dwarfs  : 
giants:  tufts  of  ocher  and  mage 
mingled  with  petrified  mauve  bushes  ; 
red  tubiporae  fabricated  like  hon 
combs.  .  .  .  Through  this  splendid  til 
forest  humpbacked  sea  snails  trave 
their  winding  ways.  In  reef  reces 
there  were  enough  tridacna  clams 
furnish  the  fonts  for  the  churches 
Christendom." 

Most  interesting  is  a  report  of  two  r 
who  lived  and  worked  underwater  for 
entire  week.  Albert  Falco  and  Cla 
Wesley  were  based  in  a  submer 
chamber  with  a  hatch  always  open  to 
sea,  which  could  not  flood  the  cham 
because  of  its  internal  air  pressure, 
object  of  the  experiment  was  to  h 
determine  the  feasibility  of  somei 
establishing  manned  underwater  a 
cultural  and  industrial  complexes. 

The   Living   Sea   should    satisfy 
most  curious  amateur,  professional,  i 
armchair  underwater  explorer. 

GOESTA  WoL 


The   Birds,   by   Roger  Tory   Peten 
Time,  Inc.,  $3.95;  192  pp.,  illus. 

IN  this,  another  book  in  the  "Life 
ture  Library"  series,  the  text 
Roger  Peterson  is  more  or  less  hidden 
hind  the  scenes,  like  the  research  hall 
a  first  rate  museum.  The  volume's  il 
trative  exhibits  are  out  front,  some  sj 
tacular,  some  austere,  most  of  them 
excellent  that  one  discovers  with  n 
awe  that  the  prose  is  equal  in  excellei 
Mr.  Peterson  has  a  style  that  pone 
over  facts  without  seeming  to;  it  lin| 
over  the  concept  of  evolution  with  ] 
ticular  grace.  Indeed,  the  entire  1 
achieves  depth  and  fluency  because  o: 
preoccupation  with  evolutionary  proc 

The  first  chapter  deals  with  bird  cla 
fication  and  the  nature  of  its  proble 
The  subsequent  sections  rehearse 
basic  known  information  about  bird  i 
tomy,  flight,  food-gathering,  habitats, 
gration,  communication,  and  life  histi 
The  book  closes  with  an  excellent  cli 
ter  on  conservation  that  is  titled  "Tow 
A  Balance  With  Man." 

The  editorial  staff  aided  their  aut 
with  supplementary  picture  stories 
photographs  of  very  high  merit;  t 
also  supplied  a  useful  bibliography 
index.  In  consequence  The  Birds  is  a 
popular  introduction  to  ornithology, 
elusion  of  a  chapter  on  physiology,  "v 
a  brief  subsection  on  genetics,  wc 
have  perfected  the  work. 

William  Geo 


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THE   CASTOLITE   COMPANY    •    Woodstock,    Illinois 

The  titles  below  and  the  other  photographs  on  this 
page  are  from  the  "Kitchen"  booklet  shown  at  left. 


lES    MADE    WITH    NATURAL    MAPLE    LEAVES,  ferns   and    grasses   enhance         IS  THERE  A   BUDDING  REMBRANDT    IN   THE   FAMILY?    Point   your   own   de- 
e   colorful   work   center    in   this   handsome  country   kitchen  signs  on   wood     protect   with   Costoglos    Coontertop  is  Costoglos-trented   birch. 


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CASTOLITE  TILES  WITH  EMBEDMENTS  OF  BUTTERFLIES  are  combined  with 
wood  tiles.   Costoglos-treoted   Striped   Mahogany   gleams   like   burnished  gold. 

ASTOGLAS  IS  WATERPROOF,  STAIN  PROOF,  FADEPROOF  AND 
NAFFECTED  BY:  boiling  wafer,  hot  pots  or  pans,  alcohol,  vinegar,  fruit 
ice,  hot  grease,  tea,  coffee,  milk,  oils,  naphtha,  cleaning  fluids,  benzene, 
Qsoline,  ink,  dyes,  pigments,  wax  crayon,  lead  pencil,  to  name  but  just 
few.  Withstands  all  kinds  of  abuse.  Will  not  "waterspot"  and  is  as  easily 
eaned  with  a  damp  cloth  as  any  gloss  surface. 

OW  TO  COVER  THE  KITCHEN  COUNTER  WITH  CASTOGLAS— see  photos  clean-sanded  wood  and  covered  with  laminating  film.  Costoglos  hardens 
cm  left  to  right:  Counter  is  made  of  'A  inch  thick  flakeboard  with  border  in  about  one  hour.  Film  is  stripped  off  and  finished  counter  has  oppear- 
F  walnut   tiles.    Hardener    is    mixed    with    liquid    Castoglos,    poured    over       ance  of  plate  glass  bonded  to  wood. 


Witer  of  the  W)rld 

Distribution  of  man's  liquid  assets  is  a  clue  to  future  conti 

By  Raymond  L.  Nace 


MOST  PEOPLE  know  that  water  is 
unevenly  distributed  over  the 
earth's  surface  in  oceans,  rivers,  and 
lakes,  but  few  realize  how  very  uneven 
the  distribution  actually  is.  It  is  in- 
structive to  consider  the  total  inven- 
tory of  water  on  the  planet  earth,  the 
areas  where  the  water  occurs,  and  the 


long-term  significance  of  the  findings. 
The  world  ocean-139, 500,000 
square  miles  of  it— contains  317,000,- 
000  cubic  miles  of  salt  water.  The 
average  depth  of  the  ocean  basins  is 
about  12,500  feet.  If  the  basins  were 
shallow,  seas  would  spread  far  onto  the 
continents,  and  dry  land  areas  would 


consist  chiefly  of  a  few  major  ai 
pelagoes  where  high  mountain  ra 
projected  above  the  sea. 

Considered  as  a  continuous  boo 
fluid,  the  atmosphere  is  another  j 
of  ocean.  Yet,  in  view  of  the  i 
amount  of  precipitation  on  land  a 
in  the  course  of  a  year,  one  of  the  i 


jnishing  world  water  facts  is  the 
y  small  amount  of  water  in  the  at- 
sphere  at  any  given  time.  The  vol- 
e  of  the  lower  seven  miles  of  the  at- 
sphere— the  realm  of  weather— is 
ghly  four  times  the  volume  of  the 
rid  ocean,  but  the  atmosphere  con- 
is  only  about  3,100  cubic  miles  of 
;er,  chiefly  in  the  form  of  invisible 
>or,  some  of  which  is  transported 
rland  by  air  currents.  If  all  vapor 
:e  suddenly  precipitated  from  the 
onto  the  earth's  surface,  it  would 
m  a  layer  only  about  one  inch 
3k.  A  heavy  rainstorm  on  a  given 
a  may  remove  only  a  small  percent- 
;  of  the  water  from  the  air  mass  that 
ises  over.  How,  then,  can  some  land 
as  receive,  as  they  do,  more  than 
)  inches  of  precipitation  per  year? 


How  can  several  inches  of  rain  fall 
during  a  single  storm  in  a  few  minutes 
or  hours?  The  answer  is  that  rain- 
yielding  air  masses  are  in  motion,  and 
as  the  water-depleted  air  moves  on, 
new  moisture-laden  air  takes  its  place 
above  the  area  of  precipitation. 

THE  basic  source  of  most  atmos- 
pheric water  is  the  ocean,  from 
which  it  is  derived  by  evaporation. 
Evaporation,  vapor  transport,  and  pre- 
cipitation constitute  a  major  arc  of  the 
hydrological  cycle  —  the  continuous 
movement  of  water  from  ocean  to  at- 
mosphere to  land  and  back  to  the  sea. 
Rivers  return  water  to  the  sea  along 
one  chord  of  the  arc.  In  a  subterranean 
arc  of  the  cycle,  underground  bodies 
of  water  discharge  some  water  directly 


into  rivers  and  some  directly  to  the  sea. 

Estimated  average  annual  evapora- 
tion from  the  world  ocean  is  roughly 
39  inches.  The  conterminous  United 
States  receives  an  average  of  30  inches 
of  precipitation  every  year,  or  about 
1,430  cubic  miles  in  total  volume. 
Evapotranspiration  returns  approxi- 
mately 21  inches  of  this  water  to  the 
atmosphere  (about  1,000  cubic  miles) . 
Obviously,  some  rain  is  water  that  was 
vaporized  from  the  land  areas  and  is 
being  reprecipitated.  Evidently  the 
global  hydrological  cycle,  which  sends 
water  from  sea-to-air-to-Iand  areas 
and  back  to  the  sea  again,  has  short 
circuits.  These  are  called  subcycles. 

There  are  many  complexities  and 
variations  in  the  fate  of  water  that  falls 
as  rain  or  snow.  For  example,  high  in 


II 


Mississippi  River,  seen  in  upstream 
view  at  New  Orleans,  discharges  about 
133  cubic  miles  of  water  annually.  At 


It  is  Arrow  rock  Dam  on  Boise  River. 
Arrowrock  Reservoir  has  a  capacity  of 
approximately  .084  cubic  mile  of  water. 


the  central  Rocky  Mountains  of  North 
America,  the  Yellowstone  River  heads 
in  Yellowstone  National  Park  just 
east  of  the  Continental  Divide.  The 
river  water  discharges  through  the 
Missouri  and  Mississippi  rivers  into 
the  Gulf  of  Mexico  about  1,600  airline 
miles  distant  from  the  head. 

On  the  west  side  of  the  Continental 
Divide,  not  far  from  the  Yellowstone, 
rises  the  Snake  River,  which  flows 
across  Idaho  to  join  the  Columbia 
near  Pasco.  Washington,  and  its  waters 
eventually  reach  the  Pacific  Ocean 
about  700  airline  miles  from  their 
source  and  about  2.200  miles  from  the 
mouth  of  the  Mississippi. 

This  is  a  good  example  of  the  con- 
tinuous mixing  and  transfer  of  water 
in  the  hydrological  cycle.  An  air  mass 
moving  eastward  across  the  Rocky 
Mountains  contains  water  evaporated 
from  the  Pacific  Ocean.  Some  of  the 
water  falls  as  rain  or  snow  to  the  west 
and  some  to  the  east  of  the  Conti- 
nental Divide.  Thus,  t\\  o  drops  of  rain 


falling  side  by  side  along  the  conti- 
nental backbone  may  end  up,  one  in 
the  Pacific,  the  other  in  the  Atlantic 
Ocean,  although  both  were  derived 
from  the  Pacific. 

No  one  knows  how  much  water 
moves  from  the  Pacific  to  Atlantic 
Ocean  by  vapor  transfer,  precipita- 
tion, and  runoff,  but  we  do  know  a 
great  deal  about  runoff  itself.  Esti- 
mated total  flow  into  the  sea  from 
rivers  in  the  48  adjacent  states  takes 
place  at  the  rate  of  about  1.803,000 
cubic  feet  per  second  (a  cubic  foot  is 
about  7.48  gallons ) ,  which  amounts  to 
approximately  390  cubic  miles  per 
year.  Values  for  runoff  (390  cubic 
miles)  plus  evaporation  (1,000  cubic 
miles )  do  not  quite  equal  the  precipita- 
tion (1,430  cubic  miles  j  because  none 
of  these  values  is  precise.  Moreover, 
some  water  is  discharged  into  the  sea 
directly  from  ground-water  sources 
without  passing  through  streams.  The 
missing    40    cubic    miles    of    water. 


roughly  10  per  cent  of  the  vain 
streamflow,  might  represent  ( 
ground-water  discharge. 

Hydrologists  have  not  gem 
considered  that  direct  ground- 
outflow  to  the  sea  is  so  large,  but 
is  really  no  good  basis  that  a 
used  to  dispute  or  support  whs 
computations  seem  to  indicate.  A 
rate,  the  data  are  sufficiently  ace 
for  my  purpose,  which  is  to  sho 
relative  magnitude  of  water  vol 
involved  in  the  annual  water  eye 

Some  more  specific  data  give  a 
idea  of  the  relative  importance  of 
and  small  rivers  in  maintaining 
nental  water  balances. 

The  Mississippi,  North  Ame 
largest  river,  has  a  drainage  ai 
1,243,000  square  miles  (about  4 
cent  of  the  total  area  of  the  48  C( 
minous  states)  and  discharges 
average  rate  of  620,000  cubic  fe 
second.  This  amounts  to  sonif 
cubic  miles  per  year,  or  approxin 
34  per  cent  of  the  total  discharge 


<<j:^' 


,«^i** 


the  rivers  of  the  United  States. 
B  Columbia,  nearest  American 
petitor  of  the  Mississippi,  dis- 
ges  less  than  75  cubic  miles  per 
.  Relatively  speaking,  the  great 
rado  River  is  a  dwarf,  discharging 

about  five  cubic  miles  annually, 
n  the  other  hand,  the  Amazon,  the 
3st  river  in  the  world,  is  nearly  six 
s  the  size  of  the  Mississippi,  and  it 
larges  somewhat  more  than  two 
c  miles  per  day  and  some  770 
c  miles  per  year— about  twice  the 
of  all  United  States  rivers, 
frica's  great  Congo  River,  with  a 
tiarge  of  approximately  340  cubic 
s  per  year,  is  the  world's  second 
est.  The  estimated  annual  dis- 
ge  of  all  African  rivers  is  about 
cubic  miles. 

easurements  of  only  the  principal 
streams  on  a  continent  afford  a 
s  for  reasonably  accurate  estima- 

of  the  total  runoff  item  in  a  con- 
ital  water  balance.  The  smaller 
ims    are    important    locally,    but 


they  contribute  only  minor  amounts 
of  the  total  water  discharged.  Thus  it 
is  possible  to  estimate  the  total  runoff 
in  all  the  rivers  of  the  world,  even 
though  many  of  them  have  not  been 
measured  accurately.  Sixty-six  prin- 
cipal rivers  of  the  world  discharge 
about  3,720  cubic  miles  of  water 
yearly.  The  estimated  total  from  all 
rivers,  large  and  small,  measured  and 


unmeasured,    is    about    8.400    cubic 
miles  yearly  (23  cubic  miles  daily). 

Crude  estimates  have  indicated  that 
the  total  amount  of  water  that  is 
physically  present  in  stream  channels 
throughout  the  world  at  a  given  mo- 
ment is  about  300  cubic  miles.  Evi- 
dently, river  channels,  on  the  average, 
contain  only  enough  water  to  main- 
tain their  flow  for  about  thirteen  days. 


WATER  VOLUME  OF  LAKES   IN  CUBIC  MILES 


500         1,000      1,500       2,000 


I    Dubawnt  Lake,  Canada 

I  Tungting  Lake,  China 

I  Lake  Vaner,  Sweden 

I  Crater  Lake,  United  Stales 

I  Lake  Titicaca,  Peru  &  Bolivia 

Great  Bear  Lake,  Canada 


World's  large  lakes  display  an  extreme 
size  range.  Dubawnt  is  large  compared 
with  most  lakes,  but  is  barely  visible 
on  graph.  Baikal  may  evaporate  enough 
in  six  months  to  fill  up  Dubawnt  Lake. 


BBSESBiaBZSa 


ififfi'fflffii--tiTnfi 


13 


Some  have  much  more  water,  others 
much  less,  but  it  seems  to  be  a  fair 
average.  How,  then,  do  rivers  main- 
tain a  flow  throughout  the  jear,  even 
during  rainless  periods  much  longer 
than  thirteen  days?  The  answer  to  that 
question  will  appear  later,  in  the  dis- 
cussion of  ground  water. 

A  FTER  oceans  and  rivers  come  lakes, 
_l\^  which  can  be  called  wide  places 
in  rivers.  This  is  certainly  true  of  the 
many  small  lakes  that  are  impounded 
by  relatively  minor  and  geologically 
temporary  obstructions  across  river 
channels.  Lake  Okeechobee,  Florida,  is 
a  good  example  of  a  wide  place  in  a 
river.  But  no  single,  oversimplified 
metaphor  accurately  describes  all 
lakes,  which  are  widely  varied  in  their 
physical  characteristics  and  the  geo- 
logic circumstances  under  which  they 
occur.  The  handsome  little  tarn  occu- 
pying an  ice-scooped  basin  in  a  gla- 
ciated alpine  area  is  radically  differ- 
ent from  the  deep  and  limpid  Crater 
Lake  of  Oregon,  which  fills  the  crater 
of  a  now-extinct  volcano.  Okeechobee 
is  totally  different  from  any  of  the 
North  American  Great  Lakes,  which 
occupy  huge  basins  formed  in  a  com- 
plex manner  by  glacial  excavation  at 
some  places,  moraine  and  outwash  de- 
position at  others,  isostatic  subsidence 
of  that  whole  region  of  the  earth's 
crust,  and  other  factors.  The  Great 
Lakes  of  North  America,  in  turn,  bear 
no  resemblance  to  Lake  Tanganyika 


Pumping  depletes  ground  water,  draining  curved  cones  in 
aquifer  at  each  well.  Hydraulic  gradient  draws  water  from 
surroundings.  Cones  grow  as  pumping  continues.  Where 
many  wells  work,  drained  zones  unite  and  water  table  falls. 
If  pumpage  exceeds  recharge,  depletion  may  be  permanent. 


in  the  great  Rift  Valley  of  Ai 
Poorly  understood  processes  ere 
the  rift  by  literally  pulling  two  sec 
of  the  earth's  crust  apart,  leavi 
deep,  open  gash,  part  of  which  i 
cupied  by  the  lake.  And  these  are 
a  few  examples  of  wide  variatioi 
the  nature  of  lakes. 

THE  earth's  land  areas  are  d^ 
with  hundreds  of  thousand 
lakes.  Wisconsin,  Minnesota,  and 
land  contain  some  tens  of  thous 
each.  But  these  lakes,  impo 
though  they  may  be  locally,  hold 
a  minor  amount  of  the  world  sii 
of  fresh  surface  water,  most  of  m 
is  contained  in  a  relatively  few  1 
lakes  on  three  continents. 

Whether  a  lake  contains  fres 


14 


All  water  comes  from  the  ocean  and  is  returned  to  it  in 
continuous  hydrological  cycle.  Subcycles,  or  short  circuits, 
occur  on  land  where  water  evaporates  or  is  transpired  by 
vegetation.  In  underground  part  of  the  cycle,  subterranean 
water  bodies  discharge  into  rivers  or  directly  into  ocean. 


water  makes  a  considerable  differ- 
in  its  usefulness  to  man,  so  I  shall 
ider  the  earth's  greatest  lakes  in 

of  the  categories,  fresh  and  salt. 
tie  volume  of  all  the  large  fresh- 
;r  lakes  in  the  world  aggregates 
ly  30,000  cubic  miles,  and  their 
bined  surface  area  is  about  330,- 
square  miles.  "Large"  is  a  relative 
1  that  requires  explanation.  For 
article  I  have  called  a  lake  large 
s  contents  are  five  cubic  miles  or 
e.  Thus  the  listing  includes  Du- 
nt  Lake,  Canada  (about  six  cubic 
;s),  but  excludes  the  Ziirichsee  of 
tzerland   (about  one  cubic  mile). 

range  of  volume  among  the  large 
!S  is  enormous,  from  a  lower  limit 
ive  cubic  miles  to  an  upper  one  of 
)0  cubic  miles  in  Lake  Baikal  in 


Asiatic  Russia,  the  largest  and  deep- 
est single  body  of  fresh  water  in  exist- 
ence. Some  appreciation  of  its  volume 
may  be  gained  from  the  realiza- 
tion that  Lake  Baikal  alone  contains 
nearly  300  cubic  miles  more  of  water 
than  the  combined  content  of  the  five 
North  American  Great  Lakes.  The 
latter  loom  large  on  a  map,  but  their 
average  depth  is  considerably  less  than 
that  of  Baikal. 

Nevertheless,  North  American  lakes 
are  a  major  element  in  the  earth's 
water  balance.  The  Great  Lakes,  plus 
other  large  lakes  in  North  America 
(chiefly  in  the  48  states  and  Canada) 
contain  about  7,800  cubic  miles  of 
water— 26  per  cent  of  all  liquid  fresh 
surface  water  in  existence. 

Similarly,  the  large  lakes  of  Africa 


contain  8,700  cubic  miles,  or  nearly 
29  per  cent  of  the  total  fresh-water 
supply.  Asia's  large  lakes  contain 
about  6,340  cubic  miles,  or  20  per  cent 
of  the  total— nearly  all  of  which  is  in 
Lake  Baikal. 

Lakes  on  these  three  continents  ac- 
count for  roughly  75  per  cent  of  the 
world's  fresh  surface  water.  Large 
lakes  on  other  continents— Europe, 
South  America,  and  Australia— have 
only  about  720  cubic  miles,  or  roughly 
2  per  cent  of  the  total.  All  that  remains 
to  fill  the  hundreds  of  thousands  of 
rivers  and  lesser  lakes  that  are  found 
throughout  the  world  is  less  than  one- 
fourth  of  the  total  fresh  surface  water. 

Saline  lakes  are  equivalent  in  mag- 
nitude to  fresh-water  lakes.  Their  to- 
tal area  is  270,000  square  miles  and 


15 


their  total  volume  is  about  2^ 
cubic  miles.  The  distribution, 
ever,  is  quite  different.  About  IS 
cubic  miles  (96  per  cent  of  the 
saline  volume)  is  in  the  Caspian 
and  most  of  the  remainder  is  in  . 
North  America's  shallow  Great 
Lake  is  comparatively  insignif 
with  seven  cubic  miles. 

All  these  w'ater  sources  we  hav( 
cussed  are  the  obvious  ones.  The 
another— soil  moisture— that  ma 
the  most  significant  segment  o' 
world's  water  supply  because  o: 
key  role  played  by  plants  in  the 
chain.  Some  plants  grow  direct 
water  or  marshy  ground,  but  b; 
the  greater  mass  of  vegetatioi 
earth  lives  on  "dry"  land.  This  is 
sible  because  the  land  is  really  d 
just  a  few  places,  and  often  only 
porarily.  How  dry  is  dust?  The 
of  a  dry  dirt  road  may  contain 
15  per  cent  of  water  by  weight. 
ever,  plants  cannot  grow  and  flo 
with  so  little  water  because  the 


i6 


Sentinel  Range  in  Antarctica  ii 
of  the  continent's  few  land  area 
completely  covered  by  a  burden  o 


%»»»'■ 


^^^i^^^,^n~'.mS- 


>m&;'.^mmm3tmmi^. 


s  small  percentages  of  moisture 
;naciously  that  plant  roots  cannot 
ict  it.  Aside  from  desert  plants, 
:h  store  water  in  their  own  tissues 
ng  infrequent  wet  periods,  land 
ts  flourish  only  where  there  is  ex- 
;able  water  in  the  soil.  Inasmuch  as 
lite  ordinary  tree  may  withdraw 
transpire  about  50  gallons  of  water 
lay,  frequent  renewals  of  soil  mois- 
,  either  by  rain  or  by  irrigation, 
essential.  The  average  amount  of 
T  held  as  soil  moisture  at  any  given 
;  is  on  the  order  of  6,000  cubic 
s  for  the  world  as  a  whole— an  in- 
ificant  percentage  of  the  earth's 
I  water,  but  vital  to  life.  Relatively 
!  vegetation  receives  artificial  irri- 
on,  and  practically  all  of  it  de- 
ls on  natural  soil  moisture,  which, 
irn,  depends  on  orderly  and  timely 
ation  of  the  hydrological  cycle. 

lOTHER  little-considered  water  res- 
ervoir has  been  known  to  man  for 
isands  of  years.  Scripture  (Genesis 
L)  on  the  Noachian  Deluge  states 
"the  fountains  of  the  great  deep 
re]  broken  up"  (cleft  open),  and 
dus,  among  its  many  references  to 
3r  and  to   wells,  refers (20:4)    to 


"water  under  the  earth."  Many  other 
chronicles  show  that  man  has  known 
from  ancient  times  that  there  is  much 
water  underground.  Only  recently  has 
he  begun  to  appreciate  how  much. 

Beneath  most  land  areas  of  the 
world  there  is  a  zone  where  the  pores 
of  rocks  and  sediments  are  completely 
saturated  with  water.  Hydrologists  call 
this  ground  water,  and  the  upper  limit 
of  the  saturated  zone  is  called  the 
water  table.  The  water  table  may  be 
right  at  the  land  surface,  as  in  a  marsh, 
or  it  may  lie  hundreds  of  feet  below 
the  land  surface,  as  in  some  arid  areas. 
Below  the  zone  of  soil  moisture  and 
above  the  water  table,  there  is  in  most 
areas  an  unsaturated  zone  containing 
water  that  has  passed  through  the  soil 
zone  and  is  percolating  downward 
toward  the  ^vater  table.  This  ivater  is 
called  vadose,  from  the  Latin  root 
vadosus,  shallow. 

The  world  volume  of  vadose  water 
is  probably  somewhat  more  than  that 
of  soil  moisture— say  10,000  cubic 
miles.  It  is  highly  important  because, 
although  it  is  not  extractable  by  man, 
it  is  potential  ground-water  recharge, 
and  ground  water  is  extractable.  Each 
new  influx  of  water  from  precipitation 


Vast  expanse  of  the  Antarctic  ice  sheet, 
shown  in  relief  model,  represents  90 
per  cent   of  all  the   ice   in  the  world. 

on  the  land  surface,  followed  by  perco- 
lation through  the  soil  zone,  provides 
a  new  increment  of  recharge  to  the 
ground  water. 

BELOW  the  water  table,  to  a  depth  of 
half  a  mile  in  land  areas  of  the 
earth's  crust,  there  is  about  one  million 
cubic  miles  of  ground  water.  An  equal 
if  not  greater  amount  is  present  at  a 
greater  depth,  down  to  some  10  to  15 
thousand  feet,  but  this  deeper  water 
circulates  sluggishly  because  the  rocks 
are  only  slightly  permeable.  Much  of 
the  deep-lying  water  is  not  economi- 
cally recoverable  for  human  use,  and  a 
good  deal  of  it  is  strongly  mineralized. 

Ground  water  flows  through  moder- 
ately to  highly  permeable  strata,  which 
are  called  aquifers,  at  rates  of  a  few 
feet  to  perhaps  several  bunded  feet  per 
day;  40  to  50  feet  per  day  would  be  a 
rather  high  rate  of  flow. 

Depending  on  how  far  the  ground 
water  must  travel  to  reach  a  surface 
discharge  area,  water  in  shallow  to 
moderately  deep  zones  may  remain  un- 
derground from  a  few  hours  to   100 


17 


years  or  longer.  Water  at  great  depth 
may  take  tens  or  hundreds  of  thou- 
sands of  years  to  pass  through  an  aqui- 
fer, and  some  is  completely  stagnant. 
The  volume  of  ground  water  in  the 
upper  half-mile  of  the  continental  crust 
is  about  3,600  times  greater  than  the 
volume  of  water  in  all  rivers  at  any  one 
time,  and  nearly  20  times  greater  than 
the  combined  instantaneous  volume  of 
water  in  all  rivers  and  lakes.  It  is  easy 
to  see,  therefore,  that  ground-water 
reservoirs  have  tremendous  impor- 
tance as  equalizers  of  streamflow.  Un- 
der natural  conditions,  most  ground- 
water reservoirs  are  full  to  overflow- 
ing, and  the  overflow  water  provides 
what  is  called  the  base  flow  of  surface 
streams,  enabling  them  to  flow  even 
during  long,  rainless  periods  and  after 
winter  snows  have  melted. 

ACCORDING  to  my  calculations,  the 
^volume  of  ground  water  in  storage 
in  the  United  States  to  a  depth  of  half 
a  mile  is  equivalent  to  the  total  of  all 
recharge  during  about  the  last  150 
years.  This  estimate  is  crude,  but  it 
helps  to  emphasize  the  important  fact 
that  ground-water  reserves,  although 
immense,  are  not  wholly  self-renewing 
annually.  At  places  where  they  have 
been  depleted  by  pumpage,  they  might 
take  many  decades  to  recover,  even  if 
pumping  were  stopped  completely. 

Consider,  for  example,  a  location  in 
the  dry  southwestern  United  States, 
where  annual  recharge  to  an  aquifer 
is  on  the  order  of  only  two-tenths  of  an 
inch  of  water.  In  such  areas,  it  is  not 
uncommon  to  pump  two  feet  or  more 
of  water  per  year  for  irrigation  or 
other  uses.  In  this  oversimplified  ex- 
ample, if  the  entire  aquifer  were 
pumped  at  that  rate,  yearly  pumpage 
would  be  equivalent  to  120  years'  re- 
charge, and  ten  years  of  pumping 
would  remove  a  1,200-year  accumula- 
tion of  water.  New  recharge  during  the 
pumping  period  would  be  negligible. 
Mechanical  problems  and  economic 
factors  would  prevent  complete  de- 
watering  of  an  aquifer,  but  the  ex- 
ample is  valid  in  principle. 

The  next  big  items  on  the  water- 
balance  sheet  are  icecaps  and  glaciers. 
They  may  seem  unimportant  in  the 
water  cycle  because,  although  the  ice 
masses  alternately  shrink  or  grow  a 
little  from  time  to  time,  new  ice  is 
added  about  as  fast  as  old  ice  melts. 
The  polar  ice  masses,  however,  have 
a  great  influence  on  weather,  and 
everything  that  happens  in  the  polar 


regions  indirectly  affects  everyone 
throughout  the  world  (Natural  His- 
tory, October,  1963).  Moreover,  if  a 
shift  in  climate  led  to  extensive  melting 
of  icecaps,  there  would  be  a  rise  in  sea 
level  with  important  effects  in  all  low- 
lying  coastal  areas. 

Mountain  glaciers,  such  as  those  of 
the  Alps  in  Europe  ( after  which  alpine 
glaciers  are  named) ,  the  Himalayas  of 
Asia,  and  the  Cascades  of  North 
America,  are  like  average  rivers  in 
some  respects.  They  are  important  lo- 
cally, but  they  contain  only  an  insig- 
nificant fraction  of  the  world's  water. 
The  total  volume  of  all  alpine  glaciers 
and  small  icecaps  in  the  world  is  only 
about  50,000  cubic  miles  (comparable 
to  the  combined  volume  of  large  saline 
and  fresh  lakes) . 

An  alpine  glacier  is  one  that  rises  in 
mountainous  uplands  and,  by  plastic 
deformation,  flows  along  a  valley.  A 
continental  glacier,  or  icecap,  is  one 
that  is  plastered  over  the  landscape, 
mountain  and  valley  alike.  Icecaps 
tend  to  flow  radially  outward  from 
their  center  of  accumulation.  Wastage 
occurs  by  sublimation  from  the  surface 
and  by  melting  or  caving  away  around 
the  periphery.  Average  icecaps,  like 
those  on  Novaya  Zemlya,  Iceland,  and 
Ellesmere  Land,  are  analogous  to  aver- 
age lakes.  They  are  locally  important, 
but  hold  only  an  insignificant  share  of 
the  world's  water  and  only  a  small  part 
of  the  total  volume  of  perennial  ice. 

The  Greenland  icecap  is  an  entirely 
different  matter.  About  667,000  square 
miles  in  area  and  averaging  nearly 
5,000  feet  in  thickness,  its  total  volume 
is  about  630,000  cubic  miles.  If  melted, 
it  would  yield  enough  water  to  main- 
tain the  Mississippi  River  for  some- 
what more  than  4,700  years.  Even  so, 
this  is  less  than  10  per  cent  of  the  total 
volume  of  icecaps  and  glaciers.  The 
greatest  single  item  in  the  water  budget 
of  the  world,  aside  from  the  ocean 
itself,  is  the  Antarctic  ice  sheet. 

SINCE  the  advent  of  the  International 
Geophysical  Year,  a  considerable 
store  of  information  about  Antarctica 
has  accumulated.  Data  on  the  thick- 
ness of  the  ice  sheet  are  relatively 
scarce,  but  there  is  enough  informa- 
tion to  permit  an  approximate  esti- 
mate. The  area  of  the  ice  sheet  is 
about  six  million  square  miles;  its 
thickness  averages  somewhat  more 
than  a  mile;  and  the  total  volume 
therefore  is  between  six  and  seven  mil- 
lion cubic  miles,  or  some  90  per  cent 


of  all  existing  ice  and  about  64 
cent  of  all  water  outside  the  oceans 

The  hydrologic   importance   of 
continent  and  its  ice  may  be  illustra 
quite  briefly.  If  the  Antarctic  icei 
were  melted  at  a  suitable  uniform  i 
it  could  feed: 

1.  The  Mississippi  River  for  m 
than  50,000  years; 

2.  All  rivers  in  the  United  Sts 
for  about  18,000  years; 

3.  The  Amazon  River  for  apprc 
mately  9,000  years; 

4.  All  the  rivers  in  the  world 
about  830  years. 

The  statistics  about  water  given  h 
are  rather  simple,  but  they  are  si 
ciently  important  to  tabulate  in  or 
to  get  them  more  clearly  in  mind.  1 
table  {opposite)  gives  a  comparal 
view  of  the  world's  water. 

About  97  per  cent  of  all  water  is 
the  world  ocean.  Most  of  the 
mainder  is  frozen  on  Antarctica  £ 
Greenland.  Thus,  man  must  get  ah 
with  the  less  than  one  per  cent  of 
world's  water  that  is  directly  availa 
for  fresh-water  use.  Obviously,  he  m 
find  much  inore  effective  ways  of  m 
agement  if  he  is  to  prosper. 

WATER  is  a  global  concern,  and 
water  cycle  pays  no  heed  to 
boundaries  that  men  have  drawn 
maps.  Man  has  become  so  numerc 
and  his  activities  so  extensive  that 
has  begun  to  affect  the  water  cycl 
certainly  on  a  regional  scale  and  v( 
likely  on  the  global  scale.  "Man  a 
the  hydrological  cycle"  is  a  story 
itself,  but  it  seems  appropriate  to  s 
here  that  the  time  is  overdue  for  s 
tematic  studies  of  water  and  the  hyd 
logical  cycle  on  a  large  scale  in  ore 
to  be  able  to  make  more  rational  i 
of  water  for  the  benefit  of  mankii 
It  is  of  considerable  interest,  the 
fore,  that  UNESCO  and  other  speci 
ized  agencies  of  the  United  Natio: 
assisted  by  international  scientific  i 
ganizations,  are  currently  plannins 
program  of  international  and  glol 
studies  in  scientific  hydrology.  T 
International  Geophysical  Year  a 
other  programs  have  shown  that  int 
national  scientific  co-operation  is  fi 
sible  and  fruitful— so  much  so  that  t 
studies  are  continuing.  For  a  resoui 
as  vital  as  water  a  single  year  of  ( 
operation  would  see  a  useful  progrj 
barely  started.  Thus,  it  is  planned 
have  a  ten-year  program.  If  all  gc 
well,  the  International  Decade  for  S 
entific  Hydrology  will  begin  in  19( 


^^'~/:M. 


i^»#*^-^ 

*'"  ^ 

■^ 

:.:  :^v 

■  *''   ,  .-  *•  •'.'     * 

'"■■   ?f^",i^~,.j£cationf|^-^^^^^^    '  ''^-I,.\;;   Surface  area""  "Water  volume  v  Percentage 'of ; 
i^^   '..y;-^  "-/'*''^> ,  . -?;|?r?t'^: ,.   .•-i-vT^ii  (square miles)     (cubic miles) ^r- -total water.'' 


>~    .■   Surface  water  .v^x:":^^- .»"-■' •   "' '  i-: 
Xv,    .  "  ;y.,7Fre.sh-water1ak'es-.^->!*''",.  ^-  330,000     -  •'^^.;  30,000    :     -...009 


;;-;v*7-;-.jnrand,seast>. 
{.  ^'^*Ayerag§jnstream_ 


270,000, 


VJ  300  :-:n^  i.oooi 


*^'St'  ''S'/    Subsurface  water 'A, ^:-**.-\*.\^  ^^,-?.l"Y^'^-  -    .    '  ■'- 

^-^'^'r'  Soiirnoistureaffi:l.^;'''r'--§;^^5/*'   .*■  ■'  "    »^  '.-    ' 

^S:'-'::  .".■   *;■'•;.,  vadqse  wafer^-"'^'§0,000,OOCr\."y        16,000    ....;'  .005 

rX^'^  :"*..,}■'■  ■•'••'tG'roundWer withi-^'y-Cnv  ■•'       ""  \*^  ^  '  '   ■* 

''' z  -■-  =-?: .  "'    " " '■ '  depth.of  ba,IJ.a.milfi  " '  50,000,000  •*      '1,000,000  ;.g-  .■' .31 

'-.^  ~  '     .     .    .  Ground wafef— ':'■■*»*■*     -****  1*  "~;'  .V    >'"... 

:.-"•'    ■;     ■■-    ^■:- deep-lying    ■■    .-  50,065,000 '   -  a, 000,000  ; '-"^    -'.31' 


Total  liquid  water 
in  land  areas 

Icecaps  and  glaciers 


50,600,000         2,070,000  .635 


7,000,000   .•    -2.15 


vVA  .,\         Atmosphere  (at  s^alevel)--:.*  197,000,000     .;.  .      3,100;^     •    .001 . 

%''-4     '"^    \     World  ocean       'irfra'^      139,500,000  ""317,000,000      r97.2.;* 
:  ,^yv»- .•       .        >    *^_        *-"  --  ■•  •-•■  ■■"    -- 


TOTALS  (rounded) 


326,000,000'       100 


Monies  of  Antiquity 


By  Joan  Fagerlie 


■'if<t»f 


^^ 


|l-r 


i^^^^^kk  < 


IfMniJi^. '  •'  "^^Hfci't"  _:^£ii*4 


Athenian  "owl"  was  most 
renowned  coin  in  antiquity. 


Photographs  by 
Lee  Boltin 


Acanthus'  tetradrachm 
shows  lion  attacking  bull. 


oins  commemorate  gods,  fauna,  and  civic  pride 


NYONE  WHO  HAS  EXAMINED  aiicient  Greek  coins  even 
L  cursorily  cannot  help  being  impressed  with  the 
t  variety  and  frequency  of  animal  representations. 
;n  the  Greeks  chose  an  appropriate  design  for 
age,  artistic  merits  were  a  primary  consideration 
animals  served  this  aesthetic  purpose  admirably. 
Idition,  animals  or  birds  were  often  associated  with 
'arious  deities  of  the  Greek  pantheon  and  thus 
;  selected  for  their  religious  symbolism.  In  some 
mces,  an  animal  was  made  a  symbol  on  the  coinage 
locale  because  it  happened  to  be  a  conspicuous 
are  of  the  region.  Fauna  frequently  figured  in  some 
nd  in  the  history  of  a  city;  they  may  have  been  solely 
rtistic  motif  borrowed  from  a  past  civilization; 
rs  may  have  been  a  pun  on  the  name  of  a 
1.  But,  for  whatever  the  reason,  animals  of  the 
-legged  variety,  creatures  of  the  sea,  reptiles,  birds 
1  kinds,  and  insects  abound  on  Greek  coins,  either  as 
nain  design  of  the  obverse  or  reverse,  or  as  a  symbol 
ibsidiary  design.  Only  a  few  types  can  be  shown 


here,  but  they  exemplify  the  rich  variety  of  the  genre. 

Representations  of  the  lion  are  very  common.  One 
example,  showing  a  lion  attacking  a  bull,  exists  on 
silver  tetradrachms  of  Acanthus  in  Macedonia.  This 
motif  can  be  traced  back  to  Sumerian  times,  and  it 
is  also  found  on  Minoan  and  Mycenaean  gems.  Although 
the  motif  is  an  old  one,  the  appearance  of  the  lion 
and  bull  on  this  coin  may  be  due  partly  to  the  great 
numbers  of  these  animals  that  roamed  in  Macedonia  in 
classical  times.  As  recorded  by  Herodotus,  the  lions 
in  Macedonia  played  havoc  with  Xerxes'  camels  when  he 
was  crossing  over  to  Greece.  Herodotus  marvels  that 
the  lions  attacked  only  camels,  creatures  that  they 
had  not  seen  theretofore,  and  refrained  from  attacking 
any  of  the  other  beasts  or  man. 

On  other  coins,  the  lion  is  shown  attacking  a  stag, 
again  a  Near  Eastern  motif,  or  it  is  portrayed  with 
a  second  lion  that  recalls  the  famous  Lions'  Gate  at 
Mycenae.  The  scalp  of  the  Hon  is  a  common  pattern,  and 
some  smaller  denominations  of  an  Asia  Minor  mint 

21 


Turtle  was  badge  of  city  of  Aegina. 


Metapontum  barley  ear  signifies  wealth. 


mboUzes  sacred  animal  of  Ephesus. 


of  uncertain  location  show  only  the  paw  of  the  lion.  The 
labors  of  Herakles  also  offered  a  wealth  of  material 
for  animal  types,  not  only  for  the  lion  but  for  others, 
such  as  the  bull,  boar,  and  serpent. 

Minoan  mythology,  in  which  the  bull  is  so  prominent, 
is  the  favorite  subject  matter  of  the  Cretan  coin 
types.  One  coin,  a  stater  of  Gortyna,  relates  to  the 
trials  of  Europa,  who  is  represented  on  the  obverse. 
Europa  was  carried  across  the  sea  by  Zeus,  who 
had  taken  the  form  of  a  white  bull,  and  she  finally  reached 
Crete,  where  she  bore  three  children:  Minos, 
Rhadamanthus,  and  Sarpedon. 

Perhaps  the  best-known  animal  type  from  antiquity  is 
the  Athenian  "owl."  The  owl  was  a  symbol  of  Athena, 
the  patron  goddess  of  Athens,  and  it  was  also  the 
badge  of  the  city.  Athens  was  not  the  earliest  European 
Greek  state  to  have  a  coinage  of  its  own,  but  without 
doubt  it  was  the  most  renowned  of  its  day. 
Aristophanes'  Frogs  proclaims  the  fame  of  the  owls: 

"These  are  coins  untouched  with  alloys; 
everywhere  their  fame  is  told; 
Not  all  Hellas  holds  their  equal, 
not  all  Barbary  far  and  near. 
Gold  or  silver,  each  well  minted, 
tested  each  and  ringing  clear." 
They  were  widely  circulated  and  accepted,  and 
were  also  imitated  by  less  civilized  peoples,  as 
barbarous  pieces  from  Arabia  and  other  distant  places 
attest.  The  coinage  of  Athens  was,  in  fact,  an 
international  currency  and  maintained  essentially  the 
same  type  for  centuries.  Aristophanes  refers  to 
"Laurium  owls"  in  his  play  Birds,  for  the  silver  mines  at 
Laurium  supplied  the  bullion  for  Athenian  coinage. 


:i^*^ 


THE  earliest  coinage  in  European  Greece  was  that 
of  the  island  state  Aegina,  whose  commercial 
enterprise  reached  Asia  Minor  and  northern  Greece 
long  before  Athenians  took  to  the 
sea.  Like  the  Athenian  owls,  Aeginetan  "turtles" 
attained  a  universality  of  their  own.  Up  until 
the  time  of  Aegina's  defeat  by  Athens,  the  turtles  were 
the  currency  of  the  entire  Peloponnesus.  They  were 
struck  on  a  heavier  standard  than  the  owls,  which 
caused  Athenians  to  call  them  "the  thick  drachms." 
The  turtle  was  also  the  badge  of  the  city  and 
was  sacred  to  Aphrodite,  whose  temple  stood  near 
the  harbor  of  Aegina.  Curiously,  the  earliest  coins  of 
Aegina  show  the  sea  turtle,  which  was  superseded 
for  some  unexplained  reason  by  the  land  tortoise 
sometime  in  the  fifth  century  B.C. 

Ephesus  in  Ionia  was  the  center  of  worship  of 
Artemis,  the  virgin  huntress  and  goddess  of  wild  nature, 
of  whom  the  bee  and  stag  were  cult  symbols 
and  the  usual  types  on  the  coinage.  The  high  priest 
of  the  temple  was  called  the  "king  bee" — the  Greeks 
apparently  were  unaware  that  it  should  have  been 
"queen" — and  the  priestesses,  "honeybees."  It  was 
commonly  the  case  that  priests  and  priestesses  had  titles 
named  after  a  particular  animal  sacred  to  the 
deity.  At  Ephesus  the  cult  symbols  of  the  patron 
goddess  became  the  badge  of  the  city.  The  same  type 
appears  on  the  specie  of  Aradus  in  Phoenicia 
toward  the  close  of  the  second  century  B.C.,  and 


23 


perhaps  indicates  an  alliance  between  the  two  cities. 

Undoubtedly,  a  seal  was  chosen  for  the  badge  of 
Phocaea  in  Ionia  because  phoca  was  the  Greek  word 
for  seal.  It  is  one  of  numerous  examples  of  the  punning 
device  evident  in  the  choice  of  a  type  for  the 
coinage.  In  this  case,  the  seal  also  was  an  appropriate 
symbol  of  Phocaea's  sea  power  in  the  seventh 
and  sixth  centuries  B.C.  Herodotus  said:  "These 
Phocaeans  were  the  earliest  of  the  Greeks  to  make  long 
sea-voyages;  it  was  they  who  discovered  the  Adriatic 
Sea,  Tyrrhenia,  Iberia  and  Tartessus,  not  sailing 
in  round  freight-ships  but  in  fifty-oared  vessels." 


MANY  of  the  aforementioned  coin  types  were,  like 
the  coin  type  of  Phocaea,  badges  of  the  cities  they 
represented.  The  badge  or  coat  of  arms  offered  a  quick 
method  for  indicating  the  place  of  origin.  One 
well-known  badge  was  the  barley  ear  of  Metapontum, 
which  symbolized  the  source  of  wealth  of  this 
Greek  colony  in  Italy.  A  variety  of  subsidiary  symbols 
appear  on  the  Metapontum  coinage,  too,  and  many 
of  the  symbols  are  animals.  They  include  a  grasshopper, 
ant,  lizard,  praying  mantis,  bird,  crayfish,  cicada, 
owl,  and  also  a  mouse,  which  is  shown  on  page  23. 

The  swan  on  the  coinage  of  Clazomenae  was 
probably  locally  inspired,  for  ancient  authors  attest  to 
the  former  abundance  of  these  birds  in  the  delta  of 


the  Hermus  River  just  across  the  bay  from  Clazomer 
In  fact,  the  name  Clazomenae  may  be  derived 
from  the  crying  of  these  birds,  for  the  Greek  verb  / 
can  be  used  in  such  a  sense.  The  swan  was  also  a  syi 
of  Apollo,  who  appears  on  the  obverse  of  the  coins. 

A  cock,  or  a  cock  and  a  hen,  are  the  usual  types 
Himera,  the  Greek  Sicilian  colony.  The  name 
Himera  perhaps  is  derived  from  the  Greek  word  for 
day,  and  thus  the  cock,  which  signaled  the  beginnii 
the  day  to  the  Greeks,  would  have  been  an  appropri; 
badge  or  symbol.  Nearby  Agrigentum  had  the  crab 
and  eagle  as  its  coin  types;  they  are  symbols  of 
Poseidon  and  Zeus,  respectively.  In  482  b.c.  Theroi 
tyrant  of  Agrigentum,  gained  control  of  Himera,  anc 
it  is  of  interest  that  the  new  issue  of  Himera 
that  then  appeared  shows  a  cock  on  one  side 
and  the  crab  of  Agrigentum  on  the  other. 

Successive  changes  in  the  coin  types  reflect  the 
political  turmoil  of  still  another  Sicilian  town — 
Messana,  or,  as  it  was  first  called,  Zancle  (Greek  foi 
sickle).  Zancle's  earliest  coin  type  was  a  dolphin  in 
curved  band — a  conventional  representation 
of  a  sickle-shaped  harbor.  It  was  first  conquered  by 
Samian  and  Milesian  emigrants  about  493  B.C.  and  ; 
coinage  with  Samian  types  but  without  ethnic 
(an  inscription  identifying  the  name  of  the  town)  w; 
issued.  In  489  b.c,  Anaxilas,  tyrant  of  Rhegium,  g; 
control  of  Zancle,  changed  its  name  to  Messana  in 


_.!r-^  ■    ^- 


,^-,-'  ^-^,_ 


Segesta's  coin  depicts  local  legend. 


Eagle  is  the  symbol  of  Agrigentum. 


Cock  is  the  coin  type  for  Hi 


Hare  and  dolphin  were  sacred  in  Messana.         Ass  is  associated  with  Dionysus.  Dolphin  represents  curvet 


lor  of  Messenia,  his  birthplace,  and  later  introduced 
/  types  on  the  coinage  both  of  Rhegium  and 
viessana.  This  was  the  mule-car  and  hare  design 
t  Aristotle  explains  by  saying: 
'Sicily  was  without  hares  until  the  time  of  Anaxilas 
of  Rhegium,  but  he  imported  and  preserved  them 
and  as  about  the  same  time  he  won  a  victory  at 
Olympia  with  his  mule-car,  he  placed  on  the 
Rhegium  coins  the  types  of  a  mule-car  and  a  hare." 


I  7hen  Messana  expelled  the  tyrants  in  461  b.c. 
y  (sometime  after  the  death  of  Anaxilas) ,  certain 
Jifications  of  this  type  were  made.  The  male 
rioteer  of  Anaxilas  was  replaced  by  the  city  goddess 
ssana,  and  a  dolphin  often  was  used  as  a  symbol, 
ause  the  hare  was  sacred  to  locally  worshiped  Pan, 
)se  head  sometimes  appears  above  or  below  a 
;,  the  animal  was  retained  as  a  coin  type. 
^  dog  on  the  coinage  of  Segesta  reflects  a  local 
:nd.  According  to  tradition,  the  city  was  founded  by 
stos,  son  of  the  Trojan  woman  Segesta  who  was 
)ed  by  the  river  god  Krimissos  in  the  form  of 
Dg.  Krimissos  is  shown  below  in  his  canine  form 
above  is  the  head  of  Segesta. 
joats  are  represented  on  the  coins  of  several  Greek 
es — often  on  those  of  places  whose  names  begin 
1  Aegos,  from  the  Greek  word  for  goat. 


However,  the  goat  imprint  also  is  the  standard  type  from 
Aenus  in  Thrace,  and  perhaps  was  thought  sacred 
to  Hermes,  whose  head  appears  on  the  obverse. 

Mende,  in  Macedonia,  was  famous  in  antiquity  for 
its  wine,  and  appropriately  used  on  its  coins  a  symbol 
associated  with  Dionysus.  The  ass  was  apparently  a 
favorite  mode  of  travel  for  Dionysus,  and  we  often  meet 
with  him  in  Greek  literature  riding  on  one.  Shown 
on  these  pages  is  an  early  coin  from  Mende  portraying 
an  ass  with  a  crow  perched  on  its  back,  which 
probably  derives  from  some  lost  legend  concerning 
Dionysus.  Pausanius,  the  second-century  a.d.  author, 
might  have  heard  this  now-unknown  tale  in  his 
travels  to  Nauplia,  although  his  readers  are  none  the 
wiser.  He  inquired  about  a  rock-carving  of  an  ass 
connected  in  some  symbolic  way  with  vine-growing, 
but  relates  that  the  story  was  not  worth  repeating.  Later 
issues  show  Dionysus  reclining  on  the  back  of  the  ass 
and  holding  a  wine  cup;  in  the  background  is  a  crow. 

This  discussion  has  by  no  means  been  exhaustive; 
some  animal  types  not  shown  here  are  the  horse,  camel, 
ram,  wild  boar,  goose,  hippopotamus,  frog,  crocodile, 
snake,  and  wolf,  as  well  as  some  insects.  But  the 
reproductions  on  these  pages  are  proof  enough  of  the 
interest  the  Greeks  had  in  the  natural  world, 
of  their  ingenuity  in  selecting  types  for  places 
of  origin,  of  their  artistic  skill,  and, 
above  all,  of  their  pride  in  producing  beautiful  coins. 


3-'?uV 


'i   ts 


oat  appears,  on  many  states'  coins. 


Emperors'  Dye  ol 
The  Mixtecs 


Indians  tap  a  snail's  "Tyrian  purple" 


By  Peter  Gerhard 


MiXTEC  DYER  pours  dye-bearing  fluid 
of  Purpura  patula  onto  ball  of  yarn. 


Two  Pinotepa  villagers  move  toward 
rocks  where  the  marine  snails  cling. 


NEARLY  EVERYONE  in  the  ren 
Mexican  village  of  Pinotepa 
Don  Luis,  in  the  State  of  Oaxaca, 
a  hand  in  making  a  distinctive  p 
of  feminine  clothing  known  as 
posahuanco.  Men  and  boys  grow 
cotton,  old  women  spin  it  into  thr( 
and  girls  do  the  weaving.  The  p^ 
huanco  is  a  long  wrap-around  si 
the  only  garment  worn  by  womei 
much  of  the  hot  country  of  the  Lo 
Mixteca  (the  region  of  the  Mixtecs 
Cloud  People,  so  named  by  their 
cient  Aztec  conquerors  I  in  southv 
ern  Oaxaca  and  southeastern  Guerr 
The  skirt's  alternate  horizontal  str 
of  blue,  red,  and  purple  make  a 
ticularly  pleasing  contrast  with 
brown  skin  of  graceful  Indian  g 
whose  finest  posahuancos  are  rese: 
for  their  weddings. 

The  bridal  costume  of  a  Pino 
girl  may  consist  of  a  skirt  colored 
tirely  with  natural  dyes,  together  ' 
an  embroidered  scarflike  huipil  v 
around  the  shoulders.  The  red 
comes  from  a  wood  louse  (cochine 
the  blue  from  the  indigo  plant,  anc 


le  from  a  marine  snail.  Of  these, 
ir  the  most  valuable  is  the  purple 
)f  the  snail.  While  a  skirt  colored 
aniline  purple  is  sold  for  fifty  or 

pesos  at  most,  one  with  wide 
s  of  caracal,  shellfish  purple,  can 

as  much  as  six  hundred  pesos, 
t  forty-eight  dollars, 
ellfish   dye   comes   from   several 
lies   of   marine   mollusks,  princi- 

the  carnivorous  marine  snails 
cidae  and  Thaisidae;  these  have 
nd  that  secretes  a  milky,  strong- 
ling  fluid  that  apparently  serves 
r  as  a  defense  mechanism  irritat- 
:o  predators  or  as  a  narcotic  to 
obilize  the  clams,  mussels,  rock 
acles,  and  other  bivalves  on  which 
nollusks  feed.  The  fluid  is  known 
lically  as  punicin,  and  the  dye  of 
species  of  murex  has  been  ana- 
1  as  a  derivative  of  indigo  con- 
ng  bromide.  When  exposed  to  oxy- 
and  sunlight,  the  fluid  takes  on  a 

red  or  purple  hue  that  immedi- 

becomes  nearly  ineradicable  in 
ics.  This  substance  has  been  used 
nan  since  prehistoric  times  as  a 


fast-color  agent,  and  was  particularly 
valued  in  the  ancient  world  when  little 
was  known  about  the  use  of  mordants 
in  the  fixing  of  colors. 

MAiv's  use  of  purple  shellfish  dye 
seems  to  have  first  been  men- 
tioned in  a  legendary  account  of  its 
discovery  by  Melkart,  the  Phoenician 
equivalent  of  Hercules.  He  was  stroll- 
ing along  the  shore  with  the  nymph 
Tyros  and  saw  a  dog  playing  among 
the  sea  shells  nearby.  Tyros  noticed 
that  its  mouth  was  covered  with  bril- 
liant pui-ple,  and  demanded  a  cloak  of 
the  same  color.  Melkart  collected  some 
shells  and  set  to  work  on  the  cloak,  and 
thus,  says  the  story,  began  the  industry 
that  eventually  made  Tyre  famous. 

It  seems  likely  that  in  Crete  murex 
was  used  for  dye  at  least  as  early  as 
1600  B.C.  By  about  1000  B.C.,  the 
Phoenicians  had  made  wool  and  silk 
dyeing  into  a  thriving  business.  At  the 
cities  of  Tyre  and  Sidon.  the  shells  of 
the  banded  murex  (Murex  trunculus) 
and  the  spiny  murex  (Murex  brand- 
aris)  were  broken  open  to  obtain  a  few 


drops  of  fluid  from  each  — a  wasteful 
process  that  greatly  depleted  the  spe- 
cies. The  search  for  new  supplies  of 
murex  and  other  dye  shellfish  was  at 
least  partly  responsible  for  the  distant 
voyages  of  the  Phoenicians  and  the 
founding  of  their  colonies  throughout 
the  Mediterranean. 

Under  the  Romans,  the  demand  for 
Tyrian  purple  increased.  Rome  put 
dye  factories  under  state  control.  It 
was  probably  the  scarcity  of  the  ani- 
mal, together  with  the  tedious  and 
costly  process  of  dyeing,  that  resulted 
first  in  limiting  the  use  of  purple  gar- 
ments to  the  wealthy,  then  to  the  ruling 
class,  and  finally  to  the  emperor  alone. 
With  the  Mohammedan  conquest  in 
the  seventh  century,  the  Phoenician 
dye  works  ceased  to  operate.  There- 
after the  extraction  process  was  almost 
abandoned  in  the  Mediterranean,  al- 
though as  late  as  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury the  dye  was  still  used  to  some 
degree,  particularly  to  mark  linen,  in 
western  Europe  and  the  British  Isles. 

The  habitat  of  the  dye-producing 
marine  snails  is  virtually  worldwide. 

27 


Snail  ejects  a  colorless  fluid  that 
turns  purple  when  exposed  to  light. 

Many  species  can  be  found  on  many 
shores,  exposed  on  rocks  at  low  tide. 
In  time,  any  people  who  lived  on  a 
rocky  coast  would  probably  become 
aware  of  the  animal's  coloring  proper- 
ties, but  whether  or  not  the  dye  is  used 
in  a  particular  coastal  area  depends  on 
various  factors  besides  the  animals' 
availability.  In  some  regions  the  snail 
is  so  important  as  a  source  of  food 
that  its  dye  is  not  exploited,  while  in 
others  the  people  wear  little  or  no 
clothing.  In  our  own  society,  the  in- 
troduction of  cheap  aniline  purple  in 
the  late  nineteenth  century  made  the 
extraction  of  shellfish-coloring  com- 
mercially unprofitable.  Thus,  the  use 
of  shellfish  purple  logically  is  confined 
to  isolated  coastal  areas  where  the 
snails  abound,  where  people  weave 
their  own  clothing,  and  where  for 
some  reason  the  aesthetic  or  practical 
advantages  of  shellfish-coloring  are 
appreciated  over  other  dyes. 

However,  there  may  have  been 
subtler  reasons  for  the  use  of  purple 
dye  shellfish  than  those  enumerated. 
Certain  medicinal  and  magical  attri- 
butes have  been  associated  with  the 
animal  from  earliest  times.  As  noted 
previously,  in  the  Mediterranean  area 
the  wearing  of  purple  became  a  pre- 
rogative of  royalty,  a  symbol  of  god- 
hood,  but  although  the  use  of  purple 
garments  was  forbidden  to  com- 
moners, the  aristocracy  could  not  pre- 
vent the  collecting  of  the  little  shells 
for  the  special  properties  with  which 
they  somehow  became  endowed.  For 
instance,  in  eighteenth-century  Europe 
the  purple  shellfish  was  used  for  curing 
pustules,  ulcers,  tumors,  earache,  and 

28 


Indian  woman  spins  cotton  into  yarn 
in  village  of  Pinotepa  de  Don  Luis, 

spots  before  the  eyes,  and  it  was  com- 
monly thought  that  placing  a  snail  on 
a  woman's  navel  would  help  her  be- 
come prolific.  The  association  of  pur- 
ple and  fertility  would  seem  to  be  very 
old,  and  we  may  speculate  as  to 
whether  there  is  a  link  between  this 
Old  World  belief  and  the  use  of  shell- 
fish purple  in  the  bridal  costmne  of 
today's  Mixtec  women. 

In  concluding  this  brief  historical 
survey  of  Old  World  uses  of  murex,  it 
should  be  mentioned  that  the  Chinese 
and  Japanese  also  made  use  of  shell- 
fish dye,  although  it  would  seem  that 
they  were  more  interested  in  eating 
the  snails.  Curiously,  the  wearing  of 
purple  in  tenth-century  Japan  was  sub- 
ject to  imperial  restrictions  very  simi- 
lar to  those  imposed  by  Rome. 

TODAY  there  remain  numerous  rep- 
resentatives of  the  dye-producing 
shellfish  in  America,  on  both  the  At- 
lantic and  Pacific  coasts.  At  the  time 
of  the  Spanish  Conquest  in  the  six- 


where  indllusraii   dye   industry  h 
thrived.  She  will  sell  yarn  to  dyei 

teenth  century,  the  natives  of  Ni( 
on  the  west  coast  of  Central  Ame 
were  using  shellfish  dye  on  their  c 
fabrics.  The  practice  was  probabl 
cient,  common  to  coast  dwellers 
Mexico  to  Peru.  In  Peru,  shellfisl 
has  been  identified  by  spectrop 
metric  analysis  on  cotton  mu 
wrappings  that  date  from  the  first 
tur\'  before  Christ.  The  ancient  1 
vians  applied  dye  as  a  pigmen 
woven  fabric,  making  designs  of  I 
prints  and,  sometimes,  of  dots 
Mexico  and  Central  America,  pi 
from  as  yet  undetermined  source 
pears  in  early  codices,  in  pre-Cc 
bian  pottery,  and  on  one  of  the 
few  colored  Mayan  textiles  that 
survived  to  this  day.  In  certain 
minated  codices,  purple  pigmei 
used  to  color  the  clothes  and  sk; 
deities,  priests,  and  rulers  appee 
in  the  manuscripts. 

Noticing  the  esteem  for  purple 
in  America,  the  Spanish  soon  g£ 
control  of  the  native  industry  for 


HEN  DYERS  return  to  Pinotepa.they 
11  their  hanks  of  purple  thread  to 


skilled  women  weavers  like  this  one, 
shown  above,  wearing  a  posahuanco. 


own  profit.  By  the  end  of  the  sixteenth 
century,  hilo  morado,  or  hilo  de  cara- 
cal, as  shellfish-dyed  thread  was  called, 
had  become  a  well-established,  if  mi- 
nor, article  of  commerce  in  the  Span- 
ish dominions  of  New  Spain  and  Peru. 
It  brought  a  higher  price  than  thread 
dyed  from  any  other  source,  ranging 
from  six  to  fourteen  pesos  a  pound. 
The  principal  colonial  centers  of  this 
industry  were  on  the  west  coast  — 
Oaxaca  in  Mexico,  Nicoya  in  Costa 
Rica,  and  Ecuador.  Marketing  was 
handled  only  by  the  Spaniards.  They 
first  acquired  the  fiber,  then  hired  In- 
dian dyers  who  were  paid  for  their 
labor  in  goods.  The  Spanish  then  had 
the  dyed  thread  woven  into  fabric  by 
other  Indians.  In  one  year,  over  a 
thousand  pounds  of  cotton  yarn  were 
dyed  with  shellfish  in  the  province  of 
Nicoya  alone,  and  the  Spanish  sold 
finished  sashes  at  extravagant  prices 
to  Indian  women  from  central  Mexico 
to  their  dominions  in  Peru. 

The  mollusk  most  often  exploited 
for  its  dye  in  America  was  probably 
Purpura  patula  pansa  Gould,  found  on 
rocky  sections  of  the  Pacific  coast 
from  Lower  California  to  northern 
Ecuador.  Related  species,  some  of 
which  produce  different  colored  dyes 
ranging  from  dark  blue  to  blood-red, 
were  used  to  a  lesser  degree.  From  the 
standpoint  of  conservation,  Purpura 
patula  had,  and  has,  a  great  advantage 


Purpura  patula  pansa       Murex  trunculus 


ISTRIBUTION  of  Centers  of  marine  snail  dye  extraction 
nee  1900  is  shown  on  the  map   of  Central  America. 


Pinotepa  is  about  150  miles  from  Acapulco.  The  two  shell 
insets  are  local  Purpura  and  Old  World  banded  murex. 


29 


over  Old  World  species.  The  Phoeni- 
cians found  it  necessary  to  break  open 
or  grind  up  hundreds  of  murices  in 
order  to  get  a  few  ounces  of  liquid, 
and  thousands  to  saturate  a  fleece  in 
a  vat  of  shellfish  dye.  The  larger  Ameri- 
can species,  when  slightly  irritated, 
ejects  its  fluid  in  such  quantity  that 
there  is  no  need  to  break  up  and  kill 
the  aniinal  in  order  to  apply  its  color 
to  cotton.  Thus,  the  dyeing  process  in 
America  has  always  been  totally  unlike 
the  complicated  method  employed  in 
the  Mediterranean. 

Today,  in  at  least  three  remote  sec- 
tions of  the  Central  American  Pacific 
coast,  in  Michoacan,  Oaxaca,  and 
southern  Costa  Rica,  shellfish  dye  is 
still  sought  and  used.  Until  recently 


there  were  two  groups  of  Indians  in 
Oaxaca  engaged  in  these  activities  — 
the  Chontal  and  the  Mixtec  —  but  in 
early  1962  the  caracal  industry  was 
nearly  monopolized  by  a  dozen  men 
from  a  single  Mixtec  village,  Pinotepa 
de  Don  Luis.  These  twelve  continue  to 
go  down  to  the  coast  in  the  dry  season, 
between  November  and  March,  each 
man  carrying  about  fifteen  pounds  of 
doubled  cotton  thread  in  small  hanks 
bought  from  the  old  women  spinners. 
Their  favorite  working  area  is  the 
rocky  shore  between  Puerto  Angel  and 
Barra  de  Copalita  (map,  page  29), 
which  is  broken  by  many  sheltered 
coves  where  the  surf  is  relatively  light 
and  wher3  there  is  a  perfect  breeding 
ground  for  the  Purpura.  The  men  usu- 


ally travel  in  groups  of  two  to  four 
set  up  camp  on  the  beach. 

DYEING  is  done  for  a  few  h( 
daily,  at  low  tide,  when  the  si 
fish  are  helplessly  exposed.  It  is 
lieved  that  better  results  are  obtai 
in  the  morning  ebb,  particularly  i 
the  full  moon.  Each  man  carries 
or  three  dozen  hanks  slung  over 
shoulder,  and  a  pointed  stick  to 
the  mollusks  loose.  Holding  a  skei 
cotton  in  one  hand,  the  dyer  cli 
down  to  the  shady  undersides  of 
rocks  at  water  level  until  he  fine 
colony  of  Purpura.  He  dips  the  co 
in  the  sea,  then  pries  off  a  snail 
blows  on  the  operculum,  the  doo 
the  animal's  shell.  This  causes  the  s 


ill  1 1    iiBiw       I  I  i"i||i|»i>iL'J*'''MH)iu!Ji;llWMili 


ithdraw  deeper  into  its  shell,  and 
e  same  time  a  frothy  juice  wells 
,nd  fills  the  shell's  mouth.  This 
d  is  poured  and  dabbed  directly 
the  cotton  threads.  The  fluid, 
h  is  colorless  at  first,  soon 
ges  in  sunlight  to  a  dirty  yellow, 
to  a  brilliant  green,  and  finally 
rich,  if  somewhat  uneven,  purple, 
n  all  its  liquid  is  gone,  the  dyer 
ully  places  the  animal  back  on  the 
so  that  it  can  be  "milked"  again 
e  next  moon.  The  process  is  re- 
;d  until  all  the  skeins  are  satu- 
I  \\ith  dye,  after  which  they  are 
1  dipped  into  the  sea  in  the  belief 
salt  water  acts  as  a  mordant, 
hen  they  return  to  the  camp,  the 
3  spread  out  the  treated  skeins  in 


the  sun,  where  they  are  left  all  after- 
noon and  overnight,  on  the  theory  that 
sunlight  and  dew  act  to  make  the  color 
more  even.  Shellfish-dyed  thread  has 
a  pronounced  odor  reminiscent  of  gar- 
lic, which  it  retains  until  the  cotton  has 
been  washed  several  times.  After  two 
months  on  the  coast  —  slowly  moving 
from  one  bay  to  the  next,  then  retrac- 
ing their  steps  during  the  following 
moon  —  the  men  shoulder  their  ill- 
smelling  burdens  and  trudge  some  150 
miles  back  to  Pinotepa.  There  they  sell 
the  purple  hanks  to  women  weavers 
for  thirty  to  forty  pesos  a  pound. 
Prices  are  determined  by  the  relative 
evenness  of  the  dye.  A  good  dyer  can 


earn  six  hundred  pesos  in  a  season,  a 
small  fortune  in  that  part  of  Mexico. 

With  the  dyed  threads  in  hand,  a 
Pinotepa  girl  will  weave  a  posahuanco 
four  yards  long  in  two  or  three  weeks. 
After  the  best  posahuancos  de  caracal 
have  been  set  aside  for  use  in  the  vil- 
lage as  wedding  dresses,  many  others 
are  sold  in  nearby  villages.  A  few,  later 
remodeled,  are  acquired  by  buyers  for 
the  tourist  trade. 

Recently  a  jeep  trail  was  opened  to 
remote  Pinotepa  de  Don  Luis.  It  is 
possible  that  the  thrust  of  progress 
may  soon  obliterate  old  Mixtec  cus- 
toms and  write  an  end  to  the  ancient 
caracol  industry  of  the  Lower  Mixteca. 


End  product  of  the  villagers'  collective  effort  is  shown  in 
the  delicately  woven  designs  that  appear  above  and  below. 


Night  Fighters 
in  a  Sonic  Duel 

:ent  research  confirms  moth's  use  of  hearing  to  evade  bats 

By  Kenneth  D.  Roeder 


JTHS  ARE  ONE  of  the  main  food 

sources  of  certain  families  of 
They  are  attacked  on  the  wing 
1  darkness  in  a  contest  in  which 
and  maneuverability  are  the  pre- 

qualities.  That  this  nocturnal 
;"  has  probably  continued  for 
millions  of  years  tells  us  that  it 
alanced  contest:  all  bats  locate 
ipture  some  moths;  some  moths 

and  evade  all  bats, 
ile  in  flight,  insectivorous  bats 
1  series  of  brief  chirps  pitched 
I  octaves  above  the  highest  note 
e  to  human  ears.  Each  chirp  is 
rasonic  tone  that  lasts  only  a  few 
!conds.  In  many  bats  the  tone 

in  pitch  by  about  one  octave 
;  this  brief  interval,  so  that  if  it 
ludible  to  us  it  would  sound  very 
like  the  chirp  of  a  bird.  A  bat 

these  chirps  about  ten  times  per 
1  when  cruising  in  the  open;  if 
ounters  any  object  in  its  flight 
ts  chirp  rate  may  go  higher  than 
er  second. 

Harvard  the  precise  and  ingen- 
tperiments  of  Donald  Griffin  and 
iidents  have  shown  that  echoes 
ing  to  the  ears  of  the  bat  inform 
stail  about  the  size,  distance,  and 
)n  of  objects  in  its  flying  path, 
'orld  of  a  flying  bat  must  be  a 
of  single  and  multiple  echoes  of 
tlety  that  we  still  do  not  com- 
'    appreciate.    If   a   man    walks 

opening  and  closing  his  eyes 
y,  the  visual  world  becomes  a 

of  still  pictures  interspersed 
ntervals  of  darkness.  However, 
:  bat's  world  discontinuities  in 
)tion  are  far  more  complicated 


\D  MOTH  "dogfight"  is  illumined 
hing  lamp.  Both  enter  from  right; 
escapes  in  looping  dive.  Tangled, 
racks  are  made  by  insect  swarm. 


because  sound  travels  extremely  slowly 
compared  with  light.  For  a  bat,  the 
spatial  dimensions  of  the  visual  world 
are  temporal  dimensions  in  an  acoustic 
world;  a  flying  moth  becomes  an  in- 
termittent, fluctuating  point  in  time. 

About  100  years  ago  it  was  sus- 
pected that  moths  could  evade  bats 
through  a  sense  of  hearing.  The  sonar 
system  used  by  bats  was  then  un- 
known, so  this  was  a  truly  inspired 
guess.  Since  then,  studies  of  the  anat- 
omy of  the  tympanic  organ  in  various 
species  and  families  of  the  Lepidop- 
tera,  and  observed  changes  in  the  be- 
havior of  moths  in  the  presence  of 
man-made  ultrasound,  have  confirmed 
the  suspicion  that  members  of  certain 
moth  families  can  hear  the  chirps  of 
echo-locating  bats.  Several  families  of 
moths  possess  tympanic  organs,  in- 
cluding the  largest  families  of 
common,  medium-sized  moths  —  the 
Arctiidae,  Phalaenidae,  and  Geomet- 
ridae.  It  seems  probable  that  tympanic 
organs  have  evolved  more  than  once. 

DR.  Asher  E.  Treat,  of  The  City 
College  of  New  York  (Natural 
History,  August-September,  1958), 
first  introduced  me  to  the  moth  ear, 
and  we  worked  together  on  tympanic 
nerve  experiments.  Field  experiments 
with  free-flying  bats  were  carried  out 
at  his  summer  home  in  Tyringham, 
Massachusetts.  Without  his  enthusi- 
asm and  skill  in  dissection  we  prob- 
ably never  would  have  tried  to  discover 
the  defensive  role  of  moth  hearing. 

The  ear  of  a  moth  may  seem  to  be 
a  somewhat  esoteric  subject  for  a  study 
of  the  form  in  which  environmental 
information  is  coded  in  nerve  im- 
pulses. But  in  some  families  of  moths, 
notably  the  owlet  moths,  or  Noctuidae, 
the  tympanic  organ  contains  only  two 
acoustic  sense  cells.  Electrodes  placed 
on  the  tympanic  nerve  containing  the 


axons  (impulse  conductors)  from 
these  sense  cells  can  intercept  all  of 
the  impulse-coded  information  this 
sense  organ  is  capable  of  delivering  to 
the  moth's  central  nervous  system. 

THE  ear  of  noctuid  moths  is  found 
on  the  thorax  near  the  "waist," 
where  thorax  and  abdomen  join.  A 
thin  eardrum,  or  tympanic  membrane, 
is  directed  obliquely  backward  and 
outward  into  a  cleft  formed  by  flaps 
of  cuticle,  and  is  normally  covered  by 
a  thin  layer  of  fine  scales.  Viewed  from 
outside,  the  tympanic  membrane  often 
shows  interference  colors,  indicating 
its  extreme  thinness. 

Dissection  under  a  microscope 
shows  that  the  tympanic  membrane 
forms  the  outer  wall  of  the  tympanic 
cavity,  which  is  an  air-filled,  expanded 
portion  of  the  moth's  respiratory  sys- 
tem. A  fine  tissue  strand,  the  acoustic 
sensillum,  is  suspended  across  this 
cavity,  and  is  supported  near  its  mid- 
point by  a  minute  ligament  attached 
to  another  part  of  the  skeleton  (dia- 
gram, page  35).  The  sensillum  con- 
tains the  pair  of  acoustic  receptors, 
or  sense  cells.  Each  acoustic  sense  cell 
{A  cell)  bears  a  fine  distal  process 
ending  in  the  scolops,  a  minute  re- 
fractile  structure  that  extends  toward 
the  tympanic  membrane.  From  the 
central  end  of  each  A  cell  an  axon 
(impulse  conductor)  passes  within  the 
sensillum  toward  the  skeletal  support; 
this  pair  of  A  axons  continues  in  the 
tympanic  nerve  to  the  thoracic  gan- 
glia. Passing  the  skeletal  support,  the 
A  axons  lie  close  to  a  large,  pear- 
shaped  cell  {B  cell)  that  may  have 
numerous  fine,  finger-like  extensions 
reaching  into  the  surrounding  mem- 
branes. The  B  cell  gives  rise  to  a  larger 
axon  that  runs  parallel  to  the  A  axons 
in  the  tympanic  nerve,  eventually 
reaching  the  central  nervous  system. 

33 


External  opemm;  of  right  ear  in  moth  Agrotis  ypsilon  is 
indicated  by  arrow.  Moth  is  actually  %  inch  long.  Close-up 


of  tympanic  membrane  seen  through  opening  is  showi 
opposite  page  at  top;  sketch  is  of  moth's  tympanic  or 


An  experiment  will  usually  begin 
with  the  capture  of  a  noctuid  moth— 
perhaps  one  of  the  common  army 
w  orms  whose  larvae  do  so  much  crop 
damage  or,  better  still,  a  larger  red 
underwing.  Under  temporary  anes- 
thesia, the  moth  is  decapitated  and 
firmly  restrained  with  small  strips  of 
Plasticine  on  the  stage  of  a  dissecting 
microscope.  It  is  kept  in  such  a  posi- 
tion that  the  tympanic  openings  have 
an  unrestricted  sound  field.  The  scales 
on  the  thorax  are  removed  with  a  small 
paintbrush,  and  the  dorsal  part  of  the 
thorax,  including  one  of  the  main  sets 
(horizontal)  of  flight  muscles,  is  dis- 
sected away.  The  tympanic  nerves  run 
forward  on  either  side  of  the  cavity 
thus  revealed,  passing  from  the  tym- 
panic organs  at  the  back  of  the  thorax 
to  the  large  pterothoracic  ganglion 
that  supplies  all  organs  of  the  thorax. 

T.-iERE  are  several  nerves  in  this  re- 
gion, all  small  and  transparent. 
However,  the  task  of  hooking  a  tym- 
panic nerve  on  an  electrode  is  not  as 
hard  as  it  might  seem.  One  electrode  is 
a  silver  wire  inserted  anywhere  in  the 
tissues  of  the  moth.  The  other  is  a  sil- 
ver wire  tapered  to  a  fine  point  that  is 
bent  into  a  minute  hook.  This  active 
electrode  is  manipulated  mechanically. 
Both  electrodes  are  connected  to  an 
amplifier  and  cathode-ray  oscilloscope, 


and  also  to  a  loud-speaker.  Since  nerve 
impulses  cause  minute  brief  current 
pulses  at  the  electrode,  they  can,  when 
amplified,  be  made  audible  as  clicks 
in  the  loud-speaker.  When  the  tym- 
panic nerve  has  been  hooked,  the  loud- 
speaker replies  to  ultrasonic  sounds 
with  a  rapid  sequence  of  clicks.  These 
same  nerve  impulses  can  be  photo- 
graphed \vhen  displayed  as  spike  po- 
tentials on  the  screen  of  the  cathode- 
ray  oscilloscope. 

When  the  silence  is  broken  by  con- 
tinuous, pure  ultrasonic  tones  of  var- 
ious intensities,  the  typical  response  of 
the  A  cells  is  shown  on  page  37  (top) . 
At  the  onset  of  a  very  faint  tone  (1), 
one  A  cell  generates  a  small  burst  of 
spikes  that  immediately  tails  off  into 
an  irregular  sequence.  At  a  higher  in- 
tensity (2),  the  initial  frequency  of 
A  spikes  is  greater,  and  a  regular  dis- 
charge continues  during  the  tone, 
though  with  declining  frequency.  At 
a  still  greater  sound  intensity  (3  ) ,  the 
^-spike  frequency  increases  again,  but 
it  still  declines  as  the  tone  continues 
and  occasional  spikes  appear  to  have 
double  peaks.  At  the  highest  sound  in- 
tensity used  in  this  experiment  (4), 
the  nerve  response  becomes  quite  com- 
plex—there are  many  spikes,  double 
peaks,  and  spikes  that  appear  to  have 
double  the  normal  height.  These  extra 
spikes  are  generated  by  the  less  sensi- 


tive A  cell.  In  all  the  records  the  n 
larger  spike  potential  of  the  B  cell 
pears  infrequently  but  at  regulai 
tervals,  and  is  completely  unaffe 
by  the  ultrasonic  stimulation.  This 
periment  demonstrates,  for  one, 
the  intensity,  or  loudness,  of  the 
is  encoded  in  the  tympanic  nerve 
charge  as  spike  frequency  in  th 
axons.  The  evidence  also  shows 
faint  sounds  are  detected  only  by 
A  cell,  while  louder  sounds  are 
tected  by  both. 

IN  the  top  figure  on  page  37  it  ca: 
seen  that  a  decrease  in  spike 
quency  takes  place  as  the  sound  i 
tinues.  This  decrease  in  frequency  ^ 
the  passage  of  time  must  mean  thai 
sound  is  represented  to  the  moth  as 
coming  progressively  fainter,  t 
though  it  has  remained  physically 
changed.  Such  a  progressive  losi 
sensitivity  is  known  as  sensory  a( 
tation  and  is  actually  widespread 
familiar  in  everyday  experience 
adaptation  did  not  occur  in  most 
ceptors  registering  changes  in 
outer  world,  the  impact  of  our 
roundings  often  w  ould  be  unbeara 
The  brilliance  of  a  lighted  room 
tered  after  dark  would  remain  bl 
ing,  and  the  contact  of  our  clot! 
would  irritate  our  skin  the 
through.  The  speed  with  which  re^ 


34 


TM 

mpanic                     BAx 

B  nerve  fiber 

■nembrane                  TN 

tympanic  nerve 

snsillum                     TAS 

tympanic  air  sac 

conidins  A  cells)       SP 

skeletal  support 

celt                                L 

ligament 

dapt  varies  greatly :  the  moth's  A 
adapt  relatively  rapidly;  other 
cells  adapt  slowly,  if  at  all. 
inother  experiment  an  ultrasonic 
was  generated  artificially  at  reg- 
ntervals  (chart,  page  38) .  It  was 
r  to  a  bat  chirp  except  that  it 
1  the  frequency  modulation  of  the 
il  sound.  A  microphone  was 
1  near  the  tympanic  organ  of  the 
The  intensity  of  the  sound  pulse 
djusted  until  it  just  failed  to  pro- 
i  response  in  the  A  cells.  The  in- 
f  was  then  increased  in  measured 
of  5  decibels;  the  microphone 
erve  response  were  recorded  at 
itep.  Part  of  the  findings  were  al- 
familiar,  but  there  were  two  ad- 
al  ways  in  which  the  A  response 
ed  as  a  result  of  increased  inten- 
Uthough  each  sound  lasted  only 
liseconds,  at  the  higher  intensi- 
le  spike  discharge  continued  for 
d  milliseconds  after  the  sound 
eased.  It  was  as  if  the  more  in- 
sounds  caused  in  the  sense  cells 
overaccumulation  that  then  con- 
1  to  generate  impulses  after  the 
I  itself  had  stopped.  Second,  the 
ise  time  (the  interval  between  the 
lus  and  the  first  A  spike)  became 
;r  as  sound  intensity  increased, 
is  important  to  note  that  the 
;-mentioned  ^-cell  properties  are 
ir  to  those  reported  many  times 


previously  in  many  animals  by  many 
observers.  Heretofore,  however,  such 
observations  have  dealt  mainly  with 
single  units  that  were  isolated  for  ex- 
perimentation from  a  complex  sense 
organ  containing  many  thousands  of 
receptors.  The  behavior  of  the  A  cells 
is  significant  because  the  cell  repre- 
sents the  whole  sense  organ,  not  merely 
a  small  part  of  it.  Therefore,  the  A  cell 
defines  the  total  sensory  input  being 
communicated  to  the  effector  mechan- 
isms for  the  evasion  of  bats. 

Other  experiments  with  artificial 
sounds  showed  that  the  tympanic  or- 
gan can  detect  sounds  ranging  from  3 
kc/s  (kilocycles  per  second)  to  as  high 
as  150  kc/s.  The  upper  limit  of  human 
hearing  is  15  to  20  kc/s.  Even  with 
this  great  range,  moths  appear  to  be 
tone  deaf.  They  seem  to  have  no 
mechanism  for  discriminating  one  fre- 
quency or  pitch  from  another;  the 
tympanic  organ  is  mainly  concerned 
with  discriminating  differences  in 
sound  intensity,  or  loudness.  With  only 
one  ear,  a  moth  could  measure  loud- 
ness from  the  /4 -spike  frequency,  and 
from  activity  in  one  versus  both  A 
axons.  By  using  both  ears,  the  moth 
could  "compare"  two  different  hear- 
ings of  the  same  sound,  which  might 
register  with  more  intensity  on  one 
side  than  on  the  other. 

These  experiments  with  artificial 
sounds  have  introduced  the  elements 
of  vocabulary  and  grammar  of  the  neu- 
ral language.  Fortunately,  the  tym- 
panic organ  communicates  with  the 
moth's  central  nervous  system  only  in 
the  simplest  form  of  this  language,  so 
that  even  after  this  elementary  instruc- 
tion it  is  possible  to  interpret  some 
biologically  significant  messages. 
These  messages  are  the  chirps  made  by 
bats  in  their  natural  occupations. 

OUR  first  record  of  a  tympanic  nerve 
response  to  the  chirps  of  a  flying 
bat  was  obtained  in  the  laboratory,  and 
almost  by  accident.  Experiments  with 
artificial  sounds  were  in  progress  dur- 
ing January,  a  time  of  year  when  New 
England  bats  are  deep  in  hibernation. 
A  student  making  a  week-end  explora- 
tion of  a  New  Hampshire  cave  found 
a  hibernating  bat  and  brought  it  back 
to  the  laboratory,  where  it  was  placed 
in  a  refrigerator  and  almost  forgotten 
for  several  weeks.  When  removed  and 
held  in  the  hand  of  an  experimenter 
near  a  tympanic-nerve  preparation  and 
microphone,  the  bat  recovered  suffi- 
ciently to  deliver  a  few  angry  and  au- 


dible shrieks,  and  an  energetic  bite. 
This  last  naturally  brought  about  its 
release,  whereupon  it  flew  "silently" 
around  the  laboratory  close  to  the  ceil- 
ing. Throughout  the  flight  the  pre- 
pared tympanic  nerve  delivered  a 
rapid  series  of  short  bursts  of  A 
spikes.  When  the  bat  flew  sufficiently 
close  to  the  experimental  table,  the  mi- 
crophone joined  in  with  its  electronic 
version  of  the  ultrasonic  chirps. 

This  impromptu  experiment  showed 
not  only  that  the  tympanic  organ  re- 
sponds as  expected  but  also  that  it  is 
highly  sensitive  to  bat  cries.  One  or 
both  of  the  A  fibers  continued  to  re- 
spond at  times  when  the  bat  was  too 
distant  for  its  cries  to  register  in  the 
microphone.  The  moth  could  hear  the 
bat  at  all  points  within  the  laboratory, 
and  we  were  most  eager  to  go  beyond 
its  walls  and  into  the  field. 

This  turned  out  to  be  somewhat 
more  than  the  carefree  jaunt  it  sug- 
gests. The  next  summer  a  load  of  about 
300  pounds  of  electronic  gear  was 
hauled  up  a  grassy  hillside  in  the  Berk- 
shires  of  Massachusetts,  and  re- 
assembled in  a  spot  where  bats  were 
known  to  feed.  At  dusk  a  moth  was 
captured  at  a  nearby  light  and 
mounted  so  that  one  tympanic  organ 
had  an  unrestricted  sound  field.  Its 
tympanic  nerve  was  hooked  on  an  elec- 
trode and  the  A  and  B  fiber  activity 
was  followed  continuously  on  an  os- 
cilloscope and  loud-speaker.  Spikes 
were  also  recorded  on  magnetic  tape. 

The  high  excitement  of  listening  for 
the  first  time  to  night  sounds  through 
a  moth's  ear  was  tempered  by  the 
thought  that  we  had  no  independent 
evidence  that  they  were  being  caused 
by  bats.  They  were  inaudible  to  us,  and 
in  this  first  field  experiment  we  had 
with  us  no  ultrasonic  microphone  to 
provide  a  separate  record.  A  flood- 
light was  rigged  so  that  we  were  able 
to  observe  bats  flying  within  20  feet 
of  the  preparation.  It  then  became 
clear  that  the  range  of  the  moth  ear 
was  much  greater  than  that  of  the  light, 
so  that  the  appearance  of  a  bat  in  the 
lighted  area  could  often  be  predicted 
by  listening  to  the  rising  pitch  of  suc- 
cessive A  bursts  from  the  moth  ear. 

It  was  difficult  to  establish  the  range 
of  this  biological  bat  detector,  since 
it  depended  upon  the  species  of  moth 
and  bat  as  well  as  the  relative  angle  of 
their  flight  paths.  In  another  experi- 
ment a  moth  preparation  was  set  up  at 
dusk  about  200  yards  distant  from  an 
old  barn  where  bats  roosted.  It  was 


35 


J;^MUIiuL. 


Sound  audible  to  a  human  ear  affects 
moth  ear  and  a  microphone  equally,  as 


known  that  at  this  hour  the  bats 
usually  left  the  roost  singly  and  flew 
on  a  straight  path  directly  over  the 
site  chosen  for  the  preparation  to  other 
feeding  grounds.  An  observer,  wearing 
headphones  connected  by  a  long  cord 
with  the  amplifier,  walked  "upstream" 
toward  the  barn  while  listening  for  the 
first  signs  of  regular  A  bursts  from  the 
moth  ear  behind  him  and  watching 
the  bats  pass  overhead.  The  maximum 
distance  for  A  responses  lay  between 
100  and  120  feet  from  the  moth  ear 
while  the  bats  were  flying  toward  the 
ear  at  an  altitude  of  about  20  feet. 

All  information  heard  by  the  ob- 
server came  from  one  ear  of  a  moth. 
What  could  be  learned  by  recording 
from  both  ears  simultaneously?  This 
project  had  to  wait  until  the  following 
summer,  for  it  was  necessary  to  learn 
how  to  insert  and  manipulate  two 
hooked  electrodes  within  the  small 
space  of  a  moth"s  thorax,  and  to  dupli- 
cate most  of  the  amplifying  and  record- 
ing equipment.  The  activity  in  right 
and  left  tympanic  nerves  was  recorded 
on  stereo  magnetic  tape  and  was  sub- 
sequently photographed  by  replaying 
the  tape  into  a  dual-beam  oscilloscope. 

A  binaural  nerve  response  to  a  fly- 
ing bat  is  on  page  .37  {bottom).  The 
bat's  approach  is  initially  signaled, 
in  the  upper  trace  in  the  first  panel, 
by  a  group  of  spikes  (the  first  is  a  B 
spike,  the  rest  A  spikes ) .  The  second 
ear  (lower  trace,  same  panel)  does  not 
detect  the  bat  until  its  next  chirp, 
when  the  number  of  spikes  indicates 
less  intensity  compared  with  spikes 
displayed  by  the  first  ear.  This  difEer- 
ence   persists   in   the  third   response, 


shown  at  left.  Ultrasound  has  effect 
mainly  on  moth  ear,  as  shown  top  right. 

but  by  the  fourth  (all  of  which  is 
shown)  there  is  little  difference  be- 
tween upper  and  lower  traces.  This 
suggests  a  bat  approaching  from  one 
side,  then  moving  directly  overhead. 

It  is  interesting  to  listen  through 
stereo  headphones  to  the  taped  re- 
sponses of  right  and  left  tympanic 
nerves  to  a  moving  bat.  The  human  ear 
interprets  these  spike  differentials  as 
giving  direction  to  the  source,  and  one 
can  almost  imagine  oneself  inside  the 
nervous  system  of  the  moth  as  the 
source  of  clicks  appears  to  move  from 
one  side  to  the  other.  This  illusion  of 
direction  is  not  continuous,  and  much 
of  the  time  the  source  of  sound  seems 
to  be  in  the  center  of  one's  head.  The 
explanation  is  that  the  spike  differen- 
tial is  greatest  at  low  chirp  intensities, 
becoming  less  and  disappearing  above 
a  certain  loudness.  This  saturation  of 
the  acoustic  response  above  certain 
sound  intensities  indicates  that  a  moth 
would  be  better  able  to  determine  the 
bearing  when  a  bat  was  near  the  moth's 
maximum  range  of  hearing. 

A  differential  response  would  be 
possible  only  if  the  ears  of  a  moth 
were  somewhat  directional,  respond- 
ing better  to  sounds  on  one  side  of  the 
body  than  on  the  other.  A  polar  graph 
showed  that,  while  there  was  little  dif- 
ference fore  and  aft,  a  click  on  the  near 
side  of  the  moth  was  heard  at  about 
twice  the  distance  of  a  symmetrically 
placed  click  on  the  far  side. 

This  information  extracted  from 
the  tympanic-nerve  responses  makes 
possible  a  crude  prediction  of  the 
moth's    behavior    upon    detecting    an 


echo-locating  bat.  If  it  is  assumed 
a  bat  is  first  detected  at  a  distanc 
100  feet  and  then  approaches  o 
straight  path  at  right  angles  to 
moth's  course  while  making  chirp 
constant  intensity,  the  differei 
tympanic  response  would  decline  f 
a  maximum  at  about  100  feet  to  : 
at  15  to  20  feet.  Within  this  range 
moth  would  have  sufficient  infor 
tion  to  enable  it  to  turn  away  from 
direct  path  of  the  oncoming  bat.  j 
range  of  less  than  15  to  20  feet 
neural  information  reaching 
moth's  central  nervous  system  w( 
make  possible  only  non-directii 
responses  vis-a-vis  the  bat's  jsositioi 

This  is  as  far  as  we  can  go  at  pre 
in  assessing  the  acoustic  informa 
coded  and  transmitted  to  the  mc 
central  nervous  system  by  the  A  c 
Until  we  know  more  about  the  a 
omy  and  neurophysiology  of 
moth's  pterothoracic  ganglion 
brain  we  must  redirect  our  curioi 

It  is  easy  to  show  that  some  mi 
respond  to  high-pitched  sounds,  s 
as  the  squeak  of  a  glass  stopper, 
jingle  of  keys  or  coins,  the  high  n 
of  a  violin  or  flute,  and  a  varietj 
rustling  and  hissing  sounds.  But  : 
somewhat  harder  to  describe  j  ust  v 
they  do.  Some  fold  their  wings 
fall  to  the  ground;  the  flight  of  otl 
becomes  faster  and  more  erratic;  s 
fluttering  individuals  become  mot 
less ;  inactive  moths  may  take  fligh 

Similar  reactions  can  readily  be 
served  in  moths  being  chased  by  h 
As  a  bat  comes  "silently"  out  of 
darkness  the  flight  pattern  of  the  ir 
suddenly  changes  to  any  one  of  a  n 
her  of  maneuvers— dives,  rolls, 
peated  tight  turns,  or  rapid  flight 
above  the  ground.  The  bat  may  m 
a  single  pass,  or  turn  at  once  to  m 
another,  or  it  may  attempt  to  fol 
the  moth  through  its  gyrations.  I 
a  dizzy  "dogfight."  Extrapolation  i 
string  of  acoustic  dots  in  time  is  pi 
against  unpredictability;  power 
speed  against  ziianeuverability.  The 
tails  may  be  difficult  to  discern,  but 
outcome  is  seen  either  as  a  bat  ar 
moth  going  their  separate  ways,  o 
a  departing  bat  and  moth  wings  : 
tering  slowly  to  the  ground. 

We  made  an  attempt  to  find  out 
extent  to  which  the  odds  in  this  ( 
test  are  influenced  by  the  avoids 
tactics  of  the  moth.  We  observed 
encounters  between  bats  and  m( 
and  scored  for  the  presence  or 
sence  of  a  sudden  change  in  the  fl 


36 


in  of  the  moth  as  the  bat  ap- 
;hed,  and  for  the  outcome— cap- 
)r  escape  of  the  moth.  Analysis  of 
ooled  data  showed  that  for  every 
reacting  moths  that  survived  an 
k,  only  60  non-reacting  moths 
ved.  Thus  selective  advantage  of 
we  action  was  considerable. 

:h  procedures  focus  upon  only 
)ne  instant  in  the  life  of  a  moth, 
ugh  certainly  it  is  an  important 
It  is  possible  that  at  other  times 
)ossession  of  tympanic  organs 
vasive  mechanisms  weigh  differ- 
even  negatively,  in  survival,  so 
measure  does  not  describe  the 
ill  survival  advantage  of  posses- 
tympanic  organs.  Nevertheless, 
lid  account  for  their  evolution, 
passing,  it  is  interesting  to  note 
ome  species  of  moths  are  prone  to 
ation  of  the  tympanic  cavity  by 
These  parasites  have  been  found 
5st  only  one  ear,  however,  and  by 
ehavior  pattern  appear  to  insure 
3wn  survival. 

s  not  easy  to  tell  at  what  instant 
sing  bat  first  detects  a  medium- 
moth  and  turns  to  the  attack.  It 
unlikely  that  the  bat  makes 
tic  contact  at  distances  greater 
.0  to  15  feet.  The  tympanic-nerve 
s  showed  that  within  this  range 
erage  bat  cry  is  capable  of  satur- 
both  ears  of  a  moth,  so  that  the 
can  make  only  non-directional 
ises  in  attempting  escape, 
the  tympanic  organs  can  detect 
cry  at  distances  of  100  feet  and 
ps  even  more.  At  this  range  there 
arked  difference  in  the  nerve  re- 
3S  of  the  right  and  left  ears  when 
;aring  of  the  bat  is  to  the  right 
;  of  the  moth.  There  would  seem 
little  survival  advantage  to  the 
in  making  erratic  turns  and 
when  the  predator  was  still  so 
t,  although  they  could  be  of 
at  close  quarters  when  the  small 
i\  moment  and  short  turning 
;  of  the  moth  is  pitted  against 
of  the  more  massive  bat. 
:  complexity  of  the  natural  situa- 
n  which  both  sound  source  and 
or  are  continually  on  the  move, 
iduced  by  replacing  the  bat  with 
tionary  multidirectional  trans- 
of  ultrasonic  pulses.  The  trans- 
was  mounted  on  a  16-foot  mast 
edge  of  a  lawn  surrounded  by 
'egetation.  The  observer  was 
25  feet  behind  a  floodlight  that 
nated  a  broad  area  of  garden  and 


liiiiiiiijiiiiiii^ 


'U|ji;ui;i;yi 


Moth  ear  responses  to  electronically 
generated  tone  increasing  in  intensity. 


from  1  to  4,  are  shown  above.  Pictures 
of  responses  to  real  bat  appear  below. 


hH/rHI — l^--+~irt-ti 


Electronic  pictures  of  the  way  a  moth 
using  two  ears  hears  a  bat  approaching 


and  then  moving  directly  overhead  are 
reproduced  in  the  series  shown  below. 


^tf-*--V\--'*''**^ 


M^hAJ^— J' 


37 


■■iwiniiimi 


Mili|ililiiMMRNMiMii^H 


ilVMIHilM 


III 
I" 

II 

IMI 

ummmsmz 

II " 

38 


silhouetted  the  transmitter  on  its  mast 
against  the  night  sky.  This  view  of  the 
transmitter  was  also  framed  in  the  field 
of  a  35  mm.  still  camera. 

THE  observer  had  at  hand  two 
switches,  one  controlling  the  ultra- 
sonic signal  and  the  other  the  camera 
shutter.  When  a  moth  was  seen  to  move 
into  the  field  of  the  camera  the  shut- 
ter was  opened  and  the  moth's  track 
was  recorded  as  a  continuous  line 
against  the  black  background  of  the 
sky.  Undulations  on  the  line  were 
caused  by  the  moth's  wing  movements. 
After  a  stretch  of  flight  track  had  been 
recorded  the  switch  controlling  the  ul- 
trasonic signal  was  depressed.  This  re- 
leased a  train  of  ultrasonic  pulses,  com- 
monly at  a  rate  of  30  per  second,  each 
5-millisecond  pulse  having  a  frequency 
of  70  kc/s.  The  pulses  were  "shaped" 
as  much  as  possible  to  resemble  bat 
cries,  but  they  lacked  the  frequency 
modulation  of  the  bat's  natural  sound. 

By  the  above  means,  the  moth's 
flight  path  was  recorded  before  and 
during  ultrasonic  stimulation.  The  on- 
set of  the  pulse  sequence  is  shown  by 
an  extra-bright  spot  on  each  photo- 
graphic record,  while  the  timing  of 
events  is  indicated  by  gaps  repeated 
at  quarter-second  intervals  throughout 
the  track  ( photographs,  oppositepage) . 

The  worst  defect  of  the  method  is 
the  large  amount  of  light  needed  to 
secure  a  satisfactory  photographic  re- 
cord. Light,  we  were  afraid,  might 
have  altered  the  responsiveness  of 
moths  to  a  signal  they  normally  en- 
counter only  in  darkness.  However, 
visual  observers  working  with  illumi- 
nations too  low  for  photography,  and 
with  yellow  and  red  light  to  which 
moths  are  much  less  sensitive  than  is 
man,  reported  no  substantial  differ- 
ences in  moth  behavior.  Another  prob- 
lem lay  in  the  difiiculty  of  identifying 
the  moth  species  producing  the  tracks. 
Many  flew  away  before  they  could  be 
captured,  while  others  dived  into  the 
vegetation  and  could  not  be  found. 

Moths  that  reacted  within  10  feet  or 
so  of  the  transmitter  showed  a  bewil- 
dering variety  of  reactions,  usually 
ending  in  a  dive,  irrespective  of 
whether  the  moth  was  above,  below,  or 
to  one  side  of  the  transmitter  at  the 


Volume  increases  (decibels  indicated) 
cause  augmented  neural  activity  of  the 
moth  ear,  as  shown  by  spikes.  The  bars 
are    microphone's   parallel    responses. 


time  of  the  stimulus.  The  simplesi 
action  seemed  to  be  an  abrupt  ( 
with  wings  closed.  Moths  reacting 
greater  distance  from  the  transm 
showed  a  distinct  tendency  to  i 
away  from  the  source  of  ultraso 
and  continue  in  level,  although  0 
accelerated,  flight. 

Thus,  the  prediction  of  the  ne 
physiological  observations  seems  t 
confirmed  by  behavioral  observati 
high  sound  intensities  produce  1 
directional  responses;  low  sounc 
tensities  result  in  directional 
spouses.  The  great  sensitivity  of 
tympanic  organs  must  provide  m 
with  an  "early-warning"  signal 
prompts  them  to  move  out  of  the 
eral  area  in  which  bats  are  feeding 
the  number  of  impulses  in  the 
panic-nerve  transmission  increas( 
the  saturation  point  the  message 
be  thought  to  change  to  the  "I 
cover  "  signal,  at  which  point  the  m 
dive  for  the  ground. 

I  IKE  most  biological  observat 
J  this  one  raises  a  dozen  quesi 
for  every  one  it  answers.  Most  o 
moths  making  these  tracks  cert: 
belonged  to  the  families  Arcti 
Phalaenidae,  and  Geometridae. 
do  the  several  families  lacking 
panic  organs,  some  containing 
mon  and  successful  species,  su: 
without  ability  to  hear  bat  cries; 
cently,  two  British  workers,  D. 
and  D.  Pye,  have  shown  that  ce 
tropical  arctiids  produce  trains  ( 
trasonic  clicks  when  teased  or  shi 
It  will  be  interesting  to  see  how 
ability  to  make  noises  audible  to 
fits  into  the  contest  between  pre) 
predator.  Tympanic-nerve  respi 
recorded  from  diff^erent  moth  sp 
are  generally  consistent  and  sin 
except  perhaps  for  sensitivity.  0 
other  hand,  the  variety  of  non-( 
tional  maneuvers  released  by  hij 
tensity  ultrasonic  stimulation  ( 
any  attempt  at  orderly  descrij 
Does  each  species  have  its  charac 
tic  pattern  of  response?  Or  does  it 
a  repertoire  upon  which  it  can 
in  random  order?  Does  soun( 
tensity  or  some  other  sensory  c 
tion  play  a  part  in  the  pattern  ( 
sponse?  There  is  some  comfort  i 
thought  that  this  unpredictal 
however  determined,  is  probab 
confusing  to  the  bats  as  it  is  to  tl 
perimenter,  and  therefore  may  al 
of  considerable  importance  in  th 
vival  value  of  moths'  evasive  beh; 


r  PATHS  of  moths  responding  to  artificial  ultrasonic 
sequence  at  night  are  shown  here.  Sound  source  is  on 
:  pole.  Dotted  appearance  of  paths  is  result  of  light 


flashing  every  1/4  second.  The  flare  surrounding  the  sound 
source  is  result  of  overexposure  and  is  not  a  light  source. 
Arrows  mark  onset  of  stimuli.  Note  moths'  evasive  moves. 


9  EVASIVE  RESPONSES  Stimulated  by  the  pulse  sequence 
monstrated  ahove.  One  moth  ( 1 )  goes  into  power  dive 
!r  (2)  drops  passively  toward  the  ground  by  folding  in 


its  wings,  which  it  uses  again  briefly  about  halfway  down; 
last  moth  (3)  banks  into  a  looping  dive.  White  dots,  and 
indistinct  track    (2),  are   caused  by  insects   near   camera. 

39 


40 


SKY  REPORTER 

jnitude  scale  of  stellar  brightness  had  its  origin  in  120  B.C. 


By  Thomas  D.  Nicholson 


WINTER  SKY  is  always  impressive.  The  brilliant  stars 
he  winter  constellations  —  Taurus,  Auriga,  Orion 
]anis  Major,  and  Gemini— dominate  the  early  eve- 
'  in  the  south  and  east,  and  the  west  usually  appears 
comparison.  But  this  January  the  western  sky  con- 
o  objects— Venus  and  Jupiter— that  are  more  than  a 
or  the  stars  in  the  east.  The  map  of  the  January  sky 
3)  shows  the  position  of  Venus  on  the  western  hori- 
he  end  of  the  month  and  the  position  of  Jupiter 
the  month.  The  positions  of  Venus  earlier  in  Janu- 
not  be  shown  on  the  map  because  the  planet  will 

before  9:00  P.M.  and  will  be  below  the  map's  west- 
izon.  In  the  illustration  on  page  42,  however,  which 
n  drawn  to  show  the  southwestern  sky  at  one  and 
■  hours  after  the  sun  has  set,  the  path  of  Venus  is 
hroughout  the  month. 

ap  or  illustration  can  do  justice  to  the  brilliance  of 
nd  Jupiter,  or,  for  that  matter,  to  that  of  the  bright 
tars  such  as  Sirius,  Rigel,  and  Capella.  Stars  of  dif- 
lagnitude  must  be  represented  on  maps  by  symbols, 
stars  may  be  distinguished  from  fainter  stars  by 
'mbols  of  different  shape  or  of  different  size,  or  by 
ination  of  both.  In  any  case,  the  symbols  serve 
to  identify  the  stars  and  can  only  approximately 
It  the  visual  impression  of  their  brightness.  Part  of 
jlem  is  that  the  stars  do  not  vary  in  size  and  shape 
le  map  symbols,  but  part  also  lies  in  the  way  our 
ict  to  objects  of  different  degrees  of  brightness, 
human  sense  responds  to  its  stimulus  according  to 
:hophysical  law  formulated  in  1869  by  the  German 
lental  psychologist  Gustav  Theodor  Fechner.  Fech- 
srved  that  the  apparent  difference  in  brightness  be- 
be  bright  and  dark  portions  of  a  cloud  remained 
t  when  the  cloud  was  viewed  through  filters  of  vari- 
sity.  He  thus  concluded  that  the  eye,  when  it  observes 
fferences  in  the  brightness  of  objects,  reacts  to  equal 
f  intensity  rather  than  to  equal  differences  of  inten- 
the  light  sources.  Expressed  in  another  way,  when 
nsity  of  the  stimulus  increases  geometrically,  the 
y  of  the  visual  sensation  increases  arithmetically 
m,  page  42) . 

ler's  law  provided  a  psychological  basis  for  some- 
itronomers  had  already  known  for  some  time— that 
nitude  scale  used  for  the  stars  did  not  represent  con- 
fferences  in  brightness  from  one  magnitude  to  the 
It  rather  constant  ratios  of  brightness  between  the 
ides.  And  astronomers  had  already  obtained  a  rea- 

accurate  estimate  of  the  ratio  represented  by  a 
gnitude  difference. 

nagnitude  scale  astronomers  use  has  its  origin  in  the 
alogue  compiled  about  120  B.C.  by  the  Greek  astron- 
ipparchus.  He  identified  the  brightness  of  the  stars 
jtalogue  by  dividing  them  into  six  groups,  of  which 
;  comprised  the  brightest  stars  he  could  see  and  the 
le  faintest.  Stars  belonging  to  each  successive  class 
e  first  to  the  sixth  appeared  to  be  one-half  the  bright- 


ness of  those  in  the  preceding  class.  The  use  of  the  term 
"magnitude"  for  these  brightness  classes  implies  differences 
in  size,  and  may  have  arisen  from  the  assumption  that  the 
brighter  stars  were  larger  and  the  fainter  stars  smaller,  al- 
though we  know  today  that  this  is  not  necessarilv  so. 

The  invention  of  the  telescope  radically  altered  the  mean- 
ing of  star  magnitudes.  It  was  seen  telescopically  that  there 
were  many  stars  fainter  than  Hipparchus'  lowest  magni- 
tude, the  sixth.  For  identification  purposes  it  was  desirable 
to  extend  the  magnitude  groups  to  include  them.  Further- 
more, stars  within  the  same  magnitude  class  were  not  at 
all  the  same  in  brightness.  It  became  necessary  to  add  a 
decimal  to  the  magnitude  of  a  star  to  distinguish  it  from 
other  stars  of  its  class.  Some  very  painstaking  observers 
found  it  imperative  to  add  a  second  decimal  to  represent 
the  differences  they  could  see.  With  these  modifications 
of  the  original  classification  scheme,  the  magnitude  of  a 
star  became  a  quantitative  measure  of  the  star's  radiation, 
and  it  became  important  to  know  how  much  of  a  difference 
in  light  intensity  one  magnitude  represented. 

WILLIAM  HERSCHEL,  working  in  England  near  the  turn 
of  the  nineteenth  century,  and  his  son  John  Herschel, 
observing  from  South  Africa  in  1834-1837,  were  both  con- 
vinced that  the  average  first-magnitude  star  was  very  nearly 
100  times  brighter  than  the  average  sixth-magnitude  star. 
C.  A.  Steinheil.  a  contemporary  of  John  Herschel,  found 
that  the  average  ratio  of  intensity  from  one  magnitude  to 
the  next  was  about  2.83.  The  ratio  between  first  and  second 
magnitude  was  higher,  but  many  of  the  brightest  stars,  all 
classified  as  first  magnitude,  differed  so  greatly  from  one 
another  that  they  were  really  not  all  of  a  class.  Between  the 
less  bright  magnitudes,  Steinheil  found  a  more  constant 
ratio  of  approximately  2.5. 

Another  English  astronomer,  N.  R.  Pogson,  pointed  out 
in  1850  that  the  Steinheil  ratio  of  2.5  between  magnitudes 
represented  a  difference  of  brightness  of  2.5  raised  to  the 
fifth  power  for  five  magnitudes,  which  was  very  near  to 
the  factor  of  100  times  that  the  Herschels  had  observed  be- 
tween the  first-  and  sixth-magnitude  classes.  Pogson  pro- 
posed that  the  ratio  of  100  be  adopted  as  an  exact  standard 
for  a  five-magnitude  difference.  The  ratio  between  succes- 
sive magnitudes  would  therefore  become  the  fifth  root  of 
100,  or  2.512.  Pogson's  proposal  is  the  basis  for  the  magni- 
tude values  that  are  assigned  to  the  stars  today. 

The  stellar  magnitude  scale  may  seem  confusing  because 
the  lower  numbers  are  assigned  to  the  brighter  stars.  But 
the  system  has  a  long  tradition  and  offers  a  scale  that  astron- 
omers, its  principal  users,  find  convenient.  It  has  been 
easily  extended  to  fainter  objects  as  these  became  known, 
and  to  objects  brighter  than  first  magnitude  as  well,  simply 
by  maintaining  the  constant  ratio  between  magnitudes.  Ob- 


Dr.  Nicholson  is  Assistant  Chairman,  Astronomer,  and  a 
lecturer  at  The  American  Museum-Hayden  Planetarium. 


41 


•  * 


*  *  ^(t 


Star  symbols  illustrate  arithmetic  (top)  and  geometric 
(bottom)  area  increases.  Upper  symbols  grow  by  a  constant 
increment  and  lower  ones  increase  by  constant  ratio  (1:2). 


jects  fainter  than  the  sixth  magnitude  are  designated  sev- 
enth, eighth,  ninth,  and  so  on.  Those  brighter  than  first 
magnitude  are  designated  by  numbers  that  decrease  from 
one  to  zero  and  then  increase  to  higher  negative  numbers. 

Polaris,  the  familiar  North  Star,  is  almost  exactly  second 
m.agnitude— it  served  as  a  standard  reference  star  to  estab- 
lish the  starting  point  of  the  magnitude  scale  until  its  very 
slight  variability  was  detected. 

The  brightest  star  we  observe  is  Sirius,  with  a  magnitude 
of  —1.42.  Sirius  is  therefore  about  3.42  magnitudes  brighter 
than  Polaris.  Its  light  intensity,  or  luminosity,  is  approxi- 
mately 23.3  times  as  great  as  the  luminosity  of  Polaris. 
(The  figure  23.3  is  obtained  by  raising  the  ratio  2. .512  to 
the  power  3.42,  which  may  be  done  most  conveniently  by 
making  use  of  logarithms.) 

The  brightness  of  the  planets,  of  the  moon,  and  of  the 
sun  are  also  represented  as  numbers  on  the  magnitude  scale. 
The  brightness  of  Jupiter  this  month  varies  from  —2.1  at 


Planets  in  western  sky  are  shown  relative  to  horizon  90 
minutes  after  sunset  January  1,  15,  and  31.  Venus,  moving 
toward  the  east,  appears  higher  up  in  the  sky  each  night. 

42 


the  beginning  of  the  month  to  —1.8  at  the  end  of  the  mc 
The  difference  between  Jupiter's  magnitude  at  the  start 
at  the  end  of  the  month  is  three-tenths  of  a  magnit 
which  represents  a  loss  of  light  intensity  of  about  13 
cent.  This  occurs  because  the  distance  between  Jupiter 
the  earth  is  increasing. 

The  magnitude  of  Venus  is  —3.4  in  early  January. 
is  about  two  magnitudes  brighter  than  Sirius,  the  brigl 
star,  so  that  Venus  this  month  is  about  6.3  times  as  \ 
nous  as  Sirius.  By  the  middle  of  May,  however,  Venus 
brighten  to  magnitude  —4.2,  or  very  nearly  double  its  I 
nosity  in  the  sky  this  month,  and  it  will  display  thii 
times  the  luminosity  of  Sirius. 

THESE  differences  illustrate  the  impossibility  of  re 
senting  the  visual  impressions  of  celestial  object 
star  maps.  To  show  Venus  in  correct  relationship  to  S; 
on  this  month's  map,  its  symbol  should  have  an  area  r 
than  six  times  that  of  the  symbol  for  Sirius,  which  sh 
be,  in  turn,  about  twenty-three  times  the  area  of  the  syr 
for  Polaris.  The  map  would  be  so  cluttered  with  large  i 
bols  that  it  would  make  no  sense. 

The  magnitude  of  the  moon,  on  the  same  scale  as 
stars,  is  about  —12.6  at  its  brightest;  the  sun  is  about  — i 
The  difference  in  magnitude  between  the  sun  and  Si 
corresponds  to  a  luminosity  difference  of  about  ten  bil 
times.  In  other  words,  to  equal  the  sun  in  brightness, 
sky  would  have  to  contain  ten  billion  stars  as  brigh 
Sirius.  The  difference  between  the  magnitude  of  the  sun 
that  of  the  moon  is  about  14.1.  The  sky  would  have  to  1 
more  than  430,000  full  moons  to  equal  the  illuminatioi 
receive  from  the  sun. 

The  interesting  analogy  between  the  luminosity  of 
sun  and  that  of  Sirius  suggested  to  Christian  Huyger 
Dutch  astronomer  of  the  mid-seventeenth  century,  a 
of  estimating  the  distance  to  the  stars  in  terms  of  the  s 
distance,  probably  the  first  serious  attempt  to  find  stf 
distances.  By  viewing  the  sun  through  a  series  of  pinh 
of  diminishing  size,  Huygens  reduced  its  apparent  bri 
ness  to  his  estimate  of  Sirius'  apparent  brightness.  He  1 
succeeded  in  obtaining  a  value  for  how  many  times  fai 
than  the  sun  was  Sirius.  Knowing  that  the  intensity  of  1 
falls  off  in  proportion  to  the  square  of  distance,  Huyj 
could  then  determine  how  many  times  farther  Sirius 
from  the  earth  than  was  the  sun. 

Huygens'  estimate  of  the  distance  to  Sirius  was  too  si 
by  a  factor  of  twenty  times.  Part  of  the  error  was  cai 
by  inaccuracies  in  his  measurement  of  the  brightnesi 
the  sun  and  of  Sirius.  But  part  also  resulted  from  the  i 
as  we  now  know,  that  Sirius  is  intrinsically  a  much  brigl 
star  than  the  sun— almost  twenty-three  times  brighter.  ] 
Huygens  known  this  and  allowed  for  it,  his  result  wc 
have  been  surprisingly  accurate. 

In  the  centuries  that  followed  Huygens'  work,  techniq 
were  developed  for  accurate  measurements  of  star  bri; 
ness  by  visual  methods,  later  by  photographic,  and 
later  by  photometric  methods.  And  today  we  have  critt 
that  indicate  the  intrinsic  brightness  of  the  stars,  so  t 
careful  measurements  of  apparent  brightness  are  very  i 
ful  in  estimating  stellar  distances,  using  the  fundamei 
principle  that  Huygens  used  almost  three  centuries  ago. 
next  month's  "Sky  Reporter"  we  shall  consider  the  relati 
ships  that  are  found  between  visual  and  photographic  m 
nitudes,  and  between  apparent  and  absolute  magnituc 


MAGNITUDE  SCALE 

#  -0.1  and  brighter 

•  0.0 1-   — 
-rl.O  t 

•  +2.0  to  +2.9 
+  +3.0  to  +3.9 

•  +4.0  and  fainter 


>.  * 


"Pr  ^.        ""'.A,  ,*1 


'%..'-*■'  .*"''V«* 


January    6,  10:58  a.m.,  EST 

January  14,  3:44  P.M..  EST 

January  22,  12:29  A.M..  EST 

January  28,  6:23  P.M..  EST 


TIMETABLE 

January    1     10:30  P.M. 

January  15       9:30  P.M. 

January  31       8:30  P.I 

(Local  Standard  Time, 


ary  2:  Earth  is  at  perihelion,  its  shortest  distance  from 
for  the  year— about  91,342,000  miles, 
ary  2-4:  The  Quadrantid  meteor  shower,  radiating  from 
1  east  of  the  Big  Dipper's  handle,  reaches  its  brief 
im  rate,  an  expected  twenty-five  meteors  per  hour.  The 
gibbous  moon  will  impede  observations  after  midnight, 
ary  9:  Venus  and  Saturn  are  in  conjunction  at  approxi- 
5:00  P.M.,  and  they  will  be  quite  close  in  the  evening 
)k  for  Saturn  about  a  degree  from  Venus,  slightly  above 

0  the  right. 

ary  11:  Tonight  observers  with  binoculars  may  see 
s  four  brightest  satellites,  arranged  two  on  each  side 
planet  and  very  nearly  equidistant  from  one  another 
m  the  bright  central  planet.  Callisto  and  Europa  are 
/est  of  Jupiter,  lo  and  Ganymede  to  the  east, 
ary  14:  A  partial  eclipse  of  the  sun,  the  first  of  six 

1  for  1964,  takes  place  in  the  Southern  Hemisphere, 
ary  17:  Venus  and  the  early  crescent  moon  are  in  con- 
1  at  noon.  By  sunset  the  moon  will  have  moved  to  the 
Venus,  but  the  two  are  still  an  interesting  sight  in  the 
;  twilight  ^illustration,  opposite  pageV 


January  20:  Jupiter  and  the  moon  are  in  conjunction  about 
2:00  P.M.  By  dark,  Jupiter  is  slightly  below  and  to  the  right  of 
the  crescent  moon,  two  days  before  first  quarter. 

January  26:  Mercury  reaches  greatest  westerly  elongation 
from  the  sun  and  may  be  seen  in  the  morning  sky.' 

Venus,  Jupiter,  and  Saturn  are  all  in  the  evening  sky,  toward 
the  southwest,  in  early  January.  Venus  and  Jupiter  are  bright 
enough  to  be  seen  in  the  early  twilight.  Venus  is  the  brighter 
and  lower  of  the  two  (magnitude  —3.4  early  in  January  and 
slowly  brightening  through  the  month).  Jupiter,  magnitude 
—2.0  at  midmonth,  is  still  brighter  than  any  star.  Saturn,  at 
magnitude  1,  cannot  be  seen  until  dark. 

Throughout  January,  Venus  remains  in  the  sky  from  two 
and  a  half  to  three  hours  after  sunset.  Jupiter  sets  about  mid- 
night at  the  start  of  January,  and  progressively  earlier  through 
the  month.  It  sets  about  10:00  p.m.  by  month's  end.  After 
the  middle  of  the  month,  Saturn  is  too  close  to  the  sun  to  be 
seen  in  the  evening  sky. 

Mercury  is  in  the  morning  sky  at  the  end  of  January.  For 
a  few  days  before  and  after  January  26  it  may  be  seen  low 
in  the  southeast  about  one  and  a  half  hours  before  sunrise. 


Adult  male  chimpanzees  in  Budongo 
Forest,  Uganda,  of  the  subspecies  Pan 


troglodytes  schweinfurthii,  are  sh 
in  habitat.  Mainly  eaters  of  fruit,  i 


44 


The  Man  of 
the  Woods 


New  studies  outline  chimpanzee  behavior 


By  Vernon  Reynolds 

THE  CHIMPANZEE  Pan  troglodytes 
occurs  throughout  the  vast  equa- 
torial rain  forest  belt  of  Central  and 
Western  Africa,  a  continuous  distribu- 
tion measuring  three  thousand  miles 
from  end  to  end.  Several  forms  of  the 
species  are  found  in  this  area,  of  which 
the  following  three  are  generally  rec- 
ognized as  subspecies :  Pan  troglodytes 
schweinfurthii  of  Central  Africa,  Pan 
troglodytes  troglodytes  of  the  West 
Congo,  and  Pan  troglodytes  verus  of 
West  Africa.  A  fourth  type  of  chim- 
panzee, Pan  paniscus,  is  found  south 
of  the  Congo  River  and  is  often  taken 
to  be  a  second  species.  The  last  is  pop- 
ularly known  as  the  pygmy  chimpan- 
zee. (Morphological  differences  be- 
tween the  forms  are  minor  except  in 
the  case  of  Pan  paniscus,  which  is  a 
true  dwarf.)  The  various  chimpanzee 
types  are  separated  by  the  great  rivers 
of  Central  and  West  Africa  (map,  page 
46).  Outside  the  rain  forest  zone, 
chimpanzees  have  pushed  the  borders 
of  their  habitat  into  the  surrounding 
areas  of  woodland,  gallery,  and  mon- 


tane forests,  showing  a  wide  variety 
of  dietary  adaptations. 

My  wife  and  I  studied  the  eastern 
form.  Pan  troglodytes  schweinfurthii, 
from  March  to  October,  1962,  in  the 
Budongo  Forest,  Uganda— a  rain  for- 
est environment  at  the  eastern  edge  of 
the  animals'  range.  Here  we  set  up  a 
base  on  a  hillock  overlooking  the  for- 
est, and  made  daily  forays  in  search  of 
the  elusive  chimpanzees  when  their  im- 
mensely loud  vocalizations  made  it 
possible  for  us  to  track  them.  Food  is 
plentiful  during  most  of  the  year,  and 
when  it  is.  the  animals  are  vociferous 
to  a  degree  that  usually  makes  it  pos- 
sible to  find  them.  There  was  a  scarce 
period,  however,  in  May,  during  which 
they  were  widely  scattered  and  silent 
most  of  the  time. 

Adult  chimpanzees  are  fairly  large 
animals.  Males  weigh  approximately 
110  pounds  and  females  about  90 
pounds,  and  their  size  alone  helps  to 
account  for  many  aspects  of  their  be- 
havior. Although  they  are  primarily 
frugivorous,  like  the  smaller  redtail 
monkeys  (Cercopithecus  ascanius 
schmidti)   and  blue  monkeys  (Cerco- 


able  of  diet  adaptations.  These 
ants  picked  from  tree  barks. 


20°  10"  0°  10°         20°         30°  40°  50° 


Distribution  of  subspecies  is  indicated  by  the  shadings 
on  the  map :  ( 1 )  Pan  troglodytes  troglodytes,  ( 2 )  P.t.  verus 
Schwarz,  (3)  P.  t.  schiveinfurthii  Giglioli,  (4)  the  pygmy 
species  P.  paniscus  Schwarz.  Square  marks  the  study  area. 


pithecus  mitis  stuhhnanni)  with  which 
they  share  this  forest,  the  chimpanzees' 
needs  are  so  much  greater  than  those 
of  the  monkeys  that  they  cannot  lead  a 
treetop  existence  as  the  monkeys  do. 

ALMOST  every  day  (the  exceptions 
occur  when  many  fruiting  trees 
are  fomid  in  a  small  area)  chimpan- 
zees move  around  on  the  ground  over 
considerable  distances,  from  one  tree 
to  another.  While  on  the  ground  they 
feed  on  the  fleshy  stems  of  certain 
shrubs  and  creepers,  a  diet  more  char- 
acteristic of  the  gorilla.  We  estimated 
that  in  the  Budongo  Forest  up  to  75 
per  cent  of  the  chimpanzees'  daytime 
was  spent  in  the  trees,  and  that  about 
90  per  cent  of  the  total  bulk  of  their 
food  consisted  of  fruits.  There  is  no 
factor  limiting  the  height  at  which 
chimpanzees  feed.  Every  day  they 
climb  into  the  crowns  of  trees  to 
heights  of  120  feet  to  180  feet,  depend- 
ing on  the  type  of  forest.  In  the  slack 
season,  however,  more  time  is  spent  on 
the  ground,  and  the  young,  tender 
leaves  of  saplings  and  vines  become 
important  dietary  items. 

46 


One  aspect  of  our  study  was  on  loco- 
motion, eleven  forms  of  which  we  rec- 
ognized in  chimpanzees  (table,  page 
48).  Because  they  are  primarily  fruit 
eaters,  they  must  be  able  to  move  about 
in  the  tracery  of  fine  branches  at  the 
edge  of  tree  crowns.  The  animals  are 
too  heavy  to  do  so  by  standing  on  the 
branches  as  monkeys  do.  so  they  have 
developed  ways  of  supporting  their 
weight  from  branches  less  than  one 
inch  thick.  They  can  hang  for  several 
minutes  from  one  or  both  arms,  or  any 
combination  of  arms  and  legs.  When 
walking  on  the  ground  or  on  sturdy 
branches  one  hundred  feet  up  or  high- 
er, they  walk  on  the  knuckles  and  do 
not  grasp  the  branch  with  the  hands. 
The  backs  of  the  second  phalanges  are 
provided  with  a  special  development  of 
thickened  skin  in  connection  with  this 
form  of  locomotion.  The  hallux,  or  big 
toe,  is  used  in  opposition  to  the  other 
toes  to  grasp  the  branch.  Perhaps  the 
most  striking  facet  of  chimpanzee  loco- 
motion is  the  diversity  of  forms  it 
takes.  No  acrobatic  is  too  difficult  for 
this  amazingly  long,  loose-limbed  crea- 
ture, which  combines  arboreal  special- 


izations such  as  brachiation  and  h 
ing  upside  down  from  branches 
the  more  common  locomotor  patt 
of  walking  and  running  on  all  foui 
For  adults  soine  six  to  eight  h 
of  the  twelve-hour  equatorial  day 
occupied  in  the  food  quest.  Young 
up  to  the  age  of  about  six  years  rec 
less  food,  and  while  they  generalb 
along  after  their  mothers,  they  s] 
much  time  playing,  either  alon( 
pairs,  or  threes,  while  the  adults 
feeding.  Their  games  consist  of  ( 
ing  and  wrestling  matches  and  cl 
ing  and  swinging  games,  in  which 
youngster  follows  the  route  take 
another.  During  the  non-feeding  hi 
usually  at  midmorning  after  a  boi 
intensive  feeding,  or  at  any  time 
ing  the  heat  of  the  day  when  fo( 
abundant,  the  adults  either  settle  c 
in  quiet  little  groups  to  groom 
other  or  sit  looking  out  over  the  f 
doing  absolutely  nothing. 

ONE  prominent  feature  of  chirr 
zee  social  life  is  the  abseni 
any  clear  dominance  hierarchy  ar 
males  or  females.  Females  were  1 
observed  to  show  dominance  01 
male,  and  among  the  males,  tho: 
confident  bearing  and  larger  size 
dominant  in  food  competition.  E 
nance,  did  not,  however,  extend  t 
elusive  rights  over  receptive  fen 
Quarrels  were  rare:  during  three 
dred  observation  hours,  only  seve: 
quarrels  were  seen,  and  none  of 
lasted  more  than  a  few  seconds, 
competition  was  the  usual  caui 
strife.  There  was,  however,  som( 
dence  of  leadership  by  large,  conl 
males:  when  they  left  a  tree,  the 
chimpanzees  followed.  They  woul 
pear  first  at  track  crossings  and  \ 
soinetimes  go  back  across  the  1 
against  the  direction  of  progress, 
to  bring  up  the  rear.  Also,  whe 
disturbed  a  band  in  the  forest 
they  fled,  such  a  big  male  would  '. 
times  remain  behind  watching  us 
lessly  from  low  down  in  a  tree. 
The  age  of  sexual  maturity  c 
easily  be  determined  in  the  wile 
evidence  based  on  captive  spec: 
shows  that  males  reach  puber 
seven  to  eight  years,  while  female 
menstruate  between  seven  an( 
years,  averaging  eight  years,  e 
months.  When  a  female  is  in  oi 
and  her  sexual  swelling  is  at  its  h 
nearby  males  are  often  attract 
her,  and  several  of  them  may  i 
her  around.  But  we  only  rarel 


INGINC  MALE,  top  picture,  can  move  more  swiftly  than  the 
thers  shown  transporting  young,  below.  Speed  and  agility 
(ifu-n  the  bases  for  chimpanzees'  coalescence  into  groups. 


served  copulations,  which  occur  far 
less  frequently  than  in  baboons  or 
macaques,  but  more  frequently,  it 
seems,  than  in  gorillas. 

As  in  most  primates,  the  closest  so- 
cial bond  is  between  a  mother  and  her 
offspring.  During  the  first  few  months, 
the  infant  clings  tightly  to  its  mother's 
belly  (cf.  gorillas,  where  the  mother 
supports  the  infant  with  one  arm,  Na- 
tural History,  August-September, 
1963).  As  it  ceases  suckling  and  be- 
comes independent,  the  infant's  early 
efforts  are  directed  at  exploring  the 
immediate  environment.  By  two  years 
of  age  it  is  already  supplementing  its 
diet  with  leaves.  At  three  years  it  can 
swing  by  its  arms.  Whenever  there  are 
two  or  more  mothers  together,  the  ju- 
veniles wrestle,  chase,  kick  each  other, 
and  indulge  in  other  strenuous  play. 
Periodically  they  return  to  the  mother 
for  a  while,  often  to  suckle  or  to  be 
groomed.  The  way  in  which  a  mother 
carries  her  young  depends  on  its  size, 
the  place,  and  the  speed  of  travel.  The 
smallest  infants  cling  to  the  mother's 
belly  and  can  suckle  in  this  position. 
Juveniles  older  than  one  year,  but  less 
than  three,  are  usually  carried  on  the 
belly  through  the  trees  and  on  the 
back  when  the  mother  is  moving  along 
the  ground.  The  young  also  move 
around  independently  when  there  is  no 
hurry  and  occasionally  are  carried  by 
females  other  than  the  mother.  Juve- 
niles over  three  years  of  age  are  not 
normally  carried  through  the  trees,  but 
are  carried  on  the  mother's  back  when 
she  is  traveling  fast  or  crossing  a  road. 
At  other  times  they  trot  along  behind 
or  near  the  mother.  This  continues 
until  they  are  five  or  six  years  old,  and 
a  third  of  the  mother's  size.  By  then 
she  sometimes  has  a  second  infant,  in 
which  case  she  carries  the  two,  one  on 
the  belly  and  one  on  the  back.  When  a 
mother  wants  to  move  off,  she  conveys 
the  idea  to  her  infant  either  by  look- 
ing at  it,  or  by  stretching  out  one  or 
both  arms  toward  it. 

WE  once  saw  a  mother  make  a  tree 
bridge  high  above  the  ground 
by  pulling  a  branch  from  a  second  tree 
to  enable  her  juvenile  to  cross;  she 
herself  swung  over  the  gap  on  the 
branch.  At  other  times,  it  seemed  that 
a  juvenile  was  left  to  fend  for  itself, 
particularly  if  it  was  the  first  of  the 
group  to  spot  us.  Often  it  would  then 
begin  to  scream,  but  the  mother  and 
other  adults  nearby  did  not  investigate. 
The   chimpanzee    makes    a    nest   to 

47 


FORMS     OF     LOCOMOTION 

Ground   5PP™ximate 


Movement 


Quadrupedal  walk 


Vertical  climb 


Bipedal  walk 


|Bipedal  walk 
Ivrith  use  of 


Ground  leap 


JS. 


Bractiiation 


Characteristics 


Typical  quadrupedal  limb 
movements,  with  weight  of 
body's  fore  part  supported 
on  knuckles;  hind  feet  are 
placed  flat  on  ground;  re- 
laxed in  confident  animals. 


Typical  quadrupedal  move- 
ments; at  one  point  all  feet 
are  off  ground. 


Legs  move  forward  alter- 
nately while  arms  move 
forward  together. 


Fastest  run;  it  is  used  when 
animal  hurries  to  catch  up 
with  others  or  is  frightened; 
limb  movements  are  un- 
clear. 


Arms  and  long  hands  keep 
secure  grip  on  tree  while 
legs  provide  upward  thrust; 
feet  are  placed  on  side  of 
tree  chimpanzee  faces;  big 
toe  is  splayed  to  increase 
traction. 


I?arely  used;  arms  may  not 
be  swung  in  time  with  legs 
but  hang  loosely  down. 


Independent  arm  and  leg 
movements;  overhead 
branches  allow  chimpanzee 
to  use  its  arms  for  added 
support  as  it  walks  on  a 
branch. 


Legs  are  swung  forward 
under  chimpanzee  and  land 
before  arms  do;  e.g.,  over 
ditches. 


Animal  uses  its  limbs  mere- 
ly to  check  its  fall  as  it 
drops  from  branch  to 
branch. 


Arms  are  extended  forward 

to  grasp  a  branch;  whole 

body  is  then  swung  across;      Trees 

used  for  moving  from  tree 

to  tree. 


Hanging  from  a  branch,  ani- 
mal moves  along  by  means 
of  alternate  arm  move- 
ments, swinging  body  tor- 
ward,  backward,  and  to  each 
-side  in  turn. 


distance 
Trees     covered 


Any 


Ground 


Maximum 
seen, 
9  paces 


Trees        15  feet 


6  feet 


30-foot 
leaps 


10  feet 


20  feet 


Adult  starts  across  a  jungle  road 
employing  the  typical  quadrupedal 


sleep  in  at  night — a  behavioral  c 
acteristic  that  it  shares  with  the  o 
great  apes.  First,  the  site  is  selectei 
the  basis  of  the  availability  of  spr 
blanches  an  inch  or  less  in  diam 
The  animal  squats  on  a  branch, 
pulls  other  branches  toward  itself,  ] 
bieaking  many  of  them.  It  traps  t 
under  its  feet  and  holds  them  in  p 
Then  it  turns  around  in  situ,  s 
speak,  intertwining  the  branche 
some  extent,  and  so  makes  the  1 
nest  structure.  A  final  layer  of  1 
branchlets.  picked  around  the  nesi 
or  collected  from  a  few  yards  awa 
then  added.  The  chimpanzee 
climbs  into  the  nest  and  inakes  i 
comfortable.  It  is  now  completely 
den  from  the  view  of  an  obs€ 
standing  on  the  ground— all  one  se 
an  arm  or  leg  dangling  over  the  £ 

NEW  nests  are  ordinarily  made 
night,  and  we  never  found 
dance  that  any  nest  was  re-used 
sleeping.  However,  one  observer 
seen  frightened  chimpanzees  hid 
an  old  nest  (in  the  Maramaga 
Forest).  We  once  saw  a  mother 
frightened  by  us,  made  a  nest  ( 
cially  to  hide  in.  Of  the  259  nest 
found,  only  two  were  on  the  groi 
all  the  rest  were  in  trees.  Of  the 
ground  nests,  one  was  a  large  strm 
made  of  masses  of  broad-leaved -g 
and  the  other  was  made  mainly 
pithy  shrub,  with  the  addition  of  s 
branchlets  taken  from  nearby  sapl 
The  commonest  height  (30  per  ce: 
the  total  number  observed)  was  tj 
to  forty  feet,  but  nests  ^vere  fouE 
all  levels,  and  15  per  cent  were  hi 
than  ninety  feet.  This  indicates 
while  there  is  no  fixed  rule,  chim 


48 


OP,  employed  by  this  adult  male, 
latively  rare  form  of  locomotion. 


In   quadrupedal  run,  animal's  hands 
and  feet  leave  ground  simultaneously. 


Rapid  run,  with  arms  synchronized  but 
legs  in  a  trot,  propels  another  animal. 


prefer  to  make  their  nests  in  the 
rstory  or  lowest  tree  canopy,  and 
in  the  tops  of  relatively  low  sap- 
Several  reasons  can  be  advanced 
lis  preference.  First,  at  this  height 
Dpmost  branches  of  saplings  are 
er  and  springy,  easy  to  intertwine, 
comfortable  to  lie  on.  Second, 
is  less  disturbance  from  wind  at 
•  levels  than  in  the  treetops.  Third, 
igs  may  provide  a  measure  of 
ction  from  leopards,  which  are 
le  to  climb  them  without  rocking 
est  and  disturbing  the  chimpan- 
they  could  creep  silently  up  to  a 
built  in  a  big  tree, 
opards  do  not,  however,  provide 
at  problem  for  today's  Budongo 
panzees.  judging  from  available 
nee.  They  are  common  in  the 
t,  but  on  each  occasion  we  en- 
;ered  them,  they  were  either  chas- 
r  eating  one  of  the  two  species  of 
;rs  (small  African  antelopes  of 
;enus  Cephalophus) ,  which  are 
common  in  the  area,  and  which 
ntly  are  the  leopards'  preferred 
Probably  there  is  no  systematic 
ition  by  any  animal  on  the  Bu- 

0  Forest  chimpanzees.  Man  pro- 
a  threat  in  certain  areas,  but  not 
No  interactions  with  elephants 

observed.  Once  a  chimpanzee  vo- 
id loudly  as  a  buffalo  charged 
That  leaves  only  the  snakes.  Of 
,  the  only  potential  predator  is 
jython;  one  that  I  shot  had  a 
;r  in  its  stomach.  Other  snakes, 
as  cobras  and  the  Gaboon  viper, 
;ommon  in  the  forest  and  could 
inly  kill  a  chimpanzee  in  self-de- 
I,  but  are  too  small  to  eat  one.  We 

1  came  across  lone,  young  chim- 
ees,  wandering  about  some  dis- 


tance from  any  others,  which  suggests 
that  they  are  able  to  survive  without 
the  protection  of  a  group. 

THE  word  "group"  introduces  the 
most  complex  and  perhaps  the 
most  interesting  aspect  of  chimpanzee 
behavior  in  the  forest.  Our  observa- 
tions showed  that  there  is  no  single, 
distinct  social  unit  in  chimpanzee  so- 
ciety. Not  only  is  there  no  "family"  or 
"harem"  organization ;  neither  is  there 
a  "troop"  organization— that  is  to  say, 
no  particular  chimpanzees  keep  per- 
manently together.  On  the  contrary, 
individuals  move  about  at  will,  alone 
or  in  small  groups  best  described  as 
bands,  which  sometimes  form  into 
large  aggregations;  they  leave  their 
associates,  if  they  want  to,  and  join  up 
with  new  ones  without  conflict.  This 
surprising  observation  resulted  from 
careful  identification  of  individual 
chimpanzees  as  they  came  day  after 
day  to  feed  on  particular  ripe  fruit 
trees,  or  as  they  crossed  forest  tracks. 
In  each  case,  we  found  that  specific 
known  individuals  were  associating 
with  unknown  ones,  or  known  ones 
with  other  known  ones  with  which  they 
had  not  associated  previously. 

However,  we  did  notice  some  con- 
sistencies in  band  composition.  We  met 
four  distinct  types  of  bands  frequent- 
ly: one  consisted  only  of  adult  males; 
one  was  made  up  only  of  mothers,  their 
offspring,  and  a  few  other  females; 
one  contained  adults  and  adolescents 
of  both  sexes,  not  including  mothers 
with  young;  one  contained  all  classes 
of  animals  mixed  together.  The  male 
bands  were  the  most  mobile,  often  tra- 
veling fast  and  noisily  and  covering 
many  miles  in  a  day.  Mothers'  bands, 


as  one  might  expect,  were  the  least 
mobile,  and  tended  to  occupy  a  lim- 
ited area  for  several  days.  Both  of 
these  types  were  usually  fairly  small 
(fewer  than  seven  individuals),  but 
often  would  join  others  to  form  mixed 
bands  in  trees  that  offered  plentiful 
fruits.  The  adult  and  adolescent  bands 
were  more  mobile  than  the  mother 
bands,  but  less  so  than  the  male  bands. 
None  of  the  bands  was  permanent,  but 
we  did  notice  one  made  up  of  four 
adult  males  that  were  together  fre- 
quently during  a  four-month  period. 

An  area  that  contains  a  year-round 
supply  of  food  trees  may  be  called  the 
range  of  the  chimpanzees  inhabiting 
that  area.  Two  such  ranges  that  we 
knew,  each  about  six  to  eight  square 
miles  in  area,  contained  about  sixty  to 
eighty  chimpanzees  each.  While  the 
activities  of  these  animals  were  largely 
confined  to  their  home  ranges,  they 
often  crossed  into  the  neighboring 
range,  and  in  the  early  stages  of  our 
study  it  was  not  clear  to  us  just  how 
separate  the  inhabitants  of  one  range 
were  from  those  of  another. 

As  the  year  went  by,  and  one  fruit- 
ing species  gave  way  to  another,  it  be- 
came obvious  that  the  prime  factor  de- 
termining the  movements,  location, 
and  group  size  of  chimpanzees  was 
the  distribution  of  the  available  food 
supply.  We  started  our  study  during 
the  fig  season.  There  are  many  species 
of  figs,  some  of  which  have  very  small 
fruits.  The  preferred  ones,  however, 
all  have  large,  juicy,  yellow  fruits  when 
ripe,  and  exude  a  copious  flow  of  white 
latex.  During  this  season,  animals  in 
bands  of  a  dozen  or  so  were  dotted 
about  the  forest,  mainly  along  valley 
sides  where  the  fig  trees  s;row.  Each 


49 


band  fed  on  a  giant,  fruiting  fig  tree 
and  moved  along  the  valleys  from  one 
such  tree  to  another.  There  followed 
a  distinct  three-week  period  during 
May  when  comparatively  little  fruit 
was  available.  Then  the  chimpanzees 
^vere  scattered  w'idely  and  foraged  on 
their  own,  or  in  twos  and  threes.  They 
kept  lo^v  in  the  saplings,  moved  fre- 
quently, and  were  quiet. 

WHEN  we  saw  them,  which  was  not 
often  possible,  they  were  eating 
leaves,  especially  of  Celtis  spp.  In  addi- 
tion, examination  of  their  feces  showed 
that  they  were  subsisting  largely  on 
leaves,  as  the  feces  were  green   and 
contained  no   seeds.   Later  came  the 
Pseudospondias  season.  This  fruit  is 
something  like  a  wild  damson  plum  in 
appearance.  It  is  almost  an  inch  long, 
smells    of   turpentine,    and   hangs    in 
dense  blue-black  clusters  from  gnarled 
trees  that  are  found  only  in  areas  of 
swampy  forest.  At  this  time  chimpan- 
zees, attracted  from  surrounding  areas 
by  the  fruit,  gathered  in  larger  bands 
that  were  strung  out  along  the  swamp 
forest    zones    where    Pseudospondias 
was  to  be  found.  In  due  course,  during 
early  July,  their  fruits,  too,  failed,  and 
the  chimpanzees  began  switching  their 
attention   to   a  new   tree,   Maesopsis, 
which   was  just  beginning  to   ripen. 
This  fruit  is  the  size  and  shape  of  an 
olive;  it  is  black  when  ripe,  and  bitter 
to  the  taste.  (The  wood  of  the  Maesop- 
sis tree  has  a  distinct  odor  of  cold, 
cooked  chicken !  )   The  species  occurs 
in  stands  ivhere  the  forest  is  either  re- 
generating or  is  growing  out  into  areas 
previously    occupied    by    grasslands. 
During  the  Maesopsis  season,  chim- 
panzees gathered  in  the  trees'  vicini- 
ties in  large  groups  of  fifty  or  more. 
The  fluid   social   organization   can 
thus  be  seen  as  an  adaptation  to  the 
needs  of  large  fruit  eaters  in  a  forest 
environment.  Let  us  contrast  them  with 
gorillas.  The  latter  are  even  larger  and 
need  as  much  or  more  bulk  to  eat, 
but  they  are  herbivorous  rather  than 
frugivorous  and  so  are  constantly  sur- 
rounded by  food.  As  a  result  they  can 
wander  along  slowly,  feeding  as  they 
go.  Groups  of  wandering  gorillas  may 
spread  out  in  the  food  quest,  but  there 
is  no  need  for  them  to  split  up  into  sub- 
groups in  order  to  exploit  the  food  sup- 
ply. With  chimpanzees  in  the  Budongo 
Forest,  this  is  not  the  case.  There  are 
times  when  there  is  insufficient  fruit 
in  an  area  to  support  chimpanzees  un- 
less they  are  very  scattered,  each  one 

50 


foraging  for  itself  or  in  company 
with  one  or  two  others,  at  most.  At 
other  times,  food  is  concentrated  in  a 
relatively  small  part  of  the  total  range, 
and  so  it  is  necessary  for  all  the  chim- 
panzees in  the  area  to  congregate.  The 
absence  of  permanent  groupings  may 
be  an  adaptation  to  these  conditions. 
Food  availability  is  communicated 
by  wild  and  piercing  vocal  choruses  of 
bands  of  excited  chimpanzees  that 
have,  perhaps,  found  a  gloriously 
full-ripe  fig  tree.  Comparison  with  the 
gorilla  reveals  the  interesting  fact  that 
the  latter,  ^vhich  is  far  less  vocal  than 
the  chimpanzee,  also  has  much  smaller 
ears.  The  chimpanzee  chorus  can  carry 
over  a  measured  two  miles.  On  hearing 
cries  from  another  part  of  the  forest, 
feeding  chimpanzees  will  look  over  in 
the  direction  of  the  calls,  and  pause 
discernibly  in  their  chewing,  as  if 
thinking.  Then,  sooner  or  later,  they 
will  start  toward  the  direction  of  the 
calls.  As  they  move  along  the  forest 
floor,  they  announce  their  whereabouts 
by  repeated  hooting  and  fierce  drum- 
ming on  tree  trunks,  especially  those 
of  the  ironwood  ( Cynometra  alexan- 
dri) .  These  expressive  outbursts  have 
a  most  intimidating  effect  on  humans 
who  witness  them  at  close  range. 

LOCAL  Africans  are  not  frightened  of 
j  the  chimpanzees,  however.  One 
word  for  the  animal  means  "man  of 
the  woods,"  and  the  chimpanzee  is 
tolerated  as  a  neighbor  living  in  the 
same  area.  This  neighbor  does  not 
arouse  anger,  for  it  does  not  raid 
crops.  It  is  not  regarded  as  a  good 
meal  and,  indeed,  is  seldom  even  seen. 
Chimpanzee  hunting  is  prohibited  by 
law  in  Uganda,  so  fortunately  there  is 
no  immediate  danger  to  the  continued 
existence  of  these  fascinating  crea- 
tures. There  is  only  one  cause  for  con- 
cern. Many  of  the  trees,  such  as  the 
fig,  that  provide  the  chimpanzees  with 
their  staple  foods  during  part  of  the 
year,  are  at  present  being  poisoned  off 
to  make  way  for  more  economically 
valuable  timber  species,  such  as  ma- 
hogany. This  trend,  if  continued  at  the 
present  rate,  could  lead  to  a  substantial 
reduction  of  the  Budongo  Forest's 
chimpanzee  population  (now  between 
one  and  two  thousand)  before  the  end 
of  the  century.  However,  the  Uganda 
Forest  Department  is  at  present  con- 
sidering the  possibility  of  excluding 
figs  from  the  poisoning  program. 
They,  too,  are  quite  concerned  about 
the  preservation  of  these  chimpanzees. 


NT  evidences  burden  borne  by 
nd  phalanges  of  chimpanzee's 
i.  Thumb  left  no  trace  in  mud. 


ND  NESTS,  like  one  shown  at  right, 
jre  finds  in  study  area.  Treetop 
are  safer  from  jungle  predators. 


LE  ADULT  feeds  on  figs  (Fiscus 
sis),  which  are  the  primary  food 
mpanzees  in  the  Budongo  Forest. 


(^^tW '       '  ^ 


m-i 


Index  to 

^ext  Spring's 

Growth 


jd  system  controls  tree  development 


,ED  FiDDLEHEAD,  leaf  produccf  of 
Osmunda  cinnamoniea,  is  shown  at 
Leaf  unrolls  as  growth  proceeds 
p  of  the  innermost  spiral.  Many 
ieheads,  above,  come  up  from  root. 


By  Virgil  Argo 

FOR  AESTHETIC,  economic,  and  sci- 
entific reasons,  flowers,  fruits, 
seeds,  leaves,  and  roots  have  long  at- 
tracted a  goodly  portion  of  man's  in- 
terest in  the  natural  world.  The  dor- 
mant buds  that  occur  on  leafless  twigs 
of  deciduous  woody  plants  have  hardly 
a  single  characteristic  fetching  enough 
to  attract  the  casual  eye  of  the  passer- 
by, however,  and  these  buds  have  been 
largely  ignored  by  all  except  botanists, 
who  find  them  of  great  value  in  identi- 
fying species  of  woody  plants  in  the 
leafless  state.  It  was  in  an  effort  to  aid 
students  to  make  use  of  these  highly 
efficient  keys  to  the  species  of  woody 
plants  that  we  first  prepared  photo- 
graphs of  dormant  twigs  for  study  in 
the  classroom.  Students  were  able  to 
see  taxonomic  characters,  and  to  carry 
with  them  into  the  field  fully  visualized 
concepts,  including  knowledge  of  color, 
relating  to  plant  structures  they  had 
never  examined  before  in  vivo.  About 
thirty  different  species  of  woody  twigs 
were  photographed  in  an  effort  to  illus- 
trate the  different  structures  referred 
to  in  the  keys. 

Any  twig  with  its  bark,  leaf  scars, 
buds,  and  bud  scales  is  surprisingly 
photogenic.  The  only  cosmetic  treat- 
ment necessary  is  a  gentle,  careful 
wash  in  soapy  water  to  remove  soot 
and  dust.  Once  this  unnatural  shell  is 
taken  away,  one  finds  attractive  exter- 
nal colors,  textures,  and  structures. 

If  we  want  to  inquire  into  internal 
makeup,  a  simple  razor  blade  dissec- 


tion of  any  fair-sized  bud  will  show  it 
to  be  a  highly  intricate  and  ingenious 
device  for  the  protection  of  a  dormant 
plant  part  that  will,  upon  the  onset  of 
proper  growing  conditions,  provide 
immediate  and  adequate  leaf  supply. 
What  one  finds  inside  the  bud  is  an 
embryo  branch,  with  stem,  leaves,  and 
sometimes  flowers  already  recogniz- 
able. The  basal  leaves  of  this  foreshort- 
ened new  branch  have  been  modified 
into  tough  scales  that  overlap  each 
other  and  give  physical  protection  to 
the  tender  tissues  of  the  rest  of  the  twig. 
Often  these  bud  scales  are  hairy  or 
woolly  on  the  inner  faces,  and  have  a 
waterproof  varnish  on  the  outside; 
these  two  features  prevent  the  living 
tissue  from  being  desiccated  by  dry, 
windy  weather  or  penetrated  by  rain. 
If  the  downy  fuzz  so  abundant  inside 
many  buds  is  kept  dry,  it  forms  an  effi- 
cient insulating  material  to  guard  the 
embryonic  meristematic  tissues  against 
too  rapid  and  too  frequent  changes  of 
temperature  during  the  winter. 

The  light  and  warmth  of  spring 
stimulate  the  movement  of  food  and 
water  through  the  capillary  tissues  of 
the  plant  and  cause  growth  to  begin 
in  these  embryonic  tissues.  The  twig  in 
the  bud  swells  and  elongates,  the  bud 
scales  fall  off,  and  in  a  remarkably 
short  time  a  young  but  fully  formed 
branch  is  visible.  Along  any  branch 
there  is  at  least  one  bud  in  the  axil  of 
each  of  last  year's  leaves,  and  each  bud 
has  the  ability  to  produce  a  new  branch 
with  leaves  of  its  own. 

If  all  buds  developed  with  equal 
vigor,  in  a  few  years  the  tree  would  be- 
come an  astonishing,  inefficient  mass 
of  branches  and  leaves.  Such  confusion 
is  avoided  through  the  exercise  of  a 
priority  present  in  the  developing  buds 
and  leaves.  The  bud  at  the  tip  of  the 
stem  shows  greatest  growth  vigor,  and 
the  buds  below  it  display  vitality  on  a 
descending  scale,  until  after  a  certain 
distance  below  the  terminal  bud  we 
find  axillary  buds  that  normally  never 
develop  further. 

LEAVES  also  are  larger  near  the  tip 
J  of  the  branch  than  at  its  base. 
These  gradients  of  development  are  of 
utmost  importance  to  the  well-being  of 
the  growing  tree:  they  maintain  a  most 
efficient  mosaic  of  leaves  in  which 
there  is  a  minimum  of  overlapping  that 
could  result  in  shading  photosynthet- 
ic  tissue  and  rendering  it  ineffective. 
This  axial  gradient  of  bud  vigor 
along  a  stem  has  long  been  recognized 

53 


by  horticulturists,  who  have  used  it 
when  they  deemed  it  advisable  to  alter 
the  natural  shape  of  a  woody  plant 
without  causing  functional  damage. 
When  the  tip  of  a  twig  with  its  terminal 
bud  is  removed,  the  bud  next  below 
the  cut  is  raised  to  the  priority  of  vigor 
and  growth  capacity  of  the  missing 
terminal  bud;  the  next  lower  buds  are 
also  promoted  in  status.  The  new  ter- 
minal bud  will  of  necessity  send  out 
its  branch  at  an  angle  to  the  original 
stem  axis.  Judicious  pruning  can  cause 
a  tree  to  assume  an  almost  unlimited 
number  of  forms:  conical,  cylindrical, 


funnel-shaped,  tubular,  or  espaliered. 
A  large  book  is  required  for  descrip- 
tions of  the  recognized  and  accepted 
practices  of  pruning  grapes,  alone. 

THE  possibilities  of  improving 
quantity  and  quality  in  fruit  crops 
are  almost  limitless.  Vergil  gave  sage 
advice  in  this  matter  in  his  Georgics. 
Speaking  of  winter  chores,  he  says: 
"the  active  farmer  reaches  his  care  into 
the  coming  year,  and  presses  on  to  lop 
the  bared  vine  and  trim  it  into  shape 
with  the  crooked  tooth  of  Saturn 
[pruning  knife]."  Trees  produce,  for 


example,    branches    that    range 
slender  switches  up  to  sturdy  j 
Silkworms    still    require    leaves 
duced    on   young  branches   spro 
from    pollarded    mulberry    trees 
some  Mediterranean  regions  oner 
sees  a  tree  that  has  been  left  to 
its  own  way  unguided.  If  a  tree  m; 
said  to  be  dedicated  to  a  certain 
ral  purpose,  then  pruning  is  its  t 
ing  to  assume  a  form  in  which  i 
best  accomplish  its  work.  It  is 
ished  and   kept  in  this  growth 
throughout   its  life,  which  may 
span  measured  in  centuries.  Over 


Pollarded  trees,  pruned  with  the  intent  to  efEect  heaw 
branch  production,  yield  a  crop  of  switches,  above.  Same 


(•-^  i-  u-ril.  hi-lou.  lo  li'>M'ri  -liadf  and  permit  gn 
rapes  on  trellises  fixed  to   trunks  in  Italian  orch 


in  some  European  countries, 
and  branches  are  harvested  as 
r  crops.  Highly  efficient  pruning 
ds  have  been  used  along  the 
;rranean  for  centuries. 

E  have  been  considering  buds 
with  predetermined  places  of 
,  either  at  tips  of  stems  or  at  the 
along  the  stem.  Somewhere  in 
istory  of  structural  evolution 
appeared  another  type  of  bud 
ould  develop  from  embryonic 
anywhere  on  a  stem  or  root  if 
oper  stimulus  was  present.  Such 
:itious  branching  may  be  a  nat- 
unction  of  the  plant's  habit  of 
1  or  it  may  be  the  result  of  me- 
al injury  or  the  attack  of  some 
Drganism  that  causes  abnormal 
jrations  of  the  abortive  branches 
re  known  most  commonly  either 


[ERED  pear  trees  near  the  Rhone 
rown  vertically  flattened,  with 
suit  that  light  spreads  equally 
bem,  allowing  dense  blossoming. 
train   young   fruit  trees,   right. 


as  witches'-broom,  or  as  hexenbesen. 
Pollarding  is  an  extreme  case  of 
heavy  pruning  to  stimulate  increased 
branch  production.  In  the  mountains 
of  southern  Italy  one  sees  chestnut  trees 
that  have  been  cut  down  flush  with  the 
ground  to  permit  a  harvest  of  regular 
crops  of  branches  that  sprout  up  from 
the  stumps.  The  branches  range  in  size 
from  withes  that  are  used  in  basketry 
up  to  poles  large  enough  to  be  used  in 
building  construction.  The  redwood, 
Sequoia  sempervirens,  will  produce  a 
circle  of  new  trees  that  sprout  up  from 
the  rim  of  a  cut  stump.  Olive  trees  are 


famous  for  their  ability  to  produce 
vigorous  adventitious  buds  as  long  as 
there  is  living  cambium  anywhere 
under  the  bark.  Around  the  Mediter- 
ranean one  sees  venerable  olive  trees 
producing  full  crops  of  fruit  from  nor- 
mal, leafy  tops  made  up  of  young, 
vigorous  branches.  These  have  sprung 
from  ancient,  gnarled,  and  fragmented 
trunks  that  have  been  nurtured  by 
many  generations  of  horticulturists. 
In  this  region  an  olive  tree  is  con- 
sidered "young"  for  the  first  three 
hundred  years  of  its  life! 

The  bud  of  the  woody,  deciduous 


ite 


55 


plant  as  we  see  it  today  appeared  late 
in   the   evolution    of   the   land   plants. 
First,  it  was  necessary  for  leaves  to 
evolve  and  then  for  plants  to  be  sub- 
jected to  environments  in  which  cold 
winters  or  dry  periods  interrupted  the 
growing    season    annually.    The   first, 
and  leafless,  land  plants  lived  under 
conditions  of  annual  temperature  and 
moisture  supply  much  more  equable 
than   those  confronting  the  vast  ma- 
joritv  of  modern  plants.  Their  pattern 
of  stem  tip  growth  was  an  advancing 
mass  of  embryonic  tissue  that  divided 
at   intervals    and   gave   rise   to    a    di- 
chotomously  branched  plant.  The  deli- 
cate   tissue    of    the    growing    tip    was 
exposed  to  the  elements  at  all  times, 
but  in  the  mild  climate  that  then  pre- 
vailed the  arrangement  was  adequate. 
In  the  "whisk  fern"  we  find  one  of  the 
few  living  survivors  of  this  primitive 
way  of  life.  It  is  a  small  plant  made  up 
of  leafless  green  stems  bearing  spo- 
rangia, and  can  be  found  in  warm, 
humid  environments   in   tropical  and 
subtropical    regions    of    the    Western 
Hemisphere.  It  is  named  Psilotum  nu- 
dum and  is  a  living  survivor  of  the 
Psilophytales.  which  had  their  begin- 
nings in  the  Devonian  Period— about 
350  million  years  ago. 

THE  overwintering  bud  was  evolved 
as  a  survival  mechanism  when 
cold  seasons  appeared  in  the  life  of  the 
land  plants.  Another  development  that 
has  served  to  protect  the  complicated 
structures  of  a  developing  young  leaf 
is  found  in  the  ferns,  cycads,  and  a  few 
of  the  flowering  plants.  This  is  popu- 
larly known  as  the  "fiddlehead."  The 
new  leaves  first  appear  as  spiral  coils 
of  embryonic  tissue.  The  leaf  slowly 
unrolls  as  the  structural  details  are 
formed  in  successive  order  from  the 
base.  In  many  cases  the  fiddleheads 
are  thickly  covered  with  a  layer  of 
felted,  woolly,  epidermal  hairs  that 
offer  protection  from  temperature 
changes  and  mechanical  injury.  One 
genus  of  flowering  plants— Dro^era, 
the  sundew,  which  traps  insects  on 
sticky  epidermal  hairs— uncoils  its 
leaves  from  a  similar  circinate  ar- 
rangement of  embryonic  tissue. 
Clearly,  it  took  a  long,  long  period  of 
evolutionary  time  for  the  perfection 
of  these  remarkable  survival  devices. 


Leafless  twigs  of  eight  species,  eacb 
having  characteristic  buds,  are  shown 
enlarged  about  one  and  one-half  times. 


Kentucky  Coffee  Tree,  Gymnocladus  dioica 


Chinese  Tree 


Winged  Elm,  Ulmus  alala 


Tulip  Poplar,  Liriodendron  tuh 


Black  Ash,  Fraxinus  nigra 


Sassafras,  Sassafras  alt 
Dogwood,  Cornus  florida 


56 


Sumac,  Rhus  canadensis 


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About  the  Authors 

Dr.  Raymond  L.  Nace,  the  author  of 
"Water  of  the  World."  is  Research  Scien- 
tist in  the  Office  of  the  Chief  of  the  Water 
Resources  Division,  Geological  Survey, 
United  States  Department  of  the  Interior. 
Dr.  Nace's  time  is  devoted  to  research, 
writing,  and  activities  related  to  the  pro- 
posed International  Hydrologieal  Dec- 
ade. He  is  a  member  of  UNESCO's  Ad- 
visory Committee  on  Arid  Zone  Research 
and  has  represented  UNESCO  at  inter- 
national meetings.  In  1959  the  Depart- 
ment of  the  Interior  presented  Dr.  Nace 
with  the  Distinguished  Service  Award. 

Greek  coinage  is  the  subject  of  Miss 
Joan  Fagerlie.  Assistant  Curator  of  Ro- 
man and  Byzantine  Coins  at  The  Ameri- 
can Numismatic  Society.  Miss  Fagerlie, 
who  became  involved  in  numismatics 
through  an  interest  in  ancient  history, 
spent  19.58-59  in  Europe,  principally  in 
Sweden  and  Denmark,  gathering  mate- 
rial for  a  doctoral  thesis  on  late  Roman 
and  Byzantine  solidi,  gold  coins  first 
minted  under  the  Emperor  Constantine. 

Mr.  Peter  Gerhard  based  "Emperors' 
Dye  of  the  Mixtecs"  on  a  paper  he  pre- 
sented at  a  meeting  of  the  International 
Congress  of  Americanists  that  took  place 
in  Mexico  City  in  June  and  July  of  1962. 
Mr.  Gerhard  has  traveled  extensively 
and  is  a  serious  student  of  native  Indian 
industries  of  the  Americas. 

How  certain  moths'  ultrasonic  hear- 
ing helps  them  evade  insectivorous  bats 
is  outlined  in  "Night  Fighters  in  a  Sonic 
Duel,"  by  Dr.  Kenneth  D.  Roeder.  The 
author  is  Professor  of  Physiology  and 
Chairman  of  the  Department  of  Biology 
at  Tufts  University.  This  article  draws 
heavily  on  material  that  Dr.  Roeder  orig- 
inally presented  in  his  book  Nerve  Cells 
and  Insect  Behavior,  Harvard  University 
Press,  copyright  1963  by  The  President 
and  Fellows  of  Harvard  College. 

Dr.  Vernon  Reynolds  and  his  wife 
spent  eight  months  in  the  Budongo  Forest 
observing  the  behavior  of  wild  chimpan- 
zees, which  he  describes  in  "The  'Man  of 
the  Woods.'  '■  Dr.  Reynolds  studied  an- 
thropology at  University  College.  Uni- 
versity of  London.  He  has  been  a  Fellow 
at  the  Center  for  Advanced  Study  in  the 
Behavioral  Sciences,  and  is  writing  a 
book  about  the  Budongo  Forest  chimpan- 
zees, assisted  by  Mrs.  Reynolds. 

The  role  of  buds  in  plant  growth  is 
examined  in  "Index  to  Next  Spring's 
Growth,"  by  Dr.  Virgil  Argo,  recently 
retired  Associate  Professor  of  Biology  at 
The  City  College  of  New  York.  Dr.  Argo, 
an  entomologist,  took  the  photographs 
that  illustrate  his  article. 


BIRD  SONGS 

from  the  TROPICS 


The    Icji^endary    Mii.sician    Wren,    a    ti 

virtuoso,    the   Black-winged    Bellbird,  I 

Lance-tailed      Manakin,      the      Comm 

Potoo,    the    Gilt-lailed    Sapphire    —    : 

songs     of    40     tropical     American     bii 

recorded  in  Venezuela  by  Paul  Schwa 

and    si)ectally    chosen    for    their    vitali 

Produced    by    the    Institute    Xeolropic 

•BIRD    SONGS    FROM   THE    TROPIC 

,'!:i-l/3  rpni.     Immediate     delivery.     .f7 

Order  from  the 

Laboratory    of    Ornitholt 

Cornell     University    —    Ithaca,     New     ' 


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NATURE  IN 


ROCK  &  MINERAL 


iME  YEARS  AGO  I  had  occasion  to 
visit  a  number  of  the  early  iron- 
ice  sites  of  northern  New  England, 
in  some  cases  to  investigate  the 
;es  of  the  iron  ores  that  fed  them, 
ng  such  pleasant  excursions  was  a 
to  Tyson,  in  Windsor  County,  Ver- 
.  There  I  poked  and  probed  in  the 
y  ruin  of  the  Tyson  Furnace,  which 
e  early  part  of  the  nineteenth  cen- 
did  a  thriving  business  in  iron;  its 
ialty  was  stoveplate  castings. 

the  time  of  my  visit,  the  name 
n  seemed  of  no  particular  signifi- 
s,  nor  was  there  anything  spectacu- 
)  be  unearthed  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
urnace.  Its  ruin  held  to  a  familiar 
rn:  the  massive,  crumbling  founda- 
;tones  were  under  trees,  shrubs,  and 
;  the  surrounding  dark  soil  was 
ated  with  the  carbon  of  hardwood 
;oal ;  there  were  blobs  of  glassy  slag 

delicate,    swirling    blue    patterns; 


By  Paul  Mason  Tilden 


lying  about  were  lumps  of  discarded  or 
forgotten  ore,  leached  and  rotted  with 
the  passing  of  the  years. 

But  recently  I  was  again  confronted 
by  the  name  Tyson,  during  a  reconnais- 
sance of  the  old  chromite  mines 
("chrome  mines,"  as  they  are  called 
locally)  of  the  "serpentine  barrens"  in 
north-central  Maryland  and  southeastern 
Pennsylvania.  Was  there  a  connection 
between  the  decayed  iron  furnace  in  the 
tiny  Vermont  village  and  the  chrome 
mines  of  the  serpentine  outcrops?  There 
was,  indeed.  It  turns  out  that  Isaac  Tyson, 
of  Baltimore,  had  not  only  owned  and 
operated  the  Vermont  furnace,  but  was 
also  the  operator— by  purchase,  lease, 
or  other  arrangement— of  every  impor- 
tant or  promising  nineteenth-century 
chromite  mine  in  the  Maryland-Pennsyl- 
vania complex  of  serpentine  exposures. 
In  fact,  he  was  very  nearly  the  sole 
supplier  of  the  mineral  for  the  entire 


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^^^^^^^^^H 

,,'X'^  -'i^^WMPte 

*!»■■'■'■' 

.IlM^H 

^mw^'- 

lu^i^Sj^^^'^'i^^lH 

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ilVE    CHROMITE    specimen,    mined    in 
ce,   contains    flecks    of   disseminated, 


talcose   serpentine.   Serpentine   can   range 
in  color  from  white  to  green  or  near  black. 


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world  between  the  years  1828  and  1850. 
In  Isaac  Tyson's  day,  the  element 
chromium— for  which  the  mineral  chro- 
mite  was,  and  still  is,  the  only  commer- 
cial source— was  used  almost  exclusively 
as  a  constituent  of  chemical  compounds. 
Lead  chromate,  for  example,  was  the 
"chrome  yellow"  of  the  paint  trade.  Po- 
tassium bichromate  was  a  powerful  ox- 
idizing reagent  for  the  laboratory. 
Chromium  compounds  were  widely  used 
in  the  ceramics  industry  as  decorative 
pigments.  Various  chromium  chemicals 
then,  as  now,  were  used  in  cloth-dyeing 
and  leather-tanning;  in  its  oxide  form, 
chromium  has  long  been  the  basis  for 
bricks  and  the  linings  of  high-tempera- 
ture furnaces. 

Stainless  Steel  Days 

TOD.w,  more  than  half  of  the  nation's 
total  consumption  of  chromium  is 
connected  with  the  production  of  so- 
called  stainless  steels.  There  are  many  of 
these  steels,  each  designed  to  meet  some 
special  need;  in  general,  such  needs  are 
for  high-strength  metals  that  will  with- 
stand extreme  conditions  of  temperature 
or  corrosion.  Jet-engine  components,  gas 
turbines,  and  spacecraft  propulsion  units 
require  stainless  steels  immune  to  the 
effects  of  high  temperature;  tanks  and 
piping  used  to  store  or  transport  power- 
ful, chemically  active  liquids  and  gases 
demand  great  quantities  of  the  metal. 
Steels  of  this  kind,  built  around  a  basic 
alloy  of  iron  carbide,  chromium,  and 
nickel  may  require  the  addition  of  other 
elements  such  as  cobalt,  columbium, 
tantalum,  aluminum,  tungsten,  or  copper 
to  meet  specialized  requirements. 

The  uses  of  chromium  that  are  most 
familiar  to  the  public  include  the 
chrome-plating  of  various  household 
utensils  and  plumbing  fixtures,  as  well 
as  stainless  steel  cutlery;  the  metal  is 
a  toughener  in  the  high-speed  drill  bits 
used  by  the  man  of  the  house  in  his  elec- 
tric drill;  its  use  in  the  plating  of  those 
ever  changing  stripes  and  streaks  that 
distinguish  modern  automobiles  must  be 
chromium's  most  renowned  role. 

As  a  mineral,  chromite  is  not  spec- 
tacular to  the  eye.  In  theoretical  compo- 
sition it  would  be  a  straight  chromate  of 
iron,  but  as  found  in  nature  small  per- 
centages of  aluminum  and  magnesium 
replace  some  of  the  iron.  Mere  visual 
inspection  of  field  specimens  may  easily 
lead  the  unwary  to  a  confusion  with  the 
common  mineral  magnetite.  Magnetite  is 
black  and,  of  course,  magnetic.  Chromite 
is  about  the  same  shade  of  black  and— 
unfortunately  for  the  beginning  collector 
—is  also  occasionally  inclined  to  be  some- 
what magnetic.  Both  minerals,  when 
found  as  crystals,  ordinarily  occur  as 
octahedrons,  sometimes  of  very  perfect 
form.  Both  are  of  about  the  same  specific 
gravity  (in  the  neighborhood  of  5.0.  or 
quite  heavy)   and  are  of  about  the  same 


High-grade  amphibole  asbestos  of  "c 
fiber"  type   commonly  fills  small  fiss 


hardness  (around  5^2  on  the  ] 
scale).  A  streak-plate,  which  can 
made  from  the  "wrong,"  or  ungla 
side  of  a  broken  bathroom  tile,  is  a  g 
help  in  field  identification;  chro: 
yields  a  brown  streak,  while  that  of  r 
netite  is  ordinarily  a  dull  black.  C 
mite  and  magnetite  are,  in  fact, 
close  mineralogical  relations.  Both 
long  to  the  spinel  group,  which  is 
divided  into  spinel,  the  aluminatt 
magnesium;  magnetite,  an  oxide  of  ii 
and  chromite,  the  chromate  of  iron. 

Piedmont  Bonanza 

CHROMITE  deposits  in  northeas 
Maryland  and  southeastern  P 
sylvania  occur  in  a  rather  narrow 
of  ancient,  metamorphosed  rocks 
curves  gently  to  the  northeast  arc 
the  straggling  indentation  of  Chesapt 
Bay,  in  Maryland,  and  goes  on  to  t( 
the  northernmost  part  of  Delaware, 
tinning  into  the  vicinity  of  Philadelf 
The  total  length  of  this  chromite-bea 
segment,  which  is  composed  of  Pre( 
brian  and  perhaps  early  Paleo 
quartzites,  schists,  marbles,  and 
canic  "greenstones,"  is  about  160  m 
It  is  no  wider  than  40  miles  at  any  pi 
The  eastern  border  of  this  so-ca 
Piedmont  Upland  is  the  Fall  Line,  w! 
the  younger  sediments  of  the  Atla 
Coast  province  lie  over  the  top  of 
vastly  ancient  crystallines;  to  the 
of  the  belt  there  are  various  Paleo 
limestones  and  marbles,  as  well  as  s' 
and  sandstones  of  Triassic  age. 

The  curving  belt  of  Precambrian  n 
of  the  Piedmont  Upland  contains  nui 
ous  elongated  masses  of  serpentin 
rock  type  which  is  essentially  a  hyd 
silicate  of  magnesium— representing 
metamorphosed  remnants  of  anc 
ultrabasic  intrusives;  magmas  crea 
rocks  like  pyroxenite.  dunite,  and  ] 
dotite,  rich  in  magnesium  and  iron  i 
erals,  and  poor  in  acid  components 


ctures  in  the  serpentine  rocks  of  the 
and-Pennsylvania     chromite     fields. 


Magnetite  mined  in  the  serpentine  belt  of 
upper    Piedmont    region    almost    always 


assayed   some   small   amount   of  titanium, 
in   magmatic    segregation,   like    chromite. 


z  and  certain  of  the  feldspars. 
3cted  with  these  serpentine  masses 
)ncentrations  of  chromite  and  mag- 
;  in  some  of  the  associated  quartz- 
granitic  pegmatites,  soda  feldspar 
massive  corundum  are  present, 
faults  in  the  serpentine  are  often 
lied  by  asbestos  of  the  amphibole 
y,  and  sometimes  by  the  carbonate 
gnesium  known  as  magnesite. 
;  serpentine  itself  is  an  interesting 
with  its  typical  "greasy"  feel  to 
luch;  its  color  ranges,  through  the 
is  outcroppings,  from  buff  and  light 
to  emerald  green,  dark  green,  and 
.  A  variety  of  rich  green  rock, 
jd  with  "stringers"  and  veinlets  of 
e,  has  been  quarried  here  and  there 
!  district  for  nearly  two  centuries, 
old  as  an  ornamental  stone  under 
ime  of  "green  marble"  or  "serpen- 
narble." 

ommercially  speaking  there  can  be 
objection  to  the  term  serpentine 
le,  but  mineralogically  it  is  a  mis- 
r  and  is  quite  misleading.  Marble 
ystalline  rock  composed  essentially 
Icium  carbonate  or  a  mixture  of 
im  and  magnesium  carbonates; 
itine,  as  noted  above,  is  a  hydrous 
esium  silicate.  A  marble  containing 
ntine  is  properly  known  as  ophical- 
rhe  unfortunate  expression  serpen- 
larble  is  not  wholly  confined  to  the 
n  of  trade.  It  may  have  originated 
Dr.  A.  A.  Hayes,  onetime  State  As- 
of  Massachusetts.  In  discussing  the 
ntines  of  Vermont  in  the  Vermont 
gical  Survey,  1861,  Dr.  Hayes  said: 
iew  of  .  .  .  chemical  composition 
.  .  physical  characters,  I  propose 
his  rock,  quarried  for  ornamental 
)ses,  be  called  serpentine  marble.") 
s  interesting  to  note  that  the  ser- 
le  areas  under  discussion  can  easily 
tinguished  by  the  rock  and  mineral 
tor.  The  soil  of  the  Piedmont  Up- 
s  generally  rich,  and  the  farms  and 


woodlands  fertile.  But  in  the  case  of 
terrain  that  is  underlain  by  serpentine, 
the  soil  is  saturated  with  minerals  rich 
in  magnesium  and  lacking  in  the  potash 
and  carbonate  minerals  and  hence  is 
exceedingly  thin  and  poor.  Such  areas 
are  quite  appropriately  called  the  ser- 
pentine barrens.  Their  appearance  today 
is  probably  pretty  much  as  it  was  in  the 
time  of  Isaac  Tyson.  Writing  about  the 
barrens,  an  author  named  H.  H.  Hayden, 


Esq.,  said  in  1814  that  "the  mind  seems 
involuntarily  to  feel  the  impulse  of  mel- 
ancholy. ...  A  gloomy  silence  pervades 
around,  while  every  road  on  the  serpen- 
tine range  bears  the  most  decided  marks 
of  sterility.  .  .  ." 

Chromite  Kings 

THIS,  then,  provides  a  background  for 
the  discovery,  between  the  years  1808 
and    1810,    of    chromite   in   the    United 


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States.  It  was  no  doubt  the  first  im- 
portant discovery  of  large  commercial 
quantities  of  the  mineral  anywhere  in 
the  world.  It  is  difficult  to  discuss  "first 
discoveries"  beclouded  by  the  lapse  of 
many-score  years,  by  insufficient  records, 
or  by  hearsay.  For  instance,  one  promi- 
nent American  geologist  states  that  the 
first  commercial  discovery  of  chromite 
was  made  in  Norway  in  1820,  and  the 
second  in  Maryland  in  1827.  These  dates 
are  obviously  in  error.  Isaac  Tyson  was 
very  probably  mining  chromite  in  Mary- 
land by  1811.  and  had  actively  begun  to 
build  his  chromium  empire  by  1817. 
There  must  also  have  been  early  com- 
mercial sources  of  chromite  in  Europe. 
The  locale  of  the  first  chromite  dis- 
covery in  America  was  in  the  Bare  Hills, 
just  north  of  the  city  of  Baltimore.  To- 
day, the  area  is  almost  a  part  of  the  city 
itself,  although  still  beyond  its  official 
limits.  The  discovery  is  credited  to  an 
Englishman  by  the  name  of  Henfrey, 
who  had  been  an  employee  of  a  chrome- 
pigment  manufacturing  plant  in  Eng- 
land (which  must  already  have  had  some 
reliable  source  of  chromite).  Henfrey 
knew  chromite  ore  when  he  saw  it.  Isaac 
Tyson  was  at  the  time  spending  the 
summer  with  his  father,  Jesse  Tyson,  at 
the  family  estate  in  Bare  Hills.  Isaac  who 
had  started  in  business  with  his  father 
as  a  grain  merchant  in  Baltimore,  had 


Mr.  Tilden,  author  and  editor,  writes 
regular  columns  for  this  magazine  both 
on  rocks  and  minerals  and  on  current 
conservation  legislation  in  Washington. 


at  one  time  been  an  apothecary's  ap- 
prentice, and  possessed  a  keen  interest 
in  chemistry.  Henfrey  drew  Tyson's  at- 
tention to  the  ore,  and  the  latter  became 
deeply  interested  in  its  possibilities.  The 
Bare  Hills  deposit,  which  was  in  a  small 
serpentine  mass,  was  opened— perhaps 
by  Tyson  himself— sometime  before  1811, 
and  the  chromite  was  reduced  to  lead 
chromate  for  shipment  to  a  Philadelphia 
paint  factory.  There  it  was  used  in  manu- 
facturing paint  for  chairs  and  signs. 

This  was  the  birth  of  Tyson's  near- 
monopoly  in  the  world's  market  for 
chromium  chemicals  in  the  early  nine- 
teenth century.  He  searched  out  further 
deposits  of  the  mineral  along  the  length 
and  breadth  of  the  belt  of  serpentine 
outcrops  in  the  Piedmont  Upland.  Com- 
bining his  own  discoveries  with  a  sense 
of  business  that  allowed  him  to  let  others 
make  discoveries  for  him,  Tyson,  by 
1828.  had  gained  control  of  the  world's 
supply  of  chromite.  His  Wood  Chromite 
Mine,  almost  on  the  Maryland-Pennsyl- 
vania line— opened  in  1828— was  a  bo- 
nanza, and  alone  supplied  most  of  the 
world's  chromite  needs  for  several  years. 


Not  all  of  his  mine  purchases  and  le 
were  good  ones,  as  might  be  expecl 
his  record  books  show  that  some  of  tl 
were  "of  no  account,"  or  "of  no  av; 

In  1845.  Isaac  Tyson  and  his  son  J 
(old  Jesse's  grandson)  establishei 
plant  known  as  "Jesse  Tyson  and  C 
pany"  in  Baltimore.  It  assured  a  fai 
monopoly  on  the  chromium-chemica 
dustry  in  the  United  States  for  the 
lowing  forty  years.  Isaac  Tyson  diei 
1861,  and  six  years  later  his  four  i 
incorporated  the  Tyson  Mining  C 
pany,  and  extended  their  interests 
far  afield  as  California,  where  chroi 
was  being  discovered  along  the  ser] 
tine  belts  of  the  Mother  Lode  cour 
The  Tysons  sold  their  chromite-trea 
works  in  Baltimore  in  1902.  and  ret 
from  business.  The  plant  is  still  open 
by  a  nationally  known  chemical  and 
corporation,  which  now  imports  its 

All  told,  the  chromite  productioi 
the  Maryland  and  Pennsylvania  ser] 
tine  bodies  has  amounted  to  perl 
350,000  tons,  of  which  a  small  perc 
age  has  been  won  as  "placer  chrom 
from  the  streams  that  flow  from, 
across,  the  barrens.  There  have  beer 
ports  that  the  total  output  of  the  i 
may  have  been  in  the  neighborhooi 
half  a  million  tons,  but— even  allov 
for  the  never-recorded  production 
obscure  or  very  small  mining  operat 


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a  figure  is  probably  questionable. 
s  interesting  that  spectroscopic 
es  of  cliromite  samples  from  a 
r  of  the  Piedmont  Upland  mines 

minute   traces   of   several   unex- 

elements.  Among  these  are  zinc, 
nese,  cobalt,  vanadium,  zirconium, 
a,  and  the  very  rare  scandium, 
um's    existence    had    been    pre- 

by  the  Russian  scientist  Mende- 
i  the  basis  of  his  periodic  table  of 
ments  several  years  before  it  was 
;red  by  Nilson  in  1879. 
the  mineral  collector,  there  are  still 
50od  things  to  be  uncovered  on  the 

of  the  old  chrome  mines  of  the 
tine  belt.  Aside  from  handsome 
lens  of  the  chromite  ore  itself, 
ite  finds  might  include  colorful 
ium  antigorite  of  pink  or  lavender 
tie  semiprecious  variety  of  serpen- 
Ued  williamsite,  in  its  shimmering, 
icent  emerald  green;  tourmaline; 
;rerite,  which  is  a  purplish,  chro- 
variety  of  the  mica-like  mineral 
e;  genthite,  a  hydrous  magnesian 
;  in  which  some  of  the  magnesium 
iced  by  nickel;  or  zaratite,  a  basic 

carbonate  that  sometimes  occurs 
11  veins  in  the  more  massive  lumps 
)mite.  Well-mannered  mineral  col- 

always,  of  course,  request  permis- 

property  owners  before  invading 
e  of  an  old  mine  or  mine  dump. 

jRAL  History,  Volume  LXXII 

he  annual  index  for  Natural 
ISTORY,  Volume  LXXII  (Jan- 
ary  through  December,  1963) 
Lay  be  obtained  by  writing  to: 

INDEX 
'ican  Museum  of  Natural  History 
9  Street  at  Central  Park  West 
New  York,  New  York  10024 

ERRATA 
sentence  on  page  24,  column  1 
mber,  1963)  should  have  read: 
It  Mycenae,  the  city  of  Agamem- 
it  Pylos,  the  city  of  Nestor;  and 
issos,  the  city  of  Idomeneus— three 
;  Homeric  heroes."  The  libation 
(page  24)  is  Dictaean.  Moses  re- 
tire Law  in  Exodus,  and  Africa 
nitted  from  the  Phoenician  colony 
page  27). 


St  details  the  photographer,  artist. 

;r  source  of 

illustrations,  by  page. 

tee  Boltin 

26-27-Peter  Gerhard 

h  Sedacca 

28-29-Dcnald  Cordry  ex- 

rich Hartmann, 

cept  28,  left-Muriel  Ries 

29-bottom-AMNH  after 

rtment  of  the 

Peter  Gerhard 

lice  of  the 

30-31-Lee  Boltin 

Engineers 

32-39-Kenneth  D.  Roeder 

Geological 

40-Mount  Wilson  and 

Palomar  Observatories 

MNH  after 

42-Helmut  Wimmer 

t.  Nace 

43-Sky  Map,  AMNH 

ography  flown 

44-51-Vernon  Reynolds 

^avy  for  U.S. 

except  diagrams,  46-48- 

al  Survey 

AMNH  after  Vernon 

Geological 

Reynolds 

52-56-Virgil  Argo 

1  Hartmann, 

59-AMNH 

50-Paul  Mason  Tilden 

ee  Boltin 

61-AMNH 

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Suggested 
Additional  Reading 

WATER  OF  THE  WORLD 

Conservation  of  Ground  Water. 
H.  E.  Thomas.  (Sponsored  by  The  Con- 
servation Foundation.)  McGraw-Hill, 
N.Y.,  1951. 

Water  Facts  for  the  Nation's  Fu- 
ture. W.  B.  Langbein  and  W.  G.  Hoyt. 
The  Ronald  Press  Company,  N.Y.,  1959. 

A  History  of  Land  Use  in  Arid  Re- 
gions: Arid  Zone  Research,  XVH. 
edited  by  L.  Dudley  Stamp.  UNESCO, 
N.Y.,  1961. 

Water:  U.S.  Department  of  Agri- 
culture Yearbook.  1955. 

"Water,"  Roger  Revelle.  Scientific 
American,  VoL  209,  No.  3,  pages  92-108; 
September,  1963. 

MONIES  OF  ANTIQUITY 
Greek  Coins.  C.  T.  Seltman.  Methuen 

&  Company,  London,  ed.  2,  1955. 

Museum  Notes,  a  journal   of  The 

American    Numismatic    Society.    N.Y., 

is    published    annually    and    covers    all 

fields  of  numismatics. 

EMPERORS"  DYE  OF  THE 
MIXTECS 
Mexico    South:    The    Isthmus    of 
Tehuantepec.   M.   Covarrubias.  Alfred 
A.  Knopf,  N.Y.,  1946. 

American  Seashells.  R.  T.  Abbott. 
D.  Van  Nostrand,  Princeton,  1954. 

NIGHT  FIGHTERS  IN  A  SONIC 
DUEL 

The  Electrical  Activity  of  the 
Nervous  System.  M.A.B.  Brazier.  Mac- 
millan,  N.Y.,  ed.  2,  1960. 

Listening  in  the  Dark.  D.  R.  Griffin. 
Yale  University  Press,  New  Haven,  1958. 

Echoes  of  Bats  and  Men,  D.  R.  Grif- 
fin. Doubleday  and  Co.,  N.Y.,  1959. 
(Paperback.) 

"The  Detection  and  Evasion  of  Bats 
by  Moths."  K.  D.  Boeder  and  A.  E.  Treat. 
American  Scientist,  Vol.  49.  pages  13.5- 
148;  1961. 

THE  "MAN  OF  THE  WOODS" 
Animal  Behavior.  J.  P.  Scott.   Uni- 
versity of  Chicago  Press,  Chicago.  1958. 
Reprinted  in  paperback  by  Doubleday 
and  Co..  N.Y.,  1963. 

Chimpanzees.  R.  M.  Yerkes.  Yale 
University  Press,  New  Haven,  1943. 

INDEX  TO  NEXT  SPRING'S 
GROWTH 

Plant  Anatomy.  K.  Esau.  John 
Wiley  &  Sons,  Inc.,  N.Y.,  1953. 

Plant  Morphology.  A.  W.  Haupt. 
McGraw-Hill,  N.Y.,  1953. 

The  Standard  Cyclopedia  of  Horti- 
culture. L.  H.  Bailey.  Macmillan,  N .Y ., 
1930;  Vol.  3,  pages  2817-2822. 

Introduction  to  Plant  Anatomy. 
A.  J.  Fames  and  L.  H.  MacDaniels. 
McGraw-Hill,  N.Y.,  1947. 


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64 


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City,  State- 


Incorporating  Nature  Magazine 


-'~~W 


7 


msmmim'mf'mmmmmsm''' 


-ebruary  1964  .500 


A  MESSAGE  FROM 
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es,  as  well  as  an  authoritative,  illustrated 
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;  Painting  by  Albert  Chatelet,  Director 
mce's  renowned  Lille  Museum, 
h  your  family  or  a  few  appreciative 
s,  you  will  enjoy  a  private  showing  of  an 
irdinary  collection  of  canvases.  You  will 
in  astonishment  as  the  full  splendor  of 
t's  daring  "Luncheon  on  the  Grass"  ap- 

on  your  own  wall  in  its  entire  nine-foot 
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to  world-renowned  paintings  by  Degas, 
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PRESIDENT 

Alexander  M.  White 

DIRECTOR  DEPUTY  DIRECTOR 

James  A.  Oliver  Walter  F.  Meister 


MANAGING  EDITOR 

Robert  E.  Williamson 

EXECUTIVE  EDITOR 

Helene  Jordan 

ASSOCIATE  EDITORS 

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COPY  EDITORS 

Florence  Brauner.  Florence  Klodin 

REVIEWS 

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PHOTOGRAPHY 

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PRODUCTION 

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Mairgreg  Ross.  Asst. 

CONTRIBUTIONS 

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David  Linton.  Julian  D.  Corrington 


EDITORIAL  ADVISERS 

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T.  C.  Schneirla  Richard  K.  Winslow 


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Natural  Histor 

Incorporating  Nature  Magazine 

THE  JOURNAL  OF  THE  AMERICA!^  MUSEUM  OF  NATURAL  HIS! 


Vol.  LXXIII 


FEBRUARY  1964 


Philip  C.  HammoTK 


ARTICLES 
ROSE-RED  CITY  OF  PETRA 
ORNAMENTAL  EQUINES 

FISHES  AND  CLIMATES  C.  Lavett  SmitI 

COLOR  CHANGE:  CHAMELEON  CAMOUFLAGE    Herndon  G.  Dowlini 
THE  HAWAIIAN  MONK  SEAL  Dale  W.  Ria 

AN  "ANTLERED"  GROTESQUE  Lars  Holmber} 

SNOW  EATERS  OF  ALBERTA  Deryk  Bodingtoj 


DEPARTMENTS 
REVIEWS 
SKY  REPORTER 
ABOUT  THE  AUTHORS 
NATURE  AND  THE  CAMERA 
SUGGESTED  ADDITIONAL  READING 


Alfred  Kidder  L 
Thomas  D.  Nicholsor 

David  Lintor 


CIRCULATION  MANAGER 

Joseph  Saulina 


COVER:  This  is  the  Khazneh  Far'un— the  Treasury— in  the  ancient  city  of  I 
carved,  like  other  buildings  at  the  site,  out  of  the  roseate  rocks  that  have 
thirty  centuries  of  recorded  travel  in  this  part  of  Jordan.  From  the  time  of  M 
to  whose  wand  is  attributed  a  cleft  in  the  mountains,  to  modern  tourists,  v 
interest  in  the  area  provides  an  important  source  of  revenue  to  the  country, 
after  wave  of  peoples  have  lived  in  the  area  and  have  left  their  own  distin 
marks.  Its  histoi7  is  a  significant  one,  and  its  description  begins  on  pag 
The  photograph  was  taken  by  George  Holton  who  visited  Petra  this  past 

The  American  Museum  is  open  to  the  public  without  charge  every  d: 
during  the  year.  Your  support,  through  membership  and  contribution 
helps  make  this  possible.  The  Museum  is  equally  in  need  of  suppo 
for  all  of  its  work  in  the  fields  of  research,  education,  and  exhibitio 


Publication  Office:  The  An 


an  Museum  of  Natural   History,   Central  Park  We 


N.  Y.  10024.  Published  monthly,  October  through  May:  bimonthly  Jun( 
year.   In   Canada,   and   all    other   countries:  S5.50   a   year.    Single    co[ 
New  York,  N.  Y.,  and  at  additional  offices.  Copyright,  1964,  by  Th 
No  part   o£    this   periodical   may   be    reproduced    without    the  written 
Nature  Macazihe,  registered  U.S.  Patent  Office.  Unsolicited   manuscripi 
editorial  office  wiil  be  handled  with  all  possible  care,  hut  we  cannot  aj 
The  opinions  expressed  by  authors  are  their  own  and  do  not  necessarily  re 


79th  S 
r.   Subsi 


Ne' 


5.50 


.    Second    class    postage    i 

in  Museum   of  Natural    I 

of   Natural   History.   Tt 

nd    illustrations  submitted 

ae  responsibility  for  their 

t  The  American  Museum's 


Can  you 


touch  each  knee  to  your  forehead? 


do  25  push-ups  in  one  minute? 


A  little  difficult?  Send  for  this  booklet. 


while  you're  at  it,  try  some  sit-ups. 

will  do.  And  touch  your  toes  without 
:  your  legs.  Try  walking  a  mile  in  about 
ninutes. 

ly  now  you're  getting  the  idea.  You  need 
.  Nothing  to  be  ashamed  of.  Practically 
e  does.  Every  day.  Regardless  of  age. 
/our  doctor.  He'll  tell  you  how  important 

is  in  keeping  you  fit.  And  in  helping  you 
':  look  vigorous. 

;  is  a  way  you  can  get  the  daily  exercise 
d.  And  in  only  fifteen  minutes  a  day.  The 
:le.  The  family  exercise  machine.  The 
;  that  exercises  every  important  muscle 


in  your  body.  With  exercises  that  are  pro- 
grammed exactly  to  your  needs.  There's  no  shak- 
ing or  rubbing  or  baking.  No  useless  flushed 
faces.  Just  real  exercise. 

That's  why  the  Exercycle  is  used  by  collegiate 
and  professional  athletes.  And  by  hundreds  of 
thousands  of  people  throughout  the  country. 

There's  only  one  way 
you  can  get  more  infor- 
mation on  the  Exercycle. 
With  the  coupon.  Fill  it 
outandsendittous  today. 

It's  easier  than  doing 

25  push-ups.  (EXERCVCLEa  ond  ALL-BODlf  ACTION 


^'^:M.>i. 


Exercycle  Corporation 

630  Third  Avenue 

New  York,  N.  Y.,  10017 


n  Send  me  the  FREE  Exercycle  Guide  to  Physical  Fitness. 
Mr.  Mrs.  Miss 


City_ 


PHYSICIAN 


He's  an  examiner  ...  a  consultant  ...  an  expert  on  injuries  ...  a  trouble-shooter  wherever 
employe  physical  welfare  is  concerned.  He's  a  dedicated  man  with  a  vital,  demanding  job 
.  .  .  the  General  Motors  doctor.  Here  he's  checking  an  employe's  blood  pressure — part  of  a 
complete  examination  to  determine  this  man's  fitness  for  his  job — and  to  evaluate  his 
future  work  capability. 

The  prevention  and  control  of  on-the-job  injuries  are  this  doctor's  prime  concern.  He  deals 
mostly  in  remedial  medicine  rather  than  reparative  medicine.  Because  injuries  away  from 
work  are  12  times  as  numerous  as  those  on  the  job,  more  than  three  out  of  four  visits  to 
the  Medical  Department  are  for  non-occupational  consultation  and  examination,  but 
no  attempt  is  made  to  take  the  place  of  the  family  doctor. 

This  doctor  is  one  of  146  physicians  and  638  nurses  who  make  up  the  GM  Medical  Staff 
in  plants  throughout  the  United  States  and  Canada.  The  GM  Medical  Department  was 
established  in  1915  as  one  of  the  pioneer  programs  of  its  kind.  GM  doctors  and  nurses 
work  with  the  same  ultra-modern  equipment  you'll  find  in  the  finest  clinics  and  hospitals. 
As  part  of  their  accident-prevention  work,  they  tie  in  closely  with  plant  safety  departments. 
The  people  in  the  Medical  Departments — doctors  and  nurses — provide  a  very  important 
service  to  General  Motors.  They're  working  to  improve  the  physical  welfare  of  people. 
And  people,  of  coiirse,  are  the  number-one  asset  of  General  Motors. 

GENERAL  MOTORS  IS  PEOPLE... 

Making  Better  Things  For  You 


Reviews 

resh  approach  to  man's     ^^ 
cultural  background 


By  Alfred  Kidder  11 


RY  OF  Mankind,  Volume  I:  Pre- 

{Y  AND  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  ClVILI- 

(,  by  Jacquetta  Hawkes  and  Sir 
rd  Woolley.  Harper  and  Row, 
;  873  pp.,  illus. 

i  is  the  first  of  a  proposed  six- 
lume  history  of  mankind  to  be 
had  under  the  aegis  of  the  Liter- 
al Commission  for  a  History  of 
ific  and  Cultural  Development  of 
nd.  The  Commission  is  a  part  of 
CO,  and  the  book  is  copyrighted 
It  agency.  Miss  Hawkes  and  the 
r  Leonard  Woolley  were  commis- 

to  cover  more  than  a  million 
of  human  history  from  its  begin- 
to  the  end  of  the  Bronze  Age  at 
1200  B.C.  This  formidable  task  was 
;d,  as  the  Commission's  full  title 

explicit,  toward  the  production 
istory  stressing  scientific  and  cul- 
development  rather  than  that  of 
al  institutions.  For  this  first 
e— covering  a  period  ending  only 
f  after  the  invention  of  writing— 
e,  which  includes  political  organ- 
[,  must  be  inferred  from  archeo- 
1  data.  This  means  that  every  scrap 
ormation  on  the  social  organiza- 
f  our  remote  Stone  Age  ancestors 
ived  from  the  imperishable  ob- 
hey  made  and  used,  and  from  our 
;dge  of  the  climatic,  faunal,  and 

conditions  under  which  they 
Bypassing  political  history  at  this 
is  no  real  problem,  but  in  later 
es  it  may  be  most  difficult  to  sep- 
the  social,  political,  legal,  and 
ristic  aspects  of  culture, 
lime  I  of  this  history  is  thus  a  com- 
isive  treatment  of  a  very  long  and 
)road  range  of  prehistory  with  a 
scientific  and  cultural  history  de- 
from  the  early  writings  of  the 
e  East.  The  first  part,  entitled 
istory,"  begins  with  a  chapter  on 
nvironmental  conditions  of  the 
5cene  Epoch  and  another  on  hu- 
ivolution.  The  latter  is  apparently 

largely  on  the  ideas  of  Le  Gros 
;  it  was  written  before  the  appear- 
if  C.S.  Coon's  The  Origin  of  Races, 
oes  not  become  involved  with  his 
Aiat  controversial  hypotheses.  Miss 


Hawkes  then  outlines  the  history  of  the 
Paleolithic  and  Mesolithic  cultures  of 
the  world,  including  the  Paleo-Indian 
of  the  New  World.  The  latter  is  surpris- 
ingly up  to  date  for  a  book  such  as  this, 
the  actual  production  of  which  must 
have  been  long  delayed  between  manu- 
script submission  and  publication. 

Following  the  historical  chapter  there 
are  topical  discussions  of  the  develop- 
ment of  the  human  mind,  the  origins  of 
speech  and  language,  society,  material 
culture  (with  an  appendix  on  the  prin- 
cipal types  of  tools  and  weapons),  and 
of  art  and  religion.  This  scheme  is  re- 
peated for  the  Neolithic.  Much  the  same 
pattern  is  followed  by  Woolley  for  the 
Bronze  Age,  with  topical  discussions  of 
urbanization  of  society,  social  structure, 
techniques  (including  arts  and  crafts). 
and  economy.  The  sciences— mathe- 
matics, astronomy,  calendrics,  medicine, 
and  surgery— are  also  treated,  as  are 
religion  and  the  fine  and  applied  arts. 
Both  parts  of  the  book  have  excellent 
photographs  and  drawings. 

As  an  Americanist  with  no  firsthand 
experience  in  Old  World  archeology,  I 
am  not  competent  to  evaluate  the  infer- 
ences drawn  from  the  enormous  amount 
of  archeological  evidence  taken  into  ac- 
count by  the  authors.  Other  reviewers 
have  been  critical  of  certain  of  Miss 
Hawkes's  interpretations  of  the  Neo- 
lithic and  of  Woolley's  reconstruction 
of  Bronze  Age  culture  in  the  Middle 
East.  Nevertheless.  I  feel  this  work  is  a 
great  deal  more  useful  than  recently 
published  collections  of  articles  on 
archeology  by  many  authors,  in  spite  of 
the  richness  of  their  illustrations.  (Ex- 
amples are  The  Dawn  of  Civilization  and 
its  sequel.  Vanished  Civilizations  of  the 
Ancient  World,  both  published  by  Mc- 
Graw-Hill.) Such  volumes  often  suffer 
from  the  lack  of  continuity  and  multi- 
plicity of  authors,  a  situation  Sir  Leon- 
ard Woolley  well  appreciated.  In  connec- 
tion with  the  vastness  and  complexity  of 
the  task  confronting  him,  he  remarked 
in  his  preface:  "My  reason  for  attempt- 
ing it  is  that  in  this  far-reaching  study 
of  civilization's  progress,  unity  of  view 
is  more  important  than  detailed  analy- 
sis, and  a  volume  of  essays  by  different 


Beautiful,  authoritative 

bool^s  on 

nature's  wonders 


THE  NATURAL  HISTORY 
OF  NORTH  AMERICAN 

AMPHIBIANS  AND  REPTILES 

James  A.  Oliver,  Director,  American 
Museum  of  Natural  History.  A  fasci- 
nating account  of  the  folklore,  life 
histories,  mating  habits,  and  idio- 
syncrasies of  the  lizards,  frogs, 
toads,  turtles,  and  snakes  of  North 
America,  86  illustrations  provide 
unique  records  of  their  life  stages. 
$7.95 


AMERICAN  SPIDERS 

Willis  J.  Gertsch,  American  Museum 
of  Natural  History.  How  spiders  live, 
work,  and  reproduce.  "Dr.  Gertsch's 
book,"  says  Edwin  Way  Teale  in 
Natural  History,  "is,  and  is  likely  to 
remain  for  years  to  come,  the  book 
on  the  natural  history  of  North  Amer- 
ican spiders."  119  plates,  45  in 
color.  $7.95 


AMERICAN  SEA  SHELLS 

R.  Tucker  Abbott,  Academy  of  Nat- 
ural   Sciences    of    Philadelphia. 

RACHEL  CARSON  SAYS— "In  my 
opinion  Dr.  Abbott  has  done  a  superb 
job. ..There  are  many  books  on 
shells,  but  Dr.  Abbott  has  achieved 
a  fresh  and  distinctively  modern 
treatment."  Illustrated  by  40  color 
and  black-and-white  plates,  and  100 
line  drawings.  $15.00 


THE  BOOK  OF  BIRD  LIFE, 
2nd  ed. 

Arthur  A.  Allen,  formerly  of  Cornell 
University.  A  complete  revision  of 
this  classic  work.  250  illustrations, 
many  in  full  color,  $9.75 


10  DAY  FREE  EXAMINATION  — 

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Dept.  T-NH-2, 120Alexander  St., Princeton,  N.J. 
Please  sena  me; 

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CAN AMPHIBIANS  AND  REPTILES  @  $7.95 
n  AMERICAN  SPIDERS  @  $7.95 
n  AMERICAN  SEA  SHELLS  @  $15.00 
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THE 

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group  on  the  Third  Annual  Gardens  Around  The  World  Tour. 

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We  will  view  the  Taj  Mahal  at  sunset,  fly  over  the  Himalayas  to 
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golf  on  a- championship  course. 

6 


We  will  be  guests  of  the  Princess  Chumbhot  of  Thailand,  and 
ness  a  performance  of  the  bejewelled  Thai  dancers  in  Bang 

To  cap  all  this  splendor,  we  will  visit  ancient  Athens  and  s[ 
a  long  weekend  on  a  luxury  cruiser  among  the  fabled  G 
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inclusive.  Jet  flight-46  days-April  llth-May  26th,  1964. 


LINDBLAD  TRAVEL,  INC.  1  East  53rd  Street,  New  York  22,  N.\ 

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ilists  could  hardly  fail  to  lack  just 
alance  and  harmony  demanded  by 
hole,  of  which  each  of  these  sub- 
is  but  a  part."  With  this  I  heartily 

but  the  editorial  handling  of  the 
e   by   the   Commission   has   intro- 

at  least  some  of  the  disharmonies 
lir  Leonard  wished  to  avoid.  Both 
!lawkes"s  and  Sir  Leonard's  manu- 
s  were   submitted   to   all  the   Na- 

Commissions  for  UNESCO  and 
nerous  specialists.  Comments  were 

incorporated  in  the  texts  or  in 
at  the  ends  of  chapters,  with  the 
entators  identified  by  name.  The 
rs    themselves    had    already    con- 

a  number  of  specialists  of  their 
;hoosing,  and  it  would  seem  that 
;  interests  of  speedy  publication 
this  profusion  of  opinions,  much 
rom  Soviet  archeologists  stressing 
St  interpretations,  could  well  have 
)mitted.  Some  critics  feel  that  this 
0  way  to  write  history  and  that  it 
the  work  unimaginative  and  dull, 
lid  not  go  so  far  as  this.  Miss 
es,  as  those  who  have  read  The 
know,  writes  so  well  that  even  her 
ptions  of  stone  tool  types  are  a 
ire  to  read.  Woolley  also  wrote 
rell  indeed.  This  volume  should,  I 
B,  prove  interesting  and  instruc- 
ispecially  if  the  notes  are  skipped 
lose  interested  in  human  history 
its  very  beginnings. 

'.idder  is  an  archeologist  and  is 
ate  Director  of  the  University 
m,  the  University  of  Pennsylvania. 


AST  Horizon,  by  Raymond  F.  Das- 
The  Macniillan  Company,  $6.95; 
<.,illus.THE  Place  No  One  Knevs?; 
Canyon,  by  Eliot  Porter,  edited  by 
Brower.  Sierra  Club,  $25.00;  170 


rot  a  pretty  picture,  this  of  a  world 
)eople  who.  while  unwilling  to  curb 
Bcreative  urge,  continue  to  exploit 
irth's  surface  with  a  conflicting 
■f  of  cleverness  and  stupidity,  of 
and  foresight,  of  slavery  to  habits 
mdrous  scientific  achievement.  The 
iult  of  this  combination  is  that  we 
?ays  in  debt  to  the  future  and  faced 
he  grim  possibility  that  the  survi- 
nally  will  be  lost  in  a  barracks-like 
order.  Already  the  more  timid  phi- 
ers  wonder  how  a  steady  diet  of 
on  may  affect  their  dispositions. 
Ii  a  furtive  look  over  his  shoulder 
scientific  brethren,  Mr.  Dasmann 
apologizes  for  not  pursuing  in  The 
'orizon  a  "dispassionate,  objective 
)int."  So  far  as  the  reader  is  con- 
I,  the  author  need  not  be  alarmed, 
he  frankly  announces  that  he  does 
ish  to  be  a  detached  observer  of 
if  life  of  which  he  has  grown  fond, 
nn  precisely  pinpoints  the  reason 


he  has  managed  to  write,  from  his  scien- 
tific background  and  his  apparently  wide 
field  experience  in  ecology,  a  warm  and 
stimulating  volume.  He  feels  personally 
involved:  he  projects  his  own  sense  of 
loss  that  lovable  and  adventurous  things 
should  be  going  out  of  the  world. 

And  what  is  the  solution?  Dasmann 
knows  of  nothing  beyond  an  over-all 
planning  that  may  do  something  where 
piecemeal  planning  cannot.  He  is  not 
sanguine  even  of  that  chance.  In  such  a 
dilemma,  perhaps  the  reviewer  may  dare 
a  philosophic  simplification  of  its  basic 
cause.  The  Greek  sage  Cleobulus  gave  as 
his  golden  rule:  "Nothing  in  excess." 
The  abuse  of  the  land  partly  stems  from 
the  tragic  human  illusion  that  if  a  little 
of  something  is  good,  a  lot  is  necessar- 
ily better.  To  that  fallacy  nature  says  No! 

While  the  Dasmann  volume  puts  major 
emphasis  upon  the  economic  aspects  of 
the  land  surface  that  man  modifies 
toward  its  ruin,  due  attention  is  given  to 
the  necessity  of  preserving  spaces  for  the 
satisfaction  of  human  health,  both  physi- 
cal and  spiritual.  These  heritages  are 
likewise  disappearing  before  our  eyes.  A 
poignant  example  of  the  spendthrift  mak- 
ing havoc  of  his  patrimony  comes  to  us 
from  the  Sierra  Club  of  San  Francisco: 
a  sumptuously  beautiful  volume  that 
chants  a  threnody  for  the  incomparable 
Glen  Canyon  of  the  Colorado  River.  Even 
those  buyers  who  look  askance  at  the 
waxing  number  of  books  of  large  format 
and  high  prices  will  admit,  even  if  grudg- 
ingly, that  in  this  instance  the  photo- 
graphs of  such  a  master  as  Eliot  Porter, 
supported  by  a  sensitive  and  almost  de- 
votional text,  and  given  final  integrity 
through  the  craftsmanship  of  typogra- 
pher and  lithographer,  may  be  an  excep- 
tion. It  had  to  be  done  that  way,  if  at  all. 

Glen  Canyon:  hail  and  farewell!  The 
title  of  the  book  says  that  it  was  a  place 
nobody  knew.  Actually,  it  was  known  to 
few:  this  strange  slit  in  the  earth's  crust, 
with  forbidding  walls,  mysterious  side- 
canyons  and  rock-forms  that  Eliot  Por- 
ter's camera  has  been  able  to  make  vocal 
to  our  nobler  selves,  was  difficult  of  ac- 
cess. True,  not  many  Americans  knew  of 
its  existence,  or  ever  would  have  looked 
upon  its  beauty  and  pondered  on  its  won- 
der. But  a  few  professional  modifiers  of 
geography  knew  it  only  too  well,  and 
now  the  impounded  waters  are  deepening 
over  it.  You  can  hear  them  saying.  "What 
a  wonderful  place  for  a  hydroelectric 
power  dam!" 

This  book  puts  us  on  notice  that  many 
other  precious  spots  are  threatened  by 
the  same  fate.  It  will  require  more  than 
poetic  rapture  to  thwart  the  despoilers. 
It  takes  also  those  of  blunter  speech  and 
tougher  fiber,  who  know  the  language  of 
politicians  and  can  study  and  try  to  meet 
the  danger  before  the  knell  is  tolled. 

Freeman  Tilden 
Author  and  Conservationist 


Popular 
CHOSEN  BY  Science 

AS  THE  BEST  HI-FI 
SYSTEM  YOU  CAN  BUY 
(WITHOUT  FRILLS) 

This  photo  and  caption  (the  price  is  an  approxi- 
mation) appeared  in  the  September  1963  POP- 
ULAR SCIENCE  as  part  of  an  article  entitled 
"The  Low-Down  on  Hi-Fi  Stereo."  It  is  a  picture 


of  those  high  fidelity  components  which,  ac- 
cording to  a  panel  of  experts,  provide  the  best 
sound  possible  today. 

The  panel  carefully  considered  return-for-the- 
money,  but  "where  there  was  a  more  expensive 
component  that  produced  a  detectable  improve- 
ment in  sound,  it  was  chosen." 

These  components  are  recognizable  to  hi-fi  en- 
thusiasts as  the  AR  two-speed  turntable,  the 
Dynakit  PAS-2  preamplifier,  the  Dynakit  Stereo 
70  dual  power  amplifier,  and  the  AR-3  loud- 
speakers.* 

*They  have  been  on  demonstration  as  a  system  for 
several  years  at  the  AR  Music  Rooms,  on  the  west 
balcony  of  Grand  Central  Terminal  in  New  York  City, 
and  at  52  Brattle  St.,  Cambridge,  Mass.  No  sales  are 
made  there;  you  may  ask  questions  if  you  like,  but 
most  people  just  come  and  listen. 

ACOUSTIC     RESEARCH, INC. 

24  Thorndike  St.,   Cambridge,  Mass.  02141 

Please  send  me  literature  on  Dynakit  and  AR  high 
fidelity  components. 


The  bark  paintings  are 
made  by  primitive 
aborigines  in  mission 
stations  located  in  trib- 
al country  in  northern 
Australia.  No  two  alike. 
Those  illustrated  are 
the  only  two 'available 
in  this  price  range. 
Limited  quantity  of 
smaller  paintings  avail- 
able, priced  between 
$40.00  and  $50.00.  All 
are  excellent  collec- 
tor's items. 

No.  17-A- 

26"x9",$100.00ppd. 
No.  18-B- 

25"x9",  $100.00  ppd. 


AUSTRALIAN  ABORIGINAL  ART 

THE  UNUSUAL  ART  OF  THE  AUSTRALIAN  ABORIGINE-A  TOUCH  OF  DISTINCTION  FOR  YOUR  HOME  OR  OFFICE. 


e  dramatic  story 
the  crusade  for 
zoo  without  bars'' 
the  Kenya  jungle 


I  WALK 
1TH  LIONS 

by  Mervyn  Cowie 

f-game  hunter's  son  who  re- 
i  against  senseless  slaughter, 
yn  Cowie  led  the  fight  to  pre- 
Africa's  magnificent  animals, 
he  tells  his  own  absorbing  story 
;  often  lonely  struggle  against 
ged  neighbors,  apathetic  offi- 
ruthless  poachers  and  Mau  Mau 
ists.  It  is  a  story  that  ends  in 
ph  —  the  establishment  of  the 
d  Royal  National  Parks  of 
a,  of  which  he  is  now  director, 
avidly  peopled  with  the  crea- 
for  whom  he  won  sanctuary  — 
ling  the  lions  who  were  his 
publicity  agents.  31  photo- 
s  catch  them  in  action.    $4.95 

•r  bookseller  or  mail  coupon  below 


t/IACMILLAN  COMPANY 

:h  Avenue,  New  York  10011,  N.Y. 

send  me copy  (ies)  of 

LK  WITH  LIONS    (52850)    at 
ach 

ment  enclosed         D  Please  bill  me 


ione/State_ 


\.dd  sales  tax  where  requited 


The  House  Sparrow,  by  J.  D.  Summers- 
Smith.  Wm.  Collins  Sons  &  Co.,  $5.00; 
269  pp.,  illus. 

THE  "New  Naturalist"  series  of  spe- 
cial volumes  dealing  with  the  native 
flora  and  fauna  of  Britain,  including  such 
widely  quoted  volumes  as  Fisher's  The 
Fulmar,  Tinbergen's  The  Herring  Gull's 
World,  and  Armstrong's  The  Wren,  has 
achieved  an  enviable  record  of  present- 
ing scholarly  research  in  a  form  that  can 
be  read  and  appreciated  by  the  layman. 
The  most  recent  addition  to  this  success- 
ful series  is  concerned  with  the  origin, 
distribution,  ecology,  and  behavior  of 
the  house  sparrow,  a  species  of  bird  that 
is  probably  familiar  to  more  people 
throughout  the  world  than  any  other— 
except  the  domestic  chicken. 

Although  confined  largely  to  Europe 
and  southern  Asia  prior  to  1850,  the 
house  sparrow  has  subsequently  become 
well  established,  through  introductions, 
on  all  of  the  continents  except  Antarc- 
tica. The  account  of  this  dramatic  range 
expansion  and  the  reasons  suggested  for 
the  incredible  success  of  the  species 
make  for  entertaining  and  informative 
reading.  To  most  people  the  house  spar- 
row is  a  noisy,  notorious  symbiont  of 
urban  and  agricultural  man  and  the 
bane  of  bird-feeding  stations  every- 
where. Consequently,  interest  in  the 
species  centers  upon  its  elimination 
rather  than  its  appreciation.  Even  Sum- 
mers-Smith, after  twelve  years  of  inten- 
sive and  intimate  study  of  color-banded 
individuals,  is  reluctant  to  admit  any 
affection  for  his  birds.  Nevertheless,  the 
information  that  he  has  marshaled  on 
various  aspects  of  the  life  history  of  the 
species,  including  its  unique  relation- 
ships with  man,  may  well  provide  some 
of  us  with  food  for  thought. 

Possibly  a  knowledge  of  the  origin  of 
this  feathered  rogue,  of  the  history  of  its 
unparalleled  exploitation  of  a  particular 
niche  in  nature,  and  of  its  daily  and 
seasonal  habits  may  place  the  bird  in  a 
more  favorable  or  at  least  tolerable  per- 
spective. Regardless  of  whether  or  not 
the  book  achieves  such  a  prodigious  ef- 
fect, it  is  highly  recommended  as  another 
example  of  the  fine  contributions  that 
have  been  made  by  amateurs  to  the 
science  of  ornithology. 

Wesley  E.  Lanyon 
The  American  Museum 


Return  to  the  Wild,  by  Norman  Carr. 
E.  P.  Button  &  Co.,  $4.50;  127  pp.,  illus. 

THE  lion  is  perhaps  the  most  respected 
animal  on  earth.  For  centuries  it  has 
figured  in  the  heraldry  of  countless  coun- 
tries, from  Ethiopia  to  England,  and 
judging  by  the  many  recent  books  on 
the  subject,  the  animal  is  still  high  on 
popularity  polls.  The  king  of  the  animal 


7C\KIM^)V^:^K€^S3VC\K 


Try  this 

easy  new  system  of 

instant  bird  identification! 


Now  you  can  identify  any  eastern 
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north  to  the  Arctic  —  even  if  you've 
caught  only  a  fleeting  glimpse  of  it. 

Naming  the  Birds  at  a  Glance  — 
unlike  most  field  guides— groups  birds 
by  markings  instead  of  by  ornitholog- 
ical class.  This  means  that  you  can 
make  the  precise  identification  without 
first  classifying  the  bird.  Any  detail  of 
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is  enough  to  guide  you  straight  to  its 
picture. 

Organized  for  FAST  identification 

As  soon  as  you  sight  a  bird  you  wish 
to  identify,  flip  the  book  open  to  either 
endpaper.  A  Color  Pattern  Guide 
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pages  of  pictures  and  text  where  your 
bird  will  be  found.  The  Myrtle  Warb- 
ler, for  example,  can  be  located  either 
by  the  "yellow  rump,"  the  "yellow 
crown,"  or  the  "black  line  through 
the  eye."  Often,  you  can  put  your 
finger  on  the  correct  picture  before 
the  bird  has  flown! 

"I  believe  it  has  a  real  potential . . . 

It  seems  a  very  logical  new  approach 

and  should  prove  most  useful." 

—  EMMETT  R.  BLAKE,  Curator  of  Birds, 

Chicago  Natural  History  Museum 

Order  your  copy  today 

Naming  the  Birds  at  a  Glance,  by 
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kingdom  is  not  easily  deposed,  nor 
should  he  be.  He  is  an  animal  of  supreme 
beauty,  dignity,  and  courage. 

Mr.  Carr's  book  is  about  lions,  and  he 
knows  a  lot  about  them.  For  fifteen  years 
he  was  the  warden  of  Kafue  National 
Park  in  Northern  Rhodesia,  the  largest 
in  Africa,  and  during  his  tour  of  duty  he 
acquired  considerable  knowledge,  not 
only  about  lions,  but  about  the  confusing 
and  always  changing  relationships  be- 
tween man,  beast,  and  environment.  He 
is  an  acute  observer,  a  sound  conserva- 
tionist, and  a  very  readable  writer. 

Yet  there  are  parts  of  this  book  that 
somehow  don't  quite  ring  true.  For  in- 
stance, he  tells  of  a  well-known  local 
lioness  named  '"The  Smiler,"'  which  the 
author  and  practically  everyone  else  in 
the  neighborhood  knew  was  about  to 
have  cubs.  Not  only  that ;  they  knew  from 
observation  where  she  was  going  to  have 
them.  Then  one  of  the  wardens  went  to 
the  spot,  found  the  cubs,  and  correctly 
suspected  that  the  mother  must  be  near. 
Instead  of  withdrawing,  he  loaded  his 
14-bore  shotgun  and  killed  her  when  she 
appeared  to  defend  her  young. 

Mr.  Carr  condones  this  killing  as  hav- 
ing been  required  in  self-defense.  Maybe 
so.  In  any  event,  the  rest  of  the  book  is 
devoted  to  a  description  of  his  efforts  to 
rear   the   orphans,   and   the   end    comes 


when  he  releases  them  to  "return  to 
the  wild."  What  happens  to  them  next 
—which  really  ought  to  be  the  end  of  the 
book— is  not  told. 

There  are  dangers  in  a  book  of  this 
sort.  Young  wildlife  should  be  left  alone, 
and  any  book  that  even  vaguely  suggests 
the  pleasure  of  playing  foster  parent  is 
not  in  the  interests  of  man  or  any  other 
animal.  Mr.  Carr  repeatedly  asserts  that 
he  never  tried  to  make  pets  of  his 
charges,  but  methinks  he  doth  protest  too 
much— the  photographs  that  accompany 
the  text  indicate  a  very  close  association. 

Nevertheless,  during  his  baby-sitting 
job  Mr.  Carr  came  to  know  lions  and  he 
passes  along  a  quantity  of  information 
in  good  style. 

PlETER  FOSBURGH 
Author  and  Editor 

Birds  of  the  Ocean,  by  W.  B.  Alexan- 
der. G.  P.  Putnam's  Sons,  S4.95;  306  pp., 
illus. 

ALTHOUGH  called  a  "1963  Edition," 
.  this  is  simply  a  reprinting  of  the 
1954  revised  edition  of  W.  B.  Alexan- 
der's handy  volume.  Birds  of  the  Ocean, 
which  has  been  out  of  print  for  some 
years.  It  is  still  the  only  book  that  pro- 
vides means  of  field  identification  for  the 
sea  birds  of  the  world.  That  this  little 
work  had  already  gone  through  two  gen- 


uine editions  (the  first  in  1928)  and 
warranted  reprinting  today  is  the 
evidence  of  its  continued  usefulness, 
modern  bird  books,  other  than  the  P 
son  guides,  have  been  in  such  s 
demand  as  to  warrant  even  a  revised 
tion  in  hard  covers.  Usually  there 
more  up-to-date  competing  volume 
the  market. 

For  those  not  familiar  with  Ale 
der's  work  it  should  be  pointed  out 
the  book  is  compact,  convenient, 
pocket-sized.  Each  sea  bird  family  i 
lotted  a  chapter,  with  the  species  ■ 
grouped  according  to  pattern  and  co 
for  each  species  there  is  a  short  des( 
tion.  statement  of  range,  and  a  1 
paragraph  of  miscellaneous  notes; 
dates  are  often  mentioned.  Sepa 
chapters  for  each  of  the  oceans  and 
birds  likely  to  be  found  on  them  fa 
tate  the  task  of  identification.  The  i 
trations  are  the  same  eighty-eight  1 
tones  that  appeared  in  the  first  edit 
they  are  chiefly  photographs— oftei 
birds  at  the  nest— and  diagramm 
drawings  showing  flight  patterns  of  a 
trosses,  petrels,  gulls,  jaegers,  bool 
and  frigatebirds,  and,  on  the  water 
penguins  and  phalaropes.  These  di 
ings  by  the  author,  although  not  of 
fessional  quality,  have  long  since  pre 
their  value  in  the  field.  As  this  revi: 


Out  of  all  the  fact  and  fancy  concerning 
snakes,  the  author  of  a  hive  of  bees  and 
THE  LIVING  SEA  has  fashioHBd  a  small 
masterpiece  of  nature  writing 

SNAKE  LORE 


An  informal  and  anecdotal 
book  about  snakes  by 


Here  is  a  fascinating  Introduction 
to  the  whole  world  of  snakes 
—  from  python  to  puff  adder 
and  from  the  snakes  of  the 
Laocoon  legend  to  Cleopatra's 
fatal  asp.  John  Crompton  writes 
informally  and  engagingly;  his 
book  combines  scientific 
authority  with  a  personal, 
conversational  style.  Sna!<e  • 
Lore  will  delight  every  nature   . 
enthusiast,  young  and  old.  With 
twelve  pages  of  photographs, 
$3.95  at  all  booksellers  or  from 

DOUBLEDAY  &  COMPANY,  INC. 

Garden  City,  New  York 


PYTHON 


COBRA 
PUFF  ADDER 
GABOON  VIPER 
ASP 

ANACONDA 
HAMADRAYAD 

KRAIT 
PHOORSA 
FER  DE  LANCE 
COPPERHEAD 
BUSHMASTER 
TEXAS  DIAMONDBACK 
BOA  CONSTRICTOR 


l]y  dates  from  1954,  it  does  not  re- 
findings  of  recent  explorations  that 
;xtended  known  ranges  and  changed 
iews  of  certain  relationships.    (In 

cases,  scientific  nomenclature  has 
;ed  since  1954.)  But  these  points 
f  little  or  no  importance  to  the  aver- 
jird    watcher,   who   will   need    this 

on  any  extended  ocean  voyage. 
Eugene  Eisenmann 
The  American  Museum 

Etern.\l  Present,  by  Siegfried 
on.  Pantheon  Books,  $12.50;  588 
llus. 

riOUGHOUT  the  approximately  one- 
ilf  million  years  that  man  has 
?d  the  world,  his  primary  occupa- 
las  been  to  survive  in  hostile  sur- 
lings.  Only  in  comparatively  recent 
has  he  changed  to  a  slight  extent; 
jestion  today  is  not  how  man  is  to 
ith  the  world,  but  how  he  is  to  live 
himself.  In  this  book,  the  great 
cultural  historian  Siegfried  Gie- 
;preads  before  us  the  first  extensive 
ice  we  possess  of  mankind— Paleo- 
man— coming  to  grips  with  the 
facts  of  human  consciousness. 
,  he  asks,  were  man's  first  positive 
;rs  to  the  all-consuming  problem 
ntifying  himself,  of  determining  his 


role  in  the  pattern  of  existence?  How 
did  he  come  to  terms  with  a  world  that 
threatened  him  on  all  sides?  How  did  he 
reconcile  himself  to  the  fact  that  he  was 
the  most  vulnerable,  the  least  physically 
endowed  of  all  animals?  How  did  he 
arm  himself  against  the  natural  and  the 
supernatural  powers,  hold  them  at  bay. 
and,  indeed,  induce  them  to  act  in  his 
behalf?  Today  we  are  protected  by  many 
shields:  society,  religion,  medicine,  na- 
tions, and  so  on.  Paleolithic  man  stood 
naked  and  alone;  he  had  to  wrest  from 
the  cosmos  magical  garments  composed 
of  potent  symbols  that,  properly  or- 
ganized in  the  cultic  rituals,  would  as- 
sure him  abundance. 

Thus,  Giedion  attempts  to  answer 
these  questions  by  means  of  a  depth  an- 
alysis of  Paleolithic  symbols.  He  does  so, 
not  through  a  single  approach,  but  rather 
by  bringing  to  bear  the  combined  forces 
of  many  disciplines:  anthropology,  psy- 
chology, ethnology,  philosophy,  and  his- 
tory. A  cursory  glance  at  this  hand- 
somely illustrated  volume,  drawn  from  a 
series  of  lectures  given  for  the  Mellon 
Foundation  in  1957.  may  mislead  the 
reader  into  thinking  that  it  is  a  study  of 
prehistoric  art.  It  is  that,  but  only  insofar 
as  the  art  works  are  a  key  to  man's  men- 
tal and  spiritual  life.  Giedion.  following 
the  dictum  of  an  earlier  historian  (Alois 


Riegl ) ,  sees  the  work  of  art  as  the  physi- 
cal expression  of  the  inner  life  of  man. 
And  in  cave  art  he  finds  a  complicated, 
symbolic  language  that  can  still  be  read, 
if  only  haltingly  and  in  part. 

The  ancient  "cave  dweller"'  did  not,  as 
is  now  known,  live  in  those  deep  caves 
in  which  he  painted  and  engraved  on  the 
rock  walls.  They  were  far  too  inhos- 
pitable for  domestic  life;  rather,  man 
chose  the  cheerier,  sunlit  mouths  of  caves 
and  sheltered  nooks  under  rock  over- 
hangs as  his  home.  The  pitch-black, 
dank,  dangerous  tunnels  that  wormed 
their  way  far  underground  were  fraught 
with  mystery  and  unknown  terrors. 
These  subterranean  passages  and  halls 
were  the  sacred  places  through  which  the 
initiated  inched  their  way  to  hold  their 
magic  rites.  By  the  flickering  light  of 
animal  grease  lamps  they  invoked  their 
demons  and  spirits,  painted  their  life- 
bearing  murals  on  the  suggestive  rock 
bosses  and  stalactites.  Even  today,  de- 
spite the  modern  comforts  of  artfully 
concealed  lights,  concrete  walks  and 
steps,  expert  guides  and  factual  guide- 
books, the  caves  of  southern  France  and 
northern  Spain  exercise  a  strong  influ- 
ence on  the  imagination  of  the  casual 
visitor.  Giedion  takes  us  back  more  than 
a  dozen  millenniums,  to  when  the  caves 
were  alive  with  magic  and  the  hidden 


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II 


caverns  were  covered  with  the  symbols 
of  the  cult.  Ancient  man  rarely  repre- 
sented himself  because,  Giedion  sug- 
gests, he  considered  himself  inferior, 
subordinate  to  the  powerful  beasts  who 
gave  their  flesh  to  sustain  him.  Giedion 
formulates  the  meanings  behind  the  rep- 
resentations of  magnificent  beasts,  prints 
of  mutilated  hands,  steatopygous  fe- 
males, and  tectonic  marks. 

FOR  Giedion,  as  for  many  other  pre- 
historians,  the  guiding  force  behind 
all  quaternary  art  is  a  basic  an.xiety:  the 
fear  of  sterility,  the  cataclysmic  loss  of 
fertility.  Hence,  cave  art  served  in  the 
cult  ritual  to  promote  and  insure  produc- 
tivity and  abundance.  The  first  half  of 
the  volume  attempts  to  solve  the  sym- 
Ijolic  puzzles  on  the  cave  walls  within 
this  framework  of  fertility  symbolism. 
His  demonstrations  are  fascinating;  his 
accumulated  evidence  is  compelling.  His 
development  of  a  symbolic  language  in 
Paleolithic  times  lacks  the  torturous 
windings  of  Freud,  as  well  as  the  expan- 
sive gestures  of  Jung.  He  envisages  a 
direct,  forceful  expression  of  sexual  mo- 
tifs by  ancient  man.  motifs  that  were 
the  concrete  expressions  of  the  dominant 
fertility  cult.  The  importance  of  the  con- 
cepts of  fertility  and  abundance  in  the 
Stone  Age  cannot  be  overestimated.  Man 


must  have  lived  a  barely  marginal  ex- 
istence; long  periods  of  semistarvation 
were  infrequently  interrupted  by  the  few 
days  of  gorging  that  followed  a  success- 
ful hunt.  The  cycle  of  life  ran  much 
faster  then;  skeletal  remains  indicate 
that  the  average  life  span  in  the  Paleo- 
lithic was  about  twenty  years. 

To  understand  the  mentality  of  an- 
cient man,  to  gain  insight  into  his  life- 
and-death  struggle,  we  must,  says  Gie- 
dion, put  to  one  side  our  modern  tools  of 
logic,  of  cause  and  effect,  of  materialism. 
We  must  enter  into  a  world  based  on 
magical  relationships,  on  the  identifica- 
tion of  the  symbol  with  the  thing  symbol- 
ized, on  the  power  of  the  ritual  act  to 
formulate  the  future.  But  can  modern 
man  retreat  to  this  "primitive"  stage  of 
thinking  and  feeling?  Giedion  answers 
that  he  not  only  can  but  does.  Beneath 
the  shell  of  the  rational  are  the  deeper 
strata  of  the  irrational  and  the  alogical, 
which  powerfully  influence  modern  man. 
The  potent  symbols  of  cave  art  are  still 
alive  and  vital  today  because  we  are  still 
attempting  to  resolve  the  primary  ques- 
tions of  human  life  that  the  cave  man 
expressed  in  his  subterranean  caverns. 
We  are  no  better  prepared  to  solve  them; 
we  have  found  no  better  solutions  than 
did  our  prehistoric  ancestors.  Cave 
dweller  and  apartment  house  dweller  rub 


shoulders.  It  is  from  this  context  that 
title  of  the  book.  The  Eternal  Pres 
is  drawn.  The  history  of  mankind  is  < 
piece;  the  hours  and  millenniums 
by,  but  it  is  always  the  same  tragic  a( 
who  holds  the  center  of  the  stage. 

IT  is  evident,  then,  that  Giedion  adh( 
to  a  particular  view  of  natural  hist 
He  completely  abjures  the  older  not: 
of  mankind  growing,  improving,  ma 
ing  over  the  years.  Nor  does  he  envis 
cultures  rising  and  developing,  as  c 
Toynbee.  Culture  is  an  eternal  dr; 
whose  plot  and  characters  never  chai 
While  the  first  half  of  the  book  is 
terpretative,  the  second  half  is  desc 
tive.  providing  a  comprehensive  sui 
of  Paleolithic  symbols,  cave  art,  and 
cheology.  The  magnificent  illustrati 
in  color  and  black  and  white,  speci 
prepared  for  this  volume,  are  infe: 
only  to  an  actual  visit  to  the  caves, 
eerie  feeling  that  one  experiences  d 
in  the  caves  of  Lascaux  or  Altamira, 
sense  of  detachment  and  isolation, 
never  be  transcribed.  But  Giedion  i 
ceeds.  as  few  cultural  historians  can 
making  the  past  present,  in  dissolv 
the  millenniums  that  separate  anci 
from  modern. 

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13 


Rose-Red  Cit 


""fc-      ^i     <      •'r^-        ~  ""n.  .-•■'■<»  "^T^^H 


.-»^ 


O  EARED  BY  THE  SCORCHING  SUN  by  day  and  bathed  by 
the  light  of  stars  by  night,  rock-girt  and  half-buried  be- 
neath the  burning  sands  of  the  trans-Jordanic  desert,  lies 
Petra— "the  rose-red  city,  half  as  old  as  time."  A  magnifi- 
cent medley  of  multihued  rock  and  the  artistic  skill  of  a 
bygone  people,  this  ruined  metropolis  displays  the  colors 
of  primeval  dawn  frozen  into  ripples  of  solid  stone,  and 
the  lost  hopes  of  pagan  immortality  chiseled  in  its  heart. 

Petra  is  situated  some  one  hundred  miles  to  the  south  of 
Jerusalem  at  Long.  35°26'  E.  and  Lat.  30°  19'  N.-roughly 
the  same  latitude  as  Oklahoma  City. 

The  ancient  city-site  lies  between  two  parallel  ridges  of 
Nubian  sandstone,  which  tower  a  thousand  feet  over  the 
mile-wide  desert  floor  between  them.  Nature  thus  sealed  a 
pathway  over  whose  sand  and  stone  have  moved  more  than 
thirty  centuries  of  recorded  travel.  The  site  is  usually  ap- 
proached via  a  narrow,  twisting  cleft,  called  the  Siq,  in  the 
eastern  mountain  wall.  Local  folklore  attributes  this  geo- 
logic fault  to  Moses,  who,  it  is  said,  smote  the  rock  with  his 
wand  to  provide  water  for  the  wandering  Israelites.  By 
about  the  first  century  A.D.,  the  Siq  boasted  a  well-paved 
road,  protected  by  a  massive  diversion  dam.  The  torrential 
floods  of  two  thousand  years  wrought  havoc  with  both  im- 
provements, however,  and  the  water-washed  boulders  that 
had  begun  to  fill  the  Siq  have  only  recently  been  replaced 
with  gravel  carefully  laid  for  visitors. 

By  PHILIP  C.  HAMMOND 
Photographs  by  GEORGE  HOLTON 


m-. 


*^W^ 


■-% 


lalace  tomb  was  carved 
originally  by  Nabataeans  and 
later  reworked  by  Romans. 


Ihird  column  from  left  at  the 

Treasury  of  the  Pharaoh 

has  recently  been  reconstructed. 

15 


e  ancient  barrage  is  just  now  being  restored.  This  will 
t  the  floodwaters  of  the  rainy  season  away  from  the 
h  of  the  Siq,  sending  them  through  the  original  rock- 
unnel  at  one  side  and  around  the  city  area  to  the 
nt  spillways  that  once  tamed  the  flow  and  made  habita- 
afe  in  the  valley.  A  tragic  accident  occurred  in  recent 
hs  when  a  flash  storm  sent  a  sheet  of  rushing  waters, 
five  feet  high,  over  the  heads  of  a  group  of  tourists 
ed  in  the  Siq. 

tering  the  Siq  from  the  blinding  light  of  the  desert  sun, 
s  awe-struck.  The  shadows  deepen,  and  the  sky  be- 
3  a  thin  blue  line  above  the  towering  cliffs  that  sepa- 
the  traveler  from  the  outside  world.  Echoing  walls 
t  only  the  clatter  of  hoofs  on  stone,  the  calls  of  wheel- 
irds,  and  the  chatter  of  native  boys.  Civilization  seems 
3  back  in  time.  The  road  meanders  between  the  cliffs 
suddenly  the  Siq  falls  away,  and  one  stands  before 
if  the  most  perfectly  preserved  monuments  of  Naba- 
times,  carved  into  the  face  of  a  rose-red  mountain 
effecting  its  hue  into  the  dark  passage  of  the  Siq. 
is  is  the  Khazneh  Farun,  the  Treasury  of  the  Pharaoh. 
OSes  fled  from  Egypt,  so  the  locals  declare,  an  angry 
loh  pursued  him,  pausing  only  long  enough  to  create 


Qasr  Bint  Far'un 
,i'j»=-iiy  V.      .^  V.     Jriumphal  Gate   v-^? 

'   Norman     y  f  Royal  Tombs 

i '''"'     Roman  Street  i»^"',      . 

;    '%^  Theater  (S     CJS..  ;t  Kazneh  , 


Great  High  Place  *^ 


)ite  map  of  Petra  in  Jordan  shows  some  of  its  major 
uildings,  streets,  and  prominent  topographical  features. 


josite  tomb  faqade  with  obelisks  is  at  the  entrance 
Siq— a  deep  gorge  that  leads  down  into  Petra's  valley. 


reasury  by  magic  and  store  his  gold  in  its  vastness. 
i^en  if  the  origin  of  this  monument,  which  is  actually 
b,  is  made  prosaic  by  reality,  the  architectural  skill 
uman  sweat  that  carved  it  from  the  cliff  face  must  be 
wledged.  Actually,  the  tomb's  fagade  is  an  undying 
e,  not  to  the  nameless  king  for  whom  it  was  hewn,  but 
■  to  the  eclectic  art  of  the  ancient  Near  East.  Here  is 
bly  the  best  example  of  the  desert  culture  that  brought 
to  her  zenith  and  made  her  the  queen  of  a  thousand 
ercial  holdings,  ruling  the  trade  routes  that  were  ave- 
(f  culture  from  the  fourth  century  B.C.  to  the  end  of  the 
entury  of  the  present  era.  At  first  glance  just  another 
copy  of  classical  Hellenistic  art,  the  deceptive  archi- 


tectural form  of  the  Khazneh  is  the  key  to  the  Nabataean 
architecture.  Linear  perspective,  coupled  with  stonecutting 
of  exquisite  skill,  harmoniously  joins  the  Western  world 
with  the  Eastern.  The  columns  are  borrowed  from  the 
Greco-Roman  canons,  architraves,  finials,  moldings,  and 
other  architectural  parts,  but  their  assembly  into  a  single 
carving  is  the  work  of  the  indigenous  craftsmen  who  gave 
new  spirit  to  an  old  style. 

Unlike  the  Khazneh  are  the  "classical"  Nabataean  tomb 
fagades  one  sees  as  the  open  road  winds  around  rock  out- 
crops, mountains,  and  man-built  walls  into  the  heart  of 
the  ancient  city-site.  These  are  eclectic  as  well,  but  their 
synthesis  is  Near  Eastern,  not  Hellenistic,  and  they  are  re- 
minders of  the  caravanners  who  brought  to  Petra  their 
recollections  of  Baghdad,  Damascus,  Teima,  and  Egypt. 
The  early  tombs  are  like  the  cultic  carvings  on  the  walls  of 
the  Siq  and  on  other  cliff  faces— crude  blocks  representing 
the  god  of  the  desert  days,  Dushares,  Lord  of  the  Shara 
Mountains.  Later  curling  tendrils  of  grape  and  set  faces 
of  gods  adapted  from  other  cultures  marked  the  change 
from  bedouin  to  townsman  farmer  and  commercial  baron. 

Today,  Petra's  valley  site  might  disappoint  a  traveler. 
New  excavations  and  clearances  have  brought  to  light  a 
paved  Roman  street  lined  with  walls  and  dirt-filled  door- 
ways, a  few  columns  point  dejectedly  toward  the  open  sky, 
a  once-triumphal  gate  straddles  the  road,  but  no  city  is  to 
be  seen.  Yet,  beneath  the  sands  on  every  side  are  the  ruins 
of  noble  dwellings,  great  markets,  shops,  storehouses,  baths, 
and  all  the  other  remains  of  man's  material  existence. 
Only  when  the  full  moon  rises  from  behind  the  ridge  known 
as  el-Kubtha  can  one's  imagination  reconstruct  the  ancient 
city.  The  Roman  street  gleams  and  seems  once  more  to  bear 
the  weight  of  the  Imperial  Legions;  the  royal  tombs  gape 
darkly  over  their  lost  masters;  the  sound  of  the  grazing 
camel  and  the  light  of  bedouin  fires  arouse  the  ghosts  of 
antiquity,  and  Petra  reassumes  her  ancient  glory. 

DURING  the  day  Petra  becomes  the  archeologist's  hunt- 
ing ground.  Paleolithic  flint  axes,  Iron  Age  cisterns, 
Greco-Nabataean-Roman  architectural  devices,  Byzantine 
crosses,  Arabic  pottery,  and  Crusader  coins  attest  to  the 
vast  parade  of  cultures  this  site  has  known. 

Defensibility,  water,  and  agricultural  promise  were  all 
the  ancients  desired,  and  under  the  simple  name  of  "the 
Rock"  Petra  began  her  recorded  history  in  the  days  of  the 
Exodus,  as  the  home  of  the  biblical  Edomites.  Seemingly, 
only  King  Amaziah  of  Judah  penetrated  this  refuge,  and 
he  Ijoasted  hyperbolically  of  10,000  Edoniite  captives  cast 
down  from  its  heights  in  the  eighth  century  B.C.  Apparently 
the  Edomite  refuge  can  be  identified  with  the  mountain 
called  Umm  il-Biyara,  for  only  there  are  the  plastered  Iron 
Age  cisterns  and  typical  crude  Edomite  pottery  to  be  found 
in  any  abundance.  This  sheer-sided  mountain  was  ad- 
mirably suited  for  defense,  and  its  single  avenue  of  ascent 
and  the  protecting  gate  may  still  be  seen.  The  first  extra- 
biblical  reference  to  the  area  is  Diodorus  Siculus'  fourth- 
century  B.C.  description  of  an  abortive  raid  on  Petra,  com- 
manded by  the  Greek  General  Athenaeus,  in  312  B.C. 

By  that  date,  a  people  called  the  Nabataeans  were  firmly 
inhabiting  Petra.  Sometime  during  the  period  when  the 
ariny  of  Alexander  the  Great  was  hacking  its  way  across 
the  face  of  northern  Coele-Syria,  a  unique  bedouin  tribe, 
the  Nabataeans,  came  out  of  the  desert.  Untypically  for 

17 


Semitic  nomads,  they  were  pirates  until  the  Egyptian  navy 
drove  them  from  the  Red  Sea.  Then  they  became  land 
brigands  until  a  more  legal  means  of  livelihood  occurred 
to  them  and  they  became  the  "protectors"  of  the  land. 
The  Nabataeans  occupied  Petra's  valley,  and  gradually 
converted  to  an  agricultural-commercial  life.  Their  hy- 
draulic engineering  skill  was  astonishing,  and  their  com- 
mercial acumen  notorious.  Probably  by  the  first  century 
B.C.  the  Nabataeans  had  already  begun  to  dominate  the 
great  desert  caravan  routes  and  spread  their  outposts 
through  all  parts  of  the  southern  region,  from  Aqaba  to 
the  northern  tip  of  the  Dead  Sea.  Their  interest  in  the 
bitumen  resources  of  the  latter  area  was  apparently  the 
major  cause  for  their  alienating  the  Hellenistic  Greeks  in 
the  north,  but  a  truce  was  eventually  effected  and  Naba- 
taean  culture  rose  to  keep  pace  with  Nabataean  commerce. 

WESTERN  contacts  also  grew,  and  the  nature  of  the 
Nabataean  culture  became  more  complex,  as  a  com- 
parison of  Diodorus'  account  of  them  with  that  of  Strabo 
reveals.  Commerce  brought  continued  strife,  as  well,  and 
relations  with  Idumaean  and  Jewish  neighbors  to  the  west 
and  north  were  often  strained.  Caravans  under  Nabataean 
control  moved  northward  laden  with  the  goods  of  China, 
India,  Qateban,  Sheba,  and  Egypt  to  the  ports  of  Gaza  and 
the  depots  of  Damascus,  which  were  the  gateways  to  the 
West.  Pliny  records  a  levy  of  25  per  cent  laid  on  all  cara- 
vans using  the  route— and  Diodorus  speaks  of  the  luxurious 
living  and  cosmopolitan  ways  of  Petra.  By  the  end  of  the 


last  century  B.C.,  the  Nabataean  culture,  in  all  its  aspf 
had  attained  a  height  reached  by  only  a  few  other  na 
people  in  ancient  Syro-Palestine.  The  pinnacle  of  that 
ture  was  achieved,  at  the  turn  of  the  Christian  Era,  ur 
the  leadership  of  Aretas  IV  (9  B.C.— A.D.  40) . 

With  success  came  danger.  Rome  had  entered  the  ^ 
East  in  64  B.C.  to  "liberate"  both  captive  and  indepen( 
peoples.  Even  by  that  time,  the  commercial  fortune  of 
Nabataeans  was  realized,  and  Pompey  dispatched  oni 
his  generals,  Scaurus,  to  subjugate  the  Nabataeans. 
Roman  expedition  never  reached  Petra  because  of  the 
renness  of  land  and  the  diplomatic  intervention  of  A 
pater  of  Idumaea.  For  more  than  a  century  and  a  half 
relation  of  the  Nabataean  kingdom  to  the  Roman  Em 
was  a  loose  one.  Officially  under  Rome's  control,  the  T 
ataeans,  from  their  desert  capital,  ignored  the  issue- 
Roman  authority.  Had  the  Nabataeans  paid  the  "assess 
taxes  in  31  B.C.,  for  example,  Herod  the  Great  would 
have  been  trying  to  collect  them  with  his  Jewish  army 
might  have  turned  the  tide  in  favor  of  his  allies,  Anth 
and  Cleopatra,  against  Octavius.  But  Imperial  Rome 
persistent,  and  gradually  the  vast  Nabataean  comme) 
empire  was  swallowed  up  piecemeal.  Cultural  dec 
followed  commercial  decline,  and  when  the  northern  b 
routes  supplanted  the  great  southern  ones,  Nabat; 
power  was  gone.  Traditionally  the  fall  of  the  Nabata( 
is  dated  at  A.D.  106,  when  the  army  of  Trajan  mart 
triumphantly  through  the  Siq  and  planted  the  Roi 
eagle  in  Petra's  streets.  In  fact,  Nabatene  was  conqui 


ng  Byzantine  period,  from  fourth  century  a.d.  to  the 
g  of  Islam  in  the  seventh,  Ed-Deir,  a  Nabataean  tomb, 
'.worked  and  subsequently  used  as  a  monastery. 


Iheater,  with  seats  cut  from  solid  rock,  was  excavated 

in  1961-62  by  the  American  Expedition  to  Petra, 

in  co-operation  with  Jordanian  Department  of  Antiquities. 

19 


far  earlier,  and  her  people  continued  to  affect  the  course 
of  Near  Eastern  history  far  later.  But  for  all  practical 
purposes,  Petra,  as  a  major  force  in  the  life  of  the  ancient 
Near  East,  died  at  that  time. 

The  Roman  era  of  the  city  saw  an  external  revival.  Much 
new  building,  of  which  the  street,  markets,  a  temple  called 
today  the  Qaar  Rint  Far'ijn.  and  other  monuments  still 
exist,  was  done  to  "glorify"  the  new  rule.  Honors,  includ- 
ing the  title  of  colonia  were  heaped  on  the  empty  shell. 
Native  festivals  continued  as  late  as  the  third  century, 
but  the  Nabataean  spirit  had  been  broken  and  the  Romans 
controlled  only  what  has  been  called  by  George  L.  Robinson 
"the  sepulcher  of  an  ancient  civilization. 

Under  the  Byzantines,  from  the  early  fourth  century 
A.D.  to  the  coming  of  Islam  in  the  seventh  century.  Petra 
fared  no  better,  and  a  few  crosses,  coins,  and  Greek  in- 
scriptions alone  indicate  their  presence.  It  was  during 
this  period,  however,  that  one  of  the  more  isolated  royal 
tombs  was  reworked  as  a  place  of  Christian  worship  and 
gained  its  present  name,  Ed-Deir,  "the  Monastery."  Other 
tombs  were  also  used  for  worship,  and  the  sepulcher  niches 
were  recarved  to  form  altar  niches,  while  pious  inscriptions 
were  added  to  record  the  effect. 

HISTORICAL  obscurity  then  joined  political  and  cultural 
darkness  at  Petra,  and  the  site,  its  name,  and  the 
knowledge  of  its  location  dropped  out  of  Western  ken.  Only 
in  the  Crusader  period  do  we  hear  of  it  once  more,  this  time 
as  "The  Valley  of  Moses,"  one  of  the  Latin  kingdom  s 
major  fiefs  in  Oultrej ordain.  Baldwin  I  entered  the  area  in 
A.D.  1101,  at  the  behest  of  the  "monks  of  St.  Aaron,"  who 
were  local  Greek  Christians,  and  immediately  recognized 
its  strategic  and  commercial  importance.  The  Crusader 
king  needed  both  a  defensive  network  to  guard  against 
the  Moslems  and  funds  to  support  his  military  establish- 
ment. A  fortress,  whose  remains  may  still  be  seen,  was 
built  just  outside  the  Siq,  at  El-Wu'eira,  but  with  some 
embarrassment,  no  doubt,  the  Crusaders  discovered  that 
although  they  could  see  caravans  on  the  route  leading 
through  ancient  Petra  they  could  not  reach  them  in  time 
to  collect  tolls!  As  a  consequence,  a  minuscule  Norman 


fort,  complete  with  outer  bailey,  inner  bailey,  and  h 
was  erected  inside  the  city-site  on  top  of  a  small  peal 
the  western  ridge  called  EI-Habis.  From  its  summi 
patrol  could  sally  forth,  collect  revenues  and  withd 
safely  under  the  watchful  eye  of  the  sentries  at  El- 
eira.  By  this  means,  "Le  Chateau  de  la  Vallee  de  Mo: 
rapidly  rose  to  a  position  of  major  importance,  both  r 
tarily  and  financially,  for  the  Latin  king  across  the  Jor 
in  Jerusalem.  Isolated  as  it  may  have  seemed  to  the  mer 
arms  residing  there,  the  castle  at  Wadi  Musa  was  lin 
closely  by  its  smoke  signals  and  fire  signals  with  the 
of  the  great  chain  of  forts  stretching  from  the  Holy  ( 
to  Aqaba.  Alas,  the  disastrous  battle  of  the  Horns 
Hattin  in  1187  changed  all  that,  if,  indeed,  the  tr; 
Jordanic  fiefs  had  not  fallen  to  Saladin's  troops  by  1182 


IXoman  street,  lined  with 
columns,  is  in  foreground.  At 
rear  are  palace  and  urn  tombs. 


In  the  opposite  direction 
the  street  leads  to  Qasr  Bint 
Far'un  and  Umm  il-Biyara. 


Latin  kingdom  was  forced  to  flee,  and  Wadi  Musa 
1  lost  its  strategic  importance  to  Moslem  forces,  since 
nilitary  and  trade  routes  through  the  area  were  now 
r  their  control.  Petra  once  more  slipped  into  obscurity. 
1  August  22,  1812,  a  traveler  made  his  way  through  a 
re  in  the  Shara  Mountains.  This  was  Swiss-born 
nn  Ludwig  Burckhardt,  disguised  as  a  Moslem  sheik, 
isibly  on  his  way  to  Nubia,  Burckhardt  had  traveled 
igh  the  Holy  Land  visiting  ancient  sites.  When  he 
ed  into  the  trans-Jordanic  area,  he  heard  of  a  fabulous 
;nt  city  of  the  dead,  next  to  which  was  the  traditional 
of  Aaron,  the  brother  of  Moses.  After  some  delay, 
khardt  prevailed  upon  a  local  guide  to  conduct  him 
iron's  tomb  as  a  pilgrim,  and  he  noted  in  his  journal: 
ppears  probable  that  the  ruins  in  Wady  Mousa  are 


those  of  ancient  Petra  .  .  .  there  is  no  other  ruin  between 
the  extremities  of  the  Dead  Sea  and  the  Red  Sea,  of 
sufficient  importance  to  answer  to  that  city." 

When  Burckhardt's  Travels  were  published,  Petra 
entered  a  new  era.  It  was  no  longer  a  trade  center  pouring 
wealth  into  commercial  centers,  but  rather  a  magnet  that 
attracted  visitors  in  ever  increasing  numbers.  First  came 
the  geographers  and  "learned  travelers,"  those  intrepid 
men  who  braved  the  dangers  of  hostile  government,  poor 
roads,  expensive  accommodations,  disease,  and  other  nat- 
ural hardships.  Among  the  names  on  this  list  of  early  visi- 
tors to  the  newly  found  site,  many  distinguished  ones  may 
be  found:  Irby,  Mangles,  E.  Robinson.  Doughty,  Forder, 
Musil,  Dalman,  LaGrange,  Vincent,  Briinnow,  Domaszev- 
ski,  Weigand,  and  others. 


^     -■'■*>^^ 


FROM  their  labors  came  the  maps  of  the  site  still  in  use 
today.  They  recorded  local  place  names  and  related 
them  to  known  history;  they  examined  and  described 
ruins;  they  made  quantities  of  drawings  and  photographs. 
Each  visit  brought  startling  new  discoveries.  One  such  was 
the  discovery  of  the  "Great  High  Place"  by  Professor 
George  L.  Robinson,  just  at  the  turn  of  the  present  century, 
which  created  a  stir  because  of  its  unique  parallel  to  bibli- 
cal references  to  cultic  places.  These  reports  are  still  culled 
for  scientifically  valuable  information. 

By  World  War  L  the  inhabitants  of  the  Wadi  Musa  dis- 
trict were  becoming  accustomed  to  foreign  visitors,  and 
Petra's  ancient  commercial  value  was  translated  into  local 
wealth  through  guide  fees  and  embryo  tourism.  This  ceased 
during  the  war  years,  but  Petra  gained  new  fame  as  the 
locale  of  one  of  Lawrence's  hard-fought  victories  against 
the  Turks.  Since  that  time,  the  touristic  attraction  of  this 
"lost  city"  has  gained  steadily.  Today  visitors  from  all 
parts  of  the  world  make  the  trip  to  the  little  town  of  El-Ji, 
park  their  cars  at  the  new  resthouse,  and  make  their  way, 
on  foot  or  horseback,  to  view  the  wonders  of  the  site. 

Meanwhile  the  reports  of  the  learned  travelers  had 
reached  the  ears  of  another  group  of  people— the  archeol- 
ogists— whose  interest  in  Petra  began  to  grow.  It  was  not 
until  1929  that  any  serious  scientific  work  could  be  under- 
taken on  the  site,  however.  In  that  year,  George  Horsfield, 
Chief  Curator  of  Antiquities  of  Transjordan,  began  his 
pioneer  excavations.  With  his  positive  attribution  of  char- 
acteristic pottery  remains  to  Nabataean  factories,  the  way 
was  opened  for  a  broad  investigation  of  the  culture.  From 
that  point  on,  the  identification  of  other  Nabataean  sites 
spread  through  the  southern  area.  Horsfield  centered  his 
activities  in  a  vast,  ancient  dump  on  the  northern  slopes 
of  Wadi  Farasa.  The  major  work  was  a  cut  made  from 
surface  to  bedrock,  on  the  basis  of  which  the  chronology 
of  further  work  was  established.  Unhappily,  in  this  period 
of  Near  Eastern  archeology,  Horsfield's  methods  led  to 
a  confusion  of  strata  and  resultant  dating  errors,  which 
remain  uncorrected.  In  any  case,  it  is  to  the  Horsfield  days 
that  we  owe  the  present  designation  of  one  feature  of  the 
city  known  as  the  "Conway  High  Place,"  named  in  honor 
of  Agnes  Conway,  later  Mrs.  Horsfield. 

In  1934,  Horsfield  began  another  series  of  investiga- 
tions, with  the  able  assistance  of  Dr.  W.  F.  Albright.  The 
Conway  High  Place  was  cleared,  as  were  certain  of  the 
more  promising  larger  tombs— the  Khazneh,  the  Urn  Tomb, 
and  the  Tomb  of  the  Roman  Soldier.  Two  members  of  the 
British  School  of  Archaeology  in  Egypt,  Margaret  Murray 
and  J.  D.  Ellis,  dug  on  the  site  in  1937,  clearing  cavesites 
at  the  north  end  of  the  city  above  Wadi  Abu  Ollegha. 

AFTER  the  creation  of  the  Hashemite  Kingdom  of  Jordan, 
^  interest  and  technical  personnel  were  joined  for  full- 
scale  work  at  the  site.  In  1954,  the  Jordanian  Department 
of  Antiquities  began  a  series  of  clearances  and  preser- 
vation activities  that  continues  v\ith  increasing  scope.  In 
195-5,  a  party  from  the  American  School  of  Oriental  Re- 
search in  Jerusalem,  with  the  author  as  a  member,  under- 
took specific,  individual  surface  projects  on  the  site.  Later 
that  same  year,  and  again  in  1956,  the  Department  con- 
tinued its  clearance  activities,  concentrating  on  the  Roman 
street,  under  the  supervision  of  Miss  Diana  Kirkebride, 
who  was  later  to  excavate  the  first  complete  Neolithic 
village  in  the  area,  at  El  Baidha. 

22 


The  British  School  of  Archaeology  in  Jerusalem,  w 
Peter  J.  Parr  as  director,  began  limited  excavation 
the  site  in  1958  and  continued  through  1960.  During  t 
period,  attention  was  given  to  the  supposed  city-wall  1 
of  Horsfield,  the  slopes  of  Katute,  the  Roman  street, 
wall  line  to  the  north,  and  certain  other  loci.  The  Bril 
School  was  joined  by  an  American  party,  under  my  dii 
tion,  during  the  1959  season.  These  excavations  are  the  f 
stratigraphic  approach  to  the  problem  of  Petra's  c 
archeological  history,  and  the  results,  when  publisl 
should  be  of  exceptional  value.  Excavations  on  other  N 


m  sites,  notably  Khirbet  Et-Tannur,  Sbaita,  and 
an,  to  name  but  a  few,  can  then  be  related,  and  a 
■  picture  of  the  specifics  of  Nabataean  chronology 
history  be  gained. 

e  Treasury  and  the  Triumphal  Gate  were  partially 
red,  for  reasons  of  preservation,  in  1960,  by  G.  R.  H. 
ht,  working  for  the  Department  of  Antiquities. 
[  American  Expedition  to  Petra,  also  under  my  direc- 
undertook  stratigraphic  excavation  of  the  Main 
ter  at  the  site  in  1961  and  1962,  in  co-operation  with 
)epartment  of  Antiquities.  The  primary  objective  in 


Jxoman-carved  head  of  a  ivoman,  probably  dating  from  second 
century  a.d.,  was  excavated  during  the  1963  season. 


Jlnother  head  shows  curled  beard  and  hair  typical  of  many 
Roman  god  representations.  This  might  be  a  Zeus, 


Isabataean  god  Hadad,  eyes  and  features  showing  Parthian 
influence,  ivas  found  at  Khirbet  Et-Tannur,  a  related  site. 

23 


1961  was  to  secure  a  complete  picture  of  the  stratigraphic 
history  of  the  area.  Four  trenches  were  laid  out,  extending 
across  the  orchestra  and  stage  to  the  proscenium  (scenery) 
wall,  across  the  front  of  the  stage,  and  along  the  face  of 
the  vomitorium  sinistrum  (left  entryway).  Following  the 
stratigraphic  excavation,  the  orchestra-stage  areas  were 
cleared  hy  the  Department  of  Antiquities.  In  1962,  the 
expedition  concentrated  on  detailed  survey  and  planning, 
as  well  as  on  the  completion  of  certain  problems  of  the 
previous  stratigraphic  work.  A  long  trench  was  opened, 
extending  from  the  exit  side  of  the  vomitorium  sinistrum 
through  the  proscenium  and  postscenium  wall  exits  to  the 
wadi  outside  the  installation.  At  the  same  time,  further 
excavation  was  carried  out  in  the  stage  area  to  determine 
building  phases  there,  relating  specifically  to  the  period 
of  main  use  of  the  Theater.  A  total  of  289  separate  strata 
were  isolated  in  the  two  seasons,  and  then  interrelated  and 
phased  into  eight  periods  that  furnish  a  complete  story  of 
the  use  and  decay  of  the  Theater. 

A  RCHITECTURAL  information  was  probably  the  most 
±\  important  "find"  of  the  two  seasons,  and  resulted  in 
perhaps  the  most  important  comprehensive  picture  of  a 
Roman  period  theater  thus  far  achieved  in  the  Near  East. 
From  this  material  has  come  much  new  knowledge  con- 
cerning order,  building  practices,  individual  architectural 
devices,  details  of  construction,  and  general  knowledge 
of  the  specific  theater,  itself.  The  major  find,  in  the  usual 
sense,  was  the  marble  statue  of  Hercules,  uncovered  at  the 
end  of  the  1961  season  in  the  curtain  slot  of  the  stage.  In 
addition,  epigraphic  material  (especially  Nabataean), 
coins,  pottery,  small  finds,  and  similar  items  swell  the  list. 

Out  of  the  excavation  has  come,  also,  the  strong  possi- 
bility of  another  example  of  the  engineering  skill  and 
eclectic  art  of  the  Nabataeans.  Indications  all  seem  to 
point  to  them  as  the  original  builders  of  the  Theater, 
closely  following  Vitruvian  canons  but  adding  their  own 
touches.  If  this  tentative  conclusion  proves  to  be  correct, 
the  Theater  at  Petra  will  become  one  of  the  earliest  pro- 
vincial Roman-type  theaters,  and  one  of  the  few  resulting 
from  local  enthusiasm  for  the  arts  rather  than  from  the 
postoccupation  desires  of  the  Romans  themselves. 

Research  through  the  years  has  produced  a  great  deal 
of  concrete  evidence  concerning  the  occupations  and  cul- 
tures of  Petra,  particularly  of  the  Nabataeans.  Since  they 
are  responsible  for  the  first  coinage  in  use  there,  most  of 
the  pottery  remains,  the  majority  of  monuments,  and  all 
but  a  handful  of  the  inscriptions  on  the  site,  a  word  should 
be  said  concerning  some  aspects  of  their  culture  that  have 
been  clarified  by  archeological  research. 

Pottery  forms,  especially  the  fine,  thin,  painted  ware, 
have  vague  parallels  to  earlier  Greek  materials.  From 
these  and  untraceable  local  prototypes,  the  Nabataeans 
rapidly  developed  what  may  be  the  finest  indigenous  wares 
of  ancient  Syro-Palestine.  From  one  end  of  the  kingdom 
to  the  other,  the  Nabataean  factories  produced  masses  of 
well-turned  and  perfectly  fired  bowls  and  cups  superbly 
decorated  with  motifs  of  local  flora,  as  well  as  masses  of 
coarser  wares.  The  latter  gradually  began  to  resemble 
contemporary  Roman  export  wares,  but  by  their  side  the 
characteristic  thin  ware  continued.  Of  all  the  varieties  of 
painted  wares  made,  however,  only  a  very  few  complete 
bowls  have  ever  been  found  intact,  although  their  sherds 
may  be^gathered  by  the  basket  on  almost  any  Nabataean 

24 


site.  Unguentaria  (small  perfume-ointment  jars),  v 
bulbous  bodies  and  slender  necks  are  also  ubiquitc 
especially  at  Petra.  These  were  apparently  produced  loc; 
to  provide  vessels  in  which  to  transship  the  ointments  i 
perfumes  that  entered  Nabatene  from  the  rich  southla 

Petra's  Nabataean  monuments  are  almost  numberl 
The  tourist  who  enters  Petra  by  the  Siq  sees  the  Khazr 
laboriously  ascends  to  the  Great  High  Place,  moves  \ 
the  Theater  to  the  Royal  Tombs,  walks  along  the  Ror 
street,  and  climbs  again  to  Ed-Deir.  Hundreds  of  tc 
fagades  with  crowsteps,  gables,  and  other  decorati 
crowd  the  mountainsides:  cultic  devices,  ranging  fi 
blocks  dedicated  to  the  god  Dushares,  set  in  little  nicl 
to  adopted  deities  in  human  form,  hide  from  the  cas 
glance;  graves  are  everywhere,  as  are  the  "high-plac 
that  apparently   delighted  the  pious  Nabataean  carv 

Inscriptions,  graffiti,  and  petroglyphs  are  in  the  n 
unlooked-for  places,  as  well  —  behind  rocks,  in  nan 
crevices,  low  along  the  footpaths,  or  across  a  tomb  fagi 
The  Nabataeans  adopted  the  Aramaic  language  of  the 
of  Coele-Syria  and,  as  usual,  contributed  their  own  ] 
sonal  touch  to  epigraphy  in  a  swirling,  ligatured,  se 
cursive  script.  The  longest  of  the  inscriptions  is  that  on 
facade  of  the  Turkmaniyah  Tomb.  Its  imprecations  aga 
defilers  are  still  readable  above  the  door  of  the  ravis 
burial  chambers.  Another,  shorter  inscription  lauds 
refurbishing  of  the  Great  High  Place  along  the  path  le 
ing  to  its  summit.  Most  of  the  other  readable  rem; 
simply  say  "Peace"  to  the  passing  traveler.  Pictures 
herdsmen,  sheep,  long-horned  ibex,  and  camels,  as  1 
as  a  peacock  and  a  gaming  board  on  Umm  il-Biyara, 
found  on  stones,  tumbled  blocks,  or  cliff  faces. 

Archeologically  and  historically  many  problems  re 
ing  to  Petra  and  to  the  Nabataeans  remain  unresol 
and  await  the  spade  and  trowel  of  the  excavator.  W 
was  the  early  history  of  the  site?  What  was  the  ad 
ancestral  home  of  the  strangely  atypical  Nabataea 
What  happened  to  the  genius  of  their  culture  after 
106?  What  was  their  complete  social  structure?  Wt 
are  the  dwelling  places  of  all  the  generations  of  those  \ 
inhabited  Petra?  What  are  the  dates  of  the  greatest  mo 
ments  of  Nabatene?  What  was  the  sequence  of  the  N 
ataean  kings?  Where  is  their  literature— or  even  tl 
commercial  accounts? 

But  Petra  is  recapturing  her  old  glory  in  much  the  s£ 
idiom  as  that  of  ancient  times.  The  economic  dema 
of  tourism  are  seeking  to  exploit  the  past  for  present  net 
and  Petra's  location,  natural  beauty,  and  artistic  contri 
tions  make  the  site  one  of  the  most  important  sources 
revenue  in  Jordan.  As  a  result,  clearing  and  restorat 
operations  on  the  site  have  begun  on  a  scale  never  bef 
attempted.  Soon  the  visitor  will  be  able  to  see  many  of 
two-thousand-jear-old  ruins,  either  exposed  or  restoi 
Communications,  roads,  and  other  facilities  have  b 
added  to  simplify  travel  to  the  site  and  its  most  import 
monuments.  The  bedouin  still  live  in  the  valley  in  tl 
black  tents,  but  change  has  indeed  come  to  that  rose- 
city  where  once  the  Edomites  roamed,  where  the  Na 
taeans  bartered,  and  where  Roman  legionaries  marcl 


Jjurial  niches  in  this  Nabataean  tomb  ivere  somehow 
jrom  the  incredibly  patterned,  multicolored,  solid  rock 


M.. 


.osaic  from  Carthage,  ca.  a.d.  520 
is  shown  below.  Rider  of  spotted 
horse  is  probably  a  I  aiidal  conqueror. 


Ornamental  Equines 


SPOTTED  HORSES  SPAN  AGES 


SPOTTED  HORSES  have  been  portrayed  by 
artists  of  ancient  and  recent  civilizations 
of  Asia,  Europe,  America,  and  Africa.  In  most 
cultures,  painters  are  believed  to  have  depicted 
the  mottled  animals,  not  because  any  tradi- 
tional symbolism  accrued  to  horses  with  such 
markings,  but  for  decorative  purposes.  Spotting 
is  derived  from  a  genetic  color  determinant  that 
is  inherited  by  the  horse  in  the  same  way  as 
black  or  bay,  and  which  can  be  bred  into  or  out 
of  any  strain  or  type  of  horses.  Falsely,  the 
pattern  had  often  been  taken  as  Indicative  of 


undesirable  hybridization  or  mixed  ancestry.  In 
recent  times,  spotting  was  excluded  by  horse 
breeders  from  the  genetic  line  of  recognized 
breeds;  therefore,  any  spotted  horse  one  may 
see  today,  however  fine,  will  not  be  a  pure 
breed.  Still,  there  Is  no  evidence  that  coloration 
is  genetically  associated  either  with  good  or 
with  bad  traits  in  a  horse.  (The  photographs  on 
these  pages  were  first  assembled  In  Appaloosa, 
The  Spoiled  Horse  hi  Art  and  History,  pub- 
lished for  the  Amon  Carter  Museum  of  West- 
ern Art  by  The  University  of  Texas  Press.) 


Jpanish  manuscript  of  the  eighth 
'ntury  depicts  the  Four  Horsemen  of 
le  Apocalypse  on  stylized  ?nounts. 


27 


Early  Man 
ana  tlie  Horse 


NEAR  the  village  of  Solutre,  in  east-central 
France,  there  is  a  large  deposit  of  horse 
bones  that  was  discovered  to  be  the  remains  of 
the  meals  of  Stone  Age  cave  men.  Many  ancient 
sites  besides  Solutre  offer  evidence  that  to  pre- 
historic man  wild  horses  were  a  primary  source 
of  food.  Portraits  of  horses  are  common  in  cave 
paintings  made  by  prehistoric  man,  and  the  ex- 
ample reproduced  on  this  page — spotted,  preg- 
nant mares  on  a  cave  wall  at  Peche-Merle,  near 
the  town  of  Cabrerets,  France — stresses  the 
theme  of  fertility,  for  large  horse  populations 
meant  a  plentiful  meat  supply. 

It  is  not  known  if  men  first  attempted  to 
domesticate  herds  of  horses  to  assure  a  ready 


source  of  meat,  but  once  horses  had  ceased  to 
be  merely  food  or  pets,  they  exerted  a  profound 
influence  on  the  fortunes  of  mankind,  especially 
in  the  realm  of  warfare.  The  first  definite  his- 
torical records  of  domestication  of  horses  come 
from  opposite  ends  of  Asia,  in  Mesopotamia 
and  in  China,  not  long  before  2000  B.C.  In  both 
cases,  the  idea  of  domestication  was  introduced 
by  barbarians  who  had  used  horses  successfully 
in  waging  war.  Only  in  relatively  recent  times 
has  the  development  of  military  horses  ceased 
to  be  the  main  concern  of  the  world's  breeders. 
Horse-drawn  war  chariots  helped  the  Hyk- 
sos  to  conquer  Egypt,  and  it  is  in  the  chariot- 
eer's harness  that  the  horse  most  frequently 
appears  in  the  art  of  Egypt  and  the  other  old 
Near  Eastern  civilizations.  Reproduced  on  the 
opposite  page  is  a  tomb  fresco  showing  a  team 
of  strikingly  marked  animals  (one  barely  dis- 
cernible behind  the  other)  that  belonged  to  an 
ofl'icial  of  the  Egyptian  Pharaoh  Thutmose  IV. 


K 


resco  in  Egyptian  tomb  of  Late 
Kingdom,  ca.  1415  B.C.,  shows  favoreo 
horse  of  a  deceased  official. 


>e  near  Cabrerets,  France, 

ns  painting  of  pregnant  mares. 

ates  from  upper  Paleolithic. 


29 


Asiatic  Horsemen 
Roam  tlie  ^^rld 


THE  conquest  of  most  of  Asia  and  much  of 
Europe  by  the  Mongol  horsemen  of  Gen- 
ghis (or  Chingis)  Khan  in  the  thirteenth  cen- 
tury marks  the  zenith  of  the  military  effective- 
ness of  the  horse.  The  whole  Mongolian  horde 
was  horse-borne,  and  its  leaders  developed  irre- 
sistible cavalry  tactics  that  have  been  studied 
ever  since.  The  Mongols  typified  a  people  for 
whom  the  horse  was  the  most  essential  feature 
of  civilization.  The  horse  was  protector,  food, 
drink,  weapon,  friend,  and  god.  Mare's  milk 
was  the  common  drink,  but  soldiers  traveling 
without  rations  sometimes  cut  open  a  horse's 
vein,  drank  the  blood,  closed  the  incision,  and 
remounted.  Horse  skulls  were  worshiped,  and 
shoulder  blades  of  the  animals  were  used  to  tell 
fortunes.  Horse  theft  was  punishable  by  death. 
Horse  cultures,  including  those  of  the  North 


ixteentli-century  woodcut  reca 
the  one  hundred  colts  paid  in  trib 
to  eighth-century  Chinese  empero 


w„. 


(inderer  and  Ids  mount  is  by  fourteenth- 
century  artist  Chao  Y ung,  one  of  a 
family  of  renoicned  Chtnese  painters. 


R. 


iding  his  horse  Rakush,  Rustam, 
he  hero  of  Persian  epic  poem 
hahnama,  lassoes  the  Chinese  Great  Khc 


American  Plains  Indians  and,  in  lesser  degree, 
of  the  western  ranchers  of  the  United  States, 
depended  on  the  availability  of  large  numbers 
of  horses  and  a  pattern  of  life  based  on  raiding, 
hunting,  or  herding.  Where  horses  were  few, 
horse  ownership  was  restricted;  traditionally, 
the  man  with  the  horse  was  either  an  aristocrat 
or  a  fighter.  Even  in  northern  Europe,  horses 
were  seldom  ridden  by  commoners  or  used  to 
work  on  farms  until  the  last  century  or  two 
before  the  coming  of  the  automobile. 

An  attempt  is  now  being  made  in  this  country 
to  develop  a  recognized,  separate  breed  of  spot- 
ted horses  from  descendants  of  Indian  range 
ponies.  These  are  called  Appaloosa  horses.  In 
previous  paragraphs,  a  very  brief  history  of 
man's  use  of  horses  was  set  forth;  the  spotted 
horse  is  part  of  this  story,  sometimes  preferred 
for  its  beauty,  at  other  times  rejected  because 
of  misconceptions  about  its  breeding,  but  al- 
ways sharing  in  the  events  that  have  affected 
the  long  history  of  the  species  as  a  whole. 


31 


'r^K^fc;^?>!Sv 


lentm  stables  of  Hapsburg  Emperor 
Iharles  VI  included  animal 
hown  above.  Engraving  is  dated  1740. 


H 


orses  m 


tlie  West 


a 


.row  Indian  elkskin,  right,  shows 
braves  riding  spotted  ponies  and 
cowboys  on  pintos  during  buffalo  hunt. 


n  this  detail  of  a  Danish 
fresco,  St.  Marti?!  shares  his  cloak 
with  a  beggar,  seen  at  right. 

32 


C.J-. 


Fishes  and  Climates 

Fossil  fish  distribution  Indicates  past  environmental  changes 


■^j* 


By  C.  Lavett  Smith 

EVERYONE  INTERESTED  in  fishing  or 
fish  cuhure  realizes  that  different 
kinds  of  fishes  have  different  habitat 
requirements.  Trout  and  salmon  de- 
mand cold,  clear  waters;  pike  and 
largemouth  bass  need  weedy  shal- 
lows; catfishes  and  plains  minnows 
thrive  in  sluggish,  muddy  rivers.  The 
existence  of  such  differences  offers  a 
powerful  scientific  tool.  If  ichthyolo- 
gists can  establish  what  fishes  were 
present  during  given  geologic  time 
periods,  they  can  obtain  significant 
indicators  of  climates  in  the  past. 

There  are,  of  course,  difficulties  in 
using  such  a  method.  First  of  all,  a 
specific  fossil  must  be  the  same  as,  or 
closely  related  to.  a  living  species; 
without  such  a  relationship  there  is 
no  basic  criterion  by  which  to  judge 
the  habits  of  the  now-fossilized  form. 

34 


Because  of  close  anatomical  resem- 
blance to  living  forms,  there  is  justifi- 
cation for  assuming  that  fishes  that 
have  lived  since  the  end  of  Miocene 
times  (about  13  million  years  ago) 
have  had  approximately  the  same  life 
requirements  as  their  relatives  among 
present-day  fishes.  We  cannot  be  as 
certain  about  the  more  ancient  fishes; 
their  fossil  record  has  been  difiicult 
to  construct,  partly  because  of  the  ex- 
treme fragility  and  perishability  of 
fish  skeletons. 

For  truly  significant  indications  of 
past  climate  it  is  essential  to  recon- 
struct a  picture  of  a  large  sample  of 
the  aquatic  fauna  that  lived  in  a  region 
in  any  given  geologic  time,  or,  at  least, 
to  work  with  assemblages  of  several 
coexistent  species.  This  large  sampling 
is  necessary  because  we  cannot  be  cer- 
tain that  any  one  fish  was  typical  of 
its  contemporary  relatives.  But  if  we 


Skeleton  of  a  bullhead,  Ictalurus  cf. 
nebulosus,  is  from  a  Pliocene  deposit.  ', 

can  work  with  five,  ten,  or  more  spe-  i 
cies,  perhaps   including  some   terres- 
trial animal  fossils  as  well  as  fossil  i 
fishes,  it  becomes  very  unlikely  that  all 
of  them  were  exceptional  in  their  re-  '. 
quirements   for   life.   The   larger   the  j 
number  of  species  in  such  assemblages,  j 
the  more  reliable  are  the  conclusions 
that  may  be  drawn  about  the  environ-  ' 
ment  in  which  they  mutually  thrived,  i 
During  the  past  three  decades,  fos-  ! 
sil-collecting   on   the   High   Plains  of  ] 
North  America  has  yielded  a  series  of 
faunal  assemblages  that  give  valuable 
clues  to  the  climatic  history  of  that  i 
region.  Many  of  these  have  been  col-  i 
lected  by  field  crews  from  the  Univer-  ' 
sities  of  Kansas  and  Michigan  under  '■ 
the  direction  of  Dr.  Claude  W.  Hib-  i 
bard.  Curator  of  Fossil  Vertebrates  of  I 
the  University  of  Michigan  Museum  of 
Paleontology.   Significant  faunas  are  \ 
now  known  from  Kansas,  Nebraska, 


s 


;iENTiSTS  view  sedimentary  deposits 
Lposed  in  clearly  perceptible   strata. 

klahoma,  Texas,  and  other  plains 
ates.  Mollusks  and  many  vertebrates 
amphibians,  reptiles,  birds,  and  mam- 
als— have  been  studied  in  addition  to 
ihes,  and  all  have  contributed  to  a 
■owing  picture  of  this  region's  former 
imatic  conditions. 

"Certain  species  are  rare  and  some 
__j  are  known  only  from  single  frag- 
ents.  Obviously,  stout  or  dense  bones 
e  more  likely  to  be  preserved  than 
e  thin,  delicate  ones.  Certain  habi- 
ts, too,  are  more  likely  to  develop 
e  special  conditions  necessary  for 
issilization.  Most  of  the  High  Plains 
issils,  for  example,  are  formed  of 
;nse  mineral  substances  that  over 
any  years  have  replaced  the  original 
3nes.  These  fossils  are  like  the  origi- 
i\  bone  in  every  way,  and  all  of  the 
ne  details  are  just  as  they  appeared 
hen    the    fish    lived.    Instances    are 


known  in  ivhich  even  internal  micro- 
scopic details  have  been  preserved. 

When  a  season's  collecting  is  fin- 
ished and  the  fossils  are  safely  back 
at  the  museum  or  university,  the  task 
of  identifying  the  material  begins. 
First  the  fossils  are  sorted  into  major 
groups— fish,  mollusks,  mammals,  and 
so  on— and  then  specialists  in  these 
areas  begin  the  exacting  work  of  pre- 
cise identification.  Usually  the  final 
identifications  are  made,  or  at  least 
confirmed,  by  direct  comparison  with 
comparable  elements  of  living  or  other 
fossil  species.  Sometimes  a  single  frag- 
ment is  enough  to  permit  an  identifica- 
tion; at  other  times,  a  whole  series  of 
perfect  bones  may  be  unidentifiable 
simply  because  the  bones  possess  no 
diagnostic  features.  Even  when  it  ap- 
pears that  there  is  a  perfect  match 
between  a  preserved  fossil  and  a  liv- 
ing fish,  there  remains  the  possibility 


that  the  fossil  species  might  have  dif- 
fered in  some  additional  features  that 
were  not  preserved  or  have  not  yet 
been  discovered. 

IN  the  past,  some  researchers  have 
tended  to  assign  to  fossils  names 
different  from  those  of  living  species, 
solely  on  the  grounds  of  the  much 
greater  age  of  the  fossil  form.  Such 
a  rechristening  would  normally  imply 
that  the  fossil  was  genetically  differ- 
ent from  the  living  form,  which,  of 
course,  cannot  be  demonstrated.  If  no 
evidence  of  genetic  difference,  such  as 
may  be  shown  by  skeletal  structure, 
can  be  found,  the  fossil  is  assigned  to 
an  appropriate  living  species.  This 
serves  to  emphasize  the  close  relation- 
ship and  probable  similarity  of  habits. 
Fossil  forms  with  no  living  coun- 
terparts are  of  special  interest  to  the 
scientist   who   is  concerned   with   cli- 


35 


1 


matic  histories,  because  extinction  of 
species  might  well  have  resulted  from 
climatic  shifts  that  made  previous 
adaptations  for  life  obsolete  in  a  given 
region.  But  every  precaution  must  be 
taken  to  insure  that  a  case  for  an  ex- 
tinct fish  has  not  been  built  up  around 
an  abnormal  individual  of  a  known 
species.  Statistical  procedures  help  in 
evaluation  of  observed  differences.  In- 
deed, such  procedures  are  crucial  in 
determining  whether  a  strange  fossil 
fish  represents  a  newly  discovered  ex- 
tinct species  or  is  an  odd  individual  of 
a  well-known  species  with  variations 
that  are  attributable  to  chance  alone. 
If,  however,  two  fossil  forms  differ  be- 
tween themselves  as  much,  or  in  the 
same  way,  as  do  comparable  living 
species,  ichthyologists  are  inclined  to 
regard  each  as  distinct.  Here  the  ex- 
perience of  the  investigator  who  pro- 
vides the  data  for  statistical  analysis 
plays  a  decisive  role. 

One  of  the  first  Pleistocene  fish 
faunas  from  the  High  Plains  to  be 
studied  with  the  above-described  pro- 
cedures was  the  Berends  Local  Fauna, 
named  in  honor  of  the  Oklahoma  ranch 
owner  on  whose  land  the  fossils  were 
quarried  in  1953.  This  fauna,  from 
the  panhandle  region,  contains  some 
twelve  species,  of  which  nine  have 
been  identified  with  reasonable  cer- 
tainty—yellow perch,  gar,  common 
sucker,  black  bullhead,  channel  cat- 

36         ^ 


i\    oM.MioM\   rvMixMH.F:.  erosion  by 
llie  Cimarron  Ki\er,  shuiin  above,  has 


fish,  muskellunge,  green  sunfish,  and 
two  kinds  of  minnow.  These  fossil 
fishes  were  found  in  beds  dating  from 
Illinoian  times  (the  third  glacial  age), 
and  all  are  close  to,  if  not  identical 
with,  forms  that  live  today  on  other 
parts  of  the  continent.  Only  the  black 
bullhead  and  the  green  sunfish  still 
live  in  that  part  of  the  High  Plains. 

At  present  the  climate  of  southwest- 
ern Kansas  and  the  Oklahoma  panhan- 


UsiNG  A  METHOD  of  gold  prospectors, 
scientists   search  for  fossils.   The   box 


uncovered  many  ancient  accumulations  j 
of    important    fresh-water    fish    fossils.] 


die  is  semiarid,  with  a  mean  rainfall 
of  less  than  twenty  inches  annually' 
and  with  markedly  wet  and  dry  years. : 
Streams,  which  are  few  and  far  be-, 
tween,  may  dry  up  completely  in  rain-' 
less  years.  Artesian  springs  feed  somej 
streams,  but  these  harbor  only  a  fewl 
species  of  small  fish.  There  is  no  habi-; 
tat  suitable  for  gars,  muskellunge,  or] 
channel  catfish  other  than  artificial! 
ponds.   The   common   sucker   is   alsoi 


has  meshes  to  trap  and  retain  fossils | 
as  running  water  carries  off  the  silt. 


sent  from  the  region,  possibly  be- 
use  of  the  lack  of  adequate  gravel 
ttom  spawning  sites.  The  presence 
fossilized  large  river  forms  indi- 
tes that  the  climate  of  southern  Kan- 
5  and  the  Oklahoma  panhandle  must 
ve  been  much  more  humid  during 
inoian  times  than  it  is  today.  Simply 
erpreted,  this  might  lead  us  to  hy- 
thesize  a  higher  annual  rainfall.  But 
could  also  mean  that  sparse  rain- 
1  was  then  more  effective  than  it  is 
w.  perhaps  because  evaporation 
)k  place  more  slowly  owing  to  the 
A'er  temperatures  that  prevailed  dur- 
i  periods  of  glaciations. 
Today  the  muskellunge  and  the  yel- 

V  perch  are  northern  fishes,  the  yel- 

V  perch  occurring  no  farther  south 
m  central  Ohio.  If  we  superimpose 

a  map  the  distribution  ranges  of 
;  living  counterparts  of  the  Berends 
cal  Fauna,  we  find  that  there  is 
erlap  only  in  the  region  of  the  south- 
1  Great  Lakes  {map,  page  38). 
The  conclusion  we  have  drawn  from 
;  above  evidence  is  that  during  the 
le  when  the  Berends  fauna  flour- 
led  in  Oklahoma  the  climate  must 
ve  been  much  the  same  as  it  is  today 
southern  Wisconsin.  Such  a  picture 
further  supported  by  the  presence 
fossilized  spruce,  fir,  and  pine  pollen 
the  same  deposits  that  contain  the 
isil  fish,  and  by  the  presence  of  fos- 
ized  remains  of  such  mammals  as 
!  meadow  vole  and  northern  shrew, 
flections  made  since  1953  from 
ds  of  comparable  age  at  other  loca- 
ns  further  substantiate  conclusions 
sed  on  the  Berends  evidence. 
Although   the    Berends    locality    is 


iTER  SLUICES  earth  away  and  leaves 
sil  fragments  like  ones  seen  below. 


well  south  of  the  southern  limit  of  the 
lllinoian  ice  sheet,  a  widespread  cool- 
ing would  have  accompanied  the  ad- 
vance of  the  glaciers  and  permitted  the 
cold-water-dwelling  perch  and  muskel- 
lunge to  extend  their  former  ranges 
southward.  Conversely,  as  the  ice 
sheets  receded  (it  is  generally  con- 
ceded that  there  were  four  major  gla- 
cial advances),  the  cool-climate  forms 
would  have  been  replaced  by  warm- 
water  species  from  the  south,  such  as 
alligator  gar  and  buffalo  fish  (the  lat- 
ter are  large  suckers). 

OUR  studies  of  fossil  fish  have 
paralleled  research  efforts  with 
molluscan,  mammalian,  and  reptilian 
fossil  records  on  the  North  American 
continent,  and  something  about  these 
projects  should  be  noted  here.  As  this 
region  became  warmer  between  gla- 
ciations it  also  became  drier,  and 
fishes  have  not  been  prominent  in  the 
fossil  faunas  recovered  from  intergla- 
cial  deposits.  The  only  significant  fish 
fauna  known  from  the  area  so  far  is 
lllinoian.  However,  Dr.  Hibbard  and 
his  colleagues  have  already  recovered 
a  series  of  mammalian  faunas  that  tell 
a  story  of  warm  and  cool  periods  that 
are  associated  with  all  the  major  ad- 
vances and  retreats  of  the  glaciers. 
Such  mammals  as  zebras,  camels,  badg- 
ers, ground  sloths,  and  certain  other 
smaller  forms  have  indicated  warm 
climates,  while  mammoths,  beavers, 
northern  shrews,  northern  grasshop- 
per mice,  and  others  have  been  inter- 
preted as  evidence  of  cool  climates. 

A  vast  amount  of  work  has  gone 
into   these   studies,   which   have   pre- 


FossiL  BONES  have  features  that  may 
permit  the  identification  of  a  species. 


sented  several  difficulties.  For  one 
thing,  there  is  no  single  site  at  which 
all  of  the  fossiliferous  strata  can  be 
studied  at  once.  Furthermore,  the  car- 
dinal principle  used  in  this  work  has 
been  that  the  younger  sediments  are 
to  be  found  on  top  of  older  layers. 
(Although  certain  types  of  sediments 
are  associated  with  arid  climates  and 
others  with  wet.  there  is  no  direct  way 
of  knowing  their  age  from  such  infor- 
mation alone.)  Varied  erosion  and 
sedimentation  patterns,  plus  collapses 
of  the  terrain  that  have  follow  ed  sub- 
terranean erosion,  have  complicated 
the  stratigraphy.  As  a  result,  it  has 
been  necessary  for  workers  to  piece 
together  a  picture  little  by  little,  deter- 
mining in  one  area  that  bed  A  is 
younger  than  bed  C,  then  at  another 
location  that  bed  B  is  younger  than 
bed  C,  and,  finally,  at  a  third  site,  that 
bed  B  is  older  than  bed  A. 

One  godsend  to  stratigraphic  stud- 
ies on  the  Great  Plains  is  Pearlette 
ash— a  layer  of  volcanic  ash  that  fell 
over  a  large  section  of  the  country 
near  the  end  of  the  Kansan  (second) 
glacial  age.  In  some  places  this  ash  ac- 
cumulated in  depressions  from  which 
it  is  now  quarried  for  use  in  the  manu- 
facture of  scouring  powder.  This  layer 
of  ash  serves  as  a  reference  point 
whenever  it  can  be  found  in  place.  The 
whole  project  is  like  a  jigsaw  puzzle 
with  many  missing  pieces.  The  Pearl- 
ette volcanic  ash  is  like  the  reliable 
edge  of  the  picture;  beds  found  below 
the  ash  are  older  than  late  Kansan 
times  and  those  above  are  younger. 

Fossil  fishes  have  also  contributed 
to  our  knowledge  of  climate  prior  to 
the  Pleistocene,  or  Ice  Age.  In  the 
Pliocene,  immediately  preceding  the 


fin  spine 


37 


Ice  Age.  climate  seems  to  have  re- 
mained reasonably  constant  for  about 
eleven  million  years,  becoming  some- 
what dry  only  during  the  latter  part  of 
the  epoch.  In  Early  Pliocene  deposits 
are  remains  of  gars,  bowfins,  buffalo 
fish,  and  a  species  of  large  catfish. 
From  Middle  Pliocene  beds  we  have 
minnows,  black  bullheads,  crappies, 
and  warmouth  sunfish.  From  the  na- 
ture of  the  sediments  in  which  these 
last-mentioned  were  found  we  can  tell 
tliat  they  lived  in  a  large  lake,  and  that 
other  lakes  presumably  existed.  Our 
fossils  from  the  Upper  Pliocene,  later 
in  time,  are  from  small  streams  and 
include  minnows,  green  sunfish.  rock 
bass,  and  some  small  bullheads  that 
appear  to  be  related  to  the  yellow  bull- 
heads. All  of  these  except  the  bull- 
heads, which  still  live  in  niches  within 


Berends   fossil   site   is   shown   by   dot. 
Range  of  same  fishes  today  is  shaded. 


the  plains  region,  indicate  the  former 
existence  of  larger  and  more  perma- 
nent waters  than  are  now  available  to 
support  aquatic  life  on  the  plains. 
Short-legged  rhinoceroses  and  giant 
land  tortoises  have  been  found  in  com- 
parable Pliocene  deposits.  In  the  Up- 
per Pliocene,  therefore,  the  climate 
must  have  been  relatively  mild. 

It  might  be  expected  that  fossils 
will  someday  provide  the  ultimate  evi- 
dence of  the  evolutionary  course  of 
North  American  fresh-water  fishes.  In 
the  case  of  the  yellow  perch,  for  ex- 
ample, the  North  American  and  Eura- 
sian forms  are  so  much  alike  that 
ichthyologists  have  begun  to  doubt 
that  thev  are  distinct  species.  The  fos- 
sil record  supports  the  hypothesis  that 


these  American  and  Eurasian  perch  ' 
populations  have  not  been  separated 
for  a  very  long  time.  While  yellow  i 
perch  are  extremely  abundant  in  the  ] 
Berends  collections,  they  do  not  appear  | 
in  any  collections  taken  from  older  | 
deposits.  The  fish  is  a  cold-water  spe-  j 
cies  and  probably  made  its  way  to  j 
North  vVmerica  no  later  than  the  Illi-  j 
noian  glacial  stage,  but  no  earlier  than  | 
the  Upper  Pliocene.  Until  such  time,  ] 
North  American  forms  must  have  been  ' 
part  of  the  Eurasian  population.  i 

THE  scope  of  such  detective  work  < 
as  that  described  in  connection  ' 
with  the  yellow  perch  has  limits.  Fami-  j 
lies  and  genera  of  fishes  are  older  in  j 
origin  than  forms  that  are  found  in  \ 
the  Pliocene  deposits,  and  so,  unfortu-  \ 
nately,  there  is  scant  hope  of  finding  j 
remote  ancestors  of  present-day  fishes  ; 
there.  In  fact,  there  is  strong  evidence 
that  many  of  our  fresh-water  genera  i 
were  distinct  by  as  early  as  the  Eocene  ' 
Epoch,  some  58  million  years  ago.  ; 
There  is  evidence,  though,  that  two 
extinct  bullheads  from  different  levels  • 
in  the  Upper  Pliocene  may  be  direct  '. 
ancestors  of  a  modern  catfish,  the  yel-  ! 
low^  bullhead.  If  further  fossil  material  i 
from  the  Early  Pleistocene  should  cor-  j 
roborate  the  existence  of  this  ancestral  i 
line,  we  may  be  able  to  use  these  par-  ] 
ticular  catfishes  as  index  fossils.  That  j 
is,  we  might  be  able  to  determine  ' 
the  age  of  deposits  by  the  kinds  of  j 
catfishes  present.  If  so,  this  will  be  j 
one  more  valuable  tool  for  the  strati-  ] 
grapher.  Meanwhile,  the  search  con-  | 
tinues.  Every  rain  exposes  more  fos-  j 
sils:  each  one  is  a  piece  in  the  puzzle  j 
of  the  changing  climates  of  the  past,  i 

1 


TRACING  STRATIGRAPHY 

DEPOSITION 


MORE  DEPOSITS 


MORE  EROSION 


Deposition  and  erosion  may  disturb  chronology  of  strata 
by  causing  some  sediment  to  settle  in  unexpected  positions 

38  . 


relative  to  older  or  younger  layers.  Diagram  shows  how  a 
late  deposit  (D,  panels  3  and  4)   reaches  older  level   (A). 


GEOLOGIC  TIME 


jGEi 


CLIMATE 


FOSSIL  FISH 


19.4"  rainfall 

57.35°F  mean  temperature 


ANIMALS 


bison 
Jack  rabbit 


WISCONSIN 
GLACIAL 


SANGAMON 
INTERGLACIAL 


ILLINOIAN 
GLACIAL 


YARMOUTH 
INTERGLACIAL 


KANSAN 
GLACIAL 


cooler  than  at  present, 
more  extremes 


subtropical: 
becoming  arid, 
then  subhumid 


cooler  year 
round  than 
at  present 


subtropical: 
warmer  winters 
becoming  arid 


moist,  cool 
summers;  winters 
warmer  than  at  present 


ground  squirrel 
shrew 


WHITE  SUCKER 


skunk 

muskrat 

tortoise 

mammoth 

extinct  bison 


shrews 
voles 


pronghorn 

tortoise 

coyote 

jack  rabbit 


mammoth 

mink 

weasel 


AFTONIAN 
INTERGLACIAL 


subtropical: 
becoming  arid, 
then  subhumid 


camel 

tortoise 

badger 

zebra 


NEBRASKAN 
GLACIAL 


UPPER 


MIDDLE 


LOWER 


cool,  but  not  as  cold 
as  durmg  later 
glacial  stages 


m  Id  vvmters; 
subhumid 
becomtng   sem 
then  subhumid 


subtropical 
moist  subhumid 


BULLHEAD 


shrews 
tiger  salamander 


Decerning  f    ^''^"■■V  ^    ^    ;  j^,-' 

semiand  to  and      "^^ 


subtropical 
moist  subhumid, 
cool  summers 


thick-shelled  giant  tortoise 

mastodon 

cotton  rat 

stegomastodon 


short-legged  rhino 

shovel  tusk  mastodon 

thin-shelled  giant  tortoise 


shovel  tusk  mastodon 
short-legged  rhino 
giant  tortoise 


Color  Change: 

Chameleon 

Camouflage 

Nervous  or  hormonal  controls  affect  hue 


r^ 


i't^fl 


^ 


■-W*r 


'0, 


'^~  ^sS^'' 


v^g 


■#^*« 


^i 


^♦^^,w. 


By  Herndon  G.  Dowling 

THE  LIZARDS  Correctly  called  chame- 
leons make  up  a  distinctive  family 
that  is  found  in  Africa  and  Madagas- 
car. A  single  species  (or  perhaps  a 
group  of  related  species)  ranges  out- 
side this  region  from  Europe  to  India. 
Generally  slow-moving,  chameleons 
are  highly  specialized  for  arboreal 
life  and  for  feeding  on  insects.  They 
lack  the  bony  shields,  protective 
armament,  and  defensive  claws  and 
dentition  characteristic  of  most  slo\s"- 
moving  animals,  such  as  turtles  and 
armadillos.  Instead,  they  blend  with 
their  environment  to  escape  the  no- 
tice of  possible  predators. 

African  chameleon's  skin  turns  pale, 
below,  where  a  wire  screen,  left,  cast 
shadow  on  its  body  for  a  few  minutes. 


Chameleons  have  accomplished  this 
blending  by  using  all  the  various  tech- 
niques of  camouflage.  Their  over-all 
coloration  fits  in  with  the  browns, 
yellows,  and  greens  of  their  environ- 
ment. These  colors  are  not  uniform  but 
occur  in  irregular  spots,  stripes,  and 
blotches  that  draw  attention  away 
from  the  outline  of  the  animal  and 
away  from  that  most  distinctive  ani- 
mal feature,  the  eye.  The  body  out- 
line is  so  invested  with  fringes,  flaps, 
and  hornlike  projections  that  it  is  hard 
to  see  against  a  "busy"  background. 
In  addition,  the  body  is  vertically 
compressed  and  casts  a  relatively 
small,  unusually  shaped  shadow. 

Perhaps  the  most  interesting  aspect 
of  the  chameleon's  camouflage  is 
countershading.  This  development  of 
color-blending  is  especially  character- 
istic   of    the    slow-moving,    arboreal 


41 


chameleons  (a  few  members  of  the 
family  have  reverted  to  terrestrial  life 
and  are  more  active).  If  a  sedentary 
arboreal  chameleon  is  exposed  to 
bright  light  and  patches  of  shade, 
within  three  or  four  minutes  the 
brightly  lighted  areas  of  the  skin  be- 
come darker  while  the  shaded  areas 
become  lighter.  By  thus  reducing  the 
effect  of  contrasty  shadows  on  its 
body,  the  chameleon  appears  to  have 
the  light  pass  through  its  body  and  the 
animal  practically  disappears  amid  its 
natural  surroundings.  However,  if  the 
chameleon  moves  suddenly  or  if  the 
shading  object  is  moved,  a  "print" 
of  the  shadow  stays  on  the  skin  until 
it  readjusts  to  new  conditions. 

CHAMELEONS  are  not  the  only 
lizards  that  display  this  reaction 
to  light  intensity,  although  they  prob- 
ably exhibit  much  more  variety  in 
their  reactions  than  do  other  lizards. 
Many  years  ago  I  noticed  the  green 
print  of  a  wire  screen  on  my  captive 
Anolis  lizards  in  Alabama,  after  they 
had  basked  in  the  sun  and  turned 
brown  except  where  the  screen's 
shadow  had  touched  them.  Oddly.  I 
have  not  seen  this  feature  mentioned 
in  descriptions  of  Anolis  behavior, 
although  the  blanching  effect  of  a 
shadow  on  African  chameleons  was 
noted  more  than  a  century  ago  by  E. 
Briicke.  a  German  scientist. 

The  mechanics  of  the  color  changes 
in  the  skin  itself  are  relatively  well 
understood.  All  of  the  color  elements 
occur  in  the  thick  dermis  that  under- 
lies the  thin,  transparent  epidermis. 
The  specialized  cells  that  provide  the 
different  colors  occur  in  four  layers. 

The  outermost  layer  is  made  up  of 
xanthophores,  which  contain  yellow 
pigments.  Scattered  through  the  same 
layer  are  a  few  cells  called  erythro- 
phores,  which  contain  red  pigments. 
Underlying  this  top  layer  of  yellows 
and  reds  on  most  of  the  body  is  an 
irregularly  distributed  layer  of  cells 
that  reflect  blue  light.  Immediately 
below  it  is  a  more  uniform  layer  that 
reflects  white  light.  Neither  the  "blue 
layer"  nor  the  "white  layer"  contains 
any  actual  pigment.  The  colors  are 
produced  in  the  cells  by  layered  struc- 
tures of  crystals  of  a  substance  called 
guanine.  The  fourth,  and  innermost, 
color  layer  contains  the  main  bodies 
of  the  melanophores— cells  that  con- 
tain melanin,  a  very  dark  brown  pig- 
ment. The  melanophores  have  long, 
tentacle-like    arms    that    extend    up 


toward  the  surface  through  the  other 
three  color  layers. 

The  strata  of  blue-  and  white-re- 
flecting cells  are  not  involved  in  the 
chameleon's  color  changes.  However, 
the  layer  of  yellow  xanthophores  acts 
as  a  screen  above  these  layers  and  the 
yello\\'  or  red  cells  can  apparently  con- 
tract or  expand,  giving  stronger  or 
weaker  effects.  Where  the  blue-reflect- 
ing layer  occurs  under  the  yellow, 
green  is  produced.  In  areas  where  the 
blue  is  absent,  white  light  is  reflected 
from  the  third  layer  through  the 
xanthophores  and  erythrophores  to 
give  the  true  colors  of  yellow  and  red. 

The  main  effectors  of  color  changes 
are  the  melanophores.  The  cell  walls 
of  melanophores  do  not  contract  and 
expand,  but  the  melanin  they  contain 
can  be  concentrated  in  the  main  cell 
body  below  the  white-reflecting  layer, 
or  it  may  be  dispersed  into  the  cell 
arms  that  extend  up  through  the  other 
color  layers,  thus  obscuring  one  or 
more  of  them. 

The  amount  of  melanin  in  the  arms 
of  the  melanophores.  then,  is  the  prin- 
cipal determinant  of  the  chameleon's 
color.  Light  greens  and  yellows  are 
produced  when  the  melanin  is  at 
maximum  concentration  below  the 
white-reflecting  layer.  Melanin  intro- 
duced into  the  white-reflecting  area 
darkens  the  greens,  and  if  dispersed 
completely  over  the  yellow  layer  as 
well,  obscures  all  the  other  colors  and 
turns  the  chameleon  dark  brown- 
almost  black. 

Questions  about  the  chameleon's 
change  are  not  so  much  those  of  skin 
and  cell  structure,  but  rather  of  con- 
trol of  these  structures.  Even  limited 
observation  shows  that  the  cha- 
meleon's color  is  determined  by  nei-v- 
ous  or  hormonal  controls.  The  African 
chameleon  turns  dark  when  it  is  angry 
or  greatly  disturbed,  when  it  is  cool, 
or  when  it  is  in  bright  light  although 
otherwise  undisturbed.  Conversely, 
it  is  pale  when  overheated  or  when  it 
is  undisturbed  and  in  the  dark. 

The  American  Anolis  carolinensis 
goes  through  a  similar  set  of  changes 
(although  it  is  light  when  disturbed 
and  dark  when  undisturbed) ,  but  they 
are  not  as  complex  as  those  in  the 
African  chameleons.  According  to 
present  theory,  however,  the  Anolis 
and  the  chameleons  attain  these  simi- 
lar results  differently.  Current  litera- 
ture suggests  that  color  changes  in 
Anolis  lizards  are  accomplished  by 
hormonal  controls  while  color  changes 


that  take  place  in  the  African  chame- 
leon are  under  direct  nerve  controls. 

Of  course,  the  two  kinds  of  lizards 
are  not  closely  related  and  no  doubt 
their  color-control  apparatus  devel- 
oped independently  over  a  long  period 
of  time.  However,  I  do  wonder  if  per- 
haps some  of  the  presumed  differences 
are  not  due  to  the  two  different, 
"schools"  of  research  on  animali 
coloration  that  are  involved.  '• 

George  H.  Parker  and  his  students 
in    the    United    States,    who    studied 
Anolis,  were  advocates  of  the  impor- 
tance of  neurohumors,  or  controlling 
hormones,  in  color  changes.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  work  of  Lancelot  Hog-  ] 
ben,  his  students,  and  other  European 
biologists    who    studied    chameleons  ; 
tended  to  emphasize  the  importance  j 
of  direct  neural  control,  and  it  is  the  ] 
Europeans     who     have     done     most  5 
studies  of  African  chameleons.  Since  ': 
the  two  groups  have  dealt  with  differ- 
ent   animals    and    have    approached  ; 
their  studies  with  different  points  of  ^ 
emphasis,  it  is  no  surprise  that  they  " 
have  come  to  different  conclusions.      • 

Parker's  opinion  of  the  phenomenon 
is  that  the  melanophores  are  affected  ' 
directlv  by  the  light.  Those  cells  af-  , 
fected  by  bright  light  disperse  their  j 
pigment,  causing  the  color  of  that  area  ' 
of  the  body  to  darken.  The  melano- 
phores that  are  not  so  affected  con-  ; 
centrate  their  pigment,  which  lightens  t 
the  color  in  the  area.  j 

The  theories  of  the  European  work- 1 
ers,  who  have  actually  carried  out  the 
experiments  on  the  chameleons,  postu^ 
late  the  existence  of  a  very  complex 
system  of  direct  nervous  control.  Ac- 
cording to  these  researchers  there  j 
must  be  a  series  of  dermal  receptors  j 
in  the  chameleon  that  are  affected  by  j 
the  light.  Impulses  from  the  receptors  j 
travel  to  the  spinal  cord,  which  then  j 
sends  impulses  to  the  melanophores,  i 
causing  them  to  disperse  or  to  con- 
centrate their  melanin.  | 

THE  fundamental  difference  ofj 
opinion  as  to  whether  the  color! 
changes  are  mediated  by  a  single' 
neurohumor  (without  any  nerves  in-i 
volved ) ,  or  by  as  many  as  four  nerve-; 
complexes,  is  still  unsettled. 

It  is  to  be  hoped  that  the  necessary: 
experiments  and  observations  may  be 
performed  soon.  Surely  the  Atlantic  ^ 
Ocean  is  no  longer  the  barrier  to  in-' 
ternational  study  of  common  scien-| 
tific  problems  that  it  was  to  the  dis-i 
tribution  of  the  animals  involved. 


42 


Wood  slat  shades  luirt   (if  chajiic'liMin"-   ImkIv.  <ibove.  Pale  of  the  lizard"?  cliarifrc^  (if  cdldr  arc  understood,  but  control 

band,  belou,  remains  uliere  sliadow  fell.  The  "niechanics"  of   skin   and   i  ell   slriu  liiro    iiiNoKcd    still   jioscs  problem. 


SKY  REPORTER 

hotometry  yields  clues  to  temperature  and  distance  of  stars 

By  Thomas  D.  Nicholson 


'arly  astronomers  made  the  logical  assumption  that 
the  brightest  stars  were  the  nearest,  which  is  true  of 
ny  stars,  but  not  all.  In  our  winter  sky,  Sirius  is  the 
ghtest  visible  star.  It  is  also  the  nearest  nighttime  star 
it  can  be  seen  with  unaided  eyes  from  most  of  the  United 
ites.  Other  bright  winter  stars,  such  as  Pollux,  Procyon, 
i  Capella,  are  also  among  the  nearby  stars. 
Over  the  years  astronomers  have  come  to  realize  that 
tance  is  not  the  only  factor  that  governs  the  brightness 
stars.  Some,  like  Betelguese,  Bellatrix,  Rigel,  and  the 
rs  of  Orion's  Belt,  appear  very  bright  even  though  they 
;  known  to  be  very  far  away.  If  these  stars  were  as  close 
Sirius  or  Procyon,  they  would  appear  as  bright  as  the 
lon,  although  not  so  large. 

rhus  the  apparent  magnitude  of  a  star— the  way  it  ap- 
irs  from  earth— may  not  indicate  the  true  brightness, 
t  apparent  magnitude  is  what  we  actually  measure  when 
observe  the  brightness  of  a  star  in  the  sky. 
[n  last  month's  "Sky  Reporter"  we  compared  the  ob- 
ved  brightness  of  the  sun  (magnitude  —26.7)  with  the 
served  brightness  of  Sirius  (magnitude  —1.42).  The 
Ference  in  the  magnitudes  (about  25)  indicated  that  the 
I  looks  10  billion  times  brighter  than  Sirius.  The  faint- 
objects  we  can  observe  (with  the  200-inch  Hale  tele- 
pe  at  Mount  Palomar)  are  about  magnitude  23.  This 
roughly  25  magnitudes  fainter  than  Sirius,  which  thus 
ms  about  10  billion  times  brighter  than  the  faintest 
servable  stars. 

rherefore,  from  the  brightest  object  that  we  can  observe 
e  sun)  to  the  faintest,  the  range  in  brightness  is  approxi- 
tely  50  magnitudes,  or  100,000,000,000,000,000.000 
les.  The  branch  of  astronomy  with  the  task  of  measuring 
urately  the  brightness  of  celestial  bodies  throughout  this 
)rmous  range  is  called  photometry. 
Before  the  nineteenth  century,  the  brightness  of  stars 
3  estimated  by  visual  comparisons  among  the  stars 
mselves.  The  most  common  method  was  to  choose,  near 
star  to  be  measured,  comparison  stars  slightly  brighter 
1  slightly  fainter  than  the  unknown  star.  The  brightness 
the  star  in  question  was  then  estimated  by  observing 
ratio  of  its  light  to  that  of  the  comparison  stars.  Many 
ateur  astronomers  still  use  this  method  for  visual  esti- 
tes  of  the  brightness  of  variable  stars, 
rhe  first  practical  instrument  for  measuring  stellar 
ghtness— the  photometer— was  developed  in  1836  by  the 
jlish  astronomer  John  Herschel.  By  optical  means, 
rschel  reduced  the  image  of  the  moon  to  a  point  of  light, 
n  viewed  it  at  various  distances  until  it  matched  the 
ghtness  of  the  star  being  measured.  The  magnitude  of 
star  was  indicated  by  the  distance  at  which  the  image 


:.LOW  AND  ORANGE  STARS  are  easily  seen  in  color  photo 
part  of  Veil  Nebula  in  Cygnus.  These  stars  appear  faint 
3n  photographed  with  ordinary,  blue-sensitive  emulsions. 


of  the  moon  appeared  to  match  the  brightness  of  the  star. 

A  much  more  precise  visual  photometer  was  developed 
in  Germany  in  1861  by  J.  C.  F.  Zollner.  In  his  instrument 
the  star  to  be  measured  was  viewed  through  two  polarizing 
filters  and  compared  to  an  artificial  light  of  constant  bright- 
ness. By  rotating  one  of  the  two  polarizing  filters,  the  light 
of  the  star  was  dimmed  until  it  matched  the  artificial  "star." 
The  star's  magnitude  was  indicated  by  the  angle  through 
which  the  filter  was  turned. 

Polarizing  photometers  were  widely  used  in  American 
and  European  observatories  during  the  late  nineteenth  and 
early  twentieth  centuries.  During  these  decades  the  first 
great  photometric  catalogues  were  prepared,  notably  at 
Potsdam,  Germany,  and  at  Harvard.  At  the  Harvard  Ob- 
servatory, E.  C.  Pickering  developed  an  improved  instru- 
ment, known  as  the  meridian  photometer,  in  which  the  star 
Polaris  was  used  as  the  comparison  source  rather  than  an 
artificial  light.  At  Oxford,  England,  C.  Pritchard  devised 
the  wedge  photometer,  in  which  a  dark  glass  filter  of  in- 
creasing thickness— hence  a  wedge— was  used  to  dim  the 
appearance  of  the  star  that  was  being  measured  until  it 
matched  a  comparison  source. 

During  the  twentieth  century  photographic  and  photo- 
electric methods  replaced  visual  photometers.  A  photo- 
graph records  the  brightness  of  hundreds  or  thousands  of 
stars  at  a  time,  as  compared  to  star-by-star  observations 
with  the  visual  photometer,  and  it  can  record  much  fainter 
stars  than  the  eye  can  see  when  using  the  same  telescope. 

THE  magnitude  of  a  star  on  a  photographic  plate  is  de- 
termined by  the  size  and  density  of  the  image  recorded 
by  the  emulsion.  Magnitudes  may  be  determined  by  visual 
inspection  of  the  plate  or  with  an  instrument  that  measures 
the  size  and  opacity  of  the  negative  images.  Brighter  stars 
are  sometimes  photographed  out  of  focus,  so  that  they  pro- 
duce circular  images  of  equal  area  but  varying  density  on 
the  plate.  The  magnitude  of  the  stars  is  then  determined 
solely  by  image  density. 

Since  photographic  emulsions  vary  in  the  way  they  re- 
spond to  light,  the  brightness  of  stars  recorded  on  the  plate 
must  be  calibrated  against  stars  of  known  magnitude. 
Even  so,  magnitudes  determined  photographicallv  may  be 
different  from  magnitudes  measured  visually.  The  human 
eye  is  most  sensitive  to  yellow  light,  whereas  ordinary 
photographic  emulsions  are  most  sensitive  to  blue  light. 
Thus  red  and  orange  stars  are  brighter  to  the  eye  than  they 
appear  on  a  photograph;  and  the  blue  stars  are  registered 
prominently  on  film. 

The  scale  of  photographic  magnitudes  is  adjusted  to 
match  the  visual  magnitude  for  a  white  star  with  a  surface 
temperature  of  about  18,000°F.  Gamma  Geminorum,  a 
second-magnitude  star  in  Gemini,  is  such  a  star.  Its  visual 
and  photographic  magnitudes  are  equal.  A  star  with  a 
visual  magnitude  greater  than  its  photographic  magnitude, 
such  as  Capella,  in  Auriga,  is  cooler  and  more  yellow;  a 


45 


Dr.  Nicholson  is  Assistant  Chairman,  Astronomer,  and  a 
lecturer  at  The  American  Museum-Hayden  Planetarium. 


star  with  a  visual  magnitude  less  than  its  photographic 
magnitude,  such  as  Bellatrix,  in  Orion,  is  hotter  and  blue. 

The  difference  obtained  by  subtracting  the  visual  from 
the  photographic  magnitude  is  a  quantitative  indication  of 
a  star's  color  and,  therefore,  of  its  surface  temperature. 
The  difference  is  called  the  color  index.  Since  the  visual 
and  photographic  magnitudes  of  Gamma  Geminorum  are 
equal,  the  color  index  of  the  star  is  zero.  Stars  with  a  color 
index  close  to  zero  are  white  stars. 

The  visual  magnitude  of  Capella  is  approximately  0.05. 
Its  photographic  magnitude  is  fainter,  about  0.85.  The  dif- 
ference (0.85  minus  0.05)  gives  Capella  a  color  index  of 
+0.80,  which  signifies  that  it  is  a  yellow  star,  slightly 
cooler  and  redder  than  the  sun  (color  index  +0.63).  High 
positive  color  index  is  associated  with  cool,  red  stars. 

The  visual  magnitude  of  Bellatrix  is  1.64;  its  photo- 
graphic magnitude  is  1.41,  which  means  it  is  brighter 
photographically.  The  color  index  of  Bellatrix  (1.41  minus 
1.64)  is  —0.23,  which  indicates  that  it  is  blue,  since  nega- 
tive color  index  is  associated  with  hot,  blue  stars. 

SPECIAL  red-sensitive  photographic  emulsions  have  been 
developed  that  yield  images  approximating  the  visual 
brightness  of  stars.  Stellar  magnitudes  obtained  with  red- 
sensitive  plates  are  known  as  photovisual  magnitudes,  and 
they  are  equated  with  the  visual  magnitude  scale.  Color  in- 
dex, and  therefore  temperature,  may  be  obtained  for  large 
numbers  of  stars  by  comparing  their  brightness  on  blue- 
sensitive  and  red-sensitive  plates. 

For  very  accurate  photometric  work  today,  astronomers 
use  photoelectric  instruments.  The  earliest  of  these,  devel- 
oped by  J.  Stebbins  about  1910  at  the  University  of  Illinois, 
was  based  on  the  properties  of  selenium,  which,  in  a  par- 
ticular crystalline  form,  varies  its  electrical  conductivity 
according  to  the  amount  of  light  falling  upon  it.  When 
small  selenium  cells  are  exposed  in  a  telescope  to  the  con- 
centrated light  from  a  star,  the  current  across  the  cell 
depends  upon  the  star's  brightness,  and  therefore  indicates 
the  star's  magnitude.  Photoelectric  cells  were  developed  in 
Germany  and  eventually  were  adopted  and  further  refined 
in  the  United  States.  The  inside  of  a  photoelectric  cell  is 


coated  with  a  metal— such  as  sodium  or  potassium— tha 
gives  off  electrons  when  light  falls  on  it.  The  electrons  an 
collected  by  a  cathode  in  the  cell  and  they  generate  a  cui 
rent  that  can  be  suitably  amplified.  Since  the  number  o 
electrons  emitted  is  proportional  to  the  intensity  of  thi 
light  beam  that  strikes  the  cell,  the  output  of  a  photoelectrii 
cell  indicates  directly  the  illuminating  star's  magnitude. 

Mounted  at  the  eyepiece  end  of  a  large  telescope,  mod 
ern  photoelectric  photometers  are  so  sensitive  that  they  cai 
detect  the  light  of  a  candle  at  a  distance  of  1,000  miles 
Since  photoelectric  cells  can  be  sensitive  over  a  wide  rangi 
of  frequencies,  these  instruments  can  measure  either  visusi 
magnitudes  or  photographic  magnitudes  when  they  ari 
equipped  with  appropriate  filters.  Photoelectric  photometr' 
is  a  rather  slow  process,  however,  because  of  the  need  fo 
careful  preparation  and  calibration  of  instruments  an( 
because  only  one  star  can  be  observed  at  a  time.  Its  use  i; 
generally  limited  to  cases  where  extreme  accuracy  is  re 
quired,  or  to  establishing  the  brightness  of  reference  starj 
for  calibrating  photographic  magnitudes.  j 

Many  years  of  carefully  observing  stellar  magnitude 
bore  fruit  when  astronomers  began  to  accumulate  meas 
urements  of  stellar  distances.  If  the  distance  to  a  star  i 
known,  its  apparent  magnitude  can  be  adjusted  to  a  seal 
that  indicates  the  intrinsic  brightness  of  the  star.  Whei 
the  apparent  magnitude  is  adjusted  to  a  standard  distanc; 
of  ten  parsecs,  the  resulting  measure  of  the  star's  bright 
ness  is  known  as  absolute  magnitude.  A  parsec  is  the  dis 
tance  at  which  the  radius  of  the  earth's  orbit  (93  millioi 
miles)  would  form  an  angle  of  one  second,  or  about  3.. 
light-years.  Absolute  magnitude,  therefore,  is  the  brighi 
ness  a  star  would  have  if  it  were  located  at  a  distance  a 
32  light-years  from  the  earth. 

When  the  absolute  magnitude  of  a  number  of  stars  be 
came  known,  astronomers  found  that  the  properties  o 
certain  stars  were  reliable  indicators  of  their  intrinsii 
luminosity.  These  properties  included  the  spectral  feature 
of  some  bright  stars  and  the  period  of  the  light  changes  ii 
some  variable  stars.  From  these  properties,  astronomer 
could  estimate  the  absolute  magnitude  of  the  stars  and,  bi 
comparing  this  with  the  apparent  magnitude,  could  observi 
how  greatly  the  stars  had  been  dimmed  by  distance.  Thu: 
astronomers  have  discovered  in  the  magnitude  scales  : 
powerful  implement  for  determining  the  distance  t( 
stars  beyond  the  range  of  direct  parallax  measurements 


Photographic   magnitude   of  stars  is   determined  by   size 
and  density  of  images.  In  different  exposures  of  same  sky 

46 


area  the  brightest  star  is  magnitude   7.  Long  exposure,  a 
right,   shows   stars   too   faint   to   register   in   photo   at   lefl 


A'*;? 


IE  SKY 
FEBRUARY 


MAGNITUDE  SCALE 

ir  -0.1  and  brighter 

*  0.0  to  +0.9 

*  +1.0  to  +1.9 

*  +2.0  to  +2.9 
+  +3.0  to  +3.9 

*  +4.0  and  fainter 


V>  V  ''•'■'-< 


^^r^r^ 


'='^N/SM/NOR 


.■i  ,+*    CANfe  '^'°'' 


dj 


*        ...^»  ■• 


-'   '  ,':  Jr     .*-    ' 


February    1       11:00  p.m. 

February  15       10:00  p.m. 

February  29        3:00  p.m. 

(Local  Standard  Time) 


February  15:  Saturn  and  the  sun  are  in  conjunction,  or 
arly  in  line  as  seen  from  eartii.  Saturn  leaves  the  evening 
/  and  becomes  a  morning  star,  but  it  will  not  be  readily 
ibie  until  after  mid-March. 

February  16:  Mars  and  the  sun  are  in  conjunction.  Mars 
ters  the  morning  sky,  but  it  will  not  be  seen  easily  as  a 
jrning  star  until  late  spring  of  this  year. 
February  15,  16,  17:  Jupiter,  Venus,  and  the  moon  are 
eresting  to  watch  on  these  evenings.  On  the  evening  of 
!  15th,  the  crescent  moon  appears  lower  than  Venus,  and 
piter  is  higher  than  Venus.  Venus  and  the  moon  are  in 
njunction  about  8:00  a.m.,  EST,  on  the  16th,  and  by  the 
3ning  of  the  16th,  the  moon  appears  between  Venus  and 
piter.  Then,  about  4:00  a.m.,  EST,  on  the  17th,  Jupiter  and 
;  moon  are  in  conjunction.  In  the  evening  sky  of  that  date 
!  moon  appears  above  Jupiter. 

February  28:  Venus  and  Jupiter  are-,  in  conjunction  about 
)0  A.M.,  EST,  Venus  passing  within  two  degrees  of  Jupiter, 
the  evening  of  the  27th,  the  two  brilliant  planets  are  quite 
ise,  and  Venus,  brighter  of  the  two,  is  slightly  below  and 


to  the  right  of  Jupiter.  By  dark  on  the  evening  of  the  28th, 
Venus  has  already  passed  Jupiter,  but  the  two  planets  are 
still  quite  close  to  each  other.  However,  this  time  Venus  is 
slightly  above  Jupiter. 

Mercury  may  be  seen  low  in  the  east  during  the  early 
dawn  for  several  days  during  the  first  week  of  February,  but 
only  with  difficulty.  Although  bright  (magnitude  zero),  it  rises 
only  an  hour  and  a  half  before  the  sun  on  February  1,  and 
is  soon  lost  in  the  brightening  sky.  Later  in  the  month,  it 
dims  and  moves  closer  to  the  sun. 

Saturn  and  Mars,  although  they  are  morning  stars,  are 
much  too  close  to  the  sun  to  be  seen.  ' 

Jupiter  and  Venus  appear  each  night  during  the  month 
of  February  in  the  twilight  sky  to  the  west,  shortly  after  sun- 
down, long  before  any  star  can  be  seen.  Venus,  the  brighter 
of  the  two,  appears  first,  then  Jupiter— above  and  to  the  left 
of  Venus  for  most  of  the  month.  Jupiter,  although  receding 
from  earth  and  growing  fainter,  is  brighter  (magnitude  —1.8) 
than  any  star.  During  the  month  Venus  brightens  from  mag- 
nitude —3.5  to  —3.7,  because  it  is  getting  closer  to  earth. 


The  Hawaiiaij 

1 

Monk  Seal 

Rare  mammal  survives  in  Leeward  Island 


Extreme   fatness   is  characteristic 
of  the  newly  weaned  monk  seal  pup. 


By  Dale  W.  Rice 

IN  THE  MIDDLE  of  the  North  Pacific 
Ocean,  the  Leeward  chain  of 
islands  extends  like  the  tail  of  a  comet 
for  twelve  hundred  miles  northwest  of 
the  main  Hawaiian  Islands.  The  islets 
nearest  to  Hawaii  are  jagged  chunks 
of  volcanic  rock,  the  remnants  of  once 
higher  islands.  But  at  the  far  end  of 
the  chain,  the  volcanic  peaks  long  ago 
sank  beneath  the  sea;  these  islands 
have  kept  their  heads  above  water  only 


because  their  crowns  of  reef  cor; 
have  grown  upward  to  compensate  i 
the  sinking.  All  summer  long,  an  er 
less  succession  of  heavy  ocean  swel 
running  before  the  steady  northe: 
trade  winds,  break  over  the  fringi 
reefs  into  sheets  of  foam,  slide  over  t 
blue-green  shallows,  and  hurl  the 
selves  onto  the  glaring  white  coi 
sand  beaches.  Those  lonely  bead 
and  shallow  lagoons  are  the  home 
one  of  the  world's  rarest  mammal; 
the  Hawaiian  monk  seal. 


Monk  seals  are  the  only  tropical  and 
jtropical  members  of  a  predomi- 
ntly  cold-water  family— the  Pho- 
ae,  or  earless  seals,  of  which  there 
;  three  species.  The  Mediterranean 
nk  seal  (Monachus  monachus) , 
II  known  to  the  ancient  Greeks,  now 
vives  only  in  a  few  scattered  col- 
es in  the  Mediterranean  and  Black 
s,  Madeira  and  the  Canary  Islands, 
1  along  the  northwest  coast  of 
rica.  Columbus  discovered  the 
ribbean  monk  seal  (Monachus  trop- 
lisj,  which  was  formerly  abundant 
:he  Bahamas,  the  Florida  Keys,  the 
iater  Antilles,  and  along  the  east 
st  of  Mexico.  It  probably  has  been 
erminated.  The  Hawaiian  species 
onachus  schauinslandi)  is  endemic 
the  Leeward  Islands  end  of  the 
yaiian  Islands  chain, 
low  did  the  monk  seals  come  to 
e  this  relict,  pantropical  distribu- 
1?  Probably  we  shall  never  know 
details  of  their  history,  but  after 
king  a  detailed  study  of  their  skull 
:ures,  and  taking  into  account  what 
sontologists   have   learned   of   the 


fossil  history  of  the  phocid  seals,  I 
think  the  following  hypothesis  is  the 
most  plausible:  the  earliest  phocids 
were  descended  from  otter-like  car- 
nivores that  lived  in  the  fresh-water 
lakes  of  Asia  during  the  Miocene 
Epoch— some  twenty  million  years  ago. 
As  the  extensive  lakes  slowly  disap- 
peared, the  ancestral  seals  moved  into 
the  coastal  seas.  Some  went  north,  into 
the  Arctic  Ocean;  their  descendants 
are  the  modern  northern  seals,  such  as 
the  harbor  and  ringed  seals.  Others 
moved  south  to  the  vast  Tethys  Sea, 
precursor  of  the  Mediterranean,  which 
bordered  the  southern  edge  of  Eurasia ; 
from  them  the  monk  seals  (and  also 
the  Antarctic  seals  and  elephant  seals) 
are  descended. 

Of  all  the  earless  seals,  the  monk 
seals  have  probably  changed  the  least 
since  Miocene  times— they  have  not  ac- 
quired the  specializations  that  charac- 
terize the  other  branches  of  the  family 
that  invaded  the  cold  polar  regions. 
One  species  of  monk  seal  has  remained 
in  the  Mediterranean.  From  this  birth- 
place, they  pushed  westward  to  the 


Caribbean,  and  eastward  across  Poly- 
nesia to  the  Hawaiian  Islands.  Since 
the  extinction  long  ago  of  the  inter- 
vening populations,  the  three  groups 
of  monk  seals  developed  the  distinctive 
traits  that  entitle  them  to  recognition 
as  separate  species. 

FOR  many  millenniums,  the  Ha- 
waiian monk  seals  lived  un- 
disturbed on  their  remote  islands. 
Apparently  even  the  seafaring  Poly- 
nesians never  reached  the  western 
atolls  of  the  Leeward  chain,  a  fact  that 
may  account  for  the  seals'  survival 
here— and  nowhere  else— in  the  Pacific. 
In  the  early  1800's  the  intrepid  W'hal- 
ers,  sealers,  feather-hunters,  and 
guano-diggers,  who  in  a  few  decades 
filled  in  the  blank  spaces  on  half  the 
globe,  discovered  the  Hawaiian  monk 
seals'  retreat.  To  them,  the  monk  seal 
was  only  another  source  of  oil  and 
hides.  Their  slaughter  of  the  animals 
on  the  Leeward  Islands  was  character- 
istically thorough— almost  complete,  in 


Churning  water  in  her  wake,  a  female 
repulses  advances  of  a  courting  male. 


fact,  by  the  year  1896.  when  Dr.  H.  H. 
Schauinsland,  the  German  scientist 
after  whom  the  species  was  named, 
visited  Laysan  Island.  During  his  stay 
he  saw  no  seals,  but  Max  Schlemmer, 
who  operated  a  guano  works  on  the 
island,  gave  him  the  skull  of  a  seal,  one 
of  only  seven  that  had  been  seen  dur- 
ing fifteen  years.  The  Hawaiian  monk 
seal  thus  barely  escaped  being  exter- 
minated without  its  existence  ever 
being  known  to  the  scientific  world. 
With  the  coming  of  the  twentieth 
century,  petroleum  reduced  the  need 
for  whale  and  seal  oil.  The  age  of  the 
sea  hunters  had  ended.  The  few  sur- 
viving monk  seals  and  their  sea  bird 
neighbors  once  again  were  left  to 
themselves.  The  Commercial  Pacific 
Cable  Company,  Pan  American  Air- 
ways, and  finally  the  U.S.  Navy  oc- 
cupied Midway  Islands,  but  they  were 
too  busy  to  bother,  or  even  to  notice, 


the  seals.  The  other  five  atolls  on  which 
the  seals  lived  remained  uninhabited 
and  very  seldom  visited. 

WHEN  Karl  Kenyon  (NATURAL 
History,  November,  1963 )  and 
I  were  assigned  to  Midway  Islands  in 
late  1956  to  study  the  albatrosses,  or 
"gooney  birds,"  which  nest  by  the 
thousands  on  the  Leeward  Islands,  we 
were  also  determined  to  learn  as  much 
as  possible  about  the  monk  seal— how 
many  there  were,  and  how  they  lived 
in  an  environment  so  different  from 
that  of  their  cold-water  relatives. 

The  first  seal  I  met  was  sleeping 
in  the  shade  of  the  "scavvy"  thickets 
(Scaevola  frutescens)  that  rimmed  the 
upper  edge  of  the  beach.  I  did  not  see 
him  until  he  raised  his  head  to  look 
at  me,  and  then  lowered  it  and  shut 
his  eyes.  A  moment  later  he  raised  it 
again  and  took  another  look.  With 


mouth  closed  he  voiced  a  peculi; 
'"bgg-bgg-bgg-bgg-bgg,"  like  wat 
bubbling  from  an  upside-down  ju 
He  lumbered  into  the  water,  dived,  ai 
surfaced  a  few  yards  off  the  bead 
from  whence  he  continued  to  watch  n 
a  while  before  swimming  off  to  findi 
place  where  he  could  resume  his  n£ 
without  being  interrupted.  This  inn^ 
tameness,  we  found,  is  characterise 
of  monk  seals— it  probably  comes  frO 
having  lived  so  long  on  islands  whej 
there  are  no  land  predators  to  attai 
them.  Even  seals  on  Midway,  whi« 
have  contended  with  man  for  onlv  ha 
a  century,  are  no  less  tame  than  tho: 
on  other,  rarely  visited  islands.  Wht 
I  went  spear-fishing,  I  sometimes  sd 
them  watching  me  under  water. 

These  behavioral  traits  were  impo 
tant  clues  to  the  relationships  of  tl 
monk  seal.  When  I  later  imitated  tl 
bubbling  voice  for  a  biologist  froi 


ew  Zealand,  he  said  it  sounded  just 
ce  the  leopard  seal  (Hydrurga  lep- 
nyx)  and  other  Southern  Hemis- 
lere  species,  which  share  the  innate 
meness.  I  have  since  heard  northern 
3phant  seals  (Mirounga  angustiros- 
Is)  utter  a  similar  sound. 
As  spring  advanced,  and  cool,  windy 
lys  became  less  frequent,  the  first 
ips  were  born.  We  found  that  when 
e  females  were  ready  to  give  birth 
their  pups  they  tended  to  congregate 
I  certain  beaches  and  islets  that  were 
otected  from  wave  action,  either  by 
substantial  barrier  reef,  or  because 
ey  were  on  the  lee  side  of  the  island, 
ley  were  also  high  enough  so  that 
e  pup  could  crawl  out  of  reach  of 
gh  spring  tides.  Although  mother 
als  tolerated  each  other's  presence, 
ey  vigorously  repelled  all  other  seals, 
rticularly  courting  males  that  at- 
npted    to    approach    them.    Unlike 


Black  pelage  of  monk  seal  pups  may 
protect  them  from  tropical  sun.  They 


nurse  frequently  from  their  mothers' 
four  functional  teats  and  grow  rapidly. 


other  species,  such  as  the  gray  seal 
(Halichoerus  grypusj  and  the  ele- 
phant seal,  there  was  no  harem  for- 
mation or  other  social  ties  between 
individual  monk  seals. 

Most  of  the  pups  at  Midway  were 
born  on  the  small  islets  that  could  be 
visited  only  by  special  trips  in  a  small 
boat.  We  placed  numbered  metal  tags 
on  the  flippers  of  all  these  pups,  but 
the  weather  and  our  work  with  the 
gooney  birds  prevented  us  from  exam- 
ining them  at  regular  intervals.  Finally 
one  evening  in  late  March  a  message 
arrived  from  Chief  Green  of  the  Com- 
munications Unit  on  Eastern  Island 
( a  restricted  area )  —  two  monk  seals 
had  just  given  birth  to  pups.  This 
would  enable  us  to  make  the  regular 
detailed  observations  necessary  to  ob- 
tain sound  biological  data.  The  next 
morning  we  caught  the  early  boat  to 
Eastern  Island.  Chief  Green  led  us  to 


During    first    five    weeks    of   life,   the 
pup  remains  with  its  mother  constantly. 


the  two  mother  seals,  who  were  lying 
on  the  beach  beside  their  tiny,  jet- 
black  pups.  The  mothers  were  enor- 
mously fat.  An  average  non-pregnant 
female,  7  feet  6  inches  long,  will  weigh 
about  450  pounds,  but  a  pregnant  fe- 
male may  weigh  550  to  600  pounds. 
(Males  are  smaller;  they  average 
about  7  feet  in  length  and  375  pounds 
in  weight. )  We  were  soon  to  learn  the 
reason  for  the  mother  seals'  obesity. 
The  mother  seals  showed  no  fear  of 
us.  They  were  not  disturbed  by  our 
presence  until  we  came  too  close ;  then 
they  threatened  us  with  open  mouth 
and  loud  bellows.  Karl  Kenyon  had 
to  divert  the  mothers'  attention  while 
I  leaped  in  and  kidnapped  their  pups. 
We  had  to  weigh,  measure,  and  tag 
each  pup  quickly,  before  its  angry 
mother  could  get  to  us.  Reunited  with 
their  pups,  the  mothers  sprawled  on 
their  sides,  seemingly  oblivious  to  our 
presence,  and  the  pups  began  to  nurse. 
We  were  surprised  to  find  that  the 
mother  monk  seal  has  two  pairs  of 
functional  teats.  All  the  other  species 


51 


Numbered  metal  tags  were  placed  on  flippers  of  seals, 
which  were  measured  and  weighed  at  regular  intervals. 


Laysan  and  Lisianski  Islands  and  Pearl  and  Hermes 
Reef  are  so  remote  that  seals  are  undisturbed,  right. 


Females  gather  in  sheltered  areas  before  parturition, 
and  will  attack  courting  males  when  pups  are  small. 


earless  seals,  except  the  bearded 
I  (Erignathus  barbatus)  of  the 
;tic,  have  only  one  pair.  The  pos- 
iion  of  two  pairs  was  probably  the 
dition  in  the  ancestral  phocids. 


rrE  closely  followed  the  develop- 
\j  ment  of  these  two  young.  At 
lUt  eighteen  days  of  age.  they  began 
;hed  their  velvety-black  birth  coat, 
ch  is  so  different  from  the  woolly, 
te  or  pale-gray  birth  coats  of  most 
1-water  seals  (Natural  History, 
rch,  1962  I .  Elephant  seals  are  the 
y  other  phocids  whose  pups  are 
n  with  black  pelage.  This  dark  hair 
bably  protects  the  species  from  the 
snse  sunlight  of  their  near-tropical 
ne.  The  new  pelage  was  short  and 
rse,  and  was  a  dark,  silvery-gray 
ive,  shading  to  white  below,  like 
t  of  the  adults.  By  the  time  they 
e  four  weeks  old,  their  teeth  had 
:un  to  appear.  This  was  their  per- 
nent  set  of  teeth,  for  unlike  most 
mmals,  the  milk  teeth  of  earless 
Is  are  resorbed  before  birth. 
\X  birth  the  pups  weighed  less  than 
ty  pounds,  and  were  extremely 
iny.  With  frequent  nursing  periods, 
y  now  began  to  fill  out.  By  the  time 
y  were  four  days  old,  they  would 
m  for  brief  periods  in  the  shallow 
;er.  At  first  they  swam  weakly,  and 
jld    sometimes     rest    their    fore- 


quarters  on  their  mothers'  backs.  They 
soon  became  strong  swimmers  and 
spent  more  time  in  the  water.  The 
mothers'  protective  reactions  were  so 
strong  that,  even  if  they  were  swim- 
ming more  than  fifty  yards  offshore 
with  their  pups,  they  would  come 
ashore  to  threaten  us  if  we  appeared 
on  the  beach.  Since  their  young  alw  ays 
followed  them  ashore,  we  could  catch 
the  pups  for  periodic  weighings. 

At  Kure  Atoll,  while  trying  to  dis- 
tract a  mother  seal  so  we  could  ex- 
amine her  pup,  I  got  too  close.  She 
grabbed  my  field  notebook  from  my 
hands,  shook  it  in  her  teeth,  and  flung 
it  dow  n  into  the  sand ! 

Since  the  mothers  remained  with 
their  pups  continuously,  they  had  no 
opportunity  to  feed,  and  the  frequent 
nursing  of  the  pups  was  a  heavy  drain 
on  their  blubber  stores.  We  estimated 
one  mother  seal's  weight  at  about  575 
pounds  when  her  pup  was  born.  The 
weights  of  the  pups  increased  at  an 
unbelievable  rate.  One  of  them  dou- 
bled his  birth  weight  in  fifteen  days, 
tripled  it  in  eleven  more.  By  the  time 
he  was  thirty-five  days  old.  he  weighed 
over  140  pounds,  or  four  times  his 
birth  weight.  His  length  had  increased 
from  .38  to  48  inches.  He  was  so  plump 
he  could  hardly  move !  His  mother  was 
now  a  gaunt  creature,  for  she  had  lost 
almost  two  hundred  pounds.  For  each 


two  pounds  the  mother  lost,  her  pup 
gained  one.  Eventually,  w'hen  she  no 
longer  could  nurse  her  pup  she  quietly 
slipped  away  and  disappeared  while 
he  lay  sleeping. 

The  other  pup,  whom  we  named 
"Little  Herman,"  was  deserted  by  his 
mother  when  he  w as  but  twenty  days 
old,  and  weighed  only  82  pounds.  His 
mother  was  not  as  fat  as  the  mother 
mentioned  above,  and  evidently  was 
unable  to  nurse  him  any  longer. 

THE  months  ahead  were  critical 
ones  for  the  pups,  for  they  had  to 
learn  to  catch  their  own  food.  Their 
blubber  stores  helped  to  tide  them 
through  this  period.  At  first  they 
showed  little  inclination  to  leave  their 
birthplace.  We  continued  to  weigh 
them  at  regular  intervals.  Sometimes 
we  had  to  wade  into  hip-deep  water  to 
catch  them;  then  we  dragged  them 
ashore,  amid  tremendous  splashing. 

Their  weight  steadily  fell  as  they 
used  up  their  blubber  stores,  but  they 
were  slowly  learning  the  ways  of  adult 
seals.  We  sometimes  saw-  them  playing. 
They  would  dive,  pick  up  a  rock  or 
some  other  object,  bring  it  to  the  sur- 
face, drop  it,  and  dive  again.  In  this 
way  they  probably  discovered  what 
things  were  good  to  eat.  They  also  be- 
gan to  wander  farther  from  home. 
When  the  hot,  still  days  of  July  ar- 
rived, we  could  no  longer  find  them 
in  their  old  haunts.  They  had  probably 
moved  to  the  outer  reef,  where  many 
of  the  adults  haul  out  during  the 
summer  months. 

We  next  saw*  the  pups  when  the 
windy  days  of  autumn  drove  the  seals 
back  to  the  protected  islets  and  sand 
bars  near  the  main  islands.  Both  their 
appearance  and  behavior  were  greatly 
changed.  They  weighed  only  about  a 
hundred  pounds,  but  they  were  longer 
—4  feet  3  inches,  on  the  average— and 
had  the  streamlined  shape  of  adult 
seals.  No  longer  would  they  docilely 
let  us  weigh  and  measure  them.  It  was 
a  two-man  job  to  wrap  them  up  in  a 
net  to  immobilize  them  and  keep  their 
strong  jaws  out  of  mischief. 

Although  most  of  the  other  tagged 
pups  had  survived,  we  never  found 
Little  Herman  again.  Apparently  his 
scant  blubber  supply  failed  to  last  un- 
til he  learned  to   find  his  own  food. 

This  is  probably  Yiow  the  food  sup- 
ply regulates  the  number  of  monk 
seals.  When  the  seal  population  is 
high,  supplies  of  readily  available  food 
would  be  somewhat  depleted;  the  fe- 


sz 


males  would  be  unable  to  put  on  much 
blubber,  and  their  pups'  chances  for 
survival  would  be  correspondingly  re- 
duced. Our  observations  suggest  that 
female  monk  seals  do  not  give  birth 
two  years  in  succession.  Only  the  fe- 
males who  do  not  have  pups  will  accept 
the  advances  of  the  courting  males. 
The  physiological  strain  of  rearing  a 
pup  probably  prevents  females  from 
becoming  pregnant  again  until  they 
have  regained  their  store  of  blubber 
during  at  least  one  entire  year  of  un- 
interrupted feeding. 

THE  only  sure  way  to  determine  an 
animal's  food  habits  is  to  examine 
its  stomach.  Because  the  monk  seal  is 
one  of  the  world's  rarest  mammals,  we 
did  not  wish  to  collect  many  of  them. 
In  fact,  we  killed  only  two— both  males. 
We  also  found  the  spewed  stomach 
contents  of  two  others.  This  revealed 
that  they  feed  principally  on  octopuses 
(Octopus  SY>-)  aid  moray  eels  (Gym- 
nothorax  sp.;  Echidna  sp.),  which  live 
in  the  crannies  among  the  coral  for- 
mations, and  on  conger  eels  ( Ario- 
soma  s^.) ,  which  burrow  in  the  sandy 
bottoms  of  the  shallow  lagoons.  They 
also  take  a  few  bottom  fishes  and  reef 
fishes,  such  as  flatfish,  puffers,  and 
goatfish.  Octopuses  and  eels  usually 
venture  out  of  their  hiding  places  only 
at  night;  this  suggested  that  the  monk 
seals  feed  mostly  nocturnally.  I  had  a 
chance  to  confirm  this  during  a  visit 
to  Laysan  Island,  where  we  camped 
just  above  the  beach.  During  the  mid- 
dle of  the  day,  we  sometimes  counted 
more  than  three  hundred  monk  seals 
basking  in  the  sun  on  the  beaches.  But 
on  several  brightly  moonlit  nights  I 
walked  the  beaches  and  found  not  a 
single  seal,  except  mothers  with  pups. 
In  the  summer,  after  the  breeding 
season  was  over,  we  discovered  an- 
other surprising  fact  about  the  monk 
seals.  They  began  to  molt  their  old 
pelage,  now  stained  a  yellowish  brown. 
Instead  of  shedding  each  hair  indi- 
vidually, like  most  mammals,  they  shed 
the  epidermis  in  large,  ragged  patches. 
Shedding  the  epidermis  in  this  man- 
ner is  characteristic  of  reptiles,  but  of 
only  one  other  mammal— the  elephant 
seal.  This,  along  with  other  features, 
such  as  the  black  coat  of  the  pup,  sug- 
gests that  elephant  seals  and  monk 
seals  are  very  closely  related. 

At  Midway,  the  regular  boat  run 
between  Sand  and  Eastern  Islands 
passed  near  the  islets  and  sand  bars 
that  were  the  seals'  favorite  hauling 

54 


)     y 


grounds.  We  counted  the  animals  on 
every  trip— sometimes  there  w  ere  more 
than  sixty.  Low-altitude  photorecon- 
naissance  flights  over  the  albatross 
colonies  also  gave  us  an  excellent  op- 
portunity to  make  periodic  counts  of 
the  monk  seals  on  Kure  Atoll,  Pearl 
and  Hermes  Reef,  Lisianski  Island, 
Laysan  Island,  and  French  Frigate 
Shoal.  We  also  visited  some  of  these 
islands  by  ship.  The  total  population 
in  the  winter  of  1957/58  was  about 
twelve  hundred— a  gratifying  increase 
from  earlier  years,  yet  a  vulnerably 
low  number  for  any  animal  species. 

The  reproductive  rate  of  the  monk 
seal  is  very  low,  even  for  a  large 
marine  mammal.  Females  apparently 
do  not  breed  until  they  are  at  least 
three  years  old  and  then,  as  has  been 
said,  they  probably  do  not  give  birth 
more  often  than  once  every  two  years. 
The  bearded  seal  is  the  only  other 
phocid  known  to  have  such  a  breeding 
cycle.  In  the  spring  of  1958,  about  one 
hundred  seventy  pups  were  born,  a 
birth  rate  of  only  14  per  cent. 

I  saw  one  seal  with  a  hind  flipper 
missing,  and  others  carried  large  scars 
on  their  sides,  possibly  the  results  of 
shark  attacks.  We  encountered  many 
sharks,  including  12-foot  tiger  sharks 
(Galeocerdo  cuvieri) ,  in  the  shallow 
lagoons,  but  they  seemed  to  pay  no 
attention  to  the  seals,  not  even  to  pups. 
The  seals  have  no  other  predators  to 
fear  in  the  shallow  lagoons.  Our  counts 
indicated  that  the  annual  death  rate 
must  be  very  low— about  3  per  cent. 
Like  other  marine  mammals,  they  tend 
to  live  long.  Annular  layers  in  the 
cementum  layer  of  the  canine  tooth  of 


one  adult  male  that  we  collected  inc 
cated  that  he  was  twenty  years  old.  j 
present  the  seals  seem  to  be  increasii 
their  numbers  by  approximately  . 
per  cent  each  year. 

EXCEPT  for  Midway,  which  is  tl 
site  of  the  large  U.S.  Naval  St 
tion,  all  of  the  islands  on  which  t 
monk  seals  live  are  part  of  the  Leewa: 
Islands  Bird  Reservation,  admin; 
tered  by  the  Fish  and  Wildlife  Servic 
U.S.  Department  of  the  Interior.  TI 
would  seem  to  insure  their  surviv; 
However,  in  recent  years  disturban 
by  man  has  become  an  increasii 
threat.  The  U.S.  Coast  Guard  has 
station  on  Tern  Island  in  Fren 
Frigate  Shoal,  and  has  recently  tak' 
over  Kure  Atoll.  Seals  still  occu] 
Midway,  in  spite  of  its  large  hum; 
population,  but  in  '57  and  '58,  at  le; 
seven  of  the  eighteen  pups  born  at  Mi 
way  failed  to  survive  until  weanir 
On  the  other  islands,  we  found  on 
one  dead  pup.  The  causes  of  the  deat 
at  Midway  apparently  were  the  in( 
rect  results  of  human  activity— detor 
tion  of  explosives  in  the  ship  chanii 
and  perhaps  persistent  disturbance! 
mothers  with  pups  by  photographe 
beachcombers,  boating  parties,  ai 
dogs.  But  on  Laysan  and  Lisians 
Islands,  and  among  the  vast  expans 
of  Pearl  and  Hermes  Reef,  the  moi 
seals  still  spend  the  quiet,  dark  nigl 
fishing  in  the  warm,  coral-studded  I 
goons,  and  bask  undisturbed  under  t 
glaring  tropical  sun,  as  they  have  do 
for  uncounted  generations.  Let  us  ho 
that  they  may  continue  to  thrive  ai 
increase  for  many  more.  , 


Tameness  of  monk  seals 
is  remarkable.  This  may 
be  a  result  of  living  so 
long  on  islands  that  are 
without  land  predators. 


Male,  in  threat  posture, 
is  molting,  when,  unlike 
most  mammals,  the  seals 
shed  epidermis  itself  in 
large  and  raggedpatches. 


Huge  upper  jaws  of  a  European  stag 
beetle  lend  insect  bizarre  appearance. 

56 


If  the  pincers  are  larger  than  normal, 
they   will   hamper   beetle   in    fighting. 


An  'Aiitlered 
Grotesque 

stag  beetle  is  named  for  its  giant  pincers 


By  Lars  Holmberg 


Europe's  largest  beetle  and  one 
of  the  largest  insects  found  out- 
side the  tropics,  the  stag  beetle  is  a 
truly  impressive  sight.  Seen  close-up 
it  looks  like  a  science-fiction  creation, 
but  it  is  really  harmless. 

The  disproportionately  large  man- 
dibles, which  in  the  male  may  be  as 
long  as  the  body,  resemble  antlers, 
explaining  the  beetle's  common  name. 
In  fact,  the  scientific  name  of  the  in- 
sect, Lucanus  cerviis,  reflects  the  ant- 
ler-like look  of  the  upper  jaws,  because 
cervus  is  Latin  for  red  deer.  In  the 
United  States  the  Lucanidae  are  aptly 
called  pinch  bugs,  since  some  can  draw 
blood  with  the  mandibles.  Curiously, 
there  seems  to  be  an  inverse  relation- 
ship between  the  size  of  the  mandibles 
and  the  beetle's  fighting  efficiency.  The 
larger  the  pincers,  the  more  unwieldy 
they  are,  and  the  less  favorable  is  the 
leverage  the  insect  can  exert  on  them. 


Male  European  stag  beetles  often 
attain  a  length  of  'l^o  inches,  but  the 
females  seldom  exceed  1%  inches.  In 
any  case,  there  is  great  variation  in 
size  among  individuals  of  a  given 
species.  Of  the  900  members  of  the 
lucanid  family,  the  largest  one  by  far  is 
the  East  Indian  Odontolabis  alces,  in 
which  the  males  are  frequently  more 
than  4  inches  long. 

The  stag  beetle  begins  its  life  as  an 
egg,  which  is  usually  deposited  in  a 
crevice  in  the  bark  of  a  decaying  oak 
tree  or,  perhaps,  in  a  pile  of  sawdust 
if  the  female  lays  the  egg  near  human 
habitation.  As  the  larva  grows,  it 
chews  through  the  rotting  wood  or 
sawdust  and  soon  becomes  a  fat,  white 
grub  with  a  brown  head.  The  grub 
stage  lasts  for  three  or  four  years, 
sometimes  as  many  as  five.  Eventually, 
on  a  warm  day  in  May  or  June,  the 
organism  emerges.  It  is  no  longer  an 


TTING  WOOD  of  old  oak  tree,  right, 
stag   beetle's   natural   environment. 


57 


unattractive  grub,  but  a  glistening, 
brownish-black  stag  beetle. 

A  stag  beetle's  life  is  short  and  ends 
with  the  summer.  During  these  weeks, 
the  insect  engages  in  three  principal 
activities:  mating,  eating  oak  sap  and 
other  nutritive  liquids,  and  fighting 
with  other  stag  beetles.  Two  of  these 
pursuits  involve  the  pincers,  which  are 
used  to  hold  mates  and  fight  enemies. 
Curiously,  any  sexual  selection  of  the 
best  fighting  males  would  favor  those 
with  short,  efficient  jaws.  But  devel- 
opment of  large  jaws  may  be  linked 
with  other  hereditary  factors. 

On  light  summer  evenings  in  north- 
ern  Europe,   when   nightingales   and 


thrushes  sing,  stag  beetles  can  be  seen 
and  heard,  too,  as  they  fly  through  oak 
forests  in  quest  of  mates. 

The  splendid  male  shown  on  these 
pages  never  saw  a  summer  day  be- 
cause, oddly,  he  "overslept"  as  a  grub. 
By  the  time  he  emerged  from  the  saw- 
dust heap  in  which  he  developed,  it 
was  already  November,  and  all  of  the 
other  stag  beetles  had  died  months  be- 
fore. He  never  saw  another  of  his  spe- 
cies, thus  passing  an  atypical  life. 

Besides  its  remarkable  form,  the 
European  stag  beetle  has  yet  another 
claim  to  fame.  It  is  one  of  the  few 
insects  ever  to  have  been  depicted  on  a 
postage  stamp  —  a  Hungarian  issue. 


Length   of   mandibles   is  nearly  that 
of  body,  above.  The  power  of  the  jaws 


is  evident,   below,   as  the   stag  beetle 
crushes  moist  lump  of  sugar  to  powder. 


*(iit^ 


ICE  APPEARANCE  of  L.  cervus  does 
indicate  its  eating  habits.  It  exists 


on  a  fluid  diet  that  includes  oak  sap, 
which  it  licks  with  brushlike  tongue. 


59 


1 


Snow  Eaters 
of  Alberta 

Cloud  arch  heralds  quick  chinook  thaws 


By  Deryk  Bodington 


CANADIANS  LIVING  in  southwestern 
Alberta— the  prairie  province  east 
of  the  Pacific  coastal  province  of  Brit- 
ish Columbia— are  merely  amused 
when  they  hear  a  retelling  of  the  old 
story  about  a  settler  driving  his  sled 
frantically  across  the  snow  in  front  of 
a  swift  chinook  wind.  The  wind,  says 
the  tale,  followed  behind,  melting  the 
snow  from  beneath  the  rear  half  of 
the  sled's  runners,  and  threatened  to 
speed  up  and  leave  the  settler  stuck 
on  the  bare  ground.  If  this  is  a  bit  too 
Bunyanesque,  the  meteorological  facts 

60 


and    economic    consequences    of    the 
blows  are  only  slightly  less  outre. 

A  chinook,  sometimes  called  a 
"snow  eater,"  is  a  warm,  dry  wind  that 
was  named  for  the  Chinook  Indian 
tribes  of  the  West  Coast,  the  direction 
from  which  early  settlers  knew  this 
wind  always  blew.  Usually  it  is  her- 
alded by  a  long,  dramatic  arch  of 
clouds,  like  that  seen  in  the  above 
photo,  which  seems  to  reach  from 
horizon  to  horizon.  Like  the  Santa  Ana 
wind  of  the  mountainous  area  of 
southern  California  and  the  foehn  of 


the  Alps,  the  chinook  gets  its  stai 
when  moist  winds— that  blow  inlar 
from  the  Pacific  Ocean— rise  and  e 
pand  as  they  move  across  the  moui 
tains.  As  the  air  rises  above  tl 
Canadian  Rockies  it  is  condense; 
and  rain  falls.  It  continues  inland  ar 
over  the  mountains;  then  the  air  slid' 
down  to  the  prairie  on  the  eastern  sid 
It  is  compressed  as  it  meets  with  tl 
cold  air  mass  of  the  prairie  and  in  tl 
process  is  further  heated.  The  dr 
matic  chinook  arch  marks  the  conta 
of  warm  and  cold  air  masses. 

Normally,  the  base  of  the  clou 
stays  about  two  miles  above  tl 
ground.  The  formation  resembles  ; 
arch  when  seen  from  below,  becau 
its  ends  are  far  apart  and  thus  appe 
to  bend  toward  the  horizon.  Benea 
this  arch,  the  winds  of  the  chinoi 
stream  eastward  toward  Calgary. 

My  photograph  of  the  magnifice 
chinook  arch  was  taken  from  Sco 
man  Hill  overlooking  Calgary,  whe 
chinooks  are  common  weather  pi 
nomena  during  the  months  of  Novel 
her,  December,  and  January.  Althou] 
chinooks  come  in  summer  as  wel 
their  dryness  often  contributes  to 
causes  summer  drought  conditions 
it  is  as  winter  phenomena  that  t 
warm  winds  are  welcomed  by  Albe 


They  provide  interludes  of  relief 
1  the  normal  sub-zero  temperatures 
le  prairie,  and  can  roll  snow  away 
moothly  (if  more  slowly)  as  a 
er  rolls  up  a  rug.  In  this  way  thou- 
Is  of  acres  of  winter  pastures  are 
red  for  cattle  grazing.  Alberta's 
r-beet  industry,  as  well  as  her 
Is,  depends  on  the  chinook  for  a 
tantial  extension  of  the  growing 
on,  and  often  the  wind  permits 
lers  to  begin  their  field  work  in 
:uary.  The  influence  of  the  winter 
lomenon  on  the  smaller  vegetable- 
ling  business  is  also  beneficent, 
lage  is  paid  to  the  chinook  locally 
le  form  of  business  names— more 
two  dozen  of  Calgary's  businesses 
lamesakes  of  the  wind. 
L  mid-January  it  is  not  uncommon 
temperatures  around  Calgary  to 
as  much  as  sixty  degrees  within 
w  hours  after  the  arrival  of  the 
ook.  Usually,  the  winds  move  in 
ng  the  early  morning  and  may  last 
several  hours  or,  occasionally,  for 
)ng  as  a  whole  week.  In  January 
963,  a  series  of  mild  chinooks  fol- 
id  one  another  into  the  Calgary 
over  a  period  of  eight  successive 
!,  bringing  unseasonably  warm 
Deratures  of  from  40°  to  55°  F. 
ing  that  time,  a  few  lilacs  began 


to  bud  in  southern  Alberta.  Then,  just 
as  suddenly  as  the  winds  appeared  they 
vanished,  and  thermometers  plum- 
meted to  2rF.  below  zero. 

THE  meteorological  bureau  in  Cal- 
gary has  compiled  comprehensive 
statistics  on  chinooks,  some  of  which 
date  back  to  1893.  On  several  occa- 
sions during  the  past  seventy  years 
there  have  been  variations  of  as  much 
as  ninety-nine  degrees  between  highs 
and  lows  in  the  month  of  January.  In 
1893,  the  highest  January  reading  was 
51  °F.,  and  the  lowest  reading  was 
-48T.  In  1929,  the  high  was  54°F., 
the  low  — 45°F.  These  fluctuations  took 
place  in  Calgary  itself,  where  the  av- 
erage January  temperature  over  the 
years  has  been  calculated  at  6°F.  How- 
ever, the  meteorological  record  shows 
that  in  January,  1958,  a  month  of  al- 
most constant  chinook  winds,  the 
mean  temperature  was  puUed  up  to  a 
relatively  balmy  28°F.  The  all-time 
January  high  for  the  city  was  recorded 
in  1942  at  61  °F.  In  a  recent  December, 
a  chinook  raised  the  temperature  by 
seventy  degrees  within  a  time  span  of 
five  hours,  and  in  February,  1908,  an- 
other brought  the  temperature  from 
—14°  up  to  a  springlike  76° F.  before 
the  snows  again  began  to  fall. 


Sometimes  the  chinooks  veer  off 
course,  or  rise  above  the  cold  air  mass 
of  the  prairie.  I  had  an  experience  of 
an  erratic  chinook  several  years  ago 
on  a  drive  from  Calgary  to  Banff.  We 
left  Calgary  when  it  was  20°F.  below 
zero,  and  drove  onward  through  the 
bitter  cold.  About  thirty  miles  from 
Calgary,  we  rounded  a  bend  in  the 
road  and  were  amazed  to  find  our- 
selves suddenly  driving  in  pleasant, 
45°F.  weather.  We  arrived  at  Banff, 
and  enjoyed  a  warm,  sunny  day.  That 
evening,  we  drove  back  to  Calgary.  At 
exactly  the  same  bend  in  the  road,  we 
re-entered  the  zone  of  sub-zero  tem- 
peratures. In  this  instance,  the  chinook 
must  have  veered  off  course,  flowed 
up  the  Kananaskis  Valley  and  over  the 
Highwood  Pass  to  the  south,  circum- 
venting Calgary  entirely. 

Many  incidents  have  been  reported 
of  other  misplaced  or  erratic  chinooks. 
A  pilot  of  a  small  plane  once  told  of 
being  raised  seventy-five  feet  by  an  up- 
draft  as  he  flew  near  Calgary.  In  that 
seventy-five  foot  change  in  altitude  his 
plane's  thermometer  jumped  from  —8° 
to  53°F.  But  usually  chinooks  are  de- 
pendable. When,  on  a  sub-zero  winter 
morning,  Albertans  see  a  great  cloud 
arch  in  the  Avest  they  kno^v  that  relief 
from  the  pervading  cold  is  on  the  way. 

6i 


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Address 
City  


Dr.  Philip  C.  Hammond,  the  author 
of  "Rose-Red  City  of  Petra,"  is  Assistant 
Professor  in  Old  Testament  at  Princeton 
Theological  Seminary.  He  brings  to  bear 
on  his  subject  studies  in  Semitics  at  the 
Graduate  School  of  Yale  University 
(where  he  also  prepared  his  doctorate 
in  Near  Eastern  Archeology),  and  con- 
siderable field  work.  The  latter  includes 
work  with  the  American  School  of  Ori- 
ental Research,  Jerusalem  (Jordan),  as 
a  Fellow  and,  in  1961-62,  the  post  of 
Director  of  the  American  Expedition  to 
Petra.  He  is  currently  Director  of  the 
American  Expedition  to  Hebron. 

Fossil  fishes  are  examined  in  "Fishes 
and  Climates,"  by  Dr.  C.  L.wett  Smith, 
Assistant  Curator  of  the  Department  of 
Ichthyology  at  The  American  Museum. 
Dr.  Smith's  interest  in  Cenozoic  fishes 
began  in  1952,  when  he  participated  in 
a  University  of  Michigan  field  party  that 
was  led  by  Dr.  Claude  W.  Hibbard.  Dr. 
Smith  is  still  actively  studying  Cenozoic 
fishes.  He  describes  his  major  profes- 
sional interests  as  the  classification  of 
fishes  and  the  ecology  of  coral  reef  fishes, 
with  particular  emphasis  on  the  repro- 
ductive mechanisms  of  the  sea  basses. 

The  color  changes  of  the  chameleon 
are  discussed  in  "Color  Change:  Cha- 
meleon Camouflage,"  by  Dr.  Herndon 
G.  DowUNG,  Curator  of  Reptiles  at  the 
New  York  Zoological  Park  (Bronx  Zoo) . 
Dr.  Dowling,  who  characterizes  himself 
as  "a  snake  taxonomist  by  training  and 
inclination,"  says  that  his  zoo  work  has 
impelled  him  to  view  all  reptilian  attri- 
butes "with  interest  and  appreciation." 
He  has  been  especially  concerned  with 
taxonomic  studies  of  colubrid  snake 
genera  and  zoogeographic  investigations 
of  amphibians  and  reptiles.  Dr.  Dowling 
is  also  a  Research  Associate  in  the  De- 
partment of  Herpetology  at  The  Ameri- 
can Museum. 

Mr.  Dale  W.  Rice,  author  of  "The 
Hawaiian  Monk  Seal."  received  an  M.S. 
in  biology  from  the  University  of  Florida 
in  195.5,  and  since  then  has  been  em- 
ployed as  a  Wildlife  Research  Biologist 
with  the  Fish  and  Wildlife  Service.  For 
the  past  five  years  Mr.  Rice  has  been 
the  biologist  in  charge  of  whale  research 
for  the  Bureau  of  Commercial  Fisheries, 
and  he  is  at  the  Bureau's  Marine  Mam- 
mal Biological  Laboratory  in  Seattle. 

"An  'Antlered'  Grotesque"  is  Mr.  Lars 
Holmberg's  account  of  the  large  and 
bizarre-looking  European  stag  beetle. 
Mr.  Holmberg  is  a  Swedish  journalist 
who  writes  often  on  natural  history. 

Canadian  free-lancer  Deryk  Boding- 
TON  made  the  unusual  panorama  of  the 
chinook  cloud  arch  that  appears  in 
"Snow  Eaters  of  Alberta."  A  citizen  of 
Calgary,  Alberta,  he  writes  from  years 
of  experience  with  the  chinook. 


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62 


ATURE  and  the  CAMERA 


actices  and  pitfalls 
guile  in  the  wild 

David  Linton 

ILIND  is  an  enclosure  designed  to 
conceal  the  photographer  and  his 
ratus.  A  trap,  in  nature  photogra- 

is  a  device  by  which  the  subject 
;  its  own  picture.  Of  the  two,  blinds 
nucli  more  useful,  and  many  of  the 
pictures  of  wild  animals  have  been 
1  from  blinds.  Although  the  develop- 
;  of  long  lenses  and  high-speed  films 
shifted  emphasis  in  recent  years  to 
res  taken  at  long  range,  the  blind 
tins  a  most  useful  accessoi-y  for  the 
re  photographer. 

the  early  days  of  nature  photog- 
y,  elaborate  attempts  were  made  to 
lise  blinds  as  natural  objects.  Now 
now  that  this  is  not  necessary,  since 
mals  suspect  a  blind  because  of  its 
I  rather  than  its  appearance,  and 
i  will  become  accustomed  to  any 
object— no  matter  what  its  shape— 
rvill  eventually  lose  their  fear  of  it  if 
les  not  make  threatening  motions, 
rds  are  often  accustomed  to  seeing 
nobiles,    which,    as    a    result,    may 

as  convenient  blinds.  Some  of  the 
3r  bird  species,  however,  will  toler- 
he  presence  of  an  auto  only  if  it  is 
ng,  and  will  scatter  if  it  stops.  If 
is  the  case,  the  best  compromise  is 
ive  a  companion  drive  the  car  as 
y  as  possible  without  dispersing 
lirds  while  you  shoot  pictures, 
turally.  a  long-focal-length  lens  and 
ck  eye  are  necessary  to  photograph 

a  moving  automobile.  The  camera 
d  be  held  so  that  it  does  not  touch 
sart  of  the  vehicle;  in  that  way  the 
)grapher's  body  and  muscles  damp 

I  of  the  vibration.  Most  people  will 
the  slowest  shutter  speed  that  will 

reasonably  sharp  negatives  under 
conditions  to  be  about  1/250  sec, 
he  lowest  practical  speed  will  de- 
on  the  length  of  the  lens  as  well  as 
e  photographer's  steadiness.  Motion 
gnified  to  the  same  degree  as  is  the 
e  formed  by  the  lens;  a  long  lens— 

II  increases  image  size— must  there- 
be  held  steadier  than  a  short  one, 
when  the  camera  is  in  motion  the 

lens  will  require  a  faster  shutter 
I  than  will  a  short  lens. 

Use  Tripod  in  Car 

few  birds  will  accept  the  presence 
completely  motionless  car  as  long 
ople  do  not  emerge  from  it.  In  such 
it  is  vei-y  helpful  to  have  a  camera 
ort  in  the  car.  A  small  tripod  can 


be  set  up  in  many  cars  if  two  of  the  legs 
are  extended  to  rest  on  the  floor  while 
the  third  is  collapsed  to  rest  on  a  seat. 
In  many  station  wagons  a  tripod  can  be 
set  up  normally  in  the  back.  This  is  the 
best  location,  because  the  rear  window 
gives  a  wider  unobstructed  sweep  than 
any  other.  The  window  should,  of  course, 
be  opened  so  as  not  to  distort  the  photo- 
graphic image. 

The  photographer  should  be  seated 
comfortably  while  working,  because 
holding  an  uncomfortable  position  for 
any  length  of  time  will  make  his  hands 
shake.  Even  if  the  camera  is  on  a  tripod 
he  may  be  unable  to  operate  it  smoothly. 

A  more  permanent  blind  is  better  than 
an  auto,  of  course,  when  a  series  of 
pictures  is  to  be  made  over  a  period  of 
time.  It  is  a  necessity  for  photographing 
shy  creatures  that  may  take  days  to  be- 
come accustomed  to  its  presence.  Some- 
times a  blind  is  set  up  at  a  distance 
from  the  subjects  and  moved  closer  each 
day.  In  other  cases  a  permanent  blind 
may  be  left  in  place  for  weeks  or  years. 

Characteristics  of  Blinds 

AN  ordinary  demountable  blind  is 
similar  to  a  small  tent.  Usually  it  is 
not  waterproof,  since  it  will  not  be  used 
on  rainy  days,  but  the  material  must  be 
sufficiently  opaque  so  that  subjects  will 
not  see  the  photographer  moving  about 
inside.  Material  of  a  neutral  color  that 
will  blend  with  the  surroundings  is  prob- 
ably an  advantage.  Here.  too.  the  photog- 
rapher should  be  able  to  sit  in  comfort ; 
otherwise  he  will  not  be  able  to  stay 
mentally  alert  and  physically  relaxed. 

In  most  places,  a  blind  should  protect 
the  photographer  from  mosquitoes.  It 
should  also  have  adequate  ventilation, 
as  a  blind  exposed  to  the  sun  can  become 
insufferably  hot.  Openings  covered  with 
nylon  mosquito  netting  should  admit  air 
near  the  bottom  of  the  blind,  and  other 
openings  should  vent  it  out  near  the  top. 
The  opening  through  which  the  lens  pro- 
jects can  be  provided  with  a  drawstring 
or  elastic  ring  to  make  a  snug,  mosquito- 
proof  closure. 

The  best  way  to  keep  a  blind  cool  is 
to  erect  it  in  a  shady  place.  If  there  are 
no  trees  at  hand,  a  separate  "fly"  (an 
extra  cloth  roof  over  the  regular  one, 
with  an  open  air  space  between  them) 
will  make  the  enclosure  more  livable. 

It  is  not  too  difficult  to  make— or  to 
have  made— a  blind  such  as  the  one  just 


HOLD 
THAT  TIGER 

WITH  A 
HONEYWELL 

PENTAX! 

This  cat  is  not  snarling  at 
the  photographer.  He  likes  to  have 
his  picture  taken  with  a  Pentax 
camera.  He  knows  that  his  portrait 
will  be  razor  sharp  because  the  pho- 
tographer is  composing  and  focusing 
through  the  same  lens  which  will 
make  the  picttrre. 

Furthermore,  the  telephoto 
lens  makes  possible  dramatic  shots 
like  this  from  a  distance;  the  subject 
is  not  distracted  by  the  photogra- 
pher's presence.  There  are  13  inter- 
changeable lenses  for  the  Pentax, 
making  possible  an  infinite  variety 
of  photographic  opportunities. 

Yotir  Honeywell  Photo  Prod- 
ucts dealer  will  be  glad  to  demon- 
strate a  Pentax  for  you.  He  will  show 
you  the  Hla  (f /2.0)  at  $169.50,  and 
the  H3v  (f,  1.8)  at  $229.50. 

Write  for  full-color  brochure  to 
Ron  Hubbard  (209),  Honeywell, 
Denver  10,  Colorado. 


H 


Honeyvirell 


PHOTOGRAPHIC   PRODUCTS 

63 


OUR  NEW 
ARCHEOLOGY  TOUR 

OF 
GREECE  AND  EGYPT 

This  exciting  29-day  tour  personally  conducted 
by  Dr.  Cyrus  Gordon  will  leave  New  York  via 
Lufthansa  jet  on  March  18,  1964. 

Among  the  important  sites  of  Greek  and  Egyp- 
tian antiquity  you  will  visit  are:  ATHENS-boom- 
Ing  modern  city  and  rich  repository  of  a  glorious 
past,  still  present  everywhere.  MYCENAE  and 
TIRYNS-Cyclopean  walled  citadels  renowned  in 
history  and  legend.  CORINTH-once  the  epitome 
of  luxurious  living  and  its  antithesis,  SPARTA 
the  austere.  OLYMPIA  and  DELPHI-sacred  to  the 
gods,  games,  and  oracle.  THE  ISLES  OF  GREECE 
-Crete,  Hydra,  Delos,  Mykonos,  Santorin- 
sparkling  jewels  of  the  Aegean.  CAIRO-Moslem 
metropolis  with  its  incomparable  museum,  a 
panoply  of  Pharaonic  splendors,  and  nearby 
MEMPHIS,  SAKKARA,  GIZA,  the  FAYUM.  CRUISING 
THE  NILE-to  ASWAN  and  the  soon-to-be  sub- 
merged great  temple  at  ABU  SIMBEL,  to  KAR- 
NAK,  LUXOR,  THE  VALLEY  OF  THE  KINGS,  and 
DENDERAH.  This  will  be  an  unforgettable  journey 
through  time  and  space  to  the  wellsprings  of 
Western  civilization.  $1920.00  all-inclusive.  The 
limited  size  of  the  group  makes  early  reserva- 
tions advisable.  We  will  be  pleased  to  send  you 
without  obligation  a  detailed  itinerary  and  com- 
plete information. 

Dr.  Cyrus  Gordon  has  served 
as  an  archeologist  on  many 
expeditions  in  the  Near  East. 
'^  *^  He  participated  in  unearthing 
_;;;<;A  the  royal  tombs  at  Ur,  in  dis- 
-  '""*  covering  the  mines  of  King 
Solomon,  and  deciphering  the 
Tell  el-Amarna  tablets  found 
in  Egypt. 
He  is  the  author  of  many 
books  and  articles  on  the  ancient  East  Medi- 
terranean. Among  the  books  are  Adventures  in 
the  Nearest  East,  The  World  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, and  Before  the  Bible:  The  Common  Back- 
ground of  Greek  and  Hebrew  Civilization. 

For  many  years  he  has  taught  the  languages, 
history,  and  archeology  of  Egypt,  Greece,  and 
many  other  Near  Eastern  lands. 

He  is  also  an  experienced  public  lecturer  on 
the  subject  of  this  tour. 

LINDBLAD  TRAVEL,  Inc.,  1  E.  53  St.,  N.Y.  22,  N.Y. 
Please  send  me  details  and  itinerary  of  your 
forthcoming  tour  to  Greece  and  Egypt. 

NAME 

ADDRESS 

CITY .'. STATE 

64 


described,  but  it  is  easier  to  buy  a  small 
tent  and  convert  it  for  use  as  a  blind  by 
adding  camera  ports  and  observation 
peepholes.  There  is  a  dome-shaped  tent 
on  the  market  called  a  'Top  Tent"  that 
has  a  simple  frame  that  fits  into  sleeves 
sewn  into  the  tent.  The  inside  space  is 
not  obstructed  by  poles,  and  there  are 
no  shiny  metal  gadgets  outside  that 
might  frighten  wildlife.  Tents  that  have 
many  loose  hooks,  springs,  and  lengths 
of  metal  tubing  should  be  avoided.  All 
tents  should  be  staked  down  to  prevent 
the  wind  from  blowing  them  over,  adver- 
tising to  the   contrary  notwithstanding. 

When  Subjects  Are  Wary 

THE  bolder  birds,  such  as  those  that 
live  along  the  seashore,  will  pay  no 
attention  to  a  photographer  once  he  is 
settled  in  his  blind.  Some  of  the  more 
wary  species,  however,  will  not  relax 
until  they  feel  that  the  blind  is  unin- 
habited. To  deceive  them,  the  photog- 
rapher should  walk  to  the  blind  with  a 
companion  who  will  leave  a  few  seconds 
later.  Most  birds  do  not  seem  to  note 
the  difference  between  two  humans  enter- 
ing the  blind  and  only  one  leaving  it. 

For  photographing  high  nests  or  ar- 
boreal animals,  a  blind  can  be  built  in 
a  tree.  It  is  best  to  construct  a  small 
platform  at  a  place  where  several  tree 
limbs  join  the  trunk.  The  blind  can  then 
be  erected  with  the  platform  as  a  floor, 
and  the  trunk  and  perhaps  higher 
branches  as  supports.  It  is  best  to  choose 
a  large  tree,  to  stay  close  to  the  central 
trunk,  and  to  go  no  higher  than  neces- 
sary, because  even  a  very  large  tree  will 
move  enough  in  the  wind  to  blur  a  pic- 
ture. It  may  also  be  necessary  to  brace 
or  tie  down  the  branch  that  is  to  be  the 
scene  of  the  picture. 

Blinds  for  photographing  mammals 
are  usually  placed  at  water  holes  or  ad- 
jacent to  trails  the  animals  are  known  to 
frequent.  Sometimes  an  artificial  attrac- 
tion is  provided— food,  salt,  or  water. 
The  animals  may  avoid  the  blind  at  first, 
but  will  usually  get  used  to  it  in  time. 
The  sense  of  smell  that  is  so  well  de- 
veloped in  mammals  is  offset,  to  some 
extent,  by  their  curiosity,  and  they  will 
often  come  around  to  investigate  an 
unfamiliar  object. 

INIost  animals  are  seldom  seen  in  the 
middle  of  the  day.  Except  for  nocturnal 
species,  early  morning  is  the  best  time 
to  look  and  late  afternoon  is  second  best. 
Most  large  mammals,  such  as  deer, 
watch  for  danger  at  about  their  own 
level  and  rarely  look  for  it  above  their 
heads.  They  often  fail  to  see  a  tree  blind. 

Because  a  high  camera  viewpoint  is 
seldom  desirable  for  taking  pictures  of 
mammals,  the  elevated  blind  is  most  use- 
ful for  remote  control  photography.  The 
camera  can  be  set  up  near  the  ground 
and  the  photographer  can  operate  it  from 
a  vantage  point  some  distance  away.  This 
arrangement    is    intermediate    between 


Photographer  takes  picture  at  a  distanc 
by   activating   solenoid   that  trips   shutte 

shooting  from  a  blind  and  using  a  traj 
the  photographer  can  see  what  he  : 
photographing,  even  though  he  is  n( 
actually  at  the  camera. 

Early  works  on  nature  photograph 
describe  how  the  camera  shutter  can  1: 
tripped  with  a  thread  strung  out  to  whei 
the  photographer  lies  hidden,  and  cai 
tion  that  the  thread  should  be  ru 
through  a  screw  eye  at  the  bottom  of  or 
tripod  leg  so  that  a  tug  on  the  threa 
does  not  upset  the  camera.  After  mal 
ing  one  exposure  this  way,  the  photo: 
rapher  has  to  emerge  from  his  blind  I 
reload  the  camera  and  cock  the  shuttt 
for  another  try.  by  which  time  the  sul 
ject  is  probably  far  away.  The  threa 
stretches  and  causes  a  delay  between  tl 
time  it  is  pulled  and  the  time  the  shuttf 
opens,  and  it  is  difficult  to  gauge  tl 
tension   necessary  to  open   the  shutte 

Fortunately,  we  now  have  a  variety  1 
devices  to  make  the  remote  operation  ( 
cameras  and  lights  as  simple  and  ; 
automatic  as  we  choose.  The  least  cor 
plicated  gadget  is  an  air  release,  a  lengl 
of  thin  plastic  tubing  with  a  squeeze  bul 
at  one  end  and  a  plunger  at  the  othe 
The  plunger  end  screws  into  the  car 
era's  cable  release  socket  and  the  ph 
tographer  simply  squeezes  the  bulb  1 
activate  the  shutter.  j 

Slightly  more  sophisticated  is  ti 
electrically  operated  solenoid,  which' 
basically  an  electromagnet  with  a  mo 
able  core.  In  the  early  decades  of  tl 
flash  bulb  era.  solenoids  were  used 
synchronize  camera  shutters  with  flai 
bulbs.  Solenoids  are  still  available,  ai 
are  now  finding  new  uses  in  remote  cq: 
trol  photography.  The  simplest  type  ' 
solenoid  screws  into  a  standard  cab 
release  socket,  and  can  be  operated  fro 
any  reasonable  distance  by  simply  ad 
ing  more  wire  between  it  and  the  powi 
source.  The  power  applied  must  be  suf 
cient  to  overcome  the  resistance  of  tl 
wire  and  to  deliver  enough  energy  at  tl 
solenoid  to  operate  it  reliably.  Two 
three  flashlight  batteries  are  usually  ail 
quate  for  fairly  short  wires;  for  loni: 
distances  use  a  B/C    ("Battery-Capac 


I  flash  gun,  which  delivers  a  quick 
e  of  energy  from  a  capacitor  that  has 

charged  by  a  22.5-volt  battery.  At 
great  distances  higher  voUages  may 
lecessary.  The  actual  footage  at 
h  a  given  power  source  will  con- 
ntly  operate  a  given  solenoid  de- 
ls on  the  size  of  the  connecting 
3:  large-diameter  wire  offers  less  re- 
nce  than  thin  wire,  so  it  may  be 
over  a  greater  distance.  However, 
y  wires  are  harder  to  conceal, 
hen  a  camera  that  has  flash  connec- 

is  remotely  operated  it  can,  in  turn, 
lash  bulbs  or  electronic  flash  units. 

batteries  that  power  the  lights 
Id  be  close  to  them  to  minimize  loss 
jwer  in  transmission.  An  electronic 

unit  is  advantageous  in  that  it  can 
ired  repeatedly  without  replacing 
s.  But  the  problem  of  advancing  the 
automatically  has  to  be  solved,  too. 

Automatic  Photography 

ECIALIZED  equipment  is  needed  for 
automatic  camera  operation.  There 
everal  cameras  that  advance  the  film 
wind  the  shutter  automatically  after 
exposure.  Among  them  are  the 
)t,  the  Tessina,  and  the  discontinued 
n.  There  are  also  a  number  of  cam- 
for  which  accessory  motors  (spring- 
ectric-powered)  are  available. 
)st  such  cameras  use  35  mm.  film, 
some  of  the  more  expensive  ones, 
rned  for  technical  recording,  use 
m.  film.  For  situations  that  require 
;er  film  capacity  than  the  ordinary 
Lposure  35  mm.  cartridge  affords, 
;  are  available  for  some  cameras 
;sory  backs  that  accept  50-foot  rolls 
5  mm.  film,  which  provide  several 
Ired  exposures. 

le  ultimate  in  remote  control  is 
;ved  with  radio-operated  tripping 
;es,  which  may  be  fitted  to  several 
;ras.  This  method  eliminates  string- 
;ires  from  the  camera  to  the  photog- 
sr's  hide-out  and  makes  it  possible 
lerate  the  camera  from  a  distance  of 
al  miles.  Presumably  the  pliotog- 
er  could  even  hover  overhead  in  a 
opter.  Radio  control  units  have  not 
ed    as    efficiently    as    expected    in 


E-SHAPED  TENT  is  suitable  for  use  as 
to  hide  photographer  and  equipment. 


This  is  the  New  Field  Model  Questar  Telescope. 

It  weighs  less  than  3  pounds  and  costs  only 
S795.  Included  in  the  price  are  this  4-lb.  case, 
one  eyepiece,  and  an  improved  basic  camera 
couphng  set.  There  is  room  for  cameras  and 
other  accessories. 

Twenty-one  major  changes  in  this  barrel  and 
control-box  assembly  permit  a  much  wider 
photographic  field  of  view,  which  now  covers 
all  but  the  very  corners  of  the  24x36  mm.  film 
frame  at  f/16  without  extension  tubes.  Expo- 
sures are  two  f-numbers  faster. 

The  New  Field  Mode!  is  optically  identical  in 
quality  to  all  Questars.  Since  only  an  average  of 
one  out  of  three  perfect  optical  systems  sur- 
passes theory  by  enough  to  satisfy  us,  we  can 
continue  to  state  that  no  amount  of  money, 
time  or  human  effort  can  noticeably  improve 
Questar's  power  of  resolution.  For  whereas 
Lord  Rayleigh's  criteria  sets  1.4  seconds  of  arc 
as  Questar's  limit  of  resolution,  a  Questar  has 
resolved  two  stars  but  0.6  second  apart. 

Because  our  function  is  to  make  the  world's 
finest  small  telescopes  in  limited  number,  in- 
stead of  many  of  ordinary  quality,  this  New 
Field  Model  offers  a  new  experience  to  the 
photographer.  We  offer  him  the  world's  sharp- 
est lens,  of  89-mm.  aperture.  We  provide  him 
with  a  low-power  wide-field  finder  view,  like 
that  of  a  field  glass,  to  let  him  locate  distant 
objects  rapidly.  With  fiick  of  finger  he  can  bring 
to  bear  a  high-power  view  of  40-80x  or  80-160x 
to  study  the  object  minutely  through  this  super- 
fine telescope.  Another  finger  flick  and  slight 
refocusing  brings  the  object  to  the  clear  bright 
center  of  his  cameras'  groundglass. 


At  this  point  he  is  challenged  to  capture  on 
the  sensitive  emulsion  what  this  superb  tele- 
scope of  56  inches  focal  length  is  projecting  to 
his  film.  He  has  seen  it  in  Questar's  eyepiece 
and  in  his  reflex  camera's  groundglass.  All  that 
remains  is  to  place  the  image  in  exact  focus  on 
the  film  and  expose  correctly  with  no  vibration 
at  all.  And  at  long  last  we  have  the  only  camera 
able  to  do  this,  the  Qucstar-modified  Nikon  F. 

For  the  first  time,  then,  Questar  has  a  true 
photographic  model,  and  a  camera  without 
mirror  slap,  shutter  vibration,  or  too-dim  focus- 
ing. Moreover,  from  now  on  we  can  measure 
the  actual  picture-taking  light  at  the  ground- 
glass,  and  abandon  inexact  exposure  calculations 
entirely,  using  the  new  cadmium  sulfide  meters. 

With  this  new  control  of  vibration,  sharp 
focus,  and  correct  exposure  times,  only  one 
other  factor  remains  to  interfere  with  high 
resolution  telescopic  photography.  We  need 
quiet  air  for  good  seeing — which  is  no  problem 
at  7  to  100  feet.  But  how  can  we  get  trembling 
air  to  stand  still  while  we  take  sharp  pictures  at 
great  distances?  There  are  several  things  we  can 
do  to  take  advantage  of  nature's  moods,  and  if 
you  write  for  literature  we  will  tell  you  more 
about  it. 

New  Field  Model,  S795  in  case  with  basic 
couplings  as  shown.  The  80-160X  eyepiece,  S35. 
Questar-modified  Nikon  F  bodies,  from  S234.60. 
Complete  outfit  shown,  with  camera  and  tripod, 
SI 332,  postpaid  in  U.S. 

QUESTAIR 

BOX    60    NEW    HOPE,    PENNSYLVANIA 


65 


Big  beaulilul  North  American  Collection. 
Genuine,  all-different  postage  stamps  of 
Greenland  (North  Pole),  St.  Pierre,  New- 
foundland, Canada  —  Eskimos,  Indians, 
1862  British  Columbia  &  Van- 
couver Island  Cent.,  Nova  Scotia, 
etc.  United  Nations.  United  States 
Stamps  — 19th  Centurv,  First  Plane, 
Steamboat.  Pony  Express,  many 
others.  ALSO,  Colonial  &  Civil  War 
commemoratives.  PLUS  full  color  flag 
stamps  of  121  foreign  countries. 
EXTHA!  Collector's  Catalog;  exciting 
selection  of  stamps  on  approval; 
"How  To  Recognize  Rare 
Stamps."  SEND  ONLY  1D{. 


Many  others! 


KENMORE  STAMP  CO. 
MILFORD  EF-S21  N.  HAMP 


birthday 

anniversary 
promotion 

housewarming 
tliank  you 

The  list  is  long  (the  above  being 
hut  a  truncated  enumeration),  and 
inspiration  is  so  often  short  ivhen 
it  comes  to  choosing  a  gift  that  is 
just  right.  A  subscription  to  NAT- 
URAL HISTORY  makes  an  ad- 
mirable expression  of  your 
thoughtfulness  and  good  tvishes  in 
marking  a  memorable  occasion. 
Though  modest  in  cost,  NAT- 
URAL HISTORY  is  a  big  gift,  a 
year-round  cornucopia,  each  issue 
brimming  with  out-of-the-ordi- 
nary  word  and  picture  excursions 
through  the  realm  of  the  yiatural 
sciences. 

In  addition  to  a  succession  of  stim- 
ulating intellectual  and  aesthetic 
experiences,  your  gift  of  NAT- 
URAL HISTORY  also  bestoivs  the 
benefits  of  Associate  Membership 
in  The  American  Museum  of  Nat- 
ural History. 

If  you  have  a  gift-giving  occasion 
approaching  soon,  delight  someone 
with  a  truly  distinctive  present 
that  tvill  be  tvarmly  appreciated. 
Just  fill  out  and  mail  the  coupon 
now. 


Circulation   Deportment 

The  American  Museum  of  Natural  History 

Central  Pork  West  at  79th  Street 

New  York  24,  New  York 

Please  enter  a  subscription  to  NATURAL 
HISTORY  including  Associate  Member- 
ship in  the  Museum  for: 


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places  where  there  is  a  lot  of  electrical 
interference,  but  out  in  the  open  they 
ought  to  function  well. 

Pictures  at  Night 

THE  problem  that  usually  comes  to 
mind  first  in  regard  to  night  photog- 
raphy is  how  the  photographer  can  see 
what  he  is  doing.  Ideally,  he  should  set 
up  all  his  equipment  while  it  is  still 
light,  and  he  should  be  sufBciently  fa- 
miliar with  it  to  operate  in  the  dark 
(otherwise  he  should  not  be  using  it  in 
a  blind,  anyway) .  As  for  seeing  when  the 
subject  arrives  in  front  of  the  camera, 
it  is  rarely  so  dark  outdoors  that  a  human 
cannot  see  after  his  eyes  adapt. 

At  permanent  or  long-term  blind  sites 
it  may  be  possible  to  leave  a  small  light 
on  every  night  until  the  subjects  get 
used  to  it.  Many  nocturnal  mammals 
show  surprisingly  little  fear  of  lights  at 
night  and  will  enter  a  pool  of  brightness 
if  they  have  sufficient  motivation.  Even 
more  surprising,  many  will  return  to  an 
attractive  spot  after  having  had  flash 
bulbs  fired  at  them,  and  despite  the 
scent  of  man. 

If  the  light  used  to  make  the  picture 
is  too  disturbing  to  the  subjects,  it  is  pos- 
sible to  use  infrared  rays  instead.  The 
camera  is  loaded  with  infrared-sensitive 
film,  and  special  red  flash  bulbs  or  red 
filters  over  the  flash  reflectors  are  used. 
This  technique  has  one  disadvantage- 
most  creatures  present  a  rather  strange 
appearance  in  infrared  pictures  because 
the  coloring  of  skin,  eyes,  and  hair  looks 
appreciably  different  from  that  to  which 
we  are  accustomed. 

The  noise  the  camera  makes  may  be  a 
problem,  particularly  if  the  camera  has 
an  automatic  winding  mechanism.  The 
sound  can  be  muffled  somewhat  by 
swathing  the  machinery  in  batting  or  en- 
closing it  in  a  box  lined  with  sound- 
absorbing  material.  Although  the  lights 
must  generally  be  fairly  near  the  subject, 
it  is  well  to  remember  that  the  camera 
does  not  have  to  be  near  either.  For  ex- 
ample, lights  could  be  set  up  around  a 
salt  lick  and  connected  to  a  camera 
equipped  with  a  long  lens,  which  could 
be  located  some  distance  from  the  scene. 
The  photographer  could,  if  convenient, 
operate  both  lights  and  camera  from  yet 
a  third  position. 

Knowing  where  to  look  for  birds  and 
other  animals  is  a  subject  in  itself.  A 
good  knowledge  of  the  subject's  habits 
will  help,  but  experience  in  the  field  is 
the  most  important  factor.  Information 
given  in  field  guides  about  habitat,  food, 
and  nesting  sites  is  useful. 

The  camera  trap  is  an  arrangement  by 
which  the  subject  itself  will  operate  the 
camera,  and  usually  any  lights  that  are 
required.  It  is  easy  to  find  published  in- 
structions for  making  a  variety  of  traps, 
but  it  is  hard  to  find  a  good  picture  that 
was  taken  using  one.  Working  with  a 
camera  trap  is  a  form  of  photograpliic 


roulette;  one  never  knows  what  will  tun 
up  on  the  film. 

The  big  trick  with  camera  traps  is  ti 
photograph  the  species  one  wants  am 
not  something  else,  and  traps  have  othe 
drawbacks,  too.  When  a  variety  of  sulj 
jects  is  wanted,  a  camera  set  at  the  righ 
height  and  distance  to  photograph 
moose  will  not  take  a  good  picture  of  ; 
mouse,  even  if  a  mouse  triggers  it.  Am 
most  traps  can  be  set  off  by  a  fallir; 
acorn  or  merely  a  strong  wind.  If  the  de 
sired  subject  does  activate  the  trap,  th 
picture  may  show  only  the  tip  of  the  tail 

A  higher  photographic  yield— in  quai 
tity  if  not  in  quality— can  be  expectei 
from  an  automatic  camera.  Equipment  i 
arranged  much  as  it  would  be  for  a  rt 
mote  control  setup  except  that  a  trippin 
device  is  added.  This  can  be  any  gadgt 
that  will  complete  an  electrical  circui 
when  the  subject  is  in  the  right  placf 
For  example,  some  microswitches  ar 
sensitive  enough  to  be  activated  by  a  bir 
landing  on  a  branch.  There  are  also  ele( 
tronic  relays  that  will  respond  to  almoi 
any  stimulus  one  could  name.  Th 
familiar  "electric  eye"  operates  when 
beam  of  light  is  interrupted.  A  simila 
cell  can  be  used  with  an  invisible  bean 
A  relay  can  also  be  made  to  respond  t 
a  sound  or  even  to  the  change  in  capa(S 
tance  caused  by  an  object  passing  near 
concealed  metal  plate. 

All  such  devices  share  the  same  di; 
advantage:  they  are  too  easily  triggere 
by  a  host  of  unforeseeable  occurrenc^ 
The  few  controls  the  photographer  hi 
over  the  content  of  his  picture  are  h 
skill  in  aiming  the  camera  appropriat 
ly,  and  in  placing  and  adjusting  the  tri] 
ping  devices  so  that,  hopefully,  only  tl 
desired  subject  will  operate  them.  Eve 
the  most  elaborate  equipment  gives  tl 
photographer  no  control  over  e.xposui 
at  the  moment  the  shutter  is  tripped. 
is  imperative  that  automatic  camen 
used  in  such  setups  have  a  switch  ( 
clutch  to  turn  off  or  disengage  the  drii 
mechanism  when  the  end  of  the  film 
reached.  Judging  by  the  results  that  hai 
been  published,  photographers  are  in  i 
danger  of  being  made  obsolete  by  trap 


This  list  details  the  photographer,  artis 
or  other  source  of  illustrations,  by  pag 


COVER-George  Holton 
Photoresearctiers 
4— Joseph  Sedacca 
14-25-George  Holton 
Ptiotoresearcfiers;  except 
17-AMNH  after  K.u.K. 
Militargeograpiiischen 
Institute 

26-27-Courtesy  of  the 
Trustees  of  the  British 
IVIuseum.  tondon 
28-Carl  Nesjer,  European 
Pictures,  New  York 
29-31-Courtesy  of  the 
r/letropolitan  lifluseum  of 
Art,  New  Yorl( 
30-31-center,  H.  A.  Giles 
32-top,  Courtesy  of  the 
N.Y.  Public  Library; 
bottom,  Courtesy  of  the 
National  Museet,  Copen- 
hagen 


33-Courtesy  of  the  Mu-! 
seum  of  the  American  ' 
Indian,  New  York  ] 

34-C.  W.  Hibbard  j 

35-37-C.  Lavett  Smith   1 
except  37-right,  AMNH 
after  C.  Lavett  Smith      i 
38-39-AMNH  after  C.     ] 
Lavett  Smith 
40-43~Lee  Boltin  j 

44-'c)  California  InstitJ 
of  Technology  | 

46-r/lount  Wilson  j 

Observatory  | 

47-AMNH  ; 

48-55-Dale  W.  Rice 
56-59-H.  Stenbergs       ; 
lllustrationsbyra 
60-61-Deryk  Bodington; 
64-65-AMNH 


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Suggested 
Additional  Reading 

ROSE-RED  CITY  OF  PETRA 

The  Other  Side  of  the  Jord.\n.  N. 
Glueck.  American  Schools  of  Oriental 
Research,  Neiv  Haven,  1940. 

Petra,  The  Rock  City  of  Eddm. 
M.  A.  Murray.  Blackie  &  Son,  London, 
1939. 

The  Sarcophagus  of  an  Ancient 
Civilization.  G.  L.  Robinson.  Macmil- 
Ian,  N.  Y.,  19.30. 

"The  Capital  of  the  Nabataeans."  P.  J. 
Parr.  Scientific  American,  Vol.  209,  No. 
4,  pages  94-102;  October,  196-3. 

ORNAMENTAL  EQUINES 
Horses.  G.  G.  Simpson.  The  Natural 
History  Library:  The  American  Museum 
of  Natural  History  and  Doubleday,  N.  Y., 
1961.  (Paperback.) 

FISHES  AND  CLIMATES 
Essentials  of  Earth  History.  W.  L. 

Stokes.  Prentice-Hall,  Engleivood  Cliffs, 

N.  J.,  1960. 

Glacial  and  Pleistocene  Geology. 

R.  F.  Flint.  John  Wiley  &  Sons,  N.  Y ., 

1957. 

Search  for  the  Past:  An  Introduc- 
tion TO  Paleontology.  J.  R.Beerbower. 

Prentice-Hall,  Englewood  Cliffs,  N.  J., 

1960. 

SNOW  EATERS  OF  ALBERTA 
1001  Questions  Answered  About  the 
Weather.  F.  Forrester.  Dodd,  Mead  & 
Co..  N.  Y..  1957. 

AN  "ANTLERED"  GROTESQUE 
Living  Insects  of  the  World.  A.  B. 
Klots  and  E.  B.  Klots.  Doubleday,  N.  Y., 
1959. 

A  General  Textbook  of  Entomol- 
ogy. A.  D.  Imms.  Methuen,  London,  9th 
ed.,  1960. 

THE  HAWAIIAN  MONK  SEAL 

Seals,  Sea  Lions  and  Walruses.  V.  B. 
Scheffer.  Stanford  University  Press,  Stan- 
ford. Calif.,  1958. 

"The  Hawaiian  Monk  Seal."  A.  M. 
Bailey.  Museum  Pictorial:  Denver  Mu- 
seum of  Natural  History,  No.  7,  pages 
1-32:  19.52. 

"Life  History  of  the  Hawaiian  Monk 
Seal."  K.  W.  Kenyon  and  D.  W.  Rice. 
Pacific  Science,  Vol.  13,  No.  3,  pages  215- 
252:  1959. 

CHAMELEON  CAMOUFLAGE 
Adaptive    Coloration    in    Animals. 
H.  B.  Cott.  Methuen,  London,  1940. 

Animal  Colour  Changes  and  Their 
Neurohumours.  G.  H.  Parker.  Cam- 
bridge University  Press,  N.  Y.,  1948. 

Color  Change  Mechanisms  of  Cold- 
blooded Vertebrates.  H.  Waring.  Aca- 
demic Press,  N.  Y.,  1963. 


17  CENTURY  OLD 
ROMAN  IMPERIAL 
PORTRAIT  COIN.'-^ 

This  historic  Roman  coin 
represents  our  ancient  col- 
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turies old! 


These  magnificent  Roman  Imperial  Portrait  coins, 
struck  by  hand  at  the  Imperial  Roman  Mints  in 
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centuries  AD.  Coin  front  bears  portrait  of  Emperor 
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Roman  God,  goddess,  or  personification.  Classifi- 
cation card  accompanies  each  coin. 

Portrait  Coin       S    3  00  each 
ent  coins  S15.0Q 

Roman   Imperial  Silver  Portrait   Coin        S   7  50  each 

Collection  of  6  different  coins  S37.50 

*SEE  "Horizon"  magazine,   Sept/63,  Pg  33 

AI^CIENT  COIS  JEM'ELRY 

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Stock   No.  70.205-E $3.00  Postpa 

SCIENCE  TREASURE   CHESTS 

nee  Treasure  Chi'-it      ■  - 1 1  ,i  imwerful -ma 

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lots  of  otlier  ittii.^  lui  iuiuvitcJ.-.  of  thrilli 
experiments,  plus  a  Ten  Lens  Kit  for  ma 
ing  telescopes,  microscopes,  etc.  Full  i 
structions. 

Stock   No.  70,342- E $5.00  Postp; 

Deluxe  Chest— Stock   No.   70.343-E $10.00  Postp£ 

MAIL    COUPON   for   FREE    CATALOG   "i 


Completely  New  and  Enlarged-148 
Nearly  4000  Bargains 
EDMUND   SCIENTIFIC    CO., 
Barrington,  New  Jersey 

Please  rush  rr.;e  Giant  Catalog  E 


Stock   Nn.  70,25R-E 


$11. 95  postpaid 


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OROfR   Br   STOCK   NUMBtK   .  $INO  CHfCK   OH    MONIY    OROIR  .   SATISFACTION   CUABANTffB.' 

EDMUND  SCIENTIFIC  CO.. barrington,  new  jersey 


68 


tn  ADU  5nu  I  UH:>t  ur  uni  i  kun  bUftKiuKi  it., 


All  this  telescope 


^ 


The  Unitron  2.4"  altazimuth  refractor  shown  here  is  now  pacl<aged  in  a  new,  specially 

igned,  lighter,  more  compact  carrying  case  that's  much  easier  to  carry,  much  thriftier  on  trunk 

ce  when  you're  traveling  by  car.  (Weight:  just  25  lbs.) 

But  portability  is  only  the  second  most  important  feature  of  this  fine  instrument. 

Thefirst  most  important  feature  of  the  Unitron  2.4"  altazimuth  refractor  continues  to  be  its 

'nright  value  and  upright  optical  excellence. 

Excellence  and  value  —  these  are  enduring  qualities,  common  to  every  Unitron  sold.  The  best 

sible  proof:  Unitron  is  the  largest  selling  refractor  in  the  world. 


i/mr/^oN 


What  you'll  find  inside  the  new  Unitron  carrying  case: 
Model  114  — complete  with  altazimuth  mounting 
and  slow  motion  controls  for  both  altitude  and  azi- 
muth, tripod,  5x-16mm  viewhnder.  standard  rack 
and  pinion  mechanism,  4  eyepieces.  UNIMEX  or 
star  diagonal  and  erecting  prism  system,  sunglass. 
dewcap,  dustcap,  instructions.  §125 

INSTRUMENT  COMPANY  •  TELESCOPE  SALES  DIV.-66  NEEDHAM  ST..  NEWTON  HIGHLANDS  61,  MASS. 


JD    FOR    IINITRON'S    FRFF     ^R    PAHP    riR.t^FRVFR't 


This  is  all  it  takes  to  mail 

the  coupon  that  saves  you  hundreds  of 

dollars  on  the  most  thrilling,  most  complete 

round-the-world  cruises 

youVe  ever  dreamed  of. 


Around  the  world  by  luxury  liners.  Just 
step  aboard  for  55  of  the  most  glorious 
days  and  nights  of  your  life.  Sail  the  At- 
lantic in  a  great  ship  like  the  New  France 
or  the  Queen  Elizabeth.  Spend  a  wonder- 
ful week  in  Paris  and  the  Riviera.  Then 
cruise  the  sunny  Mediterranean,  thefabled 
Red  Sea,  the  Indian  Ocean,  the  China 
Seas.  Discover  the  Middle  East,  India, 
Ceylon,  Singapore,  the  Orient,  Hawaii. 

See  more  the  Four  Winds  way.  You'll 
really  see  each  country,  meet  Its  people, 
enjoy  its  great  restaurants,  shops,  enter- 
tainments. Spend  5  exciting  days  In  Hong 
Kong,  9  in  unforgettable  Japan.  You'll 
make  excursions  and  tours  by  car,  jet, 
train— even  by  camel! 

All  at  one  low  fare.  No  hidden  extras.  Your 
Four  Winds  cruise  price  includes  all  trans- 
portation, tours,  excursions,  land  arrange- 
ments, fine  hotels,  most  meals.  (Travel 
all  by  sea  or  combine  sea  and  air.)  Sail 
eastward  round-the-world  from  New  York, 
or  westward  from  San  Francisco.  Choice 
of  4  sailings  every  month.  55  days 
. . .  from  $2295,  complete. 


Around  the  South  Pacific— 65  days.  Live 
like  a  king  on  a  famous  Matson  liner. 
Explore  exotic  Bora  Bora,  Tahiti,  Raro- 
tonga.  Take  a  15-day  grand  tour  of  New 
Zealand,  a  17-day  tour  of  Australia. 
Discover  the  mysteries  of  New  Caledonia, 
Fiji,  Tonga— the  beauties  of  Samoa  and 
the  Hawaiian  Islands.  You'll  see  it  all— 
you'll  thrill  to  the  excitement  of  new  lands, 
new  places,  new  people  — a  whole  new 
world  of  experience— cradled  in  first- 
class  luxury  all  the  way!  Sailings  from 
San  Francisco  every  month.  65  days 
. . .  from  $2770,  complete. 

South  Seas  and  Orient  — 50  to  71  days. 

Cruise  the  South  Seas  in  your  first-class 
stateroom  aboard  a  Matson  liner.  See 
Bora  Bora,  Tahiti,  Rarotonga,  New  Zea- 
land, Australia. 

Then  circle  the  entire  Orient.  Spend  4 
magic  days  in  Bali,  2  in  Singapore,  3  in 
Bangkok,  5  in  Hong  Kong! 
Take  a  fabulous  8-day  tour  of  Japan  .  .  . 
then  4  golden  days  in  Hawaii,  and  home. 
Monthly  sailings  from  San  Francisco.  50 
to  71  days  . . .  from  $2785,  complete. 


Around  exciting  Africa— 69  days.Tn  ligp  in  j 
luxurious  Cunard  and  Union-Castle  liners  ] 
to  22  of  the  world's  most  exotic  ports,  i 
From  New  York  to  London,  then  off  to  ] 
Madeira,  the  Canary  Islands,  and  the  fun-; 
filled  cruise  to  Capetown,  your  gateway  I 
to  Africa.  I 

22,000 thrilling miles.You'llseeit all, from  ' 

ultra-modern  Lourenco  Marques  to  the  ; 
pyramids  of  ancient  Egypt.  You'll  visit '^ 
Durban,  Mozambique,  Dar  Es  Salaam,] 
Zanzibar,  Tanga,  Mombasa,  Suez,  Cairo,! 
Port  Said,  and  more.  You'll  really  discover  i 
Africa  for  yourself— in  comfort  all  the  way.j 
Coming  back  you'll  visit  Naples,  Genoa,] 
Marseilles,  Gibraltar.  Then  to  London  and  | 
(unless  you  care  to  stop  over  for  a  Euro-J 
pean  finale  to  your  vacation)  back  to  j 
New  York.  j 

Four  Winds  takes  care  of  everything.  Your ' 
low  Four  Winds  cruise  fare  covers  the  ' 
cost  of  all  transportation,  inland  tours,! 
excursions,  hotels,  most  meals,  even  ai 
4-day  Camera  Safari  in  Kenya!  Sailings- 
every  month  from  New  York.  71  days  j 
.  . .  from  $2395,  complete.  ] 


Clip  the  coupon  and  buy  a  stamp. 

(Or_see  your  travel_a^nt)^ ,_„_„_ 


FOUR 

FOUR  WINDS 
TRAVEL,  INC., 
Deot.  NH.2 
175  Fifth  Avenue 
New  York  10,  N.  Y. 


Name- 


Please  send  me  the  following  brociiures: 


n  SOUTH  PACIFIC/NEW  ZEALAND/ AUSTRALIA 

24  COLORFUL  PAGES. 

n  SOUTH  PACIFIC/ORIENT  24  PAGES,  PHOTOS, 
MAPS,  DETAILS. 

n  AROUND  AFRICA  THE  COMPLETE  STORY,  DAY-TO- 
DAY DETAILS. 


II  you  do  nol  wi5h  lo  ( 


1^ 


^H 


This  is  all  it  takes  to  mail 

the  coupon  that  saves  you  hundreds  of 

dollars  on  the  most  thrilling,  most  complete 

round-the-world  cruises 

youVe  ever  dreamed  of. 


Around  the  world  by  luxury  liners.  Just 
step  aboard  for  55  of  the  most  glorious 
days  and  nights  of  your  life.  Sail  the  At- 
lantic in  a  great  ship  like  the  New  France 
or  the  Queen  Elizabeth.  Spend  a  wonder- 
ful week  in  Paris  and  the  Riviera.  Then 
cruise  the  sunny  Mediterranean,  thefabled 
Red  Sea,  the  Indian  Ocean,  the  China 
Seas.  Discover  the  Middle  East,  India, 
Ceylon,  Singapore,  the  Orient,  Hawaii. 

See  more  the  Four  Winds  way.  You'll 
really  see  each  country,  meet  its  people, 
enjoy  its  great  restaurants,  shops,  enter- 
tainments. Spend  5  exciting  days  in  Hong 
Kong,  9  in  unforgettable  Japan.  You'll 
make  excursions  and  tours  by  car,  jet, 
train— even  by  camel! 

All  atone  lowfare.  No  hidden  extras.  Your 
Four  Winds  cruise  price  includes  all  trans- 
portation, tours,  excursions,  land  arrange- 
ments, fine  hotels,  most  meals.  (Travel 
all  by  sea  or  combine  sea  and  air.)  Sail 
eastward  round-the-world  from  New  York, 
or  westward  from  San  Francisco.  Choice 
of  4  sailings  every  month.  55  days 
. . .  from  $2295,  complete. 


Around  the  South  Pacific— 65  days.  Live 
like  a  king  on  a  famous  Matson  liner. 
Explore  exotic  Bora  Bora,  Tahiti,  Raro- 
tonga.  Take  a  15-day  grand  tour  of  New 
Zealand,  a  17-day  tour  of  Australia. 
Discover  the  mysteries  of  New  Caledonia, 
Fiji,  Tonga— the  beauties  of  Samoa  and 
the  Hawaiian  Islands.  You'll  see  it  all— 
you'll  thrill  to  the  excitement  of  new  lands, 
new  places,  new  people  — a  whole  new 
world  of  experience— cradled  in  first- 
class  luxury  all  the  way!  Sailings  from 
San  Francisco  every  month.  65  days 
. . .  from  $2770,  complete. 

South  Seas  and  Orient— 50  to  71  days. 

Cruise  the  South  Seas  in  your  first-class 
stateroom  aboard  a  Matson  liner.  See 
Bora  Bora,  Tahiti,  Rarotonga,  New  Zea- 
land, Australia. 

Then  circle  the  entire  Orient.  Spend  4 
magic  days  in  Bali,  2  in  Singapore,  3  in 
Bangkok,  5  in  Hong  Kong! 
Take  a  fabulous  8-day  tour  of  Japan  .  .  . 
then  4  golden  days  in  Hawaii,  and  home. 
Monthly  sailings  from  San  Francisco.  50 
to  71  days  .  .  .  from  $2785,  complete. 


Around  exciting  Africa— 69  davs.rriiisain  ; 
luxurious  Cunard  and  Union-Castle  liners 
to  22  of  the  world's  most  exotic  ports. : 
From  New  York  to  London,  then  off  to  ' 
Madeira,  the  Canary  Islands,  and  the  fun-  • 
filled  cruise  to  Capetown,  your  gateway 
to  Africa. 

22,000  thrilling  miles.You'll  see  it  all,  from  j 
ultra-modern  Lourenco  Marques  to  the  i 
pyramids  of  ancient  Egypt.  You'll  visit  j 
Durban,  Mozambique,  Dar  Es  Salaam,  j 
Zanzibar,  Tanga,  Mombasa,  Suez,  Cairo,  I 
Port  Said,  and  more.  You'll  really  discover  ■' 
Africa  for  yourself— in  comfort  all  the  way. ' 
Coming  back  you'll  visit  Naples,  Genoa,,: 
Marseilles,  Gibraltar.  Then  to  London  and 
(unless  you  care  to  stop  over  for  a  Euro-j 
pean  finale  to  your  vacation)  back  to  j 
New  York. 

Four  Winds  takes  care  of  everything.  Your 
low  Four  Winds  cruise  fare  covers  the  ' 
cost  of  all  transportation,  inland  tours,, 
excursions,  hotels,  most  meals,  even  a  j 
4-day  Camera  Safari  in  Kenya!  Sailings  i 
every  month  from  New  York,  sgdays  j 
. . .  from  $2395,  complete.  ; 


Clip  the  coupon  and  buy  a  stamp. 


(Or  see  your  travel  agent) 


R)UR 


Please  send  me  the  following  brochur 


n  AROUND  THE  WORLD  28  PAGES  OF  ITINERARY 

l||||||N^  MAPS,  DETAILS. 

UllNI  JX®  D  SOUTH  PACIFIC/NEW  ZEALAND/AUSTRALIA 

•  •ll"^*J  24  COLORFUL  PAGES. 

FOUR  WINDS  n  SOUTH  PACIFIC/ORIENT  24  PAGES,  PHOTOS, 

TRAVEL,  INC  MAPS,  DETAILS. 

Deol    NH-3  n  AROUND  AFRICA  THE  COMPLETE  STORY,  DAY-TO- 

175  Fifth  Avenue  DAY  DETAILS. 

New  York  10,  N.  Y. 

Name 


■upon  on  page  64 


SHAKEMASTER 


The  man  in  the  relaxed  position  is  working.  Working  hard.  He's  an  engineer  operating  a  velocity 
pickup  or  "prober"  to  measure  and  analyze  the  chassis  shake  and  bending  characteristics  produced 
in  the  laboratory  by  a  special  shake  rig.  With  this  equipment,  he  can  simulate  the  roughest, 
bumpiest  washboard  road  you'll  ever  travel.  He  can  compress  years  of  jouncing  into  just  a  few 
hours  and  repeat  the  experiment  under  identical  conditions  time  and  time  again.  It's  only  one  of 
the  exhaustive  tests  designed  to  make  your  General  Motors  car  a  better  riding,  more  comfortable  car. 

This  engineer's  job  is  something  special — simple  to  state,  difficult  to  do:  improve  existing  products 
and  develop  new  ones.  He  and  thousands  of  GM  engineers  and  trained  technicians  are  aiming  for 
this  goal  every  day  of  the  year. 

How  does  he  do  it?  It's  not  easy.  He  designs,  builds,  tests— examines,  evaluates,  improves.  He's  a 
doer  if  there  ever  was  one.  The  end  result  of  his  work  is  the  satisfaction  which  General  Motors 
products  bring  to  their  owners. 

All  told,  there  are  19,850  engineers  and  scientists  at  General  Motors.  Five  hundred  colleges  and 
universities  are  represented,  extending  from  the  east  coast  to  the  west  coast  and  most  states 
in  between. 

The  engineer  is  another  fine  member  of  the  General  Motors  family— a  family  which  includes  not 
only  employes,  but  suppliers,  shareholders  and  dealers  as  well.  These  people  are  the  basic  reason 
for  the  success  and  progress  of  GM. 

GENERAL  MOTORS  IS  PEOPLE... 

Making  Better  Things  For  You 


PRESIDENT 

Alexander  M.  White 

DIRECTOR  DEPUTY  DIRECTOR 

James  A.  Oliver  Walter  F.  Meister 


MANAGING  EDITOR 

Robert  E.  Williamson 

EXECUTIVE  EDITOR 

Helene  Jordan 

ASSOCIATE  EDITORS 

Hubert  C.  Birnbaum.  John  F.  Speicher 

COPY  EDITORS 

Florence  Brauner.  Florence  Klodin 

REVIEWS 

Francesca  von  Hartz 

PHOTOGRAPHY 

Lee  Boltin 

PRODUCTION 

Thomas  Page 
Mairgreg  Ross,  Asst. 

CONTRIBUTIONS 

Ernestine  Weindorf.  Ruby  Macdonald 


CONTRIBUTING  EDITORS 

Paul  M.  Tilden,  Thomas  D.  Nicholson 
David  Linton.  Julian  D.  Corrington 


EDITORIAL    ADVISERS 

Gerard  Piel  Gordon  F.  Ekholm 

Roy  Gallant  Gordon  Reekie 

Donn  E.  Rosen  Richard  G.  Van  Gelder 

T.  C.  Schneirla  Richard  K.  Winslow 


ADVERTISING 

Frank  L.  De  Franco.  Director 
Ogden  Lowell.  Sales 


PROMOTION  MANAGER 

Anne  Keating 
Anne  Ryan,  Asst. 


Natural  History 

Incorporating  Nature  Magazine  i 

THE  JOURNAL  OF  THE  AMERICAN  MUSEUM  OF  NATURAL  HISTOR. 


Vol.  LXXIII 


MARCH  1964 


ARTICLES 
SIEGE  WARFARE  IN  PHARAONIC  EGYPT 
GRIZZLY  TERRITORY 
INSECT-TRAPPING  PLANTS 
PSYCHOPHYSICS  AND  HEARING  IN  FISH 
TRIBAL  ART  FROM  AFRICA 

DEPARTMENTS 

MUSEUM  MEMO: 
REPORT  FROM  THE  PRESIDENT 

REVIEWS 

SKY  REPORTER 

NATURALISTS'  NOTEBOOK: 

PREDATOR  NETS  A  SUGAR  ANT 

ABOUT  THE  AUTHORS 

NATURE  AND  THE  MICROSCOPE 

SUGGESTED  ADDITIONAL  READING 


NoJ 


Alan  R.  Schulman  1 

A.W.F.  Banfield  2 

Virgil  N.  Argo  2 

William  N.  Tavolga  3 

Colin  M.  Turnbull  4 


Alexander  M.  White 


William  Vogt 
Thomas  D.  Nicholson     4 
I 

i 

5 

Julian  D.  Corrington     5 
6 


CIRCULATION  MANAGER 

Joseph  Saulina 


COVER:  Drosera  rotundifolia,  the  common  sundew  of  northeastern  Unitei 
States,  is  one  of  a  group  of  plants  sometimes  called  "carnivorous."  Each  rouni 
sundew  leaf  is  covered  with  tiny  hairs,  on  the  tips  of  which  are  very  sweetl 
scented,  mucilaginous  drops.  The  odor  attracts  an  insect;  it  is  snared  in  thi 
viscous  hairs,  and  plant  enzymes  break  down  its  soft  parts.  After  several  days,  th 
chitinous  portion  of  the  body  blows  away.  In  this  picture,  taken  by  H.  J.  Jordai 
insect  remains  are  visible  as  a  dark  shadow  at  the  bottom.  For  more  informatioj 
about  these  and  the  other  insectivorous  plant  species,  please  turn  to  page  2£ 

The  American  Museum  is  open  to  the  public  without  charge  every  day 
during  the  year.  \  our  support,  through  membership  and  contributions, 
helps  make  this  possible.   The  Museum  is  equally  in  need   of  support    " 
for  all  of  its  work  in  the  fields  of  research,  education,  and  exhibition,    i 

Publication  Office:  The  American  Museum  of  Natural  History,  Central  Park  West  at  79th  Street,  New  tm 
N.  Y.  10024.  Published  monthly,  October  through  May:  bimonthly  June  to  September.  Subscription:  S5.00 
year.  In  Canada,  and  all  other  countries:  S5.50  a  year.  Single  copies:  S.50.  Second  class  postage  paid  ; 
New  York,  N.  Y.,  and  at  additional  offices.  Copyright,  1964.,  by  The  American  Museum  o(  Natural  Histor; 
No  part  of  this  periodical  may  be  reproduced  without  the  written  consent  of  Naturai.  Hjstoby.  The  lit 
Nature  Magazine,  registered  U.S.  Patent  Office.  Unsolicited  manuscripts  and  illustrations  submitted  to  ll 
editorial  office  will  be  handled  with  all  possible  care,  but  we  cannot  assume  responsibility  for  their  safet 
The  opinions  expressed  by  authors  are  their  own  and  do  not  necessarily  reflect  The  American  Museum's  polic 


Museum  Memo 


Report  from  the  President 


T  has  always  been  the  purpose  of  The  American  Museum 
of  Natural  History  to  make  known  to  the  greatest  pos- 
.  sible  number  of  people  the  full  meaning  of  our  program, 
1  to  set  forth  our  educational  objectives. 

Because  Natural  History  has  always  been  the  official 
rnal  of  the  Museum,  it  is  logical  that  I  should  use  it  as 
neans  of  reaching  the  Museum's  far-flung  audience  of 
nbers  and  subscribers— in  fact,  all  readers  and  friends  of 

Museum— for  it  is  my  wish  to  thank  you  for  your  interest 
1  to  report  to  you  on  our  many  plans  for  progress. 

It  has  been  said  that  an  organization  of  any  kind  is  as 
)ng  as  the  people  who,  in  one  way  or  another,  contribute 
t.  In  the  case  of  a  public-supported  institution  like  ours, 
s  an  uncontrovertible  fact.  I  believe  the  strength  of  the 
seum  is  growing  in  many  ways,  and  I  would  like  to  tell 

briefly  of  some  of  them. 

A  most  encouraging  growth  area  is  in  attendance.  During 
last  fiscal  year  2,442,977  people  visited  the  Museum,  and 
,771  visited  The  American  Museum-Hayden  Planetarium. 
s  total  of  3,061,748  is  an  increase  of  more  than  150.000 
r  the  previous  fiscal  year.  We  believe  this  increase  repre- 
ss a  worldwide  pattern  of  growing  interest  in  the  natural 
nces.  (This  may  represent  a  new  and  basic  philosophy, 
ause  man  has  become  aware  that  his  world  can  be  de- 
yed,  he  is  looking  at  it  today  with  new  and  wondering  eyes.) 

Another  area  of  growth  is  in  exhibition  plans,  a  number 
?hich  are  being  geared  to  culminate  five  years  from  now— 
ghly  significant  date  in  Museum  history.  On  April  6,  1869 
;  year  the  Suez  Canal  opened)  a  group  of  prominent 
;ens  signed  the  Act  of  Incorporation  of  The  American 
5eum  of  Natural  History.  Thus,  in  1969  the  Museum  will 
:h  the  end  of  its  first  century  of  service.  By  that  time,  we 
e  to  have  completed  new  halls  devoted  to  ocean  life,  the 
ogy  of  invertebrates,  the  primates,  the  birds  of  North 
;rica,  earth  history  and  geology,  and  the  cultures  of 
tern  Woodlands  and  Plains  Indians,  Eskimos,  the  peoples 
Lfrica,  and  the  peoples  of  the  Pacific.  Each  will  demon- 
te  exciting  techniques  whereby  science  can  be  translated 

terms  everyone  can  understand,  made  possible  by  close 
peration  among  scientists,  architects,  and  artists. 
All  of  the  haUs  will  contain  the  latest  scientific  dis- 
:ries,  and  herein  lies  our  third  and  unquestionably  our 
t  vital  area  of  growth.  No  exhibit  would  be  possible  with- 
years  of  scientific  research— the  very  foundation  of  the 
eum  as  a  vital  educational  force  here  and  throughout  the 
Id.  There  are  always  some  of  our  scientists  studying,  col- 
ng,  or  experimenting  in  such  places  as  New  Guinea, 
ca,  Antarctica,  the  Amazon.  This  is  fairly  common  knowl- 
;.  But  our  newer  members  (and  even,  perhaps,  some  of 

standing)    may  not  be  acquainted  with  several  of  our 

spectacular  and,  hence,  less  well-known,  activities.  For 
mce,  the  Museum  maintains  four  research  stations  at 
;h  our  own  scientists  and  those  from  other  countries  can 
ue  their  own  lines  of  investigation.  These  range  from 
lal  behavior  and  astronomy  to  biophysics,  entomology, 
thology,  and  so  on  through  the  biological  alphabet. 
No  research  activities  of  any  kind  are  possible  without 
iries.  Our  main  library  is  one  of  the  best  repositories  of 
ral  history  publications  in  the  world.  In  addition,  there 

the  Osborn  Library  of  Vertebrate  Paleontology,  the 
etarium  library  on  astronomy  and  allied  subjects,  and 


the  photographic  library,  including  a  slide  lending  library. 

Perhaps  we  should  also  include  here  mention  of  Museum 
publications.  There  is,  of  course.  Natural  History.  There 
are,  in  addition.  Curator,  a  magazine  of  muscology,  and  the 
widely  distributed  scientific  papers-the  Bulletin,  Novitates, 
Anthropological  Papers,  and  Contributions  of  the  American 
Museum-Hayden  Planetarium.  There  is  also  a  new  publish- 
ing venture,  undertaken  jointly  with  Doubleday  and  Co.,  under 
the  name  of  Natural  History  Press,  which  issues  Nature  and 
Science,  a  magazine  for  elementary  school  children,  as  well 
as  books  on  natural  history  for  adults. 

While  we  are  on  the  subject  of  little-known  facts  regard- 
ing the  Museum,  I  think  we  should  discuss  grants.  Now,  the 
Museum  is  a  non-profit  institution,  and  as  such  must  seek 
support.  However,  it  also  distributes  funds  that  have  been 
given  for  specific  purposes  by  individuals,  foundations,  and 
federal  agencies.  These  enable  research  training  to  be  pro- 
vided for  students  from  high  school  age  through  those  working 
for  their  doctoral  degrees. 

IT  goes  without  saying  that  research  is  never  finished. 
Every  answer  has  as  its  concomitant  another  question. 
As  a  result,  the  end  of  our  first  century  is  really  only  a 
beginning.  The  more  we  plan  and  accomplish,  the  more  we 
must  continue  to  plan  and  accomplish.  Our  increasing  respon- 
sibilities in  research,  education,  and  exhibition  are  a  reflection 
of  that  growing  interest  in  science  I  mentioned  earlier— an 
interest  that  could  never  have  been  envisioned  by  even  such 
far-sighted  men  as  the  founding  fathers. 

The  responsibility  affects  us  all  equally,  whether  we  are 
scientists,  non-scientific  Museum  employees,  one  of  the  Board 
of  Trustees,  or  Museum  members,  because  we  demonstrate 
our  deep  interest  in  the  work  done  here  by  being  associated 
with  it  in  the  first  place.  The  association  is  not  parochial. 
As  a  research  center  in  the  biological  and  earth  sciences  and 
as  an  educational  medium.  The  American  Museum  is  inter- 
national in  scope.  It  goes  far  beyond  the  country's  bound- 
aries and  into  the  minds  of  men  who  are  concerned  with 
knowledge  of  the  world  of  which  they  are  a  part.  We  are 
constantly  turned  to  for  guidance,  assistance,  and,  most  im- 
portant, for  leadership  in  the  scientific  disciplines  we  repre- 
sent. Unless  we  continue  to  expand  and  to  make  the  future 
always  more  important  than  the  past,  we  will  be  relinquish- 
ing our  rights  of  leadership.  The  status  quo  only  maintains 
a  reputation ;  to  be  meaningful,  a  reputation  must  be  enhanced. 
You  who  are  members  have  helped  the  Museum  im- 
measurably over  the  year  by  heightening  public  interest  in 
the  meaning  of  natural  history  through  the  simple  expedient 
of  being  enthusiastic.  An  even  larger  membership  could  un- 
doubtedly create  even  more  excitement  in  learning.  This  is 
the  only  way  an  institution  like  ours  can  survive.  It  mus^  con- 
tinue to  generate  interest  and  enthusiasm  by  virtue  of  its 
solid  scientific  accomplishments,  for  it  is  only  such  accom- 
plishments that  permit  the  Museum  to  speak  with  a  voice  of 
authority.  The  results  of  scientific  discovery  will,  in  turn,  be 
given  back  to  its  supporters  in  the  form  of  broader  research 
and  education  programs  and  more  comprehensive  exhibits. 
In  other  words,  a  continually  growing  membership  will,  as 
it  has  in  the  past,  enable  us  to  meet  the  constant  and  many- 
faceted  challenge  of  scientific  progress  and  interpretation  in 
the  context  of  a  rapidly  changing  world. 

Alexander  M.  White 


different'  vacation 


LAND  OF  WONDER 


300  free  campsites  in  a  natural  wonderland. 


New  sights  —  the  towering  glory  of 
Mount  Rushmore  .  .  .  the  Badlands' 
savage  splendor  .  .  .  picturesque  ghost 
towns  and  gold  mines,  colorful  folk 
festivals  .  .  .  guided  tours  of  power 
plants  at  colossal  dams  that  form  the 
state-wide  Great  Lakes  of  South  Da- 
kota. Pulse-tingling  events  —  hoof- 
pounding  rodeos . . . gold  discovery 
celebrations  with  the  hair  left  on  ,  .  . 
Custer's  Last  Stand  re-enacted  to  the 
blood-chillingcriesof  hundreds  of  Sioux 
warriors.  Or  just  relax  with  rod  and  reel 
on  some  of  the  finest  fishing  lakes  in 
America. 

Splendid  highways  throughout  the 
state,  every  mile  a  pleasant  memory. 
More  than  300  free  campsites.  Motels, 
hotels,  mountain  lodges  to  fit  every 
budget — plus  real  Western  hospitahty. 

Get  away  from  the  commonplace! 
Enjoy  the  different  vacation — in  South 
Dakota — Land  of  Wonder. 
Mail  coupon  now. 


-&■ 


df  wick  21  auto i, 
s  Calendar 


Reviews 

Man  and  nature 
joined  in  quiet  crisis 

By  William  Vogt  * 


The  Quiet  Crisis,  by  Stewart  L.  Udall 
Holt,  Rinehart  and  Winston,  Inc.,  $5.00; 
209  pp.,  illus.  Man  and  Nature  in  Amer- 
ica, by  Arthur  A.  Ekirch,  Jr.  Columbia 
University  Press,  $4.50;  231  pp.,  illus. 

THE  interrelationships  of  the  human 
nervous  system  with  the  human  en- 
vironment have  not  been  widely  recog- 
nized as  part  of  human  ecology  but  they 
are,  essentially,  the  theme  of  these  books. 
Ever  since  European  man  arrived  on  this 
continent  he  has  been  driven  and  guided 
—or  misguided— by  ideas,  ideals,  notions, 
values,  desires,  and  motivations  that  were 
his  own  and  that  were  often  destructive 
of  the  complex  of  physical  factors  mak- 
ing up  his  surroundings.  A  sense  of  re- 
sponsibility toward  the  land  and  its 
non-human  creatures  emerged  early  only 
among  such  oddballs  as  Thoreau  and  the 
Bartrams.  and  a  few  others  including 
perhaps  the  most  sapient  of  our  presi- 
dents, Thomas  Jefferson. 

There  was  little  doubt,  especially 
among  those  who  were  guided  to  the 
New  World  by  religious  zeal,  that  the 
continent  was  here  for  them  to  subdue, 
and  they  were  the  most  inner-directed  of 
men.  They  followed  the  desires  of  their 
own  often  flinty  hearts,  and  if  water 
flowed  down  hill  and  took  soil  with  it, 
well,  so  much  the  worse  for  soil  These 
were  the  adventurers,  the  exploiters,  the 
killers,  the  entrepreneurs,  and  the  de- 
velopers, and  whether  their  god  was  Je- 
hovah or  Free  Enterprise  they  had  few 
of  the  kindly  thoughts  for  fellow  crea- 
tures that  are  enjoined  by  the  Buddha. 
Their  ignorance  of  nature's  laws  was,  on 
the  whole,  colossal,  and  their  lack  of  a 
sense  of  responsibility  was  constructed 
on  the  same  scale. 

Fear  and  threat  of  destitution  arising 
from  land  abuse  and  population  pres- 
sures have,  like  cirrhosis  of  the  drunk- 
ard's liver,  begun  to  stimulate  thoughts 
of  reform,  although  one  does  not  have  to 
jet  far  to  see  soil  erosion,  rugged  indi- 
vidualists among  the  stockmen  who  still 
maintain  their  right  to  wreck  the  ranges, 
and  the  dripping  faucet  that  continues 
to  be  a  symbol  of  national  wastefulness. 

These  two  books  are  essentially  the 
story  of  the  relationships  of  man's  atti- 
tude with  the  land.  Mr.  Ekirch's  book, 


Man  and  Nature  in  America,  is  chiefly 
concerned  with  the  product  of  nervous 
systems— economics,  sociology,  history, 
bureaucracy,  verbalizations  of  one  sort 
or  another— and  its  first  paragraph  ej^ 
poses  an  ignorance  and  resulting  confu- 
sion concerning  natural  sciences  that 
probably  has  few  recent  equals,  certainly 
in  books  published  by  university  presses. 
Incredibly,  he  does  not  even  mention  the 
American  who  has  most  advanced  mod- 
ern thinking  about  man  and  nature.  Aldo 
Leopold.  Nevertheless,  for  anyone  in- 
terested in  the  story  of  human  attitudes 
toward  nature  in  America,  althougl 
little  of  the  book  is  devoted  to  nature 
itself,  it  is  a  good  summary.  While  il 
neglects  Leopold,  it  does  include  the  in 
fluence  of  the  Hudson  River  school  ol 
painters,  which  the  next  book  ignores 

The  Quiet  Crisis— which,  in  this  work 
of  jets,  superhighways,  jackhammers 
bulldozers,  and  thin-walled  apartment! 
inhabited  (it  appears)  chiefly  by  TV's 
seems  strangely  named— is  a  happy  com 
bination  of  critical  evaluation  of  humai 
thinking-feeling  about  the  totality  oj 
land,  and  the  empathic  history  of  thi 
land  itself.  Written  (with  the  acknowl 
edged  help  of  his  staff)  by  a  man  famou: 
for  enjoying  the  land  as  much  througl 
the  soles  of  his  feet  as  through  his  mind 
such  a  book  could  almost  certainly  no 
have  been  produced  by  any  former  Secre 
tary  of  the  Interior. 

Unlike  most  who  have  thought  an( 
written  about  conservation,  Secretar 
Udall  recognizes  that  man  is  intrinsi 
cally  a  part  of  nature,  and  that  notion 
are  a  part  of  man.  In  one  of  his  man; 
trenchant  sentences  he  writes  appro\ 
ingly:  "Henry  Thoreau  would  scoff  a 
the  notion  that  the  Gross  National  Prod 
uct  should  be  the  chief  index  to  the  stat 
of  the  nation.  .  .  ."  His  concern  extend: 
far  beyond  the  responsibilities  of  the  D^ 
partment  of  the  Interior  and  he  almos 
—but  not  quite— comes  to  grips  with  th 
inevitable  necessity  of  putting  a  ceilini 
on  population.  This  is  hard  to  undei 
stand  in  a  Secretary  who  has  only  re 
cently  approved  an  outstanding  repoi 
on  the  need  to  limit  certain  animal  popii 
lations  in  national  parks. 

Why  a  beaver  dam  is  more  "natural 
than  a  mill  dam  has  never  been  satis 


You  can't 
beat  the 
system 


515  leather  case 


rapid-wind  crank 

quick-focus  hand 
Hasselblad  500C 


eye-level  prism  finder 


Some  cameras  look  like  the  Hasselblad.  But  there's  nothingto  match 
its  performance.  The  reason  is  simple.  Hasselblad  is  a  system  of 
photography  acknowledged  to  be  the  finest  and  most  versatile  in  the 
world. The  camera  is  exceptionally  precise  and  absolutely  dependable. 
Lenses  are  by  Zeiss.  Each  accessory-and  there  are  more  than  120  of 
them-has  been  designed  to  give  you  supreme  flexibility  in  photogra- 
phy.You  neverhave  to"goon"from  Hasselblad.  Isn't  it  timeyou  asked 
your  dealer  for  a  demonstration?  For  the  name  of  the  one  nearest 
you,  write  to:  Paillard  Inc.,  1900  Lower  Road,  Linden,  New  Jersey. 


Sports  action  by 
Daniel  R.  Rubin, 
official  photographer 
N.Y.  Giants,  using  his 
Hasselblad  system. 


HASS£LBLAD 


1 


The  friendly  face  of  Alaska  says 
WeLSOMg  VTSiToR! 

Getting  to  know  the  big-hearted,  friendly  people  of 
Alaska  is  one  of  the  nice  things  about  coming  to  this 
big,  adventurous  land.  Informality  and  hospitality 
are  everywhere.  Vast  mountain  ranges,  sparkling  gla- 
ciers, Gold  Rush  towns  and  totem  poles  are  all  part 
of  an  exciting  Alaska  vacation.  C'mon  up  this  year 
— be  you  a  sight-seer,  car  traveller,  or  tent  pitcher. 
See  your  travel  agent  or  write  DeptNH-1, Alaska  Tra- 
vel Division,  Juneau. 

You  haven't  seen  your  country  if  you  haven't  seen 


Alaska  Travel  Div.-Dept  of  Economic  Development  &  Planning 


from  Kashntir, . . 

An  exquisite  sample  of  an  ancient  craft.  Delicately  colored  by 
hand  in  pastel  blue  or  pink  on  a  shimmering  silver  background. 
This  box  makes  a  most  attractive  and  unusual  powder  con- 
tainer. No  two  exactly  alike.  4"  in  diameter.  $10.50  ppd. 


'S 


A' 


P>T 


Members  of  the  Museun 


t^/Hi\SeMS^tcp 


THE  AMERICAN  MUSEUM  OF  NATURAL  HISTORY,  NEW  YORK,  NEW/  YORK  10024 


factorily  explained  by  "nature  lovers| 
and  Mr.  Udall,  in  accepting  man  asj 
part  of  nature,  has  many  wise  things  t 
say  about  cities  and  the  density-depent 
ent  problems  created  by  the  human  spi 
cies.  "As  the  area  of  conflict  and  overla 
increases  we  must  constantly  improv 
our  decision-making  techniques,"  h 
warns.  "Nor  must  we  be  afraid  to  decid 
the  toughest  of  issues;  practices  tha 
defer  necessary  decisions  can  also  be 
threat  to  the  national  welfare." 

It  is  probably  inevitable  that  a  bod 
by  a  member  of  the  Cabinet  should  b' 
political,  and  it  is  in  this  area  that  th 
book's  slip  occasionally  shows.  The  Ci 
viHan  Conservation  Corps  is  inordinatel 
praised  with  no  recognition  of  their  de 
struction  of  large  areas  of  wildlife  habi 
tat  through  drainage  and  other  activities 
The  failure  of  his  own  Department  (be 
fore  he  became  its  chief)  to  protect  th 
Alaskan  salmon  is  not  mentioned,  am 
while  the  Secretary  points  out  the  "mag 
nificent  opportunity"  to  respect  Alaskai 
wilderness  and  wildhfe,  of  the  Rampar 
Dam  deponent  sayeth  nothing.  Franklii 
D.  Roosevelt  is  lauded  as  a  conservation 
ist;  there  is  no  mention  of  the  way  Ja^ 
Darling  had  to  outwit  him  to  get  fund 
for  waterfowl  habitat  restoration.  Thi 
Secretary's  staff  should  get  lumps  foi 
depriving  the  Audubon  Society  of  Cork 
screw  Swamp  and  for  not  updating  hifl 
on  the  violation  of  Olmsted's  vision  (| 
Central  Park  by  Robert  Moses  and  New 
bold  Morris.  But  these  defects  are  slight 
mere  freckles. 

This  is  an  outstanding,  absorbing,  in 
spiring  book  that  should  be  read  by  ever) 
conservationist.  It  weaves  conservation: 
an  increasingly  urgent  human  activity 
into  the  tight,  living  web  that  makes  uf 
our  exploding  interrelated  world.  Yet  il 
reminds  us  that  we  can  all  play  our  pari 
and.  indeed,  have  a  responsibihty  to  do 
so.  Writing  about  the  Yellowstone,  Secre- 
tary Udall  says:  "The  concern  of  a  few 
people  for  the  rights  of  future  genera- 
tions made  the  difference,  and  this  factor 
of  foresight  would  mean  the  success  of 
most  future  park  Proposals."  The  need 
for  both  the  concern  and  the  foresight 
grows  in  importance  every  year. 

The  illustrations,  both  black  and  wlrite 
and  colored,  are  superb,  and  are  quite 
worthy  of  the  book  itself. 

Dr.  Vogt,  internationally  known,  atvard-i 
winning  scientist,  specializes  in  botM 
the  behavior  and  the  ecology  of  birds}, 
and  in  human  ecology  and  conservation^ 


Copper  Town,  by  Hortense  Powder-i 
maker.  Harper  &  Roiv,  S7.95;  391  pp.}, 
illus.  I 

DR.  POWDERMAKER  has,  over  the  years,, 
demonstrated  her  ability  to  dance  ai 
Uvely  gavotte,  dropping  curtsies  with! 
equal  grace  to  the  disciplines  of  anthro- 


logy,  sociology,  psychology,  and  his- 
y  in  such  diverse  ballrooms  as  Mela- 
sia,  Mississippi,  and  Hollywood.  Now 
;  enters  the  African  scene  with  a  fan- 
ngo  that  is  at  times  somewhat  wild, 
t  always  exciting  and  provocative. 
Copper  Toivn  is  no  ordinary  book  about 
;  problem  of  social  change  in  an  Afri- 
1  mining  community.  For  one  thing,  it 
eminently  readable;  while  it  is  schol- 
y.  it  is  at  the  same  time  a  book  that 
yone  can  read  with  enjoyment.  Dr. 
wdermaker's  success  is  due  in  large 
rt  to  the  thoroughness  with  which  she 
ifiously  prepared  both  her  project  and 
r  written  account  of  it. 
We  must  be  particularly  grateful  to 
:  for  explaining,  in  the  Introduction, 
ictly  how  she  set  about  tackling  her 
d  work,  and  why.  This  is  sound  aca- 
nic  practice,  by  no  means  always  fol- 
ded, and  it  adds  immeasurably  to  the 
ue  and  interest  of  the  book  for  the 
leral  reader. 

rhe  basic  problem  is  one  of  change. 
1  throughout  we  are  reminded  that  in 
pper  Town  the  process  of  change  af- 
ts  not  only  the  Africans  but  also  the 
ropeans.  So  that  we  can  understand 
process  more  fully.  Dr.  Powdermaker 
es  us  a  background  to  both  communi- 
5.  This  necessarily  involves  her  in  gen- 
lizations.  and  with  some  of  these  I 
^ht  quibble,  but  the  validity  of  her 
in  argument  is  in  no  way  affected, 
'n  showing  how  tribal  values  and  cus- 
[is  persist,  even  after  the  tribe  had  dis- 
egrated  as  a  localized  political  unit, 
Powdermaker  uses  transcripts  of  con- 
sations  and  interviews,  and  the  reader 
ible  to  sense  the  tremendous  depth  of 
ling  that  runs  below  a  not  always  un- 
fled  surface.  And  it  is  a  powerful 
hnique.  as  Dr.  Powdermaker  allows 
ropeans  as  well  as  Africans  to  speak 
themselves  in  this  way. 
jhe  selects  her  quotations  to  good  ef- 
t.  She  cites  an  African  union  member 
o  approved  of  calling  medical  workers 
;  on  strike  even  though  a  number  of 
Idren  in  the  hospital  died  as  a  result, 
len  asked  if  he  still  approved  in  the 
ht  of  the  deaths,  he  said.  "Even  if  they 
,  they  are  not  my  relatives."  Dr.  Pow- 
maker  makes  use  of  such  examples  to 
[strate  the  strength  of  traditional  val- 
;  —  in  this  case,  kinship  —  that  persist 
n  among  the  most  apparently  "de- 
Dalized"  Africans. 

rhe  Africans  of  Copper  Town  see 
mselves  as  members  of  the  new  eco- 
nic  order,  but  some  of  them  feel  that 
y  still  belong,  at  least  partly,  to  the  old 
3al  order,  and  they  are  still  subject  to 
ch  of  its  powerful  tradition.  A  differ- 
iation  is  drawn  between  these  "in- 
nsigents"  and  the  "moderns"  who 
in  the  gulf  with  more  ease  and  success 
m  many  Europeans  care  to  acknowl- 
le.  While  the  horizons,  or  "range  of 
ntity,"  of  the  former  remain  limited, 


BEARS 

IN  THE 

FAMILY 

by  Peter  Krott 

Translated  by 
Ruth  Michaelis-J ena 


BEAKJS  ia.'tib&-»&3&Tm 


This  is  the  amusing,  heartwarming 
and  informative  story  of  a  man  who 
reared  two  bear  cubs,  Bumsli  and 
Sepha,  along  with  his  own  family.  It 
is  one  of  the  most  unusual  books 
ever  written  on  the  subject,  for  the 
cubs,  Bumsli  and  Sepha,  accepted 
Peter  Krott  as  their  own  mother. 
Thus,  Krott  had  the  rare  opportuni- 
ty of  observing  bears  in  their  natural 
state.  In  the  beautiful  Trentino  Alps 
of  Italy  the  author,  his  wife  and 
their  two  young  boys  bottle  fed  their 
cubs,  romped  with  them,  taught  them 
to  hunt  for  food,  taught  them  self- 
protection,  and  even  visited  them 
while  they  hibernated.  Having  made 
bears  a  part  of  his  own  family,  Krott 
was  able  to  make  numerous  fasci- 
nating observations  never  revealed 
before.  His  adventures  with  bears  in 
action  are  recorded  in  16  magnificent 
full-color  and  20  black-and-white 
photographs  which  also  reveal  the 
breathtaking  beauty  of  the  Italian 
Alps.  The  photographs  combine  with 
text  to  enable  the  reader  vividly  to 
share  in  the  excitement,  beauty  and 
fascination  of  this  unique  adventure 
with  animals.  $4.95 


"Enthralling"  is  the  word  for  this 
story  of  falconry — one  of  the  oldest 
and  most  dramatic  sports  in  the 
world — by  the  man  who  instructed 
Prince  Phillip  and  Prince  Charles 
in  the  art.  Says  Gavin  Maxwell  of 
this  book:  "...it  is  that  extreme 
rarity,  a  book  by  a  master  craftsman 
about  his  craft."  For  nearly  forty 
years  Phillip  Glasier,  the  last  of 
Britain's  professional  falconers,  has, 
in  spite  of  school,  armed  services, 
and  professional  duties,  found  time 
to  train,  fly,  and  photograph  his  be- 
loved wild  creatures  in  Spain,  the 
Highlands  of  Scotland,  and  London. 
In  this  work,  he  describes  his  earlier 
years  spent  learning  falconry.  He 
tells  of  his  later  successes  —  filming 
falcons  for  MGM's  Knights  of  the 
Round  Table  and  training  falcons 
with  famous  English  actor  James 
Robertson  Justice.  In  hunting  with 
falcons  the  goal  is  not  to  bring  in  the 
most  quarry,  but  to  follow  the  soar- 
ing and  plunging  flights  of  the  bird. 
"The  sight  of  a  falcon,"  he  says, 
"never  fails  to  quicken  my  senses." 
With  this  book,  you  too  will  feel  the 
enthusiasm  which  the  author  ex- 
presses for  this  most  dramatic  and 
exhilarating  sport.  48  pages  of  su- 
perb photographs.  Glossary  of 
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THE  WORLD  OF 
THE  BEAVER 

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remembered  for  his  popular  World  of 
the  White-tailed  Deer,  has  accomplished 
a  portrait  of  the  beaver  unparalleled  in 
the  field  of  nature  writing.  Profusely  il- 
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iHE  WOWLu  oF 
THE  BOBCAT 

By  Joe  Van  Wormer.  Fascinating  facts 
about  the  bobcat,  one  of  the  least  visible 
of  American  mammals,  often  living  close 
to  civilization  but  seldom  seen  by  man. 
In  the  wild,  in  captivity,  and  as  a  pet,  the 
bobcat  makes  an  intriguing  subject  for 
the  nature  enthusiast  and  the  student; 
here  is  a  book  for  everyone  who-  enjoys 
the  best  in  nature  writing.  Profusely  il- 
lustrated with  photographs.  $4.95 


THE  WORLD  OF  THE  WHITE-TAILED 
DEER.  By  Leonard  Lee  Rue,  IIL  "Ab- 
solutely first-rate  text  and  photographs 
.  .  .  highly  recommended."  —  The  New 
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J.  B.  LippinCOtt  Company  .Good  Books  Since  1792 
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the  horizons  of  the  latter  are  constantly 
expanding.  Dr.  Powdermaker  gives  a 
dramatic  picture  of  the  extent  and  nature 
of  this  expansion,  while  pointing  out  that 
at  the  same  time  the  same  process  is  at 
work  among  the  Europeans. 

I  personally  query  Dr.  Powdermaker's 
interpretation  of  witchcraft,  and  her  gen- 
eralization that  it  normally  involves  re- 
venge and  "black  magic"  rather  than 
"white  magic."  It  seems  that  there  is  a 
confusion  here  between  magic,  witch- 
craft, and  sorcery,  which  to  the  Central 
Africans  are  quite  distinct  processes  in- 
volving totally  different  mental  attitudes. 

This  does  not  mean,  however,  that  the 
author's  deductions  are  necessarily  at 
fault  in  this  area;  it  merely  means  that 
I  wish  she  had  been  allowed  enough 
space  to  go  into  greater  detail  and  tell  us 
still  more.  And  that  is  surely  the  mark  of 
any  first-rate  book.  I  recommend  it 
wholeheartedly  to  anyone  interested  in 
human  beings  and  human  problems— a 
"must"  for  those  interested  in  Africa. 

Colin  M.  Turnbull 

The  American  Museum 


John  Clayton:  Pioneer  of  American 
Botany,  by  Edmund  Berkeley  and  Dor- 
othy Smith  Berkeley.  University  of  North 
Carolina,  $6.00;  236  pp.,  illus. 

THE  dainty,  starlike  Spring  Beauty, 
Claytonia  virginica  L.,  one  of  the  ear- 
liest blooming  of  all  eastern  American 
wildflowers.  is  familiar  to  many,  but  few 
know  much  about  John  Clayton  (1686- 
1773).  the  American  botanist  in  whose 
honor  Linnaeus  named  this  delightful 
harbinger  of  spring. 

Clayton,  a  contemporary  of  John  Bart- 
ram,  Mark  Catesby,  Peter  Collinson,  and 
Benjamin  Franklin,  collected  plants  and 
also  described  them  for  the  first  impor- 
tant flora  of  British  North  America, 
Flora  Virginica.  This  work  was  compiled 
by  John  Frederick  Gronovius  and  was 
published  at  Leiden  in  two  parts,  in  1739 
and  1743.  A  second  edition,  revised  and 
enlarged,  was  published  in  1762. 

Strange  as  it  may  seem,  little  informa- 
tion has  ever  been  gathered  together  con- 
cerning the  life  of  this  important  Ameri- 
can botanist.  In  a  letter  of  January  4. 1751, 
to  CadwaUader  Colden.  the  botanist  Peter 
Kalm  wrote:  "There  is  nothing  we  want 
so  much  as  a  Biographica  Botanicorum; 
the  old  were  very  negligent  in  that:  there 
are  many  of  which  we  hardly  know  any 
other  thing  but  the  name;  nay,  if  we  seek 
yet  to  the  history  of  their  life,  we  are 
obliged  to  pick  up  here  and  there  a  word 
in  the  writings  of  their  contemporary's; 
...  I  have  already  got  the  history  of  Mr. 
Bertram's  life;  of  Clayton  I  hope  D.  Gro- 
novius will  give  out  his  vitae  historiam." 

Dr.  and  Mrs.  Berkeley,  some  two  hun- 
dred years  later,  fulfilled  Kalm's  hope 
for  a  life  of  Clayton.  They  searched  dili- 
gently both  American  and  European  ar- 


chives for  authentic  correspondence  anc 
official  documents,  and  have  recon- 
structed  the  life,  interests,  and  contribu- 
tions of  this  early  American.  Their  schol 
arly  work  is  extremely  well  documented 
most  readable,  and  presents  a  wealth  oi 
heretofore  unpublished  material  on  eight 
eenth-century  botany  and  botanists.  j 
Elizabeth  C.  Hali 
N .Y .  Botanical  Garden 


Heredity  and  Human  Life,  by  Hamptor 
L.  Carson.  Columbia  University  Press 
S5.00:  218  pp.,  illus. 

OUR  concept  of  man  and  the  mecha- 
nisms that  have  led  to  his  dilTeren 
tiation  from  other  primates  has  beer 
profoundly  modified  in  recent  years  b) 
a  number  of  events.  There  have  been 
since  the  mid-1920's  a  series  of  funda- 
mental discoveries  of  fossils  relating  tr 
this  story.  The  nature  of  the  gene  and 
its  behavior  has  been  magnificently  clari- 
fied in  a  series  of  brilliant  laboratory 
studies.  And  the  way  genes  interaci 
within  aggregates  of  individuals  has  beer 
illuminated  in  a  whole  new  branch  ol 
genetics  that  is  concerned  with  the  breed 
ing  population  as  the  unit  of  evolution.  1 

Much  of  this  new  knowledge  is  eithei 
inaccessible  to  the  lay  reader  or  is  avail- 
able only  in  specialized  language.  Pro- 
fessor Carson  has  attempted  here  to 
present  this  new  view  in  a  strictly  non- 
technical style,  and.  on  the  whole,  he  has 
succeeded  admirably— if  one  overlooks 
the  inevitable  omissions  that  the  vested 
interests  will  be  quick  to  point  out. 

In  effect,  Carson  has  written  an  evolu- 
tion of  man  and  race  by  beginning  with 
the  gene,  analyzing  the  individual  as  a 
product  of  both  heredity  and  environ: 
ment,  and  applying  both  genetic  and  evol 
lutionary  principles  to  the  specific  story 
of  the  differentiation  of  man  and  his 
diversification  into  races. 

Unfortunately,  Carson  has  oversimpli- 
fied in  several  cases  in  which  the  facts 
are  still  obscure.  The  antiquity  of  Homo 
sapiens,  for  example,  is  hardly  known  as 
precisely  as  he  would  allow.  And  it  is 
still  far  from  certain  that  the  modern 
races  of  man  had  their  beginnings  only 
40.000  years  ago.  There  is  also  a  polemic 
touch  to  the  book  that— although  on  the 
side  of  the  angels— is  bolstered  by  faulty 
logic.  It  does  not  do  the  case  for  anti- 
racism  much  good  to  say  that  the  genetic 
factor  in  intelligence  cannot  be  isolated 
and  identified  because  intelligence  itself 
cannot  be  measured  precisely  with  our 
current  techniques,  and  later  to  ascribe 
group  differences  in  this  attribute  to  cul- 
tural environment  as  though  we  had  the 
means  for  doing  so.  It  may  be  true,  but 
this  is  not  the  way  to  resolve  the  issue. 
Nor  does  it  help  to  minimize  the  adaptive 
nature  of  pigmentation,  for  example,  by 
invoking  genetic  drift.  If  this  were  so. 
one  might  expect  far  more  variation  to 


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SOUTH  AFRICAN 

TOURIST    CDRPaRATION 

NEW  YORK  20,  N.  Y.  -  610  Fifth  Ave. 
BEVERLY  HILLS,  CAL.  -  9465  Wilshire  Blvd. 


NAME  . 
STREET 
CITY... 


ive  been  preserved  in  the  small  isolates 
at  have  survived  to  our  day.  Conti- 
:ntal  uniformity  speaks  for  more  than 
random  effect. 

Despite   these   caveats,  Heredity  and 
uman  Life  has  much  to  offer  any  read- 
who   likes  to  keep   informed  of  the 
■ogress  of  science. 

Harry  L.  Shapiro 
The  American  Museum 

IE  Green  Turtle  and  Man,  by  James 
Parsons.  University  of  Florida  Press, 
100;  126  pp.,  illus. 

IHIS  account  of  Chelonia  mydas,  the 
.  green  turtle,  is  an  invaluable  con- 
ibution  to  our  knowledge  of  the  bio- 
gical  distribution  of  a  highly  exploited 
eature.  Dr.  Parsons  has  traced  the  his- 
ry  of  the  relationship  of  man  and  the 
een  turtle  from  Chelonia' s  use  as  a 
otein-yielding  necessity,  through  its 
;port  as  a  luxury  food  item,  to  the  pres- 
it  methods  for  its  conservation.  The 
;tensive  bibliography  ranges  from  the 
rliest  explorers,  and  includes  Francis 
rake  and  Captain  Cook,  plus  modern 
ithorities  such  as  William  Beebe,  James 
.  Oliver,  and  Archie  Carr— who  wrote 
e  foreword  to  the  book. 
This  is  an  account  of  existing  and  his- 
ric   attitudes   among   various    popula- 


tions regarding  this  reptile.  It  should 
aid  modern  conservationists  toward  an 
effective  program  to  insure  the  continua- 
tion of  the  species— an  important  source 
of  protein,  in  the  form  of  eggs  as  well  as 
meat,  for  many  tropical  peoples.  The 
photographs  throughout  are  of  unusual 
quality  and  of  outstanding  reportorial 
content.  Among  them  is  a  sequence  deal- 
ing with  the  project  undertaken  by  the 
Caribbean  Conservation  Corporation— 
Dr.  Carr  is  the  technical  director— which 
is  seeking  to  restore  Chelonia  mydas  to 
its  former  numbers.  The  author,  pri- 
marily a  geographer,  has  done  an  out- 
standing job  in  making  available  to 
scientists  and  interested  observers  this 
compendium  of  information  on  the  his- 
tory and  distribution  of  the  green  turtle. 
Georg  Zappler 
The  American  Museum 

Animal  Worlds,  by  Marston  Bates. 
Random  House,  $15.00;  316  pp.,  illus. 
The  Wonders  of  Wildlife,  by  Franz 
A.  Roedelberger  and  Vera  I.  Groschoff. 
Viking  Press,  $8.50;  232  pp.,  illus. 

BOTH  of  these  superficially  similar 
books  are  large, "conversation  piece" 
picture  books,  replete  with  beautiful,  re- 
vealing, and  sometimes  dramatic  photo- 
graphs. On  this  ground  both  will  appeal 


to  many  interested  in  natural  history. 

Here,  however,  the  resemblance  ends. 
In  Animal  Worlds,  Professor  Bates  has 
accomplished  the  sort  of  tour  de  force 
we  have  come  to  expect  of  him;  he  has 
condensed  an  enormous  number  of  facts 
and  ideas  while  writing  simply,  inter- 
estingly, and  authoritatively.  Even  with- 
out the  illustrations  (horrible  thought) 
the  text  would  stand  alone  as  a  lucid, 
thorough  description  and  analysis  of  the 
major  environments  and  habitats  of  the 
world  and  of  the  animals  that  inhabit 
them.  Without  seeming  pedantic  to  the 
casual  reader,  it  could  ser\'e  as  a  text  of 
the  fundamentals  of  animal  ecology. 

Animal  W  orlds  begins  with  a  chapter 
on  the  general  conditions  of  animal  life, 
and  then  describes  and  discusses  spe- 
cific animal  environments  in  the  major 
parts  of  the  seas,  the  wetlands,  and  the 
fresh  waters.  The  chief  environmental 
divisions  of  the  land  are  similarly  dis- 
cussed and  range  from  tundra,  grass- 
lands, and  deserts,  to  forests,  mountains, 
and  islands.  A  most  timely  series  of  con- 
cluding chapters  traces  something  of  the 
natural  history  of  evolving  man,  the  ef- 
fect of  modern  man  in  the  areas  where 
he  is  changing  the  environments  with 
terrifying  acceleration,  and  the  ways  in 
which  some  animals  have  fitted  into  the 
conditions  of  even  our  greatest   super- 


cities.  Throughout  the  book  the  reader 
is  led  into  a  genuine  understanding  of 
the  manner  in  which  animals  of  each 
major  type  of  habitat  have  evolved  their 
many  types  of  interrelationships,  and  of 
how  closely  tied  to  the  physical  forces  of 
their  environment  they  are. 

I  am  sorry  to  note  that  the  author  has 
ignored  the  dangerous  effects  of  man's 
pollution  of  much  of  the  world  with 
chemicals  such  as  insecticides  and  de- 
tergents. This  is  a  major  factor  that  alters 
many  animals"  lives.  Perhaps  the  manu- 
script antedated  Silent  Spring. 

The  illustrations  and  their  reproduc- 


tion are  extremely  good.  In  a  few  in- 
stances there  is  an  unfortunate  repetition 
of  "cute"  species,  such  as  the  raccoon 
and  the  white-footed  mouse.  Those  all- 
important  Arctic  lemmings  are  not 
shown,  and  the  snowshoe  "rabbit"  is 
erroneously  illustrated  among  tundra 
animals.  However,  the  special  virtue  of 
the  photographs  is  the  way  in  which 
many  of  them,  while  effectively  portray- 
ing the  animals,  also  most  revealingly 
show  the  natural  environments.  Very  few 
of  the  photographs  look  like  posed  pic- 
tures of  zoo  animals. 

In  contrast.  The  IFonders  of  Wildlife 


Now.anAlrican  safari 


all-inclusive  $1419 


BOAC  has  done  it  again.  They've  come 
up  with  a  17  day  African  Safari  that 
brings  the  cost  of  an  African  adventure 
down  to  an  incredibly  low  $1419.  This 
price  includes  everything:  economy 
class  round-trip  air  fare  by  Rolls-Royce 
707  (from  N.  Y.  to  London  to  Nairobi 
and  back),  hotels,  meals  and  all  transfers. 
Safari  means  "journey,"  not  "hunt." 
Bring  a  camera,  not  a  gun.  You'll  want 
to  shoot  fabulous  Nairobi  National  Park, 
Masai  tribesmen,  Karamojong.  Be  awed 
by  the  Ngorongoro  Crater.  Marvel  at 
Murchison  and  hundreds  of  fascinating 
sights  you  couldn't  see  anywhere  in  the 
world  but  Africa. 


BRITISH  OVERSEAS  AIRWAYS  CORPORATION 
Dept.  NH-11 

S30  Fifth  Avenue,  New  York  36,  MU  7-1600 
Please  send  me  details  on  the  African  Safari 
and  the  Lands  of  the  Bible  tour. 


NAME- 
STREET. 
CITY 


was  obviously  written  to  go  between  a  ■ 
series  of  photographs  of  European  ani- 
mals. The  sequence  is  confusing  and  thej 
text,  although  informative  and  interest-  • 
ing  enough,  lacks  plan  or  continuity.  Ai 
number  of  fundamental  errors,  such  as;' 
calling  first  the  pterodactyls  and  then.? 
the  lizards  "ancestors"'  of  the  birds,  leads  i 
one  to  suspect  the  depth  of  the  authors'  j 
knowledge.  Most  of  the  photographs  are  I 
excellent,  and  some  are  superb;  butj 
others  are  patently  posed,  and  some  loob' 
reteuched.  Although  there  are  some  very^ 
timely  and  valuable  words  about  theS 
great  need  for  conservation,  I  can  see] 
little  use  for  the  book  in  this  country 
when  equally  attractive  ones  dealings 
with  our  own  plants  and  animals  are  sol 
readily  available.  J 

Alexander  B.  Klots 
The  American  Museujm 

Sea  Birds,  by  Charles  Vaucher.  DufouT- 
Editions,  $16.50;  254  pp.,  illus.  ': 

THIS  book,  despite  its  comprehensive^ 
title,  concerns  only  twenty-odd  sea.) 
birds  and  gulls,  a  couple  of  ducks,  and  a) 
few  shore  birds— all  photographed  on  the' 
islands  and  coasts  of  the  British  Isles 
and  the  Baltic  Sea.  A  short  text  accom- 
panies the  photographs,  and  a  section  is: 
included  that  gives  descriptions  of  the' 
birds  concerned,  with  notes  on  theiis 
breeding  and  an  outline  of  their  dis-^ 
tribution.  This  section  is  brief,  and  the^ 
text,  although  well  written,  is  sketchy,! 

The  great  majority  of  photographs  arei 
outstanding  and  many  are  excellent,  es-l 
pecially  those  of  the  birds  taken  in  flight.] 
The  latter  certainly  include  some  of  the- 
most  remarkable  ever  taken.  The  series'! 
on  the  gannet  is  superb  and  probably' 
unmatched,  and  some  of  the  birds  photo-; 
graphed  on  land,  such  as  the  fulmar  andj 
shag,  are  equally  remarkable.  There  are 
255  photographs,  fifteen  in  color  (and.  Ij 
may  add.  not  up  to  the  standard  of  the 
black  and  white) .  The  author  has  wisely | 
added  some  very  beautiful  seascapes; 
evoking  different  moods,  and  some  strik-] 
ing  scenes  of  the  coast  of  Brittany. 

This  book  is  not  comprehensive  ori 
"scientific,"  but  it  does  not  pretend  to; 
be.  It  is  really  aimed  at  those  who  are 
thrilled  by  the  sea  and  its  incomparablel 
birds,  and  in  this  it  is  perfectly  success-' 
ful.  A  conscientious  reviewer  should! 
note,  however,  that  the  present  edition,] 
prepared  in  England,  is  not  quite  up| 
to  the  standard  of  the  original  edition,; 
published  in  Switzerland  in  1958.  The: 
format  of  the  latter  was  a  little  bigger,; 
the  paper  was  of  superior  quality,  andj 
the  reproduction  of  most  of  the  photo-j 
graphs  was  better,  but  the  quality  of  this) 
present  edition  is  still  very  high.  , 

Charles  Vaurie; 
The  American  Museum/. 


lO 


AFRICA  AND  AFRICANS 

Paul  Bohannan.  From  earliest  prehis- 
■y  to  the  volatile  present,  a  leading  an- 
opologist  explores  African  art,  family 
:,  religion  and  economy,  and  sheds  new 
ht  on  African  nationalism  and  neutrality. 
Hardbound,  $4.50;  paperback,  $1.25 


PHOTOGRAPHING  NATURE 

David  Linton;  illustrated  with  50  photo- 
iphs  and  drawings.  Practical  techniques 
d  basic  advice  by  the  author  of  Natural 
story's  column,  "Nature  and  the  Cam- 
i."  Paperback,  $1.95 


4)  EXPLORATION  OF  THE  MOON 

by  Franklyn  M.  Branley;  illustrated  with 
22  photographs  and  drawings.  A  Hayden 
Planetarium  astronomer  sums  up  man's 
lunar  observation  to  date  and  looks  to  a 
future  lunar  colony. 

Hardbound,  $3.50;  paperback,  95c^ 


5)  BIOLOGY  OF  BIRDS 

by  Wesley  E.  Lanyon;  illustrated  with  64 
drawings.  A  vivid  introduction  to  ornithol- 
ogy describing  birds'  evolution,  flight  de- 
sign, classification,  migration,  and  varied 
life  cycles. 

Hardbound,  $3.95;  paperback,  $1.25 


INVITATION  TO  ANTHROPOLOGY       6)  INDIANS  OF  THE  PLAINS 


Douglas  L.  Oliver.  A  lucid  presentation 
fundamental  ideas  and  methods,  with 
amples  ranging  from  the  Dobu  Islanders 
a  fashionable  American  bride. 

Paperback,  95(5 


by  Robert  H.  Lowie;  illustrated  with  80 
photographs  and  line  drawings.  The  classic 
study  of  the  'Buffalo  Plains'  tribes  —  in- 
cluding the  Cheyenne,  Sioux,  Crow,  and 
Blackfoot.  Paperback,  $1.95 


7)  WASP  FARM 

by  Howard  Ensign  Evans:  illustrated  with 
41  photographs  and  drawings.  An  eminent 
entomologist's  record  of  thousands  of  hours 
observing  the  ways  of  wasps.  "This  is  na- 
ture writing  of  the  highest  integrity."— N.y. 
Times  Book  Review.  "Firsthand  authority 
...  a  joy  to  read  .  .  .  few  recent  books  on 
natural  history  are  likely  to  give  more 
pleasure."— /4«t/M6o/z  Magazine 

Hardbound  only,  $3.95 

8)  A  SHORT  HISTORY  OF  BIOLOGY 

by  Isaac  Asimov.  The  science  of  life,  from 
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Animals,  symbolic  of  the  Egyptian  tribes, 
hack  at  forts.  Slate  dates  ca.  3000  B.C. 


By 

Alan  R. 
schulman 


Siege 
Warfare  in 
Pharaonic  Egypt 


V  LLusioNS  TO  SIEGE  WARFARE  in  the  written  and  pic- 

Xtorial  records  of  Pharaonic  Egypt  are  compara- 
'ely  rare,  and  yet  siege  operations  must  have  been 
rried  on  extensively  during  the  approximately  three 
ousand  years  that  the  rule  of  the  Pharaohs  flourished 

the  land  of  the  Nile.  Siege  warfare,  which  entailed 
:hniques  and  tactics  of  attack  against,  and  defense  of, 
ed  fortifications,  was  radically  different  from  the  mode 

fighting  employed  by  troops  campaigning  against 
her  troops  in  the  open  field.  In  the  latter  case,  the 
o  opposing  forces  met  head  on  in  battle,  and  the  out- 
me  hinged  on  many  factors,  such  as  superior  numbers, 
lining,  discipHne,  tactics,  physical  stamina,  courage, 

occasionally,  the  introduction  of  some  new  weapon 

perhaps  a  new  mode  of  warfare. 
In  an  attack  against  a  fortified  area,  however,  the  de- 
tiding  force  had  a  decided  initial  advantage.  The  wide- 
read  custom,  in  antiquity,  of  situating  strongholds  on 
e  highest  ground  available  compelled  an  attacking 
emy  force  to  fight  continuously  uphill.  Thus  the  at- 
ckers  were  exposed  to  the  deadly  missile  fire  of  the 
;fenders,  who  were  protected  from  retaliation  in  kind 
'  walls  and  ramparts.  Weh-constructed  and  well-pro- 
sioned  fortifications — garrisoned  by  determined,  dis- 
plined,  and  brave  soldiers — were,  in  the  millenniums 
;fore  the  invention  of  explosives,  virtually  impregnable 


cene  from  Khaemhesy's  tomb,  ca.  2500  B.C., 
first-known  depiction  of  the  siege  ladder. 


to  ordinary  methods  of  attack.  Consequently,  new  mili- 
tary doctrines  and  new  weapons  of  war  had  to  be  devised 
for  their  reduction.  It  was  probably  for  this  reason  that 
siege  warfare  and  military  engineering  were  born. 

An  operation  against  a  fortified  area,  whether  a  single 
small  fortress  or  a  large,  walled  city,  made  use  of  two 
seemingly  opposed  tactics:  on  the  one  hand,  the  swift, 
direct  assault;  on  the  other,  the  slow,  more  formal  siege 
that  isolated  the  defending  garrison  until  it  was  ulti- 
mately starved  into  submission.  Although  either  tactic 
could  be  used  independently,  it  was  customary  to  com- 
bine them  during  a  protracted  siege. 

EVIDENCE  of  this  mode  of  warfare  in  Egypt  prior  to 
the  start  of  the  New  Kingdom  {ca.  1585  B.C.)  con- 
sists, for  all  practical  purposes,  only  of  pictures  showing 
the  direct  assault.  The  earliest  of  these  is  preserved  on 
a  ceremonial  slate  palette  of  the  Archaic  Period  (ca. 
3000  B.C.),  now  in  the  Egyptian  Museum  in  Cairo.  On 
it  the  king  is  depicted  in  a  highly  symbolic  manner  as 
Horus,  the  falcon-god,  hacking  away  with  a  mattock  at 
the  bastion  of  a  walled  city  that  is  seen  from  above  in 
plan  view.  This  motif  is  repeated  six  more  times  on  the 
palette,  each  time  with  the  figure  of  the  falcon  replaced 
by  a  different  heraldic  emblem.  These  emblems  may  be 
different  personifications  of  the  king  or  of  his  tribal 
allies.  As  each  of  the  walled  fortifications  shown  on  the 
ceremonial  slate  palette  encloses  signs  that  are  ap- 
parently the  names  of  the  towns,  we  may  consider  this 
scene  to  be  the  recorded  summary  of  the  actual  con- 

13 


quests  of  an  unknown  early  dynastic  ruler  of  Egypt. 

At  Sakkara,  in  the  tomb  of  Khaemhesy,  a  royal  car- 
penter and  overseer  of  building  in  the  palace  who  lived 
during  the  Fifth  Dynasty  {ca.  2560 — 2425  B.C.) ,  a  paint- 
ing vividly  portrays  the  assault  of  a  walled  fortification. 
At  the  top  of  the  scene,  an  Egyptian  soldier  uses  a  mat- 
tock to  attack  a  wall  in  a  manner  similar  to  that  of  the 
mattock  wielders  depicted  on  the  Archaic  palette  of 
some  five  hundred  years  earlier.  When  I  remember  the 
ease  with  which  workmen,  using  only  this  simple  agri- 
cultural implement,  tore  down  the  walls  of  a  mudbrick 
structure  during  the  1962  Pennsylvania-Yale  exca- 
vation at  Arminna  in  Egyptian  Nubia,  I  can  easily 
understand  how  effective  the  mattock  must  have  been 
as  a  primitive  siege  weapon.  The  mudbrick  with  which 
the  ancients  built  their  fortifications  would  have  pre- 
sented no  obstacle  to  a  number  of  determined  and  en- 
ergetic men  so  armed.  However,  to  assault  a  wall  in  this 
manner  would  have  left  the  attackers  highly  vulnerable 
to  the  defenders'  fire,  and  undoubtedly  would  have  re- 


R. 


SITES  OF 
EGYPTIAN  SIEGES 


•  AWRIS 

LOWER  EGYPT 

K^,        sakkara;  MEMPHIS 
HERAKLEOPOLIS*   C^ 

MIDDLE  EGYPT 

•  BENl  HASAN 
HERMOPOLIS* 


ABYDOS* 

THEBES 
r  I  lynn  ••  I^ARNAK 

UPPER  EGYPT  .ELKAS 


^am's  crew,  middle  right,  is  protected  by  a  shed, 
a  Middle  Kingdom  tactical  innovation. 


suited  in  heavy  casualties.  During  the  Metropolita 
Museum  of  Art's  excavations  at  Thebes  in  the  fin 
quarter  of  this  century,  a  number  of  mummified  bodif 
of  soldiers  of  one  of  the  Eleventh  Dynasty  king: 
Nebhepetre-Mentuhotep  (ca.  2060 — 2010  b.c),  wei 
discovered.  These  all  bore  arrow  wounds,  the  angles  ( 
which  showed  that  the  arrows  had  entered  from  abovi 
this  suggests  that  the  arrows  had  been  fired  from  a  wa 
at  men  attacking  on  the  ground  below.  Obviously,  lei 
costly  assault  tactics  had  to  be  developed. 


THERE  are  three  ways  to  penetrate  hostile  walls:  b 
going  through  them  (breaching);  by  going  ovt 
them  (scaling);  by  going  under  them  (tunneling,  < 
sapping).  The  Khaemhesy  painting  shows  the  secon 
of  these  tactics  in  use:  a  scaling  ladder  with  whee 
affixed  to  its  lower  end  to  facilitate  movement  has  bee 
placed  against  the  wall;  a  file  of  soldiers  armed  wit 
copper  or  bronze  battle-axes  are  shown  swarming  u] 
brandishing  weapons  against  the  defenders  as  they  reac 
the  top  of  the  wall.  At  the  base  of  the  ladder  are  tw 
more  soldiers  armed  with  long  picks.  They  may  t 
digging  at  the  base  of  the  wall,  but  some  scholars  inte 
pret  the  picks  as  supports  that  are  held  before  and  behin 
the  base  of  the  ladder  to  prevent  it  from  shifting  whij 
it  is  being  climbed.  ; 

The  siege  ladder  also  figures  prominently  in  a  secon 
painting  from  the  Old  Kingdom,  made  about  a  centur 
later  for  the  tomb  of  Iny  at  Deshasheh.  Here  the  ladde 
is  shown  without  wheels,  and  a  soldier  holds  it  at  i; 
base  as  if  to  steady  it  for  his  fellows  who  have  alread 
ascended  or  as  if  he  himself  is  about  to  climb  up.  A 
another  part  of  the  wall  an  officer,  leaning  on  a  staff  an 
with  a  battle-ax  tucked  in  his  girdle,  supervises  tw 
soldiers  who  seem  to  be  using  two  pointed  crowbars  t 
weaken  a  wall,  or  perhaps  a  gateway.  It  is  also  possihl 
that  this  scene  illustrates  a  form  of  sapping,  the  thir 
method  of  penetrating  a  wall.  Since  so  much  of  the  seen 
is  unpreserved,  it  is  impossible  to  determine  if,  as  i 
the  Khaemhesy  painting,  a  soldier  was  depicted  elss 
where  in  the  composition  using  a  mattock  to  hack  dow 
the  wall.  It  is  likely  that  this  was  the  case,  as  the  tacti 
is  alluded  to  in  a  passage  of  the  tomb-biography  of 
contemporary  noble,  Uni,  who  was  buried  at  Abydos 


14 


"This  army  returned  in  safety,  after  it  had  hacked 
up  the  land  of  the  Sand-Dwellers  .  .  .  after  it  had 
destroyed  the  land  of  the  Sand-Dwellers  .  .  .  after  it 
had  demolished  its  fortresses   .   .   .  after  it  had 
chopped  down  its  orchards  and  vineyards." 
If  we  are  to  credit  certain  texts  literally,  siege  assault 
tics  were  described  in  literature  from  the  onset  of  the 
w  Kingdom  (after  1585  B.C.)-  I  will  move  on  to  this 
terial  after  discussing  some  pictorial  evidence  from 

Middle  Kingdom. 

The  tombs  of  some  of  the  nobles  of  the  Middle  King- 
n  (ca.  2130 — 1785  B.C.)  at  Beni  Hasan  in  Upper 
ypt  provided  the  only  records  of  siege  warfare  that 

preserved  from  the  Middle  Kingdom.  These  are  five 
iresentations  of  assaults  on  fortresses,  but  all  are 
5ies  of  a  single,  conventional  scene;  they  differ  only 
the  most  trivial  details,  so  that  a  description  of  one 
luld  suffice.  In  this  example,  for  the  first  time  the 
tress  under  attack  is  shown  in  a  side  view.  It  domi- 
es  the  center  of  the  composition.  At  one  corner  of  the 
tress  is  a  gate,  on  each  side  of  which  is  a  clearly 
ineated,  sloping  glacis.  A  series  of  crenelated  bastions 
turrets  line  the  summit  of  the  wall.  These  are  occupied 

the  defending  archers.  The  attackers  are  shown  in 
)  registers  on  each  side  of  the  stronghold.  Those 
sest  to  the  wall  are  archers  who  keep  up  a  barrage  of 
ow  fire  against  the  defenders.  Behind  the  archers 
nd  other  soldiers  armed  with  shields,  axes,  and  thrust- 


ing-spears,  as  well  as  reserve  supplies  of  arrows.  Near 
the  gate  several  soldiers,  sheltered  by  a  mantelet  (a 
covered  shed),  manipulate  a  long  pole — obviously  a 
battering-ram — against  the  gate  (Natural  History, 
August-September,  1963).  It  is  also  possible  that  they 
were  working  it  against  the  weakest  portion  of  the  wall, 
where  the  wall  forms  an  angle  with  the  glacis.  Standing 
or  kneeling  archers  are  always  shown  before  or  behind 
the  ram,  where  they  undoubtedly  were  stationed  to  give 
the  ram  and  its  crew  covering  fire.  Neither  scaling  ladders 
nor  individual  sappers  appear  at  the  base  of  the  wall, 
perhaps  because  the  artist  who  composed  the  scene 
wished  to  emphasize  the  new  weapon,  the  mantelet- 
covered  battering-ram. 

NOT  until  the  beginning  of  the  New  Kingdom  do 
we  begin,  finally,  to  find  verbal  descriptions  of 
siege  warfare.  The  first  references  to  formal  investments 
of  cities  are  noted  in  the  tomb-biography  of  an  Egyptian 
soldier  who  participated  in  the  campaigns.  He  was  a 
native  of  El-Kab,  in  Upper  Egypt,  named  Ahmose,  the 
son  of  Ebana,  and  he  served  in  the  army  of  King  Neb- 
pehty-Re  Ahmose  I,  the  founder  of  the  Eighteenth 
Dynasty  (ca.  1585 — 1308  B.C.).  It  was  Ahmose  I  who 
continued  the  war  of  liberation  against  Egypt's  Asiatic 
overlords,  the  Hyksos,  and  brought  the  struggle  to  a 


In  painting  in  tomb  of  Iny,  soldiers,  under  ladder, 
sap  a  wall  by  using  crowbars. 


15 


victorious  conclusion  when  he  took  the  enemy  capital 
of  Avaris  in  the  delta,  then  reduced  Sharuhen,  the  princi- 
pal Hyksos  stronghold  and  advance  base  in  northern 
Sinai.  Of  the  siege  and  fall  of  Avaris,  the  tomb-biography 
of  Ahmose,  the  son  of  Ebana,  records: 

"I  followed  the  sovereign  on  my  feet  when  he 
advanced  on  his  chariot.  When  the  city  of  Avaris 
was  besieged,  then  I  was  valorous  on  foot  in  the 
presence  of  his  majesty  and  was  transferred  to  the 
ship  'Manifest  in  Memphis.'  Then  there  was  fight- 
ing in  the  Padjeku-canal  of  Avaris.  .  .  .  Then  fight- 
ing was  renewed  in  this  place.  .  .  .  Then  there  was 
fighting  in  the  Egypt  south  of  this  city  ....  Then 
this  city  was  taken." 

Ahmose's    account    of    the    siege    and    capture    of 
Sharuhen  is  even  more  matter  of  fact; 

"Then  Sharuhen  was  besieged  for  three  years.  Then 
his  majesty  took  it." 

THERE  are  no  further  detailed  records  of  sieges  until 
the  middle  of  the  Eighteenth  Dynasty,  during  the 
reign  of  the  great  warrior-king,  Menkheperre-Thutmose 
III,  who  made  no  fewer  than  seventeen  expeditions  into 
west  Asia  after  he  took  the  throne  of  Egypt.  It  was  during 
his  first  invasion  of  Palestine  {ca.  1470  B.C.)  that  he 
smashed  a  powerful  Syro-Palestinian  coalition  in  open 
battle  on  the  Plain  of  Esdralon.  The  survivors  fled  into 
nearby  Megiddo,  the  biblical  Armageddon,  and  took 
refuge  there,  but  the  immediate  capture  of  the  city  was 
prevented  by  the  eagerness  of  the  Egyptian  army  to 
plunder  the  deserted  enemy  camp  that  lay  between  it  and 
Megiddo.  This  lost  opportunity  infuriated  the  king,  who 
was  well  aware  that: 


".  .  .  every  chief  of  every  northern  country  which 

had  revolted  was  within  it,  so  that  the  capture  of 

Megiddo  was  the  capture  of  a  thousand  cities  . . . ." 

Restoring  the  discipline  of  his  army,  the  king  laic 

siege  to  the  city.  The  importance  of  this  operation  ii 

emphasized  by  the  fact  that  six  separate  accounts  of  it 

all  of  them  highly  fragmentary  today,  are  preserved.  Th( 

fullest  is  that  given  in  the  annals  of  the  king  that  an 

carved  on  a  wall  in  the  great  temple  of  Amun — thi 

paramount   god  of   Egypt   in   the   New   Kingdom — a 

Karnak  in  Thebes.  It  is,  unhappily,  rather  badly  muti 

lated,  but  enough  remains  to  give  a  very  lucid  picture  o 

the    earliest    fully    documented    siege    attested    in    ai 

Egyptian  record.  The  beginning  of  the  text  is  now  lost 

but  it  certainly  must  have  contained  a  description  of  th( 

king's  instructions  to  his  army  on  how  to  begin  the  siege 

Picking  up  with  the  siege  in  progress,  the  preserved  nar 

rative  reads:  { 

"[The  officers  of]  the  infantry  [were  instructed]    ] 

to  command  [their  soldiers,  and  to  assign]  every  j 

[man]  his  place.   They  invested   [this]  city,  sur-  j 

rounding  it  with  a  ditch  and  enclosing  it  with  the  j 

fresh  timbers  of  all  their  pleasant  trees,  while  his  j 

majesty  himself  was  upon  a  fortification  east  of  i 

this  city,  watching  [over  it  by  night  as  well  as  by 

day]." 

A  long  lacuna  in  the  text  follows,  ending  with  a  refei 

ence  to  either  the  city  or  a  siegework:  j 

".  .  .  it  was  enclosed  with  a  thick  wall  .  .  .  with  its    i 

thick  wall,  and  it  was  named  'Menkheperre,  the    ] 

Surrounder  of  Asiatics.'  People  were  stationed  to 


in  Luxor  temple  relief,  Ramesses  II 

is  idealized  as  vanquisher  of  the  city  of  Dapur. 


ffi' 


watch  over  [this]  enclosure  of  his  majesty,  and 
were  instructed  'Be  steady  of  heart!  Be  [very] 
watchful!'  Then  his  majesty.  .  .  .  [Here  a  lengthy 
portion  of  the  text  is  lost  and  what  follows  is  too 
fragmentary  for  translation  here.]" 

The  length  and  inevitable  outcome  of  the  siege  are 
)ted  on  a  stela  that  Thutmose  erected  at  the  temple  of 
mun  at  Gebel  Barkal  in  the  Sudan: 

"My  majesty  imprisoned  them  [the  enemy  princes] 
for  a  period  of  seven  months  before  they  came  out 
into  the  open,  pleading  to  my  majesty  and  saying 
'Grant  us  thy  breath,  O  our  lord!  [i.e.,  show  mercy 
to  us].'  " 

The  siege  operations  that  Thutmose  carried  on 
gainst  another  enemy  city,  Kadesh,  are  briefly  noted 

the  annals  at  Karnak  and  again  in  the  Theban  tomb- 
ography  of  one  of  the  veterans  of  the  campaigns,  a 
;rtain  Amenemheb. 

^ADESH  was  attacked  twice,  the  Karnak  annals  re- 
^^  veal,  in  the  course  of  seventeen  invasions  that  the 
ng  made  into  Palestine-Syria.  During  the  sixth  Pales- 
lian  expedition  Thutmose  is  said,  in  the  annals,  to  have 
irrived  at  Kadesh,  attacked  it,  chopped  down  its  groves, 
id  ripped  up  its  grain."  During  the  seventeenth  and  final 
impaign  he  is  said  to  have  "arrived  at  the  region  of 
adesh  and  taken  three  cities  there."  Amenemheb's 
iography  also  contains  two  terse  references  to  this: 

"Again  I  saw  his  [the  king's]  bravery  while  I  was 
in  his  entourage:  when  he  took  [the  city  of] 
Kadesh,  I  was  not  absent  from  the  place  where  he 
was.  .  .  .  Then  his  majesty  sent  every  valiant  man 
of  his  army  forth  to  breach  the  new  wall  which 
had  been  made  for  Kadesh.  I  am  the  one  who 
breached  it,  being  the  foremost  of  every  valiant 
man." 

The  policy  of  the  Egyptians  —  chopping  down  the 
lemy's  orchards  and  ripping  out  their  planted  grain — 
lentioned  in  connection  with  the  fall  of  Kadesh,  was 

common  feature  of  their  doctrine  of  siege  warfare, 
nd  is  noted  in  a  number  of  texts  and  pictures.  The  ob- 
Lous  reason  for  such  plunder  is  that  it  permitted  the 
ttacking  Egyptians  to  live  off  the  land  they  were  in- 
ading  and  to  utilize  the  wood  of  the  enemy's  forests 
tid  orchards  for  their  own  construction,  including  the 
taking  of  siege  equipment.  By  this  same  destructive 
:tion,  the  enemy  was  denied  the  use  of  these  resources. 
;  is  possible  that  the  strategy  was  even  more  far-reach- 
ig.  The  Egyptians  themselves  may  not  have  had  any 
itention  of  permanently  garrisoning  the  cities  once  they 
ere  captured.  Instead  they  may  have  hoped  to  make 
lem  untenable  for  reoccupation  by  the  enemy  when 
i'entually  the  conquering  forces  withdrew. 

The  only  other  possible  allusion  to  a  siege  in  the 
ighteenth  Dynasty  sources  known  to  me  forms  the 
ackground  of  the  hterary  narrative  of  the  taking  of 
3ppa  by  Djehuty,  a  general  of  Thutmose  III.  The  town 
;11  to  a  proto-"Trojan  Horse"  stratagem,  whereby  an 
gyptian  commando  force  was  sent  into  the  city,  con- 
;aled  in  large  wicker  hampers,  which  ostensibly  con- 
lined  gifts  for  the  Joppan  prince.  Since  no  details  of 
le  actual  siege  are  otherwise  given,  the  taking  of  the 


V^onventional  view  of  king,  awesome, 

the  sole  author  of  victory,  is  from  temple  of  Luxor. 


city  of  Joppa  will  be  excluded  from  further  discussion. 

There  are  no  real  written  accounts  of  sieges  per  se 
stemming  from  the  Ramesside  period  (ca.  1308 — 1090 
B.C.),  but  the  conquest  of  hostile  cities  frequently  forms 
the  motif  of  the  magnificent  battle  rehefs  that  are  pre- 
served on  the  walls  of  the  Ramesside  temples  at  Thebes 
and  elsewhere.  The  conquest  theme  is  usually  treated 
in  a  highly  stereotyped  manner  designed  to  magnify 
and  emphasize  the  king's  prowess  as  a  conquering  god; 
although  his  infantry  and  chariotry  sometimes  trail  be- 
hind him  to  watch  the  attack,  they  offer  no  assistance. 
Indeed,  none  is  necessary,  for  the  king's  mere  presence 
is  presumed  sufficient  to  cause  the  gateways  of  the  be- 
leaguered fortresses  to  crumble  and  to  terrify  the  craven 
enemy  into  surrender.  There  are  occasional  departures, 
however,  from  idealized  representations,  and  these  are 
highly  instructive. 

The  fall  of  a  "city  which  his  majesty  carried  in  the 
land  of  Hatti,  Dapur,"  is  pictured  in  a  relief  of  Ramesses 
II  (ca.  1290 — 1224  B.C.)  in  the  temple  of  Luxor  on  the 
east  bank  of  the  Nile  at  Thebes.  It  shows  the  king  on 
foot  "fighting  the  city  of  the  enemy  of  Hatti,  in  front  of 
his  infantry  and  his  chariotry."  The  king  is  accompanied 
by  Egyptian  soldiers  and  foreign  auxiliaries,  but  the  im- 
pression conveyed  is  that  it  is  he,  and  he  alone,  who  is 
responsible  for  the  Hittite  city's  fall.  But  a  different 
version  of  this  same  incident  appears  in  a  relief  found 
in  the  king's  mortuary  temple  on  the  west  bank  of  the 
river  at  Thebes — the  Ramesseum.  There,  the  same  types 
of  siege  equipment  that  are  shown  in  the  Sakkara, 
Deshasheh,  and  Beni  Hasan  tomb  paintings  of  the  Old 
and  Middle  Kingdoms  have  been  brought  into  action 
against  Dapur.  The  Hitthe  city  is  a  large,  well-defended 
stronghold,  enclosed  by  a  complex  of  girdle-walls  and 
situated  high  on  a  sloping  glacis.  At  the  base  of  this 
glacis,  half-obscured  by  the  figures  of  four  princes,  are 
four  mantelets  of  a  shape  that  differs  slightly  from  those 
of  the  Eleventh  Dynasty.  Beneath  the  protection  of  the 
mantelets,  battering-rams  are  being  worked  against  the 
wall.  A  covering  party  of  infantrymen  shields  this  opera- 
tion from  a  possible  Hittite  attack,  while  assault  troops 
have  mounted  a  wheelless  scaling  ladder  and  have  climbed 
to  the  top  of  the  wall.  In  the  text  accompanying  this 

17 


tm'-'^]> 


ibyrian  city,  pictured  in  Luxor  temple, 

is  reduced  to  desolation  by  Egyptian  armies. 

scene,  Ramesses  is  described  as  "one  who  hurls  down 
their  possessions,  who  makes  all  of  their  places  into 
desolate  mounds." 

At  Karnak,  still  another  relief  of  this  king  depicts  the 
fall  of  "a  wretched  city  which  his  majesty  carried,  for 
it  was  evil,  Askalon."  Here,  too,  the  use  of  siege  equip- 
ment is  shown:  at  one  side  of  the  fortification  a  scaling 
ladder  has  been  raised  up  to  the  wall  and  an  assaulting 
foot  soldier  has  mounted  it;  at  the  opposite  side  of  the 
fort  another  soldier,  armed  with  a  battle-ax,  chops  at 
the  left  gate  of  the  stronghold's  two  portals;  at  the  base 
of  the  glacis  an  attacking  force  defiantly  brandishes 
weapons  against  the  embattled  town. 

To  portray  an  attack  against  a  gate  by  an  ax-wielding 
soldier  might  have  been  the  intent  of  the  creator  of  the 
relief  of  Ramesses  II  in  the  Nubian  temple  of  Beit  el- 
Wali.  The  scene  is  dominated  by  the  conventional  view 
of  the  king,  on  foot,  charging  against  the  fortified  city, 
but  beside  and  slightly  in  front  of  him  is  the  figure  of  a 
prince,  waving  an  ax  and  charging  toward  the  fort.  The 
fall  of  the  city  of  "Mutir  which  the  mighty  sword  of  his 
majesty  took,"  pictured  in  reliefs  of  Ramesses  II  at  the 
Luxor  temple  and  at  the  Karnak  temple,  show  that  the 
city  was  taken  after  the  gate  had  been  breached.  In  the 
Luxor  scene,  the  king  charges  the  city  from  his  chariot. 
The  panic-stricken  enemy  flee  before  him,  driving  their 
flocks  into  the  shelter  of  the  town.  No  siege  equipment 
at  all  is  visible,  and  yet  Egyptian  soldiers  have  gained 
the  walls,  for  one  stands  on  the  battlements,  brandish- 
ing a  bow  and  stabbing  an  enemy,  while  a  second  drags 
a  struggling  foe  through  a  window.  The  Karnak  scene 
shows  that  the  gates  of  the  town  have  been  battered  in. 

EGYPTIAN  soldiers  are  also  pictured  in  a  relief  of 
Ramesses  III  (1192 — 1160  b.c.)  from  his  mortu- 
ary temple  at  Medinet  Habu,  on  the  west  bank  of  Thebes. 
Without  the  visible  presence  of  any  siege  weapons,  the 
soldiers  have  gained  the  wall  of  a  Hittite  town.  One  of 
the  gateways  of  the  fort  has  been  smashed  open,  so  that 
we  may  assume  that  the  Egyptians  effected  their  pene- 
tration into  the  city  by  breaching  the  gate.  This  is  not 
the  case  with  the  last  of  the  pictorial  accounts  of  the 
fall  of  a  city,  also  from  a  relief  of  Ramesses  III  at  Medi- 
net Habu.  Here  the  Syrian  town  of  Tunip  has  been  as- 
saulted by  the  Egyptians.  Scaling  ladders  have  been 
placed  at  each  side  of  the  gate  and  have  been  mounted 


by  Egyptian  assault  troops.  Other  Egyptians  have  already 
gained  the  wall  and  are  systematically  clearing  it  of  de- 
fenders. An  Egyptian  trumpeter  stands  on  a  battlement 
and  gives  a  signal  while  another  soldier  stands  behind  him  j 
and    holds    a    standard    aloft.    Meanwhile,    a   squad   of  j 
soldiers  is  smashing  the  gate  below  with  battle-axes.  Out- ; 
side  of  the  fortress,  to  the  right,  more  Egyptians  destroy 
the  surrounding  countryside.  One  chops  down  a  tree 
while  another  seems  to  be  casting  fire  into  a  hayrick. 

On  the  written  side  of  the  picture  there  is  a  passage  in  ! 
Papyrus  Anastasi  I,  a  literary  text  from  the  time  of  Ram- 1 
esses  II.  This  text  is  usually  considered  an  outstanding  j 
example  of  literary  satire  by  means  of  which  its  author,  | 
the  scribe  Hori,  pokes  fun  at  and  rebuffs  the  pretensions  i 
to  knowledge  of  a  brash  young  colleague  of  his,  a  certain  j 
Amenemope.  While  this  is  so,  the  essential  military  I 
nature  of  the  text  is  usually  overlooked.  Time  and  again  j 
Hori  refers  both  to  himself  and  to  Amenemope  as  > 
soldiers,  and  the  latter  half  of  the  papyrus,  which  is  con-  I 
cerned  with  Amenemope's  ignorance  of  Syria  and  Pales-  1 
tine,  stresses  his  need  for  knowledge  of  matters  that 
would  be  of  the  highest  interest  to  a  soldier:  terrain  and 
topography,  locations  of  various  Asiatic  towns,  the 
march  distances  between  them  and.  significantly,  the  { 
nature  and  condition  of  their  fortifications,  as  well  as  the  j 
locations  of  river-crossings  and  mountain  passes. 

AMENEMOPE  is  frequently  confronted  with  elaborate  i 
L  descriptions  of  the  living  conditions  encountered 
when  on  active  service  in  the  field,  and  then  chided  for : 
his  inexperience  of  them.  In  an  earlier  portion  of  the  text 
Amenemope  is  given  a  series  of  problems  to  solve.  These  i 
deal  with  the  provisioning  of  a  military  expedition  to  ' 
Syria,  with  the  transport  of  an  obelisk  and  the  erection 
of  a  colossus,  with  the  digging  of  a  moat,  or  ditch,  and 
with  the  building  of  a  rather  large  ramp.  That  the  army 
was  involved  in  supplying  the  man  power  necessary  for '' 
such  projects  is  not  only  implied  in  the  passages  cited,  j 
but  is  also  expressly  stated  in  other  documents  of  the  j 
period.  A  portion  of  particular  interest  in  connection  ! 
with  siege  warfare  is  that  dealing  with  the  difficulties  in-  i 
curred  in  the  making  of  the  ramp  and  the  moat:  j 

"What  has  been  given  to  you  is  a  ditch  to  be  dug, 
and  you  have  come  to  me  to  ask  about  the  giving       . 
of  rations  to  the  military  people.  .  .  .  Now  you  are 
the  clever  scribe  who  is  at  the  head  of  soldiers! 
[Well],  a  ramp  is  to  be  made,  730  cubits  [long],       ; 
with  a  width  of  55  cubits,  [containing]  120  com-       I 
partments  filled  with  reeds  and  beams.  [It  shall  be]       ; 
60  cubits  in  height  at  its  top,  30  cubits  [at]  its 
middle.  Its  batter  [shall  be]  15  cubits,  and  its  base 
5  cubits.  The  amount  of  bricks  needed  for  it  must 
be  asked  from  the  military  officers,  [but]  all  the 
scribes  together  lack  the  knowledge  among  them-       ' 
selves,  and  they  each  confide  in  you,  saying  'You're 
a  clever  scribe,  my  friend!  Decide  for  us  quickly,       | 
and  see,  your  name  will  emerge.  Let  someone  be       ! 
found  here  to  magnify  the  other  thirty  [scribes].       [ 
Don't  let  it  be  said  about  you  that  there  exists  [even] 
some  small  matter  about  which  you're  ignorant! 
Tell  us  the  required  number  of  bricks!'  See,  its 
measurements  are  30  cubits  [by]  7  cubits  wide."  i 

If  the  inherent  military  substratum  of  Papyrus  Anastasi  I  [ 


is  kept  in  mind,  then  the  probable  purpose  for  a  ramp  of 
such  large  dimensions  seems  clear:  Amenemope  was  not 
being  tested  merely  on  his  ability  to  solve  a  difficult 
mathematical  problem;  he  was  confronted  with  the  mili- 
tary engineering  problem  of  constructing  a  siege  ramp, 
a  piece  of  equipment  mentioned  perhaps  for  the  first  time 
in  connection  with  the  siege  of  Megiddo  by  Thutmose  III. 
To  anticipate,  such  a  ramp  was  certainly  used  when  the 
Nubian  conqueror  Piankhy  laid  siege  to  Memphis  some 
five  hundred  years  after  Papyrus  Anastasi  I  was  written. 
Similarly,  the  ditch  to  be  dug  in  Amenemope's  problem 
could  very  well  have  been  meant  to  refer  to  a  ditch  like 
that  with  which  Thutmose  III  encircled  Megiddo. 

Direct  references  to  siege  warfare  are  not  found  in 
Egyptian  documents  covering  the  period  from  the  end 
of  the  Empire  until  the  foundation  of  the  Twenty-third 
Dynasty  {ca.  1085 — 720  B.C.),  but  this  means  only  that 
the  Egyptian  records  containing  such  references  either 
have  not  survived  or  have  not  yet  been  found.  That  such 
operations  undoubtedly  took  place  is  implied  by  the  con- 
temporary non-Egyptian  documents — for  example,  the 
bibhcal  account  in  I  Kings  14:  25-26  of  the  Egyptian  in- 
vasion and  the  plundering  of  Palestine  in  about  918  B.C. 

More  than  compensating  for  this  gap  in  our  knowledge 
is  the  great  stela  of  Piankhy,  the  energetic,  puritanical, 
cavalier  king  of  the  Twenty-third  Dynasty.  Piankhy  set 


up  the  stela  in  the  temple  of  Amun  of  Napata  at  Gebel 
Barkal  in  the  Sudan  to  commemorate  his  conquest  of 
Egypt  in  720  B.C.  The  stela  is  a  veritable  textbook  of 
Egyptian  military  strategy  and  tactics  in  the  post-Empire 
period,  and  its  descriptions  of  sieges  are  the  fullest  that 
are  preserved  in  any  written  Egyptian  sources.  Of  the 
several  sieges  described,  the  first  may  be  considered  as 
the  immediate  caiisiis  belli:  Tefnakht,  prince  of  Sais,  had 
invaded  the  Upper  Egypt  in  an  attempt  to  enlarge  his 
dominion.  Meeting  stubborn  resistance  at  Herakleopolis, 
he  laid  siege  to  it.  The  graphic  description  of  what  hap- 
pened was  related  to  Piankhy  at  his  capital  in  Napata: 

"Behold,  [he]  is  [now]  assaulting  Herakleopolis.  He 
has  completely  ringed  it  around,  allowing  neither 
reinforcements  [literally:  enterers]  to  enter  nor  ref- 
ugees [literally:  departers]  to  depart,  but  [rather] 
fights  daily.  He  has  invested  it  in  its  entire  circum- 
ference. Every  leader  knows  [his  own  sector  of  the] 
rampart,  that  he  may  cause  every  man  among  the 
leaders  and  tribal  sheikhs  to  lay  siege  from  his  own 
sector." 

Piankhy  was  quick  to  act,  and  dispatched  a  relief  army 
at  once.  At  its  approach  Tefnakht  abandoned  the  siege 


Ur 


nlike  earlier  Ramesside  art,  this  relief 
shows  assault  techniques  of  army  with  weapons. 


and  retreated  northward.  The  pursuit  by  Piankhy's  troops 
was  delayed  by  the  necessity  of  reducing  the  cities  of 
Tefnakht's  alhes  that  barred  the  way,  the  most  important 
of  which  was  HermopoHs,  which  proved  a  tough  nut. 
The  siege  did  not  proceed  to  Piankhy's  satisfaction 
and  he  personally  came  to  Egypt  to  take  matters  in  hand: 
"Then  his  majesty  wrote  to  the  leaders  and  the 
military   commanders    who   were   in   Egypt.  .  .  . 
'Hasten  into  battle  array  and  join  battle.  Surround 
Hermopolis.  Capture  its  people,  its  herds,  its  ships 
which  are  on  the  river.  Don't  let  the  field  hands  go 
into  the  field  and  don't  let  the  plowmen  plow. 
Assault  the  frontier  of  Hermopolis  and  fight  against 
it  daily!'  Then  they  did  the  like.  .  .  .  They  sur- 
rounded Hermopolis  on  its  four  sides,  without  let- 
ting reinforcements  enter  and  without  letting  refu- 
gees depart.  .  .  .  |  Piankhy  takes  personal  charge.] 
He  set  a  command  post  up  for  himself  at  the  south- 
west of  Hermopolis,  assaulting  it  daily.  A  protec- 
tive  wall   was   made    to    cover   the    wall    and    a 
'wooden-servant'  [some  kind  of  siege  engine]  was 
raised  up  high  against  it.  Archers  shot  arrows  and 
catapuhs  hurled  stones,  slaughtering  people  among 
them  [the  besieged]  every  day.  Days  passed  and 

Hermopolis  gave  forth  a  foul  stench  to  the  nose 

Then  Hermopohs  prostrated  itself." 
Just  before  Piankhy's  arrival  at  Hermopolis,  part  of  his 
army  attacked  and  reduced  a  neighboring  stronghold, 
Tatehen: 

"Then  they  fought  against  the  fortified  region  of 
Tatehen  [named]  'Great  of  Strength.'  They  found 
h  filled  with  soldiers  and  with  all  the  valiant  men 
of  the  Deltaland.  Then  a  battering-ram  was  made 
and  used  against  it.  Its  walls  were  demolished,  and 
a  great  slaughter  was  made  among  them." 

WITH  the  surrounding  countryside  reduced  and  with 
Hermopolis  fallen,  Piankhy  was  free  to  advance 
against  the  Nile  Delta.  Town  after  town  on  his  route 
opened  its  gates  at  the  approach  of  his  army,  and  finally 
the  ultimate  object,  Memphis,  the  capital  of  the  delta, 
was  reached: 

"Very  early  the  next  morning  his  majesty  arrived 
at  the  White  Wall.  He  anchored  to  the  north  of  it. 
He  discovered  that  the  water  [of  the  river]  had 
risen  up  to  the  wall  tops  and  that  ships  [could  be] 
moored  at  [the  top  of  the  wall]  of  Memphis.  Then 
his  majesty  saw  that  it  was  [otherwise]  a  strong- 
hold, the  rampart  having  been  heightened  with  a 
new  wall,  and  the  bastions  equipped  with  [such] 
strength  that  no  toe  hold  for  fighting  against  it 
might  be  found.  Thereupon  every  man  among  the 
soldiers  of  his  majesty  spoke  his  mind  with  respect 
to  every  doctrine  of  fighting.  Some  men  said  'Come, 
let  us  assault  [it,  attacking  it  every  day].  See,  its 
garrison  is  numerous.'  Others  said  'Let  a  ramp  be 
made  against  it.  Let  us  raise  the  earth  against  its 
ramparts.  Let  us  tie  a  "wooden-servant"  together. 
Let  us  erect  towers.  Let  us  make  hangings  on  the 
sides  against  it.  Let  us  divide  it  in  this  [way]  on  all 
of  its  sides  with  a  counterwall  and  a  ...  at  its  north 
[end],  [that]  we  may  find  a  path  for  our  feet.'  Then 


he  caused  his  soldiers  to  cross  [the  river]  and  to  ] 
fight  at  the  harbor  of  Memphis.  They  carried  away 
for  him  every  ferry,  every  yacht,  every  barge,  and  I 
every  transport  which  had  been  anchored  at  the  I 
harbor  of  Memphis,  their  prow  ropes  being  tied  i 
at  its  buildings.  .  .  .  Then  his  majesty  personally  | 
crossed  over  to  draw  up  all  the  ships.  His  majesty  j 
commanded  his  soldiers  'Advance  against  it.  Mount  j 
the  wall  tops.  Enter  the  houses  overlooking  the  I 
river.  If  one  of  you  gains  the  rampart,  let  no  one  * 
stand  in  its  vicinity.  Don't  let  [hostile]  gangs  oppose  • 
you.  .  .  .'  Then  Memphis  was  taken." 

With  this  text,  then,  the  purely  Egyptian  documenta 
tion  comes  to  an  end.  Mention  of  siege  tactics  carrie 
on  by  and  against  the  Egyptians  occurs  occasionally  l 
Assyrian,  biblical,  and  Greek  sources,  but  these  fall  oul 
side  the  realm  of  this  paper.  Egyptian  tactical  doctrin 
for  the  reduction  of  enemy  strongholds,  and  its  gradu: 
development  may  be  summed  up  as  follows: 

The  earliest  form  of  attack  was  a  direct  assault  b 
soldiers  armed  with  a  very  primitive  weapon,  the  ma 
tock,  with  which  they  literally  hacked  down  the  opposin 
walls.  As  this  tactic  undoubtedly  proved  to  be  wastefi 
of  life,  other  modes  of  attacking  enemy  walls  were  sough 
By  the  end  of  the  Old  Kingdom,  assaults  on  towns  ii 
eluded  the  chopping  method  plus  the  use  of  scaling  lac 
ders  and  sapping  at  the  foundations  of  walls  and  gate. 

The  Middle  Kingdom  saw  the  introduction  of  battel 
ing-rams,  which  were  protected  by  mantelets  to  give  cove 
to  their  crews.  Although  they  are  not  pictured  in  an 
preserved  scenes  from  the  Middle  Kingdom,  we  ma 
assume  that  the  earlier  weapons,  equipment,  and  tactic 
continued  in  use. 

In  the  New  Kingdom,  we  see  the  first  full-scale  siej 
operations.  The  beleaguered  city  was  cut  off  by  a  counte 
wall  and  ditch.  It  was  continually  harassed  by  attacks  i 
which  all  the  previously  mentioned  techniques  and  in 
plements  were  used;  at  the  same  time,  the  city  was  bi 
sieged  until  it  fell  to  an  assault  or  finally  was  starved  im 
submission.  The  training  of  full-fledged  military  ens 
neers  probably  took  place  at  this  time,  and  may  hai 
begun  earlier.  Certainly  the  ramp  mentioned  in  Papyri 
Aruistasi  I  points  to  this,  as  well  as  to  the  fact  that  tl 
siegeworks  and  equipment  had  already  become  elaborat 

By  the  Twenty-third  Dynasty,  this  prior  agglomer 
tion  of  different  tactics  developed  into  a  highly  technic 
doctrine.  The  city  was  invested.  Various  types  of  sici 
weapons — including  battering-rams,  siege  ramps,  siej 
towers,  catapults,  and  wooden  servants,  whose  exa 
nature  is  still  unknown — all  were  employed  against  : 
The  effectiveness  of  this  ultimate  combination  of  Egv] 
tian  siege  weapons  is  best  illustrated  by  a  rehef  of  Ran 
essess  II  in  the  temple  of  Luxor.  An  unnamed  Syri; 
city  is  shown  after  the  Egyptian  army  has  passed.  Tl 
gateways  are  battered  in,  the  walls  broken.  Bricks  f; 
crumbling  to  the  ground.  In  the  nearby  countryside,  tl 
trees  and  bushes  are  hacked  and  chopped.  It  is  a  scei 
of  desolation  calling  to  mind  the  Latin  proverb:  "Thi 
make  a  solitude  and  call  it  peace." 


J\..arnak  temple  relief  details  the  demi 
of  Askalon — "a  wretched  city  ...  it  was  evil 


21 


Arctic  grizzlies,  this  one  a 

ill-grown  adult,  range  across 

the  continent's  far  north 

rom  Hudson  Bay  into  Alaska. 


Grizzlies  are  squirrel-sized 

at  birth,  and  are  born  in 

winter.  Cubs,  below,  are  in 

the  early  months  of  life. 


Grrizzly  Territory 

!xact  range  of  Arctic  bears  is  obscured  by  old  rumors 


y  A.W.F.  Banfield 

rHE  ARCTIC,  or  barren-ground,  griz- 
zly bear  is  one  of  the  largest  and 
ost  powerful  predators  on  the  North 
nerican  continent.  Yet,  formidable 
these  animals  are,  their  exact  distri- 
ition  across  North  America  is  still 
ily  incompletely  known.  As  this  paper 
ill  show,  hearsay  accounts  of  grizzlies 
ive  misled  scientists  more  often  than 
it,  perhaps  most  in  the  case  of  the 
mored  presence  of  the  bears  in  the 
ngava  peninsula  of  northern  Quebec 
id  Labrador,  which  I  will  discuss  later 
the  light  of  present-day  surveys. 


«4k^. 


-'^■mtf-- 


In  recent  years,  most  American 
mammalogists  have  accepted  the  pro- 
posal that  the  North  American  grizzlies 
are  New  World  representatives  of  the 
Old  World  brown  bears,  Ursus  arctos. 
The  earliest  scientific  name  applied  to 
the  barren-ground,  or  Arctic,  grizzlies 
was  Swainson's  richardsoni  in  1838. 
This  may  be  considered  the  appropri- 
ate scientific  name  of  the  Arctic  grizzly 
population  if  it  is  a  distinct  subspecies, 
as  scientists  believe  is  likely. 

In  their  natural  environments,  griz- 
zlies breed  every  other  year  in  June  or 
July.  As  is  the  case  with  many  car- 
nivores, delayed  implantation  of  the 
fertilized  ovum  is  involved,  and  the 
embryos  do  not  commence  their  devel- 
opment until  autumn.  The  cubs,  which 
are  usually  twins  but  may  number 
from  one  to  four,  are  born  between 
January  and  March  while  their  mother 
is  in  winter  dormancy.  They  are  squir- 
rel-sized at  birth  — only  nine  to  ten 
inches  long.  In  spite  of  their  small 
birth  size,  the  cubs  may  grow  to  weigh 
one  thousand  pounds  at  maturity.  Ex- 
cept during  the  brief  breeding  period, 
the  bears  are  solitary.  They  spend  the 
severest  months  — November  to  March 
—  sleeping  in  caves  or  other  shelters. 

WHEN  Europeans  arrived  in  the 
New  World,  the  grizzly's  domain 
had  spread  from  the  snowy,  Arctic 
mountains  of  Alaska  to  the  arid  pla- 
teau of  Mexico,  and  from  the  salmon- 
filled  rivers  of  the  Pacific  coast  across 
the  Great  Plains  to  the  fringe  of  the 
eastern  hardwood  forests.  The  Boreal 
forest  that  spreads  its  broad  evergreen 
band  across  the  continent  from  Maine 
to  Alaska  probably  was  not  penetrated 
by  grizzlies  in  significant  numbers. 
Only  in  mountainous,  northwestern 
America  have  these  bears  occupied  the 
coniferous  forest.  They  seem  to  prefer 
to  make  their  homes  in  open  country- 
plains,  alpine  tundra,  or  the  Arctic 
tundra  — beyond  treeline  on  the  roof 
of  the  continent.  Occasionally,  grizzlies 
stray  short  distances  into  the  taiga,  the 
swampy  "land  of  little  sticks"  that  lies 
on  the  southern  border  of  the  tundra. 


In  the  early  days,  most  observations 
were  made  along  canoe  routes,  at  por- 
tages, and  on  spring  sled  journeys. 
Today,  the  use  of  aircraft  in  the  north 
may  be  responsible  for  greatly  in- 
creased numbers  of  observations  of 
bears  on  the  tundra.  Recent  geological, 
geographical,  and  wildlife  surveys  have 
also  produced  many  sightings.  Com- 
parison of  these  contemporary  reports 
with  early  explorers'  accounts  gives 
me  the  impression  that  the  bears  have 
been  increasing,  and  that  their  dis- 
tribution has  been  expanding.  But  is 
this  the  result  of  changes  affecting 
the  observed  or  merely  the  observers? 

TO  help  answer  this  question,  1  made 
a  search  of  the  literature  concern- 
ing early  exploration  of  the  Canadian 
north,  where  grizzlies  might  be  ex- 
pected to  occur.  Most  of  the  reports.  I 
found,  were  straightforward,  often  sub- 
stantiated by  the  taking  of  a  specimen 
bear.  But  there  are  more  than  a  few 
doubtful  secondhand  accounts.  Except 
for  two  of  these  questionable  reports, 
which  will  be  mentioned  later,  all  griz- 
zly records  before  1899  were  limited  to 
the  western  continental  tundra,  from 
Aklavik  to  Bathurst  Inlet,  and  inland 
to  the  source  of  Coppermine  River. 

Samuel  Hearne,  an  English  fur 
trader  with  Hudson's  Bay  Company 
and,  in  1771,  the  first  European  to 
reach  the  Arctic  Ocean  by  overland 
route,  observed  the  Arctic  grizzlies 
more  than  25  years  before  Lewis  and 
Clarke  met  the  bears  on  the  upper  Mis- 
souri River.  On  July  8,  1771,  Hearne 
found  a  grizzly  den  in  a  mound  of 
earth,  possibly  a  frost-heaved  "pingo," 
a  small  hill  of  mud  pushed  up  by  con- 
tinual frost  action.  This  site  was  about 
125  miles  southeast  of  the  Coppermine 
River,  an  area  in  the  present-day 
Northwest  Territories.  He  also  noted 
troughs  dug  by  the  bears  in  search  of 
Arctic  ground  squirrels  (Citellus  un- 
dulatus),  and  named  the  prominence 
"Grizzled  Bear  Hill." 

The  two  questionable  secondhand 
reports  mentioned  are  those  of  a  Cap- 
tain Lyon,  in  1824,  and  of  the  popular 

23 


r 

■-If 


Mature  Arctic  grizzly  may  weigh  as  much  as  1,000  pounds. 


rf^-ig^ 


Grizzly  roams  open  country —  the  alpine  or  Arctic  tundra. 


Male  is  solitary  except  in  the  summer  breeding  period. 


24 


mthor  Frederick  Schwatka,  in  1885. 
liaptain  Lyon  wintered  at  Igloolik  at 
he  northwest  corner  of  Fox  Basin  in 
L821-22,  and  interviewed  an  Eskimo 
Tom  Wager  Bay,  which  is  on  the  west 
;oast  of  Hudson  Bay.  The  Eskimo  told 
lim  that  both  black  and  white  bears 
vere  numerous  in  his  region.  His 
'black  bears"  were  probably  grizzlies, 
)ut  it  is  also  likely  the  Eskimo  was  re- 
)orting  in  very  general  terms.  Eskimos 
ire  great  travelers,  and  many  have  vis- 
ted  distant  parts  of  the  Arctic  coast, 
lis  reference  might  have  been  based 
in  observations  made  far  to  the  west. 
Since  the  Eskimos  rely  upon  game  re- 
ources  for  their  sustenance,  they  are 
amiliar  with  the  Arctic  and  subarctic 
auna  well  beyond  their  immediate 
lunting  grounds.  For  instance,  Eskimo 
[unters  of  the  Ungava,  east  of  Hudson 
5ay,  are  familiar  with  the  musk  ox, 
'omingmuk,"  even  though  its  range 
loes  not  extend  far  enough  eastward  to 
iccur  in  their  country.  They  can  quite 
IS  easily  describe  "aklak,"  the  barren- 
;round  grizzly,  to  a  European  inquirer. 


FREDERICK  Schwatka,  who  gave  the 
second  of  the  two  nineteenth-cen- 
ury  reports  on  Arctic  grizzlies,  trav- 
led  overland  with  W.H.  Gilder  from 
ilarble  Island,  Hudson  Bay,  to  Chan- 
rey  Inlet  on  the  Arctic  Ocean  in  1879- 
10,  looking  for  relics  of  the  ill-fated 
'ranklin  expedition.  I  Sir  John  Frank- 
in's  Second  Expedition  to  find  the 
Northwest  Passage,  1845,  was  lost 
without  survivors.  The  great  search 
hat  followed  delineated  most  of  the 
lorth  coast  of  the  continent. ) 
From  Gilder's  report  we  know  that 


they  made  no  direct  observations,  but 
Schwatka's  popular  account,  Nimrod 
of  the  North,  contains  two  secondhand 
references  to  grizzly  bears.  The  Eski- 
mos of  Adelaide  Peninsula  reported 
that  on  rare  occasions  they  met  grizzly- 
like animals  during  summer  caribou 
hunts;  the  Chesterfield  Inlet  Eskimos 
reportedly  had  killed  a  few  bears.  We 
know  that  the  summer  caribou  hunts 
for  skins  often  took  the  Eskimos  far 
inland,  so  these  reports  might  well  have 
been  based  on  localities  miles  away 
from  the  camps  mentioned.  Schwatka 
supposed  that  all  American  grizzlies 
wandered  north  to  the  Arctic  Ocean 
during  the  summer,  then  retreated 
southward  to  treeline  in  the  autumn. 
With  such  a  broad  but  erroneous  im- 
pression, it  is  doubtful  that  he  would 
be  critical  of  distribution  reports. 

On  the  other  hand,  we  have  the  ac- 
counts of  many  competent  nineteenth- 
century  observers  such  as  Sir  George 
Back,  George  Simpson,  James  Ander- 
son, Warburton  Pike,  J.B.  Tyrrell, 
Caspar  Whitney,  and  "Buffalo"  Jones, 
all  of  whom  traversed  the  eastern  bar- 
ren lands  during  the  same  period  as 
Schwatka  without  finding  grizzlies. 

During  the  first  forty  years  of  the 
twentieth  century,  grizzly  bears  in- 
creased markedly  in  the  upper  Thelon 
River  Valley,  and  to  a  lesser  extent 
along  the  Arctic  coast,  including  the 
Perry  River  region.  Although  a  few 
naturalists  visited  Keewatin  District 
during  this  period,  they  failed  to  meet 
any  bears.  At  the  same  time,  a  dubious 
reference  to  grizzly  bears  in  Keewatin 
District  came  from  the  Danish  explorer 
Peter  Freuchen,  on  the  Fifth  Thule  Ex- 


pedition of  1921-24.  He  reported  black 
bears  ('"akdla,"  in  Eskimo)  occurred 
south  of  Baker  Lake  and  Eskimo  Point, 
but  without  substantiation  by  observa- 
tion or  specimen.  Here  again  we  note 
the  possibility  of  confusion  of  black 
with  grizzly  bears.  The  known  occur- 
rences of  black  bears  (Ursus  ameri- 
canus)  near  timberline  at  Padlei  and 
Nueltin  Lake  makes  it  even  more  diffi- 
cult to  appraise  this  reference.  Our 
confidence  in  the  report  is  hardly  en- 
couraged when  Freuchen  continues  to 
say  that  the  bears  suck  their  forepaws 
during  "hibernation"  until  they  are 
pink  and  tender! 

WHEN  a  Royal  Canadian  Mounted 
Police  patrol  from  Baker  Lake 
observed  a  grizzly  on  the  lower  Thelon 
River,  east  of  Schultz  Lake  on  July  23, 
1940,  the  patrol  was  witnessing  the 
start  of  a  grizzly  dispersal  to  the  south- 
eastward that  has  continued  to  the 
present  day.  An  eastward  wanderer 
was  killed  near  Padlei  in  April  or  May, 
1943;  Dr.  G.M.  Wright,  a  geologist  of 
the  Geological  Survey  of  Canada,  saw 
two  grizzlies  near  Wholdaia  Lake  on 
July  29, 1956;  A.G.  Loughrey,  a  biolo- 
gist of  the  Canadian  Wildlife  Service, 
saw  one  at  MacQuoyd  Lake,  southeast 
of  Baker  Lake,  on  May  7,  1958,  and 
obtained  a  skull  of  a  specimen  taken 
at  Nicholson  Lake  (on  the  Dubawnt 
River)  the  same  season.  According  to 
Eskimos  who  had  lived  at  Garry  Lake 
on  the  Back  River,  grizzly  bears  were 
encountered  there  with  increasing  fre- 
quency in  the  late  1940's  and  1950's. 
(Many  of  these  later  records  were 
gathered  by  Harington,  Macpherson, 


and  Kelsall,  field  officers  of  the  Cana- 
dian Wildlife  Service,  for  their  article 
in  the  December,  1962  issue  of  Arctic.) 

There  are  even  indications  that  griz- 
zlies have  invaded  the  offshore  Arctic 
islands.  A  bear  was  shot  on  Banks  Is- 
land during  the  winter  of  1951-52; 
two  others  were  observed  on  the  ice 
off  Southampton  Island  by  Eskimos, 
one  in  the  autumn  of  1948,  the  other 
in  1950.  These  were  reported  by  an 
Eskimo  in  an  interview  with  Richard 
Harington  in  1962.  George  Sutton 
spent  a  year,  1929-30,  on  that  island 
without  hearing  of  grizzlies. 

From  this  summary  of  observations 
it  is  evident  that  grizzlies  were  rela- 
tively rare  in  the  experience  of  men  on 
the  Arctic  tundra  during  the  eighteenth 
and  nineteenth  centuries;  most  fre- 
quent occurrences  were  on  the  western 
shores  of  the  Arctic  Ocean  as  far  east- 
ward as  Bathurst  Inlet  and  the  upper 
Coppermine  River.  Unsubstantiated 
reports  from  northern  Keewatin  Dis- 
trict might  indicate  a  few  stragglers 
in  that  region.  But  at  the  beginning  of 
the  present  century,  the  bears  moved 
into  the  upper  Thelon  River  Valley, 
and  by  1940  reached  the  Baker  Lake 
area.  Within  the  past  two  decades,  the 
grizzly  population  has  grown  and  dis- 
persal has  progressed  as  far  as  the 
Dubawnt  and  Kazan  valleys.  At  the 
same  time,  the  bears  have  spread  down 
the  Back  River  into  the  barren  lands 
of    the    northern    Keewatin    District. 

LET  us  inquire  further  into  the  sig- 
j  nificance  of  this  dispersal.  Where 
did  the  grizzly  bears  come  from  origi- 
nally? As  stated  previously,  American 
grizzlies  are  considered  to  be  repre- 
sentatives of  the  Eurasian  brown  bear 
and  separable  only  on  the  subspecific 
level.  The  American  fossil  record  is  not 
extensive,  but  a  few  specimens  from 
western  Ohio,  Oklahoma,  California, 
Alaska,  and  northern  Mexico  have 
been  considered  to  represent  ancestral 
grizzlies.  The  oldest  specimen  dates 
from  the  last  interglacial  (Sangamon) 
period  and  suggests  that  grizzlies  are 
relatively  recent  immigrants  to  this 
continent,  much  like  the  elk  and  moose. 
It  is  certain  that  the  bears  reached 
America  across  the  Bering  land  bridge, 
perhaps  during  the  penultimate  glacia- 
tion  (lllinoian). 

It  is  noteworthy  that  their  present 
distribution  has  a  western  concentra- 
tion. The  fossil  record  suggests  that 
this  has  always  been  the  case;  good 
Wisconsin  glacial  faunal  assemblages 

26 


in  Pennsjdvania,  Virginia,  New  York, 
Florida,  Michigan,  and  Ontario  have 
lacked  representatives  of  the  grizzly. 
The  exception,  the  Ohio  specimen, 
came  from  a  prairie  peninsula  of  the 
Great  Plains  now  characterized  by 
many  western  species,  such  as  the 
prairie  vole  (Microtus  ochrogaster) 
and  the  thirteen-lined  ground  squirrel 
(Cilellus  tridecemlineatus) .  At  this  lo- 
cation, the  grizzly  specimen  is  about 
four  hundred  miles  east  of  the  bear's 
known  historical  range. 

At  the  time  of  the  last  (Wisconsin) 
glaciation,  grizzly  bears  were  driven 
out  of  much  of  their  northern  range  by 
the  advancing  continental  ice  sheet. 
They  survived  south  of  the  ice  front, 
and  in  the  unglaciated  refuge  in 
Alaska  and  Yukon  territory.  Between 
12,000  and  7,000  years  ago,  the  Lau- 
rentian  Ice  Sheet,  which  covered  the 
grizzlies'  present  range,  melted  back 
rapidly  northeastward  toward  its  crest 
west  of  Hudson  Bay,  and  the  tundra 
vegetation  and  animal  life  followed. 
It  appears  that  the  bears'  route  has 
similarly  been  eastward,  for  their  dis- 
tribution is  discontinuous  southward 
through  the  Boreal  forest.  The  closest 
population  in  that  direction  is  that  of 
the  recently  discovered  grizzlies  in  the 
Swan  Hills,  south  of  Lesser  Slave  Lake 
in  northwestern  Alberta.  However, 
those  bears  are  more  closely  related 
geographically  and  morphologically  to 
the  Rockies  and  Great  Plains  grizzlies. 

The  period  between  the  middle  of 
the  fourteenth  and  nineteenth  centu- 
ries is  sometimes  referred  to  as  the 
"Little  Ice  Age"  because  of  lower  tem- 
peratures and  lengthening  glaciers  in 
the  Northern  Hemisphere  during  that 
time.  The  earliest  explorers'  accounts 
of  grizzlies  were  given  during  this 
period;  the  recent  population  growth 
and  dispersal  of  the  bears  may  well  be 
associated  with  the  amelioration  of 
Arctic  climate  that  started  only  at  the 
beginning  of  the  present  century. 

An  interesting  correlation  exists  be- 
tween the  distribution  of  ground  squir- 
rels ( Citellus  sp. )  and  grizzly  bears  in 
North  America.  Although  these  large 
carnivores  are  primarily  vegetarians, 
animals  do  form  important  seasonal 
food  supplies  for  them.  Ground  squir- 
rels are  prey  for  the  Arctic  grizzlies 
in  early  spring,  before  the  vegetation 
turns  green,  and  again  in  the  autumn 
after  the  vegetation  has  been  frosted. 
In  the  fall,  the  bears  dig  out  the  hiber- 
nating ground  squirrels  before  the 
ground  freezes.  Naturalists  have  not 


been  unanimous  in  their  appraisal  of  i 
the  importance  of  ground  squirrels  in 
the     grizzly     diet,    however.    Adolph 
Murie,  writing  about  central  Alaska  in 
The  Wolves  of  Mount  McKinley,  esti-  I 
mated  that  the  squirrel  species  made 
up  only  5  per  cent  of  the  summer  diet, 
while  James  W.  Bee  and  E.R.  Hall, 
who  studied  the  present  race  on  the  | 
Arctic  coast,  reported,  in  Mammals  of  i 
Northern  Alaska  on  the  Arctic  Slope,  ] 
that  grizzlies  are  more  commonly  ob- 
served   where    ground    squirrels   live ! 
than  anywhere  else.  Other  studies  in 
the  Rocky  Mountains  and  Mackenzie 
Delta  have  underlined  the  importance  : 
of  ground  squirrels  in  grizzly  diet.  The  i 
Arctic  ground  squirrel  has  the  same  ; 
general    distribution    as   the    barren-  : 
ground   grizzly   in   northern   Canada,  , 
and  even  invades  the  stunted  timberline  I 
forest.  Only  the  rediscovered  grizzlies 
of  the  Swan  Hills  appear  to  occupy  a 
range  devoid  of  ground  squirrels.  ' 

I 

FOR  many  years,  rumors  have  per- 
sisted of  the  existence  of  grizzly  1 
bears  in  the  Ungava  peninsula  of  north-  ■ 
ern    Quebec    and    Labrador.    Charles 
Elton,  British  ecologist  at  Oxford  Uni-  j 
versity,  reviewed  the  accounts  of  trad- 
ers, travelers,  and  missionaries  in  the  • 
region,  and  accepted  several  of  their  \ 
stories  as  evidence  of  the  former  oc-  j 
currence  of  grizzlies  there,  particularly  ; 
in  the  Torngat  Mountains.  Later  writ- 
ers have  also  accepted  several  of  these  | 
references.   In  the   absence   of  speci- 
mens, recognition  of  the  Ungava  griz-  < 
zly  rests  solely  upon  the  descriptions  ; 
by  several  traders  and  missionaries  of 
rare   gray,   grizzled,    or   brown   bear  ; 
hides  brought  in  by  natives.  Trader  i 
John  McLean,  post  manager  for  Hud-  ! 
son's  Bay  Company  at  Fort  Chimo,  in  ' 
the  province  of  Quebec,  from  1837-42,  { 
offered  what  is  probably  the  strongest  ' 
evidence  for  the  existence  of  the  Un-  ; 
gava  grizzly.  He  had  previously  served  ' 
in    British    Columbia,    in    about    the  i 
years  1834-37,  and  thus  should  have  ! 
been  familiar  with  the  species  there.-' 
John    McLean    published,    in    1849,  ■ 
Notes  of  a  Twenty-five  Years'  Service 
in    the   Hudson's   Bay   Territory.    In  i 
Volume  II,  he  wrote  that  black,  brown,  ] 
grizzly,  and  polar  bears  occur  in  the 
district.  He  went  on:  "When  we  con-  ; 
sider  the  great  extent  of  country  that  I 
intervenes  between   Ungava   and  the  i 
plains  of  the  'far  west,'  it  seems  quite  I 
inexplicable   that  the   grisly   bear  1 
should  be  found  in  so  insulated  a  sit- ! 
nation,  and  none  in  the  intermediate  i 


juntry;  the  fact  of  their  being  here, 
Dwever,  does  not  admit  of  a  doubt, 
ir  I  have  traded  and  sent  to  England 
iveral  of  their  skins."  However,  sev- 
al  of  his  statements  undermine  the 
dentist's  confidence  in  his  identifica- 
on.  For  instance, McLean  states:  "The 
[formation  I  have  received  from  the 
itives  induces  me  to  think  that  the 
irieties  of  colour  in  bears  mark  them 
;  distinct  species,  and  not  the  produce 
■  the  same  litter,  as  some  writers  af- 
rm."  Because  of  the  great  variety  in 
;lage  color  of  grizzly  and  black  bears, 
e  identification  of  bear  hides  is  not 
ways  an  easy  matter.  Moreover,  there 
e  seasonal  and  individual  variations 

claw  length  to  consider.  The  trench- 
it  differences  between  the  grizzly  and 
ack  bear  species  are  in  dentition  and 
)dy  proportions,  yet  McLean  took  no 
ulls  to  confirm  identifications. 
The  tenuousness  of  hearsay  accounts 

attested  by  Outram  Bangs,  one  of 
e  early  authorities  on  the  Labrador 
ammals,  who  wrote  in  1910:  "In  my 


former  list  I  included  Ursus  richard- 
soni  Swainson,  the  barren-ground 
bear,  on  the  strength  of  reports  that 
Low  had  of  it  from  the  Nascoupee  In- 
dians. I  am  now-  inclined  to  discredit 
these,  so  far  as  Labrador  is  concerned. 
Indians  everywhere  have  many  tradi- 
tions that  persist  in  a  remarkable  man- 
ner, and  often  they  are  borrowed  from 
tribes  that  live  at  a  distance.  I  can  find 
no  evidence  that  the  barren-ground 
bear  occurs  in  the  barrens  of  Labrador, 
and  until  it  is  actually  known  to  be 
there  it  must  be  struck  from  a  list  of 
the  mammals  of  Labrador."  A  later  in- 
vestigator, W.D.  Strong,  came  to  the 
same  conclusion  in  1930,  after  spend- 
ing a  year  with  the  Naskapi  Indians 
in  the  interior  of  Labrador. 

Oshin  Agathon  and  Donald  Carter 
of  The  v^jnerican  Museum  of  Natural 
History  conducted  an  unsuccessful 
search  for  the  Ungava  grizzly  during 
the  summer  of  1953.  I  searched  for  the 
animal  during  extensive  aerial  caribou 
surveys  in  1954  and  1956,  and  made 


local  inquiries,  but  to  no  avail.  Consid- 
ering the  history  and  present  distribu- 
tion of  the  Arctic  grizzlies  west  of 
Hudson  Bay,  I  would  doubt  that  there 
ever  was  an  Ungava  grizzly.  There  is 
no  known  eastern  ancestor:  therefore 
an  Ungava  population  of  this  species 
would  be  incompatible  with  the  cur- 
rent distribution  in  North  America. 
While  the  grizzly  bear  of  the  Rocky 
Mountain  region  seems  to  be  in  full 
retreat  in  the  face  of  human  encroach- 
ment of  its  wilderness  habitat,  the 
Arctic  grizzlies  are  apparently  expand- 
ing their  territory  eastward  across  the 
tundra,  prospering  because  of  the  more 
natural  conditions. 
Editor's  Note:  As  this  issue  went 
to  press,  the  Canadian  Northwest  Ter- 
ritories Council,  over  the  opposition  of 
the  Canadian  Wildlife  Service,  moved 
to  cancel  its  former  protection  of  the 
barren-ground  grizzlies,  and  to  insti- 
tute a  year-round  open  season  on  the 
bears,  of  which  some  five  hundred  are 
believed  to  inhabit  affected  regions. 


These  young  are  from  one  litter,  although  the  average  litter  size  is  two. 


'V. 


A 


Insect- 


ANIMAL-TRAPPING  PLANTS  have 
_  aroused  interest  and  stimulated 
speculation  among  laymen  and  biolo-j 
gists  for  many  years.  The  mass  ol 
literature  on  the  subject  that  has  ap- 
peared in  scientific  publications  dur-l 
ing  the  past  one  hundred  years  is  most 
impressive.  Most  of  these  writings! 
have  dealt  with  the  intricate  mor^ 
phology  of  the  traps,  and  with  theirj 
"carnivorous"  significance.  This  car-| 
nivorous  aspect  was  most  fascinating' 
when  attributed  to  chlorophyll-bear-i 
ing,  flowering  plants.  Fungi  have  longi 
been  known  to  parasitize  animals,: 
even  to  the  extent  of  consuming  thej 
whole  body  of  the  host.  There  are' 
colorless,  flowering  plants  that  para-: 
sitize  the  roots  of  other  plants.  Yet  to 


Venus'  fly  traps   bloom,   left.   Their 
insectivorous  leaves  appear  at  boltom. 


trapping  Plants 


By  Virgil  N.  Argo 


rid  green,  flowering  plants  catching, 
lling,  and  eating  animals  was  a  bo- 
nical  heresy  demanding  inquiry. 
Of  the  plants  that  so  behave,  one  has 
traded  particular  attention  —  Dio- 
tea  muscipula,  the  Venus'  fly  trap, 
digenous  to  the  Carolina  coastal 
ain.  Yet  the  microscopic  vesicles  of 
e  many  widespread  species  of  Utri- 
daria,  the  bladder  wort,  are  just  as 
•amatic  and  astonishing  in  their  ac- 
Dn  when  viewed  under  the  micro- 
ope.  Moreover,  the  passive  traps  of 
e  hollow-leaved  Sarracenia,  the 
tcher  plants,  the  sticky  leaves  of  Dro- 
ra,  the  sundew,  and  Pinguicula,  the 
itterwort,  have  long  been  competi- 
rs  for  equal  attention.  A  study  of 
e  literature  and  a  field  acquaintance 


with  these  remarkable  plants  give  rise 
to  speculation  as  to  whether  some  au- 
thors did  not  let  enthusiasm  narrow 
the  scope  of  their  studies  or  influence 
their  interpretations. 

IN  many  respects,  the  remarkable 
Venus'  fly  trap  is  a  baffling  plant. 
Dionaea  muscipula  does  catch  insects 
and  in  a  most  dramatic  fashion.  The 
leaves  snap  shut  with  startling  speed 
and  vigor.  But  exact  knowledge  of 
what  happens  to  the  trapped  victim  is 
not  easily  demonstrated.  A  fluid  is 
secreted  about  the  bodies  of  the  insect 
prey,  but  one  doubts  that  all  the  nutri- 
tious material  of  the  insect  bodies  is 
digested  and  absorbed,  since  ants  regu- 
larly gnaw  holes  in  the  leaf  traps  and 


feed  on  the  dry  carcasses,  which  must 
retain  something  that  offers  more  nu- 
trition than  chitin. 

The  genus  Drosera  has  many  species 
scattered  over  the  world.  Three  species 
occurring  along  the  Atlantic  coast 
wherever  acid,  boggy  spots  exist  are 
D.  rotundifolia,  D.  intermedia,  and  D. 
filiformis.  The  first  two  have  small 
paddle-shaped  leaves,  bearing  numer- 
ous adhesive-tipped  hairs  on  their 
upper  surfaces.  The  third  species,  D. 
filiformis,  has  extremely  slender,  erect 
leaves,  which  are  closely  covered  on 
all  sides  by  these  same  insect-trapping 
hairs.  A  variety  of  D.  filiformis  occurs 
on  the  Gulf  coast;  these  have  leaves 
that  may  reach  a  length  of  sixteen 
inches,  and  flower  stalks  that  unroll 


Mouths  of  traps,  above,  have  trigger 
hairs  on  the  inside.  If  the  hairs  are 


touched,  spiny  leaves  close  and  form 
tight  purse,  bottom  center,  around  prey. 

29 


racemes  of  blossoms  that  are  taller. 
The  leaves  of  all  Drosera  species  de- 
velop from  circinately  coiled  leaf  pri- 
mordia  quite  similar  to  the  fiddleheads 
of  ferns.  When  the  plant  enters  its  dor- 
mant season  in  the  fall,  a  compact, 
bulblike  mass  of  these  minute,  tightly 
coiled  embryonic  leaves  will  be  found 
buried  under  the  past  season's  dead 
leaves.  In  the  spring,  these  embryonic 
masses  grow  and  unwind  rapidly  and 
are  followed  immediately  by  the  flower 
stalks.  Leaves  that  develop  later  grow 
to  be  larger  than  these  overwintering 
ones,  especially  in  the  case  of  D.  fili- 
formis.  The  leaves  of  D.  filifonnis 
sometimes  catch  enough  insects  to 
cause  the  rancid  odor  of  their  car- 
casses to  be  perceptible  more  than  a 
yard  away.  Flies  and  other  insects  have 
been  observed  to  be  attracted  to  such 
prey-laden  leaves  after  following  the 
odor  upwind.  It  is  not  easy  to  under- 
stand how  D.  fiUjorinis  is  able  to  digest 
and  absorb  any  nourishment  from  the 
insects  it  catches.  Their  bodies  have 
but  slight,  if  any,  contact  with  the 
slender  leaf  body.  Insects  that  have 
been  seen  to  come  to  the  odor  of  the 
decaying  catch  may  have  some  role  in 
the  pollination  of  the  species,  which 
produces  a  succession  of  blossoms 
throughout  the  summer  from  its  slowly 
unrolling  racemes. 

IT  is  not  the  present  purpose  to  re- 
fute what  has  been  said  about  in- 
sectivorous plants  in  the  past.  But  it 
would  seem  that  there  are  soine  ap- 
proaches that  could  be  much  more 
thoroughly  explored,  particularly  in 
relation  to  pollination.  This  article 
will  be  principally  concerned  with  a 
consideration  of  pitcher  plants,  specifi- 
cally the  five,  easily  recognized  species 
of  the  genus  Sarracenia  of  the  low,  flat 
lands  along  the  Atlantic  and  Gulf 
coast  region  of  the  eastern  United 
States:  S.  purpurea,  S.  minor,  S.  jlava, 
S.  drummondii.  and  S.  psittacina. 

S.  purpurea  has  the  most  northern 
distribution  of  these  five  pitcher 
plants,  occurring  as  far  north  as 
Canada;  it  extends  south  into  Vir- 
ginia, below  which  it  is  recognized  as  a 
subspecies,  5.  purpurea  venosa  .  S. 
flava  can  be  found  along  the  coastal 
plain  from  the  Carolinas  to  northern 
Florida  and  Alabama.  5.  minor  occurs 
from  South  Carolina  to  southern 
Georgia  and  northern  Florida.  S.  psit- 
tacina is  found  in  southern  Georgia, 
northern  Florida,  and  the  coastal  plain 
of    Alabama,    Mississippi,    and 

30 


Louisiana.  S.  drummondii  is  abundant 
along  the  Styx  River  in  Alabama,  but 
less  so  in  Mississippi  and  Georgia.  The 
different  species  hybridize  readily  in 
nature,  resulting  in  a  number  of  in- 
tegrating forms.  The  illustrations  on 
these  pages  are  of  the  above-named 
coastal  species  only.  There  are  other, 
entirely  valid  species  in  the  genus,  but 
either  they  are  less  abundant  or  are 
indigenous  to  the  higher  elevations 
back  from  the  seacoast. 

PITCHER  plants  can  claim  beauty 
by  virtue  of  both  flowers  and 
leaves.  The  former  are  large  and  stand 
up  conspicuously  on  strong  vertical 
stems.  In  some  species  they  are  yellow; 
in  others  they  are  combinations  of 
rose  or  red  petals  and  reddish-purple 
sepals.  After  the  petals  fall  there  is 
no  wilting  of  the  highly  decorative 
sepals;  instead  they  remain  as  fresh, 
fully  colored  floral  structures  until 
the  seeds  are  matured;  often  they 
have  been  mistaken  for  petals.  The 
pistil's  remarkable  style  is  at  the  distal 
end.  expanded  into  a  large,  inverted, 
five-ribbed  umbrella  with  the  tips  of 
the  five  ribs  acting  as  tiny  stigmas. 
Like  the  sepals,  this  brightly  colored, 
showy  structure  persists  until  the  time 
of  seed  dispersal.  This  habit  of  style 
and  sepals  remaining  as  living  tissue 
long  after  pollination  is  uncoinmon 
among  the  angiosperms:  whatever  the 
advantage  may  be  to  the  plants,  if 
there  be  any,  it  is  not  at  all  apparent. 
Curiously,  in  a  number  of  species  the 
production  of  flowers  and  the  com- 
pletion of  pollination  occur  before  any 
new  leaves  appear.  This  has  not  yet 
warranted  any  discussion  or  inquiry 
by  most  students  of  the  group. 

This  gap  between  flower  and  leaf 
production  is  a  particularly  striking 
phenomenon  in  the  cases  of  5.  flava,  S. 
drummondii,  and  S.  psittacina,  and 
would  tend  to  refute  any  theory  that 
the  insect-trapping  leaves  also  attract 
pollinating  agents. 

The  leaves  of  the  different  species 
of  Sarracenia  vary  a  great  deal  in 
structure  and  color,  and  are  all  aston- 
ishing culminations  of  anatomical 
evolution.  They  have  one  thing  in 
common— a  hollow,  tubular  reservoir 
in  the  leaf,  which  may  stand  erect  or 
may  lie  wholly  or  partially  prostrate. 
The  funnel-shaped  leaf  cavity  may  be 
completely  shielded  from,  or  partially 
or  completely  open  to,  the  rain.  The 
leaf  of  5.  purpurea  has  been  held  to  be 
a  classic  example  of  the  insect-trapping 


pitcher.  The  semiprostrate  leaves  are 
open  to  the  rain  and  insects  alike. 
Downward-pointing  and  overlapping 
hairs  line  the  scoop-shaped  flap  that 
leads  to  the  tubular  part  of  the  leaf. 
Directly  below  the  rim  of  the  tubular 
part,  the  lining  epidermis  is  entirely 
hairless  and  extremely  smooth  and 
waxy.  This  polished,  slippery  surface 
leads  down  to  the  water  into  which  the 
insect  victims  invariably  fall.  Below 
this  slippery  zone  is  a  final  one,  nor-  • 
mally  submerged,  which  also  has 
downward-pointing  hairs,  sparser  and 
weaker  than  those  on  the  lip  flap,  but  ' 
which  might  offer  a  real  barrier  to 
any  bedraggled  bug  that  had  fallen 


Insects  enter  at  pitcher's  top,  end  as 
dark    remains    seen   in    section,    right. 


ito  the  trap  during  a  period  of 
rought  when  the  water  level  was  ab- 
jrmally  low  in  the  pitcher. 
The  erect  pitcher  of  S.  minor  is  well 
)vered  by  a  hood  that  keeps  out  all 
lin  except  that  which  might  be  blown 
I  by  a  high  wind.  Rain  water  does 
Dt  seem  to  be  entirely  necessary  to 
lable  the  insect  trap  to  function, 
eaves  of  this  species  were  examined 
ttensively  in  a  region  that  had  been 


Growth  of  Drosera  filiformis  occurs 
at  each  uncoiling  leaf  tip.  In  photo 
below,  distinct  basal  stubs  are  the 
remains  of  previous  season's  growth. 


without  rain  for  a  period  of  weeks, 
and  there  was  liquid,  apparently  se- 
creted by  the  plants,  in  each  one. 

Outside  water  can  enter  the  hori- 
zontal, hooded  leaves  of  S.  psiltacina 
only  if  the  leaves  are  submerged  by 
flooding.  Examinations  of  many  leaves 
during  a  prolonged  drought  showed 
a  small  amount  of  liquid  present  in 
the  basal  part  of  each  slender,  tubular 
leaf  cavity,  together  with  some  very 
small  trapped  insects.  A  slipperv  sur- 
face leading  to  the  liquid  would  be  of 
no  advantage  in  such  a  prostrate  leaf, 
but  as  we  might  expect,  we  find  that 
the  downward-pointing  hairs  extend 
into  the  region  of  the  trapping  fluid. 
These  hairs  are  long,  flexible,  and  meet 
in  the  center  of  the  tube  cross  section. 
Any  small  ant,  mite,  or  other  tiny 
arthropod  that  crawls  into  the  passage 
finds  itself  in  a  one-way  street  from 
which  there  is  no  return;  it  perishes 
in  the  small  amount  of  fluid  at  the  end 
of  the  cavity. 

IN  the  leaves  of  the  pitcher  plants 
we  find  a  number  of  species  of  in- 
sect larvae  living  in  the  trap  liquid. 
Some  of  these  feed  on  the  living  pa- 
renchyma tissue  just  under  the  lining 
epidermis  of  the  pitcher.  They  are  the 
caterpillars  of  a  few  species  of  small 
moths  in  the  genus  Exyra  and  are 
found  quite  frequently  in  the  pitchers 
of  S.  flava,  drummondii,  minor,  and 
purpurea.  The  carnivorous  larvae  be- 
long to  the  genus  of  flesh  flies,  Sar- 
cophaga,  and  there  are  at  least  six 
species  that  feed  on  the  insects  trapped 
by  the  plants.  We  have  found  them 
widespread  in  the  pitchers  of  all 
species  of  Sarracenia  with  the  excep- 
tion of  psittacina.  The  frequency  of 
occurrence  of  these  larvae  varies. 
Patches  of  flava  have  been  found  in 
which  every  leaf  examined  contained 
a  maggot;  at  other  times,  in  other 
patches,  only  about  half  of  the  leaves 
examined  were  occupied.  One  of  the 
many  interesting  characteristics  of  the 
life  history  of  this  fly  is  its  habit  of 
limiting  its  occupancy  to  one  maggot 
per  pitcher,  even  though  the  female 
fly  may  have  deposited  upward  of  a 
dozen  living  larvae  in  each.  This 
limitation  of  the  number  of  larvae  to 
one  per  pitcher  is  also  observed  in 
the  moth  genus.  How  they  avoid  the 
economic  problems  of  a  population 
explosion  is  not  easily  explained,  but 
the  value  of  the  procedure  is  certainly 
apparent  so  far  as  the  food  supply  of 
the  larvae  is  concerned. 


THE  adult  lives  of  these  fly  ailc 
moth  larvae  might  be  more  closel) 
examined  to  discover  if  they  play  a 
role  in  the  pollination  of  the  pitchei 
plants.  It  should  be  borne  in  mind 
that  the  wet,  boggy  habitat  of  thess 
plants  is  not  an  ideal  place  to  find 
hibernating  insects  that  might  func- 
tion as  pollinators  in  the  early  spring. 
Some  of  the  species  bloom  and  are 
pollinated  before  the  first  leaves  ap- 
pear, as  has  been  mentioned  above! 
The  adult  sarcophagids  have  been  ob- 
served in  abundance  around  the 
flowers  and  leaves  of  S.  flava  after  the 
blooming  period.  The  previous  year  s 
dead  pitchers,  and  other  trash  above 
the  sphagnum  and  wet  muck,  would 
make  a  proper  refuge  for  pupae  or 
adults  until  warm  weather  initiated 
plant  growth.  Field  observations  have 
indicated  that  these  sarcophagid  adults 
might  play  an  important  part  in  pol- 
lination. At  any  rate,  the  problem 
seems  to  have  been  efficiently  solved 
because,  complex  as  the  flowers  are, 
the  fruits  are  uniformly  packed  with 
the  maximum  number  of  seeds. 

Another  question  that  could  be 
answered  by  more  controlled  investi- 
gation is  rather  complex:  do  carniv- 
orous plants  actually  need  nitroge-i 
nous  food  in  the  form  of  insect  bodies? 
And  if  so,  is  the  boggy  soil  in  whicW 
the  plants  grow  markedly  deficient  in 
available  nitrogen?  The  first  view  is 
held  by  many  people,  and  culturalj 
directions  for  the  growth  of  Dionaed 
muscipula,  the  Venus'  fly  trap,  have 
often  included  an  admonition  against 
failing  to  provide  occasional  insects' 
or  even  tiny  bits  of  raw  meat  if  robust; 
growth  is  to  be  assured.  Yet,  the  fewj 
specimens  of  pitcher  plants,  as  well 
as  "fly  traps,"  which  we  have  beeni 
able  to  grow  successfully  in  "cap- 
tivity," with  apparent  health  ands 
vigor,  have  thrived  for  years  without; 
any  insect  or  meat  tidbits.  ' 

I 

REGARDLESS  of  the  often  contradic-j 
tory  literature  built  up  around] 
them,  the  pitcher  plants  are  reward-, 
ing  to  the  observer.  No  need  to  make' 
treks  to  obscure  wilderness  fastnesses; 
they  are  to  be  found  alongside  tliei 
highways  of  the  flat  lands  bordering 
the  coastline,  and  seem  to  have  ai 
particularly  comforting  ability  to  sur-i 
vive    human    contact.    The    areas    ini 


Tubular  leaves  of  Sarracenia  minor 
have  hooded  shields  that  keep  out  rain. ; 


32 


lich  they  thrive  best  are  those  that 
;  slow  to  be  taken  over  by  agricul- 
e  or  by  human  habitation,  and  their 
jged  rootstocks  are  most  resistant 
rough  treatment,  even  to  the  fre- 
snt  roadside  grass  burnings  in  late 
iter  or  earlv  spring, 
rhe  case  of  the  Venus'  fly  trap  is 
Ferent.  Its  unorthodox,  predatory 
lavior  has  placed  it  in  grave  jeop- 
ly.  It  is  the  sole  species  in  a  unique 
1  isolated  genus,  and  is  extremely 
ited  in  its  distribution,  occurring 
vhere  in  the  world  except  special 


habitats  in  the  coastal  plain  region  of 
North  and  South  Carolina.  It  is  not 
easily  grown  in  captivity.  Even  under 
natural  conditions  there  is  a  black 
rot  that  commonly  kills  all  the  leaves 
by  the  time  the  seeds  are  mature.  A 
great  reduction  in  numbers  has  oc- 
curred in  the  past  two  decades,  and 
this  decrease  has  been  conspicuously 
accelerated  in  the  last  few  years.  It 
might  be  necessary  to  develop  more 
efiicient  methods  of  cultivation  for  the 
successful  propagation  of  specimens 
both  in  botanical  and  private  gardens. 


Aquatic  maggot  of  flesh  fly  lives 
in  secretion  of  pitcher,  and  thrives. 


n 


^   ^ 


'ffi5^*„ 


Displacement  (^hite  rings)  and  pressure  wave 
(gray  rings)  are  two  forms  of  underwater  sound 
energy.  Displacement,  or  near-field  effect,  is 
probably  received  by  the  lateral  line  (1),  and 
pressure  wave,  or  far-field  effect,  is  received  by 
the  swim  bladder  and  the  inner  ear  complex  (2). 


ESSU  RE 


''\., 


sychophysi 


^Ji 


'*_/!: 


.:^! 


^y 


I     I 


\  \\V^ 


PULSATING 

AIR 

BUBBLE 


\ 


^iSSmVi 


\ 


\ 


/ 


/ 


igenious 


By  William  N.  Tavolga 


IHE  QUESTION  OF  WHETHER  FISH  CAN  HEAR  seemed  tO 

be  well  established  as  long  ago  as  1820,  when  E.  H. 
;ber,  along  with  his  excellent  anatomical  studies  of  the 
man  ear,  described  the  ears  of  fishes.  He  theorized 
it,  although  the  fish  has  no  external  ear,  the  swrtn 
idder  acts  in  a  manner  analogous  to  the  middle  ear  of 
,n.  That  is,  it  receives  the  sound  energ)'  and  transforms 
nto  vibrations  of  the  fluids  of  the  inner  ear.  It  has  taken 
lost  150  years  to  prove  Weber's  contention.  Around  the 
n  of  the  century,  some  well-controlled  experiments 
arly  demonstrated  that  fish  could  hear.  Sounds  of  buz- 
s,  struck  objects,  and  all  sorts  of  natural  and  artificial 
mds  were  used,  and  lish  were  found  to  respond  to  many 
them.  Karl  von  Frisch  even  trained  a  catfish  to  come 
him  when  he  whistled.  In  the  early  1900's,  G.  H.  Parker 
lorized  that  a  fish  can  detect  sound  under  water  in  two 
ys.  In  addition  to  receiving  sounds  by  way  of  the  swim 
dder  and  inner  ear,  he  said,  the  lateral  line  system  is 

0  sensitive  to  sounds.  This  lateral  line  consists  of  a  series 
minute  sense  organs  imbedded  in  pits  ;ind  tubes  that 
lally  form  a  thin,  visible,  lengthwise  line  on  each  side 
the  body  surface  of  most  fish.  There  are  also  a  number 
interlacing  tubes  and  separate  pits  on  the  head.  This 
;ire  system  was  thought  to  be  primarily  sensitive  to 
ivements  of  water  currents  and  low-frequency  vibrations. 
Once  it  was  established  that  fishes  could  hear,  the  next 
Bstion  was  how"  well?  For  instance,  what  frequencies 

1  a  fish  detect?  What  is  the  minimum  sound  intensity 
It  a  fish  can  hear?  The  first  of  these  seemed  to  interest 
rst  investigators,  particularl)  the  peripheral  question: 
at  is  the  highest  frequency  a  fish  can  hear? 


Most  of  the  experiments  to  determine  the  frequency 
range  of  fish  hearing  were  behavioral.  That  is,  some  re- 
sponse on  the  part  of  the  entire  animal  was  used  as  a 
criterion,  although  a  few  observations  have  been  made 
in  which  the  responsiveness  of  the  sense  organ  was  studied 
directly.  In  the  latter  cases,  electrodes  were  placed  on  the 
nerve  fibers  coming  from  a  receptor  and  the  signal  was 
"wire  tapped."  This  technique  is  extremely  difficult,  as  the 
auditory  nerve  is  short  and  deeply  imbedded  in  bone. 
Some  success  was  achieved  in  sharks,  whose  large  size^ 
and  cartilaginous  skulls  made  the  technique  possible.  Tliis 
wire  tapping  has  also  been  done  with  the  lateral  line, 
where  it  is  a  bit  easier.  Such  data,  however,  are  useful 
only  to  show  the  potentialities  of  the  sense  organ.  That  is, 
we  can  tell  what  stimuli  the  sense  organ  can  react  to  and 
what  messages  it  sends  along  the  nerves  leading  from  it 
to  the  central  nervous  system,  but  we  cannot  know,  from 
such  information,  what  the  animal  will  do  with  these 
signals.  A  classic  example  of  this  is  one  in  which  electro- 
physiological techniques  have  shown  that  the  ordinary 
cat  should  be  able  to  discriminate  colors.  Behaviorally, 
however,  the  cat  is  color-blind.  It  is  apparent  that  some- 
W'here  in  the  central  nervous  system  this  color  information 
is  discarded.  Thus,  if  one  is  primarily  interested  in  the 
behavior  and  ecology  of  the  organism,  it  is  more  desir- 
able to  determine  what  the  whole  animal  wiU  respond  to, 
rather  than  to  measure  the  capabilities  of  the  sense  organ. 

The  methods  that  have  been  used  to  determine  auditory 
capacities  have,  for  the  most  part,  involved  conditioning 
the  animals  to  respond  positively  to  a  sound  associated 
in  time  with  the  presentation  of  food.  Another  technique. 


Bii.i.iiFAn's  inner  ear.  above,  has  enlarged  sac  (1)  at  tlie 
posterior  end  that  receives  sound  vibrations  from  Weberian 
apparatus.  In  human's  inner  ear,  below,  the  hearing  part  is 
formed  into  a  cochlea  (2),  where  frequency  discrimination 
takes  place.  Both  have  three  canals  for  sense  of  balance. 


utilized  primarily  by  investigators  in  the  Soviet  Union, 
is  that  of  classical  conditioning.  Here  the  fish  is  exposed 
to  the  test  sound  and  this  is  followed  shortly  by  a  mild 
electric  shock.  A  positive  response  is  any  sudden  move- 
ment, involuntary  reaction,  or  even  a  respiratory  or  heart 
rate  change  that  occurs  every  time  the  sound  is  made. 
To  summarize  the  results  of  all  these  investigations, 
fishes  must  be  separated  into  two  groups.  The  majority 
of  species  has  an  upper  frequency  limit  of  about  2,000 
or  2,500  cycles  per  second  (abbreviated  to  c.p.s.).  This  is 
a  pitch  about  two  and  a  half  octaves  above  the  standard 
middle  A  on  the  piano.  The  second,  and  smaller,  group 
belong  to  the  order  Cypriniformes,  and  are  considered 
the  hearing  "specialists."  This  order  includes  the  catfishes 
(including  bullheads),  carps,  minnows,  characids,  and 
gymnotid  eels.  It  has  been  reported  that  bullheads  have 
responded  to  frequencies  up  to  4,000  c.p.s.,  and  certain 
minnows  may  hear  as  high  as  8,000.  This  last  is  almost 
an  octave  above  the  highest  note  on  a  piano— a  C  at  4,186 
c.p.s.  (The  Cypriniformes  and  others  show  a  close  associa- 

36 


tion  between  the  swim  bladder  and  the  inner  ear,  whicli 
will  be  discussed  later.) 

Sound  intensity  must  also  be  measured.  What  is  the 
minimum  level  at  any  specific  frequency  to  which  the 
animal  will  respond?  Some  investigators  attempted  to 
measure  this,  but  in  most  cases  they  only  tested  one  of  a 
few  frequencies.  Only  two  reports  I  know  of  attempted  to 
determine  the  complete  hearing  curve  for  a  fish.  Autruni 
and  Poggendorf,  in  1951,  worked  out  the  audiogram  foi 
the  fresh-water  brow^n  bullhead  (Iclalurus  nehulosus,  page 
39).  In  this  sort  of  graph,  the  sound  level  is  given  on  the 
left  side  (ordinate)  and  the  frequency  along  the  base  line 
(abscissa).  The  lower  the  point  on  the  curve,  the  lower  the 
threshold,  that  is,  the  greater  the  sensitivity  at  that  fre- 
quency. In  1961,  Kritzler  and  Wood  made  a  similar  audio- 
gram of  the  bull  shark,  Carcharhinus  leiicas,  at  the  Lerner 
Marine  Laboratory  at  Bimini,  Bahamas  (page  39). 

In  practice,  sound  intensity  is  measured  by  suspending 
an  underwater  microphone  (hydrophone)  in  the  water. 
Since  the  hydrophone  transforms  sound  pressure  into  elec- 


Bhown  iirr.i.iiF  VI)  i^i  one  of  lietirijif!  '"f]io<i;ili?lr."  ujkI  haj^ 
\5i  cbf'riim  ajtparalni;  (  A)  ihiil  (•on.■^i>:l^  ol  fine  large  and  lliree 
^llIaller  lionpr;  lliat  Iransmil  ihe  fcoiunJ  vi})ralionir  Ironi  the 
swim  bladder  and  its  chambers  (B )  to  the  inner  ear  roniplex. 


ical  pressure,  llie  voltage  output  of  the  hydrophone  is 
actly  proportional  to  the  pressure  of  the  surrounding 
und  field.  If  the  hydrophone  and  its  amplifier  are 
operly  calibrated,  the  sound  pressure  can  be  determined 
ith  considerable  precision.  Sound  can  be  measured  in 
rms  of  pressure,  that  is,  force  per  unit  area.  The  units 
;  use  are  dynes  per  square  centimeter— one  dyne  per 
uare  centimeter  is  known  as  a  microbar.  This,  in  turn, 
approximately  equal  to  one-millionth  of  average  atmos- 
leric  pressure. 

N  human  hearing  (out  of  water,  of  course),  the  thresh- 
old at  1,000  c.p.s.,  based  on  an  average  of  many  individ- 
ds  with  "normal"  hearing,  is  .0002  microbar  (page  39). 
his  value  is  often  used  as  a  standard,  and  all  other  sound 
-essures  are  related  to  it.  If  a  person  is  asked  to  discrimi- 
Jte  one  sound  intensity  from  another,  the  minimum  differ- 
ice  he  can  detect  is  defined  as  a  decibel,  but  the  absolute 
agnitude  of  a  decibel  depends  on  where  one  starts.  At 
low  sound  level,  a  decibel  is  much  smaller  than  it  would 


be  at  a  high  level.  The  decibel  scale  is  a  logarithmic  one 
that  is  based  upon  an  equation  in  which  it  is  assumed  that 
human  hearing,  and  that  of  all  other  animals,  follows  a 
logarithmic  law.  Although  most  evidence  indicates  that 
human  hearing  follows  some  other  type  of  equation,  and 
that  there  is  no  reliable  evidence  for  any  other  species, 
we  stick  to  this  decibel  scale  and  use  it  in  acoustics,  elec- 
tronics, and  many  other  fields  because  it  is  convenient. 
We  can  decide,  for  example,  to  choose  the  .0002  microbar 
value  as  a  reference  value.  This  would  then  equal  0  decibels 
—as  in  the  human  audiogram.  The  graph  and  table  on 
page  41  give  a  few  well-known  examples  of  sound  pres- 
sure values  and  their  equivalents  in  decibels.  A  sound 
pressure  of  1  microbar  equals  about  74  decibels. 

In  many  phases  of  acoustics,  especially  in  underwater 
work,  the  I  microbar  value,  rather  than  the  .0002,  is  taken 
as  the  reference  level  of  0  decibels.  This  is  actually  a  more 
objective  reference  and  has  come  into  wider  usage  in  re- 
cent years.  The  audiograms  for  the  catfish  and  shark 
shown  on  page  39  were  drawn  to  that  scale.  Conversion 

37 


from  one  reference  level  to  another  is  a  simple  matter  of 
adding  or  subtracting  74. 

Water  is  much  more  resistant  to  the  propagation  of 
sound  than  is  air.  This  means  that  to  produce  the  same 
effect,  sound  pressure  in  water  must  be  much  greater.  Con- 
versely, at  the  same  pressure,  the  acoustic  energy  in  air 
is  greater  than  in  water.  Sound  volume  can  be  expressed  in 
two  ways.  The  usual,  and  more  convenient,  way  is  in  terms 
of  pressure  in  decibels  with  reference  to  some  standard 
pressure  value  such  as  1  microbar.  However,  we  can  also 
express  acoustic  energy  in  terms  of  intensity  or  power. 
This  is  normally  given  in  watts  per  square  centimeter. 

IN  air,  the  human  hearing  threshold  is  .0002  microbar 
at  1,000  c.p.s.  This  can  also  be  expressed  in  acoustic 
power  as  some  fraction  of  a  watt/cm-.  It  happens  to  be 
one  ten-quadrillionth  of  a  watt,  more  simply  written  as 
10"^*'  watts/cm-.  Actually,  we  are  primarily  concerned 
with  this  power  figure,  since  it  is  the  energy  of  the  sound 
wave  that  we  receive.  Pressure  is  a  more  convenient 
measure  to  use,  but  we  must  insert  a  correction  if  we 
compare  acoustic  pressure  in  air  with  that  in  water.  This 
correction  is  approximately  36  decibels.  That  is,  .0002 
microbar  in  air  is  actually  36  decibels  (of  power)  higher 
than  .0002  microbar  in  water.  To  put  it  another  way,  given 
the  same  power,  the  pressure  in  air  is  36  decibels  low-er 
than  in  water.  All  this  is  because  of  the  higher  density  and 
incompressibility  of  water.  Because  most  measurements 
are  made  in  pressures,  we  now  have  to  convert  all  our 
figures  into  equivalent  power  units  if  we  are  to  make  a 
proper  comparison  of  sound  in  air  and  in  water.  Such  a 
comparison  is  shown  on  page  41. 

In  an  attempt  to  answer  the  question  of  how  well  a  fish 
hears,  I  collaborated  with  Dr.  Jerome  Wodinsky,  a  psy- 
chologist at  Brandeis  University,  to  find  a  conditioning 
experiment  that  would  allow  a  fish  to  give  a  reliable,  re- 
peatable,  and  unequivocal  answer  to  a  question.  The  sim- 
plest answers  are,  of  course,  "yes"  or  "no."  A  "maybe" 
cannot  be  tolerated.  (An  animal  must  be  placed  in  a  situa- 
tion in  which  it  has  only  to  say  "yes."  It  need  do  nothing 
to  say  "no.")   This  sort  of  limitation  is  particularly  im- 


?PP.QOPP.—    SOUND  SOURCE 
Hearing  tests  were  run  in  two-compartmented  tank.  Fish, 
subjected  to  sound  followed  by  electric  shock,  learned  to 
cross  the  barrier  on  hearing  soimd,  thus  avoiding  the  shock. 

38 


portant  in  sensory  studies.  As  the  stimulus  approaches 
its  lowest  detectable  level,  the  subject,  be  it  human  or  fish, 
becomes  unsure  of  whether  he  detects  it  or  not,  and  begins 
to  try  to  say  "maybe." 

The  objective  technique  we  used  is  called  "avoidance- 
conditioning."  It  was  first  demonstrated  in  dogs  by  the 
famous  Russian  psychologist  LP.  Pavlov.  At  the  sound 
of  a  bell  or  the  flash  of  a  light,  the  dog  had  to  lift  its  fore- 
paw.  If  it  did  not  do  so,  it  would  receive  a  mild,  but 
annoying,  electric  shock.  By  raising  the  paw  immediately 
upon  the  presentation  of  the  sound  or  light,  the  animal 
"avoids"  being  shocked.  This  is  a  potent  form  of  con- 
ditioning, and  is  retained  for  long  periods.  It  also  forces 
a  clear,  unambiguous  response  from  the  subject. 

Most  theoreticians  now  agree  that  the  acquisition  ol 
this  avoidance  response  takes  place  in  two  stages.  First, 
the  animal  learns  to  make  the  response  that  will  turn  ofi 
the  noxious  stimulus.  This  has  been  variously  called  classi- 
cal, or  Pavlovian.  conditioning.  The  animal,  therefore, 
learns  to  escape  from  the  noxious  stimulus.  In  the  second 
stage  it  learns  that  the  sound  precedes  the  shock  and  that 
the  same  escape  response  can  be  used  to  avoid  the  shock. 

In  applying  this  method  to  the  study  of  hearing  in  fish, 
we  used  a  "shuttle  box"  (below.)  This  is  an  aquarium 
with  two  compartments  separated  by  a  shallow  barrier. 
The  water  level  is  adjusted  so  that  the  fish  can  swim  from 
one  side  to  the  other,  yet  will  not  remain  on  the  barrier, 
because  the  water  is  too  shallow.  The  sound  source  is  con- 
cealed beneath  the  center  barrier,  and  the  entire  tank  is 
shock-mounted  and  insulated  to  reduce  the  noise  level  in- 
side, reduce  reverberations,  and  prevent  the  animal  from 
seeing  anything  that  might  serve  as  an  additional  cue.  The 
procedure  is  to  turn  on  the  sound  and,  after  a  predeter- 
mined period  of  five  or  ten  seconds,  administer  a  series 
of  short,  intermittent  electric  shocks.  The  fish  first  learns 
to  escape  the  shock  by  crossing  the  barrier,  because  as 
soon  as  it  does  so.  both  shock  and  sound  are  stopped. 
This  phase  takes  only  a  few  trials.  Each  time  the  fish  musi 
move  from  one  compartment  into  the  other  and  can  starl 
from  either  one  for  the  next  trial.  The  spacing  of  the  trials 
must  be  varied,  or  the  fish  learns  the  length  of  the  inter- 
trial  interval  and  begins  to  anticipate  the  shock.  1 

THE  second  stage  of  learning  takes  a  little  longer.  In 
most  species,  three  to  six  days  of  twenty-five  trials 
a  day  are  required  before  the  subject  begins  to  avoiil 
regularly.  A  positive  response,  then,  is  one  in  which  tlit 
fish  swims  across  the  barrier  as  soon  as  the  sound  goes 
on.  but  before  it  receives  a  shock.  The  response  eventually 
becomes  extremely  reliable— so  much  so  that  the  shock 
administration  becomes  unnecessary. 

Once  the  avoidance-conditioning  was  well  established 
we  changed  the  sound  level.  Generally  we  started  with  a 
pure  tone— a  single  frequency— at  an  intensity  we  felt  sun 
the  fish  could  hear.  After  each  avoidance,  the  sound  level 
was  lowered  in  steps  of  2  or  5  decibels,  so  that  the  inten 
sity  would  be  lower  at  the  next  trial.  This  was  continued 
until  the  animal  missed— that  is,  did  not  avoid,  but  receiver 
the  shock  and  escaped.  This  was  recorded  as  a  "no"  answer 
After  each  "no"  the  sound  level  was  raised  for  the  nex! 
trial.  When  the  results  are  plotted  on  a  graph,  a  zigzag 
line  stretching  across  the  paper  is  produced.  If  the  tops  oi 
the  "zigs"  and  bottoms  of  the  "zags"  are  averaged,  we  car 
calculate  the  threshold  for  that  frequency.  It  must  be  re 


;mbered  that  a  sensory  threshold  is  not  an  all-or-none 
uation,  and  there  is  a  degree  of  probability  that  we  will 
t  some  "yes"  answers  below  the  threshold  and  some  "no" 
swers  above  it.  A  "threshold"  is  a  stimulus  level  the  sub- 
;t  can  detect  and  respond  to  50  per  cent  of  the  time, 
d  is  thus  a  statistical  value,  not  an  absolute  one. 
It  is  necessary  to  repeat  such  determinations  a  number 
times  using  different  subjects,  so  that  the  value  ob- 
ned  for  the  given  frequency  is  more  reliable.  Eventually, 
s  is  repeated  at  different  frequencies,  and  an  audio- 
im  for  the  species  can  be  plotted.  For  example,  an  audio- 
am  for  the  squirrelfish  (Holocentrus  ascensionis) ,  a 
irine  species,  is  shown  at  right. 

)THER  species  have  given  us  similar  curves,  but  as 
many  as  20  decibels  higher  or  lower.  So  far  we  have 
irked  out  these  audiograms  for  nine  species  of  marine 
b.  They  represent  a  large  majority  of  salt-water  fish, 
hough  none  is  a  so-called  specialist  in  hearing. 
In  order  to  make  the  determination  less  subject  to  human 
or  and  bias,  the  equipment  for  this  study  has  been 
rtially  automated,  to  allow  us  to  graduate  from  w  orking 
th  a  pair  of  hand-operated  switches  and  watching  the 
)vements  of  the  fish  by  means  of  a  mirror.  The  observer 
3  before  a  control  panel  and  pushes  a  button.  This  button 
tomatically  starts  and  continues  a  trial.  The  sound  goes 
and,  if  the  fish  does  not  avoid,  the  shock  continues 
:ording  to  a  preset  schedule.  When  the  fish  crosses  the 
rrier,  a  beam  to  a  photoelectric  cell  is  broken  and  the 
ind  and  shock  are  automatically  turned  off.  A  clock  is 
o  part  of  this  apparatus,  so  that  the  time  it  takes  a 
DJect  to  respond  is  recorded.  In  addition,  a  counter 
5ps  track  of  the  number  of  times  the  animal  crosses  the 
rrier  during  the  intertrial  interval.  These  data  are  im- 
rtant  because  we  want  to  be  informed  of  the  activity  of 
;  animal — how  often  it  crosses  the  barrier  and  if  these 
ertrial  crossings  represent  "false  alarm"  responses.  All 
s  is  multiplied  by  six  in  our  apparatus,  so  that  we  can 
serve  and  test  six  animals  in  six  different  tanks  simul- 
leously.  Eventually,  we  may  have  to  feed  our  data  into 
computer  so  that  all  the  calculations  and  analyses  can  be 
rformed  on  a  large  number  of  figures  in  a  short  time. 
At  this  point,  we  can  begin  to  make  some  generalizations 
to  Avhat  fish— at  least  marine  fish— can  hear.  For  most 
;cies,  the  upper  limit  is  about  1,500  to  2,000  c.p.s.,  which 
about  one  and  a  half  to  tw'o  octaves  above  middle  A. 
)ove  this  point,  the  sound  levels  become  so  high  that 
;y  may  actually  cause  the  animal  physical  discomfort 
pain.  The  most  sensitive  range  is  from  about  200  to  800 
).s.,  or  a  little  more  than  the  center  octave  on  a  piano, 
this  range,  the  sensitivity  of  some  species  comes  close 
that  of  the  human  ear,  but  we  must  remember  that  we  are 
mparing  a  fish  hearing  in  water  to  the  human  ear  in  air, 
d  this  may  not  be  a  fair  or  meaningful  comparison.  The 
iver  frequency  limits  are  difficult  to  set,  because  it  he- 
mes a  matter  of  definition  as  to  how  low  we  can  go  and 
11  call  it  "sound."  Many  fish  seem  to  be  at  least  as 
isitive  to  a  20  c.p.s.  sound  as  we  are,  but  sound  under 
Iter  presents  a  special  situation,  because  water  is  much 
user  than  air,  and  is  not  easily  compressible.  This  den- 
y  and  incompressibility  offer  resistance  to  the  flow  of 
oustic  energy,  and  although  the  transmission  may  be 
Dre  efficient— the  velocity  of  sound  in  air  is  about  1,080 
3t   (330  meters)   per  second,  while  in  sea  water  it  is 


AUDIOGRAMS  OF  FISH  AND  MAN 


■    40 

SOUND  PRESSURE   JOO.O" 
IN  MICROBARS 

-    30 

* 

-    20 

^^^                                /         "•"" 

^^tH 

-    0 

/                      1.0- 

-  -10 

/ 

•-20 

/ 

■Jv/""^^ 

'^•11 liiil^^                                                   .01-. 

Brown  bullliead.  Ictiiliirus  ncliiilosiis.  is  Iiearinjj  specialist. 


■    AO 

SOUND  PRESSURE 
IN  MICROBARS 

100.0" 

-    30          ^^^^^» 

^^      ■r— 

^^^^^ 

^^^^ 

10.0- 

S^o 

/ 

-    0  ^V 

/ 

1.0- 

--10        ^iv 

/ 

--20 

0.1- 

--SO 

-<0 

_^ 

Bull  shark,  Carcharinus  leucas,  has  narrower  hearing  range. 


"      ',0 

SOUND  PRESSURE    IQOlo" 
IN  MICROBARS 

-    30 

/ 

-               ^ 

t<            / 

-10               ^^ 

/ 

N^^ 

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-  -30 

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01 

1:000      lo.cro     ^0  000 


FREQUENCY  IN  CYCLES  PER  SECOND 

Squirrelfish,  Holocentrus  ascensionis,  also  makes  sounds. 


Human  threshold  shows  the  reference  value  of  1,000  cycles, 
which  is  often  used  as  a  standard.  All  areas  below  graph 
line  represent  frequencies  and  intensities  that  are  inaudible. 


39 


Squirrelfish  had  the  most  sensitive  ears  and  the  broadest 
frequency  range  of  many  marine  species  tested.  It  lacks  a 


Weberian  apparatus,  but  its  unusually  large  swim  bladde 
lies  near  portion  of  the  skull  that  contains  the  inner  eai 


about  4,900  feet  (1,500  meters)  per  second— the  amount  of 
energy  required  to  propagate  a  sound  in  water  is  almost 
150,000  times  greater  than  in  air.  Because  of  this,  another 
factor  becomes  important— the  actual  particle  displacement 
that  results  from  the  vibration  of  a  sound  source.  This 
displacement— called  the  near-field  effect— is  of  consider- 
able significance  at  low  frequencies  and  at  a  short  range 
from  the  source.  Close  to  the  sound  source,  therefore,  the 
acoustic  energy  is  in  two  forms:  one  is  the  pressure  wave 
(as  exists  in  airborne  sound)  and  the  other  is  an  actual 
physical  vibration  of  the  water  itself.  Which  is  it  that  the 
fi.sh  receives?  We  can  safely  say  that  at  frequencies  above 
800  c.p.s.  the  fish  can  respond  only  to  the  pressure  wave, 
and  at  lower  frequencies  and  at  distances  of  20  or  30 
feet  or  more,  the  pressure  wave  is  still  paramount.  In  the 
range  of  the  near-field,  however,  the  displacement  effect 
is  probably  most  important.  Even  when  dealing  with  a 
pure  far-field  pressure  phenomenon,  however,  we  still  get 
into  complications.  If  a  bubble  of  air  is  placed  in  the  path 
of  a  pressure  wave,  the  bubble  will  vibrate  and  produce 
a  near-field  effect  in  its  vicinity.  Two  scientists  at  the  Bell 
Telephone  Laboratories,  G.  G.  Harris  and  W.  A.  van 
Bergeijk,  proposed  that  the  swim  bladder  of  a  fish  may 
act  in  such  a  manner.  The  inner  ear,  then,  would  receive 
this  local  near-field  effect.  In  addition,  there  are  the  com- 
plications of  all  the  reflections  and  reverberations  that  can 
take  place  under  water.  Not  only  is  99.9  per  cent  of  sound 
energy  reflected  back  from  the  water  surface,  but  layers  of 
water  at  different  temperatures  can  serve  as  sound  mirrors. 
These  factors  become  exaggerated  in  the  small  aquariums 
in  which  we  test  the  fish's  hearing.  All  we  can  say  at  this 
time  is  that  we  can  obtain  thresholds  for  some  form  of 
acoustic  energy,  but  cannot  say  exactly  in  what  form  that 
energy  is  received. 

Now  let  us  approach  the  problem  of  hoiv  a  fish  hears. 
Compared  to  the  human  ear,  that  of  the  fish  appears  simple. 
This  is  deceptive.  The  fish  does  not  have  a  helical  cochlea. 


Rather,  the  inner  ear  is  a  sac  of  fluid,  with  areas  of  hai 
cells  protruding  into  a  liquid  (endolymph)  in  which  flof 
one  large  and  two  smaller  bones.  Movements  of  the  ea 
bones  (otoliths)  and  liquid  stimulate  the  hair  cells,  ari 
signals  are  sent  along  the  auditory  nerve  to  the  braii 
Thanks  to  the  brilliant  work  of  von  Bekesy,  we  know  somi 
thing  about  how  our  cochlea  operates  to  discriminate  on 
frequency  from  another,  but  there  is  nothing  comparab] 
in  the  fish  ear.  How  does  a  fish  discriminate  pitch— or  doe 
it?  Some  studies  on  the  goldfish  indicate  they  may,  but  tli 
evidence  is  not  clear  as  to  whether  there  is  a  true  frequenc 
discrimination  or  if  the  apparent  discrimination  is  actual) 
based  on  intensity  differences. 

HOW  does  the  acoustic  stimulus  reach  the  inner  eai 
In  the  hearing  specialists,  like  the  catfish,  there 
a  series  of  four  pairs  of  small  bones  leading  from  the  swii 
bladder  to  the  inner  ear  fluids.  Experiments  have  sho^v 
that  damage  to  these  bones  reduces  the  hearing  capacit; 
The  bones  and  their  probable  functions  were  first  describe 
by  Weber,  and  he  proposed  that  they  act  in  a  manner  ai 
alogous  to  human  middle  ear  bones  in  transmitting  air  \ 
brations  to  the  endolymphatic  fluids.  These  ossicles  ha\ 
since  been  named  the  Weberian  apparatus.  As  mentions 
before,  the  swim  bladder— even  in  fishes  without  the  Webe 
ian  apparatus— can  function  as  a  middle  ear  by  creating] 
local  near-field  effect.  It  is  quite  possible  for  sound  vibr; 
tions  to  reach  the  inner  ear  directly  by  way  of  bone  coi 
duction  through  the  skull.  Sharks  do  not  have  a  swii 
bladder,  but  it  can  be  shown  that  they  have  as  good  hearir 
as  some  bony  fishes  with  swim  bladders.  In  our  own  worl 
differences  in  the  sensitivity  of  marine  fishes  cannot  1 
correlated  with  size  and  location  of  the  swim  bladder. ' 
The  swim  bladder  of  fishes  has  a  number  of  function 
In  most  cases  it  serves  as  a  hydrostatic  organ— that  is,  tl 
buoyancy  of  this  bubble  of  air  counteracts  the  tendenc 
of  the  fish  to  sink.  By  changing  the  volume  of  the  bladde 


40 


he  fish  can  change  its  own  buoyancy.  In  some  cases,  the 
ladder  is  used  as  a  temporary  reservoir  of  oxygen,  and  in 
few  forms  it  even  acts  as  a  lung  for  breathing  air  directlv. 
n  many  species,  the  swim  bladder  acts  as  a  "loud-speaker" 
3r  sound  production.  As  a  hearing  organ,  it  is  undoubtedlv 
iiportant,  because  the  bodv  of  a  fish  is  almost  transparent 
)  water-borne  sound.  The  bladder,  therefore,  can  act  as 
oth  a  loud-speaker  and  a  microphone.  If  we  project  pulses 
f  sound,  as  in  sonar,  we  can  locate  fish  by  the  reflections 
f  the  sound  pulses.  Most  of  this  reflected  sound  comes 
om  the  swim  bladders,  and  verv  little  from  the  rest  of 
le  fish's  body.  The  swim  bladder,  therefore,  serves  as  an 
[^oustical  discontinuity  and.  presumably,  is  of  prime  im- 
ortance  as  a  sound  detector. 

r^7"E  must  not  neglect  the  function  of  the  lateral  line 
W  system  in  sound  detection.  The  structure  of  the  sys- 
ms  individual  sense  organs  is  ideally  suited  for  the 
etection  of  movements  of  water.  Indeed,  it  was  shown  by 
Dutch  scientist,  Sven  Dijkgraaf,  that  the  lateral  line  can 
ive  the  fish  information  about  water  currents  and  moving 
bjects,  and  can  even  be  used  to  locate  the  position  of  ob- 
acles  in  complete  darkness.  As  underwater  sound  pro- 
iices  a  significant  displacement  at  close  range  to  the  sound 
)urce,  that  is,  the  near-field  effect,  this,  too,  can  be  re- 
jived  by  the  lateral  line.  Therefore,  at  close  ranse  and  at 


low  frequencies,  the  lateral  line  is  also  a  hearing  organ. 

In  this  respect,  the  lateral  line  has  certain  advantages 
over  the  ear.  Sound  pressure,  as  such,  is  not  directional. 
In  humans,  if  one  ear  is  plugged,  it  is  impossible  to  de- 
termine the  direction  from  which  a  sound  comes.  By  using 
both  ears,  directionalization  is  possible,  because  of  the 
different  times  it  takes  sound  to  arrive  at  each  ear.  In 
essence,  the  fish  has  only  one  ear.  because  the  spacing  be- 
tween the  two  receptors  is  so  small  and  the  speed  of  sound 
is  so  high.  In  the  near-field,  however,  the  displacement 
energy  is  directional,  and  the  lateral  line  organs  are  dis- 
persed widely  on  the  animal's  body.  Harris  and  van 
Bergeijk  propose  that  the  fish  can  locate  the  sound  source, 
but  only  within  the  limitations  of  the  near-field. 

It  is  clear,  then,  that  fishes  can  respond  to  subsonic 
vibrations  of  the  water,  and  to  sonic  vibrations  up  to  at 
least  2,000  c.p.s..  with  some  specialists  able  to  perceive  up 
to  8.000  c.p.s.  The  most  sensitive  range  is  below  800  c.p.s., 
and  here  many  species  appear  to  have  a  sensitivity  com- 
parable to  that  of  the  human  ear.  The  swim  bladder  is  the 
main  sound  receiver,  transmitting  its  vibrations  to  the 
inner  ear,  but  the  lateral  line  system  is  also  a  hearing 
organ.  The  latter  is  particularly  sensitive  in  the  low-fre- 
quency and  subsonic  range,  and  at  short  distances  it  can 
locate  sound  sources.  Such  conclusions  are  based  on  co- 
operation among  psychologists,  physicists  and  biologists. 


ACOUSTIC 

ACOUSTIC  PRESSURE 

ACOUSTIC  PRESSURE 

POWER    IN 

IN  AIR 

IN  WATER 

WA"rTS/cm2 

IN  DB  RE  1  MICROBAR 

IN  DB  RE  1  MICROBAR 

10-3 

- F-84  JET  TAKEOFF  AT  80  FEET 

: 

90 

- 

10  + 

50 

~ THRESHOLD  OF  FEELING  AT  1000  C.P.S. 

)  RANGE  OF  DYNAMITE  EXPLOSIONS 

40 

80 

-  I 

10-5 

- 

30 

_  SINGLE  MOTOR  AIRPLANE  AT  15  FEET 

70 

v 

10-6 

- 

20 

_ SUBWAY  TRAIN 

60 

_/ 

10-7 

_ 

SYMPHONY  ORCHESTRA  AT  20  FEET 

10 

50 

_  NEARBY  OUTBOARD  MOTOR 

10-8 

- 

40 

0 

_  VERY  NOISY  OFFICE 

~  FOGHORN  BLAST  FROM  NEARBY  TOADFISH 

109 

_ 

—10 

AVERAGE  HOME  RADIO 

30 

-  VERY  ROUGH  SEA  (SHALLOW  LOCATION) 

10-10 

_ 

-20 

AVERAGE  OFFICE 

20 

- 

10-11 

- 

10 

_  SHIPPING  NOISE  (CARGO  VESSELS) 

10-12 

—30 

- PRIVATE  BUSINESS  OFFICE 

- 

0 

CLICKING  OF  MANY  SNAPPING  SHRIMP 

—40 

_ 

10-13 

~* 

—50 

QUIET  CITY  RESIDENCE 

—10 

_  CALM  SEA 

10-14 

- 

-20 

_ THRESHOLD  OF  HEARING  FOR 

-60 

_ QUIET  WHISPER 

SQUIRRELFISH  AT  800  C.P.S. 

10-15 

- 

—70 

—30 

- 

10-16 

~ THRESHOLD  OF  HUMAN  HEARING 

—80 

AT  1000  C.P.S. 

-40 

-  PROBABLE  THRESHOLD  OF  HEARING 

FOR  "SPECIALIST"  FISHES 

10-17 

- 

SCALE  REFERENCE  VALUE:  0  DECIBELS:^:!  MICROBAR.  TO  CONVERT  TO 

.0002  MICROBAR  REFERENCE,  ADD  74  DECIBELS— TEXT  PG.  38.   1 

41 


SKY 
REPORTER 

Gregorian  calendar  was  meant 
to  keep  seasons  in  their  places 

By  Thomas  D.  Nicholson 


WHEN  THE  MODERN  FORM  of  the  calendar  was  first  in- 
troduced on  January  1,  in  the  year  45  B.C.,  one  of  the 
innovations  was  the  shifting  of  the  first  day  of  the  year 
from  March  to  January,  which  had  previously  been  the 
eleventh  month.  The  calendar  was  called  the  Julian  cal- 
endar, after  its  inaugurator,  Julius  Caesar.  In  the  year  the 
Julian  calendar  was  adopted,  the  sun  arrived  at  the  vernal 
equinox— and  spring  began— on  March  25. 

More  than  sixteen  centuries  later,  in  the  year  1582,  in- 
herent inaccuracies  in  the  Julian  calendar  had  accumu- 
lated to  the  extent  that  spring  began  in  the  Northern 
Hemisphere  on  March  10.  That  year.  Pope  Gregory  XIII 
recommended  that  two  major  revisions  be  made  in  the 
Julian  calendar.  In  one,  ten  days  were  dropped  from  Octo- 
ber, so  that  the  date  following  October  4,  1582,  became 
October  15.  In  the  other  revision,  the  leap  year  rule  of  the 
Julian  calendar,  which  had  provided  for  a  leap  year  every 
fourth  year,  was  modified  so  that  there  would  be  97  (rather 
than  100)  leap  years  each  four  centuries.  These  altera- 
tions were  made  in  order  to  restore  the  first  day  of  spring 
to  March  21  and  to  keep  it  there.  This  date  was  selected 
because,  at  the  time  of  the  Council  of  Nicaea  in  a.d.  325, 
when  the  rules  were  established  for  determining  the  date 
of  Easter  and  its  associated  events  each  year,  the  sun  was 
arriving  at  the  vernal  equinox  about  March  21.  The  Julian 
calendar  as  modified  in  1582  is  called  the  Gregorian  cal- 
endar. This  revised  calendar  was  adopted  by  nearly  all 
nations  for  civil  purposes,  although  it  was  not  adopted 
until  1752  in  England  and  its  colonies,  and  1923  in  Russia, 
Greece,  and  other  east  European  countries. 

This  year,  spring  commences  in  the  Northern  Hemis- 
phere at  9:14  a.m.,  EST,  on  March  20,  although  the  exact 
time  is  different  in  other  time  zones  in  the  United  States. 
Last  year,  however,  spring  began  on  March  21  in  the  con- 
terminous United  States  and  on  March  20  in  Alaska  and 
Hawaii,  because  of  local  time  differences.  In  1965,  spring 
will  again  begin  on  March  20  throughout  the  United  States" 

THUS,  in  spite  of  the  Gregorian  calendar  reform,  and 
contrary  to  the  popular  belief  that  spring  in  the  North- 
ern Hemisphere  is  supposed  to  begin  on  March  21,  the  date 
when  the  sun  arrives  at  the  vernal  equinox— an  imaginary 
point  in  space  on  both  the  celestial  equator  and  the" eclip- 
tic—varies from  year  to  year  and  even  varies,  in  any  given 
year,  from  place  to  place  around  the  world.  In  many  parts 
of  the  world,  such  as  the  conterminous  United  States,  the 
beginning  of  spring  occurs  more  often  (three  years  out  of 
four  1  on  March  20  than  on  March  21.  In  other  places,  such 

42 


1 

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^B 

^H 

^B 

^B 

^^^I^M^^^^H^H^^^ 

■ 

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wBSmtKBKBEI^tBl^K^t^K^K^M^m^^M 

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^^^^H^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^I^^^^^^H^^^^^^^^^^ 

■ 

Evolution  of  the  calendar  is  shown  graphically,  abov 
At  top  left,  365-day  Roman  years  were  6  hours  short  evei 
year.  Julius  Caesar  introduced  leap  years  of  366  days  : 
45  B.C.,  but  average  Julian  year  was  more  than  11  minut 


as  Alaska  and  Hawaii,  it  occurs  on  March  20  every  yea 
Although  spring  now  begins  on  either  March  20  or  S 
every  year,  this  has  been  so  only  since  the  start  of  th 
century,  and  will  change  before  the  century  ends. 

The  trouble,  of  course,  still  lies  with  the  calendar.  Tl 
Gregorian  calendar  allows  the  first  day  of  spring  to  chanj 
as  easily  as  did  the  Julian  calendar.  But  the  Gregorian  ca 
endar  has  a  built-in  mechanism  to  bring  the  event  ba( 
to  the  desired  date  every  so  often.  This  mechanism  is  i 
revision  of  the  leap  year  rule.  Three  times  in  every  foi 
centuries  the  leap  year  is  suspended,  and  each  time  tl 
date  of  the  beginning  of  spring  returns  to  March  21.  Bi 
the  mechanism  of  the  Gregorian  calendar,  too,  as  it  no 
exists,  will  be  in  need  of  revision  eventually. 


nA 

^■^ 

/     ' 

L 

/ 

r•■^...  

'Omitting  leap  years  at  endof  cenfury 
produces  an  error  of  almost  1  day  In 
400  years  (dot-and-dash  line,  right). 
The  Gregorian  rule  restores  leap  year 
in  centuries  divisible  by  400,  thus 
oniittingJ_Jeap  years  in  4  centuries. 


:__i-/-p--A!--/"-ir 


a.  42- 

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-0     ■- 

JP 

Julian  calendar 
3  daysin  error 

,;fayA.DSi5:„  J 


^^^H^^^^H^Hm^^       '   1582         1752         1 

923  's^H^m^^^^i 

2000       ^^-    ■"'-*    " HOO     '  -^^^       ^ 

long,  shown  at  lower  left.  Leap  year  rules  are  similar 

le  Julian  and  the  Gregorian  calendars,  but  Gregorian 

omits  leap  year  at  the  end  of  the  century,  top  right. 

e   of  the   Gregorian   calendar,   with   97   leap   years   in 


4  centuries,  repeats  every  400  years  (center  diagram),  but 
the  average  year  is  slightly  long,  so  error  slowly  builds  up. 
Although  the  Julian  calendar  was  13  days  in  error  by 
1582,  only  10  days  were  dropped  by  the  Gregorian  reforms. 


bare  is  no  real  reason  why  the  first  day  of  spring 
lid  fall  on  the  21st  or  any  other  day  of  the  third  month 
le  calendar  year.  It  does  not,  of  course,  in  some  cal- 
irs  that  are  still  in  use  today  (principally  for  religious 
)oses),  such  as  the  Jewish,  Mohammedan,  Indian,  and 
intine  calendars.  In  the  early  Egyptian  and  Roman 
ndars,  the  beginning  of  the  year  usually  occurred  in 
spring,  and  the  first  day  of  spring  was  generally  the 
day  of  the  new  year. 

ctually,  no  calendar  could  keep  the  beginning  of  spring 
he  same  date  inflexibly.  In  the  interval  between  suc- 
ive  arrivals  of  the  sun  at  the  vernal  equinox,  36.5  days, 
)urs,  48  minutes,  and  46  seconds  of  mean  solar  time 
se.  This  interval,  the  tropical  year,  is  the  true  length 


of  the  year  of  the  seasons,  or,  in  other  words,  the  average 
period  in  which  the  seasons  of  earth  repeat  themselves. 

A  calendar  year,  however,  must  have  a  discrete  number 
of  days,  obviously  either  365  or  366.  If  there  are  365 
days  in  a  calendar  year,  then  it  will  be  5  hours,  48  minutes, 
and  46  seconds  short  of  the  period  in  which  the  first  day 
of  spring  repeats  itself.  If  there  are  366  days,  then  the 
calendar  year  is  17  hours,  26  minutes,  and  18  seconds 
longer  than  the  interval  from  spring  to  spring.  In  either 
case,  the  moment  when  spring  begins  cannot  be  the  same 
year  after  year  in  the  calendar,  and  it  will  inevitably  fall 
on  a  different  date.  By  suitably  juggling  365-day  and 
366-day  years,  however,  the  date  of  the  arrival  of  spring 

43 


Astrolabe,  early  navigation  instrument  to  determine  time 
and  latitude  by  star  sighting,  was  made  in  1581.  It  antedates 
the  Gregorian  reforms  and  shows  the  equinox  on  March  10. 


can  be  kept  within  certain  limits.  The  leap  year  rule  of 
a  calendar  is  simply  a  guide  to  help  us  juggle  the  years  of 
different  lengths  suitably. 

When  the  Julian  calendar  was  adopted  it  was  believed 
that  the  duration  of  the  tropical  year  was  3651/4  days.  In 
that  calendar,  therefore,  ordinary  years  were  given  365 
days,  and  each  fourth  year  366  days  in  order  to  keep  the 
new  calendar  in  step  with  the  seasons  and  to  keep  seasonal 
events  at  the  same  calendar  date  each  year. 

As  we  know  today,  the  true  length  of  the  tropical  year 
is  actually  11  minutes  and  14  seconds  shorter  than 
the  average  length  of  the  Julian  year  (365^/4  days).  In 
128  years,  the  accumulated  error  in  the  Julian  calendar 
amounted  to  a  full  day.  In  other  words,  the  arrival  of  the 
sun  at  the  vernal  equinox  came  earlier  by  one  day. 

As  mentioned  before,  spring  began  on  March  10  in  1582, 
and,  if  the  Julian  calendar  had  been  retained,  it  would 
have  continued  to  come  still  earlier,  until  it  gradually 
slipped  back  into  February  and  then  January.  This  would 
have  meant  that  the  Easter  date  would  come,  eventually, 
in  the  winter  months  of  the  calendar  (although  the  season 
would    still    be    spring) . 

In  view  of  the  Gregorian  reforms  that  restored  the  first 
day  of  spring  to  March  21,  it  is  interesting  to  explore  the 
reasons  why  March  20  is  the  first  day  of  spring  some  years 
in  the  present  era  (most  and  even  all  years  in  some  parts 
of  the  world) .  This  happens  because,  in  a  given  century, 
the  effect  of  the  Gregorian  calendar  on  the  date  of  spring 
is  the  same  as  the  effect  of  the  Julian  calendar;  the  leap 
year  rules— the  juggling  of  365-day  and  366-day  years- 
are  the  same  in  both  calendars  in  any  one  century. 

Within  a  century,  the  average  length  of  the  Gregorian 
year,  like  the  Julian  year,  is  365^/4  days,  or  11  minutes  and 
14  second^  longer  than  the  true  interval  between  successive 


arrivals  of  the  sun  at  the  vernal  equinox.  Thus,  as  in  the 
Julian  calendar,  the  beginning  of  spring  comes  earlier  by 
nearly  45  minutes  every  fourth  year.  The  cumulative  effect 
of  this  difference  is  enough  to  bring  the  date  of  the  sun's 
arrival  at  the  vernal  equinox  to  March  20,  and  even  to 
March  19,  in  most  centuries.  But  three  times  every  four 
centuries  (each  century  year  except  those  divisible  by 
400) ,  the  leap  year  is  suspended  in  the  Gregorian  calendar, 
and  the  date  of  the  spring  equinox  reverts  to  March  21. 

AT  the  end  of  a  century,  the  cumulative  error  of  the 
Julian  calendar  was  18  hours,  43  minutes,  and  20 
seconds.  In  the  Gregorian  calendar,  the  last  leap  year  of 
the  century  is  omitted,  so  the  Gregorian  century  is  5 
hours,  16  minutes,  and  40  seconds  short.  Four  Gregorian 
centuries,  therefore,  would  be  21  hours,  6  minutes,  and 
40  seconds  short,  and  this,  if  uncorrected,  would  cause 
the  date  of  spring  to  advance  one  day  (to  March  22)  in 
a  little  more  than  four  centuries. 

To  correct  this,  the  leap  year  is  restored  in  the  fourth 
century  year  (hence  the  rule  that  provides  97  leap  years 
every  400  years) .  The  cumulative  error  (21  hours,  6  min- 
utes, and  40  seconds  short)  in  four  Gregorian  centuries  is, 
therefore,  reduced  by  the  addition  of  one  day,  which 
then  restores  the  spring  equinox  to  March  21.  The  net 
error  in  four  Gregorian  centuries  is  2  hours,  53  minutes, 
and  20  seconds.  In  32  Gregorian  centuries,  this  will  ac- 
cumulate to  an  error  of  23  hours,  6  minutes,  and  40  sec- 
onds. By  the  end  of  that  period,  the  date  of  the  spring 
equinox  in  the  Gregorian  calendar  will  be  permanently 
advanced  to  March  20,  unless  the  present  leap  year  rule 
is  somehow  modified  by  that  time. 

The  effect  of  the  leap  year  rule  on  the  date  spring  begins 
is  reflected  in  the  calendars  of  recent  years.  In  the  last 
decade  of  the  nineteenth  century,  the  arrival  of  spring  in 
the  United  States  fell  each  year  on  either  March  19  or 
March  20  (on  the  20th  three  years  out  of  four).  The 
year  1900,  however,  was  not  a  leap  year.  It  was  an  ordinary 
year  of  365  days.  In  the  first  decade  of  the  twentieth  cen- 
tury, therefore,  the  first  day  of  spring  came  on  either 
March  20  or  March  21,  more  often  on  the  latter  date. 

Since  1900,  the  arrival  of  the  sun  at  the  vernal  equinox 
has  been  coming  about  45  minutes  earlier  each  four  years. 
As  a  result,  the  beginning  of  spring  during  the  1960's  oc- 
curs more  often  on  March  20  in  the  United  States,  and  the 
trend  to  earlier  arrival  of  the  beginning  of  spring  will 
continue  during  the  century.  In  the  last  decade  of  the 
twentieth  century,  the  arrival  of  spring  in  the  United 
States  will  fall  again  on  either  March  19  or  March  20. 

In  most  centuries,  this  tendency  toward  an  earlier  oc- 
currence of  spring  would  be  corrected  by  the  omission  of 
the  leap  year  in  the  century  year,  but  the  next  century 
year,  a.d.  2000,  will  not  be  a  leap  year  by  the  Gregorian 
rule.  The  trend  to  earlier  dates  for  spring's  arrival  will 
continue  unchecked  into  the  twenty-first  century.  By  the 
end  of  the  twent}'-first  century,  spring  will  begin  on  March 
19  in  most  years  everywhere  in  the  United  States.  Finally, 
in  the  year  2100,  the  leap  year  will  be  omitted  again,  and 
the  first  day  of  spring  will  revert  to  March  21,  in  at  least 
some  years  in  all  parts  of  the  world. 


Dr.  Nicholson  is  Assistant  Chairman.  Astronomer,  and  a 
lecturer  at  The  American  Museum-Hayden  Planetarium. 


44 


HE  SKY 
I  MARCH 


:■*  n^•^^'7 


,.  noNW  vsun 


MAGNITUDE  SCALE 

*  —0.1  and  brighter 

*  0.0  to  +0.9 

*  -r  1.0  to  +1.9 

*  +2.0  to  +2.9 
+  +3.0  to  +3.9 

*  +4.0  and  fainter 


■\f     "K«'    . 


;?  *---fM 


^  ^\. 


,•         *         %.  > 


'--^-^^ 


*- -l^--- 


.*  +---\ 


%     ••-.        :- 


•-....<!(>  \    '        -• 


*:x--|  -  *^yT 


o^:     ^   ^     V 


..^.•-    .n^- 


TIMETABLE 

irch  1  11:00  p.M 
h  15  10:00  P-M. 
h  31  9:00  p-M. 

(Local  Ml_ _, 


March  3:  Pluto  is  at  opposition  and  is  farthest  from  earth 

s  year,  2.964  billion  miles. 

March  13:  Mercury  is  at  superior  conjunction,  that  is,  in 

3  with  the  sun  but  on  the  far  side  of  the  sun  from  earth. 

rcury  now  enters  the  evening  sky. 

March  15:  Jupiter  and  the  moon  are  in  conjunction  at  9:00 

I.,  EST.  Although  moonset  occurs  approximately  one  hour 

-lier,  Jupiter  and  the  slender  crescent  moon  should  appear 

proximity  to  each  other  in  the  twilight  sky  this  evening  at 

Dut  7:00  P.M. 

March  16-17:  The  conjunction  of  Venus  and  the  three-day 

iscent  moon  takes  place  at  1:00  a.m.,  EST,  March  17.  In 

!  early  evening  sky  on  the  16th,  the  moon  appears  below 

d  to  the  right  of  Venus,  and  on  the  17th,  above  and  to  the 

t  of  Venus. 

March  20:  The  sun  arrives  at  the  vernal  equinox  at  9:10 

1.,  EST.  Winter  comes  to  an  end  and  spring  commences 

the  Northern  Hemisphere.  In  the  Southern  Hemisphere,  on 

J  other  hand,  this  date  marks  the  end  of  summer  and  the 

ginning  of  autumn. 

March  31:  On  the  last  day  of  the  month.  Mercury  and 


Jupiter  are  in  conjunction,  but  both  are  too  close  to  the  sun 
in  the  evening  sky  to  be  visible. 

Venus  and  Jupiter  are  evening  stars  in  March,  Mars  and 
Saturn  are  morning  stars,  and  Mercury  moves  from  the  morn- 
ing to  the  evening  sky  during  the  month. 

Mercury,  which  enters  the  evening  sky  on  March  13,  is 
too  close  to  the  sun  for  observation  during  most  of  the  month. 
By  the  31st,  however,  the  magnitude  of  the  planet  is  0.7,  and 
it  may  be  seen  low  in  the  west  soon  after  sunset.  Mars  and 
Saturn,  although  morning  stars,  are  too  close  to  the  sun  to 
be  visible  during  March. 

In  the  evening  sky,  Jupiter  is  easily  visible  in  the  early  part 
of  the  moiith,  setting  approximately  three  hours  after  sunset. 
By  the  end  of  the  month,  however,  the  planet  is  too  close  to 
the  sun  for  observation.  Venus  continues  to  separate  from 
the  sun  throughout  March  and  it  continues  to  become 
brighter,  attaining  magnitude  —3.9  on  March  31.  During  the 
entire  month,  Venus  first  appears  high  in  the  western  sky 
soon  after  sundown  and  it  remains  visible  for  nearly  three 
hours.  By  the  end  of  March,  Venus  is  approaching  the  Pie  - 
iades,  the  familiar  star  cluster  in  the  constellation  Taurus. 


Royal  procession,  like  works  on  facing  page,  is  cast  in  brass. 


;v'*2Je'. 


Dahomean  horseman  cocks  and  aims  his  rifle. 


Eider  appears  in  the  trappings  of  a  wise  man. 


Orass  genre  figurines  made  by  the  tribesmen  of  Da- 
homey—formerly a  part  of  French  West  Africa  but  now 
an  independent  republic— are  often  passed  over  by 
connoisseurs  of  African  art  because  such  sculpture  is 
of  very  recent  origin.  To  the  eyes  of  some  Western  col- 
lectors, the  figures  may  also  seem  to  be  inferior  aes- 
thetically to  older  forms  of  African  wood  and  metal- 
work.  Nonetheless,  Dahomean  figurines  merit  attention 
because  they  represent  an  important  type  of  African  art. 
The  bulk  of  so-called  African  art  is  actually  craft. 
However  beautiful  the  execution  of  a  sculpture  may  seem 
to  a  non-African  collector,  beauty  has  little  if  any- 
thing to  do  with  the  value  placed  upon  the  work  of  art 
by  the  tribesman.  For  him,  the  prime  purpose  of  what 
we  call  art  lies  in  its  traditional  context  and  in  its 
fulfihment  of  a  very  specific  function,  usually  ritual. 
Dahomean  figurines  seem  to  have  been  made  first  for 
the  sole  purpose  of  pleasing  a  nineteenth-century 
tribal  king;  these  were  used  to  decorate  the  royal 
palace  at  Abomey.  In  this  respect,  that  is,  as  aesthetic 
decor,  Dahomean  figures  more  nearly  meet  some  pres- 
ent Western  standards  for  fine  art  than  do  the  older, 
more  sought-after  African  ritual  carvings. 

Today,  Dahomean  figures  remain  faithful  indicators 
of  the  tribe's  focuses  of  interest.  The  large  royal  pro- 
cession pictured  on  this  page  conveys  the  vitality  of 
a  tribal  group  united  in  the  belief  that  all  men  are  de- 
scendants of  the  living  king.  Other  figures  shown  on 
these  two  pages— all  cast  in  brass— illustrate  a  re- 
liance upon  strength  of  arms  for  the  tribe's  security, 
and  the  respect  paid  to  the  wisdom  that,  throughout 
all  Africa,  is  assumed  to  accrue  to  the  community  s  aged. 


47 


Preying  jackal  probably  carries  domesticated  animal. 


Menagerie  of  totems  and  death  symbols 


Back  of  a  totemic  alligator  supports  a  small  oil  lamp. 


48 


A, 


.mong  the  major  interests  of  Dahomean 
tribesmen  is  tlie  wild  animal  population  that 
shares  their  environment.  Some  beasts,  like 
the  young  gazelle  shown  below,  are  regarded 
mainly  as  sources  of  food;  others,  hke  the 
jackal,  are  feared  because  they  attack  and 
carry  away  domesticated  animals  on  which 
the  tribesman's  livelihood  may  depend.  Large 
predators,  such  as  the  oversized  leopard 
shown  here  standing  on  a  man's  chest,  are 
both  feared  and  respected.  In  this  example, 
the  leopard  is  a  symbol  of  death  itself: 
unpredictably,  silently,  swiftly,  death  will 
strike  man  down.  Nearly  all  animals  may 
be  subjects  of  the  craftsman's  art  because 
they  are  thought  of  as  totemic  insignia. 
They  are  not  direct  representations  of  ances- 
tors, but  instead  are  the  heraldic  images  by 
which  various  families  identify  themselves. 


Standing  on  man  it  has  killed,  leopard  symbolizes  death. 


This  young  gazelle  has  importance  as  a  source  of  food. 


Archer  and  others  on  these  two  pages  are   aluminum.  This  woman  pounds  rice  in  a  traditional  tribal  method. 

Inland  representational  figurines 


50 


Goat  is  important  part  of  the  wealth  of  African  family. 


exhibiting  a  more  primitive  style  than  Dahomean 
istal  figurines,  these  examples  of  the  sculptor's  art 
re  produced  further  inland.  They  result  from  a  cast- 
;  process  similar  to  that  used  elsewhere,  but  they 
made  of  light  aluminum  alloys  rather  than  pure 
iss.  The  symbolism  of  sculptures  shown  on  these 
jes  differs  from  that  of  the  menageries  and  pro- 
sions  seen  on  preceding  pages.  Here,  figurines 
ebrate  everyday  sights — men  hunting;  a  woman  with 
irtar  and  pestle;  a  cock;  a  lolling,  domesticated  goat. 


Around  some  villages,  strutting  cock  is  familiar  sight. 


With  quiver,  bow,  and  club,  hunter  pursues  his  quarry. 


51 


Dahomean  humor  is  manifest  in  this  caricature  of  a  lazy  female. 


Sophisticated  modes  of  the  tribal  artist 


Tribeswoman  gracefully  supports  native  wares  on  her  head. 


I 


t  is  perhaps  the  sophistication  of  subject 
matter  and  treatment  that  is  the  most  out- 
standing feature  of  this  art  from  Dahomey. 
One  sculpture,  shown  here  at  left,  is  the 
representation  of  a  domestic  scene,  accurately 
portraying  a  humble  activity  in  a  naturalistic 
manner.  The  photo  at  the  top  of  the  page 
pictures  a  caricature  in  metal  that  pokes 
subtle  fun  at  the  vain  preoccupations  of  a 
woman  of  the  tribe.  And,  at  right,  is  shown 
a  figurine  that  conveys  with  exceptional 
power  another  woman's  deep  underlying 
sense  of  religious  devotion. 

Life,  to  the  tribal  African,  is  not  made 
up  of  separate  activities  performed  at  set 
times  for  set  motives;  it  is  an  integrated 
whole.  As  seen  on  this  and  previous  pages, 
every  aspect  of  life,  however  prosaic,  may 
be  thought  worthy  of  the  attention  and 
respect  of  tribal  artists.  The  production  of 
their  figurines  was  encouraged  under  the 
French  and  became  an  important  tourist  in- 
dustry. Nevertheless,  today  such  art  re- 
mains a  valid  expression  of  African  culture. 


52 


-^ 


igure  of  a  woman,  below,  might  suggest  her  deep  religious  feeling. 


^0_?  .* 


1  t' 


NATURALISTS'   NOTEBOOK 


PREDATOR 
NETS  A 
SUGAR  ANT 


Storied  Australian  spider  hunts  by  throwing  web 


TALES  OF  A  SPIDER  that  casts  a  net  over  its  prey 
have  long  been  related  in  South  Africa  and 
Australia.  The  Australian  netting  spider  (Deino- 
pis  subrufaj,  shown  slightly  larger  than  life-size 
in  this  picture  sequence,  practices  this  strange 
predatory  method.  It  is  a  member  of  the  family 
Deinopidae,  which  comprises  the  cribellate  spi- 
ders. In  the  United  States,  only  one  genus  of  Dei- 
nopidae with  one  species  is  known— the  ogre-faced 
spider  (D.  spinosus)  of  Florida  and  Alabama. 

At  the  top,  a  long-bodied  female  Australian 
netting  spider  is  seen  supporting  herself  on  a  guy 
strand  as,  with  her  fourth  pair  of  legs,  she  combs 
out  the  first  fluffy  threads  from  the  spinnerets 
(organs  for  producing  threads  of  silk  from  the 
secretions  of  the  silk  glands).  In  succeeding 
frames  she  is  depicted  in  more-advanced  stages  of 
web-construction.  Below,  at  right,  is  the  finished 
web  suspended  from  support  threads.  The  spider 
takes  hold  of  the  corners  of  the  web  and  awaits 
her  prey,  in  this  case  a  sugar  ant.  She  then 
stretches  the  web  taut  and  hurls  it  down  over  the 
ant,  as  seen  in  the  final  picture.  Afterward,  the 
voracious  spider  ingests  both  the  ant  and  web. 


54 


J^CORPlNGg 


r    N£>.3of  Droll>&nKee5  5eapop1:Sepie3 


■  SOUHDS  OF  THE  SEA  is  a  7"  x  33  RPM  LP 
recording  thai  fits  regular  turntabLea, 
and  pLays  for  12  minutes.  On  one  side 
we  walk  along  the  shore  listening  to 
the  gulls  and  the  surf,  on  the  other  we 
sail  out  of  Newport  on  a  foggy  morning 
listening  to  the  whistles  and  the  bells. 

■  WE  SEA  AT  CASTLE  HILL  is  a  12" mono  LP 
for  those  who  are  perfectly  satisfied 
to  hear  the  surf  without  any  comment. 
In  places  the  bell  in  the  lighthouse  is 
heard  above  the  waves.  One  listener 
writes:  "THE  SEA  AT  CASTU  HILL  is  the 
best  yet  !  I  have  practically  worn  it 
out  listening  to  it,  but  it  could  never 
wear  me  out  because  it  is  so  tranquil- 
lizing."  On  Side  B  of  this  record  is  a 
recording  of  the  side-wheeler  ALEXANDER 
HAMILTON  on  a  trip  up  the  Hudson  River. 
Beautiful  whistles,  and  the  rythmic 
sighs  and  clanks  of   the  steam  engine. 

1  BIRDS  ON  A  HAY  HORNING  is  another  12" 
giving  on  Side  A  thirty-six  bird  songs 
Just  as  you  would  hear  them  in  the  East 
in  Spring.  A  narration  identifies  the 
birds  heard.  On  Side  B  the  same  songs 
are  given  without  any  talking,  Alfred 
L.Hawkes  of  the  Audubon  Society  of  R.I. 
says  of  this:  "Designed  for  simple  lis- 
tening enjoyment,  it  can  also  be  used  to 
sharpen  up  one's  ear  for  identification 
or  to  recall  the  pleasure  of  a  Spring 
morning  in  the  country. " 


Birds  on  a  fllaii  IHornina 


Prices,    including  postage: 

CD  SOUNDS  OF  THE  SEA,  7"  x  33,  S  7.25 
CD  THE  SEA  AT  CASTLE  HIU,  12"  S  5.00 
CZl  BIRDS  ON  A  HAY  MORNING,  12"  $5.00 
^^All   three  of  the  above  for     $  10.00 

DROLL -Yankees  inq 

PROVIDENCE,    R.I.     02906 


name 

address. 

Full  refund  if  not  satisfied.   A  list  of 
our  records  mailed  on  request.    Try  One! 

56 


About  the  Authors 

Dr.  Alan  Richard  Schulman.  author 
of  "Siege  Warfare  in  Pharaonic  Egypt," 
is  an  Egyptologist  who  is  currently  teach- 
ing in  the  History  Department  of  Co- 
lumbia University.  In  addition  to  his 
teaching  activities,  Dr.  Schulman— under 
a  grant  from  the  American  Philosophical 
Society— has  been  engaged  in  research 
on  the  cult  of  Ptah  at  Memphis,  as  de- 
picted on  private  stelae  from  that  site.  He 
is  also  a  Fellow  of  the  American  Council 
of  Learned  Societies  and  is  a  member  of 
the  American  Research  Center  in  Egypt. 
Dr.  Schulman's  field  work  includes  par- 
ticipation in  the  1962  Joint  Excavation 
of  the  University  Museum  (University 
of  Pennsylvania)  and  Peabody  Museum 
(Yale  University)  in  Egyptian  Nubia. 

The  distribution  of  grizzly  bears- 
past  and  present— is  the  subject  of  Dr. 
A.  W.  F.  Banfield's  article,  entitled 
'"Grizzly  Territory."  The  author  is  Chief 
Zoologist  of  the  National  Museum  of 
Canada,  in  Ottawa.  Before  assuming  his 
present  position.  Dr.  Banfield  was  Chief 
Mammalogist  of  the  Canadian  Wildlife 
Service,  Department  of  Northern  Affairs 
and  National  Resources.  Among  Dr.  Ban- 
field's  special  interests  are  feeding  habits 
of  the  short-eared  owl,  big  game  manage- 
ment, barren-ground  caribou  investiga- 
tion, Arctic  mammalogy,  and  systematics. 

Dr.  Virgil  N.  Argo,  an  entomologist 
who  has  written  previously  for  Natural 
History,  wrote  the  article  about  insect- 
trapping  plants.  Before  his  retirement, 
Dr.  Argo  was  Associate  Professor  of  Bi- 
ology at  The  City  College  of  New  York. 

"Psychophysics  and  Hearing  in  Fish" 
is  the  work  of  Dr.  William  N.  Tavolga. 
Research  Associate  in  the  Department  of 
Animal  Behavior  at  The  American  Mu- 
seum and  an  Associate  Professor  in  the 
Department  of  Biology  at  The  City  Col- 
lege of  New  York.  Dr.  Tavolga's  studies 
include  the  embryology  of  teleost  fish, 
fish  parasitology,  endocrinology  and  be- 
havior of  fish,  and  underwater  sounds. 

Vagaries  of  various  calendar  systems 
and  why  they  occur  are  explained  in  this 
month's  "Sky  Reporter"  column,  which  is 
regularly  presided  over  by  Dr.  Thomas 
D.  Nicholson.  Dr.  Nicholson  is  Assist- 
ant Chairman  and  Astronomer  at  The 
American  Museum-Hayden  Planetarium. 

In  "Tribal  Art  from  Africa,"  Mr.  Col- 
in M.  Turnbull  discusses  the  origins 
and  significance  of  Dahomean  figurines 
made  of  brass  and  aluminum  alloys,  and 
their  equivocal  position  in  the  field  of 
African  art.  Mr.  Turnbull  is  Assistant 
Curator  of  African  Ethnology  in  The 
American  Museum's  Department  of  An- 
thropology, and  is  the  author  of  The  For- 
est People  and  The  Lonely  Ajrican.  The 
photographs  of  the  figurines  that  illus- 
trate the  article  were  made  by  Lee  Boltin. 


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A  LATE  SUMMER  CRUISE 


to  GREECE 

the  GREEK  ISLANDS 

and  TURKEY 

3  to  24  September,  1964 

in.he  M.S.  MOLEDET 

Guest  lecturers  on  the  summer  cruise  are: 

Professor  R.  M.  Cook,  M.A.,  Professor  of  Classical  Archaeology  in  the 
University  of  Cambridge,  and  President  of  the  Society  for  Hellenic 
Travel. 

Mr  J.  V.  H.  Eames,  M.A.,  F.S.A.,  Lecturer  in  Classical  Archaeology  in 
the  University  of  Liverpool. 

Professor  A.  W.  Lawrence,  M.A.,  F.S.A.,  Professor  of  Classical  Archaeo- 
logy in  the  University  of  Cambridge  {1944-51)  and  Professor  of 
Archaeology  at  the  University  College  of  Ghana  {1951-7). 

Professor  H.  W.  Parke,  M.A.,  Litt.D.,  Professor  of  Ancient  History  at 
Trinity  College,  Dublin. 

Mr  Oleg  Polunin,  M.A.,  F.L.S.,  of  Charterhouse  School,  who  will  talk  on 
birds  and  identify  them. 

All  inclusive  cost  from  New  York  starts  at  $967.  00 
Trans  Atlantic  air  transportation  by  B.  O.  A.  C. 

OPTIONAL  EXTENSION: 

ROMAN  FRANCE  -  SOME  SITES  AND  CITIES  IN 

PROVENCE. 

For  complete  information  about  the  cruise 
mail  coupon  below; 

■■    ^^    mm    ■■    ^HH    ^Mi    ^^    ^B    ■■■    ^^    "^    ■*"    1"    "^    ^^   ^*    ' 

LINDBLAD  TRAVEL, INC. 
One  East  53rd.  Street,  New  York  22,  N.  Y. 

Please  send  folder  describing  the  summer  cruise 
to  Greece. 


NAME- 


ADDRESS- 
CITY 


JONE_ 


_STATE_ 


DO  YOUR 

EAGLE  WATCHING 

WITH  A 

HONEYWELL 

PENTAX! 

The  purposefiil  stare  of  an 
Olympian  bird  has  nothing  on  the 
eagle-eye  of  a  Pentax  camera.  Its 
sharp  lens  captures  every  photo 
for  you  in  exact  detail— whether 
you  are  using  a  standard  55  mm 
lens  or  another  in  the  Pentax  sys- 
tem of  thirteen  interchangeable 
lenses. 

Remember  that  the  Pentax 
"eye"  sees  on  film  exactly  what 
you  see  in  the  viewfinder,  because 
you  actually  focus  and  compose 
your  picture  through  the  taking 
lens.  Until  you've  tried  this  your- 
self, it's  hard  to  visualize  how 
much  a  Pentax  can  help  your 
photography. 

Your  Honeywell  Photo  Prod- 
ucts Dealer  wUl  be  pleased  to  show 
you  the  H3v  at  $229.50  and  the 
Hla  at  just  $169.50.  Ask  him  for 
a  demonstration  soon! 

For  your  copy  of  "Lenses  for  the 
Honeywell  Pentax," 
send  20c  to  Herb  Roberts 
(209),  Honeywell,  Den- 
ver, Colorado  80210. 

HONEYWELL  PRESENTS   .  ^^ 

SCiEKSS   ALL.  STARS   ■  <*^ 
SUNDAYS  4:30    E.S.T. 


Honeyurell 

PHOTOGRAPHIC   PRODUCTS 


NATURE  and  the 
MICROSCOPE  i 

Looking  closely  at  light     ; 


By  Julian  D.  Corrington 


IT  IS  ESSENTIAL  to  Understand  some- 
thing of  the  nature  of  light  and  what 
happens  in  its  passage  through  the  ob- 
ject and  the  microscope.  Theories  in  op- 
tics lead  into  the  most  rarefied  areas  of 
higher  mathematics,  but  a  few  of  the 
simpler  principles  can  be  of  great  assist- 
ance to  the  microscopist.  Light  is  one 
manifestation  of  radiant  energy,  the  type 
of  kinetic  energy  that  radiates  away  in 
all  directions  from  its  source.  Light  con- 
stitutes one  octave  in  the  whole  electro- 
magnetic spectrum,  which  includes  radio 
waves,  high-frequency  waves,  micro- 
waves, infrared  rays  (heat),  ultraviolet 
rays,  X  rays,  and  cosmic  rays. 

All  of  these  emanations  have  certain 
features  in  common:  they  are  produced 
by  a  power  source,  such  as  an  electric 
generator,  a  radio  transmitter,  a  hot  stove, 
the  sun,  an  electric  light  bulb,  a  cathode 
tube,  or  by  atomic  disintegration;  they 
proceed  in  wave  fronts  that  are  vertical 
to  the  line  of  propagation  and  pass  in 
all  directions  at  a  uniform  velocity  of 
186.285  miles  per  second;  they  travel 
in  straight  lines  (rectilinear  propaga- 
tion) ;  their  course  and  velocity  may  be 
altered  if  their  progress  is  impeded,  giv- 
ing rise  to  absorption,  reflection,  refrac- 
tion, diffraction,  and  interference,  which 
are  important  in  microscopy. 

The  various  forms  of  radiant  energy 
differ  from  one  another  in  the  frequency 
of  their  vibrations  (number  per  second) 
and  the  consequent  wavelengths;  in  their 
source  and  in  the  type  of  receiver 
adapted  to  their  recognition,  such  as 
radio  receivers,  heat-sensitive  corpuscles 
in  the  skin,  or  rod  and  cone  cells  in  the 
retina  of  the  eye;  and  in  our  psychologi- 
cal interpretation  of  them. 

Early  Theories  about  Light 

THOSE  emanations  toward  the  lower 
end  of  the  spectrum  are  designated 
as  waves  (radio  waves,  microwaves), 
whereas  those  toward  the  higher  end  are 
rays  (X  rays,  cosmic  rays).  This  reflects 
the  dual  nature  of  all  the  forms  of  radi- 
ant energy  and  recalls  the  history  of 
their  discovery.  In  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury Newton  advocated  a  corpuscular,  or 
emission,  theory  of  light,  regarding  it  as 
made  up  of  minute  particles,  like  ultra- 
microscopic  bullets  shot  from  the  source. 
The  gamma  rays  of  radioactive  nuclear 
disintegration   would   be  a  modern   ex- 


ample. Newton's  contemporary  advei 
sary  was  Huygens,  who  argued  for 
wave  theory  of  light,  contending  tb 
light  does  not  consist  of  matter  at  alj 
but  of  undulatory  vibrations  propagate 
as  waves  in  a  hypothetical  "ether." 

Owing  to  the  great  influence  of  Nev 
ton  upon  scientific  thought,  the  corpui 
cular  theory  dominated  in  his  day  an 
throughout  the  eighteenth  century.  A 
the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  centur 
Young,  and  later  Fresnel.  demonstrate 
that  the  phenomena  of  diffraction  an 
interference  demanded  an  undulatory,  o 
wave,  theory  of  light,  and  the  emissio 
theory  was  abandoned.  Maxwell  showe 
that  light  waves  were  electromagnet] 
waves  of  a  particular  band  of  frequei 
cies.  With  the  twentieth  century  cam 
the  discovery  that  a  beam  of  light  pla^ 
ing  upon  the  cathode  of  a  photoelectri 
cell  causes  the  production  of  an  electri 
current.  This  phenomenon,  called  tli 
photoelectric  effect,  demanded  a  retui 
to  the  corpuscular  theory  of  light.  Mon 
over,  Planck  showed  that  the  energy  ( 
radiation  was  not  emitted  continuous! 
but  in  discrete  packets,  which  he  calle 
quanta.  A  quantum  of  light  energy  Wc 
designated  a  photon. 

Early  in  this  century,  physicists  teacl 
ing  optics  were  in  a  difficult  positioi 
One  wag  suggested  that  professors  teac 
the  corpuscular  theory  of  light  on  Moi 
days,  Wednesdays,  and  Fridays,  and  tE 
wave  theory  of  light  on  Tuesdays,  Thur 
days,  and  Saturdays.  Today  light  is  r 
garded  as  an  emission  of  photons  ai 
companied  by  wave  action,  but  a  fu 
explanation  of  this  dualistic  interpret 
tion  and  reconciliation  of  conflictir 
views  remains  a  task  for  future  scientist 

Vibrations  Cause  Waves 

WHEN  a  stone  is  thrown  into  a  qui 
pool  of  water  we  see  concentr 
circles  of  waves  spreading  outward,  an 
it  is  difficult  to  realize  that  water  pari 
cles  do  not  move  outward  from  the  centi 
of  the  disturbance.  On  a  windless  da 
for  example,  a  cork  in  the  path  of  tl 
waves  bobs  up  and  down  but  does  ni 
move  laterally.  Vibrations,  then,  resu 
in  undulations,  which  are  measured  : 
frequency  (the  number  of  vibrations  pi 
second )  ;  in  wavelength  (the  distani 
from  the  crest  of  one  wave  to  the  crest 
the  next) ;  and  in  amplitude  (the  amou 


58 


he  vertical  displacement  of  a  wave). 
n  the  electromagnetic  spectrum, 
sehold  electricity  of  the  60-cycle  al- 
lating  current  variety  consists  of 
es  with  lengths  measured  in  thou- 
ds  of  kilometers;  wireless  and  radio 
es  are  hundreds  of  meters  long; 
rt  radio  waves  and  microwaves  are 
isured  in  meters  and  centimeters, 
h  infrared,  we  need  new  yardsticks 
void  unwieldy  figures.  The  common 
isurement  for  objects  seen  under  the 
roscope  is  the  micron  {ij-)  ,  a  thou- 
ith  of  a  millimeter;  the  millimicron 
i)  is  the  thousandth  part  of  a 
ron;  and  finally  the  Angstrom  (A)  is 
ten-thousandth  of  a  micron.  Since  all 
isurements  in  modern  physics  use  the 
:imeter  (cm.)  as  the  standard  unit,  a 
imeter  is  0.1  cm.,  a  micron  is  0.0001 
,  a  millimicron  is  0.0000001  cm.,  and 
Angstrom  is  0.00000001  cm.,  the  hun- 
i-millionth  part  of  a  centimeter. 

Shorthand"  for  Big  Numbers 

HESE  are  extremely  awkward  figures 
to  use  and  they  invite  typographical 
irs.  Therefore  the  denary  system— in 
:h  the  number  of  zeros  is  expressed 
sxponents— is  now  almost  universal, 
he  denary  system  a  micron  is  lO"* 
,  a  millimicron  is  10'  cm.,  and  an 
;strom  is  10'^  cm.  Millimicrons  and 
stroms  are  used  in  measurements  of 
elengths  of  light,  ultraviolet,  X  rays, 
ima  radiation,  and  cosmic  rays.  The 
d  in  the  spectrum  occupied  by 
elengths  of  visible  light  runs  from 
3'^  to  4x10'^  cm.,  which  can  also  be 
ressed  as  8,100  to  3.900  A.  The  fre- 
ncy  of  light  waves  runs  from  4.3x10*'' 
.SxlO'''  vibrations  per  second, 
igures  in  such  categories  stagger  the 
gination.   It   is   easy   to   understand 

physicists  are  not  fond  of  trying  to 
sent  mechanical  models  for  the  lay- 
1,  but  themselves  deal  almost  wholly 
mathematical  expressions.  The  ve- 
ty  of  light  is  such  that  an  electro- 
;netic  wave  in  the  light  band  (or  any 
;r)  will  travel  more  than  seven  times 
md  the  earth  at  the  Equator  in  one 
ind.  Light  from  the  sun,  at  a  distance 
3  million  miles,  will  reach  the  earth 

little  more  than  eight  minutes,  and 
n  Alpha  Centauri.  the  nearest  star, 
3ur  years.  Astronomical  distances  are 
red  in  light-years,  the  distance  a 
e  of  light  travels  in  one  year,  and  far- 
y  galaxies  are  on  the  order  of  two 
on  light-years  from  earth.  This 
ins  that  we  view  them,  as  with  the 
•inch  telescope  on  Mount  Palomar, 

as  they  may  be  today  but  as  they 
e  two  billion  years  ago. 

Phenomena  that  Affect  Light 

SERS  of  optical  instruments,  such  as 

the  microscope,  are  particularly  in- 

sted  in  what  can  happen  to  a  ray  of 

,t   as   it   proceeds   from   its   source. 


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59 


OUR  NEW 
ARCHEOLOGY  TOUR 


GREECE  AND  EGYPT 

This  exciting  29-day  tour  personally  conducted 
by  Dr.  Cyrus  Gordon  will  leave  New  York  via 
Lufthansa  jet  on  March  18,  1964. 

Among  the  important  sites  of  Greek  and  Egyp- 
tian antiquity  you  will  visit  are:  ATHENS— boom- 
ing modern  city  and  rich  repository  of  a  glorious 
past,  still  present  everywhere.  MYCENAE  and 
TIRYNS-Cyclopean  walled  citadels  renowned  in 
history  and  legend.  CORINTH-once  the  epitome 
of  luxurious  living  and  its  antithesis,  SPARTA 
the  austere.  OLYMPIA  and  DELPHI-sacred  to  the 
gods,  games,  and  oracle.  THE  ISLES  OF  GREECE 
-Crete,  Hydra,  Delos,  Mykoncs,  Santorin- 
sparkling  jewels  of  the  Aegean.  CAIRO— Moslem 
metropolis  with  its  incomparable  museum,  a 
panoply  of  Pharaonic  splendors,  and  nearby 
MEMPHIS,  SAKKARA,  GIZA,  the  FAYUM.  CRUISING 
THE  NILE-to  ASWAN  and  the  soon-to-be  sub- 
merged great  temple  at  ABU  SIMBEL.  to  KAR- 
NAK,  LUXOR,  THE  VALLEY  OF  THE  KINGS,  and 
DENDERAH.  This  will  be  an  unforgettable  journey 
through  time  and  space  to  the  wellsprlngs  of 
Western  civilization.  $1920.00  all-inclusive.  The 
limited  size  of  the  group  makes  early  reserva- 
tions advisable.  We  will  be  pleased  to  send  you 
without  obligation  a  detailed  itinerary  and  com- 
plete information. 

Dr.  Cyrus  Gordon  has  served 
as  an  archeologist  on  many 
expeditions  in  the  Near  East. 
'#''?'  He  participated  in  unearthing 
the  royal  tombs  at  Ur,  in  dis- 
covering the  mines  of  King 
Solomon,  and  deciphering  the 
Tell  el-Amarna  tablets  found 
in  Egypt. 
He  is  the  author  of  many 
books  and  articles  on  the  ancient  East  Medi- 
terranean. Among  the  books  are  Adventures  in 
the  Nearest  East,  The  World  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, and  Before  the  Bible:  The  Common  Back- 
ground of  Greek  and  Hebrew  Civilization. 

For  many  years  he  has  taught  the  languages, 
history,  and  archeology  of  Egypt,  Greece,  and 
many  other  Near  Eastern  lands. 

He  is  also  an  experienced  public  lecturer  on 
the  subject  of  this  tour. 

LINDBLAD  TRAVEL,  Inc.,  1  E.  53  St.,  N.Y.  22,  N.Y. 
Please  send  me  details  and  itinerary  of  your 
forthcoming  tour  to  Greece  and  Egypt. 

mm 

ADDRESS 

CITY STATE 

6o 


Image  of  pencil  seen  through  a  hlock 
of  glass  does  not  line  up  with  object 

Light,  like  other  emanations  of  the  elec- 
tromagnetic spectrum,  can  show  absorp- 
tion, reflection,  refraction,  diffraction, 
interference,  and  the  Doppler  effect 
when  its  passage  is  impeded.  We  dis- 
cussed reflection  in  Natural  History, 
November.  1963,  so  we  will  now  define 
the  other  effects  briefly. 

Radiant  energy  may  be  absorbed  by 
the  substance  upon  which  it  falls.  Thus 
a  black  cloth  will  absorb  more  and  re- 
flect less  light  than  will  a  white  cloth.  A 
certain  amount  of  the  light  passing 
through  lens  systems  in  a  microscope 
will  be  absorbed  and  lost,  and  this  is  one 
reason  why  high-power  optical  systems, 
with  their  numerous  optical  components, 
require  stronger  illumination  than  do 
low-power  objectives. 

Refraction  is  the  bending  of  light  rays 
as  they  pass  from  a  medium  of  one 
density  into  another  medium  of  a  differ- 
ent density,  as  from  air  into  glass.  This 
bending,  also  termed  deviation,  enables 
the  construction  of  glass  lenses  that  di- 
verge or  converge  light  rays  that  pass 
through  an  objective  and,  along  with 
diffraction,  permits  the  formation  of 
magnified  images. 

Diffraction  is  the  slight  bending  of 
light  rays  as  they  pass  by  an  edge  of  an 
opaque  body  or  through  a  narrow  slit. 
To  observe  this  phenomenon,  cut  a  slit 
in  a  card,  hold  it  close  to  and  directly  in 
front  of  one  eye,  and  look  through  the 
slit  toward  a  light.  You  will  see  a  num- 
ber of  fine  black  vertical  lines  in  the  slit 
that  are  spurious  images  of  the  slit 
caused  by  diffraction.  A  fine-toothed 
comb  makes  another  good  demonstrator. 
Light  diffracts  around  particles  in  the 


because  of  deviation.  Prism  breaks  wli 
light  into  spectrum  through  dispersion 

fine  detail  of  an  object  observed  w 
the  microscope,  and  continues  on  to ; 
produce  this  detail  in  the  image. 

Interference  occurs  when  beams 
light  from  two  different  sources  hit  I 
same  target.  If  the  two  waves  arrive 
phase— with  their  crests  coinciding— ii 
constructive  interference,  or  reinfor 
ment.  If  they  arrive  out  of  step  by  h 
a  wavelength,  so  that  the  crest  of  c 
wave  coincides  with  the  trough  of 
other,  we  have  destructive  interfereii 
or  cancellation.  Thomas  Young,  abi 
1803,  demonstrated  to  amazed  Lond 
audiences  that  it  is  possible  to  achi< 
blackness  on  a  screen  by  throwing  t 
beams  of  light  upon  it  if  they  are  out 
phase.  Thus,  the  alternating  light  a 
dark  bands  seen  when  looking  throu 
the  slit  in  the  card  or  the  teeth  of  a  coi 
result  from  the  combined  effects  of  c 
fraction  and  interference. 

Apparent  Frequency  Changes: 

THE  Doppler  effect— which  is  impc 
ant  astronomically  but  has  no  be 
ing  on  microscopy— occurs  when  I 
emission  source,  the  observer,  or  b< 
are  in  motion  with  respect  to  each  oth 
If  you  approach  the  light  source  > 
will  encounter  more  waves  per  seco 
than  if  you  stand  still,  and  if  you  retri 
you  encounter  fewer  waves  per  secoi 
This  means,  for  example,  that  there 
an  apparent  increase  in  frequency  : 


Dk.  Cokrincton,  who  is  well  knowi 
in  the  field  of  microscopy,  recently 
retired  as  Professor  of  Zoology  ai 
the  University  of  Miami  in  Florida 


1 

^^^^^^'^'^^tli:^^^ 

/ 

\    / 

\  / 

A 

rivex  lens  refracts  a  beam  of  light 
lat  the  light  is  brought  to  focus. 

ease  in  wavelength  of  light  from  a 
int  galaxy  of  stars  if  that  galaxy  is 
■caching  our  own,  and  the  converse 
is  receding. 

ght  also  exhibits  the  phenonienon 
Dlarization,  and  certain  microscopes 
accessories  are  designed  for  use  with 
rized  light.  This  subject  will  be 
:ed  in  a  future  column, 
ne  of  Newton's  important  discoveries 
that  white  light,  as  from  the  sun, 
be  broken  up  into  a  rainbow  of  col- 
by  passage  through  a  glass  prism, 
distinguished  red,  orange,  yellow, 
n,  blue,  indigo,  and  violet,  each  color 
ding  into  another  to  form  a  con- 
ous  spectrum.  This  is  the  phenom- 
1  of  dispersion,  which  occurs  because 
e  light  does  not  consist  of  uniformly 
ogeneous  wavelengths,  but  is  com- 
d  of  all  those  between  8,100  and 
0  Angstroms.  Each  wavelength  re- 
ts at  a  slightly  different  angle  as  it 
es  from  air  into  the  prism  and  out 
air  again.  The  longer  wavelengths 
refracted  less  than  the  shorter  waves, 
;h  bend  more  sharply,  so  the  beam 
ihhe  light  is  spread  out  into  many 
net  components.  Actually,  they  are 
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ity  to  see  color;  everything  appears 
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ond,  inverted  prism  after  the  first  one. 
The  second  prism  recombined  the  spec- 
tral color  band  into  white  light. 

Aberration  and  Magnification 

ONE  conclusion  that  must  be  drawn 
from  Newton's  experiments  is  that 
we  cannot  refract  light  without  breaking 
it  up:  deviation  compels  dispersion. 
Lenses  for  the  microscope  or  telescope 
must  cause  deviation  of  light  in  order 
to  produce  magnification,  but  the  con- 
comitant undesirable  dispersion  causes 
color  halos  in  the  enlarged  image.  In  the 
early  days  of  optical  instruments,  micro- 
scopes and  telescopes  had  single  lenses 
and  the  objective  was  called  an  object 
glass.  Today  we  refer  to  such  objectives 
as  uncorrected.  In  contrast,  modern  ob- 
jectives contain  optical  elements  made 
up  of  two  or  more  lens  components  that 
are  calculated  to  cancel  out  each  other's 
deficiencies  as  much  as  possible.  These 
objectives  are  called  corrected  and  are 
termed  achromatic  (without  color),  al- 
though correction  can  never  be  perfect. 

So  objectionable  was  the  chromatic 
aberration  of  early  instruments  that 
Newton  and  later  obsen'ers  gave  up  mak- 
ing refracting  telescopes  and  turned  to 
designing  reflecting  telescopes  that  used 
the  concave  mirror.  Since  light  rays 
do  not  enter  the  mirror  but  are  reflected 
from  its  surface,  there  can  be  no  disper- 
sion and  hence  no  chromatic  aberration. 
Today  we  use  both  kinds  of  telescopes, 
but  the  reflectors  are  superior  for  ob- 
servations of  such  far-distant  objects  as 
galaxies.  Reflecting  microscopes  have 
also  been  made  but  have  not  as  yet  estab- 
lished themselves  as  successful  competi- 
tors with  the  usual  refracting  instrument. 

The  case  of  the  spectroscope  is  very 
different.  Here,  dispersion  is  the  essen- 
tial phenomenon  in  providing  what  the 
operator  desires— a  spectrum.  A  slit  light 
source  passes  rays  through  a  prism  and 
the  resukant  spectrum  is  examined  with 
a  low-power  telescope.  Thus  the  physical 
occurrences  of  deviation  and  dispersion 
play  their  various  roles  in  our  three 
primary  families  of  optical  instruments. 


This  list  details  the 
or  other  source  of  i 

COVER-H.  J.  Jordan 
4-Joseph  Sedacca 
12— Imprimerie  de 
I'Institut  Frangais 
d'archSologie  orientale 
13-Petrie  Scholarship 
Foundation 

14-top,  W.M.  Flinders 
Petrie;  bot.  AMNH  after 
Alan  R.  Schulman 
15-W.M.  Flinders  Petrie 
16-21-W.  Wreszinski 
except  19-Courtesy  of 
the  Oriental   Institute, 
Univ.  of  Chicago 
22— top.  James  Simon, 
Photo  Researchers,  Inc.; 
bot..  National  Geo- 
graphic Society 
24— National  Museum  of 
Canada 


photographer,  artist, 
llustrations,  by  page. 


27-fop,  Annan  Photo 
Features;  bot.,   F.&J. 
Craighead,   National 
Geographic   Society 
28-33-Virgil   N.  Argo 
34-41-AMNH  except  36- 
top,  AMNH  after  Grasse; 
bot.,  AMNH  after  Gray  and 
39-from  top,  AMNH  after 
Hubbs.  Lagler,  Breder 
and  Gregory 
42-43-Helmut  Wimmer 


45-AMNH 
46-53-Lee  Boltin 
54-55-Noel  L.  Roberts, 
Annan  Photo  Features 
60-61-AMNH 


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Fun  and  Adventure  in  the  Woods 


Suggested 
Additional  Reading 

SIEGE  WARFARE 
IN  PHARAONIC  EGYPT 

The  Art  of  Warfare  in  Biblical 
Lands.  Y.  Yadin.  McGraiv-Hill,  N.Y., 
1963. 

"The  n'rn  at  the  Battle  of  Kadesh." 
A.  R.  Schulman.  Journal  of  the  Ameri- 
can Research  Center  in  Egypt,  Vol.  1, 
pages  47-53,  Boston,  1962. 

"Egyptian  Military  Organization."  R. 
0.  Faulkner.  Journal  of  Egyptian  Ar- 
chaeology, Vol.  39,  pages  32-47,  1953. 

GRIZZLY  TERRITORY 

McLean's  Notes  of  a  Twenty-Five 
Year's  Service  in  the  Hudson's  Bay 
Territory.  Edited  by  W.  S.  Wallace. 
The  Champlain  Society,  Toronto,  1932. 

"The  Barren  Ground  Grizzly  Bear  in 
Northern  Canada."  C.  R.  Harington,  A. 
H.  Macpherson,  and  J.  P.  Kelsall.  Arctic, 
Vol.  15.  No.  4,  pages  294-298,  December, 
1962. 

The  Grizzly.  E.  A.  Mills.  Houghton 
Mifflin,  N.Y.,  1919. 

INSECT-TRAPPING  PLANTS 
Gray's  Manual  of  Botany.  M.  L. 

Fernald.  American  Book  Co.,  N.Y.,  1950. 
Insectivorous  Plants.  C.  Darwin.  D. 

Appleton  &  Co.,  N.Y.,  1883. 

PSYCHOPHYSICS 
AND  HEARING  IN  FISH 

Underwater  Acoustics  Handbook. 
V.  M.  Albers.  Pennsylvania  State  Uni- 
versity Press,  University  Park,  1960. 

Marine  Bio-Acoustics.  W.  N.  Ta- 
volga.  Pergamon  Press,  N.Y.,  1963. 

"Auditory  Capacities  of  Fishes.  Pure 
Tone  Thresholds  in  Nine  Species  of  Ma- 
rine Teleosts."  W.  N.  Tavolga  and  J. 
Wodinsky.  Bulletin  AMNH,  Vol.  126, 
pages  177-240,  1963. 

TRIBAL  ART  FROM  AFRICA 

African  Art  Studies.  L.  Segy.  JFit- 
tenborn  &  Co.,  N.Y.,  1956. 

African  Arts  and  Crafts.  M.  Tro- 
well.  Longmans,  Green  &  Co.,  London, 
1937. 

Dahomean  Narrative:  A  Cross-Cul- 
tural  Analysis.  M.  J.  Herskovits  &  F.  S. 
Herskovits.  Northivestern  University 
Press,  Evanston,  1958. 

Dahomey:  An  Ancient  West  Afri- 
can Kingdom.  M.  J.  Herskovits.  /.  /. 
Augustin,  N.Y.,  1938 

PREDATOR  NETS  A  SUGAR  ANT 
The  Spider  Book.  J.  H.  Comstock. 
Revised   and  edited  by  W.  J.   Gertsch. 
Doubleday,  Doran  &  Co.,  N.Y.,  1940. 

Spider  Wonders  of  Australia.  K.  C. 
McKeown.  Angus  &  Robertson,  Ltd., 
Sydney,  1936. 

Spiders.  Scorpions,  Centipedes  and 
Mites.  J.  L.  Cloudsley-Thompson.  Per- 
gamon Press,  N.Y.,  1958. 


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April  1964  •  500 


Created  by  the  People  of  General  Motors— One  of  the  highlights  of  the  World's 
Fail-  will  be  the  General  Motoi's  Futui-ama.  This  magnificent,  ultra-modern  building 
and  the  wonders  it  contains  represent  the  skill  and  work  of  GM  people — stylists, 
engineers,  scientists,  architects,  show  specialists. 

The  building  is  680  feet  in  length  (a  very  long  par  thi-ee  on  any  golf  coui'se).  It's  200 
feet  wide  (forty  more  than  a  football  field ) ,  and  from  the  stark  beauty  of  the  ten-story- 
high  canopy  entrance  to  the  wide  scope  of  the  domed  pavilion  at  the  rear,  it  expresses 
one  thing  very  cleai'ly:  tomorrow! 

A  high  spot  of  the  Futui'ama  is  a  ride  that  suiTOunds  you  with  wonders.  In  an  unfor- 
gettable experience,  you'll  be  carried  thi-ough  time  and  space — thi-ough  desert  and 
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can  accommodate  70,000  people — the  entire  population,  for  instance,  of  Muncie,  Indiana 
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In  the  Futurama's  Avenue  of  Progress,  you'll  see  the  newest  sources  of  power  described 
and  demonstrated  in  fascinating  ways.  Also  shown  are  research  projects  in  transporta- 
tion mobilitv.  including  a  vehicle  traversing  jungle  terrain  and  a  moon-rover  conquering 
a  rugged  lunar  landscape  .At  the  Futurama  \ou  can  visit  a  host  of  other  colorful  dis- 
plays designed  to  attract,  interest  and  challenge  the  imagination  of  every  member  of 
your  family. 

Futui-ama,  in  an  inspiring  way.  symbohzes  the  progi-e.ss  of  GM.  And  the  major  reason 
behind  this  progi-ess  is  people — the  people  of  General  Motors. 


;  ^  J- 


GEXEML MOTORS  IS  PEOPLE... 

Makiii'^  Better  Tliiii»s  For  You 


five  unusual  and 

rewarding  tours 

to  tlie  four  corners 

of  the  world 

CLASSICAL   STUDY   TOURS   WITH   AUTHORITATIVE    GUEST    LECTURERS 


IT-LT-3081 

TWO   WINTER   CRUISES  TO    EGYPT   AND    UP  THE    NILE 

y  Air  and  River  Boat  to  the  Sites  and  Temples  of  Egypt  and  Nubia  Tours  depart  on 

November  5  and  November  27.  Guest  lecturers  accompanying  the  two  cruises  are: 

r.  T.  G.  H.  James,  M.A.,  Asst.  Keeper  of  Egyptian  Antiquities  at  the  British  Museum. 

essor  H.  W.  Fairman,   M.A.,  Professor  of  Egyptology  at  the  University  of  Liverpool. 

Professor  C.  A.  Trypanis,  M.A.,  Ph.D.,  the  University  of  Oxford. 

These  Nile  Cruises  have  been   immediate  "sell-outs"   in  the  past,  due  to  the 

high  quality  of  leadership  and  services  provided. 

IT-LT-3085 

ROMAN  FRANCE-SOME  SITES  AND  CITIES  IN  PROVENCE 

This  18-day  tour  starts  on  September  7  and  the  all-inclusive  cost  is  only  $790.00. 

in-Provence,  the  oldest  Roman  colony  in  Gaul  is  the  starting  point— and  from  here 

we  begin  our  tour  which  includes  Apt.  Roussilon,  Avignon,  Villeneuve,  Orange, 

charming  Vaison-la-Romaine,  St.  Remy  with  its  newly  discovered  Glanum,  Aries, 

Nimes,  les  Saintes-Maries,  Aigues-Mortes,  Les  Baux,   Marseilles,  and   Paris. 

This  is  a  tour  into  one  of  Europe's  most  beautiful  regions— a  region  full  of  color 

and  atmosphere— in  addition  to  the  thousands  of  monuments  to  the  past. 

This  is  a  tour  completely  different  from  other  tours— concentration  on  ONE  of  the 

provinces  of  France.  The  tour  is  also  for  those  who  love  good  food  and  wines. 

IT-LT-3076 

CRUSADER   CASTLES,   SITES    AND    MONUMENTS    IN 
LEBANON,    SYRIA,   JORDAN   AND    ISRAEL 

22-day  tour  departs  on  October  27.  All-inclusive  cost  only  $1,175.00. 
Professor  A.  W.  LAWRENCE  will  be  the  guest  lecturer  on  a  most  unusual  and 
iting  tour  of  the  Near  East.  Included  in  the  program  are  the  Krak  of  the  Knights  and 
Hama,  Aleppo  and  Palmyra,  a  full  day  at  Jerash,  Petra,  Karak.  Acre  and  Caesarea 
-itima— all  in  addition  to  .more  easily  accessible  places  as  Beirut,  Baalbek,  Damascus, 
Amman,  Jerusalem  and  Haifa.  Early  bookings  are  essential  to  guarantee  your  seat, 
number  of  participants  on  these  tours  is  strictly  limited  to  a  maximum  of  thirty 
sons- in  some  cases  even  fewer— and  early  booking  is  essential.  Please  send  in 
coupon  at  the  foot  of  this  page,  requesting  the  details  on  the  particular  tour  you 
interested   in. 


INDBLAD    TRAVEL,    INC. 

ne   East   53rd   Street      •       New  York  22,    N.   Y. 
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ease  send  folder  describing  your  tour  

IT-LT-3073              D   IT-LT-3053              D   IT-LT-3081 

amp 

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D  IT-LT-3076    [ 

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tv 

State 

1 

IT-LT-3073 

AN    EXPLORER'S   TOUR  THROUGH   ASIA   visiting 
JAPAN    •    SIBERIA    •    OUTER    MONGOLIA 
CENTRAL  ASIATIC    REPUBLICS  OF  THE  USSR 
IRAN    •    SYRIA    •    LEBANON    •    JORDAN 

Crossing  from  Japan   to  Siberia  by  steamer-Khaborovsk  and 

Irkutsk  in  Siberia-Ulan  Bator,  Karakoram  and  a  day 

with  Mongolian  tribesmen  in  the  Gobi  desert-the  ancient  cities 

of  Bokhara  and  Samarkand-by  steamer  across 

the   Caspian    Sea-Persepolis,    Shiraz   and    Isfahan    in 

Persia— archeological   sites   in   Lebanon,   Syria,  and  Jordan. 

Tour   conducted   by   Lars-Eric   Lindblad,   departs 

from  New  York  and  San  Francisco  on  July  6,  circles  the  Globe, 

and  lasts  two  months. 

$3,600,00 

IT-LT-3053 

WITH    DR.   J.   ALDEN   MASON  TO  THE 
ARCHAEOLOGICAL   SITES   IN   PERU,  GUATEMALA 
AND    MEXICO 

The  two  tours  in  1963  were  so  successful  and  sold  out  so  early, 

that  Dr.  J.  Alden  Mason  has  agreed  to  lead  one 

(but  only  one)  tour  in  October,  1964  to  the 

pre-Columbian   sites   in   South  and  Central  America. 

This  year  we  have  added  four  days  for  leisure,  making 

the  tour  25  days.  Departure  will  be  on  October  24-and 

the  cost  will  be  $1,450.00. 


PRESIDENT 

Alexander  M.  White 

DIRECTOR  DEPUTY  DIRECTOR 

James  A.  Oliver  Walter  F.  Meister 

MANAGING  EDITOR 

Robert  E.  Williamson 

EXECUTIVE  EDITOR 

Helene  Jordan 

ASSOCIATE  EDITORS 

Hubert  C.  Birnbauni.  John  F.  Speicher 

COPY   EDITORS 

Florence  Brainier.  Florence  Klodin 

REVIEWS 

Francesca  von  Hartz 

PHOTOGRAPHY 

Lee  Boltin 

PRODUCTION 

Thomas  Page 
Mairgreg  Ross,  Asst. 

CONTRIBUTIONS 

Ernestine  Weindorf 


CONTRIBUTING  EDITORS 

Paul  M.  Tilden,  Thomas  D.  Nicholson 
David  Linton.  Julian  D.  Corrington 


EDITORIAL    ADVISERS 

Gerard  Piel  Gordon  F.  Ekholm 

Roy  Gallant  Gordon  Reekie 

Donn  E.  Rosen  Richard  G.  Van  Gelder 

T.  C.  Schneirla  Richard  K.  Winslow 


ADVERTISING 

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Ogden  Lowell,  Sales 


PROMOTION   MANAGER 

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Natural  HistorA 

Incorporating  Nature  Magazine 


THE  JOURNAL  OF  THE  AMERICAN  MUSEUM  OF  NATURAL  HISTOl 


Vol.  LXXIII 


APPJL  1964  No, 


ARTICLES 
OLD  AFRICA-S  "PEOPLE  OF  THE  VILLAGE" 
DINOSAURS  OF  THE  ARCTIC 
MULTICOLORED  WORLD  OF  CATERPILLARS 
BASS  ROCK  GANNETS 
CROSS-POLLINATION  OF  AN  ORCHID 
MEGALITHS  AND  MEN 


Arthur  Leipzig  i 

Edivin  H.  Colbert  j 

Pftid  Villiard  \ 

Bryan  Nelson  I 

H.  Lou  Gibson 

Glyn  E.  Daniel 


DEPARTMENTS 

REVIEWS 

NATURALISTS'  NOTEBOOK: 
EXPLORATION  AT  THE  POND 

SKY  REPORTER 

NATURE  IN  ROCK  AND  MINERAL 

ABOUT  THE  AUTHORS 

SCIENCE  IN  ACTION: 
LAUNCHING  AN  EXPEDITION 

ADDITIONAL  READING 


Lee  Boltin 

Photographs  by  Arline  Strong 

Thomas  D.  Nicholson 

Paul  Mason  Tilden 


Richard  G.  Van  Gelder 


CIRCULATION  MANAGER 

Joseph  Saulina 


COVER:  The  polychromatic,  dragon-like  apparition  rearing  up  from  the  twig  . 
which  it  rests  is  a  caterpillar  of  Brahmaea  wallichii,  a  moth  that  is  found 
India  and  parts  of  Southeast  Asia.  The  larva  shown  here  is  in  its  fifth  inst 
and  has  consequently  shed— with  its  old  skin— the  four  hornlike  head  process 
that  lent  it  a  formidable  appearance  in  previous  stages.  Pale  blue  opalesce 
spots,  two  of  which  are  visible  in  the  picture,  replace  the  processes  and  lo( 
like  eyes  when  the  caterpillar  assumes  this  defensive  position.  The  photograj 
was  taken  by  Paul  Villiard.  whose  article  about  caterpillars  begins  on  page  2 

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The  full  sweep  of  mineralogy: 
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Reviews 


Photographer  of  convictic 


The  Eloquent  Light,  text  by  Nancy 
Newhall,  photographs  by  Ansel  Adams. 
Sierra  Club,  $20.00;  175  pp.,  illus. 

THE  miracle  of  photography  is  so 
much  an  accepted  element  of  our 
time  that,  sadly,  little  notice  is  made 
of  its  many  variables.  The  large  area  this 
system  of  reproduction  embraces  is  too 
often  considered  commonplace.  There  is, 
however,  a  range  beyond  the  ordinary 
spectrum  of  photography  that  few  prac- 
titioners of  the  art  achieve.  For,  while 
there  are  thousands  of  users  of  the  pho- 
tographic system,  there  are  compara- 
tively few  true  photographers.  Several 
conditioning  factors  are  involved:  one 
is  time— time  in  the  sense  that  so  much 
has  gone  before  that  an  uncommon  ap- 
proach is  not  easily  come  by— another  is 
conviction.  The  making  of  a  photograph 
must  be  by  conviction,  else  routinely  and 
sadly,  it  is  simply  a  job,  with  a  corre- 
lative banality  and  boredom.  As  Nancy 
Newhall  shows  in  her  book,  Ansel  Adams 
grasped  time  and.  ignoring  previously 
established  patterns,  brought  a  new  clar- 
ity and  a  new  depth  to  his  expressive 
use  of  the  camera.  The  sense  of  convic- 
tion is  evident  in  every  photograph 
printed,  and  there  can  be  no  question  as 
to  what  the  photographer  sought  and 
what  he  achieved. 

Ansel  Adams  is  one  of  the  formidable 
giants,  pioneers,  convinced  practitioners 
—call  it  what  you  will— of  the  photo- 
graphic art.  Perhaps  it  was  his  good  luck 
that  he  was  born  and  raised  in  that  far- 
away California  of  sixty  years  ago,  but 
the  strong  feeling  that  comes  from  this 
ideally  printed  volume  assures  the 
reader  that  the  man  embraced  his  en- 
vironment and  extracted  from  it  the  ele- 
ments on  which  to  nurture  himself.  He 
then  returned  its  gifts  many  times  in  his 
life's  work.  By  the  second  decade  of  the 
century  he  was  an  accomplished  musi- 
cian and  could  have  elected  a  career  as 
a  pianist.  Happily  for  his  inheritors  he 
chose  to  express  himself  in  photography, 
and  thus  left  a  wondrous  legacy  of  visual 
images— pertinent  and  wise  comments  on 
what  can  be  contained  in  photographic 
expression.  As  a  battler  for  conservation 
he  stands  above  the  crowd. 

Mrs.  Newhall,  Mr.  Adams,  and  the 
Sierra  Club  are  to  be  complimented  on 
this  handsome  work.  In  a  time  when  the 


so-called  art  books  are  redundant, 
first  part  of  a  two-volume  biograph' 
Mr.  Adams  is  unique.  Perhaps  becc 
I,  too,  am  a  toiler  in  the  photograj 
vineyard  and  thus  know  that  ph 
graphs  are  seen  in  their  original  qu; 
by  very  few,  I  also  know  that  the 
mate  form  on  the  printed  page  suffe 
major  loss  in  quality  and  presence.  I 
therefore,  with  particular  pleasure  l 
I  salute  the  book's  engravers  and  pi 
ers.  They  prove  that  a  photograj 
image  in  reproduction  can  bring  the] 
of  the  photographer  to  each  viewei 
though  he  were  the  possessor  of  an  oi 
nal  print.  The  Eloquent  Light  tells  b« 
tifuUy  of  an  eloquent  man. 

Flight,  by  Jacques  F.  Ormond.  Hill , 
Wang,  Inc.,  $6.95;  92  pp.,  illus. 

THE  poetry  of  flight  is  achieved  in  I 
volume  of  European  photograf 
Rarely  has  the  world  of  wings  b' 
given  such  coherent  expression.  1 
tempo  of  visual  change  is  beautifi 
realized  and.  with  minor  exceptions, 
book  accomplishes  its  purpose. 

A  small  cavil  is  the  quartet  of  I 
drawings  and  renderings  that  are  sup 
fluous,  and  nothing  is  gained  by 
author's  comments  on  his  photograp 
technique.  This  is  essentially  a  coll 
tion  of  photographic  illustrations  an( 
needless  burden  of  words  does  nothi 
to  improve  the  effect  of  the  pictures. 
The  book  begins  with  a  striking  i 
ture  of  a  night  heron  in  climbing  flig 
the  power  of  the  wing  stroke  formi 
a  pattern  of  strength  and  line  that  fai 
lessly  conveys  the  sense  of  a  rise  towa 
the  sky.  Immediately  following  tl 
opening  we  are  exposed  to  a  hodgepod 
of  woodcuts  that  almost  founders  1 
work.  Fanciful  they  doubtless  are,  1 
their  inclusion  reduces  the  impact 
the  photographs  in  the  early  pages 
the  book.  It  is  only  after  this  false  st; 
that  the  sense  of  soaring,  fluid  flight  i 
presses  itself  again;  and  it  continii 
ever  stronger  until  the  conclusion, 
foldout  at  the  end  of  the  book  supplies 
complete  listing  of  the  picture  and  bi 
identifications.  Buy  it  and  fly! 

Mr.    Boltin,    who   acts   as    contributii 
photographer    for   Natural    History, 
knoii'n  for  his  pictures  of  primitive  a 


:es,  by  H.  W.  Parker.  W.W.  Norton 
).,  $5.95;  191  pp.,  illus.  Snakes  of 
CA,  by  Richard  M.  Isemonger. 
las  Nelson  &  Sons,  $4.00;  236  pp.. 
Life  with  Ionides,  by  Margaret 
.  Viking  Press,  .$5.00;  180  pp.,  illus. 

w  human  beings  can  ignore  snakes. 
lost  of  us  know  at  least  enough 
t  them  to  be  biased,  whether  we  re- 

them  with  suspicion,  fear,  awe.  re- 
on,  or  admiration.  For  snakes, 
lUgh  they  evolved  much  later  than 
)ther  major  group  of  reptiles,  moved 

nearly  all  habitable  parts  of  the 
d  long  before  man  did,  and  he  en- 
tered snakes  virtually  everywhere— 

he  penetrated  the  coldest  regions. 
)mous  snakes  closely  resembling 
:an  cobras  inhabited  Europe  when 
ancestors  were  just  beginning  to  di- 
e  from  the  apes.  For  more  than 
ty  million  years,  therefore,  we  have 

associating  with  snakes  and  worry- 
ibout  them. 

jr  knowledge  of  snakes  in  recent 
s  has  expanded  almost  as  rapidly  as 
lemand  for  new  books  dealing  with 
I.  Of  the  three  new  books  reviewed 
,  two  are  about  snakes  themselves 
one  recounts  the  exploits  of  a  snake 
ler  in  Africa.  Despite  some  overlap 
leir  coverage,  these  books  differ  as 
•ly  as  the  backgrounds,  interests,  and 
;s  of  their  respective  authors. 
.  W.  Parker,  long  recognized  as  the 
ing  British  herpetologist.  provides 
nost  erudite  of  the  three  accounts  in 
Snakes.  Without  resorting  to  techni- 
argon,  he  deals  with  snakes  from  the 
dpoint  of  the  anatomist,  the  ecolo- 

and  the  student  of  animal  behavior, 
lough  earlier  books  on  snakes  also 
ir  such  topics  as  locomotion,  feeding, 
oduction,  and  sensory  mechanisms, 
iei  adds  new  information  or  novel 
rpretations  to  his  discussions.  His 
V  is  avowedly  a  summary,  but  never- 
ess  it  contains  an  impressive  amount 
nformation  in  fewer  than  two  hun- 
l  pages.  The  style  is  lucid,  despite 
ier's  tendency  to  ride  for  a  page 
a  half  without  changing  paragraphs. 
nakes  of  Africa  is  more  provincial 
overage  and  is  intended  primarily  as 
ride  to  the  snakes  found  south  of  the 
ara  and  east  of  the  Congo.  Richard 

Isemonger's  chatty  discussions  of 
hs,  venom,  snake-catching,  and  simi- 
topics  make  it  readable.  The  author's 
it  entertaining  accounts  are  those  de- 
bing  his  personal  adventures.  His 
;ussions  of  reptiles  outside  the  con- 
is  of  Africa,  however,  reveal  a  woeful 
i  of  knowledge. 

'or  obscure  reasons  a  chapter  entitled 
A'ana  Nyoka"'  is  inserted  between  the 
s  of  species  and  their  peculiarities, 
ana  Nyoka  proves  to  be  an  intelli- 
it,  engaging  non-conformist,  C.  J.  P. 
ides,  who  went  through  Rugby  and 


Sandhurst  before  he  became  a  snake 
hunter— and  something  of  a  celebrity— 
in  Tanganyika. 

He  receives  fuller  treatment  in  Mar- 
garet Lane's  Life  with  Ionides,  which 
provides  a  sympathetic  but  unbiased  ac- 
count of  life  in  this  part  of  Africa,  where 
the  author  stayed  with  the  old  hunter.  In 
her  well-written  book  she  describes 
Ionides,  seen  from  the  side,  as  having 
the  appearance  of  "an  emaciated  and 
aristocratic  goat."  Miss  Lane"s  descrip- 
tions of  snakes  and  other  animals  are 
equally  as  interesting. 

The  illustrations  in  all  three  books 
vary  in  quality  from  good  to  inferior. 
Parker's  book  could  profitably  have  been 
better  illustrated;  Isemonger's  book  con- 
tains a  few  plates  in  color  that  are  not 
bad,  but  the  figures  leave  much  to  be  de- 
sired; Ionides  appears  in  several  of  the 
plates  in  Miss  Lane's  book,  along  with 
his  African  assistants,  a  snake  or  so,  and 
occasionally  a  photogenic  young  lady. 
Presumably  this  is  Miss  Lane,  who  de- 
scribes the  difficulties  she  encountered  in 
her  efforts  to  obtain  photographs  of 
snakes.  Those  reproduced  show  that  she 
was  not  exaggerating.  Her  talents  are 
tliose  of  a  writer,  not  of  a  photographer. 

C.   M.   BOGERT 


The 


ican  Museum 


The   Reptiles,   by  Archie   Carr.    Time, 
Inc.,  $3.95;  192  pp.,  illus. 

THIS  is  a  scientifically  impeccable  ac- 
count of  reptiles— their  place  in 
nature,  their  relationships  and  history. 
and  their  way  of  life.  Dr.  Carr  is  to  be 
complimented  on  his  clear,  well-written, 
and  well-organized  text  dealing  with  the 
reptile  "fraternity."  The  editors  of  the 
"Life  Nature  Library"  also  deserve  praise 
for  their  selection  of  illustrations,  many 
of  which  are  photographic  firsts  of  out- 
standing interest  and  merit. 

Too  often  in  popular  books  on  natural 
history,  the  public  is  cheated  with  a  tired 
and  jumbled  rehash  of  third-hand  infor- 
mation, but  not  in  this  book  compiled  by 
an  outstanding  herpetologist.  who  is  a 
dedicated  naturalist  and  a  fine  writer. 

The  reader,  if  this  is  his  introduction 
to  the  world  of  reptiles,  should  learn  a 
great  deal.  He  should  also  assimilate 
some  of  Dr.  Carr's  empathy  and  true  un- 
derstanding for  this  frequently  perse- 
cuted group.  The  gruesome  fascination 
that  leads  many  people  to  their  first  con- 
tact with  reptiles  may  be  dispelled  by 
new  insight  that  can  be  gathered  here. 
Reptiles  have  had  a  long  and  diversified 
history— they  "ruled"  the  earth,  only  to 
fall  from  their  seat  of  biological  domi- 
nance. But  their  descendants  are  still 
about  us.  leading  their  respective  cold- 
blooded lives  in  many  ways. 

Dr.  Carr's  final  chapter  is  an  unsenti- 
mental reminder  that  the  destruction  of 
all  primitive  nature,  including  the  rep- 
tiles, is  but  a  matter  of  time,  unless  hu- 


Beautiful,  authoritative 

bool(s  on 

nature's  wonders 


THE  NATURAL  HISTORY 
OF  NORTH  AMERICAN 

AMPHIBIANS  AND  REPTILES 

James  A.  Oliver,  Director,  American 
Museum  of  Natural  History.  A  fasci- 
nating account  of  the  foll<lore,  life 
histories,  mating  habits,  and  idio- 
syncrasies of  the  lizards,  frogs, 
toads,  turtles,  and  snakes  of  North 
America.  86  illustrations  provide 
unique  records  of  their  life  stages. 
?,  $7.95 


AMERICAN  SPIDERS 

Willis  J.  Gertsch,  American  Museum 
of  Natural  History.  How  spiders  live, 
worl<,  and  reproduce.  "Dr.  Gertsch's 
book,"  says  Edwin  Way  Teale  in 
Natural  History,  "is,  and  is  likely  to 
remain  for  years  to  come,  the  book 
on  the  natural  history  of  North  Amer- 
ican spiders."  119  plates,  45  in 
color.  $7.95 


AMERICAN  SEA  SHELLS 

R.  Tucker  Abbott,  Academy  of  Nat- 
ural   Sciences    of    Philadelphia. 

RACHEL  CARSON  SAYS— "In  my 
opinion  Dr.  Abbott  has  done  a  superb 
job.. .There  are  many  books  on 
shells,  but  Dr.  Abbott  has  achieved 
a  fresh  and  distinctively  modern 
treatment."  Illustrated  by  40  color 
and  black-and-white  plates,  and  100 
line  drawings.  $15.00 


THE  BOOK  OF  BIRD  LIFE,   s    ^. 
2ntl  ed. 

Arthur  A.  Allen,  formerly  of  Cornell 
University.  A  complete  revision  of 
this  classic  work.  250  illustrations, 
many  in  full  color.  $9.75 


10  DAY  FREE  EXAMINATION ! 

D.  Van  Nostrand  Company,  Inc. 

Dept.T-NH-4, 120  Alexander  St., Princeton, N.J. 
Please  sena  me: 

QTHE  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  NORTH  AMERI- 
CAN AMPHIBIANS  AND  REPTILES  @  $7.95 
n  AMERICAN  SPIDERS  @  $7.95 

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Identification . . . 
conservation . . . 
cultivation . . . 
never  before  has 
a  wild  flower 
book  covered 
all  three. 


WILD  FLOWERS  TO  KNOW  AND 
GROW  is  worth  its  price  for  the  unique 
identification  section  alone— arranged 
first  by  color,  second  by  blooming  time, 
and  illustrated  with  zoo  color  drawings, 
to  help  you  identify  flowers  you  see  in 
a  fraction  of  the  time  required  with 
other  guides. 

For  gardening  enthusiasts,  Mrs.  Hersey, 
who  grows  more  than  a  hundred  kinds 
of  wild  flowers  herself,  explains  the 
cultural  needs  of  each  plant,  tells  how 
to  propagate  by  seeds  and  cuttings, 
how  to  transplant,  how  to  make  ter- 
rariams  and  enjoy  native  plants  as 
food,  suggests  places  to  look  for  wild 
flowers  and  tells  which  ones  never  to 
pick  or  dig.  A  whole  section  devoted  to 
the  need  and  methods  for  wild  flower 
conservation  tells  exactly  how  you  can 
help  this  rich  heritage.  Send  check  for 
$6.95  to  the  publishers  today.  Money 
refunded  if  you're  not  delighted.  VAN 
NOSTRAND,  Dept.  T-NH-4,  Prince- 
ton.  N.  J. 

don't  remove  your  glasses 


] 

^^ 

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i^s^Hiii 

ii '. 

■ 

1 

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6 


manity"s  conscience  and  responsibility 
are  somehow  awakened.  He  visualizes, 
sometime  in  the  future,  the  last  snake  as 
it  confronts  a  man.  The  latter  unthink- 
ingly picks  up  the  last  stick  lying  on  the 
ground.  He  raises  the  stick,  then  lowers 
it,  then  raises  it  again.  Dr.  Carr's  vision 
fades  at  this  point. 

More  books  like  this  one  may  make 
such  a  vision  more  remote. 

Georg  Zappler 
The  American  Museum 

1001  Questions  Answered  About 
Flowers,  by  Norman  Taylor.  Dodd, 
Mead  &  Co.,  $6.00;  .335  pp.,  illus. 

The  question-and-answer  method  of 
nature  study  instruction  lends  a 
certain  zestful  and  entertaining  quality 
to  a  self-teaching  text  such  as  the  present 
book,  which  is  similar  in  format  to  the 
previously  published  titles  in  the  popular 
"1001  Questions  Answered"  series. 

Norman  Taylor,  the  well-known  au- 
thor of  numerous  botanical  and  horti- 
cultural works  and  editor  of  Taylor's 
Encyclopedia  of  Gardening,  has  ar- 
ranged his  1001  questions  and  answers 
in  eight  main  categories  and  has  sub- 
divided these  under  more  specific  sub- 
jects. The  major  groups  include:  "Form 
and  Function  of  Flowers,"  "The  Or- 
chids," "Eastern  Wildflowers."  "West- 
ern Wildflowers."  "Older  Cultivated 
Flowers."  "Cultivated  Flowers  Today," 
"Flowers  from  Trees  and  Shrubs," 
and  "Some  Tropical  and  Subtropical 
Flowers."  As  examples  of  the  smaller 
sections,  under  "Eastern  Wildflowers" 
we  find:  flowers  in  swamps,  bogs,  or 
water;  flowers  in  moist  places;  wood- 
land flowers;  shrubs  and  trees;  flowers 
in  open,  but  not  dry  places:  flowers  in 
open,  dry  places;  introduced  flowers. 

Here  is  a  helpful,  informative  book 
for  junior  groups  and  a  refresher-stimu- 
lant for  older  readers.  An  excellent  in- 
dex adds  to  its  usefulness  as  a  ready- 
reference  guide. 

Eliz.abeth  C.  Hall 

A'.  Y.  Botanical  Garden 

Biology  of  Birds,  by  Wesley  E.  Lanyon. 
Natural  History  Press.  Paperback. 
SI. 25:  186  pp.,  illus.  Cloth.  S3. 95:  175 
pp.,  illus. 

BIRD  biology  books  used  to  be  few  in 
number;  they  deah  with  such  topics 
as  fossil  record,  comparative  anatomy, 
feathers,  migration  routes,  schedules,  and 
breeding  habits.  Of  late,  general  trea- 
tises have  been  bulky  and  costly  or  rather 
limited  in  coverage.  Lanyon's  book  is  of 
field  guide  size.  It  includes  the  older 
standard  topics,  usually  tersely  ("Classi- 
fication of  Birds"  gets  twenty  lines ) ,  then 
goes  beyond  into  many  of  the  concepts 
from  the  current  broad  spectrum  of  avian 
biology.  The  reader  encounters  the  bio- 


logical species,  the  physiological  basis 
migratory  behavior,  navigation,  orien 
tion.  habitat  selection,  functions  of  < 
plays,  population  turnover,  and  so  on 
smattering  of  fairly  technical  terms  ( 
ample:  Homoiothermy)  are  defined  w! 
used.  The  sixty-four  illustrations  rt-l 
closely  to  the  accompanying  text;  set 
is  worldwide.  There  is  an  appendix 
vernacular  and  technical  names,  sugj 
tions  for  further  reading,  and  a  good  ind 
Anyone  with  a  field  guide  level  of 
terest  in  birds  will  do  well  to  broac 
his  store  of  general  information  by  re; 
ing  this  book.  It  will  impart  an  idea 
all  sorts  of  variations  in  birds  and  j< 
vide  an  introduction  to  the  diversity' 
approaches  currently  applied  to  study 
the  living  bird.  This  is  a  good  book,  avi 
able  at  a  modest  price. 

Ralph  S.  Palm 
Vniv.  of  the  State  of  New  Yt 

The  View  From  a  Distant  Star.  ' 
Harlow  Shapley.  Basic  Books,  In 
S4.95:  212  pp. 

Advice  from  a  wise  man  of  tremendo 
.  experience  is  presented  by  a  gre 
astronomer  in  this  small  book.  The  nai 
of  Harlow  Shapley  is  surely  as  wi 
known  throughout  the  world  as  is  t 
name  of  any  living  astronomer.  Wliat ! 
has  to  say  about  Homo  sapiens—his  pla 
in  the  universe,  his  possible  chances 
survival  wherever  in  the  universe  he  m: 
have  appeared,  and  what  he  had  belt 
do  to  insure  that  survival-is  well  woil 
reading  and  pondering. 

Many  men  have  written  about  the  ii 
possibility  of  complex  life  on  any  of  tl 
other  planets  of  the  solar  system  ai 
about  the  statistical  possibility  of  life  < 
planets  in  orbit  about  stars  other  th; 
the  sun.  but  few  have  done  so  as  well  ar 
as  excitingly  as  Dr.  Shapley.  His  opinic 
is  "we  are  in  a  proper  position  to  say  co' 
fidently  that  there  must  be  life-livir 
biochemicals— all  over  the  universe."  \^ 
know  that  there  is,  in  any  event,  an  obje 
that  must  be  a  planet  in  orbit  about  oi 
of  our  neighbor  stars-Barnard's  Star. 
Having  made  his  point  in  explicit  d' 
tail.  Dr.  Shapley  goes  on  to  present  tl 
narrow  range  of  essentials  for  the  d. 
velopment  of  human  beings  from  certai 
of  these  biochemicals,  and  the  equall 
narrow  range  of  conduct  that  must  b 
observed  if  man,  once  developed,  is  t 
survive.  The  last  and  probably  most  in 
portant  of  the  rules  for  survival  is  tha 
living  creatures  must  be  "so  conditione 
by  ignorance  or  morality  that  they  wil 
not  destroy  all  life,  including  their  owr 
by  poisons  or  planet  disruption." 

As  for  the  inhabitants  of  this  partic 
ular  "minor  object  in  one  small  corne 
of  the  immense  universe  of  planets,  stars 
and  galaxies,"  they  would  do  well  to  rea( 
and  think  deeply  on  these  words  of  ; 
wise  and,  I  believe,  a  great  man  so  tha 


ir  days  may  be  long  in  the  land.  The 
t  half  of  the  book  is  a  prescription 
survival  on  our  planet  and  should  be 
;rnationally  required  reading. 

James  S.  Pickering 

The  American  Museum- 

Hayden  Planetarium 

E  Insects,  by  Peter  Farb.  Time,  Inc., 
95;  192  pp.,iUus. 

LTHOUGH  an  increasing  number  of 
L  popular  books  dealing  with  one  or 
ither  aspect  of  entomology  is  appeai-- 
today,  few  encompass  the  entire  field. 
s  gratifying,  therefore,  to  see  that  this 
)k  is  a  good  introduction  to  the  ecol- 
',  evolution,  anatomy,  physiology,  de- 
Dpment,  and  behavior  of  the  six-legged 
liropods.  The  author,  Peter  Farb,  not 
y  presents  a  balanced  account  of  in- 
ts;  he  does  so  in  a  most  masterful 
bion.  I  have  never  seen  so  much  in- 
jsting  and  entertaining  material  in- 
porated  in  such  a  small  space  for 
sentation  to  the  lay  public.  The  lucid, 
ilanatory  style  paves  a  smooth  path 
the  reader  through  such  complicated 
jects  as  hormonal  control  of  metamor- 
isis,  and  communication  among  the 
leybees.  Especially  welcome  is  the 
iplete  avoidance  of  the  entomology 
tbook  approach  so  often  encountered 
rolumes  for  a  general  audience. 
Ls  in  other  books  of  the  "Life  Nature 
rary,"  illustrations  and  photographs 
an  important  feature  of  the  presenta- 
1.  Relatively  simple  but  effective 
wings  placed  in  the  margins  illustrate 
cific  points  in  the  text.  To  supplement 
text,  the  editors  have  included  after 
h  chapter  a  pictorial— primarily  pho- 
raphic— essay.  For  example,  the  chap- 
dealing  with  insect  metamorphosis  is 
owed  by  "Forms  in  Flux,"  demon- 
iting  the  extremely  interesting  work 
hormonal  control  of  metamorphosis  in 
Cecropia  moth  and  showing  the  vari- 
.  stages  in  the  development  of  a  num- 
of  insect  groups.  The  quality  of  the 
tures  throughout  the  book  is  gener- 
/  superb  and,  combined  with  the  text, 
kes  this  a  vivid,  exciting  view  into  the 
:-history  of  insects. 

Jerome  G.  Rozen,  Jr. 

The  American  Museum 

Study  of  Bird  Song,  by  Edward  A. 
tnstrong.  Oxford  University  Press, 
1.50;  335  pp.,  illus. 

I  some  respects  this  book  is  a  com- 
plementary volume  to  W.  H.  Thorpe's 
'd-Song,  for  much  of  Edward  Arm- 
ong's  material  in  A  Study  of  Bird 
%g  is  taken  from  field  natural  history, 
ereas  Thorpe's  approach  was  largely 
experimental  one.  Both  works  use  the 
m  "song"  in  the  very  broad  sense  to 
lude  all  utterances,  as  well  as  non- 
;al  sounds,  and  therefore  are  treatises 
acoustic  communication  in  birds. 


Attracts  Song  Birds  Alt  Winter 

Song  Bird 
Shrub 

V  C  //      '^  *'"'  ^^""^ 

If  you  enjoy  the  presence  of  birds  during  the 
fall  and  winter  months,  several  SONGBIRD 
SHRUBS  (Elaegnus  umbellata)  are  a  must. 
Its  thousands  of  small  red  berries  are  a  great 
favorite   of    most   songbirds.    This    attractive 

/'£4^ii    K;^=*i^jo.,*<' TC-iW^'*'^^' M^  shrub    will    be    one    of    your    favorites    too. 

/jMg  i  WJ^^'t^^  s^lTvJW  V  t  Hundreds  of  yellowish-white,  fragrant  flowers 
..--W.l    Kay.       VI>t*»^*«:*»i  ,-i..  appear  in  early  May  amongst  the  young  sil- 

very foliage.  During  the  summer  the  silvery 
foliage  makes  a  nice  contrast  to  the  green 
leaves  of  most  other  plants.  Hardy  and  vigor- 
ous. Fast  growing  —  Grows  to  12'.  Can  be 
easily  trimmed  to  any  size.  Limited  supply 
so  order  yours  today.  SEND  NO  MONEY.  On 
delivery  pay  postman  $.75  for  1  shrub,  $2.00 

for  3  shrubs,  or  $4.00  for  8  shrubs  plus  COD  charges.  We  pay  postage  on  prepaid  orders. 

If  not  100%  satisfied,  we'll  gladly  refund  your  purchase  price— you  don't  even  have  to 
return  the  shrubs.  Free  planting  booklet  included  with 
your  order. 


FREE  GIFT 


HOUSE  OF  WESLEY,  Nursery  Division 
R.R.  1,  Dept.  121-52,  Bloomington,  Illinois 

Please  send  Shrubs      D  Prepaid        D  C.O.D. 

Name Address 


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From  seacoastto  mountain  peaks— 
from  green  valleys  to  sage-scented 
plateaus— colorful  wild  flowers  add 
to  your  enjoyment  when  you  travel 
Oregon's  scenic  highways.  You'll 
find  them  in  forested  campsites, 
near  high  snow  fields,  In  colorful 
canyon  walls,  along  Oregon's 
magnificent  400-mile  coastline. 
Send  today  for  full  color  descriptive 
booklet  of  Oregon  flowers  and  shrubs. 


^    P'Sf'SlnlMi     TRAVEL  INFORMATION,  Room  494      ' 
Lri^  S  ^5  ^ii' 1^      Highway  Department,  Salem,  Ore.      | 

Please  send  me  free  booklet,  "Wild  Flowers  of  Oregon."  { 


IT'S  FREE! 


1 


Armstrong's  book,  the  culmination  of 
a  lifelong  interest  in  bird  behavior,  is 
similar  in  format  to  his  earlier  volume, 
Bird  Display,  which  became  a  classic  in 
its  field.  Some  of  the  photographs  from 
this  earlier  volume  v^^ere  re-used,  and 
those  that  have  been  added  are  not  espe- 
cially informative  or  well  chosen— they 
only  add  to  the  cost  of  a  volume  that  is 
already  excessively  high  in  price.  By  con- 
trast, the  many  graphs  and  tables  add 
considerably  to  the  text.  Included  in  the 
text  is  a  consideration  and  classification 
of  vocalizations  according  to  the  informa- 
tion they  presumably  convey,  their  form 
and  structure,  and  their  relationships  to 
the  birds'  annual  cycle.  There  is  a  re- 
view of  the  development  of  vocahzations 
and  the  subject  of  mimicry.  The  subject 
of  geographical  variation  and  the  use  of 
avian  vocalizations  in  systematic  work 
appears  to  have  been  better  covered  here 
than  in  Thorpe's  book.  However,  there  is 
only  superficial  treatment  of  sound  pro- 
duction and  hearing,  subjects  that  were 
given  greater  emphasis  by  Thorpe.  The 
influence  of  the  physical  environment  on 
vocalizations,  and  bird  song  as  "play" 
and  "art"  round  out  the  coverage. 

Naturalists  and  biologists  in  general 
will  find  much  of  interest  in  this  care- 
fully executed  treatment  of  a  very  popu- 
lar subject.  Some  may  take  issue  with 
Armstrong  on  certain  of  his  views,  for 


example,  his  concept  of  "subsong"  and 
the  degree  of  plasticity  that  he  ascribes 
to  song  after  the  latter  has  become  fully 
developed.  The  author  maintains  that  it 
is  probable  the  songs  of  blue-winged  and 
golden-winged  warblers  are  "inborn," 
but  this  seems  quite  improbable  to  me. 
Research-minded  ornithologists  will 
find  A  Study  of  Bird  Song  most  useful, 
however,  for  its  review  of  the  literature 
and  for  the  provocative  problems  it 
raises  and  leaves  unsolved.  In  addition, 
there  is  an  impressive  bibliography  and 
an  addenda  section  that  includes  literary 
citations  as  recent  as  1962.  The  volume 
has  been  carefully  indexed,  further  in- 
creasing its  usefulness  as  a  research  tool. 
Wesley  E.  Lanyon 
The  American  Museum 

The  Mammals,  by  Richard  Carrington. 
Time,  Inc.,  $3.95;  192  pp.,  illus. 

THE  increasing  interest  in  mammals 
is  reflected  in  the  large  number  of 
books  devoted  to  them  in  the  past  dec- 
ade. This  volume  in  the  "Life  Nature 
Library"  series  is  an  excellent  contribu- 
tion and  should  add  measurably  to  this 
awakening  interest.  The  book  is  divided 
into  eight  parts,  the  first  of  which  exam- 
ines the  variety  of  mammals,  including 
characteristics  of  the  orders  and  adapta- 
tions for  life  in  different  environments. 


Mammalian  evolution  is  adequately  dis-  ' 
cussed,  with  excellent  representation  of  ! 
some  evolutionary  highlights.  Modes  of  ' 
movement  are  then  presented,  followed  , 
by  mammal  diets.  Adaptations  for  food-  ■': 
getting,  feeding  habits,  specialized  feed-  | 
ers,  and  food  storage  are  included.  I 

Methods  of  attack,  defense,  and  sur- ) 
vival  are  outlined,  followed  by  an  ac- 1 
count  of  predation  and  survival  devices.! 
Home  life,  migration,  and  hibernation  j 
are  discussed  in  some  detail.  Reproduc-  - 
tion,  the  life  of  the  young,  and  family  i 
behavior  are  ably  presented.  The  last 
part  of  the  book  deals  with  the  evolution- ) 
ary  history  of  man,  with  emphasis  on  ; 
primate  radiation  into  a  variety  of  sue-  ^ 
cessful  types.  Eighty-three  well-selected^ 
references  and  a  suitable  index  complete  ] 
this  interesting  volume.  , 

The  illustrations,  both  colored  and  j 
line  drawings,  are  the  best  this  reviewer  : 
has  seen.  Not  a  single  one  has  been  j 
selected  merely  to  embellish  the  text;  ; 
rather,  they  complement  it.  The  marginal  j 
picture  essays  are  particularly  good  and 
briefly  but  accurately  detail  a  fine  bio-  j 
logical  account  of  the  mammals.  This  1 
very  readable  work  will  be  of  consider-  j 
able  value  to  the  student  of  biology,  and  i 
should  find  a  place  as  supplemental 
reading  in  every  mammalogy  course.  [ 
W.  J.  Hamilton,  Jr.  ! 
Cornell  University . 


ATHENS 


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BUT  WE  KNOW  THAT  THEYARE- 
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PRE-COLUMBIAN 
FIGURINE  PIN 


DEITY  PIN 
AND  PENDANT 


PERUVIAN  LLAMA 


.INGIT  RAVEN  This  is  a  reproduction  of  a  19th  cen- 
ry  stone  pipe  carved  by  the  Tiingit  Indians  of  coastal 
aska.  The  figure  is  a  young  raven  with  open  mouth 
d  is  3"  high.  The  Tiingit  regarded  the  Raven  as  a  clan 
cestor,  and  he  was  considered  a  culture  hero  of  the 
)rthwest  Coast  tribes.  $6.00  ppd. 

:ITY  PIN  AND  PENDANT  An  adaptation  from  the 
nter  of  a  wood  carving— "The  Magic  Circle  of  the 
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5ctroplated.  Pin  . . .  $4.00,  Pendant . . .  $4.25  tax  in- 
jded  ppd. 


PERUVIAN  LLAMA  Figures  such  as  these  have  been 
found  throughout  the  territory  of  the  Inca  Empire.  The 
originals  were  made  during  the  15th  and  16th  cen- 
turies. The  replica  is  silver  plated  and  stands  about 
2"  high.  Available  as  a  figurine  (illustrated),  a  pin,  or  a 
tie  clasp.  Please  specify.  Figurine  on  stand  .  .  .  $3.00 
ppd.  Pin  . . .  $3.25,  Tie  Clasp  . . .  $3.25  tax  included  ppd. 

PRE-COLUMBIAN  FIGURINE  PIN  The  original  dates 
from  the  14th  or  15th  century  A.D.  and  is  in  a  style 
native  to  Varaguas,  Panama.  Approximately  2%"  high. 
Gold  electroplated.  $5.75  tax  included  ppd. 


mbers  of  the  Museum  are  entitled  to  a  10%  discount 


Please  send  your  ctieck  or  money  order  to . 


The  American  Museum  of  Natural  History,  New  York,  New  York  10024 


by  HRTHUR  LEIPZIG 

OR  many  years,  doctors  and  scientists  had 
hoped  to  find  and  examine  a  population  that 
lived  in  virtual  silence,  so  that  they  could  assess 
the  hearing  capability  of  the  human  ear  in  a 
natural  environment  uncontaminated  by  the 
noises  of  a  modern  industrial  society. 

In  the  1950's,  stories  circulated  in  medical 
circles  in  Europe  and  the  United  States  of  an 
African  tribe  known  as  the  Meban,  which  in- 
habited an  isolated  and  extremely  quiet  part  of 
the  bush  country  of  the  Sudan  near  the  Ethi- 
opian border.  Reliable  information  on  the 
Meban  was  scanty  because  the  tribe  had  been 
almost  totally  bypassed  by  anthropologists. 
Neighbors  of  the  Meban— the  Nuer,  Dinka,  and 
Shilluk  tribes,  among  others— have  been  the 
subjects  of  some  thoroughgoing  anthropologi- 
cal studies,  but  literature  ofl  the  Meban  is  spec- 
ulative and  contradictory  even  today.  There  is 
no  consensus  about  the  name  of  the  tribe,  which 
has  been  variously  referred  to  as  Barun,  Burun, 
Mabaan,  and  Maban  in  some  literature,  and  is 
known  by  other  names  locally. 

In  the  past  three  years,  however,  three  ex- 
peditions went  into  the  Sudan  to  study  the 
Meban.  All  were  under  the  leadership  of  Dr. 
Samuel  Rosen,  consulting  ear  surgeon  at  Mount 


leban  villagers  are  seen  in  a  hamlet 
111  the  bush  country  of  Sudan.  Meban 
culture,  physiology,  and  hearing  were 
the  subjects  of  recent  scientific  study. 


'       ':"^-"'\i    " 


i 


:<■%.   ..-V*.-i-     ''].. 


.,JyJ^^; 


Sinai  Hospital,  New  York,  and  a  mem 
ber  of  the  faculty  of  the  College  o 
Physicians  and  Surgeons,  Columbii 
University.  Expedition  members  con 
ducted  broad  studies  of  the  hearinj 
and  physiology  of  the  Meban  tribes 
people,  and  gathered  informatioi 
about  their  culture.  ' 

In  March,  1963,  in  Khartoum,  capi 
tal  city  of  the  Sudan,  I  joined  the  mos^ 
recent  of  Dr.  Rosen's  expeditions  a; 
an  observer  and  photographer.  Wher 
I  arrived,  most  members  of  the  expedi 
tion  were  already  in  Khartoum  anc 
had  nearly  completed  preparations  foi 
the  coming  650-mile  trip  into  bush 
country.  Expedition  headquarter; 
were  in  the  Grand  Hotel,  which  stands 

liasoline  can  is  used  to  carry  water. 
Woman  bearing  can  is  married,  which        I 
is  signified  by  "tail"  of  beads  she  wears.        | 


;s  the  street  from  the  Blue  Nile 
:.  Around  the  hotel  one  saw  the 
ish  in  white  shorts,  white  knee 
;,  white  shirts,  and  pith  helmets, 
when  1  met  the  members  of  the 
dition,  many  were  similarly 
;ed.  Dr.  Rosen's  team  included  ear 
eye  specialists,  physiologists,  a 
iologist,  an  epidemiologist,  and  a 
hiatrist.  Dr.  Mohamed  Satti,  the 
;miologist,  was  Sudanese,  and  had 
1  as  chief  expediter  for  the  trip, 
he  time  of  my  arrival,  he  had  se- 
d  trucks.  Land  Rovers,  drivers, 
Sudanese  personnel. 
.  the  company  of  Drs.  Satti  and 
!n,  I  went  to  the  warehouse  to  in- 
t  the  expedition's  gear.  The  equip- 
t  included  noise-level  meters 
;hing  forty  to  fifty  pounds  each, 
four  audiometers  of  about  thirty 
ids   each.   The   latter   were  tran- 


tlderly  woman  smokes  a  pipe  that  is  a 
special  example  of  tribe's  handicraft. 
Most  local  artifacts  are  much  simpler. 


Illeban  live  in  the  southeastern  Sudan. 
From  Khartoum,  doctors  went  toBoing, 
where  study  of  tribe  was  carried  out. 


sistorized  and  battery  powered,  am 
had  been  "tropicalized"  to  withstam 
high  temperatures  and  humidity.  I  wa 
also  shown  a  variety  of  more  familia' 
medical  equipment,  including  bloo( 
pressure  gauges,  tongue  depressors 
ear  and  nose  speculums,  and  ea 
syringes.  In  the  same  warehouse  weri 
our  provisions  and  hundreds  o 
pounds  of  beads,  safety  pins,  rings 
toys,  and  other  trinkets  that  were  t< 
be  gifts  for  the  Meban. 

During  the  short  time  that  remaine( 
for  us  in  Khartoum,  I  could  not  hel) 
acting  the  part  of  the  tourist.  The  cit; 
of  small  brown  adobe  houses,  with  th^ 

Heration  removes  moisture  from  dura, 
a  millet  seed  that  is  used  in  making  a 
gray  gruel,  various  breads,  and  a  beer.       ! 


..^%. 


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yc.-  "jsi*^^ 


«^i,^. 


h,Z 


-"'■■  ^"^-^ 


a^S^disSS 


ert  in  the  distance,  reminded  me 
countless  French  Foreign  Legion 
[IS  I  had  watched  as  a  boy.  Arabs 
1  native  markets  are  reminiscent  of 
days  of  Gordon  and  Kitchener; 
sques  bring  alive  the  Mahdi  and  his 
latic  followers. 

was  on  a  Thursday  that  the  first 
section  of  the  expedition— lorries 
ded  with  equipment  and  provisions 
sft  the  city.  Drs.  Schulze  and  Jans- 
1,  physiologists  of  the  Max  Planck 
ititute  in  Germany,  traveled  with 
;  caravan  in  their  own  vehicle.  Most 
ambers,  including  Dr.  Rosen  and  his 
fe,  left  by  air  two  days  after  the 
)tor  caravan  had  gone.  I  was  in  the 
st  plane  to  depart— a  two-engine 
ssna  that  would  take  us  to  a  mission- 
y  landing  strip  at  Doro,  near  Boing, 


^<^Skh&lLiLA. 


j-?W^ 


our  final  objective.  Once  inside  the 
plane,  the  pilot  had  second  thoughts; 
he  argued  that  he  did  not  know  how  to 
reach  Doro,  nor  did  he  want  to  make 
the  attempt,  for  he  believed  the  mission 
runway  would  be  too  small  for  the 
Cessna  to  land  safely.  Dr.  Dietrich  Ples- 
ter,  of  DiJsseldorf,  Germany,  and  Dr. 
Satti  assured  the  pilot  that  they  knew 
the  way  from  previous  expeditions, 
and  he  took  off.  When  we  were  air- 
borne, the  two  men  handled  the  naviga- 
tion, pointing  out  familiar  landmarks. 
When  the  Cessna  finally  put  down 
at  Doro,  we  were  welcomed  by  some 
1.50  beautifully  bluish-black  Meban 
and  a  few  white  missionaries.  After 
those  following  by  air  joined  us,  the 
expedition  drove  to  Boing  in  the  com- 
pany of  missionaries  and  local  ofifi- 
cials.  In  the  language  of  the  Meban, 


III  oilier  and  a  child  grind  dura  with 
pole  outside  their  home.  The  tribe  is 
polygamous,  and  each  wife  has  own  hut. 

Boing  means  "Arab  settlement."  It  is 
the  main  center  of  trade  for  the  tribe, 
which  numbers  20,000.  The  tribespeo- 
ple  exchange  their  agricultural  surplus 
for  the  clothing,  jewelry,  pottery,  and 
hardware  of  the  merchants.  I  dis- 
covered later  that  a  merchant  who 
desires  some  specific  article  of  Meban 
craftsmanship— a  musical  instrument 
for  instance— will  send  a  runner  through 
the  countryside  to  make  the  announce- 
ment. Anyone  who  owns  the  specified 
instrument  brings  it  to  the  merchant 
if  he  wants  to  make  a  trade.  Boing  is 
made  up  of  the  shops  of  the  Arabs,  a 
shoemaker,  a  slaughterhouse,  a  gov- 
ernment radio   shack,  a  newly  built 

15 


public  school  with  dormitories,  and  a 
prison.  On  Sunday  evening,  the  motor 
caravan  finally  arrived  in  Boing,  and 
the  expedition's  woi'k  began  in  earnest 
the  next  morning. 

■n  the  weeks  that  followed,  hundreds 
'  of  Meban  came  to  Boing  to  offer 
themselves  as  test  subjects.  At  the  sug- 
gestion of  the  Sudanese,  we  gave  gifts 
of  clothing  to  each  testee.  For  this  pur- 
pose, local  merchants  had  made  hun- 
dreds of  pairs  of  pants  and  shirts. 
When  given  a  choice,  however,  the 
Meban  preferred  trinkets,  such  as 
safety  pins  and  dime  store  jewelry, 
because  they  had  little  need  for  clothes. 
Of  the  many  gifts  taken  to  induce  the 
Meban  to  co-operate  back  in  1961, 
those  things  that  Dr.  Rosen  had  be- 

l6 


lieved  most  likely  to  please  them  often 
proved  least  effective.  For  example,  on 
his  first  expedition  he  anticipated  that 
women  would  like  shiny  bottle  caps, 
perhaps  to  string  like  beads  and  wear 
around  their  abdomens.  When  he  took 
inventory,  he  found  that  thousands  of 
the  bottle  caps  were  left  over,  but  that 
almost  the  entire  supply  of  safety  pins 
had  been  taken.  Traditionally,  both 
men  and  women  have  worn  jewelry 
made  of  snail  shells  in  their  ears,  noses, 
and  lips,  and  the  pins  proved  popular 
as  decorations  for  the  same  parts  of 
the  body.  But  gadgets  that  made 
sparks  were  the  most  successful  gifts 
offered.  Crowds  of  Meban,  Dr.  Rosen 
recalled,  gathered  whenever  anyone 
operated  a  sparking  toy. 

The  Meban  are  an  extremely  comely 


Doul  Boady,  who  has  on  his  forehead 
lines  incised  when  he  was  a  Nuer  slave, 
is  Meban  tribal  council's  elected  chief. 


people.  They  have  a  graceful  carriage, 
well-developed  muscles,  and  erect  pos- 
ture. Until  recently,  if  they  wore  any 
clothing  it  was  no  more  than  a  loin- 
cloth. These  days,  though,  the  women 
may  sometimes  dress  in  a  simple  shift, 
and  the  men  occasionally  wear  the 
undershirts  and  shorts  provided  by 
missionaries.  School  children  dress  for 
classes.  In  addition  to  the  jewelry  men 
and  women  wear  in  their  noses,  ears, 
and  lips,  necklaces  and  finger  rings  are 
common,  and  married  women  usually 
wear  a  colorful,  beaded  "tail"  sus- 
pended from  a  waistband. 

Facial  markings  are  traditional  and 
ubiquitous.  The  Meban  marks,  made 


Slivers  of  wood  in  this  boy's  lower 
lip  and  nose  keep  open  holes  pierced 
for   the   tribe's   traditional   ornaments. 


Illother  shows  cosmetic  marks  cut  into 
her  skin  when  she  was  young  girl.  Lip 
and  nose  rings  are  gifts  from  doctors. 


n  both  men  and  women,  are  three 
lashes  on  each  cheek.  These  begin  at 
le  cheekbone  and  extend  down  the 
[leek  about  two  inches.  Children  re- 
eive  these  marks  when  they  are  eight 
r  nine,  and  we  were  told  that  the 
larking  is  done  by  women.  Four 
romen  hold  a  child  down;  a  fifth 
lakes  the  marks  with  a  sharp  stone 
nd  then  puts  hot  ashes  into  the 
rounds  to  prevent  smooth  healing.  At 
ome  point  after  puberty,  boys  and 
iris  mark  their  own  bodies;  some 
lay  ask  other  members  of  the  tribe  to 
o  it  for  them.  The  designs  are  elabor- 
te  representations  of  plants  and  ani- 
tials,  or  are  geometric  abstractions, 
"he  tribe  produces  very  little  pottery, 
,0  metalwork,  some  beautifully  shaped 
lipes,  and  simple  musical  instruments, 
lut  the  rare  decorations  that  I  saw  on 
heir  earthenware  and  woodwork  were 
ruder  than  the  designs  the  people 
nade  on  their  skins. 

At  puberty,  all  children  have  the 
wo  lower  incisors  removed.  Boys  are 
xpected  to  conceal  pain,  but  girls  may 
;ry  out.  If  a  boy  is  remembered  for 
lis  lack  of  courage  during  the  tooth 
)ulling,  he  may  well  be  rejected  when 
he  time  comes  for  him  to  seek  a  mate. 


The  Meban.  unlike  many  tribes,  do  not 
circumcise  children.  The  few  circum- 
cised adults  we  encountered  were  old, 
onetime  captives  of  the  more  aggres- 
sive neighbors  of  the  Meban— Arabs, 
Nuers,  and  others— and  had  been  cir- 
cumcised in  their  days  of  slavery. 

TODAY,  the  Meban  are  still  far  more 
peaceful  than  their  neighbors.  Me- 
ban, in  the  tribe's  language,  means 
"people  of  the  village."  According  to 
George  P.  Murdock,  an  eminent  eth- 
nologist now  with  the  University  of 
Pittsburgh,  Meban  life  runs  true  to  the 
pattern  of  all  early  Negro  settlers  of 
the  Nile.  They  live  in  large,  compact 
villages  or  groups  of  hamlets,  and  are 
sedentary  in  that  they  do  not  go  far 
from  home  either  to  hunt  or  for  any 
other  purpose.  Meban  houses  are  usu- 
ally round  huts,  with  walls  of  wattle 
and  mud,  and  a  cone-shaped,  thatched 
roof.  The  tribe  practices  polygamy, 
but  Sudanese  law  limits  each  man  to 
four  wives.  Normally,  a  family  occu- 
pies a  compound  within  which  each 
wife  has  a  hut  to  raise  children. 

Most  Meban  marry  at  seventeen  or 
eighteen,  and  the  newly  married  cou- 
ples live  in   seclusion   for  about  ten 


days,  with  simple  cloth  pennants  flying 
from  the  tops  of  their  huts.  They  some- 
times fast  while  in  seclusion,  drinking 
water  brought  to  them  by  a  relative. 
The  parents  of  the  couple  generally  ar- 
range the  marriage  at  the  request  of 
the  man,  but  not  against  the  woman's 
wishes.  The  marriage  contract  may 
include  some  cattle,  paid  to  the  parents 
of  the  bride  by  the  groom.  More  often 
the  groom  will  make  payment  in 
spears,  goats,  or  pigs,  because  the 
Meban  are  cattle  poor. 

A  young  man  without  the  means  to 
purchase  his  wife  can  pay  for  her  by 
working  for  her  father.  Sometimes 
suitors  have  toiled  for  as  long  as  two 
years.  A  popular  woman  has  many 
suitors,  all  of  whom  may  be  working 
for  her  father  at  the  same  time,  and  it 
was  such  a  situation  that  led  to  the 
only  altercation  we  observed  while  in 
Boing.  Briefly,  the  mother  of  a  rejected 
suitor  was  accused  of  casting  a  spell  on 
a  young  woman  because  she  had  mar- 
ried a  man  other  than  her  son.  The 
spell  was  believed  to  have  caused  the 
bride  to  miscarry.  In  retaliation,  her 
groom  killed  the  accused  witch's  son. 

In  this  agrarian  society,  the  division 
of  labor  does  not  appear  to  be  influ- 


17 


enced  by  magical  or  religious  consid- 
erations. In  general,  men  and  boys  do 
the  heavy  work  and  women  and  girls 
busy  themselves  with  less  exhausting 
but  myriad  chores.  During  the  harvest, 
for  example,  parties  of  men— with  as 
many  as  thirty  in  each  group— pool 
their  efforts  and  work  the  land  of  each 
member  of  the  group  in  turn.  The 
wives  of  the  property  owner  whose 
crop  is  being  harvested  prepare  meals 
for  the  workmen,  and  send  a  midday 
drink  into  the  fields.  The  chief  grain 
food  is  a  millet  seed  (Sorghum  vul- 
gare) ,  locally  called  dura,  which  grows 
to  maturity  in  three  months.  Several 
crops  are  planted  annually.  After  the 
men  harvest  (iura— stamping  the  stalks 
with  their  feet,  or  cutting  them  to  the 
ground— the  stalks  are  sun-dried  for 
about  a  month.  Women  take  over  at 
this  stage  and  go  into  the  fields  to 
separate  the  grain  from  the  stalk  by 
hand.  Then  they  store  the  grain  in 
family  bins.  Girls  make  flour  by  pour- 
ing dura  into  a  hole  or  hoUowed-out 
log  and  pounding  the  grain  with  poles. 

The  chief  product  of  dura  flour  is 
a  gruel  that  looks  like  gray  mud.  Dura 
is  also  used  to  brew  a  beer,  marisa,  and 
to  make  a  hard  bread  that  is  also 
known  as  dura,  as  well  as  a  thin,  fer- 
mented bread  called  kisra. 

Dry-season  fishing,  in  the  marshes 
along  the  Yabus  River  and  in  the  river 
itself,  provides  fair  quantities  of  fish 
as  a  dietary  supplement  from  Novem- 
ber through  May.  The  women  cook  the 
fish,  often  together  with  okra,  in  oil 
extracted  from  dried  wild  dates.  Men 
and  boys  spear  some  of  the  fish,  but 
the  great  majority  are  caught  by  the 
women.  They  form  a  line  across  the 
river  and  move  slowly  upstream  in  an 
unbroken  rank,  using  cone-shaped 
baskets  like  a  broad  dragnet. 

In  addition  to  the  above  foods,  the 
men  raise  small  patches  of  maize  and 
tobacco  near  the  village,  and  women 
keep  a  few  chickens  near  their  huts. 
Finally,  the  tribesmen  kill,  with  curved 
throwing  sticks,  some  small  game, 
such  as  rodents  and  wild  guinea  hens. 

IIarvest  is  traditionally  a  time  for 
■1  choosing  mates.  Men  and  women 
dance  every  night  during  the  period 
of  reaping,  and  drink  considerable 
amounts  of  marisa.  The  accompanying 
instruments  include  a  five-string  lyre, 
a  log  spHt  in  half  and  hit  with  a  stick, 
and  one-note  woodwind  pipes  up  to 
three  feet  long— the  typical  band  has 
ten  woodwinds.  The  dance  is  informal 


and  unpatterned,  depends  on  improvi- 
sation, and  looks  to  a  Westerner  like 
a  combination  of  the  twist  and  cha- 
cha.  Men  and  women  usually  face  each 
other  during  a  dance,  but  dancers  of 
opposite  sexes  rarely  if  ever  touch  one 
another.  The  harvest  festivities  begin 
about  7:30  p.m.  and  often  go  on  until 
3:00  in  the  morning.  Yet  at  6:00  in 
the  morning,  the  Meban  get  up  and  go 
back  into  the  fields.  I  joined  the  fes- 
tivities one  night,  and  had  the  privilege 
of  dancing  opposite  the  best  woman 
dancer  in  the  tribe.  By  10:30  p.m.  I 
was  exhausted  and  half-choked  with 
dust  raised  by  the  shuffling  feet. 

Except  for  slight  contact  with  mer- 


chants and  Sudanese  officials,  the  Me- 
ban have  lived  in  cultural  isolation  for 
many,  many  generations.  One  of  the 
main  concerns  of  the  Rosen  expedi- 
tions was  to  record  the  way  of  life  of 
the  Meban,  because  more  and  more  oi 
the  tribe's  children  are  being  educated 
in  Sudanese  schools,  where  they  learn 
about  the  Moslem  religion,  the  United 
Nations,  and  the  awakening  Africa  be- 
yond their  own  borders.  To  many  oi 
these  children,  the  tribal  ways  may 
soon  appear  shamefully  primitive.  In 
a  changing  Africa,  the  customs  that 
existed  at  the  time  of  Dr.  Rosen's  ex- 
peditions may  soon  vanish  forever, 
(To  be  continued  in  May)  , 


uring  harvest,  all  evenings  are  spent 
ncing  and  mates  are  chosen.  Usually, 
me  sex  dance  together,  as  seen  at  left. 


Excitement  of  harvest  dance  shows  in 
face  of  musician,  who  has  put  down  his 
one-note  woodwind  pipe  for  a  breather. 


■C-,i^'^» 


:-tsii 


u& 


--    Xl^^  -^ 


'i.^ 


•  >,  * 


-mi-i,!^ 


Footprint  of  a  Festningen  Iguanodon, 
left,  is  over  2  feet  long  and  almost  as 


wide.  Casts  of  13  prints  are  made  on 
nearly  vertical  sandstone  wall,  above. 


Dinosaurs  of 
The  Arctic 

New  find  extends  Cretaceous  tropics 


By  Edwin  H.  Colbert 

IN  THE  LATE  AFTERNOON  of  AugUSt  3, 
1960,  a  small  group  of  geologists 
from  several  countries  made  its  way 
along  the  top  of  a  sandstone  cliff  on 
the  coast  of  West  Spitsbergen,  one  of 
the  islands  halfway  between  the  north- 
ern tip  of  the  Scandinavian  Peninsula 
and  the  North  Pole. 

They  were  members  of  a  field  ex- 
cursion under  the  leadership  of  Pro- 
fessor Anatol  Heintz  of  the  University 
of  Oslo  and  his  associates,  arranged 
and  sponsored  by  the  Twenty-first 
International  Geological  Congress. 
This  particular  excursion  had  sailed  to 
Spitsbergen  on  the  ship  Valkyrien, 
from  which,  as  a  base,  the  members  of 
the  group  explored  the  island. 

They  reached  the  Festningsodden 
beacon,  located  on  a  vertical  sand- 
stone cliff  of  Cretaceous  age,  and  two 
members  of  the  group  —  Professor 
Albert  F.  de  Lapparent  of  Paris  and 
Robert  Laffitte  -  climbed  down  the 
cliff  to  the  shore.  As  they  looked  up 
at  the  wall  towering  above  them,  they 
saw  on  its  surface,  highlighted  by  the 
long,  slanting  rays  of  the  late  after- 
noon sun,  the  impressions  of  huge 
footprints.  Within  a  few  moments  the 


rest  of  the  group  had  clambered  down 
the  cliff  to  look  at  the  tracks. 

They  counted  thirteen  footprints, 
each  distinctly  three-toed,  and  each 
about  thirty  inches  in  length.  Seven 
of  the  prints  formed  a  trackway  some 
twenty  feet  long,  quite  obviously  made 
by  an  animal  walking  on  its  hind  legs. 
The  other  footprints  were  scattered  in 
various  directions.  There  could  be  no 
doubt  in  the  minds  of  the  viewers  that 
they  were  looking  at  the  footprints  of 
a  large  dinosaur.  At  first  the  geologists 
were  inclined  to  think  that  the  impres- 
sions were  those  of  a  gigantic,  meat- 
eating  dinosaur  of  Cretaceous  age, 
similar  to  Tyrannosaurus  or  Gorgo- 
saurus.  But  careful  examination  of  the 
prints  showed  no  traces  of  claws,  and 
it  was  therefore  concluded  that  they 
were  probably  made  by  one  of  the 
large,  blunt-toed,  herbivorous  dino- 
saurs. Subsequent  study  of  the  prints 
convinced  Professor  de  Lapparent  on 
several  counts  that  these  were  made  by 
the  Lower  Cretaceous  plant-eating 
dinosaur  Iguanodon. 

The  discovery  of  these  dinosaurian 
footprints  was  exciting  and  frustrat- 
ing. In  the  words  of  de  Lapparent: 
"As  this  discovery  was  entirely  unex- 
pected, we  were  unable  to  make  cast- 


"^4    S  NoIth 

1S^ 


ings.  .  .  .  We  did  not  even  have  a  piece 
of  chalk,  to  show  up  the  outlines  of 
the  prints.  .  .  .  After  having  measured 
the  footmarks  and  made  sketches,  we 
were  obliged  to  leave,  as  the  Valkyrien 
was  waiting  to  depart.  .  .  ." 

THE  importance  of  these  tracks  was 
such,  however,  that  plans  were 
made  to  return  for  the  express  purpose 
of  making  some  casts.  (The  problems 
of  trying  to  cut  any  of  the  tracks  out 
of  the  rock  were  too  great  for  any  such 
attempt  to  be  seriously  considered.) 
Accordingly,  members  of  the  staff  of 
the  Paleontological  Museum  in  Oslo, 
notably  Miss  Lily  Monsen  and  Mr. 
Arne  W.  Martinsen,  experimented  dur- 
ing the  winter  of  1960-61  with  differ- 
ent casting  methods  and  materials,  in 
preparation  for  the  trip.  The  cliff  on 
which  the  tracks  are  exposed  is  ver- 
tical —  even  slightly  overhanging  — 
raised  to  this  position  from  its  original 
horizontal  condition  by  earth  forces 
acting  through  geologic  time,  and  this 
presented  great  difficulties  to  mold- 
making.  Second,  temperatures  are  low 
even  in  summer.  Finally,  the  air  is 
humid  and  the  cliff  is  frequently 
moistened  by  salt  spray,  which,  to- 
gether with  the  low  temperatures,  af- 
fects the  setting  of  casting  compounds. 
With  all  experiments  and  plans 
made,  the  expedition  set  out  to  make 
the  casts  in  August,  1961.  Miss  Monsen 
and  Mr.  Martinsen  were  among  the 
party,  as  were  Dr.  Natascha  Heintz  of 
the  Norwegian  Polar  Institute,  who 
had  been  especially  concerned  with  the 
organization  of  the  previous  year's 
trip,  and  Mr.  E.  Stahl  of  the  University 
of  Uppsala.  Dogged  persistence,  com- 
bined with  hard  work  and  ingenuity, 
enabled  the  party  to  complete  a  series 
of  latex  emulsion  molds,  and  the  ex- 
pedition returned  to  Oslo  with  some 


excellent  casts  as  a  record  of  the 
Iguanodon  of  Festningen. 

If  the  members  of  the  1960  field  con- 
ference were  rightly  astonished  with 
their  discovery  of  these  large  dino- 
saurian  tracks  in  Spitsbergen,  it  is  fair 
to  say  that  since  then  many  paleon- 
tologists throughout  the  world  have 
been  equally  astonished.  Iguanodon 
is  a  dinosaur  hitherto  known  from 
England  and  northern  Europe,  where 
numerous  skeletons  and  some  foot- 
prints have  been  unearthed  and  de- 
scribed during  the  past  century  and  a 
half.  To  find  indications  of  this  large 
dinosaur  in  Spitsbergen  means,  of 
course,  that  in  Early  Cretaceous  times 
there  must  have  been  some  sort  of  land 
connection  between  what  is  now  an 
Arctic  island  and  the  European  con- 
tinent. It  requires  no  great  stretch  of 
the  imagination  to  think  of  Spitsber- 
gen as  part  of  the  continent  in  a  former 
geologic  age,  for  today  the  ocean  be- 
tween Spitsbergen  and  North  Cape  is 
less  than  three  hundred  fathoms  deep. 

What  is  of  particular  importance 
is  that  this  discovery  extends  the  range 
of  Cretaceous  dinosaurs— of  any  dino- 
saurs, for  that  matter— far  north  of 
previous  limits.  Festningen  Point  is  at 
Lat.  78°  06'  N.  In  other  words,  it  is 
12  degrees  from  the  North  Pole. 
Hitherto,  the  most  northerly  records 
for  dinosaurs  have  been  at  somewhat 
less  than  60  degrees,  and  for  Cre- 
taceous forms  at  about  52  degrees  in 
Eurasia  and  56  degrees  in  North 
America.  We  have  long  known  that 
dinosaurs  were  spread  across  the  globe 
during  Cretaceous  times,  but  the  dis- 
covery in  Spitsbergen  has  extended 
their  range  to  much  greater  limits. 

The  northwardly  extension  of  the 
dinosaurs  of  Cretaceous  age,  interest- 
ing though  it  may  be  in  expanding  the 
recorded  range  of  these  reptiles  during 
the  culminating  phases  of  their  evolu- 
tionary development,  is  of  added 
significance  in  its  implications  con- 
cerning the  environments  and  climates 
in  which  they  lived.  We  may  assume, 
and  quite  rightly,  if  our  knowledge  of 
modern  reptiles  is  to  have  any  bearing 
on  reptiles  long  extinct,  that  the  giant 
dinosaurs  of  Mesozoic  times  were 
tropical  and  subtropical  animals.  We 
may  also  suppose  that  the  dinosaurs, 
like  modern  reptiles,  were  ectothermic 
vertebrates,  animals  in  which  there 
were  no  internal  temperature  controls, 
and  in  which  the  body  temperatures 
were  closely  correlated  with  the  tem- 
peratures of  their  environments.  Such 


being  the  case,  the  dinosaurs  ura 
have  lived  in  tropical  and  subtropig 
climes,  as  do  modern  crocodiles.  Ce 
tainly  they  were  far  too  large  to  bu 
row  underground  to  escape  co' 
waters,  as  the  lizards  and  snakes  d 
Upon  the  basis  of  this  reasoning  it  ci 
be  stipulated  that  the  footprints 
large  dinosaurs  were  made,  and  the 
bones  were  buried,  in  lands  of  p« 
petual  summer,  no  cooler  than  soirf 
ern  Florida  is  today.  i 

Consequently,  the  discovery 
I guanodon  tracks  in  Spitsbergen  rei 
forces  and  even  extends  the  idea,  loi 
held  by  many  geologists  and  paleo 
tologists,  that  the  Cretaceous  woi 
was  largely  tropical.  Equable  climal 
allowed  large  dinosaurs  to  exist  frc 
the  tips  of  the  southern  continents  ai 
from  Australia  through  the  mid( 
latitudes  and  north  into  what  is  ni 
Canada,  northern  Eurasia,  and  on 
Spitsbergen.  It  would  seem  to  h;i 
been  a  world  in  which  there  were 
polar  icecaps  and  in  which  there  w( 
probably  very  poorly  defined  temp 
ature  belts.  If  there  were  temper: 
regions  as  we  know  them,  they  mi 
have  been  at  the  poles,  while  all  I 
rest  of  the  globe  enjoyed  subtropii 
and  tropical  climates. 

How  is  such  an  ancient  world  toi 
explained?  One  explanation,  essi 
tially  the  one  that  has  just  been 
counted,  supposes  a  world  of  gene 
climatic  uniformity,  with  the  coi 
nents  in  their  present  positions.  1 
evidence  for  such  a  supposition  is 
the  rocks;  one  need  only  to  postul 
that  for  some  unknown  reason,  p 
haps  extraterrestrial,  climates  of  thi 
ancient  days  were  not  zoned.  j 

MANY  geologists  today  are,  he 
ever,  not  satisfied  with  such 
explanation.  For  more  than  hall 
century  numerous  students  of  ea 
history  have  favored  the  theory  of  c 
tinental  drift,  which  supposes  that 
present  land  masses  were  originj 
combined  in  a  single  ancestral  c 
tinent,  Pangaea,  and  which  furtl 
supposes  that  Pangaea  fragmented,: 
different  components  drifting  throi 
time  to  their  present  positions.  . 
cording  to  this  theory  most  of 
drifting  was  along  the  lines  of  latitm 
consequently,  continental  drift  d 
not  offer  any  explanation  beyond 
previous  one  to  account  for  dinosa 
—and,  correlatively,  tropical  dims 
—being  found  in  high  latitudes. 
In  recent  years  another  theory,  t 


polar  wandering,  based  on  studies 
paleomagnetism,  has  attracted  much 
tention  and  gained  many  adherents, 
le  study  of  rock  magnetism  would 
em  to  indicate  (if  certain  assump- 
)ns  are  made)  that  in  former  geo- 
gic  ages  the  poles  were  not  situated 

they  are  now  in  relation  to  the 
mtinents.  Thus,  the  interpretation  of 
leomagnetism  in  Cretaceous  rocks 
ight  show,  according  to  some  author- 
es,  that  the  North  Pole  during  that 
ologic  period  was  at  a  point  in 
irthern  Siberia  or,  according  to 
her  authorities,  near  the  tip  of 
aska.  But  in  either  of  these  inter- 
etations,  Spitsbergen  would  have 
en  in  far  northern  latitudes— say  at 
I  or  60  degrees— and  we  are  still 
ced  with  the  necessity  of  supposing 
widely  tropical  world  to  account  for 
B  Festningen  footprints. 
Consequently,  no  matter  which 
eory  of  past  continental  relation- 
ips  or  polar  positions  is  advocated, 
;  must  almost,  perforce,  postulate  a 
rgely  tropical  world  to  explain  the 
ide  range  of  Cretaceous  dinosaurs, 
ider  no  theory  is  the  significance  of 
s  Spitsbergen  footprints  diminished. 
Iguanodon  was  first  described  in 
25  by  Gideon  Mantell,  a  rather  ce- 
ntric physician-scientist,  who  spent 
nch  of  his  life  collecting  and  study- 
g  fossil  bones  from  the  Lower  Cre- 
ceous,  or  Wealden  beds,  of  southern 
igland.  To  Mantell,  the  bones  of  the 
ealden  revealed  an  England  of  an- 
;nt  ages  quite  unlike  the  England  of 
neteenth-century  days— one  of  tropi- 
1  aspect,  inhabited  by  gigantic  rep- 
es.  Through  the  years  this  concept 
s  been  extended  by  the  successors 

Mantell  until  today  it  encompasses 
e  world.  And  it  has  grown  by  the  ac- 
mulation  of  separate  discoveries, 
le  by  one,  and  year  after  year.  The 
otprints  of  Festningen  constitute  one 

the  latest  and  especially  important 
scoveries  in  the  long  sequence  of 
ientific  effort  that  began  almost  a 
ntury  and  a  half  ago.  They  confirm 
id  extend  the  tropical  world  of  Cre- 
ceous  times  and  they  record  the  wide 
inderings  of  Iguanodon  through 
ngies  that  can  now  be  seen  only 
ithin  the  limits  of  the  Tropic  of  Can- 
r  and  the  Tropic  of  Capricorn, 
ley  take  us  back  to  a  vanished  world. 


ECONSTRUCTION  shows  the  dinosaur's 
obable  appearance.  It  may  have  been 
lout  40  feet  long  and   16  feet  high. 


Mixlticolored  World 
of  Caterpillars 


\yy  Paul  Villiard 

J^luch  has  been  written  about  but- 
terflies and  moths,  their  beauty,  and 
the  strange  and  wonderful  defense  me- 
chanisms they  exhibit,  but  compara- 
tively little  has  been  said  about  the 
earlier  stages  of  these  insects.  Actually, 
in  the  ferval  stage,  butterflies  and 
moths  are  often  as  beautiful  as  the 
adult  form,  and  many  put  the  adult  to 
shame  in  design,  color,  and  "person- 
ality." Despite  the  gaudy  colors  many 
caterpillars  exhibit,  their  camouflage 
effect  is  such  that  most  people  go 
through  life  without  seeing  more  than 
a  few  stragglers  of  the  commoner  spe- 
cies, and  generally  these  are  dis- 
covered by  accident. 

Several  types  of  camouflage  occur 
in  caterpillars.  Cryptic  mimicry,  for 


example,  consists  of  patterns  or  appar- 
ently random  designs  that  allow  the 
insect  to  blend  into  its  background  un- 
til it  is  almost  invisible,  or  at  least  very 
inconspicuous.  Often  caterpillars  are 
brilliantly  colored,  yet,  when  they  are 
feeding  on  the  leaves  of  a  bush  or  tree 
they  are  almost  impossible  to  detect  by 
virtue  of  their  gaudiness.  The  mark- 
ings take  the  form  of  zigzag  lines,  dots, 
and  short  lines  running  horizontally, 
vertically,  or  diagonally  on  each  of  the 
segments.  Bright  colors  in  irregular 
blotches  or  patches  all  help  to  break  up 
the  continuous  outline  of  a  caterpillar. 

Many  species  have  brilliant  metallic 
spots  on  their  sides.  Gold  in  some 
cases,  silver  in  others,  these  mirror-like 
areas  simulate  sunshine  or  moonlight 
glimmering  through  the  leaves.  The 
result  of  this  simple  device  is  that  the 
predator  loses  sight  of  the  outline  of 
the  caterpillar  itself.  This,  coupled 
with  the  ability  of  caterpillars  to  re- 
main motionless  for  extended  periods 
of  time  helps  create  the  illusion  that 
they  are  not  actually  there. 

Often  this  mimicry  is  assisted  by  a 
characteristic  attitude  assumed  in  time 
of  danger.  Because  of  their  short  vi- 
sion and  poor  hearing  ability,  if  any, 
probably  the  first  danger  warning 
caterpillars  receive  is  the  shaking  of 
the  branch  as  a  bird  alights.  This  trig- 
gers an  instantaneous  assumption  of  a 
defense  posture,  and  it  is  often  at  such 
times  that  the  greatest  beauty  of  the 
caterpillar  can  be  seen. 

In  aposematic  mimicry,  the  cater- 
pillar adopts  the  warning  colors  of 
some  creature  inimical  to  a  predator, 
or  of  some  unpalatable  substance.  An 
example  of  the  latter  is  the  almost  per- 
fect resemblance  to  bird  droppings 
found  in  the  early  instars  (periods  be- 
tween molts)   of  many  species. 

Combinations  of  coloration  and  as- 
pect can  sometimes  be  very  striking. 


CTecond  stage  Brahmaea  ivallichii  has 
four  large,  black  head  processes.  They 
disappear  after  the  insect's  fourth  molt. 


One  such  example  is  the  "horned"  cat-  i 
erpillar  of  Brahmaea  ivallichii  (for  a 
picture  of  the  adult  of  this  moth,  seej 
Natural  History,  June-July,  1963).! 
In  time  of  danger,  the  head  and  first] 
two  segments  curve  down  tightly  un- 
der the  ventral  surface.  This  posture  i 
exposes  and  stretches  the  skin  between  5 
the  third  and  fourth  segments,  enlarg- 
ing two  oval  black  spots  located  be-; 
tween  them,  and  two  smaller  spots  in ' 
the  fold  between  the  second  and  third i 
segments.  The  latter  form  the  "nos-j 
trils,"  and  the  large  spots  are  thai 
"eyes"  of  what  appears  to  be  a  great] 
staring  face  surrounded  by  four  men-' 
acing  "horns"  that  stand  straight  out; 
from  the  body.  The  caterpillar  whips] 
its  fore  parts  back  and  forth  across  the| 
branch,  as  though  it  were  about  toj 
spring  at  its  foe.  After  the  fourth  instar  \ 
the  horns  on  this  caterpillar  disappear. , 
They  are  shed  with  the  skin  and  re-j 
placed  with  four  pale  blue,  pearlyi 
spots.  The  sides  of  the  first  three  seg-; 
ments  are  now  lined  with  black  in  such| 
fashion  that  when  the  head  is  lowered! 
in  its  characteristic  defense  position, , 
the  caterpillar  resembles  a  scaly  rep-j 
tile.  When  the  body  rears  up  on  the' 
branch,  it  looks  extraordinarily  like  a\ 

Chinese  dragon  in  miniature. 

I 

..C^nother  important  defense  mecha- ' 
nism  found  in  a  large  number  of  spe- 
cies is  the  growth  on  the  bodies  of 
urticating  (stinging)  spines  in  greater- 
or  lesser  abundance.  Perhaps  this  does , 
not  afford  too  much  protection  for ; 
some  individual  specimens,  but  a  bird  | 
or  other  predator  will  learn  to  avoid  1 
a  species  after  having  been  irritated  I 
enough  times,  and  the  remaining ' 
members  survive.  However,  the  hirsute' 
coverings,  whether  or  not  they  are' 
urticating,  provide  no  defense  against  1 
parasitizing  enemies,  and  so  even  these  ■ 
well-armed  species  form  the  food  sup- 


iN  ative  to  Japan  and  other  parts  of  | 
Asia,  a  Dictyoploca  japonica  is  shown  ' 
here  at  more  than  twice  its  actual  size,  i 


24 


Xjunched  spines  of  Automeris  io,  at 
the  left,  are  highly  urticating.  It  spins 
fragile  cocoon  on  ground  under  leaves. 


Vt  hite  stripes  of  this  Rothschildii 
speculifera  caterpillar  become  orang< 
when  larva  is  about  to  begin  pupation 


jA.  n  Eacles  imperialis  in  green  phase 
clings  to  twig,  left,  as  it  feeds  on  pine. 
The  caterpillar  also  has  a  brown  phase. 


_A.  frican  species  Nudaurelia  cytherei 
was  raised  on  sumac,  Rhus  glabra.  Th' 
insect  passes  pupal  period  in   ground 


y  for  a  host  of  other  creatures.  It  is 
tonishing  that  any  at  all  survive 
hen  one  considers  the  tremendous 
edation  pressures  under  which  these 
sects  constantly  live.  Michael  Collins 
id  Robert  Weast,  in  their  studies  of 
Ik  moths  of  the  United  States,  esti- 
aled  that  it  would  take  about  40,000 
rtile  ova  to  maintain  a  race  of  200 
lulls  of  a  given  species. 
Some  non-indigenous  caterpillar 
lecies  seem  to  have  a  limited  adapta- 
lity  to  temperature.  Below  65°  F. 
ost  tropical  and  exotic  species  show 
insiderable  reduction  of  their  feeding 
te  and'  the  attendant  rate  of  growth. 
)r  instance,  Atlacus  alias  edwardsi 
rvae  feed  sporadically  or  not  at  all, 
ing  quiescently  along  the  twig  or  on 
e  leaf  for  days  at  a  time.  If  they 
rvive  to  pupate,  the  majority  either 
)  not  live  through  that  process,  or 
ey  die  later  in  the  pupal  stage.  The 
w  who  may  emerge  as  adults  are  gen- 
ally  weak  and  fail  to  expand  their 
ings  completely.  Progeny  from  such 
lults  are  rarely  healthy  and  vigorous, 
t  temperatures  ranging  below  55°  F., 
number  of  exotic  species  and  most 
opical  caterpillars  fail  to  survive  if 
e  cold  continues  for  a  long  time. 

Jn  the  other  hand,  the  feeding  rate 
many  caterpillars  accelerates  tre- 
endously  as  the  temperature  rises, 
ouble-brooded  species,  such  as 
ctias  luna  or  Anlheraea  pernyi,  main- 
ined  in  a  constant  temperature  of 
)out  85°  F.  will  feed  to  maturity, 
ipate,  emerge,  mate,  and  oviposit, 
id  the  second  brood  larvae  will  be 
arted,  while  members  of  the  same 
•ood  kept  at  a  temperature  of  65°  F. 
ill  be  only  in  their  second  or  third 
star.  Temperature  differences  affect 
e  rate  of  growth  of  domestic  species, 
so,  but  not  to  nearly  so  great  a  de- 
ee.  Moreover,  species  that  are  in- 
genous  to  the  temperate  zones  seem 
itter  able  to  withstand  prolonged 
;riods  of  cold  than  do  those  from 
armer  regions,  although  they  may  be 
itarded  for  a  considerable  period  if 
:e  temperature  drops  suddenly  or  if 
rains  for  many  days.  During  this 
me  they  either  stop  feeding  or  eat 
;ry  little.  However,  when  the  weather 
arms  again  and  the  sun  dries  the 
iliage,  the  larvae  will  recommence 
;eding,  and  apparently  the  only  efEect 
E  the  hiatus  is  to  move  the  time  of 
aturation  back  by  the  approximate 
ngth  of  time  the  larvae  were  deterred 
om  feeding  by  the  cold  spell. 


JJ  ickory-horned  devil  is  one  common 
appellation  of  the  Citheronia  regalis, 
which  is  frequently  seven  inches  long. 


It  pupates  in  the  ground  and,  despite 
the  caterpillar's  large  size,  it  develops 
into    a    relatively    small,   orange   moth. 


In  addition  to  temperature,  humid- 
ity—or the  lack  of  it— is  the  cause  of 
many  failures  in  the  rearing  of  foreign 
species.  Antheraea  mylitta  of  central 
and  southern  India  and  Ceylon,  for 
instance,  demands  a  great  amount  of 
humidity.  In  fact,  actually  dripping 
foliage  is  even  more  to  its  advantage. 
That  this  insect  is  highly  adapted  to 
wet  conditions  is  brought  strongly  to 
our  attention  when  we  note  that  the 
camouflage  of  the  caterpillar  simulates 
drops  of  water  to  a  remarkable  degree. 
Almost  all  tropical  species  do  best  in 
a  fairly  humid  environment.  On  the 
other  hand,  some  larvae— such  as  our 
domestic  species,  Pseudohazis  hera— 
that  feed  on  sagebrush  in  hot  desert 
areas  of  the  western  states  can  tolerate 
extremely  dry  and  arid  conditions,  if 
they  have  enough  fresh  food. 

X^nother  important  factor  govern- 
ing the  growth  rate  of  caterpillars  is 
the  freshness  of  their  food.  Certain  of 
them  survive  only  with  difficulty  when 
cage-reared  on  cut  leaves  or  branches. 
Many  times  they  mature  as  stunted  or 
crippled  adults,  and  the  second  brood 
is  very  weak.  Unless  the  American 
breeder  of  the  exotic  species  lives  in 
one  of  the  few  areas  where  tropical 
plants  can  be  grown  or  has  access  to  a 
greenhouse  that  he  can  stock  with  the 
proper  growing  food  plants,  he  must 
depend  on  substitute  foods  in  order  to 
rear  the  species. 

Frequently  the  insect  does  not 
readily  accept  substitutes  and  gener- 
ally, in  these  cases,  drags  out  a  long 
and  miserable  existence,  nibbling  at 
whatever  leaf  supplies  a  chemical  stim- 
ulus to  feeding  and,  for  the  most  part, 
expiring  in  the  pupal  stage  or  before. 
However,  many  species  readily  accept 
alternate  foods,  and  can  be  reared 
quite  successfully  under  unnatural 
conditions  on  unnatural  food  plants. 
It  is  often  found  that  such  species  are 
polyphytophagous  in  their  natural 
habitat  (that  is,  they  feed  on  a  variety 
of  plants)  and  that  one  or  more  of 
their  natural  foods  is  identical  with 
or  closely  related  to  our  northern 
varieties  of  trees.  Often,  too,  these  in- 
sects are  not  much  smaller  or  less  ro- 
bust than  those  that  have  been  reared 
in  their  natural  habitat. 

In  two  studies  of  the  species  Samia 
cecropia  in  the  summer  of  1961  and  of 
Actias  selene  in  the  summer  of  1962  I 
obtained  some  interesting  results.  In 
the  case  of  S.  cecropia,  their  natural 
food— the- wild  cherry  (PrunusJ—-was 


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XJefore  each  molt,  the  Attacus  atlas 
edwardsi  develops  adhesive  white  coat, 
above,  resembling  zinc  oxide  ointment. 


JL  he  Rothschildia  orizaba  seen  above 
has  distinguishing  traits  that  include 
a  hirsute  underbody  and  bare  back.  A 


almost  obscures  the  pale,  translucent 
eenish-blue  hue  of  larva.  Discarded 
in  is  left  on  the  twig,  at  right  above. 


>cile  and  phlegmatic  insect,  Antheraea 
•rnyi  feeds  on  an  oak,  above.  Adult  is 
lovfn  as  the  "Chinese  oak  silk  moth." 


used.  A  tree  was  topped  to  about  seven 
feet  and  enclosed  within  a  four-foot- 
square  cage  eight  feet  high.  Fertile  ova 
were  collected  from  a  pair  of  moths 
selected  for  their  color  and  size  and 
refrigerated  for  three  weeks  at  a  tem- 
perature of  40°  F.  to  retard  them 
enough  to  allow  the  caterpillars  to 
carry  over  into  July  and  August  before 
hatching.  Some  of  the  ova  were 
hatched  in  a  plastic  sandwich  box,  to 
be  reared  in  a  cage  indoors.  The  re- 
maining ova  were  placed  outside  to 
hatch  on  the  tree.  Leaves  from  the 
same  tree  were  used  to  feed  both 
broods.  Approximately  60  per  cent  of 
the  inside  brood  reached  maturity  as 
compared  with  better  than  95  per  cent 
of  the  outdoor  brood.  The  disparity  in 
size  between  the  mature  insects  was 
considerable.  A  typical  male  was  se- 
lected from  both  lots.  The  specimen 
from  the  living  tree  measured  14.7  cm. 
across  the  forewings.  That  from  the  in- 
door group  spanned  but  11.5  cm. 

The  results  obtained  with  Actios 
selene  were  even  more  dramatic,  be- 
cause they  were  reared  on  alternate 
food  plants  in  an  unnatural  climate. 
Apple  was  selected  as  being  the  most 
readily  accepted  alternate  food.  Be- 
cause the  tree  was  very  large,  I  resorted 
to  sleeving  individual  branches  rather 
than  topping  and  caging  entire  trees. 
(Sleeving  is  a  method  of  surrounding 
a  branch  loosely  with  some  sort  of 
material— usually  netting— and  tying  it 
at  each  end.  This  prevents  escape  or 
predation  from  the  trunk  terminus  of 
the  branch,  and  at  the  same  time  per- 
mits access  by  the  breeder  from  the 
tip  end  of  the  sleeve.) 

-CaLgain,  leaves  from  the  same  tree 
were  used  to  feed  the  indoor  brood, 
which  showed  a  marked  tendency  to- 
ward stunting,  and  pupated  at  a  much 
smaller  size  and  about  ten  days  earlier 
than  those  on  the  outdoor  tree.  This 
seemed  to  indicate  an  adaptation  to  ad- 
verse conditions,  because  the  cut  food 
dried  out  considerably  during  the 
course  of  the  day,  with  the  result  that 
for  much  of  the  time  the  caterpillars 
fed  on  hard  leaves  or  on  scraps  that 
had  fallen  to  the  bottom  of  the  cage. 
The  gradual  accumulation  of  frass— 
refuse  or  excrement  of  larvae— in  the 
bottom  of  the  cage  also  created  a  con- 
dition not  found  in  their  natural  sur- 
roundings. The  lack  of  changing  light, 
sunshine,  and  circulating  air  were  all 
contributing  factors  toward  the  total 
condition.    The   early   pupating   time 


29 


Hjxtremely  rare  Argenia  mittrei  is  a 
lative  of  Madagascar.  Not  until  1963 
vas  one  raised  in  captivity  off  the  island. 

thus  could  be  seen  as  an  escape  from 
these  conditions.  As  in  the  case  of  5. 
cecropia.  typical  specimens  showed 
great  differences  in  size  after  emer- 
gence. From  the  growing  tree  a  male 
measured  13.3  cm.  across  the  fore- 
wings  and  12.8  cm.  from  the  tip  of 
the  forewing  to  the  bottom  of  the 
hind  wing  process.  The  cage-reared 
specimen  that  had  developed  indoors 
spanned  9.3  cm.  across  and  only  8.7 
cm.  from  top  to  bottom. 

As  a  final  note  on  adaptability,  the 
frequent  inability  to  adapt  to  foreign 
climatic  conditions  often  results  in 
tropical  species'  exercising  their  pro- 
clivity toward  a  second  brood  so  late 
in  the  year  that  the  rearing  of  the 
larvae  is  virtually  impossible  because 
of  a  lack  of  food  plants.  Many  attempts 
have  been  made  to  augment  the  nutri- 
tive value  of  sere  leaves  by  means  of 
chemicals  or  combinations  of  chemi- 
cals applied  to  the  leaves  before 
feeding  them  to  the  larvae.  These 
methods  have  met  with  some  success, 
and  there  is  room  for  much  more  work 
in  this  field.  Most  caterpillars  show  a 
general  reluctance  to  accept  dry  leaves, 
even  after  they  have  been  soaked  in 
water  to  make  them  pliable.  Perhaps 
there  is  a  "way  to  make  such  food  a  bit 

30 


more  palatable  for  specimens,  in  which 
case  fall  broods  would  pose  fewer  prob- 
lems to  breeders. 

Anyone  who  has  reared  a  number 
of  species  of  lepidopterous  larvae  has 
learned  that  the  caterpillars  possess 
"personalities."  Some  are  highly  nerv- 
ous in  captivity,  and  react  strongly 
each  time  they  are  disturbed  for  feed- 
ing or  cage  cleaning.  They  exhibit  all 
their  defense  mechanisms  and  show 
many  distress  signs.  At  the  opposite 
extreme  are  phlegmatic  species  that 
seldom  react  to  anything  done  to  or 
around  them.  If  the  twig  upon  which 
they  are  feeding  is  snipped  off  they 
will  continue  to  munch  until  the  leaf  is 
finished  and  then  look  for  more.  One 
may  find  a  range  of  behavior  between 
these  two  extremes.  Some  caterpillars, 
such  as  Rhodinia  fiigax  from  Japan 
and  our  native  Citheronia  regalis, 
squeak  when  disturbed.  Many  species 
seem  constantly  active,  restlessly  wan- 
dering about  the  cage  or  within  the 
sleeve.  Sometimes  this  wandering  is  so 
unrelieved  that  the  insects  suffer  from 
lack  of  nourishment,  as  they  seldom 
stay  in  one  place  long  enough  to  eat 
much.  Completely  covering  their  cages 
with  some  sort  of  light  barrier  to 
darken  the  interior  may  help  to  quiet 
them.  A  paper  sack  inverted  over  small 
cages  or  a  cloth  draped  around  larger 
ones  will  often  be  all  that  is  needed.  If 
this  barrier  is  kept  in  place  until  after 
the  second  molt,  at  least,  the  caterpil- 
lars will  usually  feed  normally  and 
cease  their  incessant  wandering. 

»^ome  species  do  well  in  their  cages, 
and  are  undisturbed  by  the  introduc- 
tion of  fresh  food  or  by  cage  cleaning. 
However,  as  soon  as  they  are  taken 
from  the  cage  for  photographic  or 
other  study,  they  begin  to  move  about 
actively.  One  of  the  worst  offenders  in 
this  category  is  Dirphia  curitiba.  In- 
digenous to  the  Argentine  and  other 
sections  of  South  America.  D.  curitiba 
is  also  one  of  the  severely  urticating 
species.  The  photograph  on  page  31 
is  the  result  of  more  than  thirty  at- 
tempts to  make  it  remain  quiet  long 
enough  for  me  to  focus  on  it. 

Gregariousness  marks  some  species 
during  their  entire  larval  life.  Others 
group  together  only  in  the  first  one  or 
two  instars,  while  still  others  lead  soli- 
tary existences  from  the  time  they  are 
hatched.  Some  of  the  latter  carry  this 
to  the  extreme  of  being  unable  to  sur- 
vive if  an  attempt  is  made  to  rear  them 
in  a  high  population  density. 


One  habit  displayed  by  some  cater- 
pillars is  that  of  releasing  their  hold 
on  their  support  when  approached  and 
dropping  to  the  ground,  where  they 
quickly  disappear  among  the  leaves 
and  grasses.  Often  they  curl  into  a 
tight  ring  as  they  land,  which  makes 
them  even  more  difficult  to  detect.  A 
number  of  the  "dropping"  species  do 
not  fall  all  the  way  to  the  ground,  but 
let  themselves  down  with  astonishing 
rapidity  on  a  delicate  strand  of  silk.  If 
left  alone,  they  will  climb  back  to  the 
perch  after  a  few  minutes,  ingesting 
the  silk  as  they  go. 

Many  species  are  adept  at  finding 
ways  to  get  out  of  their  cages.  Cracks 
or  holes  in  frames,  or  slight  gaps  in 
doors  that  appear  to  be  impassable  are 
broad  avenues  of  escape  to  them.  The 
unusual  caterpillar  of  the  beautiful 
little  East  Indian  moth,  Loepa  kalinka, 
is  a  classic  example  of  escaping  ability, 
possibly  because  it  has  a  small  head  in 
relation  to  its  body  size.  Once  it  suc- 
ceeds in  working  its  head  through  a 
crevice,  it  can  stretch  its  soft  body  out 
enough  to  pull  itself  through. 

Most  species  remain  in  the  cater- 
pillar stage  for  only  a  few  weeks  or  a 
couple  of  months  during  the  summer, 
pupating  in  the  fall  in  preparation  for 
the  dormant  period  that  precedes 
emergence.  There  are,  of  course,  ex- 
ceptions to  this  rule.  Some  caterpillars 
feed  for  a  week  or  two,  become  semi- 
dormant  (they  may  come  out  and 
wander  on  warm,  sunny  days),  and 
finally  emerge  in  the  spring  to  finish 
feeding.  They  pupate  in  the  summer, 
emerge  as  adults  within  a  week  or  two, 
and  start  the  new  cycle.  Still  other  spe- 
cies remain  for  two  years  or  even 
longer  in  the  caterpillar  stage.  Cossus 
is  one  of  these.  This  genus  feeds  only 
on  the  living  wood  of  trees,  and  re- 
mains within  the  trunk,  boring  tunnels 
until  the  tree  is  killed,  after  which  the 
caterpillars  move  to  another  host.  Cos- 
sus has  been  called  the  goat  moth,  be- 
cause of  the  caterpillar's  disagreeable 
smell.  Such  species  are  impractical  to 
rear  because  of  the  specialized  food 
requirements  and  the  length  of  time 
involved.  Literally  hundreds  of  other 
varieties,  however,  are  available  for 
persons  who  are  interested  in  the  life 
histories  of  these  insects,  or  who  wish 
to  raise  them  solely  for  their  beauty. 


Xjrazil's  Dirphia  curitiba  is  one  of  the 
most  urticating.  It  has  "a  pinkish-gray 
color,  with  magenta  and  black  tracery. 


v.y^  ^j 


m 


^»ii:*''i^T- 


^, 


■#*. 


<»^.H 


Bass  Rock  Gannet 


c 


Aggression  seems  dominant  theme  in  behavior  of  these  bird: 


\-S|t;^v,'^ 


E  GANNETS  fight  with  interlocked 
dibles  in  territorial  dispute.  Bill 
ions  are  altered  with  great  speed. 


By  Bryan  Nelson 

rHE  SULIDAE  is  a  compact  family 
of  plunge-diving,  fish-eating  birds 
[visible  into  the  pantropical  boobies 
jenus  Sula)  and  the  true  gannets  of 
mperate  or  relatively  cool-current 
igions.  The  latter  form  a  closely  re- 
ted  trio  comprising  the  North  At- 
ntic  Gannet,  the  South  African,  or 
ape  Gannet,  Sula  capensis,  and  the 
acific,  or  Australasian  Gannet,  Sula 
rrator  (some  authors  use  Moras  as 
e  generic  name ) .  These  may  perhaps 
;st  be  regarded  as  three  forms  of  one 
lecies,  although  more  usually  they 
e  given  specific  rank. 
The  lovely  old  Gaelic  name  for  the 
innet  is  Ian  Ban  an  Sgadan,  "White 
ird  of  the  Herring."  No  bird  more 
;serves  such  a  fine  name.  Gannets  are 
;autiful,  strong  birds— bold  fliers 
ith  a  six-foot  wingspread,  spectacu- 
r  plunge  divers,  and  fascinating 
)lonial  nesters  that  mate  for  life. 
hey  are  of  striking  appearance,  with 
low-white  plumage,  black  primaries, 
)lden  or  orange-buff  heads,  pale  blue 
'es,  and  a  conspicuous  facial  pat- 
rn  of  black  lines.  A  fold  of  black  skin 
ms  centrally  between  the  rami  of  the 
wer  mandible  and  stretches  enor- 
ously  to  accommodate  large  fish. 
In  February,  1961,  soon  after  the 
rst  adult  birds  had  returned  to  the 
imous  Bass  Rock,  from  which  they 
;rive  their  specific  name  Sula  bas- 
ma,  my  wife  and  I  took  up  residence 
1  a  small  hut  perched  on  the  wind- 
vept  south  face.  The  Bass  Rock,  three 
liles  from  the  mainland,  is  the  last  in 
chain  of  volcanic  outcrops  that 
retch  across  country  just  north  of 
le  England-Scotland  border  country. 
bout  a  mile  round  the  base,  340  feet 


Bass  rock,  three  miles  from  mainland 
ofF  English-Scottish  border,  gave  the 
specific  name  to  gannet,  Sula  bassana. 

high,  and  bluntly  conical,  with  some 
seven  acres  of  "top,"  it  rises  sheer  on 
three  sides,  and  more  gradually  on  the 
south-facing  slope.  Apart  from  three 
lighthouse  keepers,  it  is  inhabited 
mainly  by  hordes  of  sea  fowl. 

Between  February  and  October  for 
three  successive  years  we  seldom  left 
the  Bass.  Our  aim  was  to  keep  a  con- 
tinuous record  of  the  gannets'  return 
to  the  breeding  colony  from  their 
oceanic  winter  life,  their  method  of 
establishing  a  site  and  forming  a 
breeding  pair,  their  egg-laying,  incu- 
bation, and  chick-rearing  behavior 
and,  in  particular,  the  striking  dis- 
plays shown  at  the  breeding  colony. 
From  blinds  we  watched  a  study  area 
containing  about  250  pairs,  many  of 
them  individually  recognizable  by  dif- 
ferent combinations  of  colored  bands, 
and  we  mapped  their  nests  in  relation 
to  features  of  the  local  landscape. 

World  gannet  numbers  are  at  pres- 
ent increasing— the  Bass  colony  as  a 
whole  grew  from  about  12,000  indi- 
viduals in  1949  (including  the  non- 
breeding  birds)  to  about  18.000  in 
1962— and  we  were  able  to  follow  the 
expansion  of  our  study  group  very 
closely.  Gannets  are  long  lived— 
usually  they  do  not  even  breed  until 
their  fifth  year,  and  our  mortality 
figures  indicated  that  adult  gannets 
have  a  life  expectancy  of  approxi- 
mately sixteen  years. 

Part  of  a  gannet's  life  is  spent  far 
from  land,  and  once  a  juvenile  has 
made  its  spectacular  leap  from  the  cliff 
down  to  the  sea,  we  can  only  piece 
together  fragments  of  information  to 
follow  its  life  until  it  returns  to  the 
breeding  colony.  As  juveniles.  North 
Atlantic  Gannets  migrate  south  from 
the  British  Isles  as  far  as  equatorial 


Africa,  then  gradually  work  their  way 
back  into  northern  waters.  Thereafter, 
they  do  not  usually  migrate  far  south 
again.  From  records  of  banded  birds, 
it  seems  that  many,  perhaps  most,  re- 
turn to  the  colony  of  their  birth, 
usually  when  they  are  two  or  three 
years  old,  but  occasionally  in  their 
first  year.  Sometimes  an  old  colony 
becomes  so  densely  packed  that  new- 
comers in  excess  of  the  numbers 
required  to  replace  dead  members  can- 
not find  a  footing  and  are  forced  out. 
Immature  birds  fly  endlessly  over 
and  around  the  colony— a  process  that 
probably  familiarizes  them  with  the 
colony,  and  perhaps  particularly  the 
area  on  which  they  later  nest.  They 
gather  mainly  near  the  top  of  the 
windward  side  of  the  Bass  in  "non- 
breeding  clubs,"  where  they  form 
temporary  pairs,  usually  made  up  of 
birds  the  same  age.  Although  there  is 
no  reason  to  suspect  that  a  club  pair 
afterward  becomes  a  permanent  pair 
in  the  colony  proper,  they  at  least  go 
through  the  rites  of  pair  formation 
under  the  less  competitive  conditions 
of  the  club.  Also,  time  spent  around 
the  breeding  colony  probably  helps 
them  learn  the  local  wind  conditions 
(often  very  tricky)  and  the  colony's 
main  feeding  grounds.  For  a  time, 
then,  immature  birds  lead  a  nomadic 
life,  fishing  far  afield  and  returning 
periodically  to  the  now-familiar  Bass. 
We  have  noticed  that  gannets  continue 
their  fishing  trips  even  in  dense  mist 
and  seem  very  little  inconvenienced. 

AN  important  period  in  the  male's 
^  life  occurs  in  his  fourth  year, 
when  he  establishes  his  permanent 
nest  site.  By  the  time  he  returns  from 
his  oceanic  winter  life,  most  of  the 
birds  that  have  bred  previously  at  least 
once  have  been  back  for  a  long  time 
and  have  reclaimed  their  previous 
year's  nests.  The  older  the  bird,  the 
earlier  it  tends  to  return  to  the  colony. 
Indeed,  some  sit  out  the  icy  gales  of 
February  on  the  barren  rock,  and  may 
remain  until  early  November.  How- 
ever, some  old  males  have  died, 
usually  through  accident  (our  color- 
banded  male  5068  ended  up  in  a  native 
stewpot  in  Senegal  in  the  winter  of 
1962/63,  and  each  year  several  are 
drowned  in  fishermen's  nets  or  killed 
at  sea),  and  a  few  others  return  late. 
There  are  thus  several  unoccupied 
nests  even  in  April.  These  attract  site- 
hunting  males,  which  fly  low  over  the 
colony  looking  for  empty  spaces.  Site 


Observation  colony  of  some  250  pairs 
was  studied  for  three  successive  years. 


Rotary, HEAD  shake  and  wing  flapping 
at  nest  are  "comfort  movements."  Bird 


Maps  were  made  of  nest  sites,  the  birds 
were  banded,  and  behavior  recorded. 


in   this    way   loosens   its    feathers    and 
then  settles  down  on  the  nesting  site. 


34 


hment  becomes  strong  only  after 
or  three  days  of  undisputed  pos- 
on,  so,  if  newcomers  settle  on  a 
that  turns  out  to  be  already 
led,  they  relinquish  it  without  a 
;gle.  In  territorial  species,  owner- 
confers  great  advantage  in  dis- 
;;  the  owning  bird  lights  more 
rously  and  usually  wins.  In  the 
first  stages  of  site  establishment 
IS  much  a  part  of  a  bird's  adaptive 
vior  to  flee  as  it  is,  later,  to  stand 
fight.  Some  authors  believe  that 
ig  birds  can  only  acquire  "in- 
r"  sites  at  the  fringe  of  the  group, 
must  later  graduate  to  better  ones, 
ever,  in  a  stable  population,  and 
rds  tend  to  keep  permanently  the 
hey  first  establish— as  gannets  do 
s  belief  cannot  be  true.  The  new- 
;rs  merely  take  over  the  nests  of 
ased  birds.  Such  nests  occur  with 
1  likelihood  at  all  points  in  a 
p  unless  one  area— the  edge,  say— 
irticularly  prone  to  predation. 

TER  a  few  days  on  the  site,  per- 
haps with  short  absences  or  none 
1  (male  gannets  may  remain  at 
lest  site  for  five  days  at  a  stretch ) , 
site  owners  are  extremely  hostile 

I  other  males.  A  high  proportion 

II  established   sites   involves  the 
in  at  least  one   and  sometimes 

ral  severe  fights.  Gannets  were 
ably  cliff  nesters  originally,  al- 
gh  they  now  nest  on  flatter  ground 
ell,  and  it  may  be  at  least  partly 


because  their  fighting  method  is  pri- 
marily adapted  to  cliff  ledges  that  it 
becomes  so  damaging  on  flatter 
ground,  where  contestants  cannot  fall 
off,  be  pushed  off,  or  escape. 

Gannets  are  gregarious  in  activities 
other  than  breeding— for  instance, 
they  fish  in  flocks,  gather  nest  ma- 
terial communally,  and  rest  on  the  sea 
in  groups— and  fighting  of  the  male 
birds  is  entirely  restricted  to  terri- 
torial disputes.  Their  bills  are  usually 
the  focus  of  attack,  although  other 
parts  of  the  face,  head,  and  neck  are 
also  frequently  gripped,  as  are  some- 
times wings,  legs,  or  feet.  Mandibles 
of  fighting  birds  are  strongly  inter- 
locked, so  that  withdrawal  is  often  im- 
possible unless  the  contestants  break 
off  simultaneously.  With  extended 
neck,  they  attempt  to  drive  the  oppo- 
nent in  front  of  them,  tightening  and 
relaxing  their  grip  convulsively,  the 
dominant  bird  shaking  his  opponent 
violently.  Bill  positions  are  altered 
with  lightning  speed,  and  often  the  tip 
of  the  upper  mandible  is  pushed  into 
the  opponent's  eye.  However,  gan- 
nets' eyes  can  withstand  a  great  deal  of 
punishment.  After  fighting  in  mud— 
perhaps  for  up  to  two  hours— the 
plumage  may  be  so  filthy  and  matted 
that  normal  flight  is  impossible,  and 
the  birds  career  from  the  cliff  top  into 
the  sea,  leaving  a  muddy  wake  when 
they  hit  the  water.  Yet,  we  have  known 
such  a  contestant  to  return,  immacu- 
late, from  the  sea  in  48  hours. 


Birds  on  adjoining  nest  sites  watch 
a  typical  fight,  which  may  be  between 
either  two  males  or  two  females.  The 
bills   are   always   the   focus   of   attack. 


Even  old  males  may  have  to  fight 
occasionally,  but  usually  they  success- 
fully defend  their  nests  either  by 
threat  behavior  or  by  a  specific  dis- 
play that  is  aggressively  motivated, 
announces  ownership,  and  repels  other 
males.  The  display  is  a  good  example 
of  "ritualized"  behavior— that  which, 
by  a  process  of  evolutionary  change, 
has  acquired  enhanced  value  as  a  sig- 
nal. The  movement  resembles  a  bow; 
the  bird  sweeps  its  head  down  beneath 
its  outspread  wings,  raises  its  head, 
shakes  it  from  side  to  side,  and  repeats 
the  procedure,  meanwhile  calling  ag- 
gressively. This  is  related  to  the  ag- 
gressive nest-building  behavior. 

After  a  fight,  victorious  males  bow 
to  show  their  ownership  of  the  nest 
site,  but  beaten  ones  never  bow.  Ex- 
hausted individuals  may  sleep  for 
three  days— a  phenomenon  compar- 
able to  battle  fatigue  in  soldiers.  Even 
if  the  frenzy  of  the  fight  takes  both 
birds  yards  from  the  site,  the  winner 
rushes  back  and  bows  only  from  the 
site.  Bowing  in  this  context  occurs 
most  frequently  early  and  late  in  the 
season  when,  we  know  from  other  evi- 
dence, the  males  are  most  aggressive. 
Sometimes  the  bow  elicits  attack, 
rather  than  repelling  other  males.  Dur- 
ing his  lifetime,  a  male  gannet  bows 
thousands  of  times  in  response  to  in- 

35 


Advertising  male,  at  right,  does  not  call,  and  wings  are] 
tightly  closed.  Female,  heak  slightly  elevated,  approaches.] 


E.4CH  TIME  male  returns  to  nest  site  he  bites  mate  hard ' 
enough  to  dislodge  feathers;  she  averts  head  from  attack. 

Aggression  is  also  present  during  copulation,  when  male' 
repeatedly  bites  female  vigorously  with  his  powerful  bill,  j 


traders,  and  often  when  there  is  no 
particular  threat  to  his  supremacy.  I 
have  seen  gannets  suddenly  wake  from 
a  sound  sleep,  bow  vigorously,  and  im- 
mediately return  to  sleep. 

It  is  interesting  that  females  give  a 
less  complete  and  less  frequent  version 
of  the  site  ownership  display.  This  is  in 
keeping  with  their  weaker  attachment 
to  the  site.  Thus,  they  do  not  establish 
the  site  in  the  first  place,  do  not  spend 
as  much  time  on  it  as  the  male  does, 
and  on  the  death  of  their  partner  they 
are  not  as  likely  to  remain  faithful  to 

36 


the  site  (77  per  cent  as  against  94  per 
cent  in  the  male) . 

Young  females,  usually  in  their 
fourth  year,  begin  to  look  for  a  mate 
within  the  colony— I  call  them  "pros- 
pecting" females.  These  behave  rather 
like  site-hunting  males;  they  fly  over 
the  colony  and  then  settle  on  a  suitable 
vantage  point— perhaps  a  rocky  spur 
or  an  empty  spot  between  nests.  Un- 
mated  males  do  not  restrict  their 
metaphorical  advances  to  prospecting 
females;  they  will  "advertise"  to  any 
female,    mated    or    not,    that    passes 


nearby.  The  male's  advertising  is] 
rather  like  an  extremely  modified  ver- 1 
sion  of  his  site  ownership  display,  with ' 
the  aggressive  bowing  elements  re-' 
duced,  the  wings  tightly  closed,  and  no  j 
calling.  Advertising  males  look  faintly 
ludicrous  as  they  shake  their  heads 
vigorously  and  make  slight  reaching' 
movements  and  inhibited  bows  toward 
the  object  of  attention.  1 

If  unmated  males  advertised  only  toj 
unmated  females  and  stopped  ad-j 
vertising  as  soon  as  a  female  had; 
responded,  and  if  such  a  female  re-| 


Nests  of  gannets  are  about  2^2  feet 
apart  on  the  average  and  are  often 


ined  with  the  first  male  she  ap- 
)ached,  all  would  be  well.  However, 
'emale  may  respond  to  an  adver- 
ng  male  and  remain  with  him,  but 
;e  he  goes  off  to  fish  she  may  have 
interest  in  the  nest  site  as  such  and 
ickly  respond  to  another  advertis- 
:  male.  Therefore  even  a  "success- 
male  must  continue  to  advertise 
risk  finding  himself  mateless.  Thus, 
continuing  to  advertise,  males 
lally  acquire  more  than  one  mate, 
1  some  acquire  as  many  as  six.  If 
)  females  chance  to  meet  on  the  site 
3r  both  are  strongly  attached  to  one 
le,  they  fight  viciously.  The  males 
not  consistent  in  this  situation— 
tietimes  they  accept  the  winner,  but 
sn  they  reject  her.  Frequently,  they 
fer  the  one  with  whom  they  have 
in  most  recently. 

When  the  female  approaches  the  ad- 
tising  male,  often  hesitantly,  he 
y  attack  her  vigorously.  Her  pres- 
;e  within  his  territory  releases 
jression  strong  enough  to  express 
;lf  by  a  real  attack,  despite  the  in- 
ition  resulting  from  sexual  "in- 
3st"  in  her.  Aggression  is  one  of  the 
met's  most  striking  features  and  is 
ispicuous  both  toward  intruders 
1  in  the  normal  pair  relationship. 
:h  time  the  male  returns  to  the  nest 
;  he  bites  his  mate  emphatically 
)ugh  to  dislodge  feathers,  even  if 
y  are  an  old  established  pair.  He 
0  bites  her  during  copulation— at 
st  one  hundred  times  each  season — 
i  whenever  a  neighbor  threatens  or 


cemented  to  the  precarious  site  by 
the  excrement  of  the  breeding  pair. 


attacks  him,  he  turns  on  his  mate  in 
redirected  attack.  The  female  accepts 
an  astonishing  amount  of  punishment 
without  retaliation,  but  has  a  behavior 
pattern  that  tends  to  reduce  the 
severity  of  the  male's  attack.  She  turns 
her  bill  away  from  him,  or  "faces 
away."  This  is  one  of  three  gannet 
"appeasement  postures."  The  other 
two  are  the  "pelican  posture"  of 
adults,  in  which  the  bill  is  tucked 
medianally  into  the  breast,  and  the 
"beak  hiding"  of  the  chick,  in  which 
the  bill  is  hidden  beneath  the  ventral 
surface  of  the  body.  There  is  also  a 
fourth  posture,  in  which  the  bill  is  di- 
rected vertically  upward,  usually  per- 


formed immediately  before  flight  or 
movement  on  foot  away  from  the  nest 
site.  However,  there  is  considerable 
doubt  about  its  function  as  an  ap- 
peasement posture. 

NEW  pairs  usually  attend  the  nest 
site  and  defend  it  vigorously  for 
a  six-month  season— or  part  of  one,  if 
they  are  late  in  establishing  them- 
selves—before attempting  to  breed. 
This  is  not  necessarily  because  of  their 
age.  Although  five  is  the  usual  breed- 
ing age,  four-year-olds  of  both  sexes 
can  breed  without  a  preparatory  sea- 
son. However,  young  females  lay  later 
than  old  ones  and  also  have  eggs 
lighter  in  weight.  Before  the  single  egg 
is  laid  the  pair  copulates  whenever  one 
returns  from  a  long  fishing  trip  (some- 
times they  remain  away  for  three  days 
or  more).  The  frequency  of  copula- 
tion increases  in  the  two  or  three 
weeks  prior  to  egg  laying,  and  since 
the  male  almost  always  gathers  nest 
material  after  copulation,  an  extra 
spate  of  nest  building  precedes  laying 
and  produces  a  well-built  nest  to  re- 
ceive the  single  egg. 

Gannets  frequently  depress  their 
tails  while  excreting  and  "direct"  the 
excreta  onto  the  side  of  the  nest.  This 
enables  the  birds  to  cement  their  nests 
to  otherwise  untenable  places. 

On  several  occasions  we  saw  gan- 
nets lay  eggs  and  noticed  how  they 
used  the  tail  to  direct  the  egg  into  the 
nest— a  nice  adaptation  for  a  cliff- 
nesting  bird,  where  a  misplaced  egg 
cannot  be  retrieved.  Even  on  flat 
ground  gannets  are  usually  unable  to 
retrieve  eggs  that  ground-nesting  spe- 
cies could  easily  roll  back  into  the  nest. 


MAY  JUNE  JULY  AUG. 

QUARTER-MONTH      PERIODS 


Total  time  adults  spent  at  or  away 
from  nest  is  graphed.  Aggregate  of 


times    (broken    or    solid    lines)    in 
any  one  period  equals  100  per  cent. 


37 


If  the  male  is  present,  he  takes  the 
first  long  incubation  stint  almost  im- 
mediately after  the  egg  is  laid  and.  in 
fact,  takes  slightly  longer  spells  than 
the  female  throughout  incubation. 
However,  she  is  less  willing  than  is 
the  male  to  leave  the  egg  when  brood- 
ing periods  on  the  nest  are  reversed. 

Like  other  members  of  the  family, 
gannets  lack  a  brood  patch  and  incu- 
bate their  egg  by  overlapping  their 
webbed  feet  on  top  of  it.  There  is  some 
question  whether  heat  is  transmitted 
through  the  webs,  but  these  certainly 
become  vascularized  and  warm  during 
the  incubation  period  and  are  prob- 
ably a  better  source  of  heat  than  is  the 
bird's  feathered  body.  Broken  or 
stolen  eggs  are  replaced,  usually 
within  a  fortnight,  although  new  pairs 
have  a  much  weaker  tendency  to  pro- 
duce replacement  eggs  than  have  ex- 
perienced birds.  Gannets  invariably 
lav  single-egg  clutches  (any  observed 
exceptions  were  probably  due  to  two 
females  laying  in  one  nest),  which 
hatch  in  43  or  44  days.  Soon  after  the 
egg  begins  to  pip,  the  adult  transfers 
it  to  the  top  of  the  webs  and  so  pre- 
vents the  weakened  shell  from  crushing 
and  lacerating  the  chick,  which  is 
brooded  on  top  of  or  between  the  webs. 

BASS  ROCK  gannets  have  no  serious 
predators  except  man.  Herring 
Gulls  dare  not  venture  within  the  nest- 
ing ranks  to  steal  eggs  unless  the  gan- 
nets are  disturbed  and  fly  off  tempor- 
arily. Young  gulls,  unsteady  on  the 
\\'ing,  i\"ere  torn  to  pieces  when  they 
fell  among  gannets.  Yet,  small  birds 
like  Rock  Pipits  ran  between  the  nests 
with  impunity.  In  undisturbed  groups, 
the  hatching  success  averaged  82  per 
cent  of  all  eggs  laid,  although  females 
breeding  for  the  first  time  were  less 
successful  at  incubating  than  were  the 
older  ones. 

Newly  hatched  gannet  chicks  weigh 
less  than  80  per  cent  of  the  newlv  laid 
egg  and  lose  more  weight  during  the 
first  day.  They  are  blind  and  naked 
and,  unlike  newly  hatched  young  of 
many  other  species,  appear  to  be  fed 
without  having  to  beg.  The  adult 
gently  "engulfs"  the  chick,  which  ap- 
parently wallows  about  in  the  mass  of 
semidigested,  regurgitated  fish  in  the 
parent's  mouth  and  often  emerges  with 
fish  piled  on  top  of  its  head. 

A  large  chick  begs  for  food  by  whet- 
ting its  bill  against  that  of  the  adult 
and  "yipping"  loudly.  Then  it  pushes 
its  head  into  its  parent's  mouth,  and 

38 


isith  vigorous  pumping  movements 
manages  to  move  fish  from  the  adult's 
throat  to  its  own.  Whole  mackerel 
slide  from  adult  to  young  in  this  man- 
ner, which  efficiently  transfers  food 
and  keeps  the  nest  relatively  free  from 
fragments.  The  chick  is  fed  several 
times  a  day,  unlike  some  sea  bird 
young,  which  are  fed  at  infrequent  in- 
tervals, and  at  the  age  of  six  weeks  a 
gannet  weighs  as  much  as  its  parents. 
Strangely,  the  adults  do  not  appear 
hard  pressed  to  gather  enough  food 
for  their  offspring,  and  the  only  time 
that  we  recorded  chick  starvation  was 
when  one  of  the  parents  died. 

One  parent  or  the  other   (and,  for 


Chicks— this  one  may  be  four  or  five 
days  old— are  hatched  following  an 
incubation  period  of  43  or  44  days. 


At  about  ten  weeks  the  young  bird 
is  speckled  and  oddly  ruffed.  The 


old  name  for  gannets  at  this  stagi 
of  life  is  "parliamentarian  goose.' 


Dark  replica  of  parents  exercises 
its  wings  at  13  weeks,  just  prior  to 


its  departure  from  nest.  Once  it  has 
left   the   nest,   it    does   not   return. 


Zll4 


^^K 


-**»-%..»s^..j;^ 


out  a  sixth  of  the  daylight  hours, 
th)  constantly  guards  the  nest.  This 
lecessary  in  the  gannet,  because  un- 
ided  chicks,  even  if  they  do  not 
nder,  are  liable  to  be  attacked  and 
led  by  neighboring  adults.  Al- 
lugh  the  chick  attempts  to  reduce 
:  severity  of  such  attacks  by  hiding 
beak  beneath  its  body  in  a  submis- 
e  attitude,  this  appeasing  behavior 
netimes  does  not  work.  We  saw  four 
cks  killed  by  strange  adults. 

"iHE  adults'  fishing  trips  usually 
take  between  six  and  fifteen  hours, 
i  probably  cover  a  normal  range  of 
least  a  hundred  miles  from  the 
Bs.  If  food  is  hard  to  find,  the  range 
certainly  much  greater— perhaps  as 
ch  as  three  to  four  hundred  miles, 
rhe  gannet's  capabilities  in  feeding 
voracious  chick,  which  at  about 
16  weeks  weighs  one  and  a  half  times 
adult  weight,  were  so  impressive 
t  we  tested  it  with  two  offspring  by 
lating  an  extra  egg  or  chick  to  a 
ies  of  nests.  These  artificial  twins 
re  weighed  regularly,  and  their 
)wth  compared  with  ordinary  single 
cks.  To  our  surprise,  the  extra  bur- 
1  made  little  difference  either  to  the 


growth  of  the  twins  or  to  their  fledging 
success,  although  we  found  that  the 
twins  survived  only  if  they  were  very 
nearly  the  same  age.  They  took  an 
average  of  94  days  to  fledge  against 
90  days  for  a  single  chick.  However, 
the  final  weight  of  the  twins  was  not 
significantly  different  from  that  of  the 
normal  single  chick,  so  it  is  likely  that 
their  survival  to  adulthood  would  not 
be  significantly  less  successful. 

The  main  question  raised  by  this  ex- 
periment is  why,  if  gannets  can  incu- 
bate two  eggs  and  feed  two  chicks, 
they  lay  only  one.  It  is  possible  that 
the  extra  strain  endured  by  the  par- 
ents shortens  their  reproductive  life, 
so  the  advantage  of  rearing  two  in- 
stead of  one  might  be  offset  by  the 
harmful  effect  on  the  parents.  There 
is  some  evidence  from  the  lore  of  the 
old  gannet  hunters  that  adults  are  fat 
in  spring  and  lean  in  autumn,  which 
suggests  that  the  rearing  of  a  chick 
imposes  some  strain.  To  set  against 
this  unproved  statement  are  the  facts 
that  gannets,  like  other  large  sea  birds, 
have  adaptations  permitting  them  to 
withstand  great  temporary  weight  loss, 
and  that  the  period  during  which  the 
chicks  make  heavy  feeding  demands 


Gannets  invariably  lay  clutches  of 
one  egg.  They  have  no  brood  spot,  and 
incubate  egg  under  their  feet.  Broken 
eggs  are  usually  replaced  in  two  weeks. 


on  adults  is  limited  to  about  two 
months  out  of  the  twelve.  I  have  de- 
scribed this  aspect  at  some  length  be- 
cause, together  with  other  aspects  of 
gannet  breeding  biology— notably  the 
extended  period  before  it  first  breeds- 
it  raises  basic  questions  about  the  fac- 
tors controlling  the  reproductive  rate 
of  sea  birds. 

During  the  thirteen  weeks  that  the 
young  gannet  spends  in  the  nest,  it 
changes  from  a  ball  of  fat  covered 
with  long,  white  down,  into  a  somber 
replica  of  the  adult— in  shape,  stance, 
and  size,  but  utterly  different  in  color, 
being  slaty-black,  finely  speckled  with 
white.  It  is  fed  until  the  day  it  leaves 
the  nest;  the  widely  held  idea  that 
adults  refuse  to  feed  the  chick  during 
its  last  two  or  three  weeks  on  the  nest 
to  induce  it  to  fly  is  false.  Until  then 
it  dare  not  move  from  the  nest,  either 
for  fear  of  falling,  if  on  a  cliff  ledge, 
or  attack  from  neighbors,  if  on  flatter 
ground.  Thus,  large  chicks  tend  to  run 
away  from  humans  on  more  level 
areas,  but  young  of  the  same  age  on 


39 


cliff  sites  usually  stay  firmly  on  the 
nest.  Gannets  have  therefore  no  need 
to  recognize  their  own  young— only 
the  nest  site.  In  fact,  they  will  readily 
accept  strange  chicks  in  place  of  their 
own,  even  when  there  is  a  wide  age 
difference.  It  is  very  important,  how- 
ever, that  the  substituted  chick  should 
be  on  the  nest  when  the  adult  returns. 


If  any  chick  approaches  the  nest  when 
an  adult  is  on  guard,  it  is  attacked  like 
any  other  trespasser. 

Several  hours  before  jumping  off 
their  nests  in  the  fledging  flight,  the 
young  gannets  seem  to  "concentrate" 
for  long  periods,  staring  into  the  sea. 
(They  are  too  large  to  be  attacked  by 
gulls,  so  they  can  leave  at  any  time  of 


Mutual  display  occurs  when  a  pair 
meets   at  nest  after  feeding   flight. 


They  stand  breast  to  breast,  wings 
spread,  and  fence  with  their  bills. 


Fencing  increases  in  duration  toward 
the  end  of  the  breeding  season.  During 
this  display,  both  the  birds  call  loudly, 
and  actions  may  cement  the  pair  bond. 

40 


Gannets  are  active  at  the  Bass  Rock 
long  after  all  other  colonial  nesters 
have  flown  south.  They  are  also  the 
first  to  return  the  following  spring. 


day,  unlike  young  guillemots,  whicli 
usually  leave  their  nests  at  dusk,  pre- 
sumably to  reduce  the  risk  of  gull  at- 
tack.) When  a  young  gannet  does 
jump  it  either  flounders  through  the 
nesting  ranks  and  is  vigorously  at 
tacked  on  the  way  (it  may  even  be 
killed)  or,  if  lucky,  it  becomes  air- 
borne immediately.  The  first  flight  is 
naturally  a  little  wobbly,  but  even  sc 
the  young  bird  can  fly  for  several  miles 
at  the  first  attempt  and  may  even  gain 
considerable  height.  Once  it  alights 
however,  it  is  unable  to  rise  again,  and 
swims  out  to  sea— at  least  in  the  cases 
we  have  witnessed.  Even  now  its 
troubles  are  not  over,  since  many 
young  gannets,  particularly  those  thai 
have  fledged  early  in  the  season,  are 
severely  attacked  on  the  sea  by  adults. 
The  parents  do  not  show  any  interest 
in  the  departure  of  their  offspring,  and 


linly  do  not  accompany  them  to 
Instead,  they  remain  together  on 
nest  until  October  or  early  Novem- 
performing  their  ownership  dis- 
s,  adding  to  the  nest,  and  showing 
3surgence  of  "interest"  in  each 
r,  including  actual  copulation. 

HE  conspicuous  and  well-known 
mutual  display,  which  occurs 
never  the  pair  meet  at  the  nest 
r  an  absence  of  some  hours,  in- 
ses  in  duration  toward  the  end  of 
season,  although  it  also  occurs 
ughout  the  entire  breeding  cycle. 
11  it  "mutual  fencing,"  because  the 
s  stand  breast  to  breast  with  out- 
ad  wings  and  fence  with  their 
,  calling  loudly.  Occasionally  they 
their  heads  in  a  movement  similar 
)owing.  The  whole  spectacle  im- 
3  a  friendly,  sometimes  an  ecstatic, 


reunion,  and  in  fact  one  function  of 
the  display  is  to  cement  the  pair  bond. 
It  provides  a  friendly  outlet  for  ele- 
ments of  fear  and  aggression,  which, 
together  with  strong  sexual  interest, 
are  engendered  when  they  meet  on  the 
site  after  a  long  absence. 

When  the  pair  is  newly  formed,  and 
particularly  in  those  cases  in  which  the 
male  is  uncommonly  aggressive  to  the 
female,  the  mutual  fencing  is  always 
particularly  lengthy  and  intensive.  In 
a  stable  pair  and  in  midseason,  when 
aggression  is  at  its  lowest,  mutual 
fencing  may  be  perfunctory. 

A  visit  to  a  gannet  colony  in  late 
October  could,  weather  permitting, 
still  reveal  a  scene  of  tremendous  ac- 
tivity. Long  after  all  the  other  colonial 
sea  birds  have  left  the  Bass  Rock,  gan- 
nets  continue  to  sail  round  the  cliffs 
and  display  at  their  nests.  Well  before 


the  others  return  for  the  new  season 
the  gannets  are  back.  The  nest  site,  for 
the  gannet,  has  become  of  prime  im- 
portance, and  apparently  its  successful 
defense  has  favored  unusually  long 
seasonal  attendance  and,  above  all, 
aggression  so  strong  as  to  be  unique 
among  British  colonial  sea  birds— 
perhaps  even  among  all  such  species. 
Whether  fighting,  threatening,  or  bow- 
ing, whether  males  are  attacking  their 
mates,  or  both  are  attacking  chicks, 
aggression  seems  a  dominant  theme  in 
the  birds'  lives.  For  the  juvenile,  this 
all  lies  four  or  five  years  ahead.  Before 
then  it  must  perfect  its  fishing  skills, 
return  over  the  seas  from  great  dis- 
tances to  the  speck  that  is  its  nesting 
colony,  and  gradually  acquire  adult 
plumage  and  behavior.  Then  it  will 
take  up  its  position  in  the  colony  and 
the  cycle  will  once  again  be  completed. 


'^^^^- 


y-f-^ 


#!^" 


''\> 


mm- 


■^^^' 


.#  ^  . 


'W'--^ 


'>r;*#^^@«^ 


m^A-y- 


■'-^  ^^m^^ir'    -^i^   v-^'. 


Cross-Pbllinatioi] 
of  an  Orchic 

structure  of  C.  reginae  makes  insects  Instruments  of  survive 


By  H.  Lou  Gibson 

THE  FLOWERS  of  orchids,  members 
of  the  large  family  Orchidaceae, 
have  remarkably  specialized  structures 
that  insure  cross-pollination  by  in- 
sects. The  photographs  on  the  opposite 
page  were  taken  during  the  visit  of  a 
bee  to  a  Showy  Lady"s-slipper,  Cyp- 
ripedium  reginae,  an  orchid  that 
grows  in  swamps  and  wet  woods  from 
Newfoundland  to  Georgia,  and  west 
as  far  as  North  Dakota.  Its  large  flow- 
ers are  single  on  a  stem,  and  their  in- 
tricate construction  has  the  effect  of 
making  self-pollination  unlikely.  Self- 
pollination  tends  to  keep  a  species 
unchanged,  slowing,  but  not  elimi- 
nating, its  evolution.  Consequently, 
the  self-pollinating  plants  are  often  less 
adaptive  to  environmental  changes  and 
are  thus  less  likely  to  survive  over  long 
evolutionary  periods. 

From  the  time  insects  appeared  dur- 
ing the  Tertiary  Period  some  seventy 
million  years  ago,  their  relationship 
with  plants  has  proved  in  most  in- 
stances to  be  mutually  beneficial. 
Flowering  plants  have  furnished  food 
and  occasionally  shelter  for  insects, 
and  insects  have  cross-fertilized  plants, 
a  function  that  was  performed  in  pre- 


A  Third,  or  sterile,  stamen 

B   Chamber 

C   Smooth  floor  and  hairs 

D   Staminate  bodies 

E    Pistil 

F    Protuberance  A 


vious  millenniums  mainly  by  the  wind. 
Flowers  are  exclusively  reproduc- 
tive organs.  In  most  species,  a  color, 
shape,  and  odor  have  evolved  that 
attract  only  those  particular  insects 
with  anatomy  suited  to  transferring 
the  pollen  of  that  flower.  Thousands  of 
plant  species  would  disappear  if  this 
were  not  so.  Plant-insect  relationships 
have  become  so  specialized  that  some 
flowers  may  be  visited  only  by  bees, 
while  others  are  cross-pollinated  ex- 
clusively by  wasps,  moths,  or  flies. 
Insects  are  not  the  only  animal-pol- 
linators of  plants,  however.  In  the 
tropics  and  in  South  America,  birds 
are  pre-eminent  in  the  role,  and  some 
part  is  played  by  nectar-drinking  bats 
and  other  mammals. 

The  parts  of  the  Showy  Lady's-slip- 
per  that  virtually  guarantee  cross- 
pollination  are  the  same  structures 
that  make  the  flower  exotic  to  the 
human  eye.  The  third,  or  sterile,  sta- 
men (A  in  diagram),  which  is  thick 
and  in  the  shape  of  an  elongated  heart. 
is  yellow  at  the  tip  and  is  spotted  with 
crimson.  This  infertile  stamen  attracts 
insects  such  as  the  bee  seen  in  the 
photographs.  The  construction  of  the 
orchid  is  such  that  a  bee  alighting  on 
or  near  this  stamen  practically  falls 
into  the  chamber  (B  I  that  is  formed  by 
the  enlarged  posterior  petal.  At  the  mo- 
ment the  photograph  at  the  upper  left 
was  taken,  the  fore  parts  of  the  bee  had 
already  entered  the  chamber. 

A  cross  section  of  the  interior  of 
the  chamber  is  shown  in  the  bottom 
picture.  Once  inside,  the  bee  crawls 
over  the  smooth  floor  (C)  toward  the 
pistil  (El.  The  bee  is  encouraged  to 
move  in  this  direction  by  fine,  slanting 
hairs  that  are  inclined  forward  along 
a  route  to  the  pistil  and  prevent  the  bee 
from  reversing  its  path.  Moreover,  the 
inner  walls  of  the  chamber  are  smooth 


and  steep.  Therefore,  the  bee  has  litl 
choice  but  to  advance  toward  the  tu 
nel  that  leads  under  the  stigma— tl 
part  of  the  pistil  that  receives  polL 
grains,  and  on  which  they  germinal 
There  are  actually  two  tunnels  in  tl 
Showy  Lady's-slipper,  but  both  w 
bring  the  pollen-bearing  bee  into  co^ 
tact  with  the  pistil.  The  sticky  stign 
catches  and  removes  from  the  bee 
back  any  pollen  the  insect  carries  fro: 
other  flowers  it  has  visited,  and  cros 
pollination  is  thus  achieved. 

In  the  top  right  photograph,  the  h\ 
has  squeezed  past  the  pistil  in  its  I 
tempt  to  crawl  through  the  narrol 
passageway  and  leave  the  flower.  One 
past  the  pistil,  the  bee  cannot  bad 
track.  If  it  should  try  to  move  bad 
ward,  the  exit  lips  and  the  protubej 
ance  (F)  of  the  Showy  Lady's-slippe 
will  tighten  around  it.  If  this  were  nc 
the  case,  the  bee,  after  having  mad 
contact  with  a  staminate  body  (D) 
might  carry  back  to  the  orchid's  pisti 
pollen  from  one  of  the  flower's  sta 
mens,  causing  self-pollination. 

AFTER  the  bee  has  picked  up  pollei 
,  from  a  staminate  bodv  and  es 
caped.  it  may  then  fall  into  the  trap  o 
another  member  of  the  species  am 
again  effect  cross-pollination.  But  i 
an  unusually  large  bee  were  to  enter  1 
Showy  Lady's-slipper,  it  would  prob- 
ably be  unable  to  move  all  the  waj 
through  the  flower's  passages.  In  fact- 
many  large  bees  do  become  trapped  ir 
these  orchids  and  perish. 

In  the  field  it  would  have  been  ex- 
tremely difficult,  if  not  impossible,  tc 
photograph  a  bee  entering  a  Showy 
Lady"s-slipper  because  of  the  speed 
with  which  entrance  is  accomplished. 
This  technical  problem  was  solved  by 
chilling  a  bee  until  it  became  suffi- 
ciently  sluggish   to   use   as   a   model. 


3WY  Lady's-slipper,  an  orchid,  is  cross-pollinated  by 
!,  which  is  attracted  by  infertile  stamen  (yellow  tip). 
e  enters  chamber  formed  by  a  large  petal,  above  left.  The 


chamber's  smooth  walls  and  "hairy"  floor,  below,  prevent 
bee  from  moving  in  direction  other  than  toward  the  pistil, 
staminate  bodies,  and,  ultimately,   exit  lips,  above  right. 


.^ 


t.     ->,  V»\  J**; 


il-J 


NATURALISTS' 
NOTEBOOK 


£>. 


,#• 


^4  wery  young  toad  is  scTUtii 


i 


A  snail  has  withdrawn  into . 


Pond  is  site  of  nature  adventur 


Exploration  at  the  Pond 


'hotographs  by  Arline  Strong 

,ate  spring  and  early  summer  are  a  special  time  of  year 
3r  the  young.  A  puddle,  pool,  or  pond  may  mean  wet 
;et,  but  it  also  means  a  laboratory  where  living  things  are 
iscovered,  admired,  and— sometimes  to  parental  dismay 
■are  brought  proudly  home.  In  or  near  these  wet  places, 
iiildren  may  be  first  exposed  to  the  lives  of  other  animals, 
nd,  through  curiosity  and  observation,  generate  an  in- 
irest  in  the  natural  sciences.  There  are  so  many  questions 
)  be  answered.  Will  it  bite?  Does  it  grow  any  bigger? 
inhere  does  it  go  in  winter?  What  does  it  eat?  And  on 
lese  same  questions  are  based  adult  studies  in  biology, 
ixonomy,  animal  behavior,  physiology,  and  ecology. 


Snapping  turtle  is  held  gingerly. 


%^ 


Tadpole  comes  to  light  in  sieve. 


'^■'m-  j^,  "S 


Texture  of  garter  snake  is  felt.  Fowler's  toad  is  chiles  handful. 


ISTORIC  MENHIR,  OF 

e-standing  stone, 
s  the  symbols  of  its 
tianization,  which 
place  ca.  a.d.  900. 


■IGNMENTS  AT  CaRNAC, 

ance,  are  creations  of 
ehistoric  people  who 
ly  have  used  them 
:  religious  ceremony. 


Megaliths  and  Men 


uropean  rock  monuments  are  relics  of  nascent  civilizations 


/  Glyn  E.  Daniel 

lOME  FIVE  THOUSAND  years  ago, 
)  three  millenniums  before  the  Age 
Pericles  in  Greece,  the  rain  forests 

western  Europe  were  gradually 
ing  thinned  by  men  engaged  in  mak- 
;  the  most  important  social  and  eco- 
mic  revolution  the  world  had  ever 
own— the  New  Stone  Age.  For  the 
St  time  in  Europe,  people  had  be- 
n  to  domesticate  animals,  to  till  the 
il,  and  to  establish  villages. 
In  this  era,  not  very  remote  from 
;  days  of  European  man's  complete 
pendence  upon  cave  shelters  and 
ture's  bounty,  Egypt  and  the  Aegean 
untries  had  already  extended  arms 

primitive    commerce    across    the 
jditerranean  Sea.  The  routes  sailed 


were  in  sight  of  shore  much  of  the  way, 
and  reached  to  the  Spanish  peninsula, 
Brittany,  the  British  Isles,  and  Nor- 
way. Colonizations,  migrations,  and 
invasions  pressed  westward  on  the 
coastline  of  the  continent  parallel  to 
the  sea  lanes.  It  was  during  this  era 
that  the  European  megaliths  (from 
Greek  megas,  "large,"  and  lithos, 
"stone")  made  their  appearance. 

Early  in  this  period,  the  distribution 
of  megalithic  monuments  and  tombs 
appears  most  concentrated  near  the 
waters  that  carried  trade,  but  eventu- 
ally the  megaliths  spread  across  much 
of  the  Western  world.  Objects  buried 
with  the  dead  always  help  to  recon- 
struct the  culture  of  the  builders,  and 
these  abound:  polished  stone  axes, 
decorated   and  plain  pottery,   beads. 


objects  of  copper,  and  the  remains  of 
animals— perhaps  leftovers  from  fu- 
neral feasts,  or  burial  offerings. 

Significantly,  Mediterranean  cham- 
ber tombs  often  contain  small  figures 
of  the  Earth  Mother  Goddess  carved  in 
bone  or  flat  stone.  Because  the  eyes  of 
the  goddess  are  emphasized,  she  is 
sometimes  called  the  Eye  Goddess. 
The  eye  motif  frequently  appears  as 
a  spiral  on  pottery,  and  some  western 
European  tombs  were  decorated  with 
pocked  or  incised  motifs  of  the  god- 
dess figure.  These  motifs  and  the  cus- 
tom of  collective  burial  can  be  traced 
back  from  tombs  like  New  Grange,  in 
Ireland,  and  Gavrinis,  in  Brittany,  to 
the  Sicilian  and  east  Mediterranean 
cultures  of  the  beginning  of  the  third 
millennium  B.C.,  when  Egypt  was  in 

47 


Mounded  tomb  at  Los  IMillares.  Spain, 
held  remains  of  prehistoric  seafarers. 


incipient  stages  of  unification  and 
Troy  had  only  recently  been  founded. 
The  builders  of  European  tombs 
and  monuments,  which  almost  cer- 
tainly originated  in  the  east  Mediter- 
ranean, colonized  the  central  and  west- 
ern Mediterranean.  They  set  up  small 
townships,  such  as  Los  Millares  in 
Spain,  and  were  precursors  of  the 
Minoans,  Mycenaeans,  Phoenicians, 
and  Greeks.  They  established  sea 
routes  that  modern  Basque,  Breton, 
and  Galician  fishing  boats  still  use 
today— from  Portugal  and  Brittany  to 
Ireland  and  Britain,  and  then  on  to 
Scandinavia. 

MEGALITHS  comprise  the  oldest 
surviving  buildings  in  western 
Europe,  although  groups  of  holes  in 
which  posts  to  support  walls  once 
rested  are  evidence  of  earlier  struc- 
tures of  wood  and  wattle  and  daub. 
Many  of  the  stones  used  in  the  surviv- 
ing megalithic  monuments  are  truly 
enormous.  At  Stonehenge,  the  largest 
is  29  feet  8  inches  in  length.  In  south- 
ern Brittany,  the  Grand  Menhir  Brise, 
which  now  lies  broken  into  three 
pieces,  was  once  some  68  feet  long. 
The  capstone,  or  roofing  slab,  of  a 
megalithic  tomb  in  County  Carlow, 
Ireland,  weighed  about  100  tons,  and 
one  of  the  capstones  of  the  great  mega- 
lithic tomb  of  Bagneux  near  Saumur 
in  central  France  weighed  more  than 


86  tons  and  provided  a  roof  area  of 
some  23  square  feet. 

In  most  European  monuments  and 
tombs,  the  great  stones  usually  appear 
to  be  undressed,  or  only  very  roughly 
dressed  by  stone  mauls.  The  surfaces 
of  some  were  smoothed  and  polished, 
though,  and  the  highly  finished  inner 
"walls"  of  Stonehenge  provide  a  su- 
preme example  of  this  dressing.  So  do 
some  of  the  megalithic  temples  in 
Malta,  which  lies  farther  back  along 
the  east-to-west  path  by  which  the 
megalithic  tradition  reached  Iberia,  or 
the  Spanish  peninsula,  and  Britain. 

Including  those  in  Britain,  five  main 
types  of  megalithic  monuments  existed 
in  prehistoric  western  Europe:  first, 
the  single  standing  stones,  or  menhirs, 
from  two  Breton  words,  maen,  "stone," 
and  hir,  "long" ;  second,  rows  of  stand- 
ing stones,  or  alignments  as  they  are 
called  in  Brittany;  third,  stone  circles, 
of  which  Stonehenge  is  an  exalted  and 
elaborate  example;  fourth,  roofed  or 
open  temples,  such  as  those  in  Malta; 
fifth,  the  commonest  form  of  prehis- 
toric megalithic  monument,  the  roofed 
tomb,  often  called  a  chamber  tomb, 
because  it  is  a  large  structure  into 
which  one  can  walk. 

Menhirs,  or  single  standing  stones, 
are  common  in  Brittany:  they  vary  in 
size  from  two  or  three  feet  up  to  seven- 
teen or  twenty  feet.  The  largest  of  all 
is  the  Grand  Menhir  Brise.  What  the 
present-day  visitor  sees  at  this  site  in 
France  is  three  great  pieces  of  stone, 


the  broken  remnants  of  a  single  giant 
menhir  that  once  stood  68  feet  high 
and  weighed  330  tons.  In  comparison, 
Cleopatra's  Needle  on  the  Thames 
Embankment  in  London  (where  it  was 
brought  from  Egypt)  is  68  feet  6 
inches,  and  weighs  180  tons. 

Because  menhirs  come  to  us  without 
inscriptions  from  the  preliterate  past, 
their  purpose  can  only  be  guessed  at. 
Excavation  around  and  near  them 
does  not  indicate  either  that  they  are 
the  marking  stones  for  graves,  or  that 
they  evolved  on  or  near  a  burial  site, 
as  did  Stonehenge.  They  may  be 
memorial  stones  or  just  stones  that 
were  worshiped.  It  is  certain  that  they 
were  also  worshiped  into  historical 
times,  and  that  the  Church  eventually 
Christianized  many  of  them  by  carv- 
ing or  erecting  crosses  on  them. 

A  LIGNMENTS,  or  stone  rows,  the  sec- 
_£~\_  ond  type  of  monument,  are  found 
in  southwestern  Britain  and  in  north- 
western France,  but  unquestionably 
the  most  famous  are  those  at  Carnac  in 
southern  Brittany.  The  main  Carnac 
alignments  extend  for  a  distance  oi 
several  miles  and  consist  of  thousands 
of  stones.  They  fall  into  three  groups; 
the  alignments  of  Menec,  of  Kermario, 
and  of  Kerlescant.  The  Menec  series 
the  largest,  is  3,827  feet  long  and  con 
sists  of  1,169  single-standing  stones 
arranged  in  eleven  parallel  rows  with 
a  half-circle  erected  at  the  eastern  end, 
The  purpose  of  these  great  stone 
rows  is  as  questionable  as  that  of  thf 
menhirs,  but  surely  they  were  proces 
sional  ways  of  some  sacred,  ritual,  oi 
religious  nature  along  which  Neolithic 
peoples  passed  toward  appointed  cere 
monies  in  the  half-circles.  There  cer 
tainly  can  be  no  question  that  there 
was  a  great  flourishing  of  megalithic 
culture  in  southern  Brittany  betweer 
2500  and  1500  B.C. 

A  prehistoric  origin  is  attributed  tc 
the  temples  of  Malta,  such  as  Ha 
Tarxien,  Mnajdra,  and  Hagiar  Kim  or 
the  main  island,  and  the  Gigantija  or 
the  neighboring  island  of  Gozo.  Thest 
magnificent  temples  are  superb  ex 
amples  of  megalithic  architecture  but 
unlike  the  British  stone  circles,  wen 
roofed  over.  Whatever  ceremoniei 
went  on  inside  were  connected  wit! 
the  Earth  Mother  Goddess  cult.  Rep 
resentations  of  the  goddess  have  beer 
found  in  these  temples.  Some  are  smal 
figurines,  but  one  is  the  broken  part  o 
a  large  statue  that,  when  whole,  mus 
have  stood  about  twelve  feet  tall. 


48 


)NEHENGE  "avenue,"  indicated  by  arrows,  is  seen  in  1921 
ial  photo.  As  result  of  air  survey,  the  avenue  was  found 


to  reach  Avon  River,  suggesting  a  pathway  to  move  stones 
from  boats.  The  white  areas  near  road  are  excavation  sites. 


Portuguese  dolmen,  a  place  of  burial, 
is  constructed   of   natural   rock   slabs. 


rhe  most  common  megalithic  monu- 
nts  are  the  chamber  tombs,  which 
'ill  discuss  in  terms  of  their  exca- 
ed  contents  in  Britain.  Some  twenty 
usand  of  these  tombs  survive  in 
item  Europe.  We  know  that  many 
'e  been  destroyed,  but  can  estimate 
original  number  of  perhaps  two  or 
ee  times  those  still  extant.  Although 
le  of  them  were  cut  into  natural 
k,  the  surface  tombs  attract  most 
;ntion.  Many  are  covered  with  great 
unds  of  earth  and  stones,  while 
ers  are  completely  free-standing, 
long  the  latter  is  the  Grand  Dol- 
n  of  Bagneux  at  Saumur,  in  central 
ince.  Its  interior  measures  61  feet 
16  feet,  and  from  8  feet  6  inches  to 
set  high.  And  among  the  most  im- 
ssive  of  mounded  surface  tombs  is 
w  Grange  in  Ireland.  There  a  pas- 


49 


Passageway  in  Sardinian  fortress  of  first  millennium  is  sei 
at  left.  Hypogeum  on  island  of  Malta,  above,  is  catacomb  ai 


sage  63  feet  long  leads  to  a  chamber 
roofed  with  a  corbeled  vault,  the  top 
of  which  is  nearly  20  feet  from  the 
floor.  The  whole  stands  in  a  round 
mound  265  feet  in  diameter  and  45 
feet  high,  the  height  of  a  modern  five- 
story  building. 

THE  most  significant  archeological 
evidence  of  the  ritual  use  of  these 
tombs  in  Britain  and  Iberia  consists 
of  buried  human  bones.  Exhumations 
from  megalithic  tombs  near  Stone- 
henge  indicate  that  the  interred  were 
probably  somewhat  long-skulled  men 
who  averaged  between  5  feet  4  inches 
and  5  feet  8  inches  in  height.  In  con- 
nection with  the  skeletons,  two  curiosi- 
ties have  been  remarked  generally  by 
prehistorians.  First,  the  number  of 
bones  found  in  many  of  these  tombs 
during  modern  excavations  indicates 
a  quantity  of  buried  dead  that  would 
seem  far  too  large  for  entombment  in 
one  mass  burial.  Second,  many  bones 
are  broken  in  a  way  that  suggests  ritual 
breakage,  and  perhaps  are  instances 
of  human  sacrifice.  There  is  also  evi- 
dence that  fires  were  lit  in  tombs,  often 
simply  for  lustral  or  ceremonial  pur- 
poses, although  occasionally  crema- 
tion was  practiced.  In  some  cases,  only 
certain  bones  in  a  single  skeleton  were 
burned.   Most  corpses   were   interred 

50 


with  knees  drawn  up  to  the  chin  or  in 
a  squatting  or  sitting  position  on  the 
floor  of  the  chamber. 

There  is  little  dispute  about  the 
interpretation  of  much  of  the  evidence. 
Deposits  of  bones  outside  the  portal 
in  the  tomb's  forecourts  clearly  indi- 
cate a  tomb-closing  ritual,  and  the 
tools  and  goods  buried  with  the  dead 
are  ritual  offerings,  perhaps  posses- 
sions of  the  dead  persons.  In  the  evi- 
dence from  some  communities  that 
practiced  collective  burial  of  the  dead, 
such  as  the  prehistoric  sites  in  south 
Wiltshire,  Hampshire,  and  Dorset, 
there  is  little  to  suggest  that  tombs 
were  ever  reopened  to  put  in  fresh 
corpses.  But  in  many  instances,  we 
know  that  tombs  were  reopened  for 
such  a  purpose.  Regarding  damage  to 
bones,  it  is  thought  likely  that,  in  a  cold 
winter,  when  many  of  the  old  perished, 
their  bodies  were  collected  in  a  com- 
mon ossuary,  where  decay  of  the  body 
was  considerable  before  the  corpses 
were  moved.  Therefore,  during  trans- 
port from  the  ossuary  to  final  en- 
tombment, inevitable  minor  accidents 
would  cause  the  loss  or  breakage  of 
some  bones.  The  most  recent  corpses 
probably  were  entombed  with  their 
skin  intact,  and  decayed  in  the  crypt. 

Megalithic  tombs  for  the  burial  of 
the  dead  in  prehistoric  Europe  are  not 


especially  mysterious  phenomena,  I: 
cause  stone  vaults  and  tombs  are  coj 
monly  employed  for  the  same  purpo 
today.  Cremation  and  multiple  burii 
in  family  tombs  are  also  still  commo 
place,  if  modified,  practices.  Specul 
tion,  therefore,  has  been  focused  ( 
megalithic  buildings  with  significan 
not  necessarily  related  to  the  grave. 

CERTAINLY  the  most  discussed  of  i 
such   megalithic    architecture 
Stonehenge,  on  Salisbury  Plain,  Wi 
shire,  in  southwestern  Britain. 

At  Stonehenge,  pillar  and  bea 
architecture  was  employed  to  produ 
trilithons— two  uprights  with  a  linl 
across  the  top— and  linteled  circles. 
is  the  appearance  of  these  lintels  a 
parently  hanging  in  the  air  that  seer 
to  have  given  the  site  its  name,  whi( 
means  hanging  stones.  Less  comp 
Gated  prehistoric  stone  circles  are  r 
ferred  to  as  henge  monuments,  a  ter 
that  includes  circles  with  wooden  ; 
well  as  stone  posts,  and  even  mon 
ments  like  Woodhenge  (in  Wiltshi 
not  far  from  Stonehenge),  which  w; 
a  circular  structure  of  wooden  pos 
and  survives  to  the  present  day  on 
as  pestholes  visible  on  an  aerial  phot' 

Recent  excavations  suggest  th 
Stonehenge,  like  a  medieval  cathedrE 
was  built,  modified,  and  rebuilt  sever 


lie.  uliicli  dates  back  to  the  third  niillenniuin.  In  tonih  at 
5t  Kennet,  England,  right,  remains  of  corpses  were  found. 


3S.  It  was  first  constructed  between 
0  and  1700  B.C.,  and  its  final  recon- 
iction  took  place  about  1400  B.C. 
se  estimates  are  based  on  radio- 
3on  dates  and  on  archeological  cor- 
tions  with  dated  contexts  in  the 
:  Mediterranean,  where  many  of 
artifacts  excavated  at  Stonehenge 
ost  certainly  originated. 
Hose  contact  between  Britain  and 
east  Mediterranean  and  Aegean 
is  from  1500  to  1300  B.C.  is  at- 
sd  by  the  appearance  in  Britain  of 
nented  faience  beads,  made  in 
pt  and  traded  by  Minoan  and  My- 
aean  merchants.  There  is  a  gold 
from  Rillaton  in  Cornwall  that  is 
f  like  one  from  the  shaft  graves  at 
;enae,  and  a  Mycenaean  dagger  was 
id  at  Pelynt  in  Cornwall.  More- 
r,  engravings  depicting  flat  copper 
3  were  discovered  recently  on  some 
he  stones  at  Stonehenge.  One  en- 
ding is  of  a  hafted  dagger  that 
bably  is  Mycenaean.  Thus,  I  have 
ioubt  that  the  brilliant  prehistoric 
litect  who  planned  and  built  Stone- 
ge— as  a  tour  de  force  within  the 
i^iously  established  tradition  of 
^alithic  stone  circles  in  Britain- 
acquainted  with  the  older  cyclo- 
n  architecture  of  the  Aegean  area, 
f  Stonehenge  has  been  associated 
ularly   and   erroneously   with   the 


Druids,  it  is  because  neo-Druids  hold 
celebrations  there  Midsummer  Eve  by 
permission  of  the  British  Ministry  of 
Public  Buildings  and  Works,  not 
because  there  is  any  archeological 
evidence  that  the  real  Druids  built 
Stonehenge.  The  real  Druids  of  an- 
tiquity were  the  Celtic  philosopher- 
priests  in  Gaul  and  Britain  just  before 
the  Roman  Conquest.  They  may  at  one 
time  have  used  Stonehenge,  although 
we  have  no  evidence  even  of  this.  In 
any  case,  theirs  would  have  been  a 
re-use  after  the  passing  of  more  than 
a  thousand  years. 

THE  origin  of  the  megalithic  stone 
circles— a  pattern  that  seems  in- 
digenous to  the  British  Isles— may  lie 
in  the  wooden  circles,  which  may  be 
mere  representations  of  older  circular 
clearings  in  woods.  The  sequence  of 
development  might  well  have  been 
from  natural  forest  clearings  to  artifi- 
cial wooden  circles,  to  stone  circles, 
and,  finally,  to  Stonehenge,  merging 
the  old  earthbound  religion  of  the 
West  with  newly  arrived  celestial  reli- 
gions from  the  Mediterranean. 

According  to  Gordon  Childe,  whose 
influence  on  the  study  of  European 
prehistory  has  been  enormous,  apostles 
of  a  megalithic  faith  probably  arrived 
in  Britain  by  the  Atlantic  seaway  be- 


tween 3000  and  2000  B.C.,  settling  in 
the  southwestern  part  of  the  island 
where  Stonehenge  is  located.  It  is  a 
matter  of  record  that  the  initial  tombs 
fan  out  from  the  west  coasts  of  Britain 
and  around  the  Irish  Sea.  In  fact,  the 
vast  majority  of  the  burial  chambers 
in  southern  Britain  are  found  within 
twenty  miles  of  the  shore.  Proximity 
to  water,  which  was  necessary  for 
transport,  and  to  local  stone  supplies, 
were  the  factors  governing  the  location 
of  these  early  megalithic  sites. 

Childe  hypothesizes  that  in  Britain 
megalith  builders  were  not  merely 
fresh  contingents  of  migrating  Iberian 
farmers,  but  were  probably  a  religious 
aristocracy  of  the  Iberian  Peninsula 
who  first  came  to  Britain  as  mission- 
aries. Close  parallels  to  the  plans  of 
these  early  British  tombs  can  be  found 
in  western  Europe,  particularly  in 
Iberia.  When  much  later  in  time  the 
Beaker  folk,  makers  of  bell-shaped 
pottery  beakers,  invaded  Britain,  they 
must  have  displaced  this  Iberian  mis- 
sionary aristocracy,  whose  dead  had 
been  inhumed  in  the  megalithic  tombs. 

In  Childe's  view,  the  Beaker  folk 
liberated  native  British  farmers  and 
herdsmen  from  much  of  megalithic 
superstition,  but  found  it  provident  to 
patronize  native  cults,  giving  them  a 
celestial   orientation   to   replace  their 


51 


obsession  with  the  subterranean  graves. 
As  a  consequence,  the  first  stage  of 
the  great  stone  circles  at  Stonehenge, 
many  archeologists  believe,  was  set  up 
by  the  new  Beaker  ruling  class  on  or 
near  the  sites  of  sacred  megalithic 
burial  grounds.  The  fact  that  the  final 
entrance  to  Stonehenge  points  to  the 
place  where  the  sun  rises  on  Midsum- 
mer Day  has  been  used  as  an  argument 
for  a  sun  cult;  the  sun  was  an  early 
symbol  of  resurrection. 

RECENT  findings  of  Professor  G.  S. 
Hawkins,  of  Boston  University 
and  the  Harvard-Smithsonian  Obser- 
vatory, have  encouraged  adherents  to 
the  hypothesis  that  Stonehenge,  in  its 
final  prehistoric  form,  was  constructed 
as  a  celestial  observatory.  Using  a 
computer.  Professor  Hawkins  has  es- 
tablished definite  correlations  between 
the  position  of  the  stones  and  the  hori- 
zon positions  of  the  rising  sun  and 
moon  at  midsummer  and  midwinter  in 
1500  B.C.  According  to  an  article  in 
New  Scientist,  in  October,  1963,  the 
alignment  of  certain  principal  stones 
with  the  direction  of  the  sun  was 
shown  by  Hawkins  to  exist  with  only 
one  degree  of  error.  Correlations  with 
the  moon  were  demonstrated  to  within 
one  and  a  half  degrees.  The  proba- 
bility that  these  alignments  could  have 
come  about,  not  through  the  intent  of 
the  builders,  but  from  chance,  is  small. 

The  main  elements  of  Stonehenge 
include  an  outer  circle  of  so-called 
Aubrey  holes,  an  inner  circle  of  sarsen 
stones,  and  within  this  a  horseshoe  of 
bluestone.  On  the  outer  circle  are  two 
so-called  station  stones,  and  two  others 
that  once  existed  have  vanished.  By 
joining  the  positions  of  the  station 
stones,  a  rectangle  is  formed  and  the 
point  where  its  diagonals  meet  is  taken 
to  be  the  center  of  the  monument.  The 
formal  entrance  is  known  as  the  "ave- 
nue." The  avenue  has  always  been 
assumed  to  point  roughly  to  midsum- 
mer sunrise.  Hawkins  has  shown  that 
it  is  substantially  correct  to  say  the 
axis  of  the  avenue  did  point  toward 
the  rising  sun  on  June  21,  1500  B.C. 

Archeologists  agree  that  the  fantas- 
tic communal  achievement  in  Stone- 
henge and  the  feat  of  constructing  a 
huge  henge  of  1.400  feet  diameter  at 
Avebury.  in  England,  are  testimony  to 
a  high  degree  of  tribal  political  accord 
—or  perhaps  a  sacred  peace  enforced 
by  warrior  heirs  of  the  Beaker  aristoc- 
racy. Certainly  work  of  this  complexity 
and  .jcale— the  transport  of  enormous 

52 


stone  blocks  140  miles  from  quarry  to 
building  site— would  require  an  or- 
ganized effort  by  the  existing  societ)'. 

It  is  possible  that  archeologists  may 
one  day  establish  worldwide  interre- 
lationships between  some  or  all  pre- 
historic structures  built  with  large 
stones.  (Examples  also  exist  in  Africa 
and  the  Orient,  but  some  were  built  in 
very  recent  times. )  But  certainly  there 
never  was  a  megalithic  master  race 
that  spread  from  Ireland  to  Easter 
Island,  in  the  South  Pacific,  construct- 
ing monuments  wherever  it  migrated. 
With  respect  to  the  tombs  and  mega- 
lithic statuary  of  the  Easter  Islanders, 
skeletal  evidence  excavated  from 
graves  shows  conclusively  that  the 
oldest  interred  corpses  are  of  the  same 
racial  stock  as  that  of  the  recent  inhabi- 
tants—Polynesian with  Negroid  traces. 
Therefore,  these  megaliths  must  repre- 
sent the  efforts  of  an  indigenous  South 
Pacific  island  population.  Moreover, 
the  Easter  Island  monuments  are  un- 
doubtedly of  more  recent  origin  than 
the  great  stone  architecture  of  New 
Stone  and  Bronze  Age  Europe. 

From  their  skeletal  remains,  the 
European  megalith  builders  appear  to 
belong  to  what  physical  anthropolo- 
gists describe  as  the  Mediterranean 
subrace.  Probably  they  spoke  a  pre- 
Indo-European  language,  of  which 
the  present-day  Berber  and  Basque 
tongues  may  be  modified  vestiges.  If 
one   wished   to    see   peoples   like   the 

Ruins  of  Mnajdra  shrine  on  Maha, 
below,  are  nearly  4,000  years  old  and 
are  situated  on  cliff  overlooking   sea. 


megalith  builders  in  the  Europi 
world  of  today,  one  would  go  to 
seacoast  villages  and  seek  out  the  en 
of  contemporary  Basque,  Galician. 
Breton  fishing  boats. 

IT  must  not  be  inferred  that 
varieties  of  megalithic  architect 
in  western  Europe  are  all  necessa: 
related.  The  architect  of  Stonehe 
need  not  have  belonged  to  the  sa 
culture  as  the  builders  of  the  Car 
stone  rows  or  of  Spain's  Antequ 
tombs,  nor  the  architect  of  ]> 
Grange  to  the  society  that  produ 
the  structures  at  Bagneux.  Bv  wa> 
comparison,  the  builders  of  Christ 
churches  and  cathedrals  in  post-Ron 
western  Europe  differed  widelv  in  1 
guage.  political  loyalty,  and  culti 
In  Europe,  megaliths  were  the  h 
mark  of  an  early,  expanding  civil 
tion.  Megalithic  architecture  was 
characteristic  of  those  times  as  i 
contemporary,  international  style  ii 
the  current,  heterogeneous  world, 
megalithic  monuments  and  tombs  h 
seemed  remarkable  and  even  myst 
ous  in  a  human  sense,  they  w 
spread  abroad  in  a  most  normal  ; 
predictable  way— through  trade, 
grations.  and  colonization— in  the  v 
that  much  of  the  world  was  Weste 
ized  in  the  past  century.  All  of  the  \^ 
was  once  in  the  grip  of  a  nascent,  p 
European  civilization,  of  which  m 
aliths   remain   as   endurins;  evider 


Temple  of  H.4L  Tarxien,  at  right, 
on  Malta.  Spiral  motif  on  center  w 
symbolizes  the  Earth  Mother  Goddi 


SKY 
REPORTER 

Daylight  saving  is  one  result 
of  international  time  standard 

By  Thomas  D.  Nicholson 

IN  LAST  month's  "Sky  REPORTER,"  We  discussed  factors 
that  affect  an  annual  chronological  event,  the  beginning 
of  spring.  A  related  event  occurs  this  month— the  change 
from  standard  to  daylight  saving  time.  In  most  communi- 
ties, the  change  is  made  on  the  fourth  Sunday  of  April— 
this  year,  on  April  26.  At  2:00  a.m.  on  this  date,  clocks 
will  be  advanced  by  one  hour  and  remain  so  until  autumn. 
The  question  of  whether  or  not  to  go  on  daylight  time 
each  spring  is  a  matter  of  state  and  local  option  in  the 
United  States.  Even  the  choice  of  standard  time  is  left  to 
the  states  or  local  communities,  for  there  is  no  national 
standard  of  time.  The  federal  government  regulates  only 
the  time  used  by  government  offices  and  stations,  interstate 
commerce,  the  Armed  Forces,  and  districts  and  territories 
of  the  federal  government. 

With  respect  to  daylight  time,  there  are  communities  in 
our  country  where  the  issue  is  still  debated  annually.  Be- 
fore reviewing  the  pros  and  cons  of  the  argument,  we 
should  examine  daylight  time  itself  and  see  just  what  it  is 
and  what  happens  when  we  adopt  it. 

Daylight  saving  time  is  simply  a  form  of  standard  time, 
which  was  introduced  in  the  United  States  in  the  latter 
part  of  the  nineteenth  century.  Previously,  each  community 
kept  time  by  the  sun.  setting  its  clocks  to  twelve  noon  when 
the  sun's  shadow  pointed  north.  As  a  result,  the  time  refer- 
ence at  any  one  instant  was  different  in  each  community, 
even  in  cities  quite  close  to  one  another.  Furthermore, 
timepieces  were  continually  falling  into  error.  Even  a  per- 
fect watch  set  to  noon  by  the  sun  on  January  1  would  be 
ten  minutes  fast  at  solar  noon  on  January  31,  not  because 
of  any  malfunction  in  the  watch,  but  because  the  solar  days 
in  January  are  longer  by  about  twenty  seconds  per  day 
than  the  average  for  the  year. 

These  defects  in  local  solar  time— local  apparent  time  is 
its  correct  name-became  significant  with  the  rapid  growth 
of  commerce,  transportation,  and  communications  that 
took  place  after  the  Civil  War.  The  problems  were  particu- 
larly troublesome  for  railroads  responsible  for  setting  up 
and  keeping  timetables  and  for  the  careful  scheduling  of 
equipment  along  tracks  and  in  terminals.  Faced  wit1r  a 
different  standard  of  time  in  each  community  they  served, 
some  railroads  designated  a  uniform  time  to  be  kept  alons 
certain  sections  of  their  line.  This,  however,  sometimes  led 
to  confusion  when  several  lines  used  the  same  terminal. 
At  Pittsburgh,  for  example,  six  different  kinds  of  time  were 
maintained  in  order  to  conform  to  the  schedules  of  the 
many  railroads  using  the  station. 

Soon  after  the  Civil  War,  plans  for  standardizing  time 
withm  the  United  States  were  presented  to  Congress  and 

54 


International  zone  time  map  shows  breakdown  of  worh 
into  24  standard  meridians,  each  exactly  15  degrees  apart 

to  the  railroads,  but  after  many  years  of  waiting  for  Con 
gress  to  take  action,  the  railroads  finally  moved  inde 
pendently  to  introduce  a  more  orderly  plan.  In  1883  thf 
majority  of  railroads  agreed  to  adopt  a  system  of  standarc 
time  similar  to  the  one  used  in  England,  based  upon  th« 
meridian  of  Greenwich,  England,  as  the  origin  for  the 
measurement  of  longitude  and  time. 

The  mean  solar  time  at  the  meridian  of  Greenwich  had 
been  used  as  standard  time  throughout  England,  Scotland, 
and  Wales  since  1848.  This  meant  that  it  was  noon  all  over 
England  at  the  exact  moment  when  noon  occurred  al 
Greenwich.  The  use  of  mean  solar  time,  rather  than  ap- 


NUMBERED  ZONE 


■JTRIES  WHERE  STANDARD  TIME  DIFFERS 
■  AN  HOUR  FROM  NEIGHBORING  ZONES 


'JTRIES  AND  AREAS  WHICH  HAVE  NOT 
'TED  THE  ZONE  SYSTEM 


zone  containing  longitude  180.  the  International  Date 
,  is  divided  into  halves  that   differ  from   one  another 


by  24  hours.  Numbers  in  Europe  and  Asia  are  time  settings 
of  Soviet  Union,  which  remains  on  daylight  time  all  year. 


nt  (true)  solar  time,  avoided  the  confusion  of  a  noon 
t  (by  the  true  sun),  which  ran  ahead  of  and  behind 
3lock  during  certain  periods  of  the  year. 

[NCE  the  United  States  had  officially  adopted  the 
Greenwich  meridian  as  the  basis  for  longitude 
surement  in  1850,  the  plan  adopted  by  the  railroads, 
Dugh  without  government  sanction,  was  at  least  cou- 
nt with  the  policy  of  the  government.  The  railroad 
1  divided  the  United  States  into  four  zones  about  15 
•ees  wide  in  longitude.  At  the  approximate  center  of 
1  zone  were  the  meridians  75  west  longitude,  90  west, 


105  west,  and  120  west,  designated  as  the  standard 
meridians  for  the  zones.  The  time  within  each  zone  was 
to  be  the  local  mean  time  of  the  standard  meridian  in  the 
zone.  The  zone  boundaries  did  not  extend  directly  north 
and  south,  but  were  modified  to  conform  to  local  political 
and  natural  borders.  Some  states  requested,  and  were 
granted,  uniform  railroad  time  throughout;  other  states 
were  divided  between  two  zones,  but  in  no  case  did  a  city 
lie  in  two  zones. 

The  standard  time  system  was  put  into  effect  by  railroads 
on  Sunday,  November  18,  1883,  and  the  more  than  70 
different  kinds  of  time  previously  used  in  railroading  were 


55 


Royal  Observatory  at  Greenwich,  England,  built  in  1675, 
was  for  advancement  of  navigation  and  nautical  astronomy. 


reduced  to  four— those  we  now  call  Eastern,  Central,  Moun- 
tain, and  Pacific  Standard  Time.  Since  the  standard 
meridians  in  each  zone  were  exact  multiples  of  15,  the 
time  in  each  zone  differed  from  adjacent  zones  b)'  one  hour, 
and  from  Greenwich  Mean  Time  (at  the  zero  meridian) 
by  5  hours  (at  75°  west),  6  hours  (at  90°  west),  7  hours 
(at  105°  west),  and  8  hours  (at  120°  west). 

The  extension  of  the  standard  time  zones  into  an  inter- 
national system  resulted  from  a  series  of  conferences  held 
at  Washington,  D.  C,  in  1884.  The  nations  participating 
agreed  to  divide  the  world  into  24  zones,  each  15  degrees 
wide  in  longitude,  in  which  the  central  meridian  was  a 
multiple  of  15  degrees.  The  time  throughout  each  zone 
was  the  local  mean  time  of  its  central  meridian,  and  dif- 
fered from  the  time  in  adjacent  zones  by  exactly  one  hour. 
The  Prime  Meridian  (zero  degrees  longitude)  was  the 
standard  meridian  in  the  zone  designated  as  zero.  Zones 
in  west  longitude  were  numbered  -j-l^  +2,  -(-3,  etc.,  to 
-(-12  in  the  zone  adjacent  to  the  180th  meridian.  Zones 
east  longitude  were  designated  by  negative  numbers 
to  — 12  in  the  zone  containing  the  180th  meridian. 

THERE  are  actually  25  zones  in  the  International  Zone 
Time  system,  although  there  are  only  24  different 
standard  meridians  and  watch  settings.  The  zone  contain- 
ing longitude  180  is  divided  in  half:  the  half  in  west  longi- 
tude is  12  hours  earlier  than  Greenwich,  the  half  in  east 
longitude  12  hours  later.  As  a  result,  the  time  on  either  side 
of  longitude  180  differs  by  exactly  24  hours.  Thus  the  180th 
meridian  became  the  International  Date  Line.  On  the  east 
longitude  side  of  that  meridian  the  calendar  is  always  one 
day  later  than  on  the  west  longitude  side,  although  the 
clocks  in  the  two  halves  bordering  the  International  Date 
Line  are  always  set  to  the  same  hour. 

Today  most  nations  of  the  world  use  time  standards 
that  are  based  on  the  international  time  system,  modified 
somewhat  to  political  or  natural  boundaries  in  order  to 
maintain  uniform  time  throughout  a  certain  area.  Thus, 
for  example,  Eastern  Standard  Time  is  the  same  as  zone 


-\-5  time.  Central  Standard  is  -\-6  time,  Mountain  Standard 
is  -{-7  time,  and  Pacific  Standard  is  -(-8  time. 

Daylight  saving  time  is  the  standard  time  of  the  zone 
directly  east  of  the  one  in  which  a  region  or  community 
actually  falls.  When  a  community  adopts  daylight  time,  it 
substitutes  for  its  usual  standard  meridian  the  one  that 
is  one  hour,  or  15  degrees  in  longitude,  to  the  east.  For 
example.  Eastern  Standard  Time  is  the  local  mean  time  o| 
the  75th  meridian,  but  Eastern  Daylight  Time  is  the  local 
mean  time  of  the  60th  meridian. 

Obviously,  the  important  effect  of  daylight  saving  time 
is  in  transferring  the  long  hours  of  sunlight  in  the  spring 
and  summer  months  from  the  early  morning,  when  most 
of  us  prefer  to  sleep,  to  the  early  evening,  when  we  can 
make  more  efficient  use  of  them  in  work  and  leisure.  Hence 
the  "saving"  of  daylight.  The  practice  was  first  introduced 
during  World  War  I  in  Germany  and  England  as  a  means 
of  conserving  coal  and  electricity  during  the  late  working 
hours  of  the  day  by  transferring  daylight  to  those  hours. 
It  was  adopted  nationally  in  the  United  States  in  1918  as 
part  of  the  war  effort,  but  it  reverted  to  state  or  community 
option  after  the  war. 

DURING  World  War  II,  the  entire  United  States  was 
again  directed  to  observe  daylight  saving  time  the 
year  round,  not  just  in  spring  and  summer  months.  During 
the  years  1942-45,  some  communities  adopted  a  double 
daylight  time  during  the  spring  and  summer,  advancing  the 
standard  time  meridian  an  additional  15  degrees  to  the 
east,  to  the  45th  meridian  in  the  eastern  time  zone. 

There  is  still  some  agitation  to  adopt  daylight  saving 
time  as  a  year-round  standard  rather  than  to  continue  the 
present,  somewhat  confusing  practice  of  local  option.  The 
entire  Soviet  Union,  for  example,  which  includes  ten  dif- 
ferent time  zones,  uses  daylight  time  throughout  the  year. 
There  is  some  justification  for  reform  in  our  practice,  since 
even  the  communities  in  the  United  States  that  use  day- 
light time  do  not  keep  the  same  schedule.  Some  continue 
daylight  time  until  the  fourth  Sunday  in  September,  others 
until  the  fourth  Sunday  in  October. 

The  arguments  presented  against  the  use  of  daylight 
saving  time  are  also  reasonable,  however.  Some  communi- 
ties in  the  United  States,  such  as  the  western  portion  of 
Texas,  western  Oklahoma,  parts  of  North  Dakota,  and  parts 
of  Michigan,  are  already  so  far  west  of  their  standard 
meridians  that  their  standard  time  is  practically  a  daylight 
saving  time.  Farming  communities  are  generally  opposed 
to  daylight  time  because  many  farming  activities  are 
closely  related  to  sunlight  hours  rather  than  to  clock  hours. 
Farm  animals  are  not  easily  induced  to  change  their 
schedules  by  an  hour  when  the  community  changes  from 
standard  to  daylight  time  and  back  again. 

Finally,  it  is  pointed  out.  the  effect  of  daylight  time  can 
be  achieved  by  adjusting  our  daily  schedule  to  the  changes 
in  daylight.  Thus  we  can  arise,  go  to  work,  and  come  home 
an  hour  earlier  during  spring  and  summer  months  with- 
out rearranging  our  clock  time.  But  somehow  it  seems  less 
painful  to  rise  an  hour  earlier  during  the  spring  and 
summer  months  if  the  clock  still  reassures  us  it  is  our 
normal  rising  time.  This,  in  the  long  run,  may  be  the  only 
real  advantage  that  daylight  saving  time  has  to  offer  us. 


Dr.  Nicholson  is  Assistant  Chairman.  Astronomer,  and  a 
lecturer  at  The  American  Museum-Hayden  Planetarium. 


56 


J  no**      .  ,•-  0310. 


-+  V- 


'*'  "*V»'-Jr  sasiNiod 


MAGNITUDE  SCALE 

*  -0.1  and  brighter 

*  0.0  to  +0.9 

*  tI.O  to  +1.9 

*  +2.0  to  +2.9 
+  +3.0  to  +3.9 

*  +4.0  and  fainter 


,1  -■T^ 


/  •  vi^^^ 


.\  - '        ■«■  -    * 


TIMETABLE 

April    1  10:00  p.m. 

April  15  9:00  P.M. 

April  30  8:00  P.M. 

{Local  Mean  Time) 


ril  7:  Greatest  eastern  elongation  of  Mercury  occurs  on 
date.  For  several  evenings  before  and  after,  it  may  be 
low  in  the  west  shortly  after  sunset, 
ril  8:  Look  for  Saturn  in  the  morning  sky  before  sunrise 
eft  of  the  late  crescent  moon.  In  the  morning  sky  of  the 
Saturn  is  to  the  right  of  the  moon, 
ril  10:  Venus  reaches  greatest  distance  east  of  the  sun. 
ril  12:  Venus,  in  the  evening  sky  tonight,  shows  us  ex- 
half  of  its  illuminated  disk,  resembling  in  appearance 
rst  quarter  moon. 

ril  15:  In  the  afternoon  sky  today,  the  crescent  moon 
3S  between  Venus  and  Aldebaran.  By  nightfall,  the  moon 
le  some  distance  to  the  east,  but  the  three  objects  form 
teresting  triangle  in  the  evening  sky. 
iril  20-22:  The  Lyrid  meteors,  reaching  maximum  about 
P.M.,  EST,  on  April  21,  may  be  seen  in  the  early  morning 
s.  Although  not  a  good  shower,  the  radiant— near  the 
it  star  Vega— is^  nearly  overhead  after  moonset.  The 
ly  rate  per  observer  is  about  15. 
iril  22:  Jupiter  is  in  conjunction  with   the  sun   on   this 


date  and  begins  to  enter  the  morning  sky  for  the  first  time. 

April  27:  Mercury  is  at  inferior  conjunction,  passing  between 
earth  and  sun  at  5:00  p.m.,  EST,  and  enters  the  morning  sky. 

With  the  exception  of  Venus  and  the  opportunity  to  see 
Mercury  during  its  favorable  elongation,  April  is  not  impres- 
sive for  its  planets.  Jupiter,  which  enters  the  morning  sky  late 
in  the  month,  and  Mars  are  too  close  to  the  sun.  Saturn  is 
beginning  to  be  easily  visible  in  the  morning  sky  (the  moon 
will  help  in  locating  It  on  the  8th  and  9th). 

Venus  dominates  the  evening  sky,  appearing  in  the  west 
shortly  after  sundown  and  setting  four  hours  after  the  sun. 
Brightening  from  magnitude  —3.9  to  —4.1  in  April,  it  passes 
through  Taurus,  south  of  the  Pleiades  in  early  April  and  north 
of  Aldebaran  at  midmonth. 

The  elongation  of  Mercury  on  the  7th  is  considered  favor- 
able because  the  planet  is  east  of  the  sun  on  the  ascending 
branch  of  the  ecliptic;  hence  its  setting,  with  respect  to  sun- 
set, is  retarded  as  much  as  possible.  Mercury's  stellar  mag- 
nitude Is  —0.1  at  elongation,  and  the  planet  remains  In  the 
sky  for  a  period  of  about  an  hour  and  a  half  after  sundown. 


Her  name  is  Patricia  Brigiit  Eagle,  a  forgotten 
child  witli  a  proud  tradition.  Patricia's  home  is 
made  of  mud  and  sticl(S;  her  food  consists  mainly 
of  fried  bread  and  corn. 

Lil(e  other  six-year-old  children,  Patricia 
started  school  this  year.  It  was  a  frightening 
experience  for  her.  Unable  to  speak  but  a  few 
words  of  English,  Patricia  suddenly  found  her- 
self in  a  world  where  she  became  self-con- 
scious and  ashamed  of  her  clothes,  of  her  name, 
of  her  appearance... of  herself.  She  stays  apart, 
bewildered  and  lonely. 

Patricia  will  soon  learn  to  speak  English,  but 
there  are  some  things  school  cannot  give  her, 
things  that  the  other  children  have.  She  needs 
new  shoes,  decent  clothes,  money  for  school 
activities  and  school  supplies— and  for  an  oc- 
casional luxury  such  as  a  bracelet  or  a  small 
toy. She  needs  the  help  of  someone  who  cares... 
someone  to  give  her  the  confidence  and  assur- 
ance she  needs  so  desperately  to  participate  in 
voluntary  school  and  community  services. 
If  not  you... who? 

You— or  your  club  or  office  group— can  give 
these  things  to  Patricia  or  another  needy  Indian 
child  through  SAVE  THE  CHILDREN  FEDERATION. 
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$120.00  a  year,  will  provide  a  child  with  funds 
to  buy  suitable  clothing,  books  and  a  cash  al- 
lowance for  school  activities. 
You  will  receive  a  photograph,  a  case  history, 
and  progress  reports  on  the  child  you  sponsor. 
You  may  also  correspond  with  the  child,  so  that 
your  generous  material  aid  becomes  part  of  a 
larger  gift  of  understanding  and  friendship. 
Won't  you  please  help? 

save  the  children  f 


Serving  Children  for  31  Years 
SAVE  THE  CHILDREN  FEDERATION 

Norwalk,  Connecticut 

I  wish  to  contribute  $120.00  annually  to  help  an 
American  Indian  Girl  Q     Boy  n 
Enclosed  is  my  first  payment; 
$10.00  a  month  □           $60.00  semi-annually  □ 
$30.00  a  quarter  D       $120.00  annually  Q 
I  cannot  sponsor  a  child;  enclosed  is  a  contribu- 
tion of  $ 


Name_ 


Contributions  are  tax  deductible, 


state j 

ble.  NH-4-4  I 


NOVACULITE,  often  referred  to  popu- 
larly as  "oilstone"  or  "whetstone." 
is  a  type  of  quartz  that  has  proved  ex- 
tremely valuable  to  artisans  and  indus- 
try in  the  honing  of  cutting  edges.  Before 
examining  this  rather  enigmatic  mineral, 
it  will  be  helpful  to  review  the  proper- 
ties that  characterize  quartz. 

Quartz— silica  to  the  mineralogist- 
represents  a  union  of  two  of  the  most 
abundant  elements  known,  the  non-me- 
tallic element  silicon  and  the  ordinarily 
gaseous  element  oxygen.  Collectively, 
these  two  elements  account  for  some  75 
per  cent  of  the  matter  comprising  the 
earth's  atmosphere,  oceans,  and  crustal 
locks.  It  is  not  surprising  that  their  union 
in  the  form  of  the  dioxide  of  silicon 
should  be  one  of  the  major  constituents 
of  the  earth's  crust.  Nor  does  it  seem  un- 
reasonable that  the  silicate  minerals  as  a 
class— those  minerals  that  consist  of  sili- 
con and  oxygen  in  combination  with  one 
or  even  several  of  the  metallic  elements 
—should  equal  or  perhaps  outnumber  all 
other  minerals. 


By  Paul  Mason  Tildi 


There  are  many  varieties  of  sili 
most  of  which  are  to  be  found  in  ev 
the  most  rudimentai^  of  mineral  coll( 
tions.  In  its  coarsely  crystallized  sta 
silica,  in  the  form  of  common  quartz,  ft 
nishes  such  basic  but  nonetheless  han 
some  collectibles  as  water-clear  "ro 
crystal";  amethyst  in  various  shades 
purple  or  reddish  purple;  pale-brown 
purplish-brown  "smoky  quartz";  "ro 
quartz"  (highly  prized  when  specime 
exhibit  one  or  more  crystal  faces)  ;  ai 
milky-white  quartz  known  to  miners 
"bull  quartz"— often  one  of  the  first  mi 
erals  to  go  into  the  collections  of  youn 
sters.  Less  common  examples  inclui 
transparent  or  translucent  yellowish  ai 
greenish  quartz. 

In  addition,  there  are  many  who! 
opaque  varieties  of  silica,  usually  of 
more  somber  color  and  tougher  natui 
Varieties  include  agate,  carnelian,  ja 
per.  chert,  and  hard-to-define  chert  h 
brids  of  unexciting  gray  or  brown  coloi 
tion.  All  of  the  minerals  in  this  cla 
travel  under  the  general  description 


58 


Rainbow  novaculite  shows  concentric 
bands  of  rose,  gray,  orange,  and  white. 


The  patterns  in  this  specimen  vary  froi 
one  quarter-inch  to  two  inches  in  widtl 


:edonic  silica."  They  are  com- 
known  as  cryptocrystalline,  but 
Orographic  microscope  and  X  ray 
that  while  some  are  aggregations 
ute  crystalline  silica  grains,  others 
;tually  composed  of  myriad  fibers 
:ths  of  silica,  probably  not  crystal- 
Jovaculite  falls  under  the  granular 
>f  quartz  classification. 

Novaculite  Defined 

ould  be  said  that  the  word  "novacu- 
"  will  be  used  here  in  a  rather 
lized  way— that  is,  in  reference  to 
articular  kind  of  rock.  It  is  neces- 
;o  point  this  out,  because  during 
r  days  in  America  the  name  was 
only  applied  to  a  rather  wide 
of  rock  types,  the  only  criterion 
that  when  a  piece  was  properly 
jr  sawed  out  and  shaped— dressed 
.s  the  saying  was— it  would  serve 
with  or  without  oil  to  make  a  keen 
g  edge  on  scythes,  axes,  knives,  and 
tools.  Such  stones  could  be  sandy 
,  shales,  gritstones,  or  even  sandy 
s  with  sufficient  free  silica  in  small, 
grains  to  cut  the  steel  of  a  blade, 
ock  type  answered  this  description 
i  likely  to  be  quarried  and  called 
ulite,  or  oilstone.  "The  goodness  of 
stone."  said  a  New  England  geolo- 
n  1844,  "depends  on  its  wearing 
evenly,  so  as  not  to  glaze,  and  al- 
to present  new  surfaces  of  fine 
Dus  particles  which  cut  .  .  .  steel." 
nust  also  be  said  here— not  argu- 
itively,  for  the  time  has  long  since 
d  for  that,  but  merely  as  an  added 
of  interest— that  the  originator  of 
/ord  novaculite  was  guilty  of  a 
r  odd  error  in  terminology.  Novacu- 
ems  from  the  Latin  word  for  razor, 
ula.  But  to  the  Romans  a  razor  was 
strument  that  served  to  give  the 
face  a  new  appearance;  the  root  of 
ord  was  nova,  something  new.  The 
ness  of  the  instrument  was  not  in 
,  Thus  the  promulgator  of  the  term 
unded  the  razor  with  the  stone  that 
ened  it.  It  is  late  in  the  day  to  sug- 
that  the  term  "cosite"  might  have 
more  appropriate,  stemming  as  it 
from  the  Latin  co5— a  hone,  or  a 
itone.  (Such  a  change  might  also 
to  confusion  with  the  newly  cata- 
d  quartz  polymorph  coesite.  first 
ed  artificially  by  Loring  Goes,  Jr.  in 
then  discovered  as  a  natural  min- 
it  Barringer  Crater  in  Arizona  in 
and  subsequently  found  in  other 
)r  craters  as  a  polymorph  of  ordi- 
quartz  created  by  enormous  shock 
;xtreme  temperature.) 
texture,  a  sample  of  pure  novaculite 
ids  one  of  the  maple  sugar  in  a 
ne;  in  color,  the  mineral  ranges 
snow-  and  creamy-white  through 
us  shades  of  buff  and  green;  from 
lue  to  dark  blue;  and  from  light 
to  a  dull  black.  Traces  of  iron— and 


Mr.  Tilden,  author  and  editor,  writes 
regular  columns  for  this  magazine  both 
on  rocks  and  minerals  and  on  current 
conservation  legislation  in  Washington. 


perhaps  manganese,  also— in  various 
states  of  oxidation  may  produce  rainbow- 
like halos  of  color  in  lighter-hued 
specimens.  The  rock  is  quite  brittle  in 
its  pure  condition,  and  breaks  out  in 
sharp  flakes  and  sherds  typical  of  the 
silica  family  of  minerals.  Held  in  the 
hand  and  struck  lightly  with  a  metallic 
object,  a  large  fragment  rings  musically 
like  a  fine  piece  of  cut  glass. 

The  petrographic  microscope  reveals 
the  individual  grains  of  silica  in  novacu- 


lite to  be  of  remarkably  uniform  size  and 
fitted  together  with  few  or  no  open 
spaces  or  "pores"  around  them.  In  de- 
scribing this  uniform  array,  one  inves- 
tigator has  made  the  comment  that  the 
grains  "are  not  cemented,  but  seem 
merely  to  be  jammed  together,  the  te- 
nacity of  the  stone  apparently  being  due 
to  the  interlocking  of  the  edges  of  the 
grains."  In  parts  of  the  novaculite  for- 
mation there  have  been  found  traces  of 
floral  and  faunal  life;  sponge  spicules, 
radiolarian  capsules,  brachiopods,  mi- 
crospores, and  other  relics— even  an  oc- 
casional piece  of  petrified  wood. 

The  novaculite  discussed  in  this  article 
is  a  type  of  quartz  rock  that  outcrops 


NOWJAIMSH 

toraianlasticaliyiow 
ail-Msive$i390 


■Ti-^::'--^M 


BOAC  has  done  it  again.  They've  come 
up  with  a  17  day  African  Safari  that 
brings  the  cost  of  an  African  adventure 
down  to  an  incredibly  low  $1390.  This 
price  includes  everything:  economy 
class  round-trip  air  fare  by  Rolls-Royce 
707  (from  N.  Y.  to  London  to  Nairobi 
and  back),  hotels,  meals  and  all  transfers. 
Safari  means  "journey,"  not  "hunt." 
Bring  a  camera,  not  a  gun.  You'll  want 
to  shoot  fabulous  Nairobi  National  Park, 
Masai  tribesmen,  Karamojong.  Be  awed 
by  the  Ngorongoro  Crater.  Marvel  at 
Murchison  and  hundreds  of  fascinating 
sights  you  couldn't  see  anywhere  in  the 
world  but  Africa. 


BRITISH  OVERSEAS  AIRWAYS  CORPORATION 
Depl.  NH-11 

530  Fifth  Avenue,  New  York  36,  MU  7-1600 
Please  send  me  details  on  the  African  Safari 
and  the  Lands  of  the  Bible  tour. 


NAME- 
STREET- 
CITY 


59 


over  a  wide  portion  of  the  12,000- 
square-mile  province  of  the  Ouachita 
Mountains  of  western  Arkansas  and 
southeastern  Oklahoma.  This  so-called 
Arkansas  novaculite  is  a  rock  formation 
that  varies  in  thickness  from  250  to  900 
feet  or  so.  although  the  beds  of  novacu- 
lite are  separated  by  layers  of  shale.  It 
has  been  well  established  that  the  forma- 
tion was  laid  down  during  the  late 
Devonian  and  early  Mississippian  pe- 
riods, perhaps  some  350  million  years 
ago.  Exactly  how  it  was  laid  down,  how- 


ever, has  been  one  of  the  challenges 
American  geology.  Since  the  middle 
the  past  century  no  fewer  than  thirle 
competent  geologists  or  geological  p; 
ties  have  investigated  the  Arkansas  i 
vaculite  and  the  silica-rich  rock  fort 
tions  that  lie  above  and  below  it.  1 
number  of  resulting  theories  as  to  I 
mode  and  circumstances  of  dispositi 
almost  equals  the  number  of  invest!] 
tions.  Some  sample  theories:  novacul 
is  a  metamorphosed  sandstone;  a  me 
morphosed  chert ;  the  result  of  hot-wa 


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AIRSTREAM  INC. 

750  CHURCH   ST.,  JACKSON   CENTER,   OHIO 
12804  E.  FIRESTONE,  SANTA  FE  SPRINGS  51,  CALIF. 

60 


Foreign  minerals  in  polished  slab  of 
novaculite  produced  dime-size  "sore." 


The  inclusions  present  in  this  specii 
are  deposits  of  hematite  and  limoii 


Unpolished  buff  specimen  is  readily 
identifiable  as  a  "blackheart."  Black 


center  is  not  an  inclusion,  but  a  s 
probably  made  by  disseminated  carl 


r> 


ts;  was  originally  a  limestone, 
replaced  by  silica;  represents  a 
ea  chemical  precipitate;  was  vol- 
ash  that  later  became  silicified. 

Practical  Uses 

ATEVER  the  antecedents  of  this  un- 
gual and  extensive  sheet  of  silica, 
ck  itself  has  been  turned  to  good 
It  by  man.  In  the  vicinity  of  Hot 
;s,  Arkansas,  where  it  outcrops  in 
icularly  pure  form,  quarrying  of 
tone,  and  its  fabrication  into 
nsas  oilstones"  has  for  many  years 
n  industry— not  large,  but  a  steady 
;er  of  hones  for  all  manner  of  cut- 
dges.  These  oilstones  are  used 
vide  for  sharpening  carpenters' 
jngravers'     tools,     for     surgeons' 

and  for  precision  cutting  instru- 
-even  for  the  pointing  of  hypo- 
;  and  other  needles, 
e  of  the  color  variations  of  novacu- 
jve  given  rise  to  an  interesting 
man's  jargon.  For  example,  a  gray 

slab  with  a  black  center  is  known 
ackheart."  "Rainbow"  describes, 
)riately  enough,  specimens  that 
;  bright  bands  of  color  in  concen- 
.tterns  of  rose,  orange,  gray,  and 
A  dark  inclusion  of  some  foreign 
il  within  a  light-colored  slab  of 
ilite  is  called  a  "sore,"  and  dis- 
ss the  piece  for  commercial  pur- 

The  dead-black  variety  of  the 
is  known  as  "blueberry,"  and 
be  considered  worthless,  save  for 
lited  and  quite  unusual  purpose— 
)f  "blueberry"  find  a  use  in  the 
lops  of  Europe.  There,  when  a 
er  enters  with  a  "gold"  item  for 

the    proprietor    merely    rubs    it 

a  piece  of  the  black  novaculite 
sts  the  resulting  metallic  smear 
3id— just  to  be  sure  that  it  really 
I!  It  is  understandable  that  an- 
lame  for  the  black  novaculite  is 
;ouchstone." 

e  there  is  a  superabundance  of 
ick  variety  of  novaculite,  it  was 
I  that  the  quarrymen  should  have 
ted  to  find  some  wider  market  for 
lie  manufacture  of  table  and  coun- 
,    for    example,    since    the    stone 

very  high  polish.  It  was  soon  dis- 
i  that  this  notion  was  not  practi- 
hen  a  hot  dish  was  placed  on  a 
lite  tabletop,  the  stone  beneath 
h  developed  cracks;  thus  the  de- 
for  "blueberry"  still  comes  only 
Europe's  pawnbrokers. 
)ite  the  beauty  of  these  fabricated 
jnes,  the  serious  mineral  collector 
doubtless  prefer  his  novaculite 
ens  "in  the  rough."  This  way,  they 
it  only  furnish  his  collection  with 
ige  variety  of  one  of  the  earth's 
inest    minerals;    they    will    serve 

remind  him  that  there  is  many  a 

in  the  past  history  of  the  earth 
mains  to  be  unraveled. 


^ 


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Braniff  flies  to  places 

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ZATION 
OF  THE 
AMERICAS 


Mrs.  Kay  Fulling,  author  and  lecturer, 
who  has  lived  in  Latin  America  for 
many  years,  will  lead  an  exploration  to 
the  important  archeological  sites  and 
cities  of  cultural  interest  in  this  unique 
tour  of  Latin  America,  Mexico  City, 
Guanajuato,  Oaxaca,  Vera  Cruz  and  the 
Mayan  sites  around  Merida  in  Mexico, 
Guatemala  City  and  the  "Great  City"  of 
the  Mayans,  Tikal,  in  Guatemala,  Quito, 
the  Indian  Villages  in  the  Valley  of  Los 
Chillos,  Sasquisili  and  Otavalo  in 
Ecuador;  Lima,  the  Inca  citadel  of 
Cajarmaqilla,  Cuzco,  Machu  Picchu  and 
Pisac  in  Peru;  Lake  Titicaca,  La  Paz, 
the  Inca  ruins  of  the  Empire's  ancient 
capital  Tiahuanacu,  Oruro,  Potosi. 
Sucre  and  Cochabamba  in  Bolivia  are 
the  places  to  be  visited  —  an  array 
rarely,  if  ever  combined  into  one  single 
tour. 

EXTENSION  TOURS  covering  Paraguay 
and  Brazil  or  Exploring  the  Amazon 
are  also  available. 

New  York  to  New  York,  July  2-August  10, 
All-inclusive  $1740.00 

First-class  accommodations  throughout 
on  both  tours. 

ATA  also  offers  other  workshops  and 
study  lours  to  Western  Europe,  the 
Mediterranean,  Scandinavia,  Eastern 
Europe,  the  USSR,  Africa,  the  Near 
East,  the  Far  East,  and  Around  the 
World. 

For  details  write  to: 

Association  For 

Academic  Travel  Abroad,  Inc. 

550  Fifth  Avenue,  New  York  36,  N.Y. 

62    ' 


About  the  Authors 

Mr.  Arthur  Leipzig,  author  of  "Old 
Africa's  'People  of  the  Village,'  "  is  a 
wide-ranging  photographer  whose  home 
is  in  New  York.  His  article  about  the 
Meban  people,  to  be  concluded  next 
month,  is  based  on  several  weeks  he 
spent  with  Dr.  Samuel  Rosen's  third  ex- 
pedition   to   investigate    Meban    health. 

The  significance  of  the  discovery  of  an 
Iguanodons  footprints  on  the  island  of 
West  Spitsbergen  is  discussed  in  "Dino- 
saurs of  the  Arctic."  by  Dr.  Edwin  H. 
Colbert.  He  is  Chairman  and  Curator 
of  the  Department  of  Vertebrate  Paleon- 
tology at  The  American  Museum,  where 
casts  of  two  I guanodon  footprints  are 
scheduled  for  display.  Among  Dr.  Col- 
bert's special  interests  is  the  investiga- 
tion of  past  distribution  and  interconti- 
nental migrations   of   land   vertebrates. 

Mr.  Paul  Villiard,  who  wrote  "Mul- 
ticolored World  of  Caterpillars"  and 
took  the  accompanying  photos,  is  a  bio- 
photographer  and  writer  on  natural  his- 
tory subjects.  Originally  a  mechanical 
engineer.  ]\Ir.  Villiard  became  interested 
in  Lepidoptera  during  travels  in  South 
America,  and  he  began  to  concentrate 
on  rearing,  identifying,  and  photograph- 
ing this  group  of  insects.  He  is  now  com- 
pleting a  book  on  lepidopterous  larvae, 
and  is  planning  one  on  marine  shells. 

Dr.  Bryan  Nelson,  who  describes  the 
gannetry  on  the  Bass  Rock,  an  isolated 
islet  at  the  mouth  of  the  Firth  of  Forth, 
has  concentrated  on  studies  of  the  gan- 
net  for  the  past  three  years.  Dr.  Nelson 
did  his  undergraduate  work  at  Saint 
Andrews  University  in  Scotland,  and  re- 
ceived a  Nature  Conservancy  scholarship 
to  Oxford,  He  has  been  awarded  a  post- 
doctoral Senior  Carnegie  grant  to  extend 
his  gannet  work  to  boobies,  assisted  by 
the  Frank  M.  Chapman  Memorial  Fund, 
which  is  administered  by  the  Depart- 
ment of  Ornithology  at  The  American 
Museum.  Dr.  Nelson  and  his  wife,  who 
acts  as  his  field  assistant,  are  now  pur- 
suing ornithological  researches  for  a 
year  on  uninhabited  Tower  Island,  in 
the  Galapagos. 

The  photographs  and  description  of  a 
bee  cross-pollinating  an  orchid  are  the 
work  of  Mr.  H.  Lou  Gibson,  a  special- 
ist in  scientific  and  medical  photography 
with  the  Eastman  Kodak  Co.  His  hobby 
is  growing  wildflowers.  of  which  he  has 
raised  more  than  300  species. 

Dr.  Glyn  E.  Daniel,  author  of  "Meg- 
aliths and  Men."  is  an  archeologist  who 
specializes  in  the  study  of  prehistoric 
chamber  tombs  of  England  and  Wales. 
A  Fellow  of  St.  John's  College,  Cam- 
bridge University  (England),  Dr.  Dan- 
iel is  General  Editor  of  the  "Ancient 
Peoples  and  Places"  series,  published 
in  the  U.  S.  by  Frederick  A.  Praeger. 


The    i 


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HONEYWELL  PRESENTS        ^^^=q 


SUNDAYS   4:30    E.S.T. 


Honeyivell 


SCIENCE  IN  ACTION 


iLaunching  an  expeditioi 


PHOTOGRAPHIC   PRODUCTS 


I  By  Richard  G.  Van  Gelder 


IN  MANY  WAYS,  basic  research  could 
be  called  "anticipatory  research." 
It  is  the  material  from  which  a  new  con- 
cept may  come.  It  may  form  the  foun- 
dation of  a  new  theory  when  added  to 
other  similar  bodies  of  knowledge.  It 
may  remain  dormant  in  the  literature 
until  just  that  moment,  for  instance, 
when  the  solution  of  some  medical  prob- 
lem requires  that  certain  bit  of  infor- 
mation. Basic  research  anticipates  fu- 
ture use  of  knowledge,  but  no  one  can 
say  precisely  the  way  it  will  be  used. 

An  example  of  this  combination  of 
basic  research  and  pragmatism  can  be 
found  in  an  expedition  now  being 
planned  by  The  American  Museum's 
Department  of  Mammalogy.  But  before 
discussing  the  program,  it  might  be  well 
to  describe  some  of  the  thinking  that 
governs  a  department  like  this  one. 

One  of  the  main  concerns  of  any  such 
department  is  the  collecting  of  speci- 
mens—and this  involves  a  sizable  pro- 
portion of  our  time.  But  why  collect 
mammals  at  all?  The  museums  of  North 
America  have  about  1.500.000  specimens 
from  all  parts  of  the  world,  and  if  all 
the  other  collections  were  added,  the 
total  number  of  study  specimens  would 
come  close  to  2.500.000.  As  there  are 
only  about  5.000  species  of  mammals 
recognized  today,  is  there  any  need  to 
collect  any  more  material?  The  answer 
to  this  lies  in  the  three  phases  of  biology: 
What  is  it?  How  does  it  work?  Why 
does  it  exist  and  function  as  it  does? 
For  a  few  parts  of  the  world  the 
"what''  phase  is  nearing  completion.  The 
mammals  of  North  America  are  pretty 
well  known,  and  research  on  them  is  now 
moving  into  the  "how"  and  even  to  the 
"why"'  stage.  But  in  other  areas  of  the 
world  the  mammals  have  not  been 
studied  so  thoroughly.  Parts  of  Asia, 
Africa,  New  Guinea,  and  especially 
South  America  are  still  in  the  "what-is- 
it?"  stage.  It  is  in  these  places  that 
collecting  still  goes  on  and  still  is  needed. 

Another  question  has  been  asked: 
Aside  from  satisfying  the  intellectual 
curiosity  of  a  few  individuals  and  aside 
from  adding  to  the  general  knowledge 
of  the  world,  is  there  any  practical  ap- 
plication to  classification  of  mammals? 
The  answer  is:  Unquestionably! 

As  an  example,  some  years  ago  a 
mammalogist  did  a  taxonomic  study  of 
the  rabbits  of  California.  In  addition  to 
telling  how  to  identify  California  rab- 
bits, the  author  recorded  whatever  ob- 
servations he  had  made  or  could  find  in 


the  literature.  A  few  years  later  his  pi 
fessor  received  a  letter  from  some  coi 
mercial  flower  growers  in  the  state,  clai 
ing  that  they  were  losing  thousands 
dollars  because  rabbits  were  eating 
many  of  their  plants.  The  profess 
wrote  back  and  asked  what  kind  of  ra 
bits  were  doing  the  damage.  The  fan 
ers  didn't  know.  "A  rabbit  is  a  rabbil 
they  said.  The  professor  insisted  on  mo 
precise  information.  A  rabbit  was  sh 
and  sent  to  him.  Using  his  studen 
published  work  on  the  subject,  the  p: 
fessor  identified  the  rabbit  as  a  bru; 
rabbit.  Under  "remarks"  the  author  hi 
written  that  brush  rabbits  are  not  knov 
to  venture  more  than  a  few  yards  fro 
cover.  So  the  professor  told  the  flow 
growers  to  cut  the  brush  back  40  fe 
from  the  edges  of  their  fields.  The  ne 
year  he  received  a  letter  saying  that  tt 
simple  method  had  saved  the  growe 
$6,000  during  one  year. 

This  is  but  one  simple  case  of  app]i( 
taxonomy.  Knowing  the  kind  of  rabl 
made  control  possible.  No  biological  i 
search  can  be  done  competently  witho 
the  scientists'  knowing  ivhat  species,  < 
even  subspecies,  he  is  dealing  with,  ai 
something  about  their  widely  difierii 
biologies.  And  here  the  odd  avocatic 
of  flea-picking  enters  mammal  researc 

Fleas  and  the  Mammalogist 

ALTHOUGH  fleas,  ticks,  mites,  and  h 
,  have  always  been  a  part  of  norm 
field  work  in  mammalogy,  it  is  only  r 
cently  that  a  great  deal  of  attention 
being  paid  to  this  facet— which  brings  i 
back  to  the  currently  planned  expec 
tion.  Recently  the  Museum's  Depai 
ment  of  Mammalogy  received  a  gra 
from  the  U.S.  Army  Medical  Resear( 
and  Development  Command  to  do  fie 
work  in  South  America— collecting  mai 
mals  and  their  ectoparasites.  We  decidi 
to  work  in  Uruguay,  Bolivia,  and  A 
gentina.  Late  in  1962  our  field  party  le 
and  spent  six  months  collecting  in  Ur 
guay.  At  this  writing,  a  year  from  tl 
time  we  started  the  field  work,  son 
thousands  of  specimens  are  being  cat 
logued  in  preparation  for  study  a: 
eventual  publication.  During  this  peril 
we  also  began  to  make  plans  for  tl 
Bolivian  expedition.  Then  somethii 
new  entered  the  picture. 

In  1959  hemorrhagic  fever,  a  \ix\ 
disease  that  is  characterized  by  fev 
and  internal  bleeding,  broke  out  in  ti 
places  in  the  Bolivian  lowlands.  Tl 
human  mortality  has  been  at  least 


64 


;ent  and  possibly  higher.  In  1963  an 
emiological  team  from  the  Middle 
rica  Research  Unit  began  an  inten- 
study  in  the  town  of  San  Joaquin, 
virus  is  believed  to  be  transmitted 
n  ectoparasite  carried  by  a  mam- 

but  the  vectors  have  never  been 
ed  dovi-n  in  the  parts  of  the  world 
e  hemorrhagic  fevers  occur— Argen- 

Korea,  and  Tibet,  among  others, 
le  work  of  the  Middle  America  Re- 
;h  Unit  has  involved  studying  the 
)gy  of  the  disease.  The  animals,  sus- 
;d  or  not.  must  be  trapped,  the  ecto- 
sites  removed   and   preserved,   and 

everything  sent  to  specialists  for 
dfication.  The  American  Museum 
f  will  be  working  in  co-operation 
the  M.A.R.U.  team,  collecting 
mals  and  their  ectoparasites  in  the 
inds  to  try  to  determine  the  extent 
e  plague  in  the  wild.  But  if  we  had 

in  tills  area  five  years  ago,  what 
dy  of  knowledge  might  have  been 
able:    mammal    specimens    identi- 

habitats  recorded  in  our  notes,  to- 
er  with  information  on  food  and 
ity,  and  lists  of  ectoparasites  known 
^e  on  certain  species.  We  might  not 

had  the  answer  for  the  medical  re- 
;hers,  but  we  surely  would  have  had 
1  information  that  might  have  been 
;e  to  them.  Now,  all  the  time  we  are 
dng,  people  may  be  dying  for  lack 

little  basic  research. 
D  one  could  have  anticipated  hemor- 
ic  fever  in  Bolivia.  No  one  can  ac- 
tely  predict  any  biological  develop- 
ts,  except  with  long  and  careful 
r   study.   So,   when   people   ask   me 

the  Army  is  supporting  mammal 
irch  in  South  America.  I  tell  them 
It   Bolivia    and   the   basic   research 

we  had  planned  to  do— basic  re- 
:h  that  became  applied  before  we 
even  started. 


Expedition  work  falls  into  three  sec- 
tions. First,  it  must  be  planned;  second, 
it  must  be  done;  third,  the  collected 
material  must  be  worked  up.  Each  facet 
is  discrete,  in  which  the  work  may  be 
just  as  arduous  as  in  any  other  facet. 
The  planning  segment  breaks  into  divi- 
sions we  might  label  "where,"  "when," 
and  "how."  We  like  to  choose  areas  that 
either  have  not  been  studied  before,  or 
that  still  leave  promising  problems.  In 
deciding  to  work  in  South  America,  we 
built  our  plans  around  the  scientists  we 
knew  in  various  countries.  The  presence 
of  a  thoughtful,  helpful,  enthusiastic 
colleague  who  is  native  to  the  country 
is  the  greatest  help  one  can  have  in  an 
initial  expedition  program.  Thus  far, 
our  colleagues  in  the  South  American 
venture  have  come  through  with  flying 
colors— and  getting  things  through  some 
of  the  governmental  red  tape  in  foreign 
countries  can  be  a  real  chore.  I  remem- 
ber one  day  in  Uruguay  signing  seven 
long  documents— nine  copies  of  each— 
that  granted  us  duty-free  import  and 
export.  But  it  was  thanks  to  the  weeks 
of  groundwork  by  our  mammalogist  as- 
sociates in  Montevideo  and  the  people 
at  the  American  Embassy  there  that  the 
papers   were    ready   when   needed. 

Once  the  selection  of  the  expedition 
site  has  been  made,  the  next  decision  is 
when  to  go.  In  some  countries  the  choice 
is  made  for  you.  We  are  going  to  Bolivia 
this  year  during  the  six-month  dry  sea- 
son, which  begins  in  April.  In  Uruguay 
we  did  not  face  the  problem  of  rainy 
and  dry  seasons,  and  so  we  went  as  soon 
as  we  could.  We  started  ordering  our 
materials  on  October  1  and  were  in  the 
field  on  December  3— which  may  have 
set  some  sort  of  a  record.  Among  the 
considerations  that  must  be  borne  in 
mind  in  the  "when"  stage  are  the  length 
of  time  it  takes  for  supplies  to  be  or- 


Tlie  Exploradora  will  soon  house  fifteen  scientists  and  crew  members. 


Latitude  43-46'  N.  —  Loyigituile  eO'W  W. 

THE 

FORTUNATE 
ISLAND 


Ten  miles  off  the  coast  of  Maine,  an 
Island  in  Time,  whose  cliffs  and  shore- 
line, woods  and  meadows  offer  sanc- 
tuary to  the  creatures  and  growing 
things  of  air,  land  and  water.  And  to 
manlcind. 

For  here  the  crowds  and  confusion 
of  mainland  living  are  distant;  neither 
streetlights  nor  neon  signs  dim  the 
stars;  no  juke-boxes,  bars  or  cocktail 
lounges  disturb  the  guiet;  cars,  radio 
and  television  remain  on  the  main- 
land. 

Unexpected  species  reward  birders 
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painters  discover  scene  after  scene 
worthy  of  record.  And  waiting  to  be 
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Ports  of  departure  for  Monhegan 
Island  are  Boothbay  Harbor  and  Port 
Clyde  with  daily  boat  service  from 
each. 

THE  ISLAND  INN 

Box  AN 

Monhegan  Island,  Maine 

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This  is  the  New  Field  Model  Questar  Telescope. 

It  weighs  less  than  3  pounds  and  costs  only 
$795.  Included  in  the  price  are  this  4-lb.  case, 
one  eyepiece,  and  an  improved  basic  camera 
coupling  set.  There  is  room  for  cameras  and 
other  accessories. 

Twenty-one  major  changes  in  this  barrel  and 
control-box  assembly  permit  a  much  wider 
photographic  field  of  view,  which  now  covers 
all  but  the  very  corners  of  the  24x36  mm.  film 
frame  at  f/I6  without  extension  tubes.  Expo- 
sures are  two  f-numbers  faster. 

The  New  Field  Model  is  optically  identical  in 
quality  to  all  Questars.  Since  only  an  average  of 
one  out  of  three  perfect  optical  systems  sur- 
passes theory  by  enough  to  satisfy  us,  we  can 
continue  to  state  that  no  amount  of  money, 
time  or  human  effort  can  noticeably  improve 
Questar's  power  of  resolution.  For  whereas 
Lord  Rayleigh's  criteria  sets  1.4  seconds  of  arc 
as  Questar's  limit  of  resolution,  a  Questar  has 
resolved  two  stars  but  0.6  second  apart. 

Because  our  function  is  to  malce  the  world's 
finest  small  telescopes  in  limited  number,  in- 
stead of  many  of  ordinary  quality,  this  New 
Field  Model  oflers  a  new  experience  to  the 
photographer.  We  offer  him  the  world's  sharp- 
est lens,  of  89-mm.  aperture.  We  provide  him 
with  a  low-power  wide-field  finder  view,  like 
that  of  a  field  glass,  to  let  him  locate  distant 
objects  rapidly.  With  flickof  finger  he  can  bring 
to  bear  a  high-power  view  of  40-80x  or  80-1 60x 
to  study  the  object  minutely  through  this  super- 
fine telescope.  Another  finger  flick  and  slight 
refocusing  brings  the  object  to  the  clear  bright 
center  of  his  cameras'  groundglass. 


At  this  point  he  is  challenged  to  capture  on 
the  sensitive  emulsion  what  this  superb  tele- 
scope of  56  inches  focal  length  is  projecting  to 
his  film.  He  has  seen  it  in  Questar's  eyepiece 
and  in  his  reflex  camera's  groundglass.  All  that 
remains  is  to  place  the  image  in  exact  focus  on 
the  film  and  expose  correctly  with  no  vibration 
at  all.  And  at  long  last  we  have  the  only  camera 
able  to  do  this,  the  Questar-modified  Nikon  F. 

For  the  first  time,  then,  Questar  has  a  true 
photographic  model,  and  a  camera  without 
mirror  slap,  shutter  vibration,  or  too-dim  focus- 
ing. Moreover,  from  now  on  \vc  can  measure 
the  actual  picture-taking  light  at  the  ground- 
glass,  and  abandon  inexact  exposure  calculations 
entirely,  using  the  new  cadmium  sulfide  meters. 

With  this  new  control  of  vibration,  sharp 
focus,  and  correct  exposure  times,  only  one 
other  factor  remains  to  interfere  with  high 
resolution  telescopic  photography.  We  need 
quiet  air  for  good  seeing — which  is  no  problem 
at  7  to  100  feet.  But  how  can  we  get  trembling 
air  to  stand  still  while  we  take  sharp  pictures  at 
great  distances?  There  are  several  things  we  can 
do  to  take  advantage  of  nature's  moods,  and  if 
you  write  for  literature  we  will  tell  you  more 
about  it. 

New  Field  Model.  S795  in  case  with  basic 
couplings  as  shown.  The  80-160X  eyepiece,  S35. 
Questar-modified  Nikon  F  bodies,  from  S234.60. 
Complete  outfit  shown,  with  camera  and  tripod, 
$1332,  postpaid  in  U.S. 


dered  and  received:   shipping  metli 
and   steamer   schedules;    and   the  t 
lapses  occasioned  by  the  need  for 
cial  collecting  permits— which  have  b 
known  to  take  years. 

Before  the  "when"  phase  is  comple 
though,  a  good  deal  of  the  "how"  as] 
must  be  considered.  How  many  pec 
are  going  to  be  in  the  field  party?  E 
are  you  going  to  travel?  How  are 
going  to  live?  For  the  Bolivia  trip 
faced    multiple   problems   of   how. 
will   be   traveling   in    an    area   witl 
roads,  with  few  people,  and  with  no  . 
tain  local  sources  of  food,  fuel,  or  o1 
supplies.    Because   the   area   has   m 
rivers,  we  decided  on  a  houseboat.  1 
has  involved  a  whole  new  phase  of 
pedition   learning  for  us,   but  the 
ploradora,  63   feet  long  and   13% 
wide,   is   almost   complete,   and   she 
house,  carry,  and  serve  as  a  laboral 
for  our  staff  and  crew  of  fifteen. 

Finally  comes  the  job  of  meshing 
where,  when,  and  how.  Will  all  of 
personnel  be  available  when  you  \, 
to  leave  ?  Will  the  length  of  the  trip 
terfere  with  the  school  year  and  af 
the  work  period  of  your  student  as; 
ants?  Can  you  buy  formaldehyde 
Bolivia  or  will  you  have  to  ship  it  doi 

No  Room  for  Tyros 

EACH  person  in  the  party  is  caref 
selected— first  for  his  specialty, 
second  for  his  other  abilities.  Every 
must  wear  two  or  three  hats.  On 
Bolivian  trip,  for  example,  the  mami 
ogist  will  be  photographer  and  admi 
trative  leader  of  the  expedition  ( 
year  he  also  was  cook  and  interpn 
for  a  couple  of  months).  The  herpet 
gist  will  also  be  required  to  handle 
any  and  ecology  in  the  study  area, 
will  be  in  charge  of  liaison  with  Bolii 
personnel.  An  assistant  with  a  med 
degree  will  be  charged  with  our  hea 
keeping  the  engine  of  the  housel 
running,  and  taking  serum  samj 
from  the  animals. 

As  personnel  is  selected,  the  orde] 
of  equipment  begins.  Over  the  years 
have  maintained  a  card  file  of  exp 
tion  equipment  used  on  trips.  As 
material  is  ordered,  the  cards  ge 
colored  tab.  and  as  it  comes  in  they 
another  tab.  When  the  boxes  are  pac 
for  shipment  the  tabs  are  removed, 
this  way  we  can  see  immediately  w 
has  to  be  ordered,  what  is  on  its  v 
and  what  is  at  hand.  On  the  Urug 
trip  the  only  thing  that  somehow  w 
astray  was  some  of  our  special  noteb 
paper— a  minor  loss. 

Gradually,  the  pieces  of  the  exp' 
tion  begin  to  fit  together.  Working  b 
from  the  date  we  want  to  leave  for 
field,  we  set  a  shipping  date.  Work 
back  from  that  we  set  an  ordering  c 
for  equipment.  When  the  equipment 
been  sent  to  the  operation  site,  ther 


Van  Gelder,  who  in  this  column 
cribes    the    problems    of    planning 

expedition,  is  Chairman  of  the 
seum's  Department  of  Maranialogy. 


riod  of  slightly  less  hectic  activity, 
)ther  needs  arise.  It  is  the  time  for 
ig  shots,  renewing  passports,  mak- 
jlane  reservations,  worrying  about 
irompt  arrival  of  equipment  in  the 
iition  area.  This  is  where  a  good 
ague  on  the  receiving  end  comes  in 
y;  he  usually  sees  the  materials 
igh  so  that  we  can  sometimes  be  in 
eld  a  day  or  two  after  our  arrival. 

the  trip  we  try  to  accomplish  as 
I  as  possible  in  the  limited  time 
able.  In  even  the  most  carefully 
ted  group  there  will  be  personality 
ences,  but  this  has  posed  no  serious 
ems  on  previous  expeditions.  There 
be  accidents  and  sickness,  but 
,  we  have  been  fortunate.  There  will 
sappointing  days,  and  there  will  be 
arating  ones.  The  adventure  is  in 
•ip  itself.  The  last  thing  a  good  ex- 
ion  leader  wants  is  "excitement"— 
ing  the  unexpected.  All  of  our 
ling  has  gone  toward  trying  to  an- 
ite    hindrances    to    our    work,    and 

the  unforeseen  is  bound  to  happen, 
in  only  hope  that  it  will  not  seri- 

deter  us  from  our  objectives. 
;er  the  trip  has  ended,  after  all  of 
ijuipment  and  specimens  have  been 
ed  back,  after  everyone  has  re- 
d.  the  long  task  of  scientific  book- 
ng  must  be  done.  Specimens  are 
)gued;  skins  tanned;  skulls  cleaned 
numbered;  notebooks  rearranged 
filed;     maps    collated.    Then    the 

of  the  materials  can  begin.  This 
ake  months  and  years,  and  often 

Too  many  collections  are  not 
ed  up,  but  generally  we  feel  that 
lould  gather  specimens  while  the 
ig  is  good.  Once  in  the  Museum. 
;rly  catalogued  and  housed,  they 
3e  available  to  anyone  for  study. 
IS  we  are  working  up  one  kind  of 
oaal,  other  scientists  from  other  in- 
ions  may  be  working  on  a  different 
3  from  the  same  collection, 
en  as  this  goes  on.  another  oppor- 
!  for  field  work  may  arise,  and 
I  the  process  begins.  Where  will  we 
When  will  we  leave?  How  will  we 

the  area? 


list  details  the  photographer,  artist, 

ler  source  of  illustrations,  by  page. 

-Paul  Villiard  42-AMNH 

ph  Sedacca  43-H.  Lou  Gibson 

Arthur  Leipzig  44-45-Arline  Strong 

13-bottom,  AIVINH  46-53-S.  von  Cles- 

-  F^'t'",  .,  ^      ^  Reden   except  49-top, 

urtesy  of  Natascha  q  q  5    Crawford,   Courtesy 

Mu  Of  H.M.  Stationery  Office 

tthew  Kalmenoff  5^""-^'^"   ^«^^U.S, 

Paul  Villiard  '^^"^  Hydrographic  Service 

10  Tinbergen  56-Sky  and  Telescope 

Bryan  Nelson  Magazine 

37-bottom,    AMNH  57-60-AMNH 

Iryan  Nelson  65— H.  de  Irmay 


Fabulous  collection  of  all-different  genuine 
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EUROPE:  Xnrtii  nith  tlir  Srjrii.^.-  ir.  iii  Mediterranean  to 
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AFRICA:  Circuit  of  continent:  chief  animal  reserves, 
500  species  of  birds.  Leave  N.T.  Aug.  1;  4  to  6  weeks. 
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michi,  St.  Crois  R..  Grand  Lake-Machias.  Jr.  Maine 
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TORY also  bestows  the  benefits 
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Additional  Reading 

OLD  AFRICA'S 
"PEOPLE  OF  THE  VILLAGE" 

Africa:  Its  Peoples  and  Their  Cul- 
ture History.  G.  P.  Murdock.  McGraw- 
Hill,  N.  Y.,  1959. 

Agriculture  in  the  Sudan.  Edited 
by  J.  D.  Tothill.  Oxford  University  Press, 
London,  1948. 

"The  Maban  of  Southern  Fung."  H.  G. 
Wedderburg  and  M.  C.  Maxwell.  Sudan 
Notes  &  Records,  Vol.  19.  1936. 

Pagan  Tribes  of  the  Nilotic  Sudan. 
C.  G.  and  B.  Z.  Seligman.  George  Rout- 
ledge  &  Sons,  London,  1932. 

'■Races  of  Africa."  C.  G.  Seligman. 
The  Home  University  Library  of  Mod- 
ern Knowledge.  3rd  Ed.  Oxford  Uni- 
versity Press,  London,  1957. 

DINOSAURS  OF  THE  ARCTIC 

Dinosaurs:  Their  Discovery  and 
Their  World.  E.  H.  Colbert.  Button, 
I\'.  Y.,  1961. 

The  Dinosaur  Book:  The  Ruling 
Reptiles  and  Their  Relatives.  E.  H. 
Colbert.  2nd  Ed.  McGraw-Hill,  N.  Y ., 
1951. 

"The  Beginning  of  the  Age  of  Dino- 
saurs." E.  H.  Colbert.  Studies  on  Fossil 
Vertebrates.  Edited  by  T.  S.  Westoll. 
The  Athlone  Press,  London,  1958. 

MULTICOLORED 
WORLD  OF  CATERPILLARS 

Living  Insects  of  the  World.  A.  B. 
Klots  and  E.  B.  Klots.  Doubleday,  N.  Y., 
1959. 

Wild  Silk  Moths  of  the  United 
States.  M.  M.  Collins  and  R.  D.  Weast. 
Collins  Radio  Company,  Cedar  Rapids, 
1961. 

BASS  ROCK  GANNETS 
Sea  Birds.  J.  Fisher  and  R.  Lockley. 

Collins.  London,  1954. 

"Display  and  Posturing  in  the  Cape 

Gannet.  Morus  capensis."  Ibis,  Vol.  90, 

pp.  568-72.  1948. 
Social   Behaviour  in   Animals.   N. 

Tinbergen.  John  Wiley  &  Sons,  N.  Y., 

1953. 

CROSS-POLLINATION 
OF  AN  ORCHID 

The  Story  of  the  Plant  Kingdom. 
M.  C.  Coulter.  Revised  by  H.  J.  Dittmer. 
The  University  of  Chicago  Press,  1959. 

MEGALITHS  AND  MEN 

Prehistoric  Chamber  Tombs  of 
England  and  Wales.  G.  E.  Daniel.  The 
Cambridge  University  Press,  Cambridge, 
1950. 

The  Dawn  of  European  Civiliza- 
tion. V.  G.  Childe.  Routledge  &  Kegan 
Paul,  London,  1957. 

The  Prehistoric  Foundations  of 
Europe.  G.  F.  C.  Hawkes.  Methuen  & 
Co.,  London,  1940. 

Realm  of  the  Great  Goddess.  S.  von 
Cles-Reden.  Prentice-Hall,  Englewood 
Cliffs,  N.  J.,  1962. 


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PHOTOS,   MAPS,   DETAILS. 

D  AROUND    AFRICA    THE     COMPLETE 
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PRESIDENT 

Alexander  M.  White 

DIRECTOR  DEPUTY  DIRECTOR 

James  A.  Oliver  Walter  F.  Meister 


MANAGING  EDITOR 

Robert  E.  Williamson 

EXECUTIVE  EDITOR 

Helene  Jordan 

ASSOCIATE  EDITORS 

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COPY  EDITORS 

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REVIEWS 

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PRODUCTION 

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CONTRIBUTIONS 

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CONTRIBUTING  EDITORS 

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EDITORIAL   ADVISERS 

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Natural  History 

Incorporating  Nature  Magazine 


THE  JOURNAL  OF  THE  AMERICAN  MUSEUM  OF  NATURAL  HISTORY 


Vol.  Lxxni 


MAY  1964 


ARTICLES 
BRONZES  OF  LURISTAN 
STALAGMITES  AND  STALACTITES 
FRUCTIVOROUS  FLIERS 
MAN  PLANT'S  RETURN 


No.  5 


BeTiiard  Goldman  12 

Edward  O'Donnell  22 

Kay  Breeden  26 

H.  Lea  Latvrence  34 


OLD  AFRICA'S  "PEOPLE  OF  THE  VILLAGE":  PART  II  Arthur  Leipzig    38 
THE  MONARCH'S  EMERGENCE  Alexander  B.  Klots    SC 


DEPARTMENTS 

REVIEWS 

SKY  REPORTER 

ABOUT  THE  AUTHORS 

TRAVEL  FAR  AND  NEAR: 

THE  METEORITE  SEARCH 

NATURE  AND  THE  CAMERA 

SUGGESTED  ADDITIONAL  READING 


Colin  M.  Turnbull      5 

Thomas  D.  Nicholson     46 

54 

D.  Moreau  Barringer     56 

David  Linton     6(] 

63 


CIRCULATION  MANAGER 

Joseph  Saulina 


COVER:  This  half-animal,  half-human,  cast  bronze  artifact  is  about  5%  inches 
long.  It  was  made  about  1000  B.C.,  and  is  a  bit  plaque  that  was  used  by  some 
horse-riding,  herd-keeping,  seminomad  of  Luristan,  in  the  Zagros  Mountains, 
which  lie  between  Iran  and  Iraq.  The  Lurs,  despite  their  mountain  living,  wert 
on  the  main  trade  routes  to  the  East,  and  their  magnificent  bronzes  influenced 
and  were  influenced  by  the  more  sophisticated  neighboring  cultures.  Starting 
on  page  12,  Dr.  Bernard  Goldman  discusses  these  people  and  some  aspects  ol 
their  art.  Mr.  Robert  J.  Lee.  who  painted  the  cover,  also  illustrated  the  article 

The  American  Museum  is  open  to  the  public  without  charge  every  day 
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Publication  Office:  The  American  Museum  of  Natural  History,  Central  Park  West  at  79th  Street,  New  Yorl 
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The  opinions  expressed  by  authors  are  their  own  and  do  not  necessarily  reflect  The  American  Museum's  policy 


GOOD  MKER 

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products.  A  good  share  of  their  time  and  talent  is  aimed  at  answering  basic  questions. 
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and  electronics — thafs  the  continuing  aim  of  the  General  Motors  research  team. 
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Reviews 

Women,  witchery,  and  rebellion 
color  the  African  scene 

By  Colin  M.  Turnbull 


;ic,    Divination    and    Witchcraft 

NG  THE  BaROTSE  OF  NORTHERN 

iDESiA,  by  Barrie  Reynolds.  Univer- 
of  California  Press,  $6.00;  181  pp., 
.  Women  of  Tropical  Africa,  ed- 
by  Denise  Paubne.  University  of 
fornia  Press,  $6.50;  308  pp.,  illus. 
er  and  Rebellion  in  Tribal  Africa, 
Hax  Gluckman.  The  Free  Press  of 
icoe,  $6.00;  273  pp. 

iAT  women  are  tricky  creatures  is, 
)f  course,  beyond  dispute,  and  in 
ca  they  are  frequently  regarded  by 
:  menfolk  with  a  jaundiced  eye. 
Ir  power  to  create  life  indicates  an 
nate  and,  to  some,  an  almost  sinister 
ciation  with  the  supernatural.  In- 
l  many  societies,  not  only  African, 
gnize  a  female  propensity  for  witch- 
t.  It  is  not  surprising,  then,  to  find 
len  playing  an  important  part  in 
ie  Reynold's  book.  Magic,  Divina- 
and  Witchcraft  among  the  Barotse 
Northern  Rhodesia.  There  is  even  a 
3what  faded  photograph  of  four 
d-looking  ladies  who  had  been  ac- 
d  of  necrophagy. 

allowing  the  introduction,  we  are 
n  examples  of  the  versatility  of 
can  women  in  the  fine  art  of  be- 
hment,  and  the  section  "Equipment 
Methods,"  with  illustrations  of 
hcraft  kits,  almost  puts  this  book  in 
sach  yourself"  category, 
r.  Reynolds  sets  out  to  describe 
hcraft  and  its  allied  practices  and 
;fs  in  Central  Africa's  Barotseland. 
depicts  the  principal  actors— the 
h  and  the  sorcerer,  the  doctor,  and 
diviner— and  then  describes  his  in- 
gations  of  the  sudden  glut  of  witch- 
t  cases  that  occurred  in  Barotseland 
ae  late  nineteen-fifties.  The  picture 
)resents  through  case  histories  rep- 
nts  a  special  and  abnormal  situation. 
lolds  himself  recognizes  this  and 
rs  the  reader  to  Dr.  V.  Turner's  ad- 
ble  Schism  and  Continuity  in  an 
can  Society  for  a  more  balanced 
unt.  Even  so,  I  wish  that  the  author 
given  us  more  general  background 
ling  witchcraft  in  relation  to  society 
whole.  In  isolation,  it  cannot  help 
;aring  quaint,  senseless,  or  even 
laric;  in  reality  it  serves  a  perfectly 
I  social  function.  The  concept  is  one 


of  the  major  mechanisms  by  which  order 
is  maintained  in  many  African  societies. 
It  is  a  great  pity  the  point  is  not  clearly 
made  in  this  book. 

However,  descriptive  ethnography  is 
of  value  to  all  of  us  because,  eschewing 
theory  as  it  does,  it  presents  all  the  in- 
formation that  could  possibly  be  consid- 
ered relevant  in  an  impartial  manner. 
While  having  some  doubts  about  the 
effect  of  this  book  on  the  non-anthropo- 
logical reader,  I  can  appreciate  the  won- 
derful miscellany  that  is  presented  with 
clarity  and  moments  of  humor.  Who 
would  not  be  interested  by  instructions 
on  how  to  raise  a  body  from  the  grave 
without  getting  your  hands  dirty,  so 
that  after  you  have  sliced  off  those  sec- 
tions required  for  a  banquet,  the  remains 
return  of  their  own  accord,  leaving  you 
suitably  unsullied?  We  are  even  told  of 
an  unfortunate  old  lady  who  slipped  up 
in  her  calculations  and,  on  raising  a  body 
in  expectation  of  a  glorious  feast,  found 
it  to  be  so  decomposed  that  she  had  to 
rebury  it  without  further  ado.  As  ethno- 
grapliic  description  such  items  have  their 
own  value  and  are  a  pleasure  to  read  if 
one  can  preserve  the  air  of  detachment 
that  is  necessary. 

If  omen  of  Tropical  Africa  is  an  ex- 
cellent, much-needed  book  that  appeared 
in  a  French  edition  in  1960  and  has  only 
now  been  translated  into  English.  It 
makes  no  attempt  to  beguile  the  general 
reader  with  a  fancy  format;  on  the  con- 
trary, it  is  severely  academic.  (The  faint 
print,  in  my  copy  at  least,  and  close 
type  may  further  discourage  the  weak 
in  purpose.)  However,  anyone  initially 
drawn  by  the  title  will  find  the  book 
engrossing.  It  consists  of  an  introduction 
by  Denise  Paulme  and  six  studies  by 
different  authors  (all  women)  concern- 
ing the  role  of  women  in  various  areas 
of  Africa.  The  analytical  bibliography 
is  of  immense  value  to  the  serious  student 
and  is  a  fair  measure  of  the  book  itself. 
Instead  of  listing  works  by  alphabetizing 
the  authors,  it  considers  various  signifi- 
cant aspects  of  womanhood  and  subdi- 
vides each  according  to  region,  then  lists 
selected  works  dealing  primarily  with 
that  topic.  Thus  we  have  works  cited 
that  deal  with  the  social  and  legal  status 
of  women,  their  family  life,  initiation, 
and  associations,  as  well  as  the  economic. 


history  under  Layard's  spade 
. . .  Miss  Kubie  succeeds  in 
conveying  the  excitement  of 
his  life  . . .  Extremely  read- 
able." -C.  W.   CERAM,  N.   Y. 

TIMES  BOOK  REVIEW.  Illus- 
trated, $5.95 


The  adventure 
of  archaeology- 
past  and  present 


Wolfgang  Cordan 


llH  Maya" 

A  world-famous  German  ex- 
plorer tells  of  the  hazards 
and  rewards  of  his  major  ex- 
peditions into  the  kingdom 
of  the  Maya,  in  a  search  for 
hidden  temples  and  the  ob- 
scure origins  of  a  people 
who  flourished  more  than  a 
thousand  years  ago.  Illus- 
trated, $4.95 


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Twenty-one  major  changes  in  this  barrel  and 
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The  New  Field  Model  is  optically  identical  in 
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Because  our  function  is  to  make  the  world's 
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For  the  first  time,  then,  Questar  has  a  true 
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political,  and  ritual  activity  of  womei 
their  education,  and  emancipation. 

Each  chapter  deals  similarly  in  sp 
cifics  rather  than  generalities,  and  if,  i 
the  end,  we  do  not  arrive  at  an  over-a 
picture  of  "the  African  woman,"  it 
only  because  she  does  not  exist.  One  i 
the  many  virtues  of  this  book  is  that 
indirectly  accentuates  the  diversity  i 
social  phenomena  in  Africa.  At  the  san 
time,  the  information  provided  enabl 
the  reader  to  make  comparisons  ai 
form  certain  valid,  limited  generaliz, 
tions  of  his  own.  For  the  layman  tl 
book  goes  a  long  way  toward  dispelUi 
that  unhappy  misconception  of  Africa 
women  as  beasts  of  burden.  For  tl 
scholar  it  marks  a  break  in  the  streai 
of  anthropological  articles  and  moni 
graphs  of  Africa  written  primarily  froi 
a  male  point  of  view. 

Women  get  twenty-one  references  i 
their  own  right  in  the  index  to  Ma 
Gluckman's  Order  and  Rebellion  \ 
Tribal  Africa,  and  also  appear  und( 
other  headings— one  of  them,  natural! 
"witchcraft."  The  two  books  reviewe 
above  had  very  specific  topics,  but  Pn 
fessor  Gluckman's  excellent  book  meai 
ders  like  a  placid  stream  flowii 
serenely  between  the  opposed  banks  ( 
academic  controversy,  carrying  the  ui 
resisting  reader  with  it. 

Basically  this  is  a  collection  of  tl 
author's  own  essays  from  journals  thi 
are  not  easily  accessible  to  many  sti 
dents.  But  instead  of  being  contei 
merely  to  compile  his  works,  he  unde 
took  the  difficult  but  immensely  valuabi 
task  of  using  these  essays  to  assess  h 
own  contribution  to  the  body  of  anthn 
pological  knowledge  and  theory.  H 
presumably  did  this  task  in  the  hope  ( 
clarifying  his  own  arguments  and  stii 
ulating  further  thought  and  discussioi 

Although  one  of  the  leading  figuri 
in  British  social  anthropology,  Professt 
Gluckman  has  not  always  been  fuL 
understood.  The  forty-nine  pages  of  ii 
troduction  are  devoted  to  a  clarificatio 
of  his  position  and  might  be  heavy  gois 
for  the  untrained  reader,  but  they  affoi 
an  exciting  glimpse  of  an  exact,  fort) 
right  academic  mind  at  work.  The  autho 
unlike  some  of  his  colleagues,  does  ni 
wear  academic  blinkers.  If  he  concludf 
that  his  work  had  made  a  valid  contr 
bution,  this  is  no  more  than  a  mode 
statement  of  fact.  In  pointing  to  tl 
danger  of  concentrating  too  heavily  a 
the  lineage  structure  of  society  he  ni 
only  helped  to  divert  a  great  deal  of  ei 
deavor  from  a  dead  end  but  also  opene 
up  new  fields  of  investigation. 

Following  the  introduction  are  te 
essays  that  deal  with  the  problem  ( 
order  and  disorder.  Sometimes  this  broa 
subject  is  tackled  directly,  as  in  tl 
author's  analysis  of  the  concept  of  tl 
"reasonable  man"  in  Barotse  law.  an 
sometimes   indirectly,   as   in   his   essa] 


Malinowski.  Other  discussions  in- 
de  "Succession  and  Civil  War  among 
Bemba,"  "Rituals  of  Rebellion  in 
ith-East  Africa,"  "The  Magic  of  De- 
ir"  (which  in  itself  is  an  admirable 
on  in  the  value  of  detached  observa- 
i),  "The  Village  Headman  in  British 
itral  Africa,"  and  others, 
'o  have  reprinted  these  essays  in  book 
n  would  have  been  contribution 
ugh,  but  to  couple  them  with  the 
oductory  clarification  of  the  author's 
iiments  has  made  it  a  major  contribu- 
te anthropology,  and  a  book  of  prime 
ortance  in  African  studies. 

istant  Curator  of  African  Ethnology 
'he  American  Museum,  Mr.  Turnbull 
frequent  contributor  to  these  pages. 


Before  Columbus,  text  by  Andre 
nerich,  photographs  by  Lee  Boltin. 
on  and  Schuster,  $10.00;  256  pp. 

[GHT  now,  pre-Columbian  art  is  en- 
joying a  popularity  that  it  has  not 
wn  since  Charles  V's  officials  totted 
the  value  of  Montezuma's  tribute, 
rt  from  exhibitions— publicly  and 
ately  inspired— and  the  growth  of  a 
crop  of  collectors,  the  most  obvious 
ifestation  of  this  is  the  quantity  of 
nt  books  on  the  subject.  The  "little 
f/n  civilizations  of  the  Olmecs.  Tolt- 
Mixtecs,  Huaxtecs,  Zapotecs,  Maya 
Aztecs,"  as  the  publisher's  blurb  of 
Before  Columbus  is  pleased  to  call 
1,  can  hardly  be  considered  all  that 
ure  today. 

le  field  of  ancient  Mexican  art  is 
ly  complex  and  is  not  really  suscep- 
to  the  simplified  historical  treat- 
t  it  gets  in  many  books.  It  is  also 
,  one  imagines,  that  even  for  the 
;  enthusiastic  reader  the  recital  of 
bare  facts  about  Olmecs,  Toltecs, 
;ecs,  and  their  ilk  must  soon  lose  its 
;ement.  Probably  Mr.  Emmerich  was 
cious  of  this.  His  book,  like  others, 
ivided  schematically  into  separate 
iters  on  the  various  cultures,  each 
ed  almost  as  a  watertight  compart- 
t.  The  resulting  condensation  of  in- 
ation  produces  very  vivid  pictures  of 
cultures,  indeed;  if  not  exactly  tech- 
lored,  they  are  at  least  hand-tinted. 
L  not  sure  that  Mr.  Emmerich  does 
50  rather  too  far  in  this.  I  am  sure 
the  result  is  not  a  history  of  pre- 
mbian  art;  so  much  space  is  de- 
1  to  the  setting  that  his  discussion 
le  art  itself  becomes  almost  inci- 
al.  There  is  a  certain  amount  of 
;orization  of  the  art  objects,  but 
exposition  of  the  development  of 
ric  interplay  of  the  styles, 
le  photographs  by  Lee  Boltin,  who 
properly  shares  the  honors  as  co- 
or,  are  largely  in  his  familiar,  care- 
brilliant  manner.  The  drama  this 


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of  more  than  200  words.  His 
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Because  of  Ansel  Adams,  the  art  of 
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Because  of  Ansel  Adams,  the  wddemess 
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genius  of  this  artist  that  two  fields  of 
such  magnitude  and  importance  can  be 
so  greatly  affected  by  one  man's  being. 
ANSEL  ADAMS:  The  Eloquent  Light 
follows  the  growth  of  a  man  of  bril- 
liance and  amazing  scope  as  he  interacts 
and  is  acted  upon  by  some  of  the  best 
minds  of  the  country.  Included  are  81 
photographs  by  Ansel  Adams,  beautiful 
evidence  of  his  extraordinary  creative 
force. 

ANSEL  ADAMS:  The  Eloquent  Light  is 
part  of  the  Sierra  Club's  notable  exhibit- 
format  series,  illustrated  in  black  and  white 
gravure  of  the  highest  quality.  176  pages, 
87  photographs,  lOVi  x  13Vi  inches,  $20. 


Keep  up  to  date  in  every  field  o\ 
science  with  the  distinguishec 

SCIENCE  STUDY  SERIES 


Described  as  "a  landmark  in  science  educa- 
tion" when  introduced  six  years  ago,  the  Sci- 
ence Study  Series,  prepared  by  the  Physical 
Science  Study  Committee  at  M.I.T.,  now  in- 
cludes 34  titles  in  the  physical  and  life  sciences. 


Just  published: 

S-34  WAVES  AND  BEACHES:  The  Dynam- 
ics ol  the  Ocean  Surface.  Willard  Bascom, 
President,  Ocean  Science  and  Engineering, 
Inc.  Spectacular  100  foot  storm  waves  and 
the  destructive  tsunami,  or  tidal  waves,  are 
only  a  part  of  the  dramatic  phenomena  ex- 
plained in  this  unique  synthesis  of  all  that 
man  has  learned  about  the  struggle  between 
the  land  and  the  sea.  280  pp.,  77  drawings, 
23  photos.  $1.45 

S-33  FARADAY,  MAXWELL,  AND  KELVIN. 
D.  K.  C.  MacDonald,  National  Research 
Council  of  Canada.  The  story  of  three  men 
of  varied  interests  whose  energetic  experi- 
menting carried  forth  concepts  that  laid  the 
groundwork  for  the  entire  electrical  and 
electronics  industry.  Michael  Faraday  dis- 
covered the  relationships  governing  the  in- 
teraction of  electricity  and  magnetism;  James 
Clerk  Maxwell  formulated  the  mathematical 
descriptions  of  electromagnetism;  and  Lord 
Kelvin  extended  both  their  work  and  also 
contributed  much  to  our  understanding  of 
heat.  160  pp.,  2  drawings.  59  photos.  $1.25 
S-35  RUTHERFORD  AND  THE  NATURE  OF 
THE  ATOM.  E.  N.  da  C.  Andrade.  University 
of  London.  A  brilliant  biography  of  the 
great  physicist  whose  original  research  pro- 
vided the  basis  for  all  the  central  ideas  of 
modern  nuclear  physics.  Professor  Andrade 
follows  Rutherford's  career  through  his  in- 
vestigation of  the  fundamental  laws  of  radio- 
activity and  his  model  of  the  nuclear  atom, 
to  his  last  years  as  head  of  Britain's  re- 
nowned Cavendish  Laboratory.  320  pp.,  12 
photos,  index.  $1.25 


Life  Sciences 
S-4  ECHOES  OF  BATS  AND  MEN.  Donald  R. 
Griffin,  Harvard  University.  "Authoritative 
and  thoroughly  scientific,  but  more  fascinating 
than  most  novels."  -  GEORGE  GAYLORD 
SIMPSON.  156  pp.,  15  line  drawings,  bibliog., 
index.  $1.25 

S-9  WAVES  AND  THE  EAR.  WiUem  A.  van 
Bergeijk,  John  R.  Pierce  and  Edward  E. 
David,  Jr.,  Bell  Telephone  Laboratories.  235 
pp.,  65  line  cuts,  5  photos,  bibliog.,  index.  $1.45 
S-15  PASTEUR  AND  MODERN  SCIENCE.  Rene 
Dubos,  Rockefeller  Institute.  159  pp.,  index. 
$1.25 

S-23  LIFE  IN  THE  UNIVERSE:  A  Scientific  Dis- 
cussion. Michael  W.  Ovenden,  Univ.  of  Glas- 
gow. An  examination  of  such  basic  questions 
as  what  distinguishes  living  matter  from  non- 
living matter;  and  what  might  exist  on  other 
planets.  160  pp.,  23  line  drawings,  index.  $1.25 
S-2S  NERVES  AND  MUSCLES.  Robert  Galani- 
bos,  Yale  Univ.  A  splendid  introduction  to  the 
field  of  biophysics  in  this  engaging  description 
of  the  incredible  electrical  networks  of  the 
human  body.  158  pp.,  30  line  drawings,  index. 
$1.25 

S-31  KNOWLEDGE  AND  WONDER:  The  Nat. 
oral  World  as  Man  Knows  It.  Victor  F 
Weis.'ikopf,  M.I.T.  Winner  of  the  1962  Edison 
Award.  282  pp.,  57  drawings,  10  photos.  $1.45 

Physical  Sciences 
S-1  THE  NEUTRON  STORY.  Donald  J.  Hughes. 
J58  pp.',  39  line  drawings,  index.  $1.25 


S-2  MAGNETS:  The  Education  of  a  Physicist. 

Francis  Bitter,  M.I.T.  "A  masterpiece.  This 
combination  of  autobiography  and  popular 
science  exposition  is  very  rare  and  extraordi- 
narily effective."  -  B.  ALDEN  THRESHER. 
155  pp.,  27  line  drawings,  index.  $1.25 
S-3  SOAP  BUBBLES  AND  THE  FORCES  WHICH 
MOULD  THEM.  Sir  Charles  Vernon  Boys.  "A 
superb  classic  .  . .  can  capture  the  imagination 
of  the  young  (and  the  old)."  -  DEREK  J.  de 
SOLLA  PRICE,  Yale  University.  156  pp.,  69 
line  drawings.  $1.25 

S-7  CRYSTALS  AND  CRYSTAL  GROWING. 
Alan  Holden,  Bell  Telephone  Laboratories, 
and  Phylis  Singer.  320  pp.,  150  line  drawings, 
56  photos  (13  color),  appendices,  research 
suggestions,  bibliog.,  index.  $1.45 
S-8  THE  PHYSICS  OF  TELEVISION.  Donald  G. 
Fink  and  David  M.  Lutyens.  160  pp.,  44  dia- 
grams, 4  photos,  index.  $1.25 
S-10  THE  BIRTH  OF  A  NEW  PHYSICS.  /.  Ber- 
nard Cohen,  Harvard  University.  "The  devel- 
opment from  Copernicus  to  Newton  of  the 
single  most  important  idea  in  physics  —  the 
dynamics  of  motion  ...  an  outstanding  book." 
—Scientific  American.  200  pp.,  34  line  draw- 
ings, 8  photos,  bibliog.,  index.  $1.25 
S-11  HORNS,  STRINGS,  AND  HARMONY. 
Arthur  H.  Benade,  Case  Institute  of  Technol- 
ogy. 271  pp.,  68  line  drawings,  8  photos,  bib- 
liog., index.  $1.45 

S-1 2  THE  RESTLESS  ATOM.  Alfred  Ronier,  St. 
iMwrence  University.  198  pp.,  31  drawings 
and  diagrams,  appendices,  index.  $1.25 
S-1 3  MICHELSON  ANDTHE  SPEED  OF  LIGHT. 
Bernard  Jaffe.  197  pp.,  14  drawings,  4  photos, 
bibliog.,  index.  $1.25 

S-1 7  ACCELERATORS:  Machines  of  Nuclear 
Physics.  Robert  R.  Wilson  and  Raphael  Lit- 
tauer,  Cornell  Univ.  From  the  earliest  X-ray 
tube  to  the  atom  smashers  of  today  —  "A  fine 
example  of  the  excellence  of  the  series."  — 
Science.  196  pp.,  16  photos,  36  drawings,  ap- 
pendices, index.  $1.45 

S-20  NEAR  ZERO:  The  Physics  of  Low  Tem- 
perature. D.  K.  C.  MacDonald  National  Re- 
search Council  of  Canada.  116  pp.,  8  photos, 
12  line  drawings.  $1.25 

S-21  SHAPE  AND  FLOW:  The  Fluid  Dynamics 
of  Drag.  Ascher  H.  Shapiro,  M.I.T.  A  vis- 
ually and  scientifically  exciting  exploration  of 
the  phenomena  of  fluid  dynamics.  186  pp.,  93 
photos,  index.  $1.25 

S-22  GRAVITY.  George  Gamow,  Univ.  of 
Colorado.  From  Galileo  to  the  concepts  of 
Newton  and  Einstein,  an  eminent  scientist  ex- 
amines the  nature  of  gravity.  157  pp.,  29  line 
drawings,  index.  $1.25 

S-26  THE  ORIGIN  OF  RADAR.  Robert  Morris 
Page,  U.S.  Naval  Laboratory.  196  pp.,  12 
photos,  chronology,  index.  $1.25 

S-27  HEAT  ENGINES:  Thermodynamics  in 
Theory  and  Practice. /o/?;;  F.  Sand  fort.  South 
Dakota  State  College.  292  pp.,  56  drawings, 
index,  appendix.  $1.45 

S-32  MATHEMATICAL  ASPECTS  OF  PHYSICS: 
An  Introduction.  Francis  Bitter,  M.I.T.  188 
pp.,  59  drawings,  5  photos.  $1.25 
S-28  COUNT  RUMFORD:  Physicist  Extraor- 
dinary. Sanborn  C.  Brown,  M.I.T.  The  fas- 


cinating life  of  the  notorious  eighteen 
century  soldier  of  fortune  who  was  also  i 
inventive  physicist  and  prolific  inventor.  21 
pp.,  12  photos,  bibliog.,  index.  $1.25 

S-1 6  THE  WATERSHED:  A  Biography  of  J 
hannes  Kepler.  Arthur  Koestler.  280  pp., 
illus.,  index.  $1.45 

General  Science 
S-5  HOW  OLD  IS  THE  EARTH?  Patrick  jl 
Hurley,  M.I.T.  160  pp.,  27  drawings,  8  photc 
index.  $1.25 

S-1 4  THE  UNIVERSE  AT  LARGE.  Hermat 
Bondi,  University  of  London.  "The  author  . 
can  be  bracketed  with  George  Gamow  as  ha 
ing  special  ability  to  put  diflicult  ideas  in 
simple  language."  —  Bulletin  of  the  Atom 
Scientists.  154  pp.,  52  drawings,  12  photc 
index.  $1.25 

S-1 8  WATER:  The  Mirror  of  Science.  Ke 
neth  S.  Davis  and  John  Arthur  Day,  Linfie 
College.  A  discussion  of  the  properties 
water  as  seen  by  various  branches  of  scienc 
"One  of  the  best:  sound  and  informative." 
N.  Y.  Herald  Tribune.  195  pp.,  22  drawin 
and  diagrams,  4  photos,  index.  $1.25 
S-1 9  THE  NATURE  OF  VIOLENT  STORM 
Louis  J.  Battan,  Univ.  of  Arizona.  159  pp., ' 
diagrams  and  maps,  17  photos,  bibliog.,  i 
dex.  $1.25 

S-24  RADAR  OBSERVES  THE  WEATHE 
Louis  J.  Battan,  Univ.  of  Arizona.  How  rad 
is  revolutionizing  the  science  of  meteoroloi 
through  its  ability  to  detect  everything  fro 
a  raindrop  to  the  formation  of  hurricanes.  1! 
pp.,  16  photos,  20  line  drawings,  index,  appe 
dices.  $1.25 

S-29  CLOUD  PHYSICS  AND  CLOUD  SEEDINi 
Louis  J.  Battan,  Univ.  of  Arizona.  The  stru 
ture  and  growth  of  clouds,  and  a  lucid  analyi 
of  man's  attempts  to  modify  the  weather.  1( 
pp.,  26  linecuts,  16  photos,  appendix,  inde 
$1.25 

S-30  LADY  LUCK:  The  Theory  of  Probabilit 
Warren  Weaver,  Alfred  P.  Sloan  Foundatio 
An  engaging  discussion  of  the  probabili 
theory  in  science,  business,  games,  and  ever 
day  life  by  one  of  the  leading  mathematiciai 
of  our  time.  392  pp.,  49  drawings.  $1.45 

Mail  to  any  bookstore  or  to 

DOUBLEDAY  &  COMPANY,  INC. 

Garden  City,  New  York  4-NH-5 

Please  send  me  the  books  whose  num- 
bers  I   have   indicated: 


ADDRESS_ 
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nders  is  occasionally  distracting  if 
bject  does  not  warrant  it,  as  in  some 
e  present  cases.  Then  the  technique 
Ties  a  sort  of  Russian  roulette  with 
Jtlight.  More  often,  fortunately,  it 
ily  illuminating.  The  choice  of  pic- 
I  subjects  is  presumably  Mr.  Em- 
;h's.  Over  two-thirds  of  about  168 
umbered)  photos  show  well-known 
,  monuments,  and  museum  pieces; 
emainder,  from  private  collections, 
only  a  few  surprises  to  offer.  On 
'hole,  they  are  typical  of  the  things 
have  been  coming  on  the  market 
ig  the  last  few  years,  but  this  in  it- 
nakes  them  a  welcome  addition, 
me  intelligently  used  devices  assist 
eader:  small  maps  at  the  chapter 
ings  indicate  the  areas  described, 
;orresponding  photos  appear  in  the 
ins  on  the  pages  where  particular 
its  are  described.  Soundly  produced 
lier  respects,  it  is  altogether  an  at- 
vely  unsensational  book.  Taking  its 
nts  and  appearance— lucidly  writ- 
text  and  fine  photographs— as  a 
I,  Art  Before  Columbus  adds  up  to 
good  value.  A  beginner  in  the  lit- 
re could  go  a  deal  further  and  fare 
orse  than  with  this  book. 

Douglas  Newton 
The  Museum  of  Primitive  Art 

OTics:  Nature's  Dangerous  Gift, 
arman  Taylor.  Dell  Publishing  Co., 
;  212  pp. 

.949  Norman  Taylor  wrote  Flight 
jm  Reality,  which  was  widely 
sd  and  enjoyed  great  popularity. 
is  a  revised  edition  of  that  volume, 
story  of  man's  use  and  misuse  of 
us  narcotic  drug  plants  in  every 
n  part  of  the  world  is  told  in  an 
;ing  manner. 

e  vegetable  kingdom  produces 
different  kinds  of  plants,  and  a 
ler  of  them  contain  certain  alka- 
the  effects  of  which  are  primarily 
jdify  the  normal  activities  in  the 
r  brain  centers.  The  modifications 
several  different  forms,  depending 
the  amount  and  kind  of  alkaloid 
Some  are  habit-forming,  some  are 
some  have  aftereffects,  others  do 
ill  will  be  used  by  mankind  in  spite 
cry  law  or  restriction  put  upon 
All  were  found  by  primitive  man, 
ilmost  all  have  been  "refined"  or 
fied"  to  extract  the  active  principle, 
r  strict,  medically  controlled  appli- 
1,  some  have  proved  to  be  of  great 
it  in  the  treatment  of  mental  ills, 
esthetics  for  surgery,  as  relief  from 
)ains  of  terminal  cancer,  and  in 
ways  that  all  society  applauds, 
t  society's  main  problem  with  these 
;  is  that  they  are  sometimes  mis- 
Misuse  takes  two  forms,  and  the 
r  of  these,  in  Dr.  Taylor's  eyes,  is 
at  vicious  group  that  makes  huge 
les  playing  upon  the  weak  addicts 


-JheGeeselhUigh 


A  classic 

among 

nature 

books 


The  Geese  Fly  High 

by  Florence  Page  Jaques  with  illustrations  by  Francis  Lee 
Jaques.  Long  out  of  print,  this  beautiful  book  is  available  again 
at  last.  The  author  and  her  husband,  the  noted  nature  artist,  por- 
tray their  experiences  and  observations  following  the  ducks  and 
geese  down  the  Mississippi  River  flyway  to  the  Rainey  Wild  Life 
Sanctuary  in  Louisiana.  "It  is  a  hearty,  outdoors  book,  full  of  wind 

and  sky  color,  full  of  feeling  for  things  and  places Sportsmen 

will  revel  in  its  informality  and  action.  Ornithologists  will  thor- 
oughly enjoy  its  illustrations."  GEORGE  M.  SUTTON,  New  York  Her- 
ald Tribune.  40  illustrations.  $4.50 


Canoe  Country 

by  Florence  Page  Jaques  with 
illustrations  by  Francis  Lee 
Jaques.  The  diary  of  a  canoe  trip 
through  the  Minnesota-Canadian 
border  lakes  country.  Combines 
sparkling  narrative  with  superb 
black-and-white  drawings.  "The 
reader  journeys  with  them  and 
sees  the  charm  of  living  near  to 
nature."  Canadian  Field-Natural- 
ist. 23  illustrations.  $4.00 

Portage  into  the  Past 

BY  CANOE  ALONG 

THE  MINNESOTA-ONTARIO 

BOUNDARY  WATERS 

6y  /.  Arnold  Bolz  with  illustra- 
tions by  Francis  Lee  Jaques. 
Dr.  Bolz  recreates  the  history  of 
the  French-Canadian  voyageurs, 
matching  excerpts  from  their  ac- 
counts with  the  story  of  his  own 
canoe  trip  over  the  same  route. 
"A  highly  readable  memoir."  At- 
lantic Naturalist.  15  drawings,  8 
halftones,  maps.  S5.00 


Snotvshoe  Country 

by  Florence  Page  Jaques  with 
illustrations  by  Francis  Lee 
Jaques.  A  sequel  to  Canoe  Couu' 
try,  the  account  of  a  winter  spent 
in  the  same  wilderness  country. 
"Charmingly  written  and  beauti- 
fully illustrated."  Natural  His- 
tory.  "Highly  recommended." 
American  Midland  Naturalist.  46 
illustrations.  $4.50 

Bird  Portraits  in  Color 

by  Thomas  S.  Roberts.  A  re- 
vised, 1960  edition  of  the  book 
which  contains  all  the  full-page 
color  plates  from  the  famous 
Roberts'  Birds  of  Minnesota. 
Shows  295  species  common  to  the 
U.S.  and  most  of  Canada  east  of 
the  Rockies."A  publication  with- 
out rival  in  popular  bird  books." 
Scientific  American.  92  color 
plates,  2  line  drawings.         $5.95 


From  your  bookseller  or  from      , 
The  University  of  Minnesota  Press  (Lh^ 

2037  University  Avenue  Southeast 
Minneapolis,  Minnesota  55455 


Braniff  flies  to  places 

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Send  today  for  full  color  descriptive 
booklet  of  Oregon  flowers  and  shrubs. 


TRAVEl  INFORMATION,  Room  494 
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free  booklet,  "Wild  FIc 


IT'S  FREE! 


who  will  go  to  any  length  to  get  eve: 
increasing  doses  of  their  narcotic.  Mis 
use  by  the  second  group,  the  addicts,  i 
begun  to  satisfy  some  weakness,  or  per 
baps  to  reduce  pain  from  a  long-lasting 
pain-producing  disease,  and  then  con 
tinued  beyond  this  need. 

In  1949,  Flight  from  Reality  told  wha 
had  been  done  to  help  relieve  tb 
problems— the  restrictive  measures  o 
government  action  and  the  ameliorativ 
treatments  recommended  by  medica 
groups.  In  1963,  Narcotics  present 
more  evidence  of  the  efforts  of  botl 
groups.  The  added  information  in  th 
revised  edition  documents  the  more  re 
cent  findings  of  various  groups  on  th 
danger  of  cigarette  smoking  as  the  caus 
of  lung  cancer  and  some  heart  disease! 

This  is  a  thoughtful  book  on  a  topi 
of  importance  to  society.  It  cannot  b 
too  strongly  recommended. 

David  J.  Roger 
N.  Y.  Botanical  Garde 

Birds  of  Wisconsin,  by  Owen  ^ 
Gromme.  University  of  Wisconsin  Pres. 
$22.50;  214  pp.,  illus. 

HERE  is  a  lavish  collection  of  painting 
by  the  Curator  of  the  Division  ( 
Birds  and  Mammals  at  the  Milwauke 
Public  Museum  depicting  over  thre 
hundred  species  of  birds  of  the  nortl 
central  states.  Facing  each  color  plal 
is  a  small  map  and  calendar  that  ind 
cates  the  general  range  and  season; 
status  of  each  species  illustrated.  Thei 
is  no  text  or  bibliography.  Gromme 
paintings,  executed  over  a  twenty-yei 
period,  exhibit  a  considerable  disparil 
in  quality,  ranging  from  superb  to  vei 
poor.  In  general,  the  game  species  ar 
birds  of  prey  are  well  done,  wherei 
many  of  the  songbirds  are  not  at  all  co: 
vincingly  portrayed.  The  composition  ( 
the  plates  and  the  postures  of  a  numbi 
of  individual  birds  are  reminiscent  of  tl 
better-known  works  of  Fuertes. 

There  is  no  comprehensive  publicatic 
on  Wisconsin  birds  that  includes  a  hi 
tory  of  ornithological  work  in  the  stat 
a  discussion  of  physiography  and  ecc 
ogy  of  distribution,  and  a  bibliograpl 
of  state  records.  An  annotated  list  1 
Kumlien  and  Hollister  (1903)  revised  1 
Schorger  (1951)  remains  the  princip 
reference  work  available.  There  is 
critical  need  for  a  thorough  analysis  ar 
updating  of  distribution  records  for  tl 
state  and  for  a  systematic  appraisal  ' 
the  avian  populations  represented.  It 
encouraging  to  note  that  Gromme 
working  on  a  text,  "which  eventually  wi 
be  published  as  a  technical  supplemei 
to  this  volume  of  plates."  Hopefully,  tl 
appearance  of  the  technical  suppleme: 
will  not  be  contingent  upon  a  large  sa 
of  this  prohibitively  expensive  collectic 
of  bird  portraits. 

Wesley  E.  Lanyc 
The  American  Museu 


10 


GoodHunting  with  Bolex 


nature  motion  pictures,  Bolex  is 
inswer.  It  is  lightweight,  yet  the 
ible  Swiss  precision  manufacture 
dependable  that  it  has  been  from 
lighest  mountains  to  the  depths  of 
sea,  from  the  arctic  to  the  tropics. 


ly  professional  film-makers  de- 
I  on  it  completely. 
1  addition  to  Swiss-made,  world- 
vn  precision  manufacture,  you 
(vith  each  H-16  these  features: 
flexibility  from  extreme  wide- 
le  to  extreme  telephoto  to  the 
it  zoom  lenses;  indoor  or  outdoor 


And  for  economy  where  audiences  are 
small  and  big-screen  repro- 
duction is  not  needed, 
the  Bolex  H-8  has 
all  the  above  fea- 
tures plus  a  100' 
8mm  film  capacity. 


utility;  speeds  from  12  to  64  frames 
per  second;  frame  counter  and  single- 
frame  shooting  for  recording  natural 
phenomena;  time  lapse;  full  film  re- 
wind; a  registration  claw  that  assures 
professional  film  steadiness.  The  Rex 
models  offer,  in  addition,  reflex  view- 
ing while  filming,  variable  shutter, 
and  push-button  spool  ejectors. 


For  options,  you  may  have  these 
(plus  others  not  listed):  motor  drive; 
matte  box;  microscope  adapter;  exten- 
sion tubes  for  macrophotography;  un- 
derwater housing;  light  meter;  tripod. 

No  wonder  the  Bolex  is  favored  by 
so  many  scientific  photographers. 


Paillard  Inc. 
1900  Lower  Road 
Linden,  New  Jersey 

Please  send  me  more  information 
about  nature  photography  with  the 
Bolex.  I  am  especially  interested  in : 


Bronzes 
of  Luristan 


Art  of  little-known  nomads  influenced  Near  Ealf  culture 


By  Bernard  Goldman 


Drawings  by  Robert  J.  Lee 


THE  Zagros  Mountains  are  a  formidable  range  that 
rises  as  a  precipitous  barrier  between  the  river  val- 
leys of  Iraq  and  the  Iranian  plateau.  Mile-high  peaks 
tower  over  broad,  parallel  valleys  that  run  in  a  north- 
west to  southeast  direction  along  the  620-mile  length  of 
the  chain.  An  arm  of  this  range  stretches  westward  into 
the  ancient  Mesopotamian  plain  from  modern  northwest 
Iran,  and  forms  the  highland  home  of  the  Lurs.  In  1927 
a  peasant  of  this  region,  known  as  Luristan,  accidentally 
uncovered  an  ancient  grave,  the  lonely  resting  place  of 
one  of  his  ancestors  who,  like  his  modern  counterpart, 
had  roamed  the  Zagros  valleys. 

The  shallow  grave  was  unpretentious,  a  stone-lined 
rectangle  capped  with  large,  flat  stones  as  protection 
against  nature  and  prowhng  animals.  An  enclosing  circle 
of  rocks  marked  out  the  area — probably  in  the  tumulus 
tradition — indicating  it  was  consecrated  ground.  The 
bronze  contents  of  the  grave  proved  far  more  interesting 
to  its  discoverer  and,  subsequently,  to  the  merchant  who 
bought  the  curiously  worked  pieces.  Word  quickly  spread 
through  the  upland  valleys  that  these  bronzes  were  magic 
"antiquities"  that  could  be  exchanged  for  gold  in  the 
markets  of  Kermanshah. 


The  treasure  hunt  was  on  in  Luristan.  The  Lun 
methodically  prodded  the  sloping  hillsides  with  pointed 
sticks  until  they  struck  the  telltale  stone  slabs.  The  cover- 
ing scrub  and  thin  layer  of  soil  were  shoveled  aside,  the 
cover  stones  pried  up,  and  the  small  bronzes,  scattered 
among  the  bones  of  man  and  horse,  were  collected.  B> 
the  early  1930's  vast  cemeteries  had  been  plundered  and 
thousands  of  these  exotic  objects— decorated  with  hawk- 
nosed,  wiry  men,  owl-eyed  women,  savage  lions,  and 
fantastic  beasts — -were  funneled  through  the  Iranian 
markets  to  the  dealers  of  Berlin,  Paris,  London,  and  New 
York.  Within  the  last  thirty  years  they  have  entered  al- 
most every  public  and  private  collection  of  antiquities, 
It  is  the  rare  museum  that  does  not  boast  at  least  one 
"Luristan  bronze."  The  measure  of  their  popularity  car 
be  found  not  only  in  the  inflated  prices  they  now  brinj 
in  the  antique  shops,  but  also  in  the  appearance  ol 
modern  forgeries  that  are  difficult — and  frequently  are 
totally  impossible — to  detect. 

The  typical  Luristan  bronze  has  a  lively  charm  and 
spirited  sense  of  design  that  guarantees  it  a  place  in  the 
world  of  ancient  art.  But  these  bronzes  are  important  for 
a  number  of  reasons.  They  raise  perplexing  problems: 


Inventive  imagination  characterized  the  work  of  Luristan 
artisans.  From  left  are  two  ceremonial  axes,  a  "pin," 

a  horse  bit  plate,  and  a  repousse  disk,  all  made  of  bronze. 


)  made  them,  when  were  they  made,  who  owned 
n,  what  does  their  fantastic  ornamentation  mean? 
se  are  questions  for  the  archeologist,  but  he  can  an- 
r  them  only  with  suggestions  of  possibilities. 

"'he  archeologist  works  by  carefully  recording  the 

exact  details  and  condition  of  each  find  recovered 
;pade  and  brush.  However,  a  number  of  factors  all 
excluded  the  archeologist  from  making  precise  inven- 
2s  of  excavations  in  Luristan  until  the  cemeteries  had 
a  plundered  beyond  reconstruction.  The  wildness  of 

mountain  terrain,  the  dangers  of  moving  about  in 
;e  unsettled  hills  in  the  1930's,  and  the  desire  of  the 
dish  tribesmen  and  their  dealers  to  keep  the  source 
heir  lucrative  grave  digging  to  themselves  kept  the 
ntist  at  a  safe  distance.  At  best,  an  untrained  observer 
asionally  was  allowed  to  accompany  one  of  the  well- 
inized  plundering  expeditions. 

lence,  the  exacting  techniques  of  the  archeologist 
Id  not  be  brought  to  bear  on  the  Luristan  bronzes. 

by  piecing  together  fragmentary  evidence,  by  sort- 
out  the  rumors  and  hearsay  concerning  the  graves, 

by  comparing  the  bronzes  with  the  material  remains 
)ther  ancient  Near  Eastern  people,  a  satisfactory,  if 
culative,  picture  begins  to  take  shape, 
'he  bronzes  must  have  belonged  to  a  vigorous,  horse- 
ng  people,  for  they  carried  with  them  into  their  tombs 
only  elaborate  horse  equipment  but  also,  sometimes, 
r  horses.  Snaffle  and  bar  bits,  ornate  bit  plates,  bridle 
;s  and  bells,  and  martingale  plaques  are  found  by  the 
dreds.  Apparently  the  ancient  Lur  prized  his  fine 
lions  not  only  for  their  swiftness  and  endurance  but 
I  as  symbols  of  his  social  status.  Only  thus  can  we 
lain  why  he  lavished  so  much  attention  on  the  horse's 
)pings,  why  he  so  often  depicted  the  beast  in  his  art, 

why  even  in  death  he  kept  his  favorite  horse  close 
ide  him.  This  horse  burial  tradition  is  well  known  in 

regions  occupied  by  the  nomadic  people  of  south 
5sia  and  Siberia.  But,  like  the  American  cowboy,  the 
■  was  not  sentimentally  attached  to  his  mount.  The 
ical  bit  and  cheek  plate  are  studded  with  metal  spikes 
t  must  have  assured  instant  obedience, 
rhese  ancient  Lurs  lived  a  seminomadic  existence,  as 
many  of  their  modern  Kurdish  counterparts.  The  in- 
se  heat  of  the  summer  months  drove  the  Lurs  and 
ir  flocks  up  into  the  high  valleys  that  ofi'ered  good 
turage,  while  the  bitter  alpine  winters  forced  them 
vn  onto  the  lower  slopes. 


The  tribes  had  a  regular  circuit,  returning  to  the 
same  locale  each  year;  the  extensive  cemeteries  indicate 
a  pattern  of  regular  habitation  rather  than  a  wandering 
people.  They  pitched  their  goatskin  tents  near  a  moun- 
tain stream  where  there  was  ample  pasturage.  Hard 
woods  were  available  on  the  upper  slopes,  while  lower 
down  grape,  fig,  barley,  and  wheat  could  be  grown.  Some 
bronze  adzes  indicate  at  least  a  modest  planting.  As 
would  befit  a  mobile  people,  their  furnishings  and  equip- 
ment were  probably  sturdy,  small,  and  Ught;  hence,  a 
minimum  of  delicate,  fragile  pottery  has  been  found. 
Their  more  settled  neighbors  (and  probably  relatives) 
in  some  of  the  ancient  Iranian  cities — Tepe  Giyan,  Tepe 
Sialk,  Susa — developed,  on  the  other  hand,  a  fine, 
painted  ceramicware.  However,  the  Lurs  preferred  har- 
dier metalware:  embossed  vases  and  beakers,  cast  bronze 
pails,  beaten  and  riveted  pots.  This  table  service  was 
augmented  with  thick  clay  jugs  and  pitchers  that  are 
hardly  a  tribute  to  the  potter's  craft. 

The  Luristan  mountain  encampments  were  not  iso- 
lated from  the  mainstreams  of  Near  Eastern  culture.  Two 
principal  arteries,  along  which  caravans  inched  their 
ways,  threaded  through  the  region.  One  route  followed 
over  the  tortuous  passes  from  Baghdad  to  Hamadan  and 
Teheran,  and  from  there  went  on  to  distant  India  and 
China.  (For  historical  records  of  long-distance  travel  by 
the  Chinese  during  the  Han  period,  see  Natural  His- 
tory, February,  1963.)  A  second  route  went  from 
Shushtar  to  Isfahan,  Persepolis,  and  Shiraz.  The  ruins  of 
many  settlements  from  different  periods,  now  reduced 
to  low  mounds  (called  tepes),  dot  the  valleys.  Skins, 
wool,  and  horses  were  probably  traded  by  the  Lurs  to 
the  passing  merchants  for  manufactured  goods,  the  prod- 
ucts of  the  plains.  But  our  interest  here  is  in  the  itinerant 
metalsmith  who  went  from  camp  to  camp,  sometimes 
attaching  himself  to  a  caravan  for  protection,  and  some- 
times making  his  solitary  way  across  high  passes  and 
broad  meadows  to  lonely  communities. 

THERE  is  evidence  indicating  that  these  smiths  may 
even  have  been  formed  into  loose  "brotherhoods," 
or  guilds.  As  the  seminomad  encampments  were  small 
and  unable  to  support  metalsmiths  of  their  own,  the 
itinerant's  pack  animal  was  burdened  with  cast  bronzes, 
beatenware,  heavy  jewelry,  votive  pieces,  horse-trap- 
pings, and  fine  weapons.  He  was  also  a  tinker  who 
patched  up  old  vessels  with  sheet  metal  and  rivets.  The 
smith  belonged  to  the  same  mountain  stock  as  his  cus- 
tomers. His  forebears  must  have  had  their  roots  in  the 
Caucasus,  which  had  an  ancient  metal-working  tradition. 
That  mountainous  region  between  the  Black  and  Caspian 
seas  has  rich  lodes  that  were  exploited  at  least  as  far  back 
as  the  fourth  millennium  B.C.  The  smith  who  sold  to  the 
Lurs  certainly  did  not  come  up  from  the  Mesopotamian 
plain,  for  his  products  were  far  different  from  those  of 
his  fellow  smiths  in  the  lowlands. 

For  the  mounted  warriors  of  Luristan,  the  smith  cast 
in  molds  not  only  their  harness  equipment  but  also  the 
light  weapons  they  used  in  their  lightning  raids,  the 


Elaborate,  enigmatic  pieces  show  humans  with  bulging  eyes 
in  totem  pole  effect  or,  sometimes,  snarling  lions  facing 

each  other.  Hands  on  a  horse  bit,  below,  grip  rein  rings. 


15 


razzias,  organized  for  booty  or  for  settling  blood  feuds. 
On  their  belts  the  Lurs  carried  long,  straight  swords  with 
iron  blades,  the  hilts  and  pommels  decorated  with  fero- 
cious lions  and  bearded  heads.  They  thrust  short  bronze 
daasers  into  their  robes,  in  the  Assyrian  fashion,  or  wore 
them  at  their  waist  in  wooden  scabbards  plated  with  em- 
bossed silver  and  gold.  Wood  and  bone  inlays,  long  since 
crumbled  to  dust^  also  once  decorated  these  weapons. 
Skull-cracking  blows  were  aimed  by  the  sweeping  riders 
with  solid  bronze  maces,  spiked  and  knobbed. 

A  primary  symbol  of  authority,  however,  must  have 
been  the  fancifully  decorated  '-tomahawk,"  or  light  ax. 
Some  of  these  small,  bronze  axheads  are  so  delicately 
formed  that  they  are  almost  useless  as  weapons.  Rather, 
they  must  have  been  signs  of  rank,  of  ceremonial  use, 
carried  by  the  leaders.  Some  blades  are  slender  crescents 
being  disgorged  by  lions;  others  are  long  and  curving, 
and  the  hafted  end  is  elaborately  decorated  with  animal 
heads  or  rows  of  spikes. 

WARRIORS  may  have  carried  small  leather  shields 
decorated  with  bosses  and  roundheaded  rivets. 
The  bow  and  arrow — weapon  par  excellence  of  the  later 
Iranians  (Persians,  Parthians,  and  Sasanians) — were 
part  of  this  light  cavalry  equipment,  as  is  evidenced  by 
leaf-shaped  arrowheads,  bronze  rings  of  special  design 
that  were  used  to  string  the  bow,  and  embossed  metal 
sheathing  from  quivers,  all  of  bronze.  Some  chariot  fit- 
tinos  have  been  found,  and  a  two-wheeled  light  chariot 


is  represented  on  a  horse  cheek  plate.  But  the  char 
could  not  have  been  very  popular  in  this  mountaino 
terrain,  and  must  have  had  no  more  than  a  ceremon 
function  in  Luristan. 

The  metalsmith  also  catered  to  the  domestic  needs 
the  Lurs.  He  made  straight  pins  with  elegantly  decorat 
heads,  ornate  safety  pins  (fibulae),  heavily  model 
bracelets  and  anklets,  twisted  wire  torques,  tiny  pendan 
and  polished  bronze  mirrors  set  in  ornamental  handl 
Animals  are  ubiquitous  in  the  decoration.  Also  amo 
these  goods  are  some  enigmatic  bronze  pieces  that  av 
age  seven  to  eight  inches  in  height;  they  are  elaborat( 
worked  compositions  of  facing  animals  and  humans 
the  shape  of  slender  tubes.  A  rod  was  inserted  throu 
the  tube,  fixing  it  to  a  heavy  bronze  base  shaped  like 
miniature  bottle.  Snarling  lions  with  protruding  tongi 
may  face  each  other,  or  a  grinning  human  with  bulgi 
eyes  and  pointed  or  bearded  chin  may  stand  betwe 
them.  Sometimes  the  different  bodies  merge  and  gi 
rise  to  fantastic  combinations,  grotesque  monsters.  T 
earher  Lur  compositions  are  fairly  realistic,  while  t 
later  ones  exhibit  increasing  use  of  combined  forms  a 
stylized  designs.  These  are  not  simply  household  brie- 
brae,  but  rather  emerge  from  the  spiritual  life  of  the  Lu 
We  shall  return  to  this  matter  of  religion  in  a  moment. 

When  did  these  proud  mountaineers  race  their  hon 
over  the  grassy  slopes  of  the  Zagros?  At  first,  when  1 
bronzes  had  just  come  to  the  attention  of  the  Weste 
world,  they  were  dated  as  far  back  as  the  third  milk 


Slender  and  delicate  crescent-shaped  axhead 
was  probably  a  sign  of  rank,  not  a  utilitarian  weapon. 
Etruscan  tombs  have  held  bowls  like  one  at  right 


i6 


jm  B.C.  and  were  thought  to  have  continued  on  to 
out  1000  B.C.  when  the  country  was  overrun  by  one 
the  great  migrations  from  the  north  that  disrupted  and 
Dlaced  many  oriental  states.  Perhaps,  it  was  speculated, 
;roup  of  these  intruders,  speaking  an  Indo-Iranian  dia- 
;t  and,  more  important,  adept  at  working  iron,  eclipsed 
;  Bronze  Age  culture  of  Luristan.  These  people  intro- 
ced  into  Iran  new  designs  in  pottery  and  new  customs, 
:h  as  a  different  manner  of  burying  the  dead.  They 
ne  from  the  Caucasus,  skirted  the  arid  Iranian  plateau, 
d  entered  India.  But  who,  then,  were  the  Lurs?  They 
re  first  identified  and  dated  on  the  basis  of  some 
)nze  daggers,  swords,  and  hemispherical  bowls  that 
re  found  in  the  Luristan  hills  and  that  carried  names 
kings  and  nobles  in  cuneiform.  The  people  mentioned 
the  inscriptions  belonged  to  the  second  millennium 
'.  Given  this  time  period  for  the  bronzes  as  a  whole,  it 
s  then  reasonable  to  suspect  that  Luristan  art  be- 
ged  to  a  known  historical  group,  the  Cassites.  This 
d  mountain  people  had  broken  down  into  the  Meso- 
lamian  plain  and  ruled  that  rich  land  for  over  four 
idred  years  in  the  second  half  of  the  second  millen- 
m.  But  there  is  strong  contrary  evidence  that  ques- 
ts such  an  assumption. 

some  of  the  bronzes  looked  to  be  Assyrian  (first  mil- 
nium),  some  Neo-Babylonian,  and  some  seemed  to 
Persian.  Hence,  it  was  equally  reasonable  to  suspect 
t  the  Luristan  bronzes  were  also  made  in  the  ninth  to 
li  centuries  B.C.  It  quickly  became  apparent  that  dating 


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BAGHDAD 


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•HAMADAN 


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KERMANSHAH 


K. 


^ 


IRAQ 


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VSHUSHTAR  ^ 

/ 

I 

I 
v. 


•  TEHERAN 


IRAN 


i  ISFAHAN 


A  PERSEP( 


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SHIRAZ 


> 


and  attributions  needed  to  be  seriously  re-evaluated. 
First,  the  introduction  of  iron  did  not  ring  the  death 
knell  for  Luristan;  the  Lurs  used  iron,  in  swords  for  ex- 
ample, when  a  stronger  metal  was  needed.  Second,  none 
of  the  bronze  objects  that  carried  inscriptions,  and  hence 
are  datable,  displayed  any  of  the  typical  Luristan  deco- 
ration. And,  conversely,  none  of  the  objects  clearly  within 
the  Luristan  style  is  inscribed.  The  reason  for  this  dis- 
crepancy is  clear:  the  inscribed  material  is  centuries  older 
than  the  Luristan  bronzes  and  originated,  not  in  Luristan,  . 
but  in  Mesopotamia.  As  mentioned  earher,  Luristan  was 
crossed  by  two  major  highways,  and  the  Lurs  themselves 
were  mobile.  It  is  only  to  be  expected  that  manufactured 
products  of  the  river  valleys  should  have  infiltrated  the 
mountains  at  all  times.  And  so  the  inscribed  material 
cannot  be  used  as  a  basis  for  dating  the  typical  Luristan 
bronze  of  the  style  here  illustrated.  The  reason  that  some 
so-called  Luristan  bronzes  look  Assyrian,  Neo-Babylo- 
nian, and  Achaemenian  is,  simply,  because  they  belong 
to  these  different  people  and  are  not  of  Luristan  origin 
or  manufacture  at  all.  Once  the  excitement  of  finding  a 
heretofore  unsuspected  art  style  had  diminished,  it  re- 
quired little  practice  to  distinguish  between  bronzes  made 
and  found  in  Luristan  and  ones  only  found  there. 

THE  style  of  the  bronze  pieces,  the  mode  of  burial, 
the  pottery  types,  and  the  form  of  the  decorative 
motifs  combined  to  indicate  that  the  Luristan  bronzes 
and  their  horse-riding  owners  date  well  within  the  first 
half  of  the  first  millennium  b.c.  This  animal  style  of  art 
is  a  later  descendant  of  a  style  known  earlier  in  Anatolia 
(Turkey)  and  Talysh  (south  Russia).  The  culture  is 
related  to  that  of  the  broad  nomadic  band  that  stretches 
from  south  Russia  to  the  Ordos,  but  with  significant  dif- 
ferences that  indicate  that  it  is  far  removed  from  its  more 
northern  and  very  distant  relatives.  Certain  clues,  and 


17 


some  obvious  borrowings,  relate  the  Luristan  bronzes  to 
the  metalwork  of  the  Assyrians  and  late  Hittite  king- 
doms. All  in  all,  the  Luristan  bronzes  seem  to  be  a  high- 
land art  style  of  around  800-700  B.C.  There  are  many 
minor  but  very  important  details  that  confirm  the  prob- 
ability of  this  dating.  A  few  examples  of  the  type  of  evi- 
dence used  may  be  mentioned.  A  pitcher  of  a  distinctive 
Luristan  type  was  found  in  an  archeological  context  of 
750-600  B.C.  by  the  German  Archeological  Institute  on 
the  island  of  Samos,  while  the  English  uncovered  an 
eighth-century  tomb  on  Crete  that  contained  a  typical 
Luristan  bronze  ring.  Late  eighth-  and  early  seventh-cen- 
tury B.C.  Etruscan  tombs  disclose  bowls,  weapons,  and 
ornaments  that,  while  not  of  Luristan  manufacture,  imi- 
tate Luristan  models.  Two  graves  found  by  the  French 
at  the  Iranian  site  of  Tepe  Giyan  are  Luristan  burials. 
The  cemetery  in  which  they  were  found  was  in  use  for  a 
long  time  both  before  and  after  1000  B.C.  Luristan  fibulae 
are  of  a  type  that  does  not  antedate  the  ninth  century. 
Some  motifs  used  by  the  Lurs,  particularly  on  the  em- 
bossed plaques,  can  be  dated  by  their  Assyrian  counter- 
parts to  between  the  eighth  and  sixth  centuries  B.C. 


WITHOUT  the  help  of  written  records  from  Luristan, 
the  prehistorian  must  try  to  decipher  this  language 
of  art  forms  to  learn  the  culture  of  these  mountain  folk. 
The  bronzes  certainly  speak  a  highly  articulate  language, 
but  it  is  still  very  foreign  to  our  ears.  The  basic  religious 
grammar  is  succinct  and  standardized.  A  design  that 
recurs  frequently  is  that  of  a  human  flanked  by  animals. 
The  man  wears  a  small  cap  and  about  his  waist  a  tight 
girdle.  The  woman  has  bull-like  "horns"  over  her  curling 
side  locks,  and  she  is  usually  nude  except  for  a  belt  and 
bracelets.  Both  man  and  woman  are  represented  holding 
the  legs  or  necks  of  mountain  lions  and  ibex  on  either 
side  of  them.  They  do  not  subdue  the  beasts,  and  the 
animals  do  not  attack  them.  Their  pose  is  formal,  almost 
dancelike,  as  if  they  were  performing  a  stately  pavan. 
This  design  is  not  peculiar  to  Luristan,  but  it  has  some 
unique  features  there,  such  as  the  fantastic  composite 
animals  with  their  elongated  bodies. 

The  variety  of  animals  represented  can  be  listed  in 
descending  order  of  frequency  of  appearance:  mountain 
lion,  ibex,  horse,  bull,  rooster,  water  bird,  rabbit,  fox  (?), 
swine,  tortoise,  fish,  frog,  eagle.  The  animals  of  the 
northern  steppes  and  forestlands  are  missing:  elk,  rein- 
deer, bear.  The  southern  and  eastern  animals,  camel  and 
elephant,  are  also  not  represented.  These  omissions  are 
important,  for  while  the  Luristan  seminomads  may  be 
distantly  related  to  the  northern  nomads,  the  link  is  "very 
weak.  The  northern  nomads  who  wandered  up  into  the 
forest  belt  of  Russia  and  Siberia  and  over  the  steppes 
into  modern-day  China  had  an  animal  style  art  that  was  as 
lively  and  imaginative  as  that  of  Luristan.  In  the  seventh 
and  sixth  centuries  B.C.  it  flourished  in  the  skillful  hands 
of  the  Scythians  who  passed  it  on  to  the  Sarmatians. 
(Natural  History.  October,  1960.)  The  tradition  was 
still  vital  in  the  first  centuries  of  the  Christian  Era  when 
the  nomadic  migrations  carried  it  deep  into  east  Europe. 
The  hallmark  of  the  northern  nomad  style  is  the  bird 
of  prey  and  the  northern  members  of  the  deer  family. 
Surely,  had  the  northern  nomads  and  the  Lurs  a  strong 
common  background,  they  would  have  shared  these  sig- 
nificant designs,  but  they  do  not. 


Bucket  is  an  interesting  example  of  the  elabor 
vessels  used  by  Lurs.  If  metal  stronger  than  bronze 

was  needed,  they  used  iron,  as  in  swords  at  right. 


The  camel,  domesticated  by  the  end  of  the  seco 
millennium  B.C.,  indicates  by  its  absence  from  the  Lu 
Stan  fauna  that  the  nomads  of  the  eastern  deserts  a 
Arabia  are  not  important  to  our  understanding  of  1 
Zagros  tribes.  An  ax  with  a  camel  on  its  butt  has  be 
called  Luristan,  but  it  fits  much  better  into  Persian  a 
The  Persian  Empire  of  the  second  half  of  the  first  milk 
nium  B.C.  knew  the  Bactrian  camel;  its  likeness  is  carv 
on  the  walls  of  the  royal  Persian  citadel  at  Persepolis. 

What  key  remains,  then,  with  which  to  unlock  th( 
extraordinary  bronzes?  The  field  of  comparative  religic 
may  offer  some  insight.  Wings  and  plant  forms  spri 
from  the  animals;  human  heads  are  put  on  animal  bodi' 
the  bodies  of  mountain  cats  are  elongated,  while  smal 
animals  perch  on  their  backs  or  emerge  from  their  bodi 
Lions  and  humans  share  common  features.  Grinni 
heads  are  piled  on  top  of  each  other  to  form  miniatv 
totem  poles.  Hence,  despite  the  limited  range  of  elemen 
the  bronzes  burst  with  animal  energy;  they  seem  to  spe 
of  an  uncompromising  outdoor  life  spent  in  the  towerii 
icy  passes  and  also  under  the  burning  sun  in  the  aj 
lowlands.  We  would  not  be  far  wrong  if  we  see  in  the 
bronzes  the  images  of  a  religion  based  on  elemental  nal 
ral  forces.  The  male  figure  may,  hke  the  later  Iranian  g 
Mithra,  have  been  associated  with  the  sun.  Of  course  ' 
do  not  know  his  Luristan  name;  in  Mesopotamia  he  v, 
Shamash.  In  the  Semitic  world  one  of  the  powerful  natv 
gods  was  simply  called  El,  that  is,  "Lord."  Perhaps,  1 
the  time  being.  Lord  may  be  used  as  the  most  convenit 
designation  for  this  Luristan  hero,  and  his  compani 
may  be  titled  Lady. 

Religions  and  mythologies  commonly  use  animals 
personifications  of  various  natural  forces,  and  son 
times  they  serve  as  symbols  of  the  divine,  as  emblems 


holy  authority.  So,  for  example,  Jesus  is  the  Lamb,  and 
in  Revelation  the  Evangelists  are  the  Four  Beasts.  The 
Lurs  knew  well  the  cunning,  ferocity,  and  explosive 
power  of  the  mountain  lion.  They  must  have  looked  at 
the  ibex  with  equal  respect.  What  other  beast  could 
cling  to  impossible  crags  and  move  with  such  agility  as 
that  majestic  creature?  And  its  broad,  curling  horns 
were  a  formidable  weapon.  The  horse,  as  already  men- 
tioned, held  a  special  place  in  Luristan  iconography. 
The  bull  was  probably  borrowed  from  the  lowlands 
where,  since  most  ancient  times,  it  served  as  a  symbol 
of  strength  and  generative  force.  Thus,  the  bull  stands 
as  majestic  guardian  on  Assyrian  doorways;  in  Near 
Eastern  literature,  the  chief  gods  are  often  called  "bull." 

In  trying  to  understand  the  religion  behind  the  Luri- 
stan bronzes,  we  find  several  possibilities.  The  association 
of  the  Lord  and  Lady  with  the  beasts  may  be  an  expres- 
sion of  the  power  of  these  deities.  The  animals  may  be 
purely  extensions — symbols  of  the  incalculable  strength 
of  the  gods.  It  is  in  this  sense  that  in  India  the  gods  and 
goddesses  had  their  animal  forms,  or  avatars.  Or,  per- 
haps, the  Lord  and  Lady  are  sky  gods,  and  the  animals 
are  representative  of  earth  powers.  The  Lord  holding  the 
animals  who,  in  turn,  rest  their  paws  on  his  hips  and 
shoulders,  could  symbolize  the  dynamic  equilibrium  of 
nature,  the  check  and  balance  system  found  in  many 
mythologies.  Such  a  system  of  opposing  forces  is  found  in 
the  Indo-Iranian  myths,  in  the  dichotomy  of  light  op- 
posed to  dark,  of  good  opposed  to  evil,  of  time  finite 
opposed  to  eternity. 

The  bronzes  are  suggestive  of  yet  another  proposition. 
It  should  be  noted  that  the  Lord  and  Lady  not  only  hold 
the  flanking  beasts  but  also  seem  to  rise  out  of  or  to  be 
carried  by  the  converging  animal  bodies.  Are  the  animals 
cosmic  vehicles  that  support  the  gods?  In  the  classical 
world  the  sun  god  was  borne  aloft  by  a  horse-drawn 
chariot;  the  throne  of  the  Israelite  Yahweh  in  the  Temple 
of  Solomon  was  carried  by  winged  cherubim.  Perhaps, 
then,  the  circle  of  the  beasts'  bodies  represents  the 
heavens  in  which  the  god  resides. 


THESE  suggestions  are  not  mutually  exclusive,  but  it 
is  probable  that  the  truth  lies  somewhere  in-between, 
for  religions  and  their  symbols  are  highly  complex,  with 
a  variety  of  meanings  and  concepts  expressed  in  simple 
terms.  The  Lady,  for  example,  may  be  a  late  representa- 
tion of  Derceto,  the  Great  Mother  goddess  of  Asia,  the 
personification  of  life-giving  forces.  As  such,  she  would 
be  a  sister  to  those  other  great  fertility  goddesses  whose 
many  names  we  know:  Innina,  Ishtar,  Astarte,  Ashto- 
reth,  Aphrodite,  Venus,  and  so  on.  It  is  proper  that  she, 
like  Diana,  the  Huntress — her  later  classical  counterpart 
— be  associated  with  animals.  The  moon  became  the 
astral  symbol  for  the  Great  Goddess,  and  so  it  may  be  the 
crescent  moon,  and  not  horns  at  all,  that  rests  on  the 
Lady's  head.  One  Luristan  bronze  in  a  Swiss  collection 
shows  the  Lady  with  her  body  terminating  in  a  fishtail. 
This  is  a  very  strange  combination,  indeed,  until  we  re- 
member that  the  Asiatic  Great  Mother  was  part  fish,  part 
woman — a  true  mermaid. 

We  may  ask  whether  these  people  had  temples  for 
their  Lord  and  Lady,  whether  they  erected  altars  where 
sacrifice  could  be  made.  As  is  to  be  expected  with  semi- 
nomadic  people,  architectural  remains  are  almost  non- 


19 


existent.  Summer  and  winter  encampments  do  not  leave 
behind  stone  foundations  tiiat  tlie  arciieologist  can  re- 
construct. However,  a  building  has  been  found  at  Surk 
Dum  above  the  plain  of  Kuh-i-Dasht,  in  western  Iran, 
that  contained  some  Luristan  bronzes,  and  it  has  tenta- 
tively been  designated  a  shrine.  The  building  should  have 
much  to  tell  about  Iranian  rehgion;  it  is  currently  under 
study  by  its  excavator,  the  renowned  archeologist  Erich 
Schmidt  of  the  Oriental  Institute  in  Chicago. 

Concerning  the  ethnic  stock  of  the  ancient  Lurs  there 
are,  once  again,  suggestions  but  no  definitive  answers. 
As  mentioned  before,  the  Luristan  bronzes  were  once 
thought  to  have  been  made  by  the  Cassites  who  overran 
the  Mesopotamian  plain.  This  attribution  is  not  only  un- 
hkely  because  of  the  time  factor,  but  also  because  no 
Luristan  bronzes  have  been  found  in  Mesopotamia. 
Surely  if  the  Cassites  had  been  the  owners,  they  would 
have  brought  their  precious  bronzes  down  with  them 
into  the  Tigris  and  Euphrates  valleys.  However,  if  the 
bronzes  flourished  about  700  B.C.,  then  they  may  belong 
to  an  Iranian  people  who  were  soon  to  become  one  of 
the  constituent  elements  of  the  great  Persian  Empire — 
the  confederation  of  Medes  and  Persians.  There  is  evi- 
dence to  support  the  theory  that  the  Medes  were  moving 
down  from  the  region  of  the  Caucasus  into  Iran  at  about 
this  time.  Another,  perhaps  related  group,  the  Cimme- 
rians, were  also  pushing  down  through  these  mountains 
out  of  south  Russia.  One  of  the  great  French  scholars  of 
prehistoric  Iran,  Roman  Ghirshman,  suspects  that  the 
Luristan  bronzes  belong  to  a  Medo-Cimmerian  people. 
This  theory  of  origin  would  explain  why  the  Luristan 
bronzes  disappear  with  the  confederation  of  Medes  and 
Persians:  Luristan  art  developed  into  that  of  the  Persian 
Achaemenians.  Unfortunately,  we  know  little  about  these 
Cimmerians  and  Medians  during  their  formative  period, 
and  we  know  even  less  about  their  art. 

One  of  the  apparent  mysteries  connected  with  the 
Luristan  bronze  pieces  has   already  been  mentioned: 


although  the  metalwork  of  Mesopotamia  has  been  fou 
in  Luristan,  no  Luristan  bronzes  have  been  discovei 
in  the  extensive  excavations  carried  on  in  the  plains.  T 
key  to  this  mystery  is  socio-political.  Mesopotamia  h 
a  long  and  fabulous  heritage  that  seemed  in  the  eyes 
ancient  man  to  stretch  back  to  the  very  beginning  of  tin 
Its  textiles,  for  example,  were  sought  after  on  the  wo: 
market,  as  even  the  proud  Greeks  turned  envious  eyes 
the  opulent  treasures  of  the  East.  The  cultural  eminer 
of  Assyria  and  Babylonia  was  enhanced  by  the  pohtii 
expansions  of  these  wealthy  states  in  the  eighth  and  s( 
enth  centuries  B.C.  The  arts  and  crafts  of  the  Assyi 
Babylonian  world  must  have  formed  the  last  word 
refined  style  for  the  provincial  Oriental.  Why,  inde( 
should  the  metropolitan  centers  of  antiquity — Ninev( 
Babylon,  Assur — import  the  rude  bronzes  of  the  ha 
civilized  mountain  folk  to  the  East?  Do  the  style  centi 
of  New  York  turn  to  the  prairie,  those  of  London  to  t 
Welsh  hills,  or  of  Paris  to  the  provinces?  On  the  otl 
hand,  the  mountaineers  of  Luristan  would  be  eager 
own  works  from  the  treasure  houses  of  Mesopotam 

SOME  bronzes  that  were  thought  to  be  from  Lurisl 
■  have  been  found  in  Arabia  and  in  Greece.  Tt 
have  some  Luristan  traits,  but  are  sufficiently  differs 
to  place  them  as  originating  elsewhere  in  the  Near  Ea 
Yet  there  is  no  question  of  the  authenticity  of  the  Li 
istan  pitcher  found  on  Samos  or  the  bronze  ring  decoral 
with  the  Lady  and  her  feline  companions  excavated 
Crete.  We  can  speculate  that  these  are  ancient  souven 
brought  out  of  the  East  by  Greek  or  Phoenician  trade 
The  chief  importance  of  the  two  pieces,  however,  is  tl 
they  were  found  in  an  archeological  context  of  ca.  7 
B.C.  But  if  Luristan  bronzes  were  not  exported  as  tra 
items,  they  still  had  their  influence  on  other  cultur 
Many  characteristics  of  their  vital  animal  style  filter 
westward  to  the  coast  and  out  into  the  Aegean.  Even  i 
cient  Etruria,   on  the  Italian  peninsula,   adopted  a 


Mode  oj  burial,  as  well  as  style  of  bronze  pieces  and 
types  of  pottery,  helps  to  assign  the  horse-riding 

Lurs  to  tlie  first  half  of  the  first  millennium  B.C. 


apted  some  Luristan  motifs.  The  Luristan  style  appears 
have  moved  eastward  also,  at  least  as  far  as  Tibet,  but 
t  how  is  still  a  question  without  an  answer. 
Our  hypothetical  reconstruction  of  ancient  Luristan, 
:n,  can  be  formulated  as  follows.  We  envisage  the  own- 

of  the  Luristan  bronzes  as  an  elite,  horse-riding  com- 
inity  living  in  the  seminomadic  pastoral  tradition  in  the 
;  eighth  and  early  seventh  centuries  b.c.  Their  ethnic 
)ts  reach  back  to  the  Caucasus  and  the  north,  to  the 
nads  of  the  steppes,  forestland,  and  tundra.  They 
ne  to  the  Zagros  as  part  of  that  vast  movement  of  Indo- 
nian-language  peoples  who  slowly  flowed  southward 
3  Iran  and  India.  While  major  groups  continued  their 
ithern  push,  a  small  pocket  formed  in  the  Zagros 
luntains,  developing  its  cultural  heritage  in  seclusion 
;  not  in  isolation.  Some  of  their  Iranian  cousins  formed 

powerful  Median  state  that,  combined  with  the  Per- 
:i,  transformed  Iran  into  the  Achaemenid  Empire, 
lught  almost  the  entire  Orient  under  its  aegis,  and 
irly  succeeded  in  forcing  Greece  to  its  knees.  In  the 
th  and  fifth  centuries  the  Achaemenids  absorbed  the 
untainous  home  of  the  Lurs  both  culturally  and  politi- 
ly.  The  provincial  bronzes  of  Luristan  succumbed  to, 
:  were  also  one  of  the  essential  ingredients  of,  the  mag- 
cent  Empire  art  of  the  centers  of  Persian  culture.  The 
haemenians  continued  the  use  of  a  vigorous  animal 
le,  of  the  heraldic  design  of  a  hero  between  animals, 
the  frontally  presented  mask  and  head,  as  well  as  of 

northern  short  sword  (akinakes)  with  its  mountain 
mal  decoration.  While  the  religion  represented  in  the 
ristan  bronzes  adopted  some  of  the  imagery  of  neigh- 
ing Mesopotamia,  it  should  be  seen  as  an  early  stage 
the  development  of  the  Indo-Iran||jn  cult,  a  forebear 
Z^oroastrianism  and  Mithraism. 

rhe  smiling  beak -nosed  Lord,  his  owi-eyed  Lady,  and 
ir  snarling,  prancing  beasts  have  not  cisappeared;  they 
/&  only  been  civilized.  They  have  been  transformed 
3  the  abstractions  and  concepts  of  the  later  Iranians. 


^iSi^^fiM'r 


m^^jjiP-sit 


Stalactites  m\(.  Imm  (  ciliriL'  ot  DiamoiKi  i'.a\i'.  near 
Harrison,  Arkansas,  where  subsequent  photos  were 
made.  Rounded  masses  on  cave  floor  are  stalagmites. 


Splash  patterns  of  fast-dripping,  carbonate-laden 
water  produced  tiered,  columnar  stalagmite.  The  flow 
of  water  over  sides  of  layers  made  small  stalactites. 


-^r^im^qp:i?fli 


I 


li.ll) 


Stalagmites  and 
Stalactites 

Slow  growth  marks  precipitate  deposits  By  edward  cdonnell 

23 


Carbonate  rock,  deposited  by  flowing  or  dripping  water, 
is  known  variously  as  dripstone,  flowstone,  or  travertine. 

STALACTITES  are  icicle-like  structures  most  commonly 
found  hanging  from  the  ceilings  of  caves  in  limestone- 
rich  areas,  and  stalagmites  are  complementary  masses  that 
develop  on  cave  floors.  Both  result  from  slow  precipitation 
of  material  from  ground  water.  Most  stalactites  and  stalag- 
mites are  made  up  of  two  forms  of  calcium  carbonate— 
calcite  and  aragonite— although  some  small  stalactites  are 
composed  of  gypsum,  gibbsite,  opal,  and  chalcedony. 

Limestone  is  the  most  soluble  of  the  common  rocks,  and 
nearly  all  great  caves  are  in  limestone  areas.  Pure  lime- 
stone is  composed  of  calcium  carbonate  derived  mainly 
from  shells  of  marine  organisms.  In  an  alkaline  environ- 
ment, limestones  are  chemically  stable,  but  they  are  subject 
to  slow  leaching  when  exposed  to  rain  water  and  subsurface 
ground  water,  which  are  acidic. 


If  several  small  pieces  of  limestone  are  placed  in  distille 
water  they  will  show  no  noticeable  changes,  even  during 
period  of  several  years.  Should  the  water  be  charged  wit 
carbon  dioxide,  however,  carbonic  acid  is  formed  and  tl: 
limestone  will  show  a  measurable  weight  loss  in  only  a  fe 
days  because  some  of  the  calcium  carbonate  of  the  limi 
stone  is  converted  to  calcium  bicarbonate,  which  is  solub 
in  water.  If  this  solution  is  allowed  to  evaporate,  it  wi 
become  supersaturated  with  calcium  carbonate,  which,  i 
turn,  will  be  precipitated  as  calcite  or  aragonite. 

In  nature,  rain  water  falling  to  the  earth  becom( 
charged  with  carbon  dioxide  from  the  atmosphere.  Aft( 
it  hits  the  earth  it  comes  in  contact  with  organic  acids  i 
the  soil.  The  water  percolates  through  the  soil  until 
reaches  bedrock,  where  it  follows  fractures  and  beddir 
planes.  If  the  rock  is  a  limestone,  solution  occurs,  and  aft( 
a  long  period  of  time,  perhaps  several  thousand  years,  pa 
sages  are  formed  that  range  in  size  from  small  channels  1 
great  caverns.  Size  depends  on  how  long  the  process  hi 
worked,  the  volume  of  water  involved,  and  its  acidity. 

Stalactites  form  when  carbonate-enriched  ground  wat( 
reaches  a  cavern.  The  water  drips  slowly  from  the  ceilin 
but  before  each  drop  falls,  a  small  amount  of  evaporatic 
takes  place.  The  drop  becomes  saturated  with  calcium  ca 
bonate  and  an  infinitesimal  amount  is  precipitated.  Whf 
the  drop  falls  to  the  cave  floor,  the  same  thing  happei 
again,  and  a  stalagmite  begins  to  develop. 

The  rate  at  which  stalactites  grow  is  not  definitely  know: 
Certainly  the  speed  of  formation  will  depend  on  the  amoui 
of  water  that  is  available  and  how  much  calcium  carbona 
is  in  solution.  Sir  Archibald  Geikie,  the  great  Scottish  g 
ologist  of  the  late  nineteenth  century,  recorded  stalactit( 
one  and  a  half  inches  in  diameter  beneath  a  one  hundrei 
year-old  bridge  in  Edinburgh.  They  had  grown  from  lin 
leached  out  of  the  cement  in  the  bridge.  All  evidence  poin 
to  a  slow  rate  of  formation,  and  it  is  estimated  that  stalai 
tites  grow  approximately  one  cubic  inch  in  every  centur 


fF^p^yf 


Meeting  of  twain  occurs  when  stalactite  and  stalagmite 
form  opposite  each  other.  As  growth  continues,  such  unions 
produce  floor-to-ceiling  pillars,  examples  of  which  may  be 

24 


seen  above,  at  center.  Alignment  of  stalactites  on  ceilin 
of  the  cave  at  right  is  probably  attributable  to  joint  0 
fracture  in  the  rock  that  permitted  a  rapid  flow  of  wate: 


:.-.t 


tll&ilA. 


X 1  uctivorous  Fliers 


Australian  fruit  bats  take  wing  at  dusk  in  sorties  after  food 

By  Kay  Breeden 


Gray-headed  "flying  foxes,"  large  fruit  bats  of  the  species 
Pteropus  poliocephalus,  leave  their  "camp"  in  countryside  of 
southern  Queensland,  Australia.  Inset  shows  head  of  an  adult. 


> 

K     J 


^-.^ 


"  *. , 

*  - » - . 

w-^ 

^kM^.,i. 

Jt.^b^^'' 

t 

Wm-  '''■■■'■- 

. ■ .  '^.^  _    ■  -"'P^ 

^■\\'m-^, 

''■^'  r    .    ■■' 

UST  BEFORE  DUSK  one  winter  afternoon  in  subtropical 
eensland,  Australia,  we  witnessed  the  impressive  spec- 
ie of  thousands  of  large,  gray-headed  fruit  bats,  or 
ying  foxes,"  leaving  the  trees  of  their  "camp"  to  feed  in 
;  surrounding  countryside.  They  had  been  situated  in  a 
:ural  amphitheater  in  a  rain  forest,  and  we  were  fore- 
rned  of  their  departure  by  the  increasing  tumult, 
rhe  first  sign  of  mass  movement  away  from  the  camp  was 
bin,  upward  spiral  of  "foxes"  barely  visible  in  the  slowly 
rkening  night.  Soon,  the  bats  blackened  the  sky  as  far  as 
could  see.  Their  shrieks  and  the  whispering  woosh 
osh  of  their  wings  filled  the  air,  and  all  the  while  the 
ise  in  their  camp  grew  more  intense,  announcing  that 
;n  larger  numbers  were  about  to  take  to  the  air.  Although 
:  night  became  too  dark  for  us  to  see,  we  stayed  and  lis- 


tened to  the  foxes  continue  their  incredible  exodus.  It  went 
on  for  another  quarter  of  an  hour  before  the  stream 
diminished  and  finally  stopped. 

Three  species  of  fruit  bats  of  the  genus  Pteropus  occur 
in  southern  Queensland,  within  a  hundred-mile  radius  of 
Brisbane.  Of  the  three,  the  gray-headed  flying  fox,  P.  po- 
liocephalus,  is  the  most  common,  and  this  article  is  con- 
cerned mainly  with  this  species.  The  "black  fox,"  P.  gouldi, 
which  is  the  largest  Australian  fruit  bat,  and  the  "little  red 
fox,"  P.  scapulatus,  are  the  other  two  species;  much  that 
will  be  said  about  the  gray-headed  flying  foxes  holds  true 
for  the  black  and  red  bats,  particularly  with  respect  to 
their  various  behavior  patterns. 

Bats  form  the  order  of  mammals  known  as  Chiroptera, 
which  means  "hand-winged,"  and  they  are  the  only  true 


4* 


y 

> 


'     A  J'    'r  '"^     .'    / 


y,  i 


flying  mammals.  There  are  two  suborders.  Megachiroptera 
and  Microchiroptera.  The  flying  foxes  and  aU  other  fruit 
bats  of  the  Eastern  Hemisphere  are  Megachiroptera,  while 
almost  all  insectivorous  bats  are  Microchiroptera.  One 
difference  between  the  suborders  is  that  the  Megachiroptera 
are  usually  large  bats  and  the  Microchiroptera  are  gen- 
erally small,  although  some  species  of  the  former  are 
actually  smaller  than  many  species  of  the  latter.  With  one 
possible  exception,  none  of  the  Megachiroptera  employs 
ultrasound  in  echolocation,  but  all  Microchiroptera  that 
have  been  studied  do.  Most  Microchiroptera  are  insecti- 
vorous or  carnivorous;  more  often  than  not  they  have  poor 
eyesight  and  employ  ultrasonic  echolocation  to  detect  and 
capture  their  insect  prey.  Members  of  the  family  Phyllos- 
tomatidae,  the  tropical  and  subtropical  leaf-nosed  bats  of 
the  Western  Hemisphere,  are  the  only  Microchiroptera 
that  feed  on  fruits  and  blossoms  (Natural  History,  Octo- 
ber, 1962) .  Members  of  this  group  generally  have  a  tail, 
complicated  ears,  and  often  nose-leaves.  Megachiroptera, 
on  the  other  hand,  frequently  lack  tails,  have  keen  eyesight, 
possess  simple  ears,  and  usually  simple  noses.  Their  most 
common  foods  are  fruits  and  blossoms.  The  Microchirop- 
tera are  cosmopolitan  in  distribution;  Megachiroptera  do 
not  occur  in  the  Americas. 

The  gray-headed  flying  fox  is  a  magnificent  animal  with 
a  wing  span  that  averages  about  four  feet,  a  shaggy  head, 

28         ' 


Resting  "foxes''  are  seen  in  camp,  hanging  by  one  foot  from 
a  pahn  branch.  They  envelop  themselves  in  flying  membranes. 

Bat  retains  foothold  on  branch,  right,  and  flaps  wings 
raise  itself  into  a  horizontal  plane  for  the  take-off,  lower  pm 


large  brown  eyes,  and  black  ears.  Its  body  coat  is  of  silky, 
silver-gray  fur,  and  a  mantle  of  burnished  amber  or  orange 
fur  extends  around  the  neck  and  shoulders.  The  flying  mem- 
branes are  soft  and  black.  Large  males  may  weigh  as  much 
as  two  pounds.  By  facial  expressions,  movements  of  their 
ears,  and  seemingly  always-active  noses,  the  bats  convey  an 
impression  of  inquisitive  intelligence. 


A. 


.  fter  an  exodus  at  dusk,  such  as  the  one  described,  the 
bats  disperse  for  many  miles  in  all  directions  to  seek  food 
and  water.  They  drink  by  lapping  while  flying  over  the 
surface  of  a  pond  or  stream.  Should  they  fly  too  low  and 
accidentally  pitch  into  the  water,  they  are  easily  able  to 
swim  to  shore.  Their  diet  consists  chiefly  of  nectar,  which 
they  extract  from  the  blossoms  of  flowering  trees.  They 
feed  on  wild  and.  also  occasionally,  on  cultivated  fruits. 

The  little  red  flying  foxes  feed  exclusively  on  flowering 
trees,  including  species  of  Eucalyptus  and  Melaleuca,  and 
their  migrations  coincide  with  the  flowering  seasons  of  theii 
various  food  trees.  Gray-headed  bats  will  eat  fruit  only 


when  blossoms  are  not  available.  The  black  flying  foxes 
are  fruit-eaters,  and  have  a  decided  appetite  for  cultivated 
;itrus  and  other  orchard-raised  fruit.  Because  of  such  dep- 
redations, all  species  of  fruit  bats  have  become  unpopular 
with  local  farmers,  who  regularly  shoot  many  of  them  as 
:hey  rest  in  their  day  camps.  The  local  unpopularity  of  the 
animals  is  out  of  proportion  to  the  damage  they  do,  how- 
3ver,  as  modern  harvesting  methods  entail  the  picking  of 
^reen  fruit,  which  is  then  ripened  indoors.  Only  a  very 
small  percentage  of  any  of  the  species  of  bats  eat  cultivated 
"ruit,  and  the  extensive  damage  that  sometimes  does  occur 
s  usuall)'  the  result  of  the  same  few  bats  returning  nightly 
0  the  same  orchard.  When  such  a  group  was  poisoned  in 
jne  orchard  near  Brisbane,  there  were  no  further  raids 
3n  the  crop  that  season  from  the  same  or  any  other  camp. 
To  reach  their  food  trees,  the  flying  foxes  sometimes 
:ravel  as  far  as  forty  miles.  The  method  by  which  they 
irst  locate  feeding  grounds  and  subsequently  return  to  them 


night  after  night  is  not  yet  completely  known.  It  has  been 
suggested  that  rivers  may  be  the  chief  landmarks  in  their 
visually  oriented  navigation.  But  no  matter  how  they  come 
and  go,  they  are  certainly  efiicient;  a  characteristic  sound 
of  night  in  the  Australian  bush  is  the  screaming  of  the  bats. 


J.  LYING  FOXES  return  to  camp  just  before  dawn.  We  wit- 
nessed their  homecoming  one  morning  while  standing  ankle 
deep  in  a  swamp  with  some  other  researchers  at  the  edge 
of  a  camp  of  Pteropus  poliocephalus.  It  was  still  pitch  dark 
when  we  arrived,  but  already  the  sounds  from  the  camp  and 
the  rustling  of  wings  overhead  indicated  that  the  return 
was  under  way.  As  the  morning  sky  brightened,  we  could 
see  a  number  of  the  bats  flying  low  over  the  trees.  Soon  they 
were  returning  from  every  point  of  the  compass.  The  first 
arrivals  had  been  feeding  close  by.  We  heard  occasional 
squawks  from  individuals  that  experienced  near  collisions. 


For  some  time  we  had  also  heard  a  periodic,  loud,  flapping 
noise,  which  we  finally  identified  as  the  wingbeats  of  bats 
returning  from  farther  away.  These  were  flying  at  a  great 
height,  and  as  they  neared  the  camp  they  pulled  their  wings 
in  slightly,  zigzagged  down  in  fast  dives,  and  then  leveled 
off  into  glides  just  above  the  treetops.  The  amazingly  loud 
flapping  noise  was  produced  by  air  rushing  past  their  wings 
as  they  dove  down  out  of  the  morning  mist. 

The  swamp  was  a  typical  refuge  for  the  bats.  The  gray- 
headed  species  spends  the  day  in  large,  communal  camps. 
Fifteen  to  twenty  such  settlements,  with  intervals  of  about 
forty  miles  between  them,  are  known  in  the  Brisbane  area. 
They  are  usually  situated  in  wet,  relatively  cool  areas, 
such  as  the  mangrove  forests  of  river  estuaries,  palm  groves 
and  adjacent  rain  forest,  Melaleuca  swamps,  and,  less  com- 
monly, in  gullies  with  mixed  rain  forest  and  eucalyptus. 
These  locations  are  nearly  always  remote  from  civilization, 
and  the  flying  foxes  return  to  them  year  after  year.  In  a 
few  cases,  a  growing  suburb  or  township  has  expanded 
right  to  the  end  of  a  large,  well-established  camp.  In  such 
instances,  if  the  bats  are  not  molested  they  become  accus- 
tomed to  man  and  appear  to  be  undisturbed  if  people  enter 
camp.  The  number  in  a  camp  fluctuates  considerably,  but 
is  greatest  in  the  Australian  summer,  from  October  to 
February.  The  population  of  a  settlement  may  then  be  in 
excess  of  ten  thousand.  Occasionally,  from  several  hundred 
to  tens  of  thousands  of  the  more  nomadic  little  red  foxes 
will  invade  the  camp  of  gray-headed  foxes,  at  which  time 
the  population  of  a  camp  may  be  swelled  to  as  much  as 
250,000  for  a  few  weeks.  Usually,  however,  the  little  red 
bats  go  to  camps  of  their  own  species. 


A, 


.  s  the  Australian  autumn  advances,  the  population  of 
the  camps  in  the  Brisbane  area  dwindles  rapidly,  until  by  the 
beginning  of  June  most  camps  are  deserted.  Where  the  bats 
migrate,  and  exactly  for  what  reason,  are  questions  that 
remain  to  be  answered.  It  has  been  suggested  that  their 
movements  are  made  largely  in  response  to  the  shifting 
availability  of  food  supplies.  Around  Brisbane,  in  the  win- 
ter of  1962,  there  were  unusually  large  numbers  of  blos- 
soming eucalyptus  trees.  Although  the  bat  camps  in  this 
vicinity  are  usually  deserted  in  winter,  one  camp  situated 
twenty  miles  outside  the  city  then  contained  the  largest 

30 


Simple  ears  and  nose  of  this  bat  give  it  doglike  appearance. 
Males  may  weigh  two  pounds  and  have  a  four-foot  wingspread. 


Bat-festooned  tree  in  a  "flying  fox"  camp  is  seen  below.  The 
camps,  each  with  thousands  of  "foxes,"  are  in  moist  regions. 


population  of  gray-headed  flying  foxes  ever  recorded  in 
the  area— probably  more  than  100,000  individuals. 

One  researcher  has  remarked  that  visiting  a  flying  fox 
camp  is  like  skin  diving,  in  that  it  is  a  visit  to  a  totally  for- 
eign realm.  But  unlike  the  underwater  world,  where  all  is 
quiet,  where  the  movements  of  flora  and  fauna  are  graceful 
and  flowing,  the  daytime  habitat  of  the  flying  fox  is  chaotic 
—a  noisy  place  of  erratic  motion.  The  first  indications  that 
one  is  nearing  a  camp  are  a  distant,  high-pitched  squab- 
bling and  a  distinct,  musky  odor.  A  sudden  rush  of  beating 
wings  accompanied  by  startling  shrieks  tell  the  observer 
that  he  has  reached  the  edge  of  the  camp  itself,  and  that 
the  scouts,  usually  old  males,  have  raised  the  alarm.  If  the 
site  is  not  often  disturbed  by  hunting  parties  with  firearms, 
these  alarm  calls  will  have  little  effect.  The  visitor  is  soon 
in  the  midst  of  the  pandemonium  that  is  normal  among 
flying  foxes  in  camp.  The  branches  of  the  trees  are  fes- 
tooned with  thousands  of  the  animals  hanging  upside  down 
in  tight  clusters,  truly  one  of  the  amazing  sights  in  the  world 
of  mammals.  The  trees  often  look  as  though  a  hurricane 
recently  had  passed  through,  for  the  masses  of  foxes  hang- 
ing close  together  tend  to  strip  off  the  leaves  and  small  twigs. 
The  camp  is  alive  with  the  creatures'  wingbeats  and  their 
continuous  wrangling. 

As  an  intruder  walks  farther  into  the  camp,  the  bats 
react  by  climbing  higher  in  the  trees— moving  along  the 
trunks  and  branches  with  the  aid  of  the  long,  curved  claws 
on  their  thumbs  and  toes.  When  they  have  climbed  to  the 
highest  point  they  can  reach,  they  lean  forward  to  observe 
the  human  interloper.  Their  noses  twitch,  their  ears  switch 
rapidly  back  and  forth,  and  their  large  brown  eyes  perceive 
one's  every  move.  The  more  "nervous"  animals  may  take 
fright  at  this  stage  and  fly  away  emitting  shrieks.  With 
care,  however,  it  is  possible  to  reach  the  center  of  a  camp 


Fruit  bat  climbs  a  tree  trunk  by  pulling  itself  up  with  its 
clawed  thumb,  which  is  at  first  joint  of  the  wing  structure. 


Female  hangs  from  branch  by  one  foot  and  scratches  with  the 
other.  A  nursing  young  is  obscured  by  her  right  wing  and  fur. 


k'ithout  creating  too  much  disturbance.  If  one  then  remains 
till,  the  bats  that  earlier  took  flight  will  return  and  resume 
heir  normal  daytime  behavior. 

Although  these  mammals  are  assumed  to  rest  during  the 
lay,  their  activity  is  tremendous.  There  are  always  a  few 
m  the  wing,  and  there  is  always  a  scramble  in  some  corner 
if  the  camp.  Such  action  usually  has  a  simple  cause— a 
ailing  branch  or  one  bat  alighting  too  close  to  another. 
5attles  look  and  sound  most  ferocious.  Fighting  animals 
liter  loud  screams,  while  they  lash  out  with  the  sharp, 
looked  claws  on  their  thumbs,  and  snap  at  each  other  with 
heir  equally  formidable  teeth.  But  I  have  never  seen  any 
ur  fly,  nor  have  I  observed  any  other  bodily  damage  as 
he  result  of  these  displays.  "Fights"  usually  end  when  one 
ir  both  foxes  take  flight  and  go  elsewhere  in  the  camp, 
there  a  similar  display  may  be  repeated.  Sometimes  a  par- 
icularly  pugnacious  animal  will  chase  another  along  a 
iranch,  disturbing  every  other  bat  resting  there.  This  may 
ouch  off  a  chain  reaction  throughout  the  camp,  and  such 
vents  are  the  principal  reason  for  the  continuous  uproar. 


L  LYING  FOXES  have  a  number  of  ectoparasites  that  cause 
hem  to  scratch  frequently  and  energetically;  now  and  then 
oxes  hang  by  one  foot  and  comb  themselves  thoroughly 
vith  the  claws  of  the  free  foot.  On  a  hot  day,  they  use  their 
vings  as  fans.  Despite  the  daytime  fighting,  scratching,  and 
anning,  many  bats  are  asleep.  If  the  weather  is  not  too 
lot,  a  sleeping  bat  adopts  a  most  interesting  posture,  wrap- 
)ing  its  wings  tightly  around  itself.  During  rain,  the  animals 
lo  not  seek  the  protection  of  thick  foliage;  instead  they  em- 
)loy  their  wings  to  enfold  the  body,  one  leg,  and  the  head, 
rhe  flying  membrane  extends  to  the  ankles  and,  because  it  is 
)ily,  gives  perfect  protection  against  rain. 


31 


The  take-offs  and  landings  of  the  foxes  in  camp  are  in- 
tricate operations.  A  gray-headed  flying  fox  cannot  simply 
release  its  hold  on  a  branch  and  flap  away,  as  can  a  micro- 
chiropteran,  because  its  body  must  first  be  brought  into  a 
horizontal  position  for  take-off.  This  the  flying  fox  ac- 
complishes by  beating  its  wings  vigorously,  while  keeping 
its  grip  on  the  branch  until  its  body  has  been  raised  into 
the  proper  plane.  Landings  vary  from  the  very  rough  to  the 
very  adept.  A  bat  may  fly  into  leafy  branches  or  a  tree 
trunk  with  considerable  impact,  and  then  clamber  to  a  limb 
to  hang.  Or  it  might  fly  low  over  a  horizontal  branch, 
brake,  grip  the  branch  with  the  claws  on  its  feet,  and  then 
hang  down.  Another  variation  in  landing  entails  the  bat 
flying  to  a  point  beneath  a  horizontal  limb,  where  it  brakes, 
does  a  half-roll,  then  grips  the  branch  with  its  feet,  and 
subsequently  hangs  head  down. 


M. 


.ALE  flying  foxes  carry  sperm  in  the  epididymis  all 
year  round,  and  will  attempt  copulation  during  any 
season.  The  females  only  respond  during  a  period  of  about 
a  month  (usually  April)  in  the  Australian  autumn.  The 
young  are  born  when  the  foxes  reinhabit  their  summer 
camps  in  October.  Even  though  offspring  are  well  developed 
when  born,  they  are  incapable  of  immediate  flight.  Their 
first  month  is  spent  tucked  under  the  mother's  wing. 
Extra-curved  tips  on  the  claws  of  their  thumbs  and  feet, 
and  recurved  milk  teeth  allow  the  young  to  keep  a  strong 
grip  on  the  mother's  fur  and  on  the  teats,  one  of  which  is 
located  under  each  wing.  After  their  first  month,  the 
young  are  left  behind  in  the  camp  at  night,  although  they 
remain  with  the  mother  during  the  day.  Young  foxes  are 
able  to  fly  at  about  two  months,  but  it  is  not  until  they  are 
approximately  three  months  old  that  they  venture  from  the 
camp  to  forage  for  themselves.  The  progenies  of  fruit  bats 


Two  OF  THE  FEET  Seen  at  left  belong  to  a  young  nursmg  bat 
under  mother's  wing.  Young  are  independent  at  three  months. 


Characteristic  alertness  shows  on  face  of  bat.  right,  whicl 
grips  branch  with  claw.  Species  prospers  despite  predatioa 


Little  red  "flying  fox,"  Pteropus  scapulatus,  seen  below,  is 
smaller  than  gray-headed  bat,  and  migrates  more  erratically. 


are  fully  independent  at  four  to  six  months,  and  sexually 
mature  at  about  eighteen  months.  On  occasion,  though,  we 
have  seen  six-month-old  young  carried  by  a  flying  female. 
In  these  cases,  the  young  equaled  about  half  the  adult's  body 
weight.  Probably  the  adult  female  is  better  built  for  the 
task  of  carrying  young  during  flight  than  is  the  male,  for 
she  has  a  longer  forearm  and  therefore  a  greater  wing  area 
than  a  male  of  the  same  weight.  In  the  wild,  flying  foxes 
sometimes  may  live  to  the  age  of  four  or  five  years. 

Predators  on  the  flying  fox  include  the  Wedge-tailed 
Eagle  (Uroaetus  audax).  White-breasted  Sea  Eagle  (Hali- 
aeetus  leiicogaster) ,  Powerful  Owl  (Ninox  steneraj.  Lace 
Monitor,  or  Goanna,  a  large  lizard  (I  aranus  varius),  and 
the  Carpet  Snake  ( Morelia  argus) .  But  none  of  these  brings 
as  much  pressure  to  bear  on  the  animals  as  does  man,  who 
kills  great  numbers  each  year.  The  species  that  suffers  most 
is  probably  the  little  red  flying  fox,  which,  because  of  its 
erratic  migratory  habits,  often  settles  close  to  human  habi- 
tation. This  is  usually  followed  by  an  organized  "shoot," 
with  the  result  that  thousands  are  regularly  killed.  Fortu- 
nately, many  flying  fox  camps  are  situated  within  national 
parks,  or  in  remote  and  inaccessible  areas.  So  these  mam- 
mals, in  contrast  to  many  of  Australia's  dwindling  marsu- 
pials, are  not  now  actually   threatened  with   extinction. 


32 


33 


^  ^\|  ^  0  S" 


Man  Plant's  Return 

inseng  roots,  once  dug  for  export,  grow  again  in  forest 

By  H.  Lea  Lawrence 


I  INSENG— Ponaa;  quinque folium— a 
r  natural  gold  of  the  woodlands 
e  much  sought  and  highly  prized, 
now  drifted  away  from  public 
nory,  just  as  have  the  trappers 
hunters  and  mountain  men  who 
mad  the  forests  in  search  of  it.  And 
3SS  this  herb,  like  some  of  its 
nterparts  around  the  world,  should 
ve  valuable  to  modern  medical  sci- 
e,  it  is  likely  that  it  will  again 
rish  and  multiply  just  as  it  did 
rly  250  years  ago  when  it  was  noth- 
more  than  another  woodland  plant 
lose  who  observed  it. 
;  is  paradoxical,  in  a  sense,  that 
should  be  the  case,  for  seldom  has 
price  of  ginseng  been  higher  than 
1  today.  Nor  has  the  demand  for 
eng  lessened;  it  is  easily  as  market- 
;  today  as  it  has  ever  been.  But  the 
Dry  and  circumstances  surround- 
the  plant  in  this  country  explain  all 
effectively. 

or  centuries  the  Chinese,  who  have 
1  and  still  are  the  world's  leading 
s  of  ginseng,  have  valued  this  herb 
medicinal,  an  aphrodisiac,  and  a 
m.  The  Asian  species— and  it  is 
id  only  in  two  portions  of  the 
Id— is  Panax  ginseng,  but  it  re- 
bles  the  North  American  species 
losely  that  it  is  difficult  for  a  lay- 
to  distinguish  the  differences, 
orians  believe  that  ginseng's  chief 
iction  for  the  Chinese  lay  in  the 
form,  which  is  branched  or  bifur- 
i,  and  bears  a  superficial  resem- 
ce  to  the  human  figure.  Indeed,  the 
1  ginseng  stems  from  two  Chinese 
Is  that  mean  "man"  and  "plant." 
any  flower  enthusiasts  possibly 
:  never  seen  ginseng  in  the  wild, 
with  its  comeback  apparently  as- 
d,  it  may  again  become  a  common 
iland  plant.  Ginseng,  in  the  family 
iaceae,  is  found  in  shaded,  damp 


STEENTH-CENTURY  plate  In  German 
L  of  medicinal  plants  includes  root, 
that   looks   like   a   human   body. 


woodlands,  often  in  valleys  and  under 
stands  of  big  timber.  It  is  a  perennial, 
growing  from  eight  to  fifteen  inches 
high  and  bearing  three  branches,  on 
each  of  which  are  five  ovate  leaflets, 
pointed  at  the  apex  and  rounded  at  the 
base.  From  six  to  twenty  flowers  are 
produced  in  a  cluster  on  the  fertile 
branch  from  June  to  July.  Later  in 
the  season  bright  crimson  berries  ap- 
pear. The  first-year  plant  produces 
only  three  leaves,  which  sprout  directly 
from  the  root.  The  second  year  the 
stalk  generally  bears  four  leaves,  and 
may  attain  the  height  of  eight  inches. 
The  third  year  the  plant  has  the  mature 
arrangement  of  three  branches  with 
five  leaves  on  each,  plus  the  fertile 
branch  in  the  center. 

After  the  first  year,  the  plant  sends 
up  a  stalk  from  the  bud  stem,  which 
grows  from  the  main  root.  At  the  end 
of  the  year,  when  the  plant  is  killed 
by  frost,  a  scar  is  left  on  the  bud  stem. 
The  next  year  the  stalk  grows  from  the 
opposite  side  of  the  stem,  and  the  scars 
show  the  plant's  approximate  age. 

The  story  of  ginseng  in  North  Amer- 
ica dates  to  1714  when  a  missionary  to 
China  sent  back  a  description  of  the 
"miraculous"  root  in  the  hope  that  a 
similar  plant  might  be  located  in  the 
northern  woodlands.  A  search  was  in- 
stituted among  fellow  missionaries, 
and  in  1716  Father  Lafitau,  a  mis- 
sionary with  the  Indians,  found  gin- 
seng growing  near  Montreal.  The  roots 
were  dried  and  prepared  as  specified 
and  the  herb  was  sent  back  to  China. 
Not  long  afterward  the  word  was  re- 
ceived that  the  Chinese  would  readily 
accept  Panax  quinquejolium. 

Following  the  missionary's  dis- 
covery, the  gathering  and  marketing 
of  ginseng  began  in  a  small  way,  but 
it  slowly  gathered  momentum  and  be- 
gan to  arouse  more  interest  when  it 
was  found  that  the  range  of  the  plant 
extended  from  the  southern  part  of 
Canada  throughout  the  eastern  United 
States  as  far  south  as  Georgia  and  Ala- 
bama.   Hunters    and    trappers,    who 


spent  all  their  time  in  the  woods,  began 
to  dig  ginseng  as  a  seasonal  enterprise, 
since  its  market  value  almost  immedi- 
ately surpassed  the  prices  paid  for 
other  herbs,  barks,  and  leaves  then  pur- 
chased for  medicinal  purposes.  In  the 
early  days,  it  was  no  trouble  at  all  to 
find  ginseng  in  great  quantities.  A  man 
could  dig  all  he  could  carry  out  of  the 
forest  in  less  than  half  a  day's  time. 

THE  first  dealers  in  ginseng  were 
the  Chinese  merchants  located  on 
the  West  Coast,  and  buyers  throughout 
the  nation  purchased  the  herb  from 
local  collectors  and  marketed  it  through 
these  exporters.  Two  reasons  governed 
the  Chinese  control:  first,  it  had  to  be 
properly  prepared  and  dried  before  it 
would  be  accepted  on  the  market  in 
China;  second,  at  that  time  the  Chinese 
were  somewhat  prejudiced  against 
doing  business  with  foreigners,  and 
the  Chinese  merchants  in  America  were 
the  only  persons  with  whom  the  main- 
land Chinese  would  deal. 

It  is  not  unusual,  either,  that  during 
this  same  period  ginseng  was  employed 
rather  extensively  in  American  herb 
medicines.  Two  of  the  most  widely 
known  during  the  1800's— "Seng"  and 
"Ginseng  Tone"— were  highly  recom- 
mended, even  by  many  physicians  of 
the  time,  although  claims  for  their  vir- 
tues never  approached  those  that  were 
made  for  some  of  the  other  botanical 
medicines  of  that  day. 

One  physician,  a  Dr.  McMaster  of 
Michigan,  described  the  plant  as  fol- 
lows: "Ginseng  is  a  mild,  non-poison- 
ous plant,  well  adapted  to  domestic 
as  well  as  professional  uses.  In  this 
respect  it  may  be  classed  with  such 
herbs  as  boneset,  oxbalm,  rhubarb  and 
dandelion.  The  medical  qualities  are 
known  to  be  a  mild  tonic,  stimulant, 
nervine  and  stomachic.  It  is  especially 
a  remedy  for  ills  incident  to  old  age." 

In  referring  to  the  Chinese  faith  in 
the  herb,  a  Materia  Medica  of  the  Con- 
federate States  quotes  a  Dr.  Healde 
who  alludes  to  "their  confidence  in  it 

35 


as  a  restorative  after  great  fatigue,  an 
antispasmotic  in  nervous  affections,  m 
coma,  and  as  an  aphrodisiac.  One 
hundred  and  twenty  grains  of  the 
sliced  root  are  boiled  in  a  quart  of 
water,  and  two  ounces  of  the  decoc- 
tion, or  twenty  grains  of  the  root  in 
substance  is  employed." 

A  CTUALLY,  there  is  no  scientific  proof 
J\_  that  there  is  any  medical  benefit 
derived  from  the  use  of  ginseng  root, 
green  or  dried,  or  from  the  leaves  or 
any  other  part  of  the  plant.  The  best 
that  can  be  said  is  that  it  can  be  used 
to  make  a  licorice-like  tea  that  is  pleas- 
ant to  the  taste— if  one  likes  licorice. 

However,  ginseng,  along  with  other 
herbs  and  plants  all  over  the  world, 
has  already  been  subjected  to  a  certain 
amount  of  research  in  the  constant 
quest  for  new  and  improved  medicines. 
It  is  possible,  although  not  probable, 
that  ginseng  might  prove  to  have  some 
beneficial  qualities,  after  all.  because 
in  recent  years  other  seemingly  worth- 
less remedies  have  come  to  play  an 
important  part  in  medical  progress. 

For  instance,  reserpine,  a  derivative 
of  the  plant  Rauwolfia  serpentina, 
or  snakeroot,  has  been  for  several 
years  a  valuable  aid  in  the  treatment 
of  high  blood  pressure  and  emotional 
disturbances.  Strangely  enough,  the 
native  medicine  men  of  Asia  had  for 
centuries  employed  the  roots  of  this 
plant  to  achieve  similar  purposes. 

Digitalis,  isolated  from  an  old  Shrop- 
shire brew  that  contained  foxglove 
(Digitalis  purpurea) ,  has  long  been  a 
remedy  for  heart  ailments— a  use  to 
which  herbwomen  also  put  it. 

Mahuang,  a  Chinese  herbal  drug 
made  from  Ephedra  spp.,  gave  us  the 
clue  to  ephedrine;  colchicine,  a  gout 
medicine,  is  derived  from  the  seeds 
and  corms  of  autumn  crocus  (Colchi- 
cum  autumnale)  and  is  a  medicine, 
legend  tells  us,  that  was  used  by  the 
witch  Medea;  false-hellebore  (Vera- 
trum  sp.J  is  the  source  of  a  root  rem- 
edy for  high  blood  pressure  that  was 
used  by  the  American  Indians;  curare, 
long  known  to  South  American  In- 
dians, is  a  "miracle  drug"  used  as  an 
anesthetic,  muscle  relaxer,  and  in  some 
cases  as  a  drug  for  certain  types  of 
mental  disorders;  South  American  In- 
dians' use  of  hallucinatory  mushrooms 
led  to  the  discovery  of  psilacybine; 
quinine,  codeine,  morphine,  thebaine, 
and  many  others  are  examples  of  medi- 
cal discoveries  that  were  based  upon 
research   into   herbal  medicines   and 


native  "cures"  from  various  countries. 

Today,  contemporary  research  into 
botanicals  is  moving  ahead  at  a  rapid 
pace,  and  drug  companies  and  various 
scientific  interests  have  teams  of  plant 
hunters  probing  all  parts  of  the  globe, 
and  even  under  the  sea,  in  search  of 
new  plants  and  concoctions  that  may 
lend  clues  to  discoveries  such  as  those 
already  mentioned. 

Should  ginseng  not  become  a  "mira- 
cle medicine,"  the  future  of  the  plant 
seems  secure.  Ginseng  hunting  has  de- 
clined tremendously  since  the  1930's, 
when  it  was  often  the  mountaineers' 
only  "cash  crop,"  and  locations  for- 
merly stripped  bare  of  the  plant  are 
now  showing  new  growth.  The  trap- 
pers and  hunters  are  gone,  and  the 
mountain  people  have  lost  interest  in 
the  hunting  of  herbs  since  industries 
have  moved  into  the  foothills  and  pro- 
vided employment  and  an  economic 
stability  that  they  have  never  previ- 
ously known.  The  older  people,  many 
of  whom  were  once  the  best  herb 
hunters,  now  enjoy  old-age  pensions 
and  welfare  benefits  that  make  work 
unnecessary  in  their  declining  years. 

Dealers  who  have  long  purchased 
ginseng  and  other  herbs  say  that  traffic 
in  these  items  is  almost  non-existent 
today,  and  even  dried  ginseng,  which 
still  commands  a  price  as  high  as 
$21  per  pound  on  the  market,  comes 
in,  in  lessening  quantities  each  year. 
One  buyer  said  that  during  the  peak 
years,  from  1920  through  1945,  he 
bought  from  1,200  to  1,500  pounds 
annually  at  one  store.  Today,  however, 
only  slightly  over  100  pounds  a  year 
is  purchased. 

ONCE  ginseng  was  an  important 
enough  export  item  to  be  listed 
separately  by  the  Department  of  Com- 
merce and  Labor.  Beginning  with  1858, 
the  first  available  listing,  at  which  time 
the  market  price  was  $.58  per  pound, 
some  366,000  pounds  were  exported. 
In  1868  the  price  had  jumped  to  $1.02 
per  pound  and  the  poundage  to  370,- 
000.  By  1889  it  was  up  to  $2.33  per 
pound,  with  271,000  pounds  exported. 
Figures  for  1902  show  the  price  at 
$5.55  and  the  export  total  at  154,000 
pounds.  The  last  listed  figure  was  in 
1913,  when  the  price  was  $7.50  and 
221,000  pounds  were  exported. 

Today  the  Department  of  Commerce 
groups  ginseng  with  other  herbs  and 
does  not  classify  it  separately,  but  it 
can  be  safely  assumed  that  under 
100,000  pounds  are  exported  annually, 


and  that  some  of  this  total  comes  fi 
commercial  growers.  Actually,  ci 
mercially  grown  ginseng  did  not  si 
up  on  the  market  until  the  late  188 
when  the  secret  of  successfully  gr 
ing  it  in  cultivation  was  discove: 
Once  something  was  learned  al 
raising  the  plant,  the  ginseng  indu; 
sprang  up,  and  for  many  years  w: 
stable  enterprise.  Like  the  hunting 
wild  ginseng,  this  industry  begai 
decline  in  the  late  thirties  or  e 
forties,  and  now  it  has  all  but 
appeared.  Part  of  this  was  bee; 
cultivated  ginseng  brought  a  m 
lower  price  on  the  market  than 
wild  ginseng.  The  root  grows  m 
more  rapidly  when  cultivated  ui 
optimum  conditions.  This,  the  Chi: 
felt,  lessened  the  quality,  and  they  \ 
less  eager  to  use  it.  (As  to  exactly 
rapid  growth  was  thought  to  be 
eterious  to  the  root  is  not  known 
cisely.  However,  there  is  no  ques 
that  when  roots  of  wild  ginseng 
sectioned,  they  show  consideri 
more  density  and  color  than  do 
cultivated  plants.  In  addition,  the  ' 
plant  is  more  fibrous  than  the  c 
vated  variety.)  Presently,  cultiv 
ginseng  brings  about  a  third  the  f 
of  the  wild  root  on  the  market. 

THE  herb  hunters  dug  ginseng  f 
the  time  of  its  appearance  in  sp 
through  the  fall,  although  autumn 
conceded  to  be  the  best  time,  for 
the  root  was  larger.  However, 
hunting  was  competitive  busines 
one  time,  and  leaving  a  patch  of 
seng  in  the  woods  was  an  open  in 
tion  to  the  next  herb  hunter  to  d 
up.  Thus  most  "sang,"  as  the  m 
taineers  termed  it,  was  dug  whf 
was  first  discovered.  The  green 
was  rinsed  in  water  to  take  off  thi 
cess  dirt  and  then  dried,  either  by  j 
ing  it  in  a  stove  or  by  tying  it  on  si 
and  hanging  it  outside  in  the  sun.  V 
a  season's  collection  was  suffici( 
dried,  it  was  taken  to  the  nearest 
lage  or  town  and  sold  to  a  dealer 
ually  to  the  same  person  who  bo 
furs  and  hides  and  other  produc 
the  forest  from  the  woodsmen. 

Nowadays  the  signs  that  adve 
for  "Furs,  hides,  roots  and  herbs' 
a  rare  sight,  for  the  individuals 
made  their  living  from  the  forests 
all  but  disappeared.  While  the  ani 
they  hunted  and  trapped  for  th( 
trade  may  not  have  made  a  come 
in  all  instances,  the  plants  they  sc 
have  begun  to  show  recovery  s 


JOTS  iike  one  above  were  hunted  by  woodsmen,  dried  and 
ocessed,  then  shipped  to  the  Orient  by  Chinese  merchants. 


Mature  plant  has  three  branches,  each  with  five  leaves, 
below.  Fertile,  flower-bearing  branch  is  in  center,  above. 


PHRT  11 


Old  Hfricn's 


38 


People  of  the  Uilloge 


// 


miLiEU  mnv  rlter  hehith 


by  RRTHUR  LEIPZIG 

.  FEW  MILES  from  the  Ethiopian  border,  in  the 
bush  country  of  southeastern  Sudan,  the  Meban  have 
long  lived  in  near  isolation  from  the  rest  of  Africa 
and  the  world.  Vehicles  can  reach  this  region  only 
during  the  dry  season,  from  November  to  May; 
throughout  the  rest  of  the  year  the  surrounding 
swamps  of  the  White  Nile  are  impassable.  Part  I  of 
this  article  (Natural  History,  April,  1964)  intro- 
duced the  work  of  Dr.  Samuel  Rosen,  of  New  York 
City,  who  led  three  study  expeditions  into  this  coun- 
try. I  accompanied  his  most  recent  expedition  in 
March,  1963,  as  photographer  and  observer. 

Dr.  Rosen's  study  of  the  Meban  was  begun  in  the 
hope  of  answering  a  question  about  the  effect  of  aging 
on  hearing— namely,  to  what  degree  is  the  progressive 
loss  of  hearing  with  aging  a  result  of  noise  damage 
accumulated  over  a  lifetime?  If  the  Meban  were 
found  to  live  in  a  nearly  noise-free  environment,  and 
if  they  preserved  their  normal  hearing  from  youth 
into  old  age,  this  presumably  could  be  important 
evidence  to  make  a  case  for  noise  as  the  critical  factor 
responsible  for  hearing  deterioration. 

The  Rosen  expeditions  found  that  the  Meban  did 
indeed  live  in  an  almost  noise-free  environment— 
noise-free,  that  is,  in  relation  to  most  contemporary 
situations.  Measurements  taken  on  noise-level  meters 
in  several  Meban  villages  near  Doing  showed  a  mean 
level  that  was  far  lower  than  the  noise  of  the  average 
home  refrigerator  in  the  United  States.  There  is,  of 
course,  virtually  no  automobile  traffic  in  Meban  coun- 
try. There  is  no  manufacturing  and  no  metal  industry. 
The  sounds  that  one  expects  to  hear  in  pastoral  or 
agricultural  settings  are  limited  here  because  the  tribe 
has  few  cattle  and  little  other  domesticated  livestock. 
Cocks  crow,  certainly,  but  this  and  all  other  sound  is 
damped  by  earth  and  foliage,  whereas  on  and  around 
many  American  farms  the  presence  of  reflecting  sur- 
faces, such  as  concrete,  tends  to  multiply  the  noise 
of  livestock,  traffic,  and  machinery.  The  loudest  sound 
we  heard  in  the  bush  country  came  during  the  harvest 
dance,  when  there  was  considerable  shouting,  sing- 
ing and  playing  of  instruments. 


Smudgepot  smoke  keeps  mosquitoes  from  cattle  near  Meban 
village.  Meban's  hat  and  long  shirt  came  from  missionary. 


39 


Once  the  low  level  of  noise  in  the 
environment  was  determined,  the  next 
steps  were  to  select  individuals  to  form 
a  sample  population,  estimate  ages, 
and  conduct  hearing  tests  that  would 
permit  comparisons  with  tested  indi- 
viduals in  several  cities  in  the  United 


States,  Europe,  and  Egypt.  The  test 
group  included  males  and  females, 
from  prepuberty  to  advanced  old  age. 
They  were  gathered  in  the  village  of 
Boing  by  interpreters  and  other  assist- 
ants, then  transported  by  lorry  to  the 
test  area  outside  the  village. 


Dr.  Rosen's  wife  distributes  gifts  to 
the  Meban  examined  by  her  husband. 


Ulomen,  seen  below  with  youngsters, 
are  usually  married  by  the  age  of  17. 


In  initial  physical  examinatic 
expedition  members  found  a  few  ci 
of  total  deafness  and  some  of  hear 
impairment,  but  all  of  these  had 
suited  from  head  injuries,  diseases 
congenital  defects.  Except  in  perh 
five  of  the  more  than  five  hund 
people  in  the  study  group,  the  teetl 
the  Meban  were  without  caries, 
many  of  them,  the  spleen  and  V. 
were  slightly  enlarged.  However,  s( 
disorders  familiar  in  Europe  and 
United  States,  such  as  high  blood  p 
sure,  heart  disease,  duodenal  ul 
ulcerative  colitis,  acute  appendic 
and  bronchial  asthma  were  not  fo 
in  the  test  group  and  apparently  do 
occur  in  the  tribe.  Judging  by  the 
sence  of  heart  disease  and  high  bl 
pressure,  there  probably  is  only  si 
incidence  of  hardening  of  the  arte 
in  the  Meban  population.  Meban  in 
study  were  also  examined  by  a  ] 
chiatrist,  Dr.  T.  Baasher,  who  ci 
with  the  expedition  from  Kharto 
the  large,  busy  capital  in  the  Sudai 
north,  where  he  had  worked  ^ 
members  of  that  city's  growing  pc 


"  i''*^ 

J^ 

^ 

H 

n 

4  ■-'. 

AU  1 

r 

>r^i 


tion  of  Africans  who  had  recently 
ft  their  tribal  lands.  Dr.  Baasher 
und  no  evidence  of  maladjustment, 
id  noted  no  serious  psychological 
-ess,  which  is  in  contrast  to  the  condi- 
)n  of  those  of  the  Meban  who  have 
Dved  to  Khartoum. 
Despite  what  seemed  to  us  a  monot- 
lous  and  unsatisfactory  diet,  the 
lysical  examinations  revealed  no 
;ns  of  malnutrition,  or  of  vitamin  or 
otein  deficiency.  Meban  are  lean, 
th  well-developed  muscles.  And  most 
;;nificant  with  respect  to  diet,  electro- 
rdiograms  showed  that  the  choles- 
•ol  levels  of  these  people  are  low.  The 
incipal  food  of  the  Meban  is  a  fer- 
?nted  gruel  made  of  a  locally  grown 
illet  seed  known  as  dura.  Several 
tier  products  are  made  from  this 
ain,  including  bread  and  beer.  Dura 
ntains  carbohydrates,  very  little  fat, 
d  a  small  amount  of  protein.  But  the 
eban  diet  is  almost  totally  free  of  ani- 
il  protein.  They  rarely  slaughter  any 
their  few  domesticated  animals  and 
B  limited  in  hunting  by  their  prim- 
ve  equipment  —  handmade,  curved 


throwing  sticks  and  wooden  spears. 
Their  common  endemic  diseases  are 
malaria,  dysentery,  pneumonia,  and 
pulmonary  tuberculosis.  There  is  a 
small  incidence  of  venereal  disease,  oc- 
casional cerebrospinal  meningitis,  both 
yellow  and  typhoid  fever,  and  ordinary 
childhood  diseases,  such  as  measles 
and  chicken  pox.  For  treatment  of  their 
ills,  Meban  rely  heavily  on  witch  doc- 
tors, although  modern  medicines  and 
medical  care  are  available  through 
missions  and  the  government. 


3 INCE  the  Meban  have  no  written 
birth  records.  Dr.  Rosen  and  his  col- 
leagues had  to  employ  many  devices  to 
assess  their  ages.  The  tribal  chief  was 
present  at  all  physical  examinations 
and  often  provided  information  that 
helped  with  this  problem.  Besides  the 
chief,  the  headmaster  of  the  school  was 
on  hand  and  was  able  to  assist  with  the 
children;  in  some  cases,  people  could 
make  comparisons  with  the  known 
ages  of  offspring  of  Arab  merchants 
who  kept  birth  records.  Dr.  Rosen's 


team  relied,  when  none  of  the  above 
means  was  effective,  on  physical  signs 
of  age,  such  as  the  changes  that  take 
place  at  puberty,  and  the  growth  of 
teeth.  In  estimating  the  ages  of  adults 
the  team's  method  was  comp'icaed, 
but  probably  accurate  to  within  „bout 
ten  years.  Shortly  after  puber.y,  Me- 
ban boys  begin  courtship,  which 
entails  two  or  three  years  of  working 
for  the  prospective  father-in-law  before 
marriage.  Dr.  Rosen  and  his  colleagues 
estimated  that  the  average  boy  mar- 
ried at  about  the  age  of  nineteen,  and 
the  average  girl  perhaps  at  seventeen. 
The  team  assessed  a  Meban  as  forty 
years  old  by  counting  as  nineteen  the 
age  at  which  he  married,  adding  sev- 
enteen for  the  age  when  his  eldest 
daughter  married,  and  adding  four  for 
her  three-year-old  child.  This  system 
admits  of  error,  of  course,  and  any 
error  would  be  considerably  multiplied 
in  estimating  the  age  of  the  very  old. 
All  subjects  were  classed  according 
to  age,  then  given  the  hearing  tests. 
Researchers  conducted  the  tests  both 
outdoors  and  in  a  "rest  house"  pro- 


*  t  i. 


MCte^ 


fficer  of  the  government  mobile  health 
lit  takes  blood  pressure  measurement. 


ded  by  the  Ministry  of  Health, 
und-level  meters,  placed  near  the  test 
sitions,  registered  continuous  sur- 
unding  noise  levels  below  40  decibels 
the  C  scale,  which  is  approximately 
B  level  of  a  barely  audible  whisper. 
;casionally,  there  was  a  noise-intru- 
)n  made  by  a  domestic  animal  in  the 
jinity.  An  interpreter  gave  instruc- 
ins  to  each  subject  in  the  Meban 
iguage,  asking  him  or  her  to  raise 
hand  on  hearing  a  tone,  keep  it 
ised,  then  to  lower  the  hand  when 
3  tone  became  inaudible. 


HE  results  of  these  tests  were  signifi- 
nt.  They  have  shown  that,  compared 
th  recently  studied  groups  in  New 
)rk,  Diisseldorf,  Cairo,  and  a  large 
oup  tested  at  the  Wisconsin  State 
,ir  in  1954.  the  Meban  do  not  suffer 
irastic  decline  in  their  hearing  abil- 
■  during  the  process  of  aging.  In 
ch  of  the  comparisons  made,  Meban 
aring  was  especially  superior  in  the 
er  years  with  respect  to  high-fre- 
ency  sound.  As  age  increases,  the 
rcentage  of  Meban  who  hear  tones 
12  to  24  kilocycles  per  second  grows 
uher  in  relation  to  other  study 
oups  of  the  same  age,  until  in  the  70- 
■79-year-old  age  bracket,  53  per  cent 
spond  to  tones  of  14  kc.  compared 
2  per  cent  of  those  in  New  \  ork, 
isseldorf,  and  Cairo. 
Since  the  inception  of  the  Meban 
idy  in  1961,  information  on  the  per- 
ption  of  high-frequency  sound  has 
en  gathered  by  Dr.  Rosen's  team  in 
rious  places  around  the  world,  in- 


ore  examination,  a  young  mother  is 
rviewed  by  Dr.  Halim  of  Khartoum. 


Dr.  Rosen  gives  high-frequency  ear         to  tone  that  is  regulated  by  doctor  and 
test.  Meban  listens  through  headset         raises  hand  when  sound  is  audible. 


tardiologists  perform  one  of  many 
heart  tests  given  to  the  study  group. 


Doctors  discovered  that  heart  disease 
is  nearly  non-existent  among  Meban. 


43 


eluding  the  above-mentioned  three 
cities.  Research  on  the  Meban  at  first 
seemed  to  emphasize  the  importance 
of  the  quiet  environment  to  their  hear- 
ing retention.  But  there  subsequently 
emerged  a  much  more  complex  picture 
of  the  critical  factors  affecting  the 
tribe's  hearing.  For  instance,  the  blood 
pressure  readings  of  the  Meban  were 
compared  mth  the  same  type  of  data, 
compiled  by  insurance  companies  as 
well  as  medical  institutions,  on  healthy 
•adults  in  the  United  States  and  Europe. 
The  differences  were  striking.  The 
blood  pressures  of  the  Meban  remain 
almost  constantly  low  from  childhood 
to  old  age,  an  ideal  circumstance.  In 
United  States  and  European  urban 
populations,  blood  pressure  increases 
progressively  with  advancing  age,  es- 
pecially after  forty. 

Another  interesting  contrast  is  that 
blood  pressure  readings  were  found  to 
be  consistently  lower  in  Meban  men 
than  in  women.  Dr.  Rosen  believes,  on 
the  basis  of  estimated  ages,  that  the 
men  of  the  tribe  generally  outlive  the 
women.  Insurance  company  statistics 
show  that  the  opposite  is  the  average 
in  the  United  States,  where  the  blood 
pressures  of  men  are  higher  than  those 
of  women  up  to  about  age  forty-five, 
after  which  the  pressures  of  the  women 
become  greater.  In  the  New  York  test 
group,  a  correlation  between  a  rise  in 
blood  pressure  and  decreases  in  high- 


frequency  sound  perceptions  has  been 
conclusively  demonstrated.  And,  signif- 
icantly, this  contrasts  sharply  with  the 
constancy  of  both  blood  pressure  and 
hisih-tone  hearinff  in  the  aging  Meban. 


Hs  a  result  of  the  work  with  the 
Meban  and  follow-up  studies  con- 
ducted by  Dr.  Rosen's  team  in  New 
York,  Diisseldorf,  Cairo,  in  a  remote 
region  of  Finland,  and  on  the  Dalma- 
tion  coast  of  Yugoslavia,  a  correlation 
linking  high-frequency  tone  perception 
to  blood  pressure  and  heart  ills  now 
seems  almost  definitely  established. 
Moreover,  the  work  to  assemble  this 
picture  seems  to  have  led  to  a  possible 
major  medical  breakthrough  entailing 
the  use  of  high-frequency  hearing  tests 
to  diagnose  incipient  heart  disease. 

As  recently  as  the  fall  of  1963.  Dr. 
Rosen  conducted  studies  of  the  afore- 
mentioned two  sainple  populations  in 
Finland  and  Yugoslavia.  The  Finnish 
group  has  long  been  known  to  have  a 
very  high  coronary  rate,  while  the 
tested  Yugoslavs  have  one  of  the  lowest 
rates  of  heart  disease  in  the  world, 
nearly  comparable  to  that  of  the 
Meban.  The  ear  tests  showed  that  the 
Yugoslavian  test  group  had  far  better 
hearing  in  the  high  frequencies  than 
the  Finnish  test  group. 

With  the  information  from  these  re- 
cent studies.  Dr.  Rosen  and  the  mem- 


bers of  his  expeditions  have  conclud 
that  noise  damage  is  doubtless  a  pro 
inent  factor  in  explaining  poor  hit 
frequency  perception  among  the  agii 
but  that  other  influences  probably  pi 
an  even  more  significant  role.  The 
more  critical  factors  would  appear 
be  such  things  as  vascular  hardenir 
as  well  as  diet,  nutrition,  tissue  chanc 
in  the  middle  ear  and,  in  many  : 
stances,  the  irritations  of  city  life. 

But  all  these  variables,  Dr.  Ros 
believes,  are  undoubtedly  interrelatf 
For  according  to  Dr.  Abdul  Moham 
Halim,  the  Chief  Internist  of  the  Kh; 
toum  Civil  Hospital,  the  Meban  I 
come  prone  to  high  blood  pressure  ai 
coronary  thrombosis  if  they  emigri 
to  Khartoum.  There  they  are  expos 
to  a  new  diet,  in  addition  to  the  te 


lulli  lju)>  and  girls  convene  in  this 
classroom.  Entrance  to  higher  grades  is 
limited  to  boys  who  show  a  high  I.Q. 

44 


If  the  village  children,  right,  stay  with 
tribe,  they  escape  the  illnesses  of  the 
Meban  who  go  to  dwell  in  Khartoum. 


.•1»«e^fc^B»»e-- 


|Ons  of  urban  life,  and,  according  to 
T.  Baasher,  they  often  experience 
.ychological  problems.  When  the 
eban  also  develop  high  blood  pres- 
.re,  concomitant  hardening  of  the 
aall  blood  vessels  to  the  internal  ear 
ay  cause  high-frequency  hearing  de- 
cencies that  are  normal  to  the  aged 
European  and  American  cities. 


HE  picture  that  finally  emerges  from 
e  work  with  the  Meban  and  related 
udies  is  a  broadly  interesting  one. 
is,  according  to  Dr.  Rosen  and  his 
illeagues,  a  picture  of  delicate  inter- 
lationships  that  exist  among  the 
ibe's  physiology,  its  culture,  and  its 
itural  environment.  It  may  seem  sur- 
ising  that  even  psychological  aspects 


of  the  Meban  way  of  life— the  absence 
of  stress,  for  example— contribute  to 
their  general  condition  in  such  a  way 
as  to  influence  indirectly  the  ability  to 
perceive  high-frequency  sound.  None- 
theless the  Meban  study,  at  first  viewed 
only  as  a  study  of  the  human  ear.  did 
eventually  require  the  help  of  Dr. 
Baasher  and  other  men  trained  in  the 
behavioral  sciences,  with  perspectives 
other  than  those  of  ear  specialists, 
physiologists,  and  cardiologists. 

In  a  recent  summary  of  his  Meban 
study,  Dr.  Rosen  has  written:  "Might 
not  the  stress  and  strain  that  afflicts 
modern  civilized  man  somehow  affect 
all  his  senses?  It  obviously  does  affect 
his  hearing.  The  relatively  slight  de- 
crease of  Meban  perception  in  the  high 
tones  in  old  age,  the  constantly  low 


blood  pressure  from  childhood  to  old 
age,  the  almost  total  absence  of  tooth 
caries,  the  virtual  absence  of  hyper- 
tension, coronary  thrombosis,  ulcera- 
tive colitis,  duodenal  ulcer,  and  bron- 
chial asthma,  all  too  common  in  our 
country,  would  suggest  that  these  afflic- 
tions result  in  good  part  from  the  diet 
and  tension-ridden  mode  of  life  in 
modern  civilization."  And,  indeed,  to 
reinforce  this  conclusion  we  have  the 
experience  of  Drs.  Baasher  and  Halim 
in  Khartoum  that  the  Meban  lose  their 
marvelous  "immunity"  to  these  ills 
when  they  go  north  to  the  cities.  At 
present,  a  scientist  remains  with  the 
Meban  in  their  villages,  making  a 
study  of  their  diet,  and  in  the  future, 
more  men  will  go  there  and  elsewhere 
to  expand  the  scope  of  the  inquiry. 


*S!iMJ 


Crescent  venus,  top  right,  is  seen  with  the  crescent  mooi 


SKY  REPORTER 

With  a  simple  telescope  Galileo  mapped  the  true  orbit  of  Venui 


By  Thomas  D.  Nicholson 


THIS  YEAR,  the  400th  anniversary  of  Galileo's  birth 
(February  15,  1564) ,  Venus  goes  through  some 
changes  in  our  sky  similar  to  the  ones  that  convinced 
Galileo  that  the  sun,  and  not  the  earth,  was  the  center  of 
planetary  motion.  Anyone  with  a  small  telescope  can  easily 
repeat  Galileo's  observations  by  following  the  changes 
Venus  goes  through  in  the  months  ahead. 

When  Galileo  looked  at  Venus  through  a  telescope  for 
the  first  time,  in  the  year  1610.  he  was  surprised  to  see  that 
it  did  not  appear  disk-shaped,  as  did  the  other  planets. 
Instead,  Venus  appeared  in  the  form  of  a  crescent.  As  he 
watched  the  planet  over  the  months,  however,  its  appear- 
ance changed  gradually.  The  crescent  reversed  itself,  then 
changed  to  a  quarter-phase,  a  gibbous  phase,  and  eventually 

46 


the  planet  entered  its  final  phase— round  and  bright,  lil 
the  full  moon.  As  it  changed  its  shape,  the  planet  als 
changed  its  apparent  size  and  brightness.  Venus.  Galik 
noted,  was  brightest  in  its  crescent  phase,  when  it  appeare 
six  times  larger  than  when  it  resembled  the  full  moon. 

Galileo  easily  deduced  from  these  changes  that  Veni 
had  to  revolve  around  the  sun.  rather  than  around  tl 
earth  as  astronomers  had  believed  since  ancient  time 
Only  if  Venus  revolved  around  the  sun,  he  pointed  ou 
could  it  change  its  shape,  size,  and  brightness  precisely  i 
the  manner  that  he  had  observed. 

An  interesting  story  is  told  by  the  historian  Arthi 
Koestler  in  his  book  The  Sleepwalkers,  relating  to  Galileo 
announcement  of  his  discovery  of  Venus'  phases.   Coi 


ed  lest  the  priority  of  his  discovery  be  questioned,  yet 
vishing  to  reveal  it  himself  as  yet,  the  great  astronomer 
dated  an  anagram  in  which  his  real  message  was 
en.  The  anagram  read,  in  Latin,  "Haec  immatura  a 
am  frustra  legunturoy,"  which  Koestler  translates  as 
;se  immature  things  I  am  searching  for  now  in  vain." 
,  of  course,  was  not  Galileo's  true  message.  The  letters 
16  anagram,  when  suitably  rearranged,  also  form  the 
Is  "Cynthiae  figuras  aemulatur  mater  amorum,"  or 
;  mother  of  love  [the  planet  Venus]  emulates  the  shapes 
ynthia  [the  moon]."  This  explanation  was  later  re- 
;d  by  Galileo  himself. 

iE  anagram  reached,  among  other  persons,  the  great 
German  astronomer  Johannes  Kepler,  discoverer  of  the 

of  planetary  motion.  Kepler,  according  to  Koestler, 
.  several  rearrangements  of  the  letters  of  the  anagram 
1  attempt  to  discover  Galileo's  true  meaning.  Among 
er's  solutions  was  "Macula  rufa  in  Jove  est  gyratur 
lem.  etc."  This  is  translated  by  Koestler  to  read  "There 

red  spot  in  Jupiter  which  rotates  mathematically." 
1  a  marking— the  Great  Red  Spot— was  actually  dis- 
red  on  the  planet  Jupiter  in  1878,  and  has  been  ob- 
;d  up  to  the  present  time,  rotating  with  the  planet, 
this  was  over  two  centuries  after  Kepler's  suggestion, 
•e  was  no  way  in  which  Kepler  could  have  known 
it  it,  or  for  that  matter,  even  that  Jupiter  itself  rotates, 
coincidence,  for  it  must  be  that,  is  most  remarkable, 
small  telescope  would  be  superior  to  the  simple  instru- 
ts  Galileo  used.  Venus  is  bright  enough  so  that  large 
;s  or  mirrors  are  not  needed.  Great  magnifying  power 
so  unnecessary;  the  most  powerful  telescope  Galileo 

had  a  magnifying  power  of  no  more  than  thirty 
leters.  Small  terrestrial  telescopes,  such  as  those  used 
lature  observers,  are  sufficient.  In  fact,  the  crescent 
;e  of  Venus  can  be  seen  with  binoculars,  if  they  are 
died  against  a  wall  or  on  some  sort  of  rigid  support, 
he  table  on  page  48  gives  useful  information  for  those 

might  like  to  follow  the  changes  in  Venus  this  year, 
ther  by  casuallv  observing  the  planet  with  their  eyes 
e  or  by  observing  it  more  formally  with  some  optical 
stance.  The  table  gives  the  date  and  hour  (EST)  for 
I  of  the  planet's  configurations  this  year,  and  certain 
sical  data  concerning  the  planet  at  each  of  those  times. 


The  elongation  given  in  the  third  column  is  the  angular 
distance  from  the  sun  to  Venus  as  seen  from  earth, 
measured  from  the  sun  toward  the  eastern  horizon.  After 
inferior  conjunction  on  June  19  it  is  measured  toward  the 
western  horizon.  While  the  elongation  is  easterly,  Venus 
will  be  an  evening  star,  setting  after  sunset  (the  relation- 
ship "easterly-evening"  makes  this  easy  to  remember). 
When  the  elongation  is  westerly,  Venus  will  rise  before  the 
sun  and  be  a  morning  star  in  the  twilight  before  sunrise. 

The  fourth  column  gives  the  distance  from  the  earth 
to  Venus,  showing  that  the  planet  is  closest  to  earth  at  the 
time  of  inferior  conjunction,  when  it  passes  very  nearly 
between  the  earth  and  the  sun.  The  apparent  diameter  of 
Venus,  as  seen  from  earth,  is  given  in  the  fifth  column  and 
clearly  reflects  the  changing  distance  between  Venus  and 
the  earth.  The  greatest  angular  diameter  of  the  planet,  near 
the  time  of  inferior  conjunction,  is  almost  one  minute  of 
arc,  or  very  nearly  one-thirtieth  of  the  apparent  diameter 
of  the  moon  and  sun. 

Column  six  gives  the  phase  of  Venus.  This  is  the  per- 
centage of  the  planet's  illuminated  disk  that  is  visible  from 
earth.  From  April  11  until  inferior  conjunction,  the  cres- 
cent phase  of  Venus  resembles  the  phases  of  the  moon  from 
new  to  first  quarter.  In  going  through  these  phases,  the 
moon,  of  course,  waxes  from  the  earliest  crescent  to  first 
quarter,  but  Venus  wanes  from  the  quarter-phase  on  April 
11  to  the  smallest  crescent  at  conjunction. 

The  phase  at  conjunction  is  given  as  zero,  but  a  small 
part  of  the  illuminated  disk  of  Venus  is  actuafly  visible 
even  at  conjunction  because  of  the  inclination  of  Venus' 
orbit  to  the  plane  of  the  earth's  orbit.  Because  of  the  inclina- 
tion (3.4°),  Venus  can  be  separated  from  the  sun  at  infe- 
rior conjunction  by  as  much  as  four  degrees,  and  part  of 
the  sunlit  portion  of  the  planet  can  be  seen  at  the  upper  or 
lower  limb  of  the  planet.  At  inferior  conjunction  this  year, 
Venus  is  located  nearly  two  degrees  below  the  sun.  The 
actual  phase  of  the  planet  at  conjunction  this  year  is  0.1 
per  cent,  not  quite  zero. 

It  is  interesting  to  note,  however,  that  Venus  is  always 
brighter  at  inferior  conjunction  than  would  be  indicated 
by  the  phase  alone.  The  bright  cusps  (horns  )  of  the  crescent 
extend  much  farther  around  the  planet  than  is  indicated  by 
geometry  alone.  At  times  a  complete  halo  of  light  can  be 
seen  around  the  dark  side.  This  is  caused  by  the  refraction 


August   15,    1965 


March  15,  1965 


August  29,   1964 


June  30,   1964 


GRAM  SHOWS  Configurations  of  Venus  in  1964  and  1965. 
observing  similar  changes  in  the  brightness,  size,  and 


shape   of  the  planet,  Galileo  reached  the   conclusion  that 
Venus  must  revolve  around  the  sun,  rather  than  the  earth. 


47 


As    VENUS    lies    in    inferior    conjunction,    the    faint    ring 
visible   around   it   is   twilight   in   the   planet's   atmosphere. 


of  sunlight  through  its  atmosphere  and  provided  astrono- 
mers with  the  first  evidence  that  Venus,  like  the  earth,  has 
a  rather  dense  atmosphere. 

The  last  column  in  the  table  indicates  the  brightness  of 
Venus,  expressed  as  its  stellar  magnitude  ("Sky  Reporter," 
January  and  February,  1964).  Notice  that  the  times  of 
greatest  brilliancy  do  not  occur  when  Venus  is  nearest  the 
earth  (inferior  conjunction)  or  when  the  greatest  phase 
occurs  (superior  conjunction— which  will  occur  next  in 
April,  1965).  These  two  factors,  distance  and  phase,  are 
both  involved  in  the  brightness  of  Venus.  The  closer  Venus 
is  to  the  earth,  the  brighter  it  is.  But  also,  the  closer  it  is, 
the  more  the  illuminated  surface  is  turned  away  from  the 
earth,  reducing  the  observed  brightness  of  the  planet. 

Because  the  apparent  brightness  of  Venus  is  the  com- 
bined result  of  distance  and  phase,  two  points  of  greatest 
brilliancy  are  observed  during  the  period  Venus  goes 
through  its  configurations.  One  of  these  points  occurs  about 
five  weeks  before  inferior  conjunction  (when  the  planet  is 
approaching  earth  but  the  phase  is  diminishing),  and  the 
other  occurs  about  five  weeks  after  inferior  conjunction 
(when  Venus  is  receding  from  earth  but  is  growing  rounder)- 

The  table  shows  that  Venus  is  at  greatest  brilliancy  on 
May  13  and  again  on  July  26  of  this  year.  Note  that  the 
brightness  on  April  10  (—4.0)  is  the  same  as  on  May  29, 
although  on  the  former  date  Venus  is  nearly  twice  as  far 


Dr.  Nicholson  is  Assistant  Chairman,  Astronomer,  and  a] 
lecturer  at  The  American  Museum-Hayden  Planetarium.- 


away.  According  to  the  inverse  square  law  of  radiatio 
Venus  should  be  four  times  brighter  when  its  distance 
reduced  by  one-half.  But  note  also  that  on  May  29  i 
see  just  13  per  cent  of  the  illuminated  surface  of  the  plan 
— about  one-fourth  of  the  illuminated  portion  visible  ( 
April  10.  Thus  the  brightness  of  the  planet  is  very  near 
the  same  on  the  two  dates. 

When  Venus  is  at  its  greatest  brilliancy,  the  planet  c. 
be  seen  in  the  daytime  even  without  the  assistance  of  optic 
This,  of  course,  is  known  to  most  navigators,  who  regular 
depend  on  daytime  observations  of  Venus.  It  helps  a  gre 
deal  to  know  where  to  look;  one  way  is  to  use  the  cresce 
moon  as  a  guide.  On  May  14,  at  11 :00  a.m.,  EST,  the  mo( 
and  Venus  are  in  conjunction,  and  Venus  is  about  fo 
degrees  (or  eight  lunar  diameters)  north  of  the  moon.  T: 
searching  for  the  planet  in  the  vicinity  above  the  moon  ( 
that  day— with  binoculars,  if  available,  to  make  it  easi( 
Then,  after  locating  it  try  looking  with  your  eyes  alone. 

Another  aid  in  finding  the  daytime  position  of  the  plar 
is  to  know  the  exact  time  of  meridian  passage— the  tii 
when  the  planet  is  bearing  due  south.  The  local  civil  tii 
of  meridian  passage  for  Venus  is  3:00  p.m.  on  May 
2:50  P.M.  on  May  10,  2:30  p.m.  on  May  20,  and  2:00  P.i 
on  May  30.  Look  high  up  in  the  skies  about  those  timf 
toward  the  south  and  about  five-sixths  of  the  way  up  fro 
the  horizon  to  the  point  overhead.  Again,  binoculars  he 

Venus  will  fade  rapidly  in  early  June  as  conjunct! 
with  the  sun  approaches.  It  will  also  be  disappearing  frc 
the  evening  sky,  since  its  retrograde  (westerly)  motion  w 
take  it  rapidly  toward  the  sun,  thus  causing  it  to  set  earli 
each  evening.  At  conjunction,  on  June  19,  Venus  and  t 
sun  will  set  together.  Then  Venus  moves  west  of  the  s 
and  becomes  a  morning  star. 

BY  early  July,  it  should  be  easy  to  observe  Venus 
the  morning  sky  shortly  before  sunrise.  It  will  gri 
brighter  once  again  as  more  of  its  illuminated  porti 
becomes  visible  from  earth.  The  phases  of  Venus  in  t 
morning  sky  resemble  the  phases  of  the  waning  moc 
although  again  the  order  of  the  phases  is  reversed.  In  Ju 
Venus  will  resemble  the  late  crescent  moon.  By  August  ^ 
the  crescent  will  have  grown  to  resemble  the  last  quarl 
moon,  and  in  September  Venus  wiU  appear  like  the  wani: 
gibbous  moon.  For  about  two  weeks  before  July  26  (wh 
Venus  reaches  greatest  brilliancy  in  the  morning  sky)  ai 
for  at  least  a  month  afterward,  it  will  again  be  possible 
see  the  planet  during  daylight  hours  with  binoculars— ev 
with  the  unaided  eye— as  it  precedes  the  sun  across  the  sli 


CONFIGURATIONS  OF  VENUS 

-1964 

DATE  (EST) 

C0NFi(3URATI0N 

ELONGATION 

DISTANCE  FROM 

APPARENT  DIAMETER 

PHASE  (per  cent 

BRIGHTNESS 

(degrees  of  arc) 

EARTH  (miles) 

(seconds  of 

arc) 

of  disk  area) 

(magnitude) 

April  10,  4:00  a.m. 

Greatest  elongation 

46'  E 

65,400,000 

23.6" 

51% 

-4.0 

IVIay  13,  2:00  p.m. 

Greatest  brilliancy 

40°  E 

42,200,000 

37.0" 

27% 

-4.2 

May  29,  1:00  a.m. 

Stationary 

29°E 

32,600,000 

47.4" 

13% 

-4.0 

June  19,  6:00  p.m. 

Inferior  conjunction 

0 

26,000,000 

58.1" 

0 

-2.7 

July  11,  6:00  a.m. 

Stationary 

29'  W 

32,500,000 

47.5" 

13% 

-4.0 

July  26,  11:00  a.m. 

Greatest  brilliancy 

39=  W 

41,400,000 

37.3" 

27% 

-4.2 

August  29,-5:00  a.m. 

-Greatest-elongation 

46°  W 

64,800,000 

23.8" 

50% 

-4.0 

48 


^E  SKY 
MAY 


MAGNITUDE  SCALE 

*  -0.1  and  brighter 

*  0.0  to  +0.9 

*  T  1.0  to  +1.9 

*  +2.0  to  +2.9 
+  +3.0  to  +3.9 

■    +4.0  and  fainter 


COMA~BERENICES  =f 


CORVUS         ■"  '•,      '.A 


"-^&:anSl.WW^  S:^ 


TliVlETABLE 

May    1  10:00  P.lvi. 

IVIay  15  9:00  P.M. 

iVlay31  8:00  P.M. 

(Local  Standard  Time) 


lay  4:  The  Eta  Aquarid  shower  of  meteors  reaches  maxi- 

Ti  this  evening.  The  radiant  is  well  up  in  the  southeast  by 

3  A.M.  on  the  5th,  but  the  bright  last  quarter  moon  will 

rfere  with  observations. 

lay  6:  Saturn  should  be  easy  to  find  this  morning.  It  is 

:onjunction  with  the  moon  at  3:00  a.m.,  EST,  and  it  rises 

ut  a  half  hour  earlier  into  the  predawn  eastern  sky  slightly 

ve  and  left  of  the  crescent  moon. 

lay  9:  Mercury  is  stationary  in  right  ascension  and  re- 

les  direct  motion. 

lay  13:  Venus  reaches  greatest  brilliancy  (—4.2  magni- 

2)  in  the  evening  sky. 

lay  14:  Venus  and  the  early  crescent  moon  are  in  con- 

:tion  at  11:00  a.m.,  EST.  This  evening,  the  brilliant  Venus 

ears  to  the  left  of  the  three-day-did  moon. 

lay  19:  Mars  and  Jupiter  are  in  conjunction  at  2:00  p.m., 

'.  They  are  quite  close  in  the  morning  sky  for  a  few  days, 

they  rise  rather  late  to  be  visible  easily. 

lay  24:  Mercury  is  at  greatest  westerly  elongation  from 

sun  (25°).  The  planet  may  be  seen  in  the  morning  sky, 

not  easily,  for  this  is  an  unfavorable  conjunction. 


May  25:  Mercury  and  Jupiter  are  in  conjunction  at  9:00 
A.M.,  EST.  Both  planets  are  quite  close  to  the  sun,  barely 
above  the  horizon  at  sunrise. 

May  29:  Venus  is  stationary  in  right  ascension  and  begins 
retrograde  (westerly)  motion.  It  is  now  moving  rapidly  toward 
its  conjunction  with  the  sun  in  mid-June. 

Venus  is  the  only  planet  very  brilliant  in  the  west  for  about 
three  hours  after  sunset  until  midmonth.  Toward  the  end  of 
May,  it  is  approaching  the  sun  rapidly  and  setting  earlier  by 
about  four  minutes  each  evening. 

The  other  naked-eye  planets  are  morning  stars  this  month, 
but  only  Saturn  is  easily  observed.  It  can  be  seen  in  the  east 
for  about  three  hours  before  sunrise. 

For  several  mornings  about  the  25th,  when  Mercury  is  at 
greatest  westerly  elongation,  Jupiter,  Mars,  and  Mercury  are 
very  close  to  one  another  above  the  eastern  horizon  for  about 
an  hour  before -sunrise.  Observers  should  see  Jupiter  (—1.6 
magnitude)  first.  A  first-magnitude  object  to  the  right  and 
lower  than  Jupiter  (on  the  25th)  is  Mercury,  and  another— 
slightly  orange  in  appearance— to  the  left  and  below  Jupiter 
is  Mars.  Binoculars  will  help  in  finding  the  two  fainter  planets. 


The  Monarch's 
Emergence 

Each  step  vital  as  butterfly  sheds  pupa 


By  Alexander  B.  Klots 


Newly    hatched    caterpillar    feed 
on  the  underside  of  a  milkweed  leal 


WE  IN  NORTH  AMERICA  are  extremely  fortunate  in  hav- 
ing among  us  one  of  the  world's  most  interesting 
butterflies.  Primarily  known  as  the  world's  champion  long- 
distance migratory  butterfly,  the  monarch  (Danaus  plexip- 
piis  Linnaeus)  is  also  notable  for  its  ability  to  defend  itself 
against  enemies  by  employing  a  poison  chemical,  a  process 
not  yet  fully  understood.  In  addition,  the  monarch  is  the 
chief  partner  with  the  viceroy  (Limenitis  archippus 
Cramerj  in  a  classical  case  of  mimicry,  and  presents  an 
especially  interesting  life  history  and  development. 

After  wintering  in  Florida,  Texas,  or  perhaps  Mexico, 
the  female  monarch  flies  northward  in  spring  to  lay  her 
co^s  singly  on  the  underside  of  milkweed  leaves.  In  turn, 
females  whose  mothers  were  such  migrants,  may  very  well 
fly  farther  north  to  lay  their  eggs,  so  that  the  migration 
may  extend  far  into  Canada.  In  a  few  days  of  warm 
weather,  the  eggs  hatch  and  the  tiny  caterpillars  begin 
feeding,  at  first  merely  gouging  out  the  lower  surface  of 
the  milkweed  leaf,  then  biting  through  it.  These  feeding 
holes  are  helpful  in  locating  the  caterpillars,  which  at  this 
stage  are  boldly  marked  with  black  crossbands  and  have 
a  pair  of  short,  black,  threadlike  filaments  near  either  end. 
By  the  time  the  caterpillars  have  reached  a  length  of  about 
two  inches,  their  color  has  become  considerably  brighter. 
The  crossbands  now  are  black  and  yellow  and  white,  and 
the  filaments  have  become  proportionately  longer. 

While  it  would  seem  that  their  conspicuousness  would 
make  them  easy  prey  for  birds  and  other  predators,  it  in  fact 
provides  added  protection  for  the  young  caterpillars.  Since, 
at  this  stage  they  apparently  are  extremely  bad  tasting 
or  even  poisonous,  their  bold  colors  undoubtedly  serve  as 
warning  signs  of  their  inedibility,  thus  giving  them  a  high 
degree  of  immunity  from  predation.  This,  however,  does 
not  prevent  "parasitic"  flies  and  wasps  from  laying  eggs 
inside  the  caterpillars,  causing  untold  thousands  of  deaths. 

If  it  escapes  such  hazards,  the  monarch  caterpillar  will 
molt  four  times  and  attain  full  size  in  about  two  weeks. 
It  then  prepares  for  its  metamorphosis  into  a  pupa,  or 
chrysalis  (as  the  pupa  of  a  butterfly  is  called).  First,  it 
spins  a  thick  silk  pad  that  adheres  to  the  lower  surface 
of  a  leaf  or  twig.  The  caterpillar  grasps  this  firmly  with 
the  last  pair  of  its  abdominal  prolegs,  then  swings  from 
it.  head  downward.  In  a  few  hours  it  begins  to  molt;  the 
head  capsule  and  body  skin  crack  and  peel  off  upwardly 
to  expose  the  pupa.  At  the  rear  (upper)  end  of  the  pupa  is 
a  spike,  the  cremaster.  As  the  last  of  the  caterpillar's  skin 

SO 


is  molted,  the  pupa  must  engage  the  cremaster  in  the  sill 
pad  where  many  tiny  hooks  catch  and  hold  the  fibers.  Thi 
is  quite  a  trick,  because  the  cremaster  is  inside  the  skir 
while  the  proleg  booklets  are  on  the  outside.  Imagine  youi 
self  hanging  by  one  gloved  hand  and  having  to  slip  ou 
of  the  glove  and  remain  hanging  by  your  bare  hand.  Some 
how  the  pupa  accomplishes  this,  then  hangs  free,  supportei 
only  by  the  cremaster.  At  first  the  pupa  is  wet,  misshaper 
and  greenish  yellow,  but  in  a  couple  of  hours  it  dries,  be 
comes  more  compact,  and  changes  to  a  lovely  translucen 
yellow-green.  There  is  also  a  raised  ridge  at  the  base  of  th 
pupa's  abdomen  with  a  number  of  small,  bright  gold  spots 
The  pupa  now  hangs  for  ten  days  to  two  weeks,  with  littl 
visible  change.  Inside,  however,  the  structures  of  the  adul 
butterfly  are  being  formed  and  caterpillar  structures  ar 
being  broken  down.  Through  the  transparent  coverings  o 
the  wings,  for  instance,  the  rather  meandering  tracheae 
or  air  tubes,  can  be  seen  straightening  out  to  be  replace 
by  the  firm,  tubular  veins  that  later  will  act  as  wing  suj 
ports.  During  the  last  twenty-four  hours  of  molting  th 
bold,  orange-brown,  black,  and  white  colors  of  the  adu 
butterfly  will  be  formed  in  its  scales  and  hairs.  Thus  fo 
a  while  an  exact  miniature  pattern  of  the  wings  show 
plainly  in  the  pupa,  signifying  that  the  adult  butterfly  wi 
soon  emerge.  This  usually  seems  to  take  place  quite  earl 
in  the  morning. 

WHEN  all  is  ready,  air  and  blood  are  pumped  into  th 
head  and  thorax,  expanding  them  and  cracking  th 
lower  part  of  the  pupal  shell.  The  butterfly  first  pushe 
itself  through  the  crack,  then,  as  it  gets  its  legs  out,  pul 
with  them  until  it  finally  emerges  from  the  shell,  wet  an 
weak.  The  brand  new  monarch  climbs  to  a  support  froi 
which  it  can  hang,  expand  its  wngs,  and  harden  its  oute 
skeleton.  In  addition,  the  butterfly  must  straighten  out  th 
two  slender  half-tubes  of  its  maxiUae  and  fit  them  togethe 
to  form  the  long,  tubular  proboscis,  or  tongue,  throug 
which  it  will  be  able  to  suck  nectar  or  other  liquids.  Whe 
properly  assembled,  the  tongue  is  coiled  like  a  watch  sprin 
beneath  the  face.  This  immediate  postemergence  period 
both  crucial  and  precarious  in  the  life  of  the  monarcl 
Any  undue  disturbance  may  cause  crumpled  or  misshape 
wings,  or  damage  to  other  newly  formed  structures.  If  a 
goes  well,  however,  the  butterfly  accomplishes  these  fin. 
processes  in  relatively  short  time,  and  within  a  half  hoi 
to  an  hour  the  new  monarch  is  ready  to  take  off. 


*"^^ 


HER  than  serving  as  a  disguise, 
1  crossbands  remind  predators  that 
monarch  is  a  most  unpleasant  meal. 


In  series  al  riglit,  caterpillar  sheds 
skin  and  metamorphizes  to  pupa  stage 
where   butterfly   structures   will  form. 


-^.jU^^^^ 


Wing  Pattern  shows  through  pupa 
at  top  left,  indicating  that  aduh 
butterfly  will   soon   emerge.   Insect 


cracks  the  pupal  shell,  lower  U 
and  frees  itself.  Gradually  ^nt 
expand  and  outer  skeleton  hardei 


\ 


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^  Birds  Of 
Oolombia 

BY  R.  MEYER  DE  SCHAUENSEE 
»^  The  Academy  of  Natural 

[fffli         Sciences  of  Philadelphia 

\\\*\9.  ft  The  only  reference  book  in 

English  for  the  fabulous 

birdlife  of  Central 

America  and 

northern  South 

America, 


10 


•  344  species 
illustrated 
in  full  color 
and  black 
and  white 

•  448  pages 


SCIENCE  BOOK  SERVICE  N-1 

Box  366,  Narberth,  Pa. 

Please  send  me copies  of  THE  BIRDS 

OF  COLOMBIA  by  R.  M.  de  Schauensee  at 

$10.00  a  copy. 

D  Check  enclosed        □  Charge  my  account 

Name 

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Pemsyhania  residents  add  5%  sales  tax 


About  the  Authors 

Dr.  Bernard  Goldman,  the  author  of 
"Bronzes  of  Luristan,"  is  Associate  Pro- 
fessor of  the  History  of  Art  at  Wayne 
State  University's  College  of  Liberal 
Arts.  Dr.  Goldman  received  his  doctorate 
in  ancient  art  and  archeology  from  the 
University  of  Michigan,  and  he  has 
traveled  in  the  East  as  a  Fellow  of  the 
American  Council  of  Learned  Societies. 
His  scholarly  works  on  Luristan  have  ap- 
peared in  a  number  of  archeological 
journals  in  the  United  States  and  abroad. 
The  discussion  of  the  natural  processes 
that  cause  the  formation  of  stalactites 
and  stalagmites  is  the  work  of  Mr. 
Edward  O'Donnell,  Substitute  in  Geol- 
ogy at  Queens  College,  in  New  York  City. 
Mr.  O'Donnell  has  worked  as  an  Assist- 
ant Field  Hydrologist  with  the  U.S. 
Geological  Survey,  and  in  1963,  while 
with  the  Lamont  Geological  Observatory, 
he  participated  in  Project  Equalant,  a 
survey  of  the  tropical  Atlantic. 

Mrs.  Kay  Breeden,  who  wrote  of  Aus- 
tralian fruit  bats  under  the  title  "Fruc- 
tivorous  Fliers,"  is  a  writer  on  Australian 
natural  history  subjects.  The  photo- 
graphs that  illustrate  her  article  were 
made  by  her  husband,  Mr.  Stanley 
Breeden,  official  photographer  of  The 
Queensland  Museum,  in  Brisbane.  Mrs. 
Breeden  gathered  material  for  her  article 
during  two  years  of  periodic  field  observ- 
ations, performed  with  the  co-operation 
of  the  Zoology  Department  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  Queensland. 

The  fluctuating  fortunes— in  the  wild 
and  in  the  market  place— of  the  herb 
ginseng  in  North  America  during  the 
past  two  and  a  half  centuries  are  chroni- 
cled in  the  article  by  Mr.  H.  Lea  Law- 
rence. The  author,  who  holds  a  degree 
in  biology,  is  Chief  of  Public  Relations 
with  the  Tennessee  Game  and  Fish  Com- 
mission. Mr.  Lawrence  was  formerly  a 
newspaperman,  and  his  by-line  has  also 
appeared  in  several  national  magazines. 

Mr.  Arthur  Leipzig,  who  concludes  in 
this  issue  his  article  about  the  Meban 
tribe  in  the  Sudan,  has  traveled  widely 
in  search  of  subject  matter  for  camera 
and  typewriter.  A  professional  photog- 
rapher. Mr.  Leipzig  spent  several  weeks 
covering  Dr.  Samuel  Rosen's  third  ex- 
pedition to  the  Sudan  to  assemble  data 
on  the  Meban's  unusual  state  of  health. 
Dr.  Rosen,  a  prominent  New  York  otolo- 
gist who  is  on  the  faculty  of  Columbia 
University's  College  of  Physicians  and 
Surgeons,  offered  invaluable  assistance 
in  summarizing  the  expedition's  findings. 

The  emergence  of  a  monarch  butterfly 
is  described  by  Dr.  Alexander  B.  Klots, 
Professor  of  Biology  at  The  City  College 
of  New  York.  Dr.  Klots,  who  is  also  a 
Research  Associate  in  The  American 
Museum's  Department  of  Entomology,  is 
particularly  interested  in  Lepidoptera. 


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TRAVEL  I  FAR  AND  NEAR 


The  meteorite  search 


By  D.  Moreau  Barringet 


AT  THE  END  of  the  last  century  it  was 
^  known  that  meteorites  occasionally 
fell  out  of  the  sky.  But  only  a  handful  of 
men  believed  the  larger  meteorites  left 
scars  on  the  surface  of  the  earth  that 
could  be  observed  and  studied  by  geo- 
logical methods.  Among  these  was  my 
father,  Daniel  Moreau  Barringer,  whose 
ideas  on  this  subject  have  had  a  great 
effect  on  scientific  thought.  It  was  partly 
his  persistence,  in  the  face  of  apathy, 
opposition,  and  even  ridicule,  that 
brought  about  acceptance  by  the  scien- 
tific community  of  the  meteoritic  origin 
of  the  great  crater  in  northeastern  Ari- 
zona that  now  bears  his  name. 

A  visitor  approaching  the  Barringer 
Meteor  Crater  on  the  dry  Arizona  flat- 
land  sees  first  a  gray,  truncated  hill  that 
resembles  a  mesa.  Made  up  of  over  three 
hundred  million  tons  of  rock  and  earth, 
the  craters  rim  rises  more  than  150  feet 
above  the  surrounding  plain.  The  bowl 
of  the  crater  is  nearly  a  mile  across  at 
its  largest  diameter,  and  about  three 
miles  in  circumference.  The  crater's 
depth  is  570  feet. 

For  some  unknown  reason,  the  earliest 
discoverers  of  the  crater  called  it 
Franklin's  Hole.  Indians  had  long  been 
familiar  with  it;  the  Hopi  tribe  gathered 
finely  powdered  white  silica  at  the  crater 
and  used  this  "rock  flour"  at  their  cere- 
monies. Around  1870,  the  crater  was 
known  as  Coon  Butte,  although  even  at 
this  comparatively  recent  date,  few 
travelers  had  visited  it.  It  was  not  until 
the  last  decade  of  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury that  a  scientific  investigation  was 
made.  Dr.  G.  K.  Gilbert  of  the  U.S.  Geo- 
logical Survey  visited  the  crater  and 
concluded  that  the  hole  had  been  formed 
by  a  steam  or  other  gaseous  explosion. 
Gilbert's  team  collected  many  meteorites 
from  the  site,  but  explained  their  pres- 
ence as  a  coincidence.  Gilbert  theorized 
that  meteorites  had  just  happened  to 
arrive  at  the  exact  moment  of  the  explo- 
sion or  perhaps  had  triggered  it. 

Shortly  after  the  first  investigation  of 
the  crater,  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  Rail- 
road became  interested  in  it  as  a  pos- 
sible mine  site.  Dr.  A.  E.  Foote,  a  leading 
geologist,  examined  the  crater  for  the 
railroad  and  confirmed  the  presence  of 
meteorites.  Although  neither  Foote  nor 
Gilbert  reported  finding  any  trace  of 
lava,  obsidian,  or  other  volcanic  prod- 
ucts, the  scientific  consensus  at  the  end 
of  the  century  held  that  "Crater  Moun- 
tain" in  all  probability  represented  the 
last  vestige  of  a  once-active  volcano. 


In  1902,  Daniel  Moreau  Barringer  de 
veloped  an  interest  in  the  crater  contro 
versy.  My  father  was  a  consulting  minini 
engineer  and  geologist  of  Philadelphia 
then  at  work  in  the  Southwest.  From  thi 
beginning,  he  believed  the  crater  mus 
have  been  caused  by  a  meteoritic  in 
pact.  His  reasoning  was  simple.  FirsI 
the  crater  was  an  unexplained  hole  in  th 
ground;  around  it,  on  the  same  squar 
mile  of  land,  lay  thousands,  perhap 
millions,  of  iron  meteorites— more  thai 
had  been  found  in  all  the  rest  of  th 
world.  Since  there  kre  about  57  miOio: 
square  miles  of  land  on  the  surface  o 
the  earth,  it  seemed  to  my  father  tha 
the  chances  that  the  hole  had  been  mad 
by  meteorites  were  in  the  order  of  5 
million  to  one.  Moreover,  results  of  hi 
excavations  showed  that  the  meteoriti 
fragments  were  arranged,  with  respet 
to  the  terrestrial  rocks  with  which  the 
were  found,  in  such  a  way  that  their  ai 
rival  had  to  be  simultaneous  with  th 
explosion  that  formed  the  crater.  Tb 
odds  against  a  meteorite  shower  arrr 
ing  at  that  spot  exactly  at  the  time  of 
natural  disturbance,  but  not  being  ri 
sponsible  for  it,  were  so  great  that 
would  have  been  meaningless  to  ha\ 
calculated  them.  Thus  my  father  lookq 
for  the  buried  meteoritic  mass  and  ft 
more  evidence  to  support  his  theory  thi 
the  crater  had  been  caused  by  meteoril 
impact,  a  quest  that  occupied  the  lai 
thirty  years  of  his  life. 

Crater  Floor  Drilled 

BY  the  end  of  1909,  he  had  drilled  5 
holes  at  the  crater  and  had  sunk 
number  of  shafts  as  well.  Although  th 
drilling  and  digging  failed  to  uncovl 
any  large  meteorites,  the  cores  reveale 
that  rocks  from  different  strata  wei 
mixed  together  at  depths  more  than 
thousand  feet  below  the  crater  floor.  Bi 
under  that  level  lay  the  Supai  sandstoi 
in  undisturbed  layers.  The  crater,  the: 
could  not  have  been  made  by  a  fon 
from  below,  like  a  volcano. 

In  succeeding  years,  Daniel  Morea 
Barringer  pressed  his  attempts  to  u: 
cover  meteorites  from  beneath  the  floi 
of  the  crater.  The  most  significant  r 
suhs  came  in  1919.  The  United  Stat 
Smelting  Refining  and  Mining  Explor 
tion  Company,  following  his  instruction 
set  up  an  eight-inch  churn  drill  ne 
the  center  of  the  south  rim,  direct 
above  the  high  point  of  the  arched  rw 
strata.  At  one  thousand  feet,  the  dr 


tered  obstacles  that  proved  to  be 
tic  fragments;  the  final  discovery 
rted  in  the  log  as  follows:  "The 
drillman  says  he  has  drilled  in  all 
f  formations  but  has  never  en- 
ed  anything  like  this.  From  the 
thed  appearance  of  the  drill  bits, 
5   we   must   be   passing   through 

of  solid  metal  .  .  .  started  ream- 
3:00  A.M.  and  at  11:00  a.m.  had 

only  one  foot.  At  11:00,  rotary 
ag  nicely  when  bit  stuck  in  hot- 
hole  and  stopped  rotary."  When 

0  free  the  bit  failed,  the  hole  was 
ned,  but  the  drill  had  reached  a 
if  1,376  feet  and  many  pieces  of 
i  meteoritic  material  containing 
and  platinum  had  been  brought 
e  searchers,  therefore,  assumed 
3ir  probe  had  reached  the  main 
te  cluster  and  was  halted  near 
ting  place  of  the  greatest  mete- 
ass.  Because  of  a  heavy  flow  of 

1  subsequent  shaft  could  not  be 
uch  below  water  level.  However, 
y  father  died  in  1929,  it  was  with 
ef  that  the  approximately  1,300- 
netration  of  U.S.   Smelting  had 

his    case.    Since    his    death,    of 

the  scientific  community  has 
on  the  crater's  meteoritic  origin, 
science    of   meteoritics    has    ad- 

remarkably    since    my    father's 

in  his  day  men  characterized  as 
I  the  idea  of  meteorite  scars  on 
;oday  scientists   avidly  seek   out 

Perhaps  the  first  step  in  recog- 
meteorite  craters  that  no  longer 
e  craters  was  taken  by  Beals  and 
a,  the  Canadians  who  investi- 
wo  sites  in  Ontario  that  have 
:en  accepted  as  meteorite  craters 
f  Paleozoic  Age.  In  both  these 
lown  as  the  Brent  and  Holleford 
,  the  meteorites  struck  on  an  an- 
recambrian  surface  and  gouged 
■  the  typical  circular  shape.  Both 
then  underwent  extensive  erosion 
:gely  obliterated   the   rims.   The 

were  also  submerged  beneath 
ic  seas  that  filled  their  cavities 
liments.  Later  they  were  exposed 
erial  erosion  as  well  as  to  gla- 

and  today  can  be  discerned  on 
hotographs  only  as  wide  and  very 

circular  depressions, 
ypical  underground  structure  of 
tct  crater,  however,  has  been  im- 
:ly  established  by  core  drilling 
of  these  Canadian  sites.  It  is  clear 
ne  craters  of  larger  size  than 
rringer  Crater  are  filled,  first, 
hardened  layer  of  breccia  from 
3ut  of  the  target  rocks;  second. 


)REAU  Barrincer  died  in  1962. 
irticle  is  based  on  a  paper  he 
to  the  New  Jersey  Geological 
y,  and  papers  by  him  and  N.  S. 
;u  in  Foote  Prints,  journal  of 
)Ote  Mineral   Co.,  Philadelphia. 


by  talus  from  the  crater  walls;  third  by 
subaqueous  rocks  of  much  later  date. 
Since  the  work  on  the  Brent  and  Holle- 
ford sites,  at  least  half  a  dozen  other 
areas  in  the  Canadian  Precambrian 
shield  have  been  singled  out  for  similar 
speculation.  These  include  a  six-mile  cir- 
cular bay  on  the  edge  of  Reindeer  Lake, 
Saskatchewan;  two  almost  tangential 
circular  lakes  in  Quebec  (collectively 
called  Clearwater  Lake),  each  twenty 
miles  or  so  in  diameter;  and  the  lake  at 
the  bottom  of  Chubb  Crater  on  the  Un- 
gava  Peninsula  near  Hudson  Strait. 

Coesite  Provides  Evidence 

RECENTLY,  by  one  of  those  fortunate 
coincidences  that  have  often  as- 
sisted research,  a  new  silica  form,  called 
coesite  after  its  discoverer,  Loring  Coes, 
Jr.,  has  become  a  criterion  for  the  recog- 
nition of  meteorite  scars.  Coes,  a  scien- 
tist of  the  Norton  Company,  found  that 
under  a  pressure  of  20  kilobars  or  more, 
ordinary  silica  assumed  a  new  and  con- 
siderably denser  form  with  a  specific 
gravity  of  nearly  3.  This  density  results 
from  a  tighter  packing  of  the  silicon  and 
oxygen  atoms  than  is  found  in  ordinary 
forms  of  SiOa. 

Coesite  remained  a  laboratory  curi- 
osity until  two  investigators  working  for 
the  United  States  Geological  Survey 
recognized,  in  samples  of  crushed  sand- 
stone from  the  Barringer  Crater,  the 
typical  X-ray  diffraction  pattern  of  coe- 
site. It  has  since  been  determined  that 
an  appreciable  percentage  of  the 
crushed  and  altered  sandstone  that 
partially  fills  the  Barringer  Crater  is 
coesite.  Outside  the  laboratory,  no 
known  crustal  process,  including  vol- 
canic eruptions  and  nuclear  explosions, 
produces  pressures  in  the  range  of  20,- 
000  atmospheres.  The  discoverers  of 
coesite  in  the  crater  therefore  reasoned 
that  only  the  impact  of  a  great  meteorite 
could  naturally  develop  such  pressures 
on  the  surface  of  the  earth.  Subse- 
quently, Stishov,  in  Russia,  discovered 
an  even  denser  form  of  silica  (now  called 
stishovite),  with  a  specific  gravity  of 
about  4.5.  It  was  reported  to  form  under 
a  pressure  of  160  kilobars  (later,  I  be- 
lieve, revised  to  120  kilobars).  This  is 
roughly  eight  times  as  great  as  the  force 
required  to  produce  coesite.  Stishovite 
has  been  identified  in  very  small  quanti- 
ties in  material  from  the  Barringer 
Crater.  Coesite  and /or  stishovite  also 
have  been  found  in  other  craters,  includ- 
ing a  twenty-mile  circular  valley  in  Ger- 
many called  the  Rieskessel,  and  a  lake 
area  in  Ashanti  Province,  Ghana. 

It  is  now  thought  by  some  that  South 
Africa's  Vredefort  Ring,  a  circular  out- 
cropping of  sedimentary  rocks  fifty  miles 
in  diameter,  is  of  meteoritic  origin.  Here 
it  would  appear  that  the  removal  of  a 
large  mass  of  crust  caused  by  the  impact 


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of  such  a  gigantic  meteorite  allowed  the 
liquefaction  and  intrusion  of  a  quantity 
of  deep-seated  sial  rock.  The  lower  part 
of  this  solidified  into  granite;  the  upper 
part  may  have  been  a  finer-grained  in- 
trusive or  extrusive  rock  that  erosion  has 
since  removed.  The  rim  is  also  gone. 
Only  the  "roots'"  of  the  crater  are  left— 
a  circular  area  of  granite  surrounded  by 
radially  dipping  sedimentaries. 

Other  developments  have  also  far  sur- 
passed the  techniques  used  in  my 
fathers  day.  Dr.  Robert  Dietz,  of  the 
U.  S.  Navy  Electronics  Laboratory,  has 
studied  structures  named  shatter  cones. 
Shatter  cones  have  been  identified  in 
sandstone,  limestone,  and  certain  igneous 
rocks,  but  apparently  also  occur  in  any 
other  rock  of  sufficient  cohesion.  A  frac- 
tured surface  of  such  a  rock  exhibits  a 
series  of  intergrown  and  overlapping 
conical  structures,  with  apices  all  point- 
ing one  way,  and  sides  outlined  by  minor 
faulting.  Shatter  cones  probably  result 
from  the  violent  shock  wave  accompanied 
by  tremendous  momentary  pressure  that 
radiates  from  a  center  of  meteoritic  im- 
pact. They  would  naturally  be  expected 
to  occur  below  the  crater  formed  by 
such  an  impact,  and  hence  are  not  likely 
to  be  accessible  unless  the  site  has 
eroded  to  a  great  depth.  But  geologists 
have  found  shatter  cones  in  connection 
with  at  least  six  formations— in  Tennes- 
see, Indiana,  and  Texas— hitherto  called 
cryptovolcanic.  Shatter  cones  have  also 
been  observed  at  the  Steinheim  Basin 
and  the  Rieskessel  in  Germany  and  the 
Vredefort  Ring  in  South  Africa.  Only 
one  doubtful  specimen  has  been  found 
at  the  Barringer  Crater,  which  may  be 
because  erosion  has  not  yet  exposed  the 
rocks  that  lay  below  the  center  of  impact 
of  that  collision. 

Scientists  have  searched  without  suc- 
cess for  the  presence  of  both  coesite  and 
shatter  cones  in  craters  at  the  atomic 
bomb  testing  site  in  Nevada.  Apparently, 
the  explosions  were  not  of  sufficient  force 
to  produce  the  tremendous  momentary 


pressure  required  for  the  conversioi 
quartz  to  coesite,  or  the  intense  si 
wave  that  can  create  shatter  cones.  S 
larly,  it  would  seem  that  infal 
meteorites  cannot  be  smaller  than  a 
tain  minimum  size  if  they  are  to  proc 
these  effects.  For  instance,  the  Arii 
meteorite,  which  made  a  hole  four  t 
sand  feet  in  diameter,  was  capabl 
producing  coesite,  but  a  meteorite 
fell  at  Odessa,  Texas,  and  made  a  i 
about  five  hundred  feet  in  dianK 
seems  to  have  been  too  small. 

Lost  and  Found  Meteorites 

THERE  is  another  very  large 
answered  question  with  regarc 
meteorite  impacts— what  has  becom 
the  meteorite?  The  opinion  is  widespi 
that  any  meteorite  above  a  certain  c 
cal  size  retains  a  large  fraction  ol 
original  velocity  when  it  strikes 
ground;  therefore  the  conversion  of 
tremendous  energy  is  sufficient  to  va 
ize  both  the  projectile  and  part  of 
target.  The  impact  may  spread  the 
suiting  vapor,  which  eventually  reso 
fies,  over  such  a  wide  area  that  fini 
the  original  meteorite  would  be  im 
sible.  This  explanation  has  been  g 
for  the  failure  so  far  clearly  to  d( 
the  mass  that  made  the  Barringer  Cr; 
and  for  the  unsuccessful  effort  to  lo 
the  mass  under  the  main  Odessa  cri 

Yet  this  theory  runs  into  some  rem 
able  contradictions.  Alongside  the  r 
crater  at  Odessa.  Texas,  a  smaller  cr 
some  75  feet  in  diameter,  was  discovi 
by  magnetometric  survey.  It  was  ( 
pletely  excavated.  From  its  cente 
compact  mass  of  about  six  tons  of  ni( 
iron  oxide  was  recovered.  Morec 
Peary's  34-ton  meteorite  from  Green 
(now  in  The  American  Museum-Ha^ 
Planetarium),  or  the  85-ton  Hoba  n 
orite  in  southwestern  Africa  obvio 
did  not  volatilize;  they  are  now  her 
the  earth  in  recognizable  form. 

Then  too,  we  are  faced  with  the 


At  its  largest  diameter,  the  570-foot-deep  crater  is  n« 
a  mile  across.  The  bowl's  circumference  is  three  miles. 


58 


Dund  the  Barringer  Crater  have 
und  many  thousands  of  solid  iron 
tes  that  are  probably  pretty  much 
3d  from  their  form  in  outer  space, 
f  them  may  show  a  fusion  crust 

outside,  and  most  display  the 
d  Widmanstatten  figures.  This 
ine  structure,  first  noted  in  1808 
;s  von  Widmanstatten  of  Vienna, 
i  when  a  polished  surface  of  me- 
iron  has  been  etched.  It  has  been 
trated  that  the  structure  is   de- 

by  moderate  temperatures  of 
P.  or  less.  Clearly,  the  solid  iron 
around  the  Barringer  Crater  did 
heated  to  anywhere  near  volatili- 
emperature. 

ber  important  difficulty  in  the 
the  explosion  hypothesis  is  posed 
structure  of  the  rim  of  the  Barrin- 
iter.  If  the  major  crater-forming 
as  that  of  an  atomizing  explosion, 
;t  should  be  accurately  symmetri- 
ut  a  central  point.  An  explosion 
jct  equally  in  all  directions  and 
far  surpass  the  excavating  effect 
notion  of  the  meteorite  itself.  Yet 
imetry  of  the  crater  is  not  radial 
a  point,  but  is  on  either  side  of 
forming  a  north-south  diameter, 
ructure  is  so  clearly  determined 
3  question  of  its  origin  must  be 
;d  before  one  can  accept  the 
hat  the  entire  crater-forming  ef- 
s  due  to  an  explosion.  Further- 
the  concentration  of  meteoritic 
1  deep  below  the  southern  and 
3stern  portions  of  the  crater  floor 
e  explained.  The  questions  sur- 
ig  this  subject  can  only  be  re- 
by  thorough  underground  ex- 
)n  of  one  or  more  big  craters,  a 
at  would  involve  an  amount  of 
not  so  far  available, 
most  recent  crater-forming  me- 
fell  on  the  Soviet  Union,  in  the 
most  province  of  Siberia,  in  1947. 
eteorite  either  broke  into  a  great 
)ieces  in  the  atmosphere,  or  con- 
originaUy  of  a  cluster   of  small 


fragments.  It  gave  rise  to  some  120  cra- 
ters spread  over  a  small  area,  the  largest 
of  them  about  20  yards  in  diameter.  The 
shower  sprinkled  the  ground  in  between 
with  thousands  of  iron  fragments  that 
apparently  struck  at  a  very  moderate 
rate  of  speed.  Although  many  of  them 
showed  signs  of  fusion  and  deformation 
in  the  atmosphere,  they  retained  neither 
enough  heat  nor  speed  to  char  the  wood 
of  tlae  trees  they  struck.  Some  were  even 
found  imbedded  in  standing  tree  trunks, 
with  no  sign  of  heat  effect  on  the  wood. 

Can  we  forecast  another  dramatic  fall 
like  the  recent  Siberian  one?  Although 
the  supply  of  large  meteorites  in  the 
solar  system  may  have  been  reduced 
radically  over  the  earth's  life  span,  I  cer- 
tainly think  we  can  expect  more  large 
meteorites  to  drop  in  the  future.  Time 
and  place,  however,  are  completely  un- 
predictable. And  because  two-thirds  of 
the  earth's  surface  is  covered  with  water, 
a  new  meteorite  is  more  likely  than  not 
to  land  in  the  ocean  and  leave  no  traces. 

In  discussing  the  Barringer  Crater 
and  related  topics,  I  have  not,  of  course, 
been  able  to  mention  all  the  advances  in 
meteoritics  that  have  come  about  since 
my  father's  early  contribution,  nor  have 
I  touched  upon  some  fascinating  sub- 
jects, such  as  tektites— the  small  lumps 
of  siliceous  glass  thought  of  by  some  as 
spray  or  splash  resulting  from  meteoritic 
impacts.  But  one  of  the  most  interesting 
historical  facets  of  the  science  of  me- 
teorites is  the  Barringer  Crater  itself.  To 
the  crater  come  an  increasing  number  of 
visitors.  They  inspect  the  museum  on  the 
northern  rim,  observe  the  crater  bowl 
through  the  panoramic  picture  window, 
and  the  more  ambitious  of  these  me- 
teoritic amateurs  often  hike  the  three 
miles  around  the  crater's  rim.  Many 
descend  to  the  bottom  of  the  hole  where 
Daniel  Moreau  Barringer  began  his  life- 
long exploration  for  the  lost  meteorite— 
where  crater  and  impact  research  began, 
and  the  modern  science  of  meteoritics 
took  a  valuable,  exciting  step  forward. 


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NATURE  and  the  CAMER/ 

Some  simple  methods 
for  photomicrography 

By  David  Linton 

IT  SEEMS  these  days  that  every  well- 
equipped  youngster  has  both  a  micro- 
scope and  a  camera.  Mail-order  cata- 
logues and  toy  stores  feature  microscopes 
in  many  price  ranges,  and  a  number  of 
families  have  found  that  even  simple, 
inexpensive  instruments  can  give  valu- 
able instruction  as  well  as  enjoyment. 
Often,  the  beginning  microscopist  would 
like  to  photograph  his  discoveries. 

Photographing  of  microscope  images 
is  routine  in  scientific  work;  its  correct 
name  is  photomicrography.  (Micropho- 
tography  means  making  photographs 
that  are  very  much  smaller  than  the  sub- 
ject, like  a  microfilm  of  a  newspaper.) 
It  is  not  too  well  known,  however,  that 
photomicrographs  can  be  made  with 
even  the  simplest  of  cameras. 

The  image  in  a  microscope  is  formed 
exactly  the  same  way  as  the  image  in  a 
camera  or  that  seen  with  a  magnifying 
glass.  In  fact,  a  magnifying  glass  with  a 
supporting  structure  is  known  techni- 
cally as  a  '"simple  microscope." 

We  know  that  objects  will  look  larger 
when  we  are  close  to  them  than  when 
we  are  far  away,  and  that  when  we  want 
to  study  small  details  of  an  object  we 
"examine  it  closely"  by  holding  it  near 
our  eyes.  If  we  are  taking  a  picture,  we 
make  it  a  "close-up."  For  both  the  eye 
and  camera,  however,  there  is  a  limit  as 
to  how  close  we  can  get  to  an  object  and 
still  form  a  clear  image.  The  magnify- 
ing glass  allows  us,  in  effect,  to  get  even 
closer.  We  hold  the  glass  near  the  object 
and  examine  not  the  object  itself  but 
its  image  formed  by  the  glass.  With  the 
camera  we  get  this  result  by  using  an 
auxiliary  close-up  lens  slipped  over  the 
regular  lens  or,  if  possible,  by  bringing 
the  regular  lens  closer  to  the  subject 
with  extension  tubes  or  bellows. 


The  Compound  Microscope 

THE  magnification  that  can  be  ob- 
tained in  this  way  is  limited.  To 
achieve  greater  magnification  it  is  neces- 
sary to  use  two  lenses— one  to  form  a 
magnified  image  of  the  object  and  an- 
other to  enlarge  that  image  and  project 
it  where  it  can  be  seen  by  the  eye  or 
camera.  Such  an  arrangement  is  called 
a  "compound  microscope."  and  it  is  used 
in  the  familiar  laboratory  instrument. 
An  image  of  the  subject  is  formed  by 
the  objective  lens,  especially  designed  to 
work  very  close  to  the  subject  and  to 


produce  a  much-enlarged  image.  Th 
image,  although  magnified,  is  still  tir 
and  must  be  further  enlarged  by  tl 
ocular  lens,  or  eyepiece,  before  it  can  I 
viewed.  The  total  magnification  is  tl 
mathematical  product  of  the  magnific, 
tions  of  the  two  lenses. 

It  follows  that  the  objective  lens 
the  most  important  part  of  the  optic, 
chain.  Since  the  objective  forms  tl 
original  image,  nothing  that  occurs  fa 
ther  along,  in  the  eyepiece  or  earner 
can  improve  that  image.  But  an  ey 
piece  or  camera  that  is  of  poor  qualil 
or  improperly  adjusted  may  fail  to  r 
produce  all  that  is  in  the  image.  Sim 
larly.  the  objective  lens  alone  dete 
mines  the  usable  magnification.  Tl 
objective  can  discriminate  details  don 
to  a  specific  minimum  size,  but  its  resol 
ing  power  has  a  limit  that  is  determine 
by  its  design  and  quality. 

When  the  image  that  it  produces  hi 
been  enlarged— by  an  eyepiece,  camer 
photographic  enlargement,  or  any  coi 
bination  of  these— the  details  that  a 
ready  have  been  resolved  by  the  ohjectii 
lens  will  become  larger  and  may  ther 
fore  look  clearer.  But  enlargement  cai 
not  add  detail  that  is  not  in  the  origin; 
image.  Enlargement  beyond  the  resol 


Ordinary  laboratory  stand  may  be  use 
as  shown  above  to  hold  a  simple  camel 
at  the  eyepoint  of  the  focused  microscop 


6o 


Linton's  by-line  has  appeared 
photographs  in  all  the  nation's 
g  magazines.  His  camera  column 
egular  feature  on  these  pages. 


er  of  the  objective  lens  is  called 
magnification." 

naximum  real,  or  "significant," 
;ation  of  an  objective  lens  can  be 
id  if  the  characteristics  of  the 
known.  It  is  well  to  remember, 
,  that  this  figure  refers  to  an 
lat  is  viewed  at  normal  distances 
)king  directly  into  the  micro- 
or  example,  or  by  looking  at  a 
iphic  print  held  in  the  hand. 
)tograph  is  enlarged  enough  to 
from  across  the  room,  or  a  slide 
cted  in  an  auditorium,  the  pic- 
;al  magnification  is  not  as  large 
measured  size  would  indicate, 
e  picture  is  viewed  at  a  greater- 
mal  distance. 

Simple  Cameras 

>t  a  microscope  is  focused  visu- 
'  for  comfortable  direct  viewing, 
erver's  eye  sees  the  image  as 
it  were  some  distance  away.  In 
ords,  the  eye  is  focused  at  in- 
'he  image  can  be  photographed 
most  any  camera  that  is  also 
at  infinity  and  is  placed  at  the 
It."  The  eyepoint  is  the  spot 
le  light  rays  emerging  from  the 
;  of  the  microscope  converge  to 
;  smallest  point  of  light.  With  the 
jpe  meticulously  focused  and  the 
irce  turned  on,  the  eyepoint  can 
d  by  holding  a  piece  of  paper 
le  eyepiece  and  moving  it  up  and 
ntil  the  narrowest  point  in  the 
;  found.  The  camera  should  be 
30  that  this  point  is  at  the  cen- 
he  front  surface  of  the  camera 
regular  laboratory  ring  stand  is 
t  convenient  camera  support.  Not 
ould  the  camera  be  focused  at 
but  the  lens  diaphragm  (if  there 

should  be  wide  open.  It  cannot 

to  control  the  amount  of  light 
g  the  film,  as  in  normal  photog- 
because  the  microscope  lenses 
en  added  to  the  system,  and  the 

diaphragm  is  not  in  the  right 
1  the  total  array  to  control  the 
ition    evenly.    Closing    the    dia- 

would  result  in  cutting  off  the 
)f  the  image.  Exposure  is  con- 
by  time  alone. 

it  is  the  objective  lens  that  de- 
s  the  quality  and  magnification 
mage,  the  camera  lens  has  very 
feet.  A  simple,  slow  lens  of  the 
und  on  inexpensive  cameras  is 
0  work  better  than  a  more  com- 
ns  because  it  has  fewer  glass 
ts  and  is  less  subject  to  the  inter- 
ections  known  as  "flare." 


UNDER  THE  AUSPICES  OF  THE 
SOCIETY  FOR  HELLENIC  TRAVEL 

A   LATE    SUMMER    CRUISE   TO    GREECE, 
THE  GREEK   ISLANDS  AND  TURKEY 


3  to  24  September,  1964 
in  the  M.S.  MOLEDET 

Guest  lecturers  on  the  summer  cruise  are: 
Professor  R.   M.   Cook,  M.A.,   Professor  of 
Classical  Archaeology  in  the  University  of  Cam- 
bridge, and  President  of  the  Society  for  Hellenic 
Travel. 

Mr.  J.  V.  H.  Eames,  M.A.,  F.S.A.,  Lecturer 
in  Classical  Archaeology  in  the  University  of 
Liverpool. 

Professor  A.  W.  Lawrence,  M.A.,  F.S.A., 

Professor  of  Classical  Archaeology  in  the  Univer- 
sity of  Cambridge  (1944-51)  and  Professor  of 
Archaeology  at  the  University  College  of  Ghana 
(1951-7). 

Professor  H.  W.  Parke,  M.A.,  Litt.D.,  Pro- 
fessor of  Ancient  History  at  Trinity  College,  Dublin. 

Mr.  Oleg  Polunin,  M.A.,  F.L.S.,  of  Charter- 
house School,  v^ho  will  talk  on  birds  and  identify 
them. 

All  inclusive  tost  from  New  York  starts  at  $967.00 
—  Trans  Atlantic  air  transportation  by  B.O.A.C. 

EXTENSION  INCLUDED:  ROMAN  FRANCE- 
SOME    SITES    AND    CITIES    IN    PROVENCE. 

For  complete  information  about  the  cruise,  mail 
coupon  below: 


LINDBLAD  TRAVEL,  INC. 

One  East  53rd  Street,  New  York  22,  New  York 

Please  send  folder  describing  the  summer  cruise 
to  Greece. 


Name_ 


Address. 


Cify- 


-Zone State- 


Latitude  4}°46'  N.  -  Longitude  69°  19'  W. 

THE 

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Island  in  Time,  whose  cliffs  and  shore- 
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tuary to  the  creatures  and  growing 
things  of  air,  land  and  water.  And  to 
mankind. 

For  here  the  crowds  and  confusion 
of  mainland  living  are  distant;  neither 
streetlights  nor  neon  signs  dim  the 
stars;  no  juke-boxes,  bars  or  cocktail 
lounges  disturb  the  quiet;  cars,  radio 
and  television  remain  on  the  main- 
land. 

Unexpected  species  reward  birders 
and  botanists.  Photographers  and 
painters  discover  scene  after  scene 
worthy  of  record.  And  waiting  to  be 
found  by  all:  peace,  quiet,  beauty. 

Ports  of  departure  for  Monhegan 
Island  are  Boothbay  Harbor  and  Port 
Clyde  with  daily  boat  service  from 
each. 

Box  MN 
Monhegan  Island,  Maine 

THE  ISLAND  INN 

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Photomicrograph  of  a  yeasl  culture  is  easily  obtain 


Such  an  arrangement— a  simple  cam- 
era focused  at  infinity  and  placed  at  the 
eyepoint  of  the  microscope— will  give 
tolerable  results  with  no  special  equip- 
ment or  techniques.  The  main  drawback 
is  that  the  image  may  fill  only  a  small 
part  of  the  film  frame  and  may  be  sur- 
rounded by  the  out-of-focus  edges  of  the 
microscope  field  and  a  lot  of  empty 
space.  The  center  area  of  the  negative 
must  then  be  considerably  enlarged  in 
order  to  produce  a  print  that  will  look 
like  the  image  seen  in  the  microscope. 

Specialized  Cameras 

THERE  are  other  disadvantages.  With 
the  camera  in  this  position,  it  is  not 
possible  to  see  the  image  that  is  being 
recorded.  This  makes  it  impractical  to 
use  this  setup  with  moving  subjects,  and 
it  leaves  some  doubt  as  to  whether  flare 
will  be  found  when  the  film  is  developed. 
Cameras  designed  specifically  for  micro- 
scope recording  have  either  a  "beam 
splitter"  that  allows  the  image  to  be 
seen  while  it  is  being  photographed,  or 
a  ground  glass  on  which  it  can  be  ex- 
amined just  before  the  exposure. 

A  camera  that  has  an  interchangeable 
lens  can  be  used  with  the  lens  removed 
to  record  the  image  formed  by  the  micro- 
scope, and  it  can  easily  be  placed  so 
that  the  image  will  fill  the  film  frame. 
For  many  such  cameras,  microscope 
adapters  are  available  that  provide  a 
mechanical  coupling  between  the  camera 
and  the  microscope,  a  means  of  exclud- 
ing room  light  from  the  camera,  and. 
sometimes,  a  means  of  viewing  the  image. 
The  popular  single-lens  reflex  camera  is 
very  convenient  because  it  has  its  own 
built-in  viewing  system.  Another  espe- 
cially convenient  type  is  a  view  camera 
(used  without  lens)  that  will  accept 
Polaroid  Land  films  as  well  as  conven- 
tional films.  With  this  instrument,  photo- 
graphic tests  can  be  made  and  developed 
on  the  spot  while  the  photography  is  pro- 
ceeding:  if  sheet  film  is  used   for  the 


final  exposures,  each  negative  can  be 
veloped  individually. 

Determining  exposure  for  photomii 
graphs  can  be  difficult  because  ordin 
light  meters  cannot  measure  the  brij 
ness  of  a  microscope  image.  Until 
cently,  one  could  determine  the  right 
posure  only  by  making  test  shots,  de 
oping  the  film,  and  picking  the  1 
exposure.  In  such  a  series,  each  fn 
should  receive  twice  as  much  expos 
as  the  preceding  one.  When  the  phol 
rapher  has  had  some  experience  with 
particular  microscope,  camera,  and  li 
source,  he  will  be  able  to  judge  expos 
for  most  subjects  without  having  to 
peat  the  test  series. 

Some  of  the  recently  developed  ( 
mium  sulfide  light  meters  are  capi 
of  measuring  the  brightness  of  the  ac 
image  on  the  ground  glass  of  a  cam 
a  feat  that  was  formerly  achieved  ( 
by  highly  specialized  and  expensive  e 
tronic  laboratory  instruments.  One  : 
single-lens  reflex  camera  has  a  cadm 
sulfide  meter  inside  it  to  measure 
brightness  of  the  image  inside  the  c 
era.  It  is  ideal  for  microscope  worli 
least  in  theory.  In  practice,  these  me 
have  limitations,  but  they  are  an 
provement  over  trial  and  error. 

The  photographer  who  graduates  f 
the  basic  recording  methods  descri 
here  to  more  complex  photomicrogra 
will  soon  find  that  the  problems  in 
specialized  field  are  not  so  much  ph 
graphic  challenges  as  they  are  probl 
of  subject  preparation  and  of  light 


This  list  details  the  photographer,  a 
or  other  source  of  illustrations,  by  p 


COVER-Robert  J.  Lee 
5-Joseph  Sedacca 
12-21-Robert  J.  Lee 
except  17  top,  AMNH 
22-25-Marion  Whitney 
26-33-Stanley  Breeden 
34-New  York  Botanical 
Garden 
37— H.  Lea  Lawrence 


38-45-Arthur  Leipz 
46-Yerkes  Observa 
47-Helmut  Wimme 
48-Lowell  Observa 
49-AMNH 
50-53-J.  Keresztes 
Black  Star 
58-60-AMNH 
62-David  Linton 


62 


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Suggested 
Additional  Reading 

BRONZES  OF  LURISTAN 

The  Valleys  of  the  Assassins.  F. 
Stark.  Penguin  Books,  London,  1952. 

"Luristan  Bronzes  in  The  University 
Museum."  Museum  Journal.  University 
of  Pennsylvania,  Philadelphia,  1934. 

An  Introduction  to  Persian  Art 
Since  the  7th  Century  A.D.  A.U. 
Pope.  Scribners,  N.Y.,  1951. 

Twin  Rivers:  A  Brief  History  of 
Iraq  from  the  Earliest  Times  to  the 
Present  Day.  S.  Lloyd.  Geoffrey  Cum- 
ber lege,  London,  1947. 

STALAGMITES  AND  STALACTITES 

A  Textrook  of  Geology.  R.  M.  Car- 
rels. Harper  and  Brothers,  N.Y.,  1951. 

"Geology  of  the  Mammoth  Cave  Na- 
tional Park  Area."  A.  Livesay.  Kentucky 
Geological  Survey  Series  IX  Special 
Publication,  1953. 

Physical  Geology.  D.  L.  Leet  and  S. 
Judson.  Prentice-Hall,  Englewood  Cliffs, 
N.J.,  1958. 

Geomorphology,  An  Introduction 
TO  the  Study  of  Landscapes.  A.  K. 
Lobeck.  McGraw-Hill,  N.Y.,  1939. 

The  Caves  Beyond.  J.  Lawrence,  Jr. 
and  R.  W.  Brucker.  Funk  &  Wagnalls, 
N.Y.,  1955. 

FRUCTIVOROUS  FLIERS 

Bats.  G.  M.  Allen.  Dover  Publications, 
N.Y.,  1962. 

Flying  Fox  and  Drifting  Sand.  F.  N. 
Ratcliffe.  Angus  &  Robertson,  Sydney, 
1963. 

Furred  Animals  of  Australia.  E. 
Troughton.  Angus  &  Robertson,  Sydney, 
1957. 

"Chiroptera  of  New  Guinea."  H.  M. 
Van  Deusen  and  R.  F.  Peterson.  Natural 
History,  October,  1958. 

PART  II:  OLD  AFRICA'S 
"PEOPLE  OF  THE  VILLAGE" 

"Presbycusis  Study  of  a  Relatively 
Noise-free  Population  in  the  Sudan."  S. 
Rosen,  M.  Bergman,  D.  Plester,  A.  El- 
Mofty,  M.  H.  Satti.  Annals  of  Otology, 
Rhinology  and  Laryngology,  Vol.  71,  No. 
3,  September,  1962. 

Culture  Societies  of  Africa.  S.  and 
P.  Ottenberg.  Random  House,  N.Y., 
1960. 

MAN  PLANT'S  RETURN 

"American  Ginseng."  G.  V.  Nash,  re- 
vised by  M.  G.  Kains.  U.S.  Department 
of  Agriculture  Bulletin  32. 

EMERGING  MONARCH 
The    Monarch    Butterfly.    F.    A. 

Urquhart.  University  of  Toronto  Press, 

Toronto,  1960. 
A  Field  Guide  to  the  Butterflies. 

Alexander    B.   Klots.   Houghton-Mifflin 

Co.,  Boston,  1951. 


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Completely  New  and  Enlarged-148  Pages- 
Nearly  4000  Bargains 
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I    Barrington,  New  Jersey 

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OROCR   i1   SrOCK  NUMBfA   .  SfNO  CHfCK   OR    MONir    OROfR  .   SAri5f  ACT/ON    GUARANTItO! 


EDMUND  SCIENTIFIC  CC.barrington,  new  jersey 


five  unusual  and 

rewarding  tours 

to  tlie  four  corners 

of  tlie  world 

CLASSICAL   STUDY   TOURS   WITH   AUTHORITATIVE    GUEST    LECTURERS 


IT-LT-3081 

TWO   WrNTER   CRUISES   TO   EGYPT   AND   UP  THE   NILE 

f  Air  and  River  Boat  to  the  Sites  and  Temples  of  Egypt  and  Nubia  Tours  depart  on 

November  6  and  November  27.  Guest  lecturers  accompanying  the  two  cruises  are: 

r.  T.  G.  H.  James,  MA.,  Asst.  Keeper  of  Egyptian  Antiquities  at  the  British  Museum 

sssor  H,  W.  Fairman,  M.A.,  Professor  of  Egyptology  at  the  University  of  Liverpool 

Professor  C.  A.  Trypanis,  M.A.,  Ph.D.,  the  University  of  Oxford. 

These  Nile  Cruises  have  been   immediate  "sell-outs"   in  the  past,  due  to  the 

high  quality  of  leadership  and  services  provided. 

IT-LT-3085 

ROMAN  FRANCE-SOME  SITES  AND  CITIES  IN  PROVENCE 

This  18-day  tour  starts  on  September  7  and  the  all-inclusive  cost  is  only  $790.00. 

n-Provence,  the  oldest  Roman  colony  in  Gaul  is  the  starting  pomt-and  from   here 

we  begin  our  tour  which  includes  Apt.  Roussilon,  Avignon,  Villeneuve,  Orange, 

charming  Vaison-la-Romaine,  St.  Remy  with  its  newly  discovered  Glanum,  Aries, 

Nimes,  les  Saintes-Maries,  Aigues-Mortes,  Les  Baux,  Marseilles,  and  Pans. 

This  IS  a  tour  into  one  of  Europe's  most  beautiful  regions  — a  region  full  of  color 

and  atmosphere— in  addition  to  the  thousands  of  monuments  to  the  past. 

This  is  a  tour  completely  different  from  other  tours— concentration  on  ONE  of  the 

provinces  of  France.  The  tour  is  also  for  those  who  love  good  food  and  wines. 

IT-LT-3076 

CRUSADER   CASTLES,   SITES   AND   MONUMENTS    IN 
LEBANON,   SYRIA,   JORDAN   AND   ISRAEL 

22-day  tour  departs  on   October  27.  All-inclusive  cost  only  $1,175.00. 

Professor  A.  W.  LAWRENCE  will  be  the  guest  lecturer  on  a  most  unusual  and 

ting  tour  of  the  Near  East.  Included  in  the  program  are  the  Krak  of  the  Knights  and 

Hama,  Aleppo  and  Palmyra,  a  full  day  at  Jerash,  Petra,  Karak,  Acre  and  Caesarea 
itima— all  in  addition  to  more  easily  accessible  places  as  Beirut,  Baalbek,  Damascus, 
(Vmman,  Jerusalem  and  Haifa.  Early  bookings  are  essential  to  guarantee  your  seat. 

number  of  participants  on  these  tours  is  strictly  limited  to  a  maximum  of  thirty 
ons— in  some  cases  even  fewer— and  early  booking  is  essential.  Please  send  in 
coupon  at  the  foot  of  this  page,  requesting  the  details  on  the  particular  tour  you 
interested   in. 


INDBLAD    TRAVEL,    INC. 

ne   East  53rd   Street      •       New  York  22,    N.  Y. 
il.   PLaza   5-8882 

ndblad  Travel,   Inc.,  One  East  53rd  Street,   New  York  22,  N.  Y. 

ease  send  folder  describing  your  tour 

IT-LT-3073  n   IT-LT-3053  Q  IT-LT-3081  D   IT-lT-3085 


ldress_ 
ty 


IT-LT-3073 

AN    EXPLORER'S   TOUR  THROUGH   ASIA  visiting 
JAPAN    •    SIBERIA    •    OUTER    MONGOLIA 
CENTRAL  ASIATIC   REPUBLICS  OF  THE  USSR 
IRAN    •    SYRIA    •    LEBANON    •    JORDAN 

Crossing  from  Japan   to  Siberia  by  steamer-Khaborovsk  and 

Irkutsk  in  Siberia-Ulan  Bator,  Karakoram  and  a  day 

with  Mongolian  tribesmen  in  the  Gobi  desert-the  ancient  cities 

of  Bokhara  and  Samarkand-by  steamer  across 

the   Caspian    Sea-Persepolis,    Shiraz   and    Isfahan    in 

Persia-archeological   sites   in   Lebanon,  Syria,  and  Jordan. 

Tour   conducted   by   Lars-Eric   Lindblad,   departs 

from  New  York  and  San  Francisco  on  July  5,  circles  the  Globe, 

and   lasts  two  months. 

$3,600.00 

IT-LT-3053 

WITH    DR.   J.   ALDEN    MASON   TO   THE 
ARCHAEOLOGICAL   SITES    IN    PERU,   GUATEMALA 
AND    MEXICO 

The  two  tours  in  1963  were  so  successful  and  sold  out  so  early, 

that  Dr.  J.  Alden  Mason  has  agreed  to  lead  one 

(but  only  one)  tour  in  October,  1964  to  the 

pre-Columbian   sites   in  South  and  Central  America. 

This  year  we  have  added  four  days  for  leisure,  making 

the  tour  25  days.   Departure  will  be  on  October  24-and 

the  cost  will  be  $1,650.00. 


Mammoth  Cave... 

Conservation  saved  it  for  you.  See  it  on  your  way  to  the  New  York  World's  Fair. 


iVlammoth  Cave  has  been  famous  ever  since 
a  pioneer  hunter  named  Houchins  tracked  a 
wounded  bear  into  it  in  1798.  It  was  known  as 
one  of  the  world's  greatest  natural  wonders  a 
hundred  years  ago,  and  travelers  from  many 
countries  were  amazed  by  its  great  size  and 
great  beauty.  So  in  1924,  a  group  of  private 
citizens,  recognizing  its  worth  as  a  national 
treasure,  formed  the  Mammoth  Cave  National 
Park  Association  to  save  it. 

They  asked  for  help.  They  got  help— from  Ken- 
tucky's governors,  legislators,  congressmen. 
From  service  clubs,  conservation  groups,  busi- 
nessmen. They  worked  for  years  to  arouse  the 
nation;  in  1941,  their  work  was  rewarded  when 
Mammoth  Cave  became  a  National  Park. 

Now,  it  belongs  to  you,  as  it  will  to  your  chil- 


dren and  their  children's  children.  Exploring  its 
fantastic  caverns,  coming  face  to  face  with  mil- 
lion-year-old beauty,  future  generations  will 
feel  the  same  inspiration  you  feel  today.  They, 
too,  will  sense  the  force  and  majesty  of  Nature, 
and  every  man's  need  of  her  awesome  wonders 
for  bodily  refreshment  and  spiritual  satisfaction. 

For  man  is  a  natural  creature.  He  will  always 
need  Nature  for  his  well  being.  But  all  the  na- 
tional treasures  so  far  saved  are  not  enough.  We 
are  a  growing  nation.  Americans  yet  unborn 
must  have  opportunity  to  know  the  natural 
beauty  of  our  land  as  our  forefathers  did.  Like 
them,  they  must  feel  its  challenge  and  reward, 
its  promise  and  its  fulfillment. 

That  is  why  conservation  is  everybody's  job, 
and  always  will  be. 


Free  tour  service:  I 

you  are  driving  to  thi 
New  York  World': 
Fair,  let  Sinclair  hel{ 
plan  your  trip  to  in 
dude  visits  to  Mam 
moth  Cave  or  othei 
National  Parks.  Wrill 
Tour  Bureau,  Sinclaii 
Oil  Building,  600  FiW 
Avenue,  New  York 
New  York  10020. 


\Smlair\ 

A  GREAT  NAME  IN  OIL 


^aturalrH 


June-July  1964  •  500 


rporating  Nature  Magazine 


iSL^fi^^^^. .-::..  ;^m:'j^2m:^ 


Shenandoah . . . 

Conservation  saved  it  for  you.  See  it  on 

When  you  visit  Shenandoaii  National  Park 
and  ride  along  the  breathtaking  Skyline  Drive 
over  the  mountain  tops,  you  will  see  a  peak 
called  Pollock's  Knob,  named  for  a  man  who 
looked  beyond  the  years. 

Thanks  to  George  Freeman  Pollock,  future 
generations  will  see  the  Blue  Ridge  Mountains 
as  the  Indians  and  pioneers  saw  them,  blazing 
with  millions  of  wild  flowers,  forested  with  a 
hundred  kind  of  trees,  and  watered  by  some  of 
the  clearest  trout  streams  in  America. 

Pollock  first  saw  Shenandoah's  rolling  ridges 
when  he  was  a  boy.  For  fifty  years,  he  worked 
and  fought  to  save  the  natural  glory  of  this 
wilderness.  Bit  by  bit,  he  bought  and  set  aside 
mountain  scenery.  He  walked  the  hillsides  with 
governors,  senators,  businessmen,  conservation- 


your  way  to  the  New  York  World's  Fair. 

ists  — anyone  he  could  inspire  with  his  dream. 

Through  his  efforts,  the  Virginia  Conservation 
and  Economic  Development  Commission  made 
a  study.  Local  chambers  of  commerce  helped. 
So  did  the  Potomac  Appalachian  Trail  Club. 
Some  24,000  Virginians  pledged  a  million  dol- 
lars. In  1927,  Governor  Harry  F.  Byrd  signed  a 
state  appropriation  for  another  million.  And 
Shenandoah  became  your  National  Park. 

Since  then,  our  population  has  increased  by  50 
million.  'We  need  more  Shenandoahs.  'We  need 
more  lands  for  outdoor  recreation,  so  that  more 
of  our  people  will  have  the  opportunity  to  know 
Nature's  blessings  and,  through  them,  find  re- 
freshment of  body  and  spirit.  Everyone  benefits 
from  such  conservation.  That's  why  conserva- 
tion is  everyone's  job. 


Free  tour  service: 

you  are  driving  to  t 
New  York  Worli 
F.-iir,  let  Sinclair  he 
pl.in  your  trip  to  i 
elude  visits  to  Shena 
do.ili  or  other  Nation 
Parks.  Write  Toi 
Bureau,  Sinclair  C 
Building,  600  Fif 
Avenue,  New  Yol 
New  York  10020,1 


A  GREAT  NAME  IN  01 


TTOMTQT 


isignment:  Quality  Control.  He's  a  very  special  engineer  at  General  Motors — a  key  man 
a  corporation  which  regards  product  dependability  as  a  prime  responsibility  to  its  cus- 

mers.  He  and  a  GM  inspector  are  shown  giving  this  transmission  a  final  check.  In  addition 
keeping  an  eagle  eye  on  every  phase  of  manufacturing,  the  quality  control  engineer  is 

)sely  concerned  with  preliminary  design  and  engineering.  More  than  13,000  individual 

rts  go  into  a  GM  car,  and  every  one  must  be  as  reliable  as  men  and  machines  can  make  it. 

iw  materials,   components,   subassemblies — all  get   meticulous  scrutiny.   Tolerances  to 

thin  fifty  millionths  of  an  inch  are  commonplace. 

nong  GM  production  employes,  about  one  of  every  twelve  devotes  fuU  time  to  quality  control 
inspection.  Approximately  50,000  inspections  are  involved  in  the  building  of  a  single  car. 

addition,  every  machine  operator  has  the  responsibility  for  the  quality  of  his  work  and 
rformance  of  his  machine.  He  can  accept  or  reject  any  part  he  makes.  His  work  is  checked 

the  quality  control  engineer  and  the  inspector,  who  analyze  machine  capabilities  and 
gdict  machine  inaccuracy  before  it  occurs — not  after. 

ley're  mighty  important  people,  these  GM  quality  control  engineers.  They  have  an  exacting 
3,  and  they  take  pride  in  doing  it  well.  GM  products  bear  witness  to  their  effectiveness. 

ENERAL  MOTORS  IS  PEOPLE... 


Making  Better  Things  For  You 


PRESIDENT 

Alexander  M.  White 

DIRECTOR  DEPUTY  DIRECTOR 

James  A.  Oliver  Walter  F.  Meister 


MANAGING  EDITOR 

Robert  E.  Williamson 

EXECUTIVE  EDITOR 

Helene  Jordan 

ASSOCIATE  EDITORS 

Hubert  C.  Birnbaum,  Harry  Atkins 

COPY  EDITORS 

Florence  Brauner.  Florence  Klodin 

REVIEWS 

Francesca  von  Hartz 

PHOTOGRAPHY 

Lee  Boltin 

PRODUCTION 

Thomas  Page 
Mairgreg  Ross,  Asst. 

CONTRIBUTIONS 

Ernestine  Weindorf 


CONTRIBUTING  EDITORS 

Paul  M.  Tilden,  Thomas  D.  Nicholson 
David  Linton.  Julian  D.  Corrington 


EDITORIAL    ADVISERS 

Gerard  Piel  Gordon  F.  Ekholm 

Roy  Gallant  Gordon  Reekie 

Donn  E.  Rosen  Richard  G.  Van  Gelder 

T.  C.  Schneirla  Richard  K.  Winslow 


ADVERTISING 

Frank  L.  De  Franco,  Director 
Ogden  Lowell,  Sales 


PROMOTION  MANAGER 

Anne  Keating 
Anne  Ryan,  Asst. 


CIRCULATION  MANAGER 

Joseph  Saulina 


Natural  Histoi  a 

Incorporating  Nature  Magazine 


THE  JOURNAL  OF  THE  AMERICAN  MUSEUM  OF  NATURAL  HISTOi 


Vol.  Lxxni 


JUNE-JULY  1964 


No 


ARTICLES 

THE  AMAZON'S  RATE  OF  FLOW  Luther  C.  Davis,  Jr. 

EXPOSITIONS.  EXHIBITS  AND  TODAY'S  MUSEUMS    Gordon  Reekie 

CALIFORNIA'S  LEGACY  OF  INDIAN  ROCK  ART         Campbell  Grant 

HERMAPHRODITISM  IN  BAHAMA  GROUPERS  C.  Lavett  Smith 

ASTRONOMY'S  PAST  PRESERVED  AT  JAIPUR 

Derek  J.  de  Solla  Price 


DEPARTMENTS 
BOOKS  IN  REVIEW 


George  Gaylord  Simpson 


NATURALISTS'  NOTEBOOK: 

BIRTH  OF  TWO  WHITETAILS      Photographs  by  Leonard  Lee  Rue  HI 


SKY  REPORTER 
ABOUT  THE  AUTHORS 


SCIENCE  IN  ACTION: 
PREPARING  FOR  TOMORROW 


WASHINGTON  NEWSLETTER 
ADDITIONAL  READING 


Thomas  D.  Nicholson 


Perez  Malande  Olindo 
Paul  Mason  Tilden 


COVER:  When  the  remarkably  moving  paintings  executed  by  Paleolithic  n 
on  cave  walls  in  Spain  and  France  (and.  later,  in  the  Sahara  and  varii 
other  sites)  first  came  to  the  attention  of  modern  man,  a  new  chapter  in  the  sti 
of  prehistory  began.  Strangely,  however,  few  people  know  that  similar  works  e; 
in  our  own  southwestern  United  States;  the  one  on  the  cover  is  on  a  rock  she] 
in  the  San  Emigdio  Range  near  Santa  Barbara,  California.  Mr.  Campbell  Gr£ 
author  of  the  article  that  begins  on  page  32,  is  a  student  of  these  drawin 
He  also  took  the  photographs  and  made  the  paintings  that  accompany  his  te 

The  American  Museum  is  open  to  the  public  without  charge  every  day 
during  the  year.  'Vour  support,  through  membership  and  contributions, 
helps  make  this  possible.  The  Museum  is  equally  in  need  of  support 
for  all  of  its  work  in  the  fields  of  research,  education,  and  exhibition. 

Publicalion  Office:  The  American  Museum  of  Natural  History,  Central  Park  West  at  7<>lh  Street.  New  ' 
N.  Y.  10024.  Published  monthly,  October  through  May:  bimonthly  June  to  September.  Subscription:  S5. 
year.  In  Canada,  and  all  other  countries;  S5.5D  a  year.  Single  copies:  S.50.  Second  class  postage  paii 
New  York,  N.  Y.,  and  .it  additional  offices.  Copyright,  1964,  by  The  American  Museum  of  Natural  HisI 
No  part  of  this  periodical  may  be  reproduced  without  the  written  consent  of  Natural  History.  The 
Nature  Magazine,  registered  U.S.  Patent  Office.  Unsolicited  manuscripts  and  illustrations  submitted  to 
editorial  office  will  be  handled  with  all  possible  care,  but  we  cannot  assume  responsibility  for  their  sa: 
The  opinions  expressed  by  authors  are  their  own  and  do  not  necessarily  reflect  The  American  Museum's  po 


Naturally, 
you  can't 
beat  the 
system 


Problem:  howto  getclose  up  to  a  man-shy  lion  in  its  natural  habitat 
without  putting  your  life  on  the  line.  For  the  Hasselblad  photogra- 
pher, no  problem;  he  merelyslips  an  f/8  500mm  ZeissTele-Tessar 
on  his  500C  and  gets  full-frame,  razor-sharp  shots  from  a  safe, 
comfortable  distance.  No  matter  what  in  the  world  you  need  to 
photograph,  you're  better  able  to  do  it  when  you're  loaded  for 
bear,  with  the  incomparable  Hasselblad  system.  Your  dealer  is 
ready  to  show  you  the  king  of  cameras  and  its  dozens  and  doz- 
ens of  matched,  precision  accessories.  If  you  need  his  name  and 
address, write:  Paillard  Incorporated,  1900  LowerRd.,  Linden,  N.J. 


Photo  by 
Jon  Abbot  with 
Hasselblad  500C 
500mm  lens. 


HASS€LBLAD 


7c\KtM^vk:\K€^3:\:\K 


Try  this 

easy  new  syskm  of 

instant  bird  identification! 

Now  you  can  identify  any  eastern 
land  bird  at  once  —  from  South 
Carolina  west  to  the  Rockies  and 
north  to  the  Arctic  —  even  if  you've 
caught  only  a  fleeting  glimpse  of  it. 

Naming  the  Birds  at  a  Glance  — 
unlike  most  field  guides— groups  birds 
by  markings  instead  of  by  ornitholog- 
ical class.  This  means  that  you  can 
make  the  precise  identification  wiihout 
first  classifying  the  bird.  Any  detail  of 
its  markings  that  sticks  in  your  mind 
is  enough  to  guide  you  straight  to  its 
picture. 

Organized  for  FAST  identification 

As  soon  as  you  sight  a  bird  you  wish 
to  identify,  flip  the  book  open  to  either 
endpaper.  A  Color  Pattern  Guide 
swiftly  refers  you  to  the  two  or  three 
pages  of  pictures  and  text  where  your 
bird  will  be  found.  The  Myrde  Warb- 
ler, for  example,  can  be  located  either 
by  the  "yellow  rump,"  the  "yellow 
crown,"  or  the  "black  line  through 
the  eye."  Often,  you  can  put  your 
finger  on  the  correct  picture  before 
the  bird  has  flown! 

"I  believe  it  has  a  real  potential . . . 

It  seems  a  very  logical  new  approach 

and  should  prove  most  useful." 

—  EMMETT  R.  BLAKE,  Curator  of  Birds, 

Chicago  Natural  History  Museum 

Naming  the 
Birds  at  a 
Glance 


By 

LOU  BLACHLY 

and 

RANDOLPH 

JENKS 

Drawings  by 
Sheridan  Oman 

$3.95,  now  at 
better  bookstores 
ALFRED.  A -KNOPF 


7CiaC€M37C\KtM'3VC\K 


BOOKS   IN  REVIEW 


'Science  u.  the  humanities 


'By  George  Gaylord  Simpson 


The  Role  of  Science  in  Civilization, 
by  Robert  Bruce  Lindsay.  Harper  and 
Row,  $6.00;  318  pp.  Science:  The 
Glorious  Entertainment,  by  Jacques 
Barzun.  Harper  and  Row,  S6.00 ;  322  pp. 

THE  authors  of  these  books  are  well- 
known  pedagogues  at  sister  institu- 
tions: Lindsay  a  professor  of  physics  at 
Brown  University,  Barzun  a  dean  and  lit- 
erary historian  at  Columbia  University. 
The  books  have  the  same  subject  and  are 
issued  at  almost  the  same  time  by  the 
same  publisher.  Neither  author  mentions 
the  other,  although  there  is  evidence  on 
Lindsay's  side  that  this  is  not  due  to 
ignorance.  The  points  of  view  are  com- 
pletely different,  and  this  in  itself  is 
enlightening  as  regards  their  common 
topic.  The  scientist  treats  the  humani- 
ties with  comprehension  and  apprecia- 
tion. The  humanist  treats  science  with 
bias  and  disgust. 

Lindsay's  work  is  not  organized  or 
presented  as  a  textbook,  but  it  embodies 
the  substance  of  one  of  his  university 
courses.  The  style  is  clear  and  readable, 
but  it  is  occasionally  rather  dryly  didac- 
tic. One  of  Lindsay's  main  concerns  is 
to  discuss  the  interaction  of  science  and 
the  humanities.  He  recognizes  that  this 
has  some  negative  aspects  and  also  that 
it  is  rarely  appreciated  by  scholars  in  the 
humanities,  fie  strives  to  alleviate  that 
antagonism  by  demonstrating  the  con- 
gruence and  even,  in  some  respects,  iden- 
tity of  aims  in  the  two  fields.  The  quiet 
argument  should  convince  almost  any- 
one, although  Barzun's  book  is  evidence 
that  some  of  the  more  rabid  humanistic 
apologists  are  hopelessly  irreconcilable. 
To  a  scientist  also  interested  in  the  hu- 
manities, the  only  criticism  is  that  Lind- 
say so  greatly  stresses  the  compatibility 
of  the  two  that  he  almost  loses  the  dis- 
tinction between  them.  His  definition  of 
science  tends  to  become  blurred. 

Lindsay  then  discusses  more  specifi- 
cally the  relationships  of  science  with 
philosophy,  history,  and  communication. 
Modern  science  necessarily  impinges  on 
formal  philosophy  and  necessarily  has  a 
basis,  usually  less  formal  and  often 
unperceived.  in  philosophy.  The  discus- 
sion of  these  interactions  will  be  enlight- 
ening to  any  scientist,  philosopher,  or 
layman.  Here  and  in  some  other  pas- 
sages it  must  be  admitted  that  Lindsay's 
moderation  becomes  an  almost  excessive 
impartiality.  The  treatment  of  science 
and  history  is  again  excellent  and  can  be 


highly  recommended,  but  it  does  exhil 
another  weakness,  one  common  to  t 
great  majority  of  works  on  the  natu: 
philosophy,  and  history  of  science.  T 
concentration  is  on  physical  science,  a 
the  other  sciences  are  either  ignored 
treated  with  bias  and  inadequate  knoi 
edge.  The  attitude  toward  history  wot 
be  quite  different  if  the  point  of  vi 
were  that  of  one  of  the  several  scienc 
that  are  themselves  historical. 

A  chapter  on  science  and  communii 
tion  includes  semitechnical  summar 
of  acoustics,  cybernetics,  informati 
theory,  entropy,  and  statistical  lingu 
tics.  The  compression  of  all  this,  anc 
bit  more,  comprehensibly  into  sixty-fc 
pages  is  a  real  tour  de  force  and  ( 
riches  the  book  beyond  the  essentials 
its  central  theme. 

The  most  important  impacts  of  scier 
are  not  the  most  obvious.  Lindsay  1 
wisely  devoted  the  greater  part  of  . 
book  (about  two-thirds)  to  these  li 
obvious  aspects.  The  most  obvious  aspi 
is  of  course  technological,  and  this  1 
been  discussed  elsewhere  at  what  rn 
fairly  be  called  oppressive  length.  Lii 
say's  essay  on  the  subject  (in  extre: 
contrast  to  Barzun's  book)  is  brief  a 
is  characterized  by  calm  good  sense, 
of  course  recognizes  the  distressing  si 
effects  of  technological  advance,  but  ci 
eludes  that.  "The  chief  impact  of  1 
materialistic  evolution  brought  about 
technology  is  simply  a  widening  of  I 
man  experience." 

A  chapter  on  science  and  the  st; 
discusses,  necessarily  in  somewhat  g( 
eral  terms,  the  need  for  science  (beyo 
technology )  by  governments,  the  agi 
cies  set  up  for  that  purpose,  and  the  i 
pact  of  increasing  governmental  supp 
for  science.  The  relationship  of  sciei 
to  warfare  is  described,  as  well  as  1 
presence  or  absence  of  controls  in  s 
ence  under  public  support— both  in 
rather  noncommittal  way.  It  is  perh£ 
enough  at  this  stage  to  point  out  tl 
issues  do  exist  and  to  explain  exac 
what  they  are.  More  could  have  b« 
made  of  the  fact,  here  mentioned  aim 
in  passing,  that  the  enormous  sums,  pi 
lie  and  private,  spent  for  "research  a 
development"  go  mostly  to  engineerii 
with  technology  second  and  science 
very  poor  third.  The  figures  are  widi 
understood  as  indicative  of  our  supp 
of  science,  but  less  than  a  tenth  of  1 
stated  sums  goes  for  scientific  reseai 
in  any  reasonable  sense  of  the  wor 


If 


I  FELT 
A  BRIEF 
SPASM 
OF 
PANIC..." 


".  .  .  with  the  male  gorilla  only  thirty  feet  from  me.  Cautiously,  I 
ascended  a  tree.  Slowly,  as  if  daring  each  other  to  come  closer,  the 
whole  group  of  gorillas  advanced  toward  my  tree." 

The  panic  was,  however,  brief.  George  Schaller  found  gorillas  to  be 
most  unferocious  beasts  who  live  more  peaceably  together  than  do 
most  humans.  "In  many  ways,"  he  says,  "they  have  achieved  the 
kind  of  life  man  has  sought  for  centuries." 

Tlie  Year  of  the  Gorilla  is  the  fascinating  account  of  many  months 
.■^pent  in  the  African  jungle  observing  mountain  gorillas  at  home. 
It  is  the  story  of  the  enforced  yet  splendid  isolation  of  a  naturalist 
and  of  the  unobtrusive  heroism  of  his  wife  who  spent  long  hours 
waiting  alone  in  the  background. 

The  Year  of  the  Gorilla  is  the  story  of  the  delight  the  Schallers  found 
in  the  beauty  of  the  African  countryside  and  of  the  deep  affection 
they  felt  for  the  gorillas  whom  they  learned  to  know  as  individuals. 
The  Year  of  the  Gorilla  tells  how  these  misunderstood  animals  live, 
what  they  eat,  drink  (apparently  they  don't),  how  they  mate,  nest 
and  play;  how  they  communicate,  express  emotion,  and  how  they 
react  to  humans. 

For  all  who  enjoy  stories  of  nature  in  the  wild,  for  all  who  know 
gorillas  only  as  surly  animals  in  zoos,  this  book  will  be  a  revelation 
and  a  delight. 

"Quite  aside  from  the  fascination  of  the  gorillas  themselves.  The 
Year  of  the  Gorilla  gives  a  vivid  picture  of  an  aspect  of  Africa  that 
may  well  be  doomed,  and  carries  the  feel  of  remote  adventure  as 
clearly  as  any  book  I  know."-MARSTON  bates 

"Whether  the  author  is  tracking  gorillas,  slipping  past  elephant  herds 
on  narrow  jungle  paths,  avoiding  poachers'  deadfalls,  or  routing 
Watutsi  invaders,  this  is  an  exciting  book."-iRVEN  de  vore,  Science. 

Illustrated  with  many  photographs  and  with  charming  line  drawings 
by  the  author.         $5.95 


THE 
THE 


OF 
CaORILLA 


by  George  B.  Schaller 


THE  MOUNTAIN  GORILLA  Dr  Schallers  su 
perb  scientific  study,  published  last  year  and  hailed  as  "a  record  of 
superlative  field  work  well  described. "-S.  L.  Washburn  American 
Scientist  5^000 


Inquire  at  your  bookstore  -Ci- 

UNIVERSITY  OF  CHICAGO  PRESS  S^ 

Chicago  and  London 


A  breathtaking 
'array  of  America's 
Xwildflowers— 

shown  in  their  natural  surroundings 
in  over  300  full-color  photographs 

THE  Odyssey  Book  of  American 
WiLDFLOWERS  presents  more  than 
300  representative  species,  photo- 
graphed in  color  at  the  peak  of  their 
beauty.  Farrell  Grehan,  whose 
work  has  appeared  in  Life  and  other 
leading  magazines,  traveled  about 
the  country  for  three  years  to  catch 
each  flower  "as  it  grows".  His 
special  technique  makes  su- 
perb use  of  light  and  foliage 
to  create  the  living  effect  of 
the  flowers. 

H.   W.   RiCKETT,   Senior     ^ 
Botanist,  New  York  Botani- 
cal Garden,  has  written  the  '     \ 
authoritative  text  on  each  va-  ^ ^ 
riety  shown  —  including  scien- 
tific name,  color,  size,  fragrance, 
habitat,  time  of  blooming,  and 
other  characteristics  —  plus  a  glos- 
sary  of  botanical   terms.   His   clear, 
engaging  style  helps  make  this  book 
an  endless  delight  for  anyone  who  has 
ever  seen  "a  heaven  in  a  wild  flower"- 
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In  fact  we  are  not  supporting  science 
generously  or  even  adequately. 

Lindsay's  last  chapter  is  a  very  brief 
consideration  of  science  and  ethics.  It  is 
surprising  to  find  an  author  hitherto  so 
judicious  and  restrained  supporting  the 
outright  bizarre  notion  of  what  he  calls 
"the  thermodynamic  imperative"  as  a 
scientific  basis  for  ethics. 

Barzun's  is  decidedly  the  more  inter- 
esting and  readable  of  the  two  books. 
That  is  partly  a  simple  matter  of  skill. 
Lindsay  himself  makes  the  point  that 
scientists  generally  are  not  good  at  com- 
municating in  writing,  and  although  he 
is  better  than  most  scientists  he  is  not 
equal  to  a  first-class  litterateur  like  Bar- 
zun.  Other  reasons  for  the  fact  that 
Barzun's  book  is  more  entertaining  are 
not  really  to  its  credit.  It  is  witty  rather 
than  reasonable.  It  substitutes  uncon- 
trolled exaggeration  and  calculated  mis- 
representation for  judgment.  Lindsay  is 
a  scientist  trying  to  evaluate  a  whole 
situation.  Barzun  is  an  artist  reacting 
emotionally  to  a  strongly  slanted  percep- 
tion of  a  part  of  that  situation. 

Barzun's  premise  is  "the  proposition 
which  thinking  beholders  no  longer  dis- 
pute: the  life  man  has  made  for  himself 
is  not  worth  living."  It  is  characteristic 
that  he  accuses  other  artists  (literary, 
visual,  and  musical)  of  treason  because 
they  reiterate  this  proposition  "to  the 
point  of  nausea"— and  that  he  makes  this 
accusation  in  a  book  wholly  devoted  to 
that  same  reiteration! 

Much  of  Barzun's  book  is  devoted  not 
to  science  but  to  technology,  which  he 
calls  "techne"  and  which  he  considers  an 
unmitigated  horror.  The  significance  of 
the  book's  title  is  that  Barzun  finds  sci- 
ence diverting  in  a  gruesome  sort  of  way 
and  that  beyond  that  he  considers  it  and 
its  works  completely  pernicious.  He  lays 
about  him  with  broad  strokes  and  even 
roundly  whacks  his  fellow  artists  (in  all 
fields).  With  more  than  dubious  logic 
he  finds  that  their  failure  to  follow  his 
impeccable  standards  is  all  the  fault  of 
science.  In  short,  this  is  just  another  of 
the  too  many  humanistic  attacks  on  sci- 
ence and,  indeed,  on  rationality.  Its  only 
virtue  is  that  it  is  cleverer  than  most. 

There  is  little  doubt  that  Barzun's 
book  will  be  more  widely  acclaimed  and 
read  than  Lindsay's.  That  is  a  bad  omen 
for  civilization. 

Dr.  Simpson  ivho  is  on  the  staff  of  the 
Museum  of  Comparative  Zoology  and 
who  is  the  Agassiz  Professor  of  Verte- 
brate Paleontology  at  Harvard,  was  until 
1959  the  Chairman  of  The  American 
Museum's  Department  of  Geology  and 
Paleontology.  During  his  distinguished 
career  he  has  written,  among  hundreds 
of  publications,  the  classic  "Horses"  and 
"The  Meaning  of  Evolution."  His  most 
recent  book  is  "This  Vieiv  of  Life." 


Harnessing  Space,  edited  by  Willy  1 
The  Macmillan  Co.,  $6.50;  314  pp.,  Hi 

THIS  volume  is  a  handbook  on  rod 
and  artificial  satellites.  Willy  Ley 
been  explaining  these  matters  to  the 
initiated  for  forty  years.  Here  he  . 
collected  all  pertinent  information  ab 
artificial  satellites  and  the  methods 
launching  them  and  has  written  a  com 
introduction  unifying  the  material, 
the  beginning  of  his  book,  Mr.  Ley 
tablishes  a  firm  foundation  for  the  un( 
standing  of  the  material  in  a  recital 
the  basic  physical  laws  that  govern 
rocket  and  satellite  activity.  This  is 
lowed  by  a  history  of  man's  efforts 
put  satellites  and  himself  into  space. 

After  this  heginmng,HarnessingSp 
is  a  brief  encyclopedia  of  rockets  i 
propulsion  systems,  their  fuels,  meth 
of  launching,  dimensions,  and,  in  f 
every  detail  of  their  operation.  The  a 
ficial  satellites  that  have  already  b 
launched— or  those  we  are  preparing 
launch— are  described  in  the  same  det 
The  various  more  complex  and  an 
tious  projects,  such  as  Project  Merc 
and  Project  Apollo,  are  detailed  and 
progress  to  date  is  outlined. 

The  last  third  of  this  book  is  a  sei 
of  appendixes  and  the  titles  desci 
their  purposes:  "A  Listing  of  U.S.  Re 
ets  with  Space  Capability,"  "Chronol 
of  Meteorological  Satellite  Even 
"Chronology  of  Communication  Satel 
Events."  The  book  closes  with  an  exi 
sive  glossary  of  space  terms  and  a  lis 
titles  for  further  reading.  Similar  1 
are  given  at  the  end  of  each  of  the  v 
ous  sections  throughout  the  book.  Th 
are  a  number  of  good  photographs  . 
well-made  diagrams  throughout  the  t 

Harnessing  Space  should  be  of  con: 
erable  value  as  a  quick  reference  be 
particularly  for  those  whose  work  or 
terest  calls  for  a  specialized  knowle 
of  details  in  this  field. 

James  S.  Picker 
American  Museum-Hayden  Planetar 

Maya  Archaeologist,  by  J.  Eric 
Thompson.  University  of  Oklahc 
Press,  $5.00;  284  pp.,  illus. 

ERIC  Thompson's  name  is  well  kn( 
to  everyone  who  has  looked  into 
subject  of  Maya  archeology.  He  has  b 
one  of  the  most  productive  scho! 
working  in  this  challenging  field, 
witnessed  by  his  more  technical  pu 
cations  such  as  Maya  Hieroglyf 
Writing,  An  Introduction,  and  his  m 
general  work  Rise  and  Fall  of  M 
Civilization.  The  latter  is  undoubte 
the  best  available  introduction  to 
study  of  the  Maya. 

In  Maya  Archaeologist,  Thomp 
writes  of  his  many  experiences  in  M 
country.  These  began  in  1926  when 
joined  Sylvanus  Morley,  who  was  ej 


new  and  recent 
books  from 


COLUMBIA 


THE  INSECTS 

Url  Lanham 

This  beautifully  illustrated  book  is  a  natural  history  of  the  insects,  written 
for  the  student,  the  amateur  entomologist,  and  the  general  reader.  The 
author  writes  of  the  origin  and  evolution  of  insects  and  compares  them  with 
related  animals  such  as  the  centipedes  and  spiders.  There  is  a  discussion  of 
insect  structure  in  terms  of  function  and  a  section  on  insects  and  their 
environment. 


10  Ay 


THE  FISHES 

Url  Lanham 

"This  is  an  excellent  little  book.  ...  It  is  clear 
and  well-written  and  would  make  good  reading 
for  the  student  of  elementary  biology  or  the 
fisherman  who  wants  to  know  more  about  his 
prey."  —  American  Scientist 

".  . .  Professor  Lanham  bears  his  learning  so  grace- 
fully that  I  wish  the  book  had  been  twice  as  long 
as  it  is."— Saturday  Review 

extensive  fhotograyhs  $5.00 

HEREDITY  AND 
HUMAN  LIFE 

Hampton  L.  Carson 

"The  well-read  and  well-educated  person  who 
wants  an  introduction  to  human  genetics  will  find 
it  in  this  book."  —  Science 

"Professor  Carson  .  .  .  has  written  a  lucid,  careful 
popular  introduction  to  the  subject."  —  New 
Yorker 


illustrated 


$5.00 


•vings  $6.95 

ANTS 

Their  Structure,  Development 

and  Behavior 

William  Morton  W^beeler 

Out  of  print  for  many  years  and  long  in  demand, 
this  book  is  regarded  as  the  definitive  work  on 
ants.  It  is  the  most  comprehensive  publication  on 
the  subject.  Not  only  students  and  teachers  of 
natural  history  but  anyone  interested  in  the 
mystery  and  complexity  of  the  natural  world  will 
be  fascinated  by  this  book. 

illustrated  $17.50 

THE  ORIGIN  OF 
ADAPTIONS 

Verne  Grant 

"Written  by  a  biologist  for  other  biologists,  this 
is  .  .  .  the  best  and  most  comprehensive  of  a  series 
of  books  written  recently  on  the  modern,  syn- 
thetic approach  to  evolutionary  theory  ...  it  is 
so  well  written  that  a  nonbiological  reader  can 
easily  understand  it  with  a  little  concentration 
of  effort."  —  Library  Journal 

illustrated  $12.50 


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to  the  eyes  that  see  them 

—  Ralph  Waldo  Emerson 


THE  INSECTS 

All  the  fascinating  "gee-whiz 
facts"  of  insect  life,  beauti- 
fully illustrated,  and  written 
in  non-technical  language. 
This  book  covers  the  origin 
and  evolution  of  insects;  flight, 
sense  perception,  behavior, 
reproduction,  adaptation,  mat- 
ing habits,  and  thousands  of 
other  facets  of  an  amazing 
world. 

25  photographs  and 
70  drawings.  $6.95 


THE  FISHES 

The  world  of  water  has  the 
fascination  of  the  unfamiliar 
—and  the  strangeness  of  the 
aquatic  environment  seems 
brought  to  focus  in  the  vari- 
ety of  its  inhabitants.  This 
volume,  a  profusely  illus- 
trated natural  history  of  the 
fishes,  is  designed  for  the 
general  reader. 
"A  highly  readable  guide." 

—Saturday  Review 

"Excellent. ..good  reading  for 
the  student  of  elementary 
biology  or  the  fisherman  who 
wants  to  know  more  about  his 
prey."  — Sc/ent/fic  Amencan 
42  photographs  and 
5  drawings  $5.00 

UrI  Lanham,  author  of  the 
above  books,  is  Associate 
Curator  of  Entomology,  Uni- 
versity of  Colorado  Museum. 


At  all  bookstores 

Columbia  University  Press 

2960  Broadway 
New  York,  New  York  10027 


vating  at  Chichen  Itza.  In  succeeding 
years  he  worked  at  many  different  sites 
and  also  spent  several  seasons  with  the 
primitive  modern  Maya  in  the  forests  of 
British  Honduras  to  see  what  their  cus- 
toms might  reveal  of  the  life  of  the  an- 
cient Maya.  These  studies  provide  ample 
opportunity  for  reflections  on  many 
things— on  the  pains  and  excitement  of 
the  dig,  on  the  life  of  a  primitive  people 
who  still  gesture  and  pose  like  the  figures 
on  the  carved  stones,  and  on  the  changes 
that  have  come  about  in  the  life  of  the  na- 
tive people  and  of  the  field  archeologist 
with  the  encroachment  of  civilization. 

The  account  is  both  erudite  and 
charmingly  humorous.  For  my  part,  I 
wish  the  author  had  told  more  of  his 
work  with  Maya  hieroglyphics  and  the 
calendar,  for  he  made  the  greatest  con- 
tributions in  this  area  of  Maya  research. 
That,  he  would  probably  say,  was  mere 
"slugging"  hard  work  in  his  study  and 
of  little  interest  to  anyone,  but  certainly 
it  would  have  more  fully  revealed  the 
man  himself.  Despite  this  omission,  I 
can  recommend  the  book  highly  to  any- 
one with  an  interest  in  Maya  archeology 
or  in  archeologists— or  both. 

Gordon  F.  Ekholm 
The  American  Museum 

The  Dolphin  in  History,  by  Ashley 
Montagu  and  John  C.  Lilly.  Clark  Mem- 
orial Library,  $2.00;  55  pp.,  illus. 

THIS  little  book  consists  of  two  lec- 
tures on  the  dolphin,  one  of  which 
is  primarily  concerned  with  ancient 
Greek  myths,  and  the  other  with  a  more 
recent  fable.  Both  were  presented  at  a 
recent  symposium  given  at  the  Univer- 
sity of  California. 

Ashley  Montagu,  in  his  essay,  quotes 
liberally  from  Aristotle,  Pliny,  and 
other  classical  writers.  Unfortunately, 
he  gives  credence  to  many  superstitions 
and  personifications  of  the  dolphin,  some 
of  which  are  on  the  level  of  Reynard  the 
Fox  and  Peter  Rabbit  stories.  On  such 
a  basis,  he  concludes  that  dolphins  in- 
trinsically like  people.  A  separate  sec- 
tion gives  a  classification  of  the  dolphins 
and  porpoises.  The  list,  however,  omits 
many  important  species  and  its  nomen- 
clature is  out  of  date. 

In  the  second  article,  John  C.  Lilly 
presents  his  thesis  for  the  great  intelli- 
gence of  the  dolphin  as  stated  in  his 
earlier  book.  Man  and  Dolphin.  He  is 
struck  by  the  large  size  of  the  dolphin's 
brain,  and  he  equates  brain  size  with 
intelligence  and  language.  He  persists  in 
confusing  mimicry  with  language,  and 
his  arguments  are  extrapolations  from 
little  evidence  and  much  hypothesis. 

For  the  many  people  interested  in 
these  fascinating  animals,  we  recom- 
mend two  recently  published  works: 
Dolphins,  Myth  and  Mammal,  by  An- 
thony Alpers,  a  reliable  account  of  the 


life  and  history  of  the  dolphin :  anc 
Porpoises  and  Sonar,  by  Winthrop  IN 
Kellogg,  an  objective  description  o 
scientific  studies  on  the  animals'  re 
markable  echo-locating  abilities. 

William  N.  &  Margaret  C.  TavolG; 
The  American  Museui 

A  Field  Guide  to  Rocky  Mountau 
WiLDFLOWERS,  by  Ray  J.  Davis,  John  J 
and  Frank  C.  Craighead,  Jr.  Houghto 
Mifflin  Co.,  S4.95;  277  pp.,  illus. 

THIS  welcome  addition  to  the  Petei 
son  Field  Guides  treats  the  wild 
flowers  of  a  part  of  the  country  that,  a] 
though  a  tourist's  paradise  and  a  happ 
hunting  ground  for  botanists,  ha 
strangely  lacked  any  such  popula 
work;  indeed  there  is  still  no  good  tecl 
nical  volume  available  for  the  entir 
region.  As  the  introduction  states,  to  in 
elude  all  the  species  of  the  Rocky  Mour 
tains  in  a  book  of  usable  size  would  b 
impossible;  590  are  selected  (of  the  pos 
sible  5,000!).  Of  these,  209  are  illus 
trated  in  full-color  photographs  an 
118  by  drawings.  This  seems  rathe 
skimpy.  The  authors  evidently  felt  tha 
"interesting  facts"  about  the  plants— th 
flight  of  owls  when  a  species  is  in  blooix 
the  usefulness  of  another  species  to  rod 
climbers,  the  feeding  of  rabbits  on  th 
bulbs  of  yet  another— should  take  prece 
dence  over  a  more  extensive  treatmenl 
I  should  have  preferred  to  see,  at  leasl 
illustrations  of  every  species  mentioned 
However,  within  their  limitations,  th 
authors  have  done  a  creditable  job,  aa 
the  book  will  without  doubt  be  usefu] 
As  the  editor  says,  it  is  more  importan 
to  place  flowers  in  their  families  than  h 
name  "every  last  species"  (but  there  ar 
no  descriptions  of  families). 

The  authors  provide  an  informativi 
introduction  to  plant  life  and  classifica 
tion.  At  the  end  of  the  book  there  is  ai 
18-page  "key  to  plants,"  which  the  ama 
teur  will  find  too  difficult.  In  fact,  the  en 
tire  treatment  leans  toward  an  unneces 
sary  technicality.  It  is  unpleasant  ti 
have  to  add  that  the  glossary  of  term; 
is  badly  done,  the  definitions  being  b; 
turns  unclear,  incorrect,  and,  in  somi 
cases,  ungrammatical. 

H.  W.  RlCKET 
A'.  Y.  Botanical  Gardei 

Man  and  the  Conquest  of  the  Poles 
by  Paul-Emile  Victor.  Simon  and  Schus 
ter,  $6.95;  320  pp.,  illus. 

A  distinguished  French  explorer  hen 
.  traces  the  history  of  the  Arctic  ant 
Antarctic  regions  from  the  semilegend 
ary  voyage  of  Pytheas  in  the  fourth  cen 
tury  B.C.  to  the  massive  expeditions  tha 
were  conducted  during  the  Interna 
tional  Geophysical  Year  and  the  fina 
conquest  of  the  ice-filled  Arctic  Oceai 
by  atomic  submarines.  In  the  interven 


I 


Immortal  Treasures  From 
Brentano's  Gallery  of  Sculpture 
Masterpieces  in  Replica 

Throughout  history,  man  has  endeavored  to  capture  the 
grace  and  charm  of  nature  in  art.  Sculpture,  as  does  no 
other  art  form,  lends  itself  to  this  noble  aspiration. 

The  flowing  beauty  of  sculpture  sings  of  the  spirit,  the 
innate  quality,  the  vitality  of  its  subject.  In  its  dramatic 
mood,  sculpture  makes  an  ideal  gift,  for  it  reflects,  uniauely. 
your  own  good  taste  and  thoughtfulness. 

Each  of  these  magnificent  pieces  from  Brentano's  re- 
nowned gallery  of  over  200  replicas  has  been  winnowed  from 
the  art  centers  of  the  world  by  scholars  and  artists  only  after 
careful  research  and  planning.  ' 

To  capture  with  utmost  fidelity  the  texture,  color  and  spirit 
of  the  original,  the  sculptures  are  painstakingly  reproduced 
in  the  endunng  new  substance,  Alvastone.  Master  craftsmen 
hover  over  each  stage  of  the  process,  taking  jealous  care 
that  only  the  finest  examples  pass  their  scrutiny.  Then,  be- 
fore allowing  the  sculpture  to  be  seen  in  public,  they  un- 
hurriedly apply  up  to  eight  hand-finishings  to  achieve  a 
warm  patina. 

A  fine  sculpture  gift  will  make  any  occasion  one  to  be  re- 
membered. Indeed,  sculpture  is  one  of  the  most  welcome 
and  dramatic  gifts  you  can  offer.  Please  use  the  couoon 
below  to  order;  or  come  see  Brentano's  complete  collection 


HORSE.  Chinese.  Han  Dvnasty 
B.C.-A  D.  220.  Metropolitan  Mu- 
1  of  Art.  Orlslnal  In  bronze.  Ht. : 
$3.50.    (Add   eOc  shipping,    Insur- 


13.  STATUETTE 
OF  A  CAT.  Egyp- 
tian. 600-300B.C. 
Metropolitan  Mu- 
seum of  Art.  Orig- 


".  $10.00. 
(Add  $1.00  ship- 
ping,   ■ 


00.  MOSES.  By  Michelangelo 
nal  in  bronze,  after  the  marble 
', ,'"  the  Chureh  of  San  Pietro  in 
II.  Rome.  Prom  a  private  collec- 
vlv  ,;*"■  ""  genuine  marble 
$12.50.    (Add   $1.50  shipping. 


CHINESE  VASE.  202  B.C.- 
220.  American  Museum  of  Natu- 
Istory.  Ht. :  6V2".  $15.00.  (Add 
shipping,  insurance.) 


S  M  -83.  FOG 
DOGS.  Chinese. 
Ming  Dynasty. 
Blue  Elazed  fin- 
Ht.  :  S'/j". 
$15.00  pair. 
(Shipping  —  ex- 
press collect.) 


WEDDING 

RINGS.  By  Peter  Lip- 
man-Wulf  (American 
Contemporary).    Rep- 


ST-300.  PI  ETA.  By  Micliclaneelo.  Re 
duction  by  J.  G.  Kendall  to  UV-" 
including  1"  walnut  base.  Superb  mar- 
ble finish.  $50.00.  (Shipping— express 
collect.) 


FREE  SCULPTURE  CATALOG 

Witli  each  purchase 


ri 


sculpture  catalog, 
with  over  100  strik- 
ing photographs  of 
the    world's    sculp- 

annotated     descrip- 
of  each  piece 


mailing.  Dept.  Nil- 1 


VL-I.JOHNF.  KEN- 
NEDY. By  Victor 
Lamkay  (American 
Contemporary)  . 
Bronze-rinish.  Ht. : 
12"   Including  walnut 

O'sl 

!.) 

VL-IA.    7"   Including 
walnut    base.    $12.50. 
(Add    85c   shipping, 
insurance.) 
VL-IL.   Life-size. 


SM-43.    DAVID.    By 

Michelangelo.  Bronze 
finish.  Ht.:  15". 
$15.00.  (Add  $1.50 
stripping.    Insurance.) 


brentano's 

Authentic  Replicas 
of  IVIuseum  Jewelry 


FIT  FOR  A 
QUEEN.  Gold- 
washed  repUcas 
of  beech  leaf  mo- 


tif 


5.000   years   ago 
by  Queen  Shubad 
of  Sumer. 
ST.90N 

Necklace  $27.50 
ST-90EC 

Ear  Clips    $3.50 


of   1 


hed    repli 


ornament  on  Cal- 
ifornia Museum 
of  Science  walls. 
CMS-IP 

Pin  $3.50 

CMS-IN 

Necklace  $3.75 
CMS-2EC 

Ear  Clips  $3.75 


faience  In  foreign  collection.  Facsimile 
o.^'^S^?  cast-stone.  Ht.  :  41/4".  Length: 
8?4 ".$15.00.  ($1.50 shipplng.lnsurance.) 


KNIGHT  IN  SHINING 
ARMOR.  Silver-plated 
replica  based  on  an  Ital- 
ian craftsman's  handiwork. 
JF-IKC  Key  Chain  $3.75 


4^ 


r""ir 


Ci 


NH-65ST.  LLAMA.  Peru.  ISth-lOth 
centuries.  Original  of  cast  silver.  The 
American  Museum  of  Natural  History 
Beplica  In  siiverplate.  Ht. :  2V2".  $2.75. 
(Add  75c  shipping,  insurance.) 


OWL  COIN  CUFFLINKS.  Greek  coin, 
52a-430  B.C.  Art  Institute  of  Chicago. 
Silver-plated.  AlC  4  CL  $2.50 


ST-400.  HEAD  OF  LINCOLN.  After 
Gutzon  Borglum  Original  heroic-size 
marble  In  the  Capitol  original  bronze 
on  Lincolns  tomb  Springfleld,  HI. 
Replica  of  Alvastone.  Ht. :  11"  incl  1" 
walnut  base.  $25.00.  (Add  $1.50  shin- 
Ping,  Insurance.) 


V 


CALENDAR    STONE.    The    most    Im- 
portant   monument    of    Aztec    culture. 
Represents   various   symbols   of   sun 
worship. 
XH-IOONS  (Silver-plated)  Necklace 

$5.00 
XH-IOONG  (Gold- washed)  Necklace 

$5.00 


MACEDONIAN  COIN  On  the  reierse 
Is  a  driver  in  a  two-horse  chariot.  Below 
in  Greek  letters  api)ears  the  name  of 
Phillip  of  Macedon.  Original  in  Walt- 
ers Art  Gallery.  Gold-washed. 
C-4ICL  CuCT  Links  $3.75 
C-4ITC  Tie  Clip  S2.50 


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ENLARGEMENTS 


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ing  centuries  described  by  the  author, 
polar  travel  has  sometimes  prospered, 
sometimes  been  neglected,  but  slowly 
and  certainly  the  mystery,  fear,  and 
ignorance  of  these  vast  areas  of  the  earth 
have  been  replaced  by  confidence  and 
knowledge.  Today,  with  the  aid  of  mod- 
ern technology,  even  the  polar  winters 
are  ignored  by  man,  who  lives,  works, 
and  travels  the  year  round  in  the  lands 
and  waters  that  lie  beyond  the  Antarctic 
and  Arctic  Circles. 

The  polar  regions  are  still,  I  suppose, 
somewhat  mystic,  legendary,  and  ad- 
venturous lands  to  most  persons.  But  I 
daresay  that  there  is  hardly  one  of  us 
today  who  does  not  count  among  his 
relatives,  friends,  or  acquaintances 
someone  who  has  crossed  the  Arctic  or 
Antarctic  Circles.  For  we  are  now,  as 
Paul-Emile  Victor  states,  entered  upon 
the  age  of  Arctic  exploitation.  The  age 
of  Arctic  discovery  is  long  since  past, 
and  even  the  age  of  Arctic  exploration 
is  in  its  declining  moments.  Today  we 
are  using  the  polar  regions  more  than 
we  are  learning  about  them— using  them 
commercially  as  well  as  scientifically. 

But  Victor  himself  is  one  of  the  few 
remaining  Arctic  explorers,  still  bent  on 
wringing  its  few  remaining  secrets  from 
the  frozen  lands  near  the  poles.  As  such, 
he  surely  has  a  great  love  and  a  great 
respect  for  the  hardy  men  who  have 
opened  up  the  polar  regions  to  the 
knowledge  and  use  of  mankind.  His  ad- 
miration for  the  discoverers  and  ex- 
plorers of  the  past,  and  for  the  lands  and 
waters  over  which  they  journeyed,  is  evi- 
dent in  this  well-written  and  interesting 
account  of  their  accomplishments. 

Thomas  D.  Nicholson 
American  Museum-Hayden  Planetarium 

The  World  of  the  Past,  edited  by 
Jacquetta  Hawkes.  Alfred  A.  Knopf, 
$20.00;  Vol.  7,  601  pp..  Vol.  II,  709  pp., 
illus. 

THERE  has  been  much  discussion  dur- 
ing the  past  year  or  two  about  "crea- 
tive writing  in  science,"  and  the  general 
difficulty  of  communicating  the  results 
of  scientific  endeavor  to  the  intelligent 
lay  public.  Editors  often  say  that  scien- 
tists cannot  write,  and  promptly  turn 
over  the  job  to  professional  writers. 

Jacquetta  Hawkes  has  set  out  to  prove 
that  this  cliche  is  spurious.  She  aims  to 
restore  archeology  to  its  practitioners, 
using  their  own  words  to  emphasize  the 
wealth  of  human  experience  repre- 
sented. She  has  combed  the  literature— 
both  formal  reports  and  private  letters 
—and  created  an  anthology  that  will  de- 
light anyone  interested  in  the  subject, 
whether  he  be  amateur  or  professional. 
In  selecting  the  materials,  the  editor 
has  done  more  than  gather  together  a 
haphazard  collection  of  excerpts.  She 
has  selected  them  to  construct  a  history 


'A  must  for  every 

natural  history 

book  shelf." 

—ROGER  TORY  PETERSOl 


HISTORY  OH 

By  FRANf  CIS  BOURLIERE 

Third  Edition,  Revised 
This  is  one  of  the  most  fascinat 
ing  books  of  mammalian  lor( 
ever  written,  and  one  of  th( 
most  popular  with  specialists  anc 
general  readers  alike.  It  present; 
the  first  comprehensive  pictun 
of  what  naturalists  and  biolo 
gists  together  have  learned  abou 
mammals  of  land,  water,  anc 
air.  More  than  100  photos  anc 
drawings. 

$6.95,  now  at  better  bookstores 
ALFRED -A-KNOPF 


The 

BIRD 

of 
NOVy^ 
SCOTI 

by  Robie  W.  Tufts 


Illustrated  by 
ROGER  TORY  PETERSO 
and  JOHN  CROSBY 


Line  Drawings  by  JOHN  H.  D 

481   PAGES 
40  COLOURED   PLATf 

Available  from  Retail  Bookseller 
Nova  Scotia  Museum,  Spring  Ge 
Road,  Halifax,. Nova  Scotia 


$7.50 


archeology  and  of  archeological 
iwledge.  At  the  same  time,  she  brings 
er  scholars  to  our  attention  in  a  way 
t  clearly  shows  their  very  real  con- 
■utions  to  the  discipline.  This  effort 
most  useful  in  view  of  the  facile 
icism  that  too  frequently  castigates 
h  men  without  taking  into  consider- 
n  that  these  personal  documents  re- 
1  their  point  of  view  in  the  context  of 

times  in  which  they  wrote, 
'o  assist  in  orienting  the  reader  to 
leology  as  a  general  study.  Miss 
ffkes  has  written  an  introduction  that 
ns  a  historical  sketch  of  the  develop- 
it  of  archeology  since  the  Greeks. 
5  fine  essay  makes  interesting  read- 

for  all  students  of  intellectual  his- 
f  who  are  concerned  with  the 
ortance  of  personal  contacts  and  the 
flapping  of  fields  of  study  as  con- 
utory  factors  to  the  creation  of  new 
IS.  With  these  general  trends  in 
d,  the  reader  may  then  read  the  two 
imes  as  a  continuing  chronicle. 
'he  first  sections  are  arranged  in 
IS  of  "the  evolution  of  man  and  the 
elopment  of  his  culture  for  so  long 
t  has  universal  meaning— that  is  to 
the  history  of  the  early  hunting  cul- 
:s  and  of  the  origins  and  spread  of 
ning."  Later  periods  are  dealt  with 
regional  groupings  that  cover  both 


the  Old  and  the  New  Worlds.  Occasional 
figures  and  photographic  plates  are 
scattered  through  the  text,  but  they  are 
subordinate  to  the  main  presentation. 
The  authors  quoted  will,  in  many  cases, 
be  familiar  to  the  reader  by  name  at 
least— they  include  Herodotus.  Huxley, 
Darwin.  Layard.  Schliemann.  Morley, 
and  Vaillant.  Others,  such  as  Mac 
Enery.  Rich,  and  Hilprecht  may  be  less 
well  known.  In  each  instance,  however, 
the  quotation  used  presents  a  firsthand 
account  of  some  experience,  often  one 
of  the  major  discoveries,  such  as  the 
unearthing  of  the  Sutton  Hoo  Treasure 
or  the  descent  into  the  pyramid  tomb 
at  Palenque.  Again  and  again  we  see 
what  fascinating  and  expressive  minds 
have  dealt  with  archeology  over  the 
years.  Quite  rightly  Miss  Hawkes  dis- 
approves of  those  "Modern  archaeolo- 
gists .  .  .  [who]  are  inclined  to  think 
that  literary  skill  will  diminish,  and  un- 
necessary jargon  enhance,  their  scien- 
tific reputations."'  This  statement  is  only 
a  half-truth,  however,  since  a  number  of 
the  men  included  in  tliis  anthology  are 
"modern"  archeologists  still  vigorously 
writing  without  the  use  of  jargon. 

Perhaps  these  volumes  will  most  en- 
tertain those  already  somewhat  ac- 
quainted with  the  subject.  The  items  in- 
cluded   are    episodic    and    require    an 


understanding  of  what  archeology  is 
about  to  be  fuUy  appreciated.  The 
reader  with  no  background  at  all  may 
find  himself  a  bit  frustrated  by  the 
brevity  of  presentation.  Nevertheless, 
the  bold  reader  may  enjoy  sallying  forth 
to  an  exciting  personal  encounter  with 
a  host  of  archeologists. 

Robert  H.  Dyson,  Jr. 

University  Museum,  Univ.  of  Penn. 

The  Plants,  by  Frits  W.  Went.  Time, 
Inc.,  $3.95;  194  pp.,  illus. 

DR.  FRITS  WENT,  Director  of  the  Mis- 
souri Botanical  Garden,  has  written 
a  comprehensive  work  for  the  "Life  Na- 
ture Library."  The  Plants  is  a  relatively 
small  book,  with  a  large  portion  of  its 
space  taken  up  by  striking  and  highly 
informative  illustrations  (in  color  and 
black  and  white),  but  it  is  packed  with 
significant  botanical  information  care- 
fully chosen  from  the  whole  field  of  the 
science.  There  are  chapters  devoted  to 
the  history  of  plant  evolution,  cellular 
anatomy,  photosynthesis,  physical  prob- 
lems of  water  use.  stimulation  and  con- 
trol of  plant  growth,  plant  ecology,  and 
plant  interrelations  ranging  from  sym- 
biosis to  lethal  parasitism.  Then,  finally. 
Went  discusses  the  history  of  man"s  re- 
lationship   with    plants    from    the    days 


rhis 
man 

likes 
wasps 


fie  even  goes  to  the  desert  to  pho- 
;ograph  them.  He's  Howard 
3vans  of  Harvard's  Museum  of 
Comparative  Zoology  and  he  has 
ipent  thousands  of  hours  in  sim- 
larly  uncomfortable  positions. 
Every  minute  of  it  has  been  put 
;o  good  use  in  his  new  book,  Wasp 
T'arm,  a  vivid  picture  of  an  in- 
;riguing  part  of  the  insect  world. 
Here's  just  a  sampling  of  review 
comment : 

'Nature  writing  of  the  highest  integ- 
•ity  ...  In  the  great  tradition  of  the. 
ield  naturalists,  Gilbert,  White,  Dar- 


win, Beebe."  —  PETER  farb,  New  York 
Times  Book  Revieiv 

"A  satisfying  combination  of  the  exact 
science  and  modern  outlook  of  the  pro- 
fessional, and  the  enthusiasm  and  sense 
of  wonder  of  the  amateur."  —  edwin 
WAY  TEALE,  Neiv  York  Herald  Tribune 

". .  .  With  Wasp  Farm,  Dr.  Evans  joins 
the  select  and  happy  company  of  such 
men  of  science  as  Konrad  Lorenz,  Don- 
ald Griffin  and  Archie  Carr,  who  at 
once  write  with  firsthand  authority  and 
are  a  joy  to  read  .  .  .  Few  recent  books 
on  natural  history  are  likely  to  give 
more  ^\ea.&^x're."—Audtlhon  Magazine 


FREE  EXAMINATION  COUPON 


Mail  to  vour 

booksellei  or 

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Dept.  4-NH-6  I 

Garden  City,  New  York  j 

Please  send  me copies  of  Wasp  FARM  I 

by  Howard  Ensign  Evans.  I  understand  I  I 

may  return  the  book(s)  within  ten  days  * 

and     owe     nothing.     Otherwise,     I'll     be  I 

billed  just  $3.95  per  copy  plus   mailing  ' 

charges.  I 


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Braniff  flies  to  places 

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before  he  learned  to  cultivate  them  f: 
food  up  to  our  modern,  worldwide  agi 
culture,  which  supplies  so  many  mo: 
human  needs  than  that  of  hunger  alon 

The  book  is  small  in  bulk  when  cor 
pared  to  a  standard  text  of  botany  an 
of  necessity,  many  areas  of  botany  a: 
touched  upon  lightly,  if  at  all.  But  it 
a  scientific  treatise  prepared  by  a  scie 
tist  and  is  in  no  way  superficial  in  tl 
treatment  of  its  subjects.  It  is  written  ; 
a  most  lively  and  interesting  fashio 
One  of  its  greatest  values  to  the  readi 
lies  in  its  inevitable  stimulus  to  furthi 
interest  in  the  fascinating  and  rewar 
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portunity  presents  itself— in  the  on 
doors,  the  greenhouse,  or  the  library. 

The  illustrations  have  been  so  chose 
that  their  graphic  qualities  illustrate  tl 
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or  two  cases  more  informative  captioi 
might  have  helped  but  in  all  other  cas( 
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In  a  diagram  illustrating  the  geolog 
cal  timetable  of  plant  evolution  the  dati 
of  the  beginnings  of  the  vascular  plan 
seem  to  have  been  pushed  back  to  figur( 
much  earlier  than  those  given  in  cu 
rent  botanical  and  geological  texts.  Tl 
origins  of  the  Psilophyta,  the  Fil 
cophyta,  and  Gymnospermae  are  give 
as  occurring  in  the  Silurian,  the  Devoi 
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spectively.  This  agrees  with  other  b( 
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the  dates  of  these  periods  are  far  earlie 
than  some  authorities  place  them.  . 
the  change  is  a  correction,  the  sourcf 
should  be  mentioned. 

Virgil  N.  Arg 
The  City  College  of  N.  ] 


Snake  Lore,  by  John  Crompton.  Doubh 
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The  Amazon's  Rate 


)f  PI 


Measurements  shatter  previous  estimates 


By  Luther  C.  Davis,  Jr. 

THE  MIGHTY  Amazon  River  begins 
its  long  eastward  journey  to  the 
Atlantic  Ocean,  almost  4.000  miles 
away,  from  a  chain  of  glacier-fed  lakes 
in  the  Peruvian  Andes  only  about  100 
iniles  from  the  Pacific.  Sweeping  ma- 
jestically through  the  vast,  steaming 
equatorial  forest  of  Brazil,  sometimes 
described  as  the  world's  most  spectacu- 
lar natural  greenhouse,  the  Amazon 
provides  drainage  from  an  area  three- 
fourths  the  size  of  the  conterminous 
United  States  before  it  empties  into  the 
Atlantic  at  the  Equator. 

Long  known  as  the  world's  largest 
river,  the  actual  size  of  the  Amazon,  in 
terms  of  average  rate  of  flow,  has 
hitherto  been  unknown,  although  esti- 
mates have  been  made  bv  several  earth 
scientists.  These  estimates,  necessarilv 
based  on  very  limited  information, 
have  generally  ranged  from  three  to 
five  million  cubic  feet  per  second. 

Owing  to  increased  interest  within 
the  community  of  earth  and  water 
scientists,  the  Chief  Hydrologist  of  the 
United  States  Geological  Survey  and 
the  head  of  the  geography  department 
of  the  University  of  Brazil  began  nego- 
tiations in  mid-1961  to  sponsor  a  joint 
Amazon  expedition,  one  of  whose  ob- 
jectives would  be  to  gather  hydrologic 


Amazon  River,  here  viewed  from  near 
its  mouth,  expels  enough  water  every 
day  to  cover  Texas  to  a  one-inch  depth. 


data  sufficient  for  the  computation  of 
the  average  discharge  of  the  river.  As 
a  result,  a  United  States-Brazilian 
hydrologic  field  party,  consisting  of 
engineers  from  the  United  States  Geo- 
logical Survey,  the  University  of  Bra- 
zil, and  the  Brazilian  Navy,  assembled 
in  1963  at  Belem,  a  noted  port  city  of 
nearly  500,000  population,  located 
near  the  mouth  of  the  Amazon. 

THE  party  ascended  the  river  in  the 
Brazilian  Navy  corvette  Mearim, 
and  succeeded  in  accurately  measur- 
ing the  great  waterway  in  July.  1963. 
during  the  flood  season,  and  again  in 
November,  1963,  during  the  low-water 
season  at  Obidos,  a  jute-exporting  cen- 
ter of  approximately  20.000  popula- 
tion located  about  .500  miles  upstream 
from  the  river's  mouth.  Based  on  these 
measurements,  plus  river-stage  read- 
ings made  at  Obidos  during  a  19-year 
period  from  1928  to  1946,  the  average 
flow  of  the  Amazon  at  this  point  is 
tentatively  computed  at  6,600.000 
cubic  feet  per  second.  This  represents 
the  average  flow  from  about  80  per 
cent  of  the  total  Amazon  drainage 
area.  To  determine  the  average  flow 
from  the  total  drainage  area  into  the 
ocean,  an  analysis  of  the  drainage  area 
below  Obidos  was  made,  using  avail- 
able meteorological  records.  Based  on 
this  analysis  and  the  computed  aver- 
age flow  at  Obidos,  the  total  average 
flow  of  the  Amazon  into  the  ocean  is 
tentatively  computed  at  7.500.000 
cubic  feet  per  second.  This  is  equiva- 

15 


From  Belem,  where  1963  expedition  began,  to  Manaus,  the 
terminal  area  of  the  study,  is  about  900  miles.  The  river 


drains  a  basin  of  some  2,300,000  square  miles  and  expel 
3,400,000,000   gallons   of   water   per   minute   to   the    ocear 


lent  to  3,400.000.000  gallons  per 
minute  or  about  1,600  cubic  miles  per 
year.  This  tremendous  rate  of  flow  ac- 
counts for  about  18  per  cent  of  all  the 
fresh  water  flowing  to  the  oceans  from 
the  rivers  of  all  the  continents  of  the 
earth,  and  provides  a  volume  of  water 
in  just  one  day  sufficient  to  cover  the 
entire  state  of  Texas  to  a  depth  of  over 
one  inch,  the  state  of  New  York  to  a 
depth  of  nearly  6  inches  or  New  Jersey 
to  a  depth  of  3  feet.  The  flow  of  the 
Amazon  is  more  than  five  times  that 
of  the  Congo  River,  the  world's  second 
largest  river,  and  twelve  times  that  of 


the  Mississippi,  the  world's  seventh 
largest,  and  the  largest  on  the  North 
American  continent. 

THE  corvette,  about  160  feet  long, 
was  used  as  the  platform  from 
which  the  Amazon  observations  were 
made.  While  the  use  of  a  non-station- 
ary platform  introduced  several  inher- 
ent features  that  were  less  than  desir- 
able, these  were  necessarily  acceptable 
because  of  the  complete  absence  on  the 
Amazon  of  river-spanning  structures- 
bridges  or  cableways— the  conven- 
tional   platforms    from    which    most 


large  rivers  are  measured  by  the  Geo 
logical  Survey  in  the  United  States. 

To  adapt  the  corvette  for  measurinj 
the  Amazon,  a  specially  designed  9 
foot  boom  equipped  with  an  elec 
trically  powered  reel  and  a  vertica 
angle  indicator  was  installed  on  th 
bow.  From  this  was  suspended  the  cut 
rent  meter  used  to  measure  the  velocit; 
of  flow.  The  reel  contained  250  feet  c 
special  cable  i/s-inch  in  diameter,  an( 
with  a  breaking  strength  of  1.501 
pounds.  Also  attached  to  the  reel  wa 
a  depth  indicator  from  which  sound 
ings  could  be  read  directly.  A  stream 


Observations  with  a  fathometer,  left. 
showed  Amazon's  bed  was  series  of  sand 
dunes  covering  long  reaches  of  river. 


Precise  distance  measurements  wen 
made  with  electronic  Tellurometer  se 
up  at  the  shore  control  station,  above 


ed  300-pound  lead  sounding  weight 
s  suspended  just  below  the  current 
ter  to  hold  the  suspension  line  in  the 
•rent  in  as  nearly  a  vertical  position 
practicable.  When  high-current  ve- 
ities  caused  the  meter  to  be  carried 
ivnstream  from  the  vertical  and, 
icurrently,  the  suspension  line  to 
d  at  a  downstream  angle  from  the 
tical,  the  angle  of  departure  was 
d  from  the  vertical  angle  indicator 
ated  at  the  protruding  end  of  the 
pension  boom.  I  will  describe  later 
Y  corrections  that  were  based  on 
5  measured  angle  are  applied. 

FTER  consulting  all  available  re- 
^  liable  information,  including 
ps  and  aerial  photographs,  followed 
an  on-spot  reconnaissance  survey, 
neasurement  site  was  selected  at 
idos.  For  several  reasons,  Obidos 
)eared  to  be  a  logical  location.  In- 
id  of  flowing  in  several,  relatively 
ie,  ill-defined  channels  as  it  char- 
sristically  does,  the  Amazon  at 
idos  is  confined  to  a  single,  rela- 
;ly  narrow,  uniform  channel  ap- 
ximately  7,500  feet  wide.  The  tidal 
ict,  which  extends  a  considerable 
tance  up  the  Amazon  from  the 
an,  becomes  negligible  at  Obidos. 
addition,  the  record  of  the  19  years 
river-stage  readings  that  had  been 
en  at  Obidos  was  available, 
"irst,  a  suitable  measuring  section 


At  Obidos,  500  miles  from  the  Atlantic, 
river  is   about   7.500   feet  wide.  High- 

that  was  perpendicular  to  the  flow  of 
the  river  was  selected  at  this  site. 
A  prominent  feature,  such  as  a  tree  or 
a  building  that  was  easily  visible  from 
a  distance,  was  pointed  out  at  each  end 
of  the  section  to  assist  the  captain  in 
maintaining  the  ship  as  nearly  on  sta- 
tion as  possible.  It  was  necessary  to 
keep  position  by  continuously  chang- 
ing engine  speed  and  rudder  settings, 
because  the  river  was  too  deep  at  this 
section  to  allow  effective  anchoring. 

A  shore  control  station,  consisting 
of  a  theodolite,  for  measuring  hori- 
zontal angles,  and  a  remote  Telluro- 


stage  flow  at  this  point  was  clocked 
at    7,600,000    cubic    feet    per    second. 

meter,  for  measuring  ship-to-shore 
distances,  was  then  established  on  the 
right  bank,  in  line  with  the  selected 
section.  Shore  control  was  necessary 
to  assist  the  ship's  captain  further  in 
maintaining  station  and  to  determine 
corrections,  caused  by  the  ship's  drift, 
to  be  applied  to  the  velocity  readings 
obtained  from  the  current  meter. 
While  all  efforts  were  made  to  elimi- 
nate corrections  by  keeping  the  ship 
absolutely  on  station,  this  proved  an 
impossible  feat  because  of  the  limited 
maneuverability  of  the  ship,  even  with 
expert  handling.  Although  the  theodo- 


LiNDlNG  WEIGHT  and  a  current  meter, 
iched  to  cable  reel  on  suspension 
)m,  are  lowered  for  depth  readings. 


lite  or  other  similar  surveying  instru- 
ments, such  as  the  transit,  had  been 
used  previously  in  stream-gauging  op- 
erations, the  Tellurometer,  a  highly 
accurate  distance-measuring  system, 
had  not  been  used,  so  far  as  is  known. 
The  Tellurometer  system  operates  on 
the  radar  principle,  and  consists  of  two 
units— the  master  and  the  remote.  For 
the  Amazon  operation,  the  master  unit 
was  mounted  on  the  ship  near  the  bow, 
and  the  remote  unit  was  mounted  on 
shore.  An  operator  was  required  for 
each  of  these  units. 

JUST  prior  to  commencement  of  the 
measuring  activities,  the  selected 
cross  section  of  the  river  channel 
was  then  divided  into  a  number  of 
subsections,  each  about  300  feet  wide. 
This  is  in  accordance  with  standard 
United  States  Geological  Survey  pro- 
cedure for  measuring  purposes, 
whereby  a  river  channel  is  theoreti- 
cally subdivided  into  a  convenient 
number  of  subsections,  usually  num- 
bering from  25  to  30,  and  each  is  meas- 
ured separately.  The  sum  of  the  flows 
in  each  of  the  subsections  is  the  total 
flow  in  the  full  river  cross  section.  This 
method  of  calculation  tends  to  balance 
out  inherent  errors  and  has  been  found 
to  produce  results  within  5  per  cent 
of  accuracy. 

After  these  initial  steps  were  taken, 
the  following  procedure  was  employed 
in  making  the  measurement: 

( 1 )  Using  instructions  from  the 
shipboard  Tellurometer  operator  and 
an  observer  stationed  at  the  gyrocom- 
pass on  the  bridge  as  a  guide,  the  ship's 
captain  maneuvered  the  vessel  to  a 
position  directly  over  the  first  subsec- 
tion of  the  measuring  section. 


AMAZON: 
7,500,000  c.f.s. 


ALL 

REMAINING 

RIVERS 

OF  THE 

WORLD 

about 

31,000,000  c.f.s. 


,■^^i 


MISSISSIPPI: - 
620,000  c.f.s. 


Total  average  flow  of  Amazon  is  here 
compared  to  other  rivers  of  the  world. 


(2)  When  the  ship  had  been  stabi- 
lized as  accurately  as  possible  on  the 
subsection,  the  300-pound  sounding 
weight  was  lowered  and  the  depth,  in 
feet,  was  read  from  the  depth  indica- 
tor. When  the  vertical  angle  indicator 
showed  the  suspension  line  to  be  tend- 
ing at  a  downstream  angle  from  the 
vertical  because  of  the  river  current, 
the  angle  of  departure  was  read.  Based 
on  this  shipboard  reading,  a  numerical 
correction  was  applied  to  the  observed 
depth  to  obtain  the  true  vertical  depth. 
This  corrected  depth  observation  was 
compared  with  depth  readings  that 
were  continuously  recorded  on  a  port- 
able fathometer  that  was  installed  near 
the  bow  of  the  ship.  With  the  recording 
fathometer,  or  echo  sounder,  a  detailed 
cross-sectional  profile  of  the  channel 
bed  could  be  detemiined  and  depths 
greater  than  230  feet  could  be  meas- 
ured. (The  maximum  depth  that  could 
be  ascertained  with  the  sounding 
weight  and  available  suspension  cable 
was  230  feet. )  Although  depths  of  over 
300  feet— which  is  weU  below  sea  level 
—were  recorded  by  the  fathometer  at 
several  points  while  ascending  the 
river  from  Belem,  where  the  expedi- 
tion originated,  the  maximum  depth 
that  was  encountered  in  the  Obidos 
measuring  section  was  slightly  over 
200  feet.  " 

(3)  The  current  meter,  located  in 
a  fixed  position  one  foot  above  the 
sounding  weight,  was  then  raised  in 
the  channel  subsection  until  it  was  at 
a  point,  measured  from  the  water's 
surface,  of  80  per  cent  of  the  total  ver- 
tical depth.  For  example,  in  a  200-foot 
subsection  the  current  meter  would  be 
placed  at  a  depth  of  160  feet. 

(4)  At  a  given  signal  the  velocity 
measurement  of  the  river  flow  at  this 
depth  began. 

(5 1  At  the  same  instant  the  ship- 
board Tellurometer  operator  recorded 
the  exact  distance  the  ship  was  from 
shore  by  interpreting  reflected  micro- 
waves from  the  shore  unit.  The  shore- 
stationed  theodolite  operator,  having 
received  the  starting  signal  by  a 
walkie-talkie  radio  circuit,  noted  the 
azimuth  location  of  the  ship. 

(6)  At  a  second  given  signal,  from 
40  to  60  seconds  later,  the  velocity 
measurement,  in  feet  per  second,  was 
completed,  and  second  Tellurometer 
(distance)  and  theodolite  (azimuth) 
readings  were  made.  The  difference 
between  the  first  and  second  Tellurom- 
eter readings  showed  the  distance  the 
ship  moved  laterally  during  the  inter- 


Comparison  of  flow 

Amazon  at  Obidos 

Mississippi  at  Vicksburg 


^Greatest  known  flood 


^^H 

^V^l 

•^^E 

o 

z 

o 

kl9 

N 

< 

^ES 

2 

< 

^^^H 

^^El 

I  Average  flow 


rLeast  known  flow 


Greatest 
known  flood 


Least 

known  flow 


Mississippi's   greatest  known   flood 
same   as   Amazon's  least  known   flc 

val  of  time  during  which  the  veloci 
measurement  was  being  made.  Tl 
difference  between  the  theodolite  rea 
ings  was  the  angular  distance  the  sh 
moved,  during  the  same  interval 
time,  in  an  upstream  or  downstrea 
direction  from  the  line  defining  tl 
measuring  section.  This  angular  d 
tance  is  converted  trigonometrically 
a  linear  distance,  based  on  knowled 
of  the  ship-to-shore  linear  distance 
shown  by  the  Tellurometer  readinj 
These  two  linear  distances  constiti 
the  components  of  the  ship's  horizon 
movement  during  the  40-  to  60-seco: 
interval  of  time  during  which  the  i 
locity  measurement  was  being  mai 
Using  these  components,  the  ship's  i 
tual  path  during  the  measurement  : 
terval  was  graphically  computed  a 
converted  to  a  rate  of  movement  in  fi 
per  second.  The  correction  was  then  i 
plied  to  the  measured  velocity— add 
when  the  ship's  movement  was  do\^ 
stream  and  subtracted  when  upstres 
—to  obtain  the  corrected  velocity. 

(7)  Following  completion  of  tl 
velocity  measurement  at  the  80  f 
cent  of  depth  point  in  the  channel  su 
section,  the  current  meter  was  th 
raised  to  a  point  at  20  per  cent  of  t 
total  depth.  In  a  200-foot  subsectl 
this  would  be  40  feet  below  the  surfa( 

(To  determine  the  average  veloci 
in  a  subsection,  velocity  measuremer 


;  necessary  at  more  than  one  depth 
;ause  velocities  vary  with  depth— 
lerally  being  slowest  near  bottom.) 
(8 1  The  same  procedures  described 
steps  4  to  6  were  then  repeated,  and 
corrected  velocity  measurements 
de  at  the  20  per  cent  and  80  per 
it  of  depth  points  were  averaged, 
e  two  velocity  measurements,  one 
;h  at  the  20  and  80  per  cent  of  depth 
nts.  were  made  because  broad  ex- 
ience  by  the  United  States  Geo- 
ical  Survey  has  shown  that  in  deep 
ers  the  average  of  these  two  figures 
)vides  an  accurate  measurement  of 
average  velocity  in  the  subsection. 
'9 )  The  ship  was  then  moved  to  the 
[t  subsection  and  the  same  proce- 
:e  was  repeated. 

'10)  In  making  the  final  computa- 
ns  of  the  flow  in  the  entire  channel 
ss  section,  the  widths  of  the  indi- 
ual  subsections  were  computed 
m  the  differences  between  the  ship- 
shore  Tellurometer  distance  meas- 
:ments  at  adjacent  subsections.  The 
nputed    subsectional    widths    were 


then  multiplied  by  the  depths  to  de- 
termine the  cross-sectional  areas  of  the 
subsections.  The  products  of  these 
cross-sectional  areas  and  the  corres- 
ponding average  subsectional  veloc- 
ities, provided  in  step  8,  give  the  flows 
in  the  channel  subsections.  The  total 
rate  of  flow  in  the  full  channel  cross 
section  is  then  computed  by  summing 
up  all  the  flows  that  have  been  meas- 
ured and  computed  in  the  25  to  30 
channel  subsections. 

THE  immediate  objective  of  the 
United  States  Geological  Survey 
in  undertaking  the  Amazon  expedition 
was  to  gather  data  to  substantiate  re- 
cently advanced  theories  pertaining  to 
the  properties  of  rivers  in  the  United 
States  (Natural  History,  January, 
1964,  page  10).  This  objective  was 
achieved  because  the  measurements 
showed  that  the  flow  of  the  largest  of 
rivers  is  several  times  the  flow  of  the 
second  largest  river.  Furthermore,  the 
measured  velocities,  depths,  and 
widths  of  the  lars;est  river  substanti- 


ated theories  that  previously  had  been 
based  only  on  data  collected  on  small 
rivers  in  the  United  States. 

A  second  objective  was  to  close  a 
glaring  gap  in  hydrologic  knowledge 
that  previously  existed  in  the  library 
of  world  hydrology.  This  gap  has  be- 
come particularly  evident  during  stud- 
ies that  are  now  being  made  as  part 
of  a  program  participated  in  by  the 
United  States  Geological  Survey.  In 
this  program,  computations  are  being 
made  of  the  water  and  of  the  total  dis- 
solved and  suspended  solids  that  are 
cairied  by  the  world's  rivers  from  the 
continents  to  the  oceans— one  step  in 
determining  the  total  erosion  of  all 
continents.  These  computations  are 
also  to  be  used  better  to  define  the  salt 
budget  of  the  world  oceans,  thereby 
providing  a  further  increment  to  man's 
knowledge  of  his  planet. 

Editor's  Note:  This  is  the  second  in 
a  series  of  articles  that  will  describe 
the  wide-ranging  research  activities  of 
the  United  States  Geological  Survev. 


® 


Ship  position  relative  to  shore  station  maintained 
continuously  through  Tellurometer  (distance)  and 
theodolite  (azimuth)  readings. 


® 


MPARisoN  of  channel  cross  sections  of  the  Amazon  River 
Dbidos  and  the  Mississippi  at  Vicksburg  also  shows  the 


techniques  used  in  measuring  the  Amazon's  flow.  Vertical 
scale   is   exaggerated   in   relation   to    the   horizontal    scale. 


19 


Expositions,  Exhibits 

New  display  methods  merge  academic  and  commercial  heritages 


By  Gordon  Reekie 

THE  Great  Exhibition  in  the 
Crystal  Palace  in  Hyde  Park.  Lon- 
don,  closed  on  October  11, 1851.  Since 
its  opening  on  the  first  of  May,  more 
than  6.000.000  people  had  inspected 
the  exhibits  of  this  first  world's  fair, 
and  a  new  era  of  public  participation 
in  expositions  and.  subsequently,  mu- 
seums had  dawned. 

Hitherto,  museums,  including  the 
great  national  collections,  had  been 
very  much  the  enclave  of  scholars  and 
rich  amateurs.  Indeed,  with  universal 


3JTf 


free  education  still  far  distant  in  all 
countries,  this  was  not  surprising. 
What  did  surprise  the  authorities  of 
the  1851  Great  Exhibition  was  the  en- 
thusiasm of  the  uneducated  lower 
classes  for  these  displays  of  artistry 
and  industry.  The  newly  formed  rail- 
way companies  were  instrumental  in 
generating  this  enthusiasm  by  arrang- 
ing cheap  excursions  from  all  parts  of 
Britain,  so  that  '"the  more  deserving 
poor  may  enrich  their  minds."  Prince 
Albert  insisted  that  all  London  school 
children  should  visit  the  exhibition.  It 
seemed  logical,  therefore,  that  at  the 


^\^'1\%U.U". 


Lonteinporary   illnslidtion   depicts   llie  cwiubits  at  Crystal  Palace   in  1851. 


time  of  its  closing,  of  the  various  sug 
gestions  for  spending  the  £186,000  ne 
profit,  the  founding  of  a  series  of  new 
popular  museums  was  decided  upon 
Such  was  the  origin  of  the  famoui 
South  Kensington  museum  complex  ii 
London— the  >i'atural  History  Museum 
the  Science  Museum,  the  Geologica 
Museum,  and  the  Victoria  and  Alber 
Museum  of  Fine  and  Applied  Arts. 

From  that  time  on,  the  relationshi] 
between  world's  fairs  and  museum 
has  grown.  Most  notable  has  been  tb 
incorporation  into  a  fair  site  of  a  per 
manent  building  designed  to  be  usei 
later  as  a  museum.  Some  of  the  besi 
known  museums  in  the  United  State 
originated  in  this  manner,  including 
the  Chicago  Museum  of  Science  am 
Industry  (1893)  and  the  City  Art  Mu 
seum  of  St.  Louis  (1904).  From  th 
earliest  days,  too,  problems  of  exhibi 
preparation  drew  exposition  and  mu 
seum  authorities  together.  After  tb 
close  of  the  Paris  Exhibition  of  1867 
M.  Le  Play,  the  Commissioner-Gen 
eral,  advocated  the  establishment  o 
permanent  museums  to  house  the  sami 
types  of  material  as  displayed  at  th 
world's  fairs.  He  rightly  observed  tha 
there  was  too  little  time  to  prepare  th 
exhibits  properly,  and  that  they  wen 
on  display  too  briefly  for  full  advan 
tage  to  be  taken  of  them.  While  thesi 
reactions  were  pointing  the  way  to  mii 
seums  of  science  and  industry,  th 
nature  of  world's  fair  exhibits  them 
selves  was  being  discussed  and  criti 
cized.  An  endless  succession  of  fair 
devoted  to  the  ever  more  ingeniou 
products  of  industry  was  thought  ti 
be  eventually  self-defeating,  and  in  thi 
Paris  exposition  were  included  th 
first  so-called  cultural  exhibits.  Thesi 
were  "The  History  of  Labor."  whic] 
told  the  story  of  the  arts  and  crafts  o 
mankind  from  prehistory  to  the  end  o 
the  eighteenth  century,  and  a  sectioi 
called,  rather  ominously,  '"Social  an( 
Moral  Problems." 

These  displays  seemed  to  be  precui 
sors  of  anthropological  exhibits  in  mu 
seums.  In  the  meantime,  authorities  o 
the   Philadelphia    Centennial    Exhibi 


md  Today's  Museums 


phant  group  in  Akeley  African  Hall  at  American  Museum  of  Natural  History  owes  much  to  perfection  of  preparation. 

21 


iirrtu  k-- 


Animals  were  shown  at  Philadelphia  Centennial  Exhibition. 


Natural  history  museum  hall  opened  in  Paris  in  1889 


sis  allended  the  llh  i  openinu:  cei 


tion  of  1876  decided  that  a  cross  sec- 
tion of  wildlife  exhibits  would  provide 
a  cultural  counterweight  to  the  vast 
displays  of  machinery  and  consumer 
goods.  Accordingly,  a  special  building 
was  constructed  to  contain  exhibits  of 
representative  American  mammals, 
birds,  and  fish,  all  of  which  were  in- 
stalled in  a  manner  indistinguishable 
from  the  museum  style  of  the  day. 

What  was  this  manner  of  display? 
Basically,  in  both  museums  and  expo- 
sitions it  was  a  magnification  of  the 
curio  cabinet  style  of  arrangement. 
Thus  the  main  hall  of  the  Zoological 
Gallery  in  the  National  Museum  of 
Natural  History  in  Paris,  opened  in 
1889,  was  a  gigantic  version  of  the  dis- 
play of  exotic  objects  to  be  found  in  a 
well-traveled  eighteenth-century  gen- 
tleman's home.  The  similarity  between 
this  and  the  interior  of  the  1851  Crys- 
tal Palace  is  remarkable.  Skeletons 
and  animal  mounts  take  the  place  of 
machinery,  furniture,  and  statuary. 

Tx  the  Bird  Hall  of  The  American 
Museum  of  Natural  History,  which 
was  officially  opened  in  1877,  the  effect 
was  not  so  overwhelming  because  of 
the  smaller  scale  of  the  exhibits.  How- 
ever, each  glass-enclosed  case  was  still 
a  curio  cabinet,  filled  to  overflowing, 
and  could  be  compared  with  the  display 
cases  of  objects  in  trade  expositions 
of  the  period.  Indeed,  this  was  the  uni- 
versal form  of  display;  shopwindows 
of  the  time  were  treated  similarly.  The 
jjrinciple   was   to   try  to   arrange   as 


tastefully  as  possible  the  maximum 
number  of  objects  in  a  given  space. 
Just  as  most  museums  still  have  ex- 
amples of  this  kind  of  display,  so  there 
are  shopwindows  that  adhere  to  the 
idea  that  the  more  you  show,  the 
better.  The  five-and-ten-cent  stores  are 
good  examples,  but  for  retention  of  the 
real  flavor  of  old-fashioned  crowding, 
hardware  stores  are  unsurpassed.  In 
effect  they  are  like  modern  curio  cabi- 
nets of  everyday  objects  or  scaled- 
down  versions  of  industrial  exposi- 
tions. That  is  the  biggest  reason  for 
their  appeal.  For  in  contrast  to  today's 
almost  bleakly  tasteful  window  dis- 
plays, there  is  something  reassuring 
and  cheerful  about  this  gloriously  dis- 
organized muddle. 

UNTIL  the  end  of  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury such  methods  of  display  con- 
tinued almost  unchallenged  for  mu- 
seums, expositions,  and  shops.  The 
World's  Columbian  Exposition  in  Chi- 
cago in  1893  surpassed  all  previous 
fairs  in  size  and  number  of  displays, 
but  broke  no  new  ground  in  exhibition 
techniques.  Like  the  highly  successful 
Paris  Exhibition  of  1889,  however,  it 
used  the  recently  invented  electric  light 
in  lavish  and  unusual  wavs. 

The  introduction  of  the  incandescent 
lamp,  although  it  did  not  immediately 
revolutionize  display  techniques,  made 
possible  new  solutions  to  old  problems. 
The  newly  emergent  department  stores 
had  ambitious  ideas  about  window  dis- 
play, far  different  from  the  friendly, 
crowded,  corner  draper's.  They  looked 
to  the  theater  with  envy,  at  the  pro- 
scenium-enclosed stage,  the  equivalent 
of  their  own  plate-glass  display  win- 
dows. But  until  the  introduction  of 
electricity  they  could  not  adapt  the 
stage-set  type  of  display  to  their  own 
uses.  Gas  lighting  was  safe  for  the 
theater,  but  when  it  was  installed  in  an 
enclosed  space,  such  as  a  store  window, 
it  was  certainly  not. 

Museums,  too,  were  limited  in  the 
way  they  could  use  gas  lighting.  It  was 
utilized  solely  for  general  illumination, 
outside  the  exhibit  cases,  and  served 
only  to  brighten  halls  on  dark  days. 
Like  department  stores,  museums 
needed  electric  light  before  their  dis- 
plays could  be  basically  changed. 

Some  developments  in  these  tech- 
niques were  taking  place,  however, 
and  they  were  paving  the  way  for  the 
displays  we  are  familiar  with  today. 
As  the  collections  of  the  major  mu- 
seums grew,  and  hall  after  hall  pro- 

23 


liferated,  the  repetition  of  the  curio 
cabinet  type  of  display  began  to  pall. 
What  had  been  an  orderly  presentation 
of  several  hundred  objects  in  a  small 
museum  developed  into  a  stupefyingly 
monotonous  presentation  of  several 
hundred  thousand  objects  in  a  large 
museum.  Minerals,  birds,  arrowheads, 
all  were  shown  in  the  same  way. 

IT  was  logical  that  birds  should  have 
provided  the  impetus  for  the  first 
attempts  to  break  away  from  this  tradi- 
tion. The  ornamental  arrangement  of 
mounted  birds  on  an  artificial  bush 
had  long  been  a  conversation  piece  in 
Victorian  drawing  rooms.  It  is  prob- 
able that  curators  in  many  museums 
realized  at  about  the  same  time  that 
this  kind  of  display  held  possibilities 
for  their  bird  collections.  Thus  origi- 
nated the  "semihabitat"  exhibits.  The 
first  attempts  were  little  more  than  the 
placement  of  small  birds  in  small  glass 
cases,  surroundedby  appropriate  vege- 
tation. However,  some  early  specialists 
exhibited  great  skill  in  refining  these 
vignettes  of  nature  to  a  high  degree 
of  artistry  and  realism.  In  the  1887-88 
Annual  Report  of  The  American  Mu- 
seum, it  was  noted  that  1887  was  a 
memorable  year  for  the  bird  collec- 
tion. The  report  listed  the  addition  to 
the  exhibits  of  "a  series  of  bird  groups, 
eighteen  in  number,  each  consisting  of 
a  pair  of  birds,  with  its  nest  and  eggs, 
mounted  in  characteristic  attitudes, 
and  surrounded  by  natural  accessories, 
each  group  being  a  facsimile  reproduc- 
tion from  nature  of  the  vegetable  and 
other  surroundings  of  the  nest."  The 
report  continued :  "These  groups,  mod- 
eled after  the  plan  of  the  bird  groups 
in  the  British  Museum  at  South  Ken- 
sington, are  the  first  of  the  kind  to  be 
placed  on  exhibition  in  America."  One 
of  these  original  groups  is  still  in  ex- 
istence, although  not  on  display. 

Experimentation  with  larger  natu- 
ralistic arrangements  of  this  kind  was 
proceeding  elsewhere,  too.  An  early 
example  was  an  extraordinary  tableau, 
constructed  in  Paris  during  the  1860's 
for  a  temporary  exposition,  and  sub- 
sequently housed  for  a  number  of 
years  in  The  American  Museum  of  Na- 
tural History.  Entitled  "A  Camel- 
Driver  Attacked  by  Lions,"  it  was 
originally  exhibited  in  a  four-sided 
glass  case.  It  is  now  beautifully  re- 
stored, a  background  painting  has 
been  added,  and  it  can  be  seen  at  the 
Carnegie  Museum  in  Pittsburgh. 

The  semihabitat  group  grew  in  size 

24 


Early  example  of  naturalistic  display  shoived  lions  attacking  camel  driver. 


and  in  popularity  as  a  form  of  dis- 
play. It  is  still  an  effective  method  of 
exhibiting  both  small  and  extremely 
large  subjects.  A  good  deal  of  the  en- 
vironment of  small  birds  can  be  pre- 
sented economically  in  a  few  square 
feet.  At  the  other  end  of  the  scale,  in 
the  Hall  of  Early  Dinosaurs  at  The 
American  Museum  (pages  28-29)  the 
Brontosaurus  skeleton  reconstructions 
surmount  a  base  that  is  a  facsimile  of 
the  locality  in  which  their  fossil  re- 
mains were  found.  This  is  a  form  of 
semihabitat,  although  a  rather  arbi- 
trary one,  as  considerations  of  space 
preclude  a  more  revealing  landscape. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  impracticabil- 
ity of  a  totally  enclosed  diorama  with 
the  same  composition  at  the  same 
scale  makes  this  an  effective  substitute. 

At  the  turn  of  the  century,  display 
_/-\_  methods  were  beginning  to 
change  in  many  ways.  More  specialized 
expositions  and  trade  fairs  were  being 
organized,  reflecting  the  growth  of  the 
consumers'  goods  field  (as  exemplified 
by  the  automobile  industry ) .  The  role 
of  the  department  store  as  a  show  place 
was  being  established,  and  different 
kinds  of  museums  and  museum  exhib- 
its were  arising.  All  were  influenced 
by  theatrical  techniques  and  the  free- 
dom to  use  them  that  was  provided  by 
the  introduction  of  electric  light. 

Parallel  development  in  what  could 


be  called  both  indoor  and  outdoor 
habitat  groups  occurred  in  the  early 
1900's.  These  were  basically  variants 
of  the  boxed-in,  stage-set  formula,  put 
to  use  for  new  purposes.  The  first  of 
the  "new  look"  department  store  win- 
dow displays  were  very  simple  stage- 
sets,  suggesting  sparsely  furnished  but 
elegant  rooms  (plain  paneled  walls,  a 
crystal  chandelier,  a  Louis  chair) . 

Amid  such  uncluttered  settings,  the 
statuesque  mannequins  of  the  period 
were  placed  in  more  or  less  nat- 
uralistic poses,  their  gowns  and  furs 
I  and  the  background)  bathed  in  uni- 
formly brilliant  white  light.  However, 
it  was  some  time  before  this  method 
of  display  was  used  by  stores  for  show- 
ing furniture  and  furnishings.  A  trade 
publication  of  that  time  observed 
that  few  store  windows  were  of  suffi- 
cient size  or  suitable  proportions  to 
enhance  a  realistic  grouping  of  furni- 
ture. To  an  extent  this  is  still  true 
today,  and  great  care  in  composing 
and  lighting  such  displays  is  needed  to 
avoid  an  uncomfortable,  cramped  look. 

In  the  meantime,  the  art  nouveau 
movement  of  the  1890's  had  generated 
much  interest  in  new  furniture  and 
textile  designs.  At  the  Paris  Exhibition 
of  1900,  these  were  displayed  in  realis- 
tic room  arrangements  that  did  not 
suffer  from  the  confining  proportions 
of  the  store  window.  By  1902.  at  the 
International    Exhibition    of   Modern 


bins  perched  near  nest  in  semihabitat  group  of  1880's.  This  glass-enclosed  bird  display  dates  from  the  1890\ 


urn  of  the  century,  glass  cases  in  exhibit  hall  of  The  American  Museum  acre  lighted  externally  by  clustered  bulbs. 


2? 


Bygone  era  is  preserved  in  a  period  room  at  the  Norsk  Folkemuseum  in  Oslo. 


Decorative  Arts  in  Turin,  the  three- 
sided  "stage-set"  furnished  room  had 
become  a  standard  method  of  display- 
ing such  merchandise— where  there 
were  no  space  limitations.  One  of  the 
technique's  greatest  appeals  to  exhibi- 
tors in  a  crowded  hall  was  that,  as  in 
the  theater,  there  was  a  barrier  be- 
tween the  show  and  the  audience. 

Revived  public  interest  in  the  dec- 
orative arts,  set  in  motion  by  art 
nouveaii  protagonists,  did  more  than 
stir  up  the  ideas  of  contemporary  de- 
signers. For  more  than  fifty  years 
there  had  been  no  stimulus  for  the  in- 
dustrial and  decorative  arts,  other  than 
the  technical  developments  that  had 
made  possible  mass-produced— and  ar- 
tistically debased— adaptations  of  late 
eighteenth-  and  early  nineteenth-cen- 
tury design.  This  was  especially  true  of 
home  furnishings,  and  when,  at  the 
turn  of  the  century,  a  breath  of  fresh 
air  made  possible  a  new  look  to  the 
future,  it  also  brought  about  a  desire 
to  reappraise  the  past  and  study  anew 
the  heritage  of  the  applied  arts. 

THIS  new  awareness  of  what  can  be 
called  the  history  of  the  human 
habitat  stimulated  the  construction  of 
period  rooms  in  many  art  and  histori- 
cal museums.  Furniture  had  hitherto 
been  little  exhibited  in  museums  and, 
when  it  had  been,  was  more  often  than 
not  just  assembled,  as  in  a  warehouse. 
Rough-and-ready  "period  settings" 
were  arranged  in  the  halls  of  larger 
museums.  The  settings  incorporated 
period  ornament  and  decoration  into 
the  display  area  to  provide  a  sympa- 
thetic background. 

It  was  in  the  newly  established  folk 
museums  of  Scandinavia,  in  the  early 
1900"s,  that  the  true  period  room  ex- 
hibit was  developed  and  later  per- 
fected. These  rooms  re-create  the  total- 

26 


ity  of  living  conditions,  providing 
down  to  the  last  detail  a  perfect  recon- 
struction of  an  indoor  habitat  as  lived 
in  at  the  time.  At  the  Nordiska  Museet 
in  Stockholm,  these  displays  are  used 
to  show  changes  in  living  arrange- 
ments over  as  short  a  span  as  ten 
years  (how  remarkable  a  period  room 
of  1934  is,  for  example ) ,  while  a  series 
of  dining  rooms  traces  the  history  of 
eating  habits  from  late  medieval  times 
to  the  present.  Every  single  item  of 
food,  in  the  right  quantity  and  in  the 


right  style  of  serving,  is  duplicated 
with  exacting  and  loving  care. 

It  is  not  surprising  that  the  new 
realism  in  the  presentation  of  interiors 
should  have  influenced  natural  histor) 
museums  although,  independently,  thf 
recessed,  stage-set  type  of  display  hac 
been  developed  for  smaller  seniihab 
itat  groups.  It  was  the  development  o: 
the  curved-back  wall  in  the  recessec 
case,  however,  that  permitted  the  ef 
fective  union  of  background  paintinj 
and  three-dimensional  foreground  ma 
terial  that  led  to  the  full-fledged  hab 
itat  group.  This  took  place  in  Thi 
American  Museum  during  the  tim( 
that  exhibits  for  the  Hall  of  Nortl 
American  Birds  were  being  made. 

A  number  of  exhibits  had  been  com 
pleted  in  big,  floor-standing,  wooden 
framed  glass  cases  that  were  placet 
against  the  walls  of  the  gallery.  Th( 
back  surfaces  of  these  cases  were  cov 
ered  with  canvas,  and  realistic  land 
scapes  had  been  painted  on  them.  Th< 
shallow  foreground  I  really  no  mon 
than  floor  covering )  was  realisticallj 
constructed,  and  mounted  birds  wen 
placed  in  this  foreground  or  suspendec 
by  wires  from  the  tops  of  the  cases 


Gorilla  habitat  group  in  Akeley  African  Hall  at  The  American  Museum  is  ai 


:  exhibits  were  lit  initially  from 
ude  the  cases,  indicating  that  light- 
must  have  been  an  afterthought, 
hese  exhibits,  although  impressive 
cale,  were  not  satisfactory  in  con- 
ing a  unity  of  distant  landscape 
intimate  foreground.  Essentially, 
e  were  two  exhibits  in  each  case— 
ural  of  an  over-all  scene  and  some 
Is  in  a  semihabitat  placed  in  front 
le  mural.  Today,  visitors  to  this  re- 
ly renovated  hall,  which  has  just 
1  reopened,  can  see  one  of  the  twen- 
30t  backgrounds  now  used  as  a 
al.  It  is  a  painting  of  a  flamingo 
ny,  by  Louis  Agassiz  Fuertes,  on 
north  wall  of  the  gallery. 

|R.  Frank  Chapman,  then  Associ- 
'  ate  Curator  of  the  Museum's  De- 
ment of  Ornithology,  was  among 
le  who  began  to  experiment  with 
?ed  backgrounds.  It  was  soon 
id  that  it  was  much  easier  to 
eve  satisfactory  results  with  small- 
roups  because  of  the  limited  depth 
le  exhibits.  The  first  such  display- 
first  true  habitat  group— was 
ihed  in  1902.  It  was"  the  Cobb 
ad  exhibit,  on  the  north  side  of 


Stage  effects  influenced  displays  oj  early  tnentieth-century  department  stores. 


the  Hall  of  North  American  Birds. 
Although  this  group  no  longer  exists, 
many  of  the  other  displays  in  the  new 
hall  date  from  the  early  1900's. 

The  habitat  group  is  only  one  way 
of  constructing  a  natural  history  ex- 
hibit. Why  is  it  given  such  emphasis 
in  all  descriptions  of  natural  history 
museums?  There  are  two  answers:  it 
was  the  first  really  original  contribu- 
tion from  the  museum  world  to  the  art 
of  display,  and  its  re-creation  of  a  com- 
plete,  natural   environment   captured 


nple  of  the  striking  realism  that  is  attainable  ivith  this  type  of  display. 


the  imagination  of  the  public  as  no 
other  museum  exhibits  had  done  be- 
fore. It  was  as  if  a  new  popular  art 
form  had  appeared  upon  the  scene.  In- 
deed it  had,  in  the  sense  that  the  com- 
bined skills  of  scientist,  painter,  and 
modelmaker  had  produced  a  new,  pur- 
poseful, instructive  art  medium.  Visi- 
tors looking  at  the  famous  gorilla 
group  in  the  Museum's  Akeley  African 
Hall  do  not  first  count  the  number  of 
leaves,  wonder  how  the  vines  are  made, 
or  ponder  the  perspective  of  the  back- 
ground painting.  They  receive  an  aes- 
thetic and  emotional  experience.  Later, 
their  curiosity  aroused,  they  may 
begin  to  ask  questions. 

It  is,  of  course,  the  technical  per- 
fection of  these  later  habitat  groups 
that  gives  rise  to  much  curiosity  about 
how  they  are  made.  Basic  to  the 
concept  of  habitat  groups  is  skillful 
taxidermy.  In  a  naturalistic  setting, 
stiffly  mounted  animals  without  any 
hint  of  their  normal  attitudes  look 
absurd.  Muscle  structure  in  relation  to 
the  position  and  activity  of  the  animal 
was  given  intensive  study  in  the  Mu- 
seum in  the  early  years  of  the  century, 
and  paved  the  way  for  the  African  and 
North  American  groups  that  were  con- 
structed during  the  1930's  and  40"s. 

Use  of  a  double-curved  wall,  in  which 
the  background  curves  into  the  ceil- 
ing as  well  as  bending  around  to  meet 
the  front  plane  of  the  group,  gave  the 
background  painter  much  greater  free- 
dom. New  plastics  augmented  the  tra- 
ditional paper  and  wax  for  making 
leaves  and  flowers.  New  "directional" 
lighting  made  possible  near  fidelity  to 
outdoor  light  and  eliminated  the  over- 
all floodlighting  previously  used.  But 
with  all  the  technical  advances  to  help 
make  these  groups  more  outstand- 
ing in  their  re-creation  of  nature,  it  is 
the    painstaking    care    of    artist    and 

27 


Dinosaur  mock-ups  are  featured  ni  an  exhibit  at  l\eir  York  11  orld's  Fair. 
The  American   Museum's  dinosaur  displays  are  favorites  with  the  public. 


craftsman  that  matters  most:  the  ski 
with  which  the  join  between  baci 
ground  painting  and  foreground 
hidden;  the  ingenuity  in  devising  ii 
visible  support  for  birds  in  flight;  tl 
use  of  concealed  mirrors  to  reflect  ligl 
and  thus  to  simulate  the  penetratio 
of  sunlight  into  forest. 

Even  making  shadows  is  an  art.  N 
artificial  lighting  can  ever  cast  sha( 
ows  similar  to  those  cast  by  the  sui 
In  recent  years,  when  material  for  ne 
groups  has  been  collected,  among  tl 
many  photographs  taken  at  the  fiel 
sites  have  been  pictures  shot  specifical 
to  record  the  shadows  at  the  particuk 
time  of  day  the  group  will  represen 
When  the  group  is  near  compl 
tion  in  the  Museum,  and  final  lightir 
has  been  installed,  the  shadows  cast  t 
the  artificial  light  are  removed,  ar 
new  shadows,  as  recorded  in  the  fieL 
replace  them.  This  is  done  by  paintir 
hard  surfaces  with  an  airbrush,  or  h 
replacing  sand  or  loose  soil  of  or 
color  with  those  of  another. 


^i-^e^^ 


^HE  influence  of  habitat  groups 
in  The  American  Museum  on  other 
as  of  display  has  been  very  much 
nected  with  this  perfectionism.  A 
ilic  used  to  the  African  and  North 
erican  exhibits  in  the  Museum  will 
respond  enthusiastically  to  the  dio- 
las  he  sees  in  trade  shows  or 
Id's  fairs  unless  their  execution  is 
3ast  comparable.  But  in  return,  the 
lie  now  being  dazzled  by  new  and 
;astic  techniques  of  display  at  the 
<f  York  Worlds  Fair  will  expect 
[parable  exhibits  at  the  Museum  to 
designed  with  equal  wit  and  in- 
uity.  It  is  not  only  in  this  area  that 
interrelationship  between  fair  and 
ieum  continues.  One  of  the  out- 
ding  exhibits  at  the  New  York 
rld's  Fair  is  that  of  the  Sinclair  Oil 
ipany,  in  which  a  remarkable 
es  of  dinosaur  reconstructions  is 
ured.  The  phenomenal  interest 
wn  over  the  years  in  the  Museum's 
)saur  exhibits  is  thus  reflected  in 
revival  of  a  commercial  exploita- 


tion of  the  same  subject.  For,  in  spite 
of  newer  and  more  complex  exhibits 
in  the  Museum,  the  dinosaurs  remain 
one  of  its  greatest  attractions. 

What  will  the  Museum  derive  from 
the  current  Fair?  A  shot  in  the  arm, 
so  to  speak,  such  as  many  world's  fairs 
have  provided  in  the  past?  In  Brus- 
sels in  1958  it  was  generally  agreed 
that  the  unique  display  feature  of  the 
first  postwar  world's  fair  was  the  ex- 
traordinary and  varied  use  to  which 
photography  was  put.  Quite  apart 
from  the  introduction  of  360-degree 
camera  projection  by  both  Czechoslo- 
vakia and  the  United  States,  the  adap- 
tation of  the  traditional  photomural  to 
new  forms  was  outstanding.  There 
were  three-dimensional  photomurals 
to  be  walked  through,  climbed  over, 
and  sat  upon.  There  were  photogra- 
phic mobiles,  stabiles,  and  building 
blocks.  Photographic  ingenuity  was 
limitless  and  brought  exciting  new 
ideas  into  general  display  use. 

Greater  use  of  animation  in  exhibits 


is  one  of  the  influences  for  which  the 
1964-65  New  York  World's  Fair  will 
be  most  noted.  The  development  of 
reliable,  compact,  and  inexpensive 
mechanical  and  electronic  equipment 
for  sequence  animation  has  taken 
many  years,  and  until  recently  mu- 
seums have  not  made  extensive  use  of 
such  equipment.  Combined  with  slide 
and  motion  picture  projection,  a  new 
world  of  exciting,  audio-visual  pre- 
sentation is  now  being  revealed  to  us. 
It  is  in  this  area  that  exhibits  being 
planned  for  completion  by  the  time 
of  the  Museum's  centennial  in  1969  are 
most  likely  to  be  affected. 

THE  introduction  to  an  early  guide- 
book to  the  Museum  said :  "The 
ideal  museum  presents,  in  logical 
order,  the  entire  story  of  the  universe, 
the  earth,  and  its  inhabitants,  together 
with  their  total  relation  to  each  other." 
With  such  a  sweeping  goal  in  mind,  the 
display  techniques  of  tomorrow  will 
not  have  arrived  a  moment  too  soon. 


<x 


Naturalists'  Notebook 


!^- 


V^oat  of  a  newborn 
whitetail  deer  fawn,  at 
left  above,  is  still  wet 
as  fawn  nuzzles  the  doe, 
which  is  about  to  bear 
second  in   set   of  twins. 


Af 


kfter  nursing  at  age 
of  seven  minutes,  first 
fawn  rests  at  the  doe's 
side  as  its  twin  starts 
to  emerge,  below.  Such 
double  births  are  usual. 


Dc 


'  oe  nurses  fawns  v 
some  four  to  six  week 
or  longer,  although  tl 
young  begin  nibblingj 
nearby  vegetation 
a   few  days   after  biB 


3irth  of  Two  >A^hitetails 


Photographs  by  Leonard  Lee  Rue  III 

ne  of  the  most  numerous  and  widespread  big  game 
nals  of  North  America,  the  whitetail  deer  is  found 
he  United  States  and  Canada  from  the  East  Coast 
jr  west,  roughly,  as  the  Rocky  Mountains.  Maximum 
;ding  activity  of  the  whitetail  occurs  from  November 
•ugh  January,  depending  on  geographical  location, 

gestation  lasts  approximately  196  days.  Conse- 
ntly,  fawns  are  generally  born  in  the  spring.  Al- 
igh  a  doe's  first  breeding  usually  results  in  a  single 
h,  twin  fawns  are  common  in  subsequent  breedings 

triple  births  are  not  uncommon.  A  newborn  fawn 
>hs  three  to  five  pounds  and  is  able  to  walk,  albeit 
dly.  The  white  spots  on  its  coat  disappear  during  the 
imn,  when  it  grows  its  first  winter  coat.  The  life  ex- 
ancy  of  the  whitetail  deer  is  seldom  more  than  ten 

s  when  it  is  living  in  the  wild,  but  tame  or  captive 
i  have  been  known  to  live  as  long  as  twenty  years. 


vjecond  fawn,  ten  minutes  old.  is  able  to  stand  and  walk. 
At  birth,  whitetails  weigh  from  three  to  about  five  pounds. 


^'^^' ./ 


t-D^-'^* 


Pictograph  discovered  in  San  Rafael  Mountains  of 
California  is  part  of  a  vast  western  legacy  of 
early  Indian  rock  art  that  confronts  archeologists. 


by  CAMPBELL  GRAIMT 

SCATTERED  THROUGH  THE  MOUNTAINS  of  eastern  and 
southern  California  are  great  numbers  of  strangely 
painted  caves  and  rocks.  The  designs  are  semiabstract  or 
geometric  and  are  often  of  great  complexity  and  beauty. 
It  is  curious  that  these  prehistoric  works  of  art  are  prac- 
tically unknown.  Since  the  discovery  of  the  great  Paleo- 
lithic paintings  at  Altamira  in  northern  Spain  in  1879, 
there  has  been  enormous  interest  in  the  continuing  dis- 
coveries of  rock  painting  in  France  and  Spain  and,  more 
recently,  in  Africa  and  Australia,  but  somehow  the  rock 
art  of  the  United  States  has  attracted  few  investigators. 
A  survey  of  all  current  information  on  the  pictographs 
of  the  United  States  indicates  that  with  few  exceptions 
rock  painting  is  confined  to  the  mountainous  country  west 
of  the  Mississippi,  with  two  zones  of  concentration — one 
in  southwest  Texas  and  the  other  in  California,  south  of 
San  Francisco. 

The  rock  art  in  California  and  throughout  the  West  has 
long  been  neglected  by  the  archeologists  because  of  the 
difficulty  of  dating  the  paintings  or  relating  them  to  a 
specific  aboriginal  culture.  With  a  single  exception  that 
will  be  noted  later,  we  have  no  ethnographic  knowledge  of 
the  purpose  of  these  pictures.  In  California,  thousands  of 
prehistoric  village  and  camp  sites  have  kept  generations 
of  archeologists  busy  with  spade  and  notebook,  and  only 
recently  a  few  workers  have  begun  to  attack  the  riddle  of 
the  painted  rocks. 

It  is  interesting  that  one  site  near  Santa  Barbara  was 
recorded  years  before  the  discovery  of  the  Altamira  Cave. 
However,  the  first  published  book  mentioning  California 
paintings  was  Garrick  Mallery"s  Pictographs  of  the  North 
American  Indians  (1886),  in  which  he  described  sites 
from  California.  It  was  not  until  1929  that  Julian  Steward 
wrote  Petroglyphs  of  California  and  Adjoining  States,  the 


lA/orks  in  this  article  were  copied  by  the  author 
from  faded  originals.  In  this  Caliente  Range  example,  the 
"target,"  top  left,  was  moved  into  picture  from  left. 


33 


first  attempt  at  a  systematic  classification  of  design  ele- 
ments, including  70  painted  sites  from  California.  These 
two  books,  long  out  of  print  and  very  rare,  are  the  only 
ones  available  to  students  of  California  pictographs.  Since 
1929,  many  more  sites  have  been  recorded  by  the  Uni- 
versity of  California  and  the  Santa  Barbara  Museum  of 
Natural  History.  There  are  at  present  over  500  known 
locations  of  rock  art  in  California. 

THIS  art  form  is  divided  into  two  categories:  picto- 
graphs, or  painted  rocks,  and  petroglyphs,  rocks  with 
pecked  or  incised  designs.  Near  the  eastern  border  of  the 
state  the  crest  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  separates  the  predomi- 
nantly petroglyph  areas  to  the  east  from  the  pictograph 
regions  to  the  west.  There  is  a  certain  amount  of  over- 
lap between  the  two  techniques,  especially  north  and 
south  of  the  mountain  range,  but  mainly  the  separation 
is  marked.  East  of  the  crest,  smooth  basaltic  rocks  are 
common,  and  here  the  designs  are  pecked  into  the  surface 
with  a  pointed  rock.  The  lighter  tone  of  the  underrock 
gives  a  good  contrast  to  the  outline.  West  of  the  crest  is 
the  granite  of  the  Sierra  foothills  and  the  sandstone  of  the 
coastal  ranges,  where  most  of  the  paintings  are  found.  Of 
the  known  sites,  278  are  pictographs,  197  are  petroglyphs, 
and  at  42  sites  both  techniques  are  present. 

Most  of  the  pictographs  in  California  are  found  in  four 
areas  ranging  in  environment  from  redwood  forest  to 
Joshua  tree  desert.  The  first  of  these  is  in  the  northeastern 
part  of  the  state,  isolated  by  several  hundred  miles  from 
the  other  pictograph  regions  to  the  south.  Here  there  are 
numerous  pictograph  and  petroglyph  sites,  and  at  a 
number  of  these,  too,  the  two  techniques  occur  together. 
This  is  high  desert  country,  centering  around  Tule  Lake 
and  the  extensive  Modoc  lava  beds  to  the  south.  Although 
there  is  much  similarity  between  the  design  elements  of 
the  pictographs  and  petroglyphs  of  the  area,  the  latter, 
judging  from  the  surface  weathering,  appear  to  be  much 
older.  Most  of  the  paintings  are  done  in  red  with  simple 
curvilinear  and  geometric  designs  that  feature  sun  disks, 
concentric  circles,  triangles,  zigzags,  and,  rarely,  men. 
Some  show  many  dotted  lines,  and  in  a  few  cases  there 
is  polychrome  painting,  similar  to  some  of  the  Santa 
Barbara-Tulare  sites  far  to  the  south. 

Moving  southward,  the  ne.\t  concentration  of  rock 
paintings  is  in  the  Tulare  area — the  Sierra  Nevada  foot- 
hills of  the  San  Joaquin  Valley  and  the  Tehachapi  Moun- 
tains adjoining  the  southern  tip  of  the  Sierra  Nevada. 
The  San  Joaquin  area  is  characterized  by  great  granite 
boulders  in  rolling  grasslands  and  oak  groves,  while  the 
Tehachapi  Range  is  a  dry  semidesert  country  with  sand- 
stone and  granite.  All  the  common  mineral  colors  occur 
here:  red,  white,  black,  and  yellow,  which  are  often  com- 
bined to  make  striking  polychrome  elTects.  Simple  cur- 
vilinear designs  are  rare  and  the  combination  of  design 
elements  into  complex  patterns  is  common.  There  is  an 
over-all  effect  of  abstract,  non-representational  art,  with 
numerous  anthropomorphic  and  zoomorphic  creatures. 
At  only  a  few  sites  have  recognizable  animals  been 
painted — turtle,  lizard,  beaver,  centipede,  and  horse. 

To  the  west  and  southwest  of  the  Tulare  area  is  the 
Santa  Barbara  region  where  the  California  rock  paintings 
reach  their  peak  in  elaborate  design  and  skillful  execu- 
tion. Here  the  paintings  are  found  in  the  coastal  ranges,  a 
region  of  short,  intermittent  streams  and  dense  under- 
brush. The  common  rock  is  sandstone,  although  a  few 
sites  are  known  in  conglomerate  and  basaltic  formations. 
The  paintings  are  usually  in  shallow,  wind-scoured  rock 
shelters,  not  unlike  the  ahris  of  southern  France,  or  on 
vertical  cliff  faces.  There  is  always  water  nearby,  either  a 


spring  or  a  running  stream,  and  frequently  bedrock  mor- 
tars are  found  close  to  the  paintings.  I  have  investigated 
this  region  intensively  for  the  past  several  years,  and  as  a 
result  the  known  sites  have  more  than  tripled.  Although 
close  to  the  cities  of  Santa  Barbara  and  Ventura,  the 
rough,  mountainous  back  country  with  its  head-high 
brush  is  so  difiicult  to  penetrate  that  many  beautiful  sites 
have  remained  hidden.  Some  Santa  Barbara  sites  are  cov- 
ered with  a  bewildering  assortment  of  zoomorphic  crea- 
tures that  often  suggest  insects,  while  in  others  basically 
simple  shapes  like  concentric  circles  have  been  elaborated 
on  to  create  effects  of  great  richness  and  beauty. 

Far  up  the  coast  is  an  isolated  pictograph  area  that 
seems  to  be  an  extension  of  the  Santa  Barbara  or  Tulare 
influence.  The  paintings  are  highly  localized  in  the  red- 
wood-pine forest  country  of  the  Santa  Lucia  Range. 
These  designs  are  chiefly  linear,  with  some  polychrome  in 
red,  black,  and  white. 

The  fourth  pictograph  complex  is  in  the  southwestern 
part  of  the  state,  with  a  marked  concentration  near  the 
city  of  Twenty-nine  Palms.  The  eastern  side  of  south- 
western California  is  true  desert,  while  the  western  side 
is  a  continuation  of  the  brush-covered  coastal  ranges 
noted  in  the  Santa  Barbara  area.  This  whole  region  is 
dominated  by  red,  geometric,  linear  designs,  often  in 
chains  of  diamonds  or  parallel  rows  of  chevrons  and  zig- 
zags, which  are  usually  painted  on  the  vertical  faces  of 
isolated  boulders. 

In  addition  to  the  four  main  areas,  isolated  painted 
rocks  are  scattered  throughout  the  state.  The  colors  are 
all  earth  colors,  the  most  permanent  of  pigments;  in  well- 
protected  spots  they  are  as  brilliant  as  they  must  have 
been  when  first  applied.  The  red  was  an  iron  oxide, 
hematite:  the  yellow  was  derived  from  another  iron  oxide, 
limonite.  White  paint  was  made  of  diatomaceous  earth 
and  the  black  could  be  charcoal,  burned  graphite,  or  a 
manganese,  while  the  rare  blues  and  greens  came  from 
serpentine  or  copper  ore  rocks. 

It  is  a  thrilling  experience  to  search,  sometimes  for 
days,  through  the  rough  underbrush  and  at  last  come 
upon  some  of  these  exciting  examples  of  aboriginal  art. 
But  seeing  them  and  enjoying  them  as  art  is  not  quite 
enough — one  wants  to  know  more.  Who  painted  them? 
What  do  they  mean?  How  old  are  they? 


lumorous  figures  are  from  a  cave  region  in  a  high 
mountain  meadow  in  south  central  California. 
A  total  of  six  caves  bore  several  hundred  of  them. 


^'ossibly  a  rendering  of  a  medicine  man,  this 
figure  has  antlered  head  and  darts  stuck  in  his  sides. 
Painting  is  from  a  cave  in  the  San  Rafael  Mountains. 


34 


.H.**.,  ' -■  >;  *.    . «k* 


■■%■,,--%..■*. 


^8pv. 


"f^ 


,---;  f*    . 
^  ...«-/;,„«:■ 


X    X 


'^h^j\^Kff>^''^f*^* 


F  ive-foot-Iong  composition  that  appears  on 
ceiling  of  a  small  cave  in  California's  San  Emigdio 
Range  is  among  most  complex  in  design  and  colors. 


u 


|etail  of  very  large  painting  from  Tulare  region 

the  Sierra  Nevada  Mountains  is  22  inches 

;h  and  resembles  coastal  range  works  in  technique. 


In  answering  these  questions,  the  amateurs  have  rushed 
in  where  professionals  feared  to  tread.  Their  theories 
about  the  paintings  and  carvings  are  marvelously  diverse 
and  usually  are  exotic  or  exciting.  Invariably  the  theorists 
approach  the  problem  in  reverse,  examining  the  picto- 
graph  to  find  symbols  that  will  back  up  a  favorite  idea. 
They  see  ancient  invasions  of  our  continent  by  Egyptians, 
Chinese,  Greeks,  Romans,  and  even  the  ubiquitous  Ten 
Lost  Tribes  of  Israel.  Only  last  year  I  was  photographing 
a  wall  at  the  well-known  Painted  Cave  near  Santa  Bar- 
bara, when  a  group  of  pilgrims  listened  as  their  solemn- 
faced  leader  pointed  out  Babylonian  symbols!  The  tena- 
;ious  fabrications  about  the  lost  continents  of  Atlantis 
and  Mu,  and  Aztec  migrations  are  injected.  Another 
school  sees  in  the  designs  a  long-lost  art  of  picture  writing, 
awaiting  only  a  modern  Champollion  to  decipher  them. 

Alas,  there  are  no  facts  to  back  up  these  interesting 
:heories,  only  unshakable  wishful  thinking.  Overwhelm- 
ing evidence  points  to  the  California  Indians  as  the  crea- 
:ors  of  the  California  rock  art.  A  partial  answer  to  who 
Dainted  the  pictures,  why,  and  when  can  be  given  through 
1  knowledge  of  the  Indians  who  were  in  possession  of  the 
dictograph  regions  when  the  White  occupation  began. 

In  1769  Father  Junipero  Serra  founded  the  first  of  the 
:wenty-one  California  missions.  It  has  been  estimated  that 
:here  were  133,000  Indians  in  the  state,  nearly  half  of 
vhom  were  directly  or  indirectly  affected  by  the  missions. 
\fter  sixty-five  years  of  benevolent  exploitation,  the  mis- 
sion system  ended,  and  the  few  Indians  who  had  sur- 
vived the  Spanish-introduced  diseases  lived  around  the 
;rumbling  missions  until  the  final  disaster — the  discovery 
)f  gold  on  the  American  River.  The  deluge  of  gold  seekers 
wept  into  eastern  and  northern  California — areas  that 
lad  been  spared  the  mission  experience — and  dealt  mer- 
:ilessly  with  the  peaceful  California  Indians.  Those  who 
vere  not  killed  were  driven  into  the  mountains  and  were 
jventually  gathered  on  small  reservations.  By  1910,  the 
ndian  population  of  California  had  been  decreased  by 
learly  90  per  cent.  The  previous  generations  having  dis- 
)osed  of  the  "Indian  problem,"  anthropologists  began  in 
he  1870's  to  reconstruct  the  vanished  cultures,  and  today 
ve  know  a  good  deal  about  an  ancient  way  of  life. 

There  is  radiocarbon  evidence  that  man  has  lived  in 
ralifornia  for  more  than  10,000  years.  One  hundred  five 
lifferent  tribes,  speaking  more  than  100  dialects  of  five 
anguage  stocks,  reflected  many  invasions  and  migrations 
hrough  the  centuries.  Most  of  the  Indians  were  seed 
gatherers;  others  hunted  and  fished  along  the  coast  and 
n  the  mountains.  Along  the  lower  Colorado  River,  the 
ifuma  and  Mohave  tribes  practiced  agriculture.  Except- 
ng  the  nomadic  peoples  of  the  eastern  California  deserts, 
he  Indians  led  a  sedentary  village  life,  secured  by  an 
ibundance  of  food.  All  tribes  had  shamans,  or  medlcmc 
nen,  who  were  the  interpreters  of  nature  and  claimed  the 
)ower  to  communicate  with  the  unseen  spirits  of  good 
ind  evil.  The  primary  function  of  the  shaman  was  curing 
lisease.    In    addition,    there   were    specialized    shamans 


slatively  clear  pictograph  from  Santa  Susana 
untains  near  Santa  Barbara  is  part  of  large  group 
was  overpainted  several  times  by  Indians. 


known  as  rain  or  weather  doctors;  rattlesnake  doctors 
who  cured  snake  bites;  and  bear  doctors  who  could  take 
on  the  shape  of  a  grizzly  bear  and  destroy  enemies. 
Throughout  the  state  a  number  of  ritual  cults  were  prac- 
ticed with  elaborate  ceremonies.  For  instance,  rites  of  the 
Chinigchinich  cult  of  southern  California  used  both  sand 
painting  and  loloache,  a  vision-inducing  narcotic. 

In  one  of  the  pictograph  regions  we  have  ethnographic 
evidence  of  the  purpose  of  the  paintings.  Both  the  Luiseno 
and  Cupeiio  tribes  of  the  southwest  had  girls'  puberty 
rites,  which  included  the  use  of  pictographs.  The  girls 
first  spent  three  days  in  a  pit  with  heated  rocks.  On  the 
morning  of  the  fourth  day  they  were  taken  from  the  pit, 
their  faces  were  painted  black  and  remained  so  for  a 
month.  In  the  second  month,  vertical  white  lines  were 
painted  on  their  faces,  and  in  the  third  month  wavy,  red, 
horizontal  lines  were  added.  After  ceremonies,  including 
sand  painting,  the  girls  raced  to  a  certain  rock  where  red 
pigment  was  given  them  by  relatives  and  where  they 
then  painted  diamond-shaped  designs  representing  the 
rattlesnake.  Such  designs  are  common  in  the  region. 

Several  hundred  Yokuts  in  the  Tulare  area  have  sur- 
vived and,  although  they  have  no  knowledge  of  the  mean- 
ing or  purpose  of  the  ancient  pictures,  they  are  able  to 


Figure  in  red,  black,  and  white  is  about  five 
inches  high  and  is  from  area  of  the  Seape  River  near 
Santa  Barbara.  Site  had  more  than  40  odd  figures. 


give  precise  descriptions  of  the  preparation  of  paints  for 
ceremonial  use.  The  pigment  materials  were  reduced  to 
powder  in  a  mortar  and  then,  by  the  addition  of  a  little 
water,  molded  into  fist-sized  cakes.  Brushes  were  made 
of  bound  fiber,  although  paint  was  sometimes  applied  with 
a  finger  or  a  pointed  stick. 

We  have  no  ethnographic  knowledge  about  the  paint- 
ings in  the  Santa  Barbara  area.  The  small  Esselen  tribe  of 
the  Santa  Lucia  Range  to  the  north  and  the  great  Chum- 
ash  nation  to  the  south  had  ceased  to  exist  by  the  time 
the  investigators  came  on  the  scene.  The  situation  is  the 
same  with  the  Modocs  of  the  northeastern  area — we  have 
no  direct  information.  The  only  approach  to  some  under- 
standing of  the  mysterious  significance  of  these  pictures 
must,  therefore,  be  indirect. 

Fortunately,  there  are  at  least  two  places  where  paint- 
ing of  this  type  is  still  done.  The  Navaho  of  Arizona  and 
New  Mexico  make  sand  paintings  during  elaborate  cere- 
monies designed  both  to  heal  and  to  drive  away  malign 
spirits.  These  feature  highly  stylized  anthropomorphic 
beings  similar  to  those  on  the  California  rock  paintings. 
They  are  done  by  relatives  and  friends  of  the  patient 
under  the  direction  of  the  medicine  men,  and  the  figures 


39 


personify  powerful  beings  and  animals  that  will  aid  in  the 
cure.  In  Australia,  where  both  rock  and  sand  paintings  are 
made  ritually,  there  are  the  curious  wondjina  paintings  on 
rock.  Every  year  just  before  the  rains  these  pictographs 
are  repainted  by  the  chief  of  the  tribe  under  the  protection 
of  a  wondjina — the  bestower  of  all  good  things. 

Circumstantial  evidence  is  strong  that  most  of  the  pic- 
tographs in  California  were  made  in  connection  with  some 
ceremony,  either  by  the  shamans  or  under  their  guidance. 
They  are  often  hidden  in  the  most  remote  and  inac- 
cessible places,  and  were  certainly  not  for  display  as  art 
for  art's  sake.  One  of  the  most  elaborate  paintings  I  have 
seen  is  approached  by  crawling  into  a  narrow,  two-foot- 
wide  cleft,  where  only  a  small  section  of  the  sixteen-foot- 
long  picture  can  be  seen  at  a  time.  Such  paintings  ap- 
parently consist  of  elements  added  from  time  to  time  and 
inspired  by  the  original  creation.  Thus  it  appears  that  pic- 
tures were  not  only  made  but  sometimes  added  to  in  con- 
nection with  ceremonies.  The  exact  meaning  of  any  indi- 
vidual painting  will  never  be  known,  and  it  is  doubtful 
that  we  could  understand  the  significance  even  if  the  crea- 
tor were  alive  to  explain  it.  The  Indian  did  not  think  as  we 
do,  nor  did  he  interpret  his  ideas  as  we  would.  Theodora 
Kroeber,  in  her  book  Islii  in  Two  Worlds,  says:  "The 
California  Indian  was  ...  an  introvert,  reserved,  contem- 
plative and  philosophical.  He  lived  at  ease  with  the  super- 
natural and  the  mystical,  which  was  pervasive  in  all 
aspects  of  life.  He  felt  no  need  to  differentiate  mystical 
truth  from  direct  or  material  truth,  or  the  supernatural 
from  the  natural:  one  was  as  manifest  as  the  other  in  his 
system  of  values  and  perceptions  and  beliefs." 

^  Jh  M  HiLE  most  of  the  pictographs  were  certainly 
^^\f  made  for  religious  purposes,  some  of  the  sim- 
pler ones  may  have  been  trail  markers:  others,  like  a  series 
of  short,  parallel  lines,  suggest  a  primitive  method  of 
counting.  In  the  eastern  Sierra  Nevada  there  are  sites 
showing  game  animals,  generally  in  petroglyph  form. 
They  could  have  been  made  for  the  purpose  of  hunting 
magic,  to  bring  an  increase  of  game  or  luck.  Many  of  the 
great  Paleolithic  cave  paintings  in  Europe  were  undoubt- 
edly made  for  these  same  purposes. 

The  tendency  of  art  to  develop  into  abstract  forms  from 
naturalistic  beginnings  is  well  demonstrated  by  the  picto- 


graphs in  the  western  United  States.  In  areas  of  long- 
settled  community  life,  such  as  the  Pacific  Northwest, 
California,  and  the  Pueblo  country,  the  design  elements 
are  overwhelmingly  abstract.  The  areas  populated  by 
nomadic  bands  of  hunting  peoples  have  chiefly  natural- 
istic forms — large  game  animals,  hunters,  and  warriors. 
As  nomadic  tribes  settled  into  a  sedentary  existence,  their 
visualizations  of  the  natural  and  supernatural  tended  to 
depart  further  from  realism. 

The  question  of  dating  the  pictographs  is  an  extremely 
difficult  one.  In  the  Santa  Barbara  area  one  cave  shows 
four  horsemen  in  profile,  which  inevitably  dates  it  from 
the  early  Spanish  era,  since  prior  to  that  time  the  horse 
was  unknown.  These  cannot  have  been  very  old.  I  have 
tried  to  date  paint  fragments  from  a  Santa  Barbara  site 
by  the  radiocarbon  method,  hoping  that  enough  of  the 
organic  oil  binder  remained  in  the  sample.  The  result  was 
inconclusive,  but  the  laboratory  comment  indicated  no 
great  age.  Recently  many  artifacts  of  the  last  Chumash 
culture  have  been  found  in  the  Santa  Barbara  Mountains, 
cached  in  caves  adjacent  to  painted  rocks.  A  basketry 
fragment  from  such  a  find  has  been  dated  at  120  years, 
plus  or  minus  80.  The  Chumash-speaking  people,  how- 
ever, had  been  in  continuous  occupation  of  the  area  for 
several  thousand  years.  Some  paintings  in  protected  spots 
are  covered  with  a  patina  of  lichens  and  could  be  very 
old.  Other  sites  show  extensive  painting  under  later  de- 
signs, suggesting  a  respectable  antiquity. 

The  paintings  in  the  Santa  Lucia  Range  are  probably 
an  extension  of  the  Santa  Barbara  tradition,  and  the  dat- 
ing would  be  similar.  The  problem  in  the  Tulare  and 
northeastern  regions  is  more  difficult,  as  the  pictographs 
are  on  granite  or  basalt,  which  have  a  very  slow  rate  of 
erosion.  Some  of  these  may  be  much  older  than  the  oldest 
in  the  Santa  Barbara  country. 

The  most  likely  conclusion  we  can  come  to  is  that  rock 
painting  was  part  of  a  long-established  Indian  ceremonial 
tradition,  enduring  in  some  areas  until  the  Spanish  mis- 
sion period.  Even  though  we  do  not  know  what  these 
pictographs  meant  to  the  original  creators,  we  can  still 
enjoy  them  as  art.  The  curious  combinations  of  form 
and  color  are  a  constant  joy  to  the  eye.  These  mysterious 
paintings  are  reminders  of  man's  ceaseless  efforts  to  iden-  ] 
tify  himself  with  the  unseen  world  of  the  mind  and  spirit. 


40 


rom  major  site  in  the  Santa  Barbara  locale,  this 
foot-long,  vandal-destroyed  pictograph  was 
)nstructed  from  photos  that  were  made  in  the  lS90's. 


This  composition  in  the  Caliente  Range  seems  to 
feature  a  central  fertility  figure.  Artist  movea  ttie 
lower  cluster  of  figures  into  picture  from  left. 


'• 


y>>^ 


Hermaphroditism  in 
Bahama  Groupers    ^ 

Born  as  females,  tropical  sea  basses  later  change  into  maie; 


By  C.  Lavett  Smith 

SEXUAL  REPRODUCTION  is  the  process 
wherebv  new  individuals  result 
from  the  union  of  an  egg  cell  with  a 
sperm  cell.  Among  the  vertebrates  it  is 
usual  to  have  separate  sexes,  but  in 
some  fishes  the  male  and  female  or- 
gans are  housed  in  the  same  indi- 
vidual. It  now  appears  that  the  large 
sea  basses  called  groupers  begin  life 
as  females  and  later  change  into  males. 
This  type  of  hermaphroditism  is  called 
protogyny,  and  its  study  may  have 
far-reaching  implications  in  our  ef- 
forts to  trace  the  evolution  of  sexual 
mechanisms.  It  may  also  aid  in  tracing 
the  evolutionary  history  of  the  fishes. 
The  groupers  are  large  or  moder- 
ately large  fishes  that  live  in  reef  areas 
of  warm  seas.  The  spectacular  jewfish, 
which  reaches  a  weight  of  over  seven 
hundred  pounds,  is  a  grouper,  and  the 
red  hind  and  coney  are  also  groupers. 
There  are  thirty-three  species  of  group- 
ers in  the  New  World  and  probably 
over  one  hundred  throughout  the  world. 

42 


Several  years  ago  the  Bermuda  Gov- 
ernment supported  a  program  of  basic 
research  on  the  local  groupers,  which 
make  up  something  over  three-fourths 
of  the  commercial  fish  catch.  It  was 
during  this  study  that  I  first  became 
aware  of  the  existence  of  protogvnous 
hermaphroditism  in  groupers.  One  of 
my  first  tasks  was  to  learn  how  to  tell 
the  sexes  apart  in  order  to  eliminate 
any  possibility  that  what  appeared  to 
be  two  different  species  might  in  fact 
be  males  and  females  of  the  same  kind. 
To  my  consternation,  I  soon  found 
that  unless  the  fish  were  in  spawning 
condition  I  could  not  determine  their 
sex,  even  when  I  dissected  them  and 
examined  the  reproductive  organs.  In 
order  to  clarifv  the  situation  I  pre- 
pared some  of  these  organs  for  micro- 
scopic examination.  All  of  the  first 
dozen  or  so  checked  proved  to  be 
female.  At  first  this  seemed  to  indi- 
cate that  the  males  might  have  differ- 
ent habits  and  were  not  being  caught 
in  the  traps;  then  I  remembered  that 
commercial  fishermen  had  said  that 


when  the  sexes  could  be  distinguishe 
the  males  tended  to  be  larger  than  tli 
females  and  that  the  very  largest  fis 
were  alwaj's  males. 

From  this  there  emerged  the  fascii 
ating  possibilitv  that  these  fishes  begi 
life  as  females  and  later  become  male: 
It  seemed  unlikely,  but  it  is  known  tht 
certain  near  relatives  of  the  grouperi 
also  members  of  the  family  Serran 
dae,  are  synchronous  hermaphrodite 
— male  and  female  at  the  same  time- 
and  some  Mediterranean  porgies  ar 
first  males  and  then  females.  Thus,  th 
hypothesis  of  a  sex  change  was  nc 
entirely  unreasonable,  and  I  set  aboii 
finding  ways  to  test  it. 

First,  field  data  pertaining  to  rip 
fishes  were  re-examined  and  thev  col 
firmed  the  fisherniens  observations 
In  general,  the  males  were  larger,  bu 
there  is  a  wide  range  of  sizes  at  whic! 
the  fish  can  be  either  males  or  female- 
This  was  suggestive  but  not  conclu 
sive,  because  it  might  only  have  mean 
that  the  males  mature  later  and  grov 
to  a  larsfer  size  than  the  females.  Nexl 


OUPER  AT  LEFT  is  a  graysbv  i  Petrometopon  cruentatum) . 
ngitudinal  section  of  a  female  reproductive  organ  shows 
)  eggs  developing  in  central  cavity,  (B)  urinary  bladder. 


0 


Section  at  right  is  of  ripe  female's  lower  reproductive 
tract,  and  shows  the  existence  of  both  the  egg  canal  (A) 
and  sperm  duct  (B).  Third  cavity  (C)  is  the  urinary  duct. 


CROSS  SECTION  of  ovary  of  a  developing  female,  helow, 

rounded  dark  masses  are  oocytes  in  various  stages  of 

.^elopment  in  lamellae  that  extend  into  the  central  cavity. 


43 


Eggs,  or  oocytes,  are  ready  for  spawning.  In  the  largest 
eggs,  clear  nucleus  is  surrounded  by  dark  yolk  materials. 


Higher  magnification  reveals  the  degeneration  of  conten 
above,  in  an  egg  that  was  not  released  at  time  of  spawnii 


I  prepared  a  large  series  of  reproduc- 
tive organs  for  histological  study.  The 
tissue  must  be  properly  preserved, 
then  impregnated  and  embedded  in 
paraffin.  It  is  then  cut  into  thin  slices 
on  a  machine  called  a  microtome,  the 
paraffin  is  removed,  the  tissue  is 
stained  to  bring  out  the  cellular  detail, 
and  the  sections  are  mounted  for 
study.  Altogether  we  examined  the 
gonads  of  over  three  hundred  speci- 
mens representing  nine  species  of 
groupers.  The  pattern  remained;  all 
of  the  smallest  fish  were  females  and 
most  of  the  largest  were  males, 
although  there  was  a  wide  overlap.  In 
a  few  species— the  mutton  hamlets,  for 
instance— females    were    bisirer    than 


the  males,  possibly  because  the  sam- 
ples were  inadequate  and  did  not  in- 
clude the  largest  sizes  that  are  indig- 
enous to  that  area. 

We  also  found  males  that  appeared 
to  be  transforming.  These  contained 
male  tissue  that  consisted  of  little  nests 
of  cells  in  various  stages  of  sperma- 
togenesis. They  also  contained  several 
stages  of  developing  and  degenerating 
eggs.  Even  the  largest  males  had  struc- 
tures that  appeared  to  be  the  remains 
of  eggs  scattered  throughout  their  re- 
productive organs.  Apparently  these 
were  eggs  that  developed  during  the 
female  stage  but  for  one  reason  or 
another  were  not  released. 

We  then  turned  to  the  general  struc- 


ture of  the  grouper  reproducti 
system.  Each  ovary  is  a  hollow  sac,  1 
right  and  left  ovaries  joining  at  1 
back  of  the  body  cavity  to  form  a  tu 
that  is  the  common  oviduct.  T 
walls  of  the  ovary  are  lined  with  fol 
or  lamellae,  each  consisting  of  a  o 
tral  layer  of  spongy  connective  tiss 
and  an  outer  layer  of  germinal  e 
thelium.  The  eggs  develop  from  c( 
of  this  germinal  layer,  and  as  tl 
grow  they  fill  the  lamella.  Blood  v 
sels  run  in  the  spongy  layer  to  all  pa 
of  the  lamella.  At  the  time  of  spav 
ing,  eggs  are  released  into  the  cent 
cavity  of  the  organ  and  pass  down  I 
common  oviduct.  Normally  the  o 
duct  ends  in  a  spongy  mass  of  tisi 


Cell  nests   (arrows)  in  the  female  will  become  testicular 
tissues,  known  as  seminiferous  crypts,  in  the  male  stage. 


Magnification  shows  that  while  still  in  immature  fem 
stage,   some   seminiferous  crypts    (arrow)    fill  with   spei 

mSW- 


rHE  FINAL  STAGES  of  degeneration  of  the  unreleased  egg, 
erial   {arrow)   is  transported  to  central  part  of  lamella. 


Ecc  REMNANTS  (orrow)  are  retained  by  the  functional  male 
in  the  same  position  as  when  fish  was  in  the  female  stage. 


ruptures,  allowing  eggs  to  pass  out. 
1  hermaphroditic  fishes,  the  basic 
cture  of  the  male  organ  is  the  same 
liat  of  the  female.  Sperms  are  pro- 
id  in  small  pockets,  or  crypts,  in 
lamellae,  but  instead  of  being  re- 
ed into  the  central  cavity  they 
'el  through  irregular,  intercon- 
ed  spaces  into  sperm  sinuses  in 
outer  region  of  the  testis.  Eventu- 

these  empty  into  a  single  sperm 
:.  The  duct,  which  opens  to  the  out- 
,  is  located  in  the  posterior  wall  of 

common  oviduct.  The  ovarian 
en  remains  in  the  male  but  is  no 
;er  used.  In  fishes  with  separate 
s,  however,  there  is  no  central 
ty;  rather,  the  testis  is  solid  with 


sperm  tubules  and  a  sperm  duct  is  at 
one  side.  Further  study  revealed  that 
the  sperm  duct  is  present  in  juveniles 
and  females  long  before  it  becomes 
functional  during  the  male  phase. 

THERE  is  yet  a  problem  in  interpret- 
ing the  significance  of  these  repro- 
ductive tissues.  It  has  been  shown  by 
other  workers  that  some  fishes  pass 
through  a  temporarily  non-functional 
hermaphroditic  stage  during  their  de- 
velopment. In  this  indifferent  period 
the  gonad  contains  cells  that  look  like 
developing  eggs,  but  in  males  they 
never  become  functional.  Could  it  be 
that  in  groupers  this  temporary  con- 
dition is  prolonged  in  the  males  until 


they  reach  the  size  at  which  some  of 
the  females  are  already  mature?  I 
think  not,  because  the  remnants  often 
seem  to  be  those  of  advanced  eggs  in 
which  the  membranous  shells  had  al- 
ready formed.  Therefore,  these  ani- 
mals must  have  functioned  as  females. 
It  has  been  difficult  to  determine 
how  long  groupers  remain  females  or 
at  what  age  they  transform  into  males. 
Because  they  are  found  in  tropical  and 
semitropical  waters,  the  usual  method 
of  determining  age— by  counting  an- 
nual rings  on  scales  and  other  bony 
parts— is  somewhat  unreliable.  Rings 
are  only  deposited  where  there  are 
pronounced  seasonal  variations.  Pre- 
liminary studies  by  the  Florida  State 


PENCE  of  hermaphroditism  is  seen  by  presence  of  crv^)! 
oiv)  adjacent  to  ripening  oocyte  in  a  spawning  female. 


Mature  sperm  taken  at  an  X900   magnification  indicates 
that  even  while  spawning,  fish  is  changing  to  male  stage. 


1 


^r--' 


A 


A 


Board  of  Conservation  indicate  that 
one  rather  large  species,  Mycteroperca 
microlepis  (known  as  gag)  matures  as 
a  female  at  four  or  five  years  and 
transforms  to  a  male  at  about  ten. 

The  ultimate  test,  of  course,  is  to 
keep  the  fish  in  captivity  and  watch  the 
transformation.  Since  there  are  no  ex- 
ternal features  for  distinguishing  the 
sexes  it  is  necessary  to  operate  on  the 
fish  and  remove  a  piece  of  the  repro- 
ductive organ  for  microscopic  exami- 
nation in  order  to  establish  its  original 
sex.  We  have  now  performed  this 
operation  on  a  group  of  fish  at  The 
American  Museum's  Lerner  Marine 
Laboratory  in  the  Bahamas,  but  so  far 
none  has  transformed.  It  is  entirely 
possible  that  the  fish  will  not  trans- 
form in  captivity  or  that  the  operation 
prevents  the  change. 

Before  we  can  understand  the  fun- 
damental processes  involved  we  must 
know  more  about  the  structure  of  the 
gonad  itself.  Careful  study  of  the 
germinal  epithelial  layer  has  revealed 
that  in  juveniles  and  in  ripe  females 
there  are  small  nests  of  cells  (sperma- 
togonia) that  give  rise  to  the  sperm- 
producing  crypts.  These  cells  are  very 
similar  to  the  cells  (oogonia)  that  give 
rise  to  eggs,  but  there  are  certain 
distinguishing  characteristics.  Occa- 
sionally these  spermatogonia  undergo 
a  precocious  spermatogenesis  that  re- 
sults in  the  appearance  of  small 
clusters  of  sperm  cells  even  in  fully 
ripe  females.  These  isolated  groups  of 
sperm  are  probably  non-functional, 
because  there  is  apparently  no  way  in 
which  they  can  get  beyond  the  mem- 
brane that  encloses  them. 

Thus  it  appears  that  this  type  of 
protogynous  gonad  is  really  a  com- 
pound organ  with  male  and  female 

46 


tissues  admixed.  This  raises  a  whole 
set  of  new  questions:  Are  any  hor- 
mones involved  and,  if  so,  where  are 
they  produced?  Is  the  change  trig- 
gered by  some  factor  in  the  environ- 
ment, or  is  it  an  innate  property  of  the 
tissues?  If  the  latter  is  the  case,  per- 
haps we  can  learn  something  of  the 
general  problems  of  aging  by  studying 
these  fish  organs.  Sex  of  other  verte- 
brates is  controlled  by  special  chromo- 
somes—do hermaphrodites  have  sex 
chromosomes? 

Another  aspect  worth  consider- 
XTL  ing  is  the  adaptive  value  of  this 
type  of  hermaphroditism  to  the  ani- 
mals themselves.  In  these  protogynous 
hermaphrodites  the  sexes  are  func- 
tionally distinct,  and  at  least  two 
individuals  are  required  for  reproduc- 
tion. Thus,  this  type  of  sexuality  lacks 
the  obvious  advantage  of  synchronous 
hermaphroditism,  in  which  one  indi- 
vidual can  fertilize  its  own  eggs  and 
reproduce  without  a  mate.  It  may  be 
suggested  that  protogyny  would  tend 
to  increase  egg  production  because 
every  individual— not  just  the  females 
—would  produce  some  eggs.  Further- 
more, after  the  fish  have  transformed 
only  the  males  would  die,  but  usually 
one  male  can  fertilize  the  eggs  pro- 
duced by  several  females.  On  the  other 
hand,  transformation  has  the  same  ef- 
fect as  the  death  of  a  female.  That  is, 
for  purposes  of  egg  production  a 
transformed  female  no  longer  exists 
as  a  female.  L  ntil  we  know  much  more 
about  mortality  rates  and  other  popu- 
lation phenomena  we  cannot  begin  to 
evaluate  the  significance  of  these  con- 
trasting influences. 

It  is  interesting  to  speculate  on  the 
origin  of  the  hermaphroditic  mechan- 


ism. Perhaps  protogyny  is  just 
amplification  of  the  condition  where 
the  males  pass  through  a  female-li 
indifferent  stage.  If  the  indiffere 
cells  merely  continue  to  develop  egi 
protogynous  hermaphroditism  v, 
occur.  But  then  what  of  the  norn 
females  that  do  not  transform?  Coi 
there  be  two  kinds  of  female  groupi 
—those  that  become  males  and  the 
that  do  not?  Such  a  situation  has 
cently  been  reported  in  some  Medit 
ranean  wrasses  (a  related  family) 

Detailed  studies  may  clarify  the 
lationship  between  the  protogync 
groupers  and  the  synchronously  h 
maphroditic  relatives.  Structural  ] 
culiarities  may  confirm  or  elimin; 
the  possibility  of  one  type  havi 
given  rise  to  the  other  type.  This  li 
of  investigation  is  being  pursued  in  I 
hope  that  it  will  provide  clues  to  1 
evolutionarv  histor}'  of  certain  simi 
genera  and  families  of  fishes. 

It  might  seem  that  intensive  stu 
of  hermaphroditism  in  vertebrates  1 
limited  significance  because  so  f 
forms  are  hermaphroditic.  We  mi 
however,  bear  in  mind  that  unusi 
phenomena  sometimes  indicate  c 
tain  basic  family  relationships  tl 
otherwise  could  not  be  detected.  I 
cently  it  has  been  shown  that  herma] 
rodiiism  of  one  type  or  another  1 
curs  in  at  least  ten  diverse  fish  famil 
representing  five  entirely  diffen 
orders.  Are  these  independently  1 
rived,  parallel  modifications  of  the 
productive  system,  or  are  they  indi 
tions  of  common  ancestry?  We  c 
expect  that  a  careful  investigation 
sexual  mechanisms  will  contribi 
significantly  to  the  long-range  obj 
tive  of  constructing  an  impro\ 
higher  classification  of  all  the  fish 


INIFEROUS  CRYPTS  (arrows)  in  series,  left,  are  along 
;dge  of  lamella  in  transitional  stage,  and  then  fill  it. 
;rent-sized  cell  nuclei  indicate  that  spermatogenesis 
king  place.  Dark  masses  are  the  remains  of  oocytes. 


r 


•*w 


Transformed  male  shows  mature  testicular  tissue  and 
oocyte  remnants.  White  areas  are  the  remains  of  ovarian 
lumen.  Dark  area  in  upper  right  (arrow)  is  sperm  duct. 


6 


Va  ,     m 


f 


FULLY  MATURE  MALE,  sperm  duct,  Or  sinus  (arrow), 
eked  with  sperm.  A  few  of  the  oocyte  particles  still 
lin  in  lamellae  that  are  separated  by  radial  spaces. 


\      A, 


.sS" 


w 


% 


^; 


ig  curve  is  one  of  the  two 
IV  scales  flanking  Samrat 
a,  the  principal  sundial-like 
ment  at  observatory. 


In  front  of  Jai  Singh's  palace 

are  a  small  version  of  Samrat 

Yantra,  center,  and  a  target-like 

equatorial  sundial,  at  left. 


ASTRONOMY'S  PAST 
PRESERVED  AT 


by  DEREK  J.  de  SOLLA  PRICE 

In  the  city  of  Jaipur,  sixty  miles  southwest  of  Delhi, 
itands  a  spacious  palace  courtyard  filled  mth  massive 
structures  of  masonry,  the  pure  scientific  and  func- 
tional lines  of  which  make  them  appear  to  be  part  of 
hat  space-age  architecture  that  has  become  familiar 
From  rocketry  and  radio  telescopes.  This  huge  ob- 
iervatory,  for  such  it  is,  provides  a  remarkable  in- 
stance, from  other  times  and  another  culture  than 
3ur  own,  of  extremely  heavy  governmental  expendi- 
;ure  on  behalf  of  science. 

It  was  built  about  1728  by  Maharaja  Sawai  Jai 
5ingh  II  ( 1686-1743  )  in  his  favorite,  newly  created 
capital  city,  as  one  of  five  structures  located  in  the 
jiggest  towns  of  the  Amber  Territory,  which  he  ruled 
mder  the  Mogul  Emperor  Mohammed  Shah.  In  some 
vays  it  is  fantastic  that  a  country  torn  by  war  and 
amine,  as  Hindustan  was  in  those  darkest  days  fol- 
owing  the  death  of  Emperor  Aurangzeb,  should  give 
ip  such  a  large  part  of  its  work  and  precious  re- 
;ources  to  build  great  observatories  in  the  most  opu- 
[ent  traditions  of  the  Egyptian  pyramids  and  the 


Jaipur 


medieval  cathedrals.  It  is  even  more  puzzling  when 
we  consider  that,  although  Jai  Singh  was  no  mean 
scholar,  his  primary  fame  and  interests  were  with 
the  Machiavellian  politics  that  he  waged  so  success- 
fully to  keep  his  territory  and  settle  it. 

Most  fantastic  of  all,  this  observatory  represents 
the  magnificent  culmination  of  all  of  ancient  and 
medieval  astronomy,  but  so  much  too  late  that  Europe 
had  already  seen  not  only  Copernicus  and  Tycho 
Brahe.  but  also  the  telescope  of  Galileo  and  the  power- 
ful mathematics  of  Newton.  Jai  Singh  was  centuries 
too  late  with  aU  his  splendor,  but,  strangely  enough, 
it  was  out  of  a  conservatism  of  purpose  rather  than 
any  ignorance  of  the  new  astronomy  of  Europe.  His 
translators  into  Sanskrit  and  his  Portuguese  Jesuit 
missionary  friends  used  as  emissaries  enabled  him 
to  know  and  make  use  of  the  finest  astronomical 
tables  of  early  eighteenth-century  England  and 
France  (those  of  Flamsteed  and  La  Hire  I ,  as  well  as 
the  wisdom  of  the  Greek  and  Arab  astronomers  that 
preceded  him  in  his  own  tradition. 


49 


Rasi  Valaya  comprises  twelve  miniature  versions  of 

main  device,  each  aligned  for  a  zodiacal  sign. 

Cupola  at  right  rear  is  on  top  of  Samrat  Y antra. 


Before  Rasi  Valaya  is  one  of  large,  hemispherical 

pits  of  the  Jai  Prakash.  Its  graduated  marble 

surface  acts  as  a  bowl  sundial,  showing  rising  times. 


Bold,  black  patterns  of  Jai  Prakash  bowl  are 

cutouts  through  which  observers  behind  shell  would 

sight  the  stars  during  installation  s  brief  use. 


SO 


ITS  Had  a  Bearing  on  Earthly  Power 


Jai  Singh  is  only  the  last  in  a  long  series  of  poten- 
:ates  within  the  Moslem  cultural  area  who  were 
iriven,  almost  every  century,  to  build  an  observatory 
ind  draw  up  astronomical  tables.  Behind  this  move- 
nent  is  something  much  stronger  than  a  mere  love 
jf  the  cause  of  pure  science.  In  ancient  times,  the 
sromulgation  of  the  calendar  was  an  imperial  right 
jnd  a  mark  of  sovereignty  as  well  as  an  important 


practical  matter.  It  was  perhaps  what  the  use  of  coin- 
age and  postage  stamps  is  in  contemporary  societies. 
The  acceptance  of  the  rule  implied  the  use  of  the 
calendar  and  vice  versa.  And  for  the  Moslems,  the 
calendar  also  had  a  religious  significance. 

Now,  in  order  to  maintain  an  accurate  calendar 
it  is,  of  course,  desirable  to  have  good  and  correct 
astronomical  tables  to  yield  the  motions  of  the  sun 


A  Splendid  But 
Unnecessary  Gesture 


and  moon.  Fortunately,  as  early  as  the  second  century 
A.D.,  Claudius  Ptolemaeus  of  Alexandria  had  been 
successful  in  erecting  a  complete  and  satisfying  astro- 
nomical theory  that  could  give  with  great  exactness 
the  motions  of  stars  and  planets.  Even  though  the 
earth  was  taken  as  a  stationary  point  of  reference,  it 
may  be  shown  that  this  system,  once  set  up  with  the 
correct  initial  parameters,  would  continue  to  provide 
almost  all  possible  predicted  occurrences  to  an  ac- 
curacy, as  good  as  the  naked  eye  could  detect. 

There  is,  however,  one  small  snag.  Even  when  the 
principal  motions  of  stars  and  planets  are  accounted 
for  in  their  chief  daily,  annual,  and  periodic  cycles, 
there  remain  a  number  of  small  and  steady  changes, 
the  secular  motions,  which  amount  to  shifts  in  posi- 
tion and  co-ordinate  systems  of  magnitudes  of  the 
order  of  one  degree  per  century.  The  best  known  of 
these  motions  is  precession,  discovered  in  antiquity 
but  assigned  an  incorrect  value  that  was  hard  to  de- 
pose because  of  the  authority  and  success  of  the 
founders  of  mathematical  astronomy. 

The  effect  of  secular  motions  was  to  present  medie- 
val astronomers  with  a  paradox;  Ptolemaic  theory 
was  superbly  precise,  and  a  firm  rock  on  which  ac- 
curate calendars  could  be  erected,  yet  after  a  few 
generations  it  always  fell  into  error  and  the  base 
values  had  to  be  remeasured  so  that  the  whole  system 
might  be  restored  to  its  pristine  elegance  and  preci- 
sion. It  was  to  this  very  end  that  medieval  astrono- 
mers undertook,  at  least  every  century,  to  determine 
once  more  the  few  basic  constants  of  planetary  mo- 
tion and,  thus  armed,  produce  a  revised  edition  of  the 
standard  tables  that  were  fundamental  to  the  most 
powerful  science  then  known  and  the  one  that  pro- 
vided so  much  basis  for  authority  and  divine  power. 
Jai  Singh  was  simply  following  in  this  tradition,  in 
which  he  had  as  predecessors  the  observatory  of 
al-Mamun  at  Baghdad  in  the  ninth  century,  and  the 
later  medieval  observatories  that  had  been  established 
at  Cairo  and  Maragha,  and  that  of  Ulugh-Beg  at 
Samarkand.  He  was,  it  may  be  said,  the  last  medieval 
astronomer  of  this  line,  a  conservative  who  found  that 


Newtonian  mathematical  understanding  and  its  new 
outlook  upon  astronomy  did  not  supplant  his  per- 
sistent need  for  the  traditional  functions  of  calendri- 
cal  craft  and  the  making  of  tables. 

The  paradox  of  the  Jaipur  observatory  becomes 
even  more  dramatic  when  one  realizes  that  this  entire 
munificence  of  precision  instrument  building  was 
provided  and  used  for  this  single  short  purpose 
rather  than  for  any  set  of  extensive  observations.  The 
rectification  of  secular  motions  would  entail  probably 
not  more  than  half  a  dozen  sightings  with  each  of  the 
devices.  Possibly  they  were  used  a  little  longer,  just 
out  of  wonder  and  for  training,  but  it  was  not  neces- 
sary, and  the  whole  grand  site  could  safely  be  allowed 
to  lapse  into  disuse  (as  it  did)  for  another  century 
of  secular  motion.  And  yet,  although  there  was  so 
little  to  do,  it  must  needs  be  done  well,  and  the  monu- 
mental size  of  the  devices  was  dictated  by  the  ac- 
curacy that  was  essential.  The  acuity  of  the  naked 
eye  is  about  one  minute  of  arc;  to  mark  divisions  on 
a  scale  with  minutes  denoted  by  lines  about  one  milli- 
meter apart  (about  as  close  as  one  can  come  vnth 
hand-divided  scales),  it  takes  a  circle  about  eight 
yards  across— a  quadrant  as  large  as  a  good,  old- 
fashioned  living  room  wall.  Like  a  modern  particle 
accelerator  or  radio  telescope,  the  instruments  had 
to  be  large  and  very  expensive  in  order  to  work  at  all, 
and  after  working,  they  rapidly  became  obsolescent.  : 

History  seems  to  play  cruel  jests  with  the  most 
heroic  efforts  of  astronomers.  Tycho  Brahe,  author  of 
the  most  precise  and  painstaking  observations  in 
naked-eye  astronomy,  supported  by  a  lifetime  of  work  I 
and  a  king's  ransom  of  instrumentation,  died  just  be- 
fore the  invention  of  the  telescope  was  to  make  all  his 
labors  in  vain.  More  than  a  century  later,  just  as 
scientific  contacts  between  India  and  Europe  had 
been  established,  Jai  Singh  repeated  the  tragedy  of 
Brahe,  aware,  but  uncomprehending,  of  the  scientific 
revolution  that  had  overtaken  Europe  and  that  was 
to  lead  to  an  era  in  which  the  functional  architecture 
and  big  expenditure  of  the  Jaipur  observatory  were 
to  be  regarded  as   a  conunonplace   of  civilization. 


Cupola-topped  Samrat  Yantra,  about  ninety 

tall,  is  in  center  of  the  instrument  complex  at  Jai 

best-preserved  monument  to  ancient  astrono 


52 


SKY  REPORTER 

ar's  first  total  lunar  eclipse  will  be  visible  on  June  24th 

By  Thomas  D.  Nicholson 


[E  FIRST  of  two  total  lunar  eclipses  visible  this  year  in 
le  United  States  occurs  on  the  evening  of  June  24. 
i  part  of  the  eclipse  can  be  seen  from  most  of  the 
try  (see  map,  page  56) ,  but  it  will  already  be  in  prog- 
A^hen  the  moon  rises.  On  December  18,  the  second  total 
•  eclipse  of  1964  will  be  visible  in  its  entirety  through- 
be  United  States,  except  for  Hawaii  and  southwestern 
ca,  where  part  of  the  event  will  be  visible, 
dike  a  total  solar  eclipse,  which  can  be  seen  from  only 
tricted  part  of  the  world,  a  lunar  eclipse  is  visible 

any  part  of  the  world  where  the  moon  is  above  the 
on  at  the  time  of  the  event.  Thus,  it  is  usually  stated 
!ach  lunar  eclipse  can  be  seen  from  half  of  the  world. 

on  this  point  later,  but  for  now  it  explains  why  we 
the  opportunity  to  observe  more  lunar  than  solar 
;es,  although  the  former  are  not  so  common.  The  rela- 
•roportion  of  the  two  types  throughout  the  world  is 
nearly  three  solar  to  two  lunar  eclipses, 
ring  a  total  lunar  eclipse,  we  observe  the  moon  as  it 
i  through  the  earth's  shadow  at  the  time  of  full  moon 
:he   bright   full   moon    darkens   considerably.    How- 

the  moon  does  not  disappear  completely  when  it 
;  the  earth's  shadow.  Generally,  there  is  enough  sun- 
in  the  shadow  of  the  earth  to  make  the  moon's  sha- 
1  surface  appear  a  dull  coppery-red.  The  light  that 
m  the  moon  when  it  is  in  the  earth's  shadow  is  be- 
to  be  sunlight  that  has  been  refracted,  or  bent,  by  the 
s  atmosphere.  Since  the  blue  light  in  sunlight  is  mostly 
red  by  the  atmosphere  (thus  producing  the  blue  of 
ytime  sky  ) ,  it  is  red  light  that  passes  through  the  air, 

into  the  shadow  of  the  earth,  and  falls  on  the  moon 
I  a  lunar  eclipse. 

s  light,  however,  is  not  uniform  from  eclipse  to 
;.  During  some  eclipses,  the  portion  of  the  moon  in 
w  appears  to  be  quite  bright  and  almost  brick-red 
3r.  At  other  times,  the  eclipsed  moon  may  be  so  dark 

almost  disappears.  Such  was  the  case  during  the  last 
iinar  eclipse  on  December  30,  1963.  Many  observers 

United  States  reported  at  that  time  that  the  moon 
3ry  dark  or  actually  invisible,  and  even  those  who 
see  the  moon  during  the  total  phase  reported  it  to 
k  gray  or  nearly  black  rather  than  copper-toned.  In 
m,  some  observers  described  a  peculiar  bluish  color 

moon  along  one  edge  of  the  earth's  shadow  and  an 
y  strange  brightness  on  the  edge  of  the  moon  that  was 
t  to  the  center  of  the  earth's  shadow.  These  peculiari- 
ide  the  eclipse  a  memorable  event  for  observers. 
:ther  the  total  lunar  eclipses  of  June  24  and  December 
[  also  be  unusually  dark,  or  whether  they  will  con- 
o  the  pattern  of  most  lunar  eclipses,  cannot  be  pre- 


L  ECLIPSE  of  July  15,  1954,  seen  at  moonrise  from 
:an  Museum-Hayden  Planetarium.  Rising  in  an  east  to 
notion,  moon  gradually  moves  out  of  earth's  shadow. 


dieted.  There  were  a  number  of  exceptionally  dark  eclipses 
following  the  volcanic  explosion  at  Krakatoa  in  1883,  and 
it  has  been  suggested  that  the  dark  eclipse  last  December 
may  have  been  caused  in  part  by  the  dust  scattered  into  the 
atmosphere  by  a  violent  eruption  on  the  island  of  Bali  early 
in  1963.  If  so,  this  may  also  affect  this  year's  eclipses,  but 
nothing  can  be  said  with  certainty. 

The  timetable  for  the  June  24  eclipse  is  shown  on  page 
56.  Times  given  are  Eastern  Standard  Time,  and  should  be 
adjusted  by  subtracting  one  hour  each  for  Central  Standard 
Time,  Mountain  Standard  Time,  and  Pacific  Standard 
Time.  Communities  on  daylight  time  should  add  one  hour. 

The  penumbra  identified  in  the  table  is  the  partial 
shadow  of  the  earth.  When  the  moon  is  in  the  penumbra, 
direct  sunlight  still  shines  on  all  of  its  surface,  but  the 
brightness  is  somewhat  less  than  that  of  the  uneclipsed 
full  moon.  The  umbra  is  the  total  shadow  of  the  earth. 
The  darkening  of  the  penumbra  is  dilEcult  to  observe,  but 
the  portion  of  the  moon  within  the  umbra  is  easily  seen  to 
be  darker  than  direct  sunlight  on  the  full  moon.  The  umbral 
portions  of  a  lunar  eclipse  are  more  interesting  to  observe 
than  are  the  penumbral  portions. 

SINCE  the  eclipse  will  already  be  in  progress  when  the 
moon  rises  in  the  United  States,  readers  may  refer  to 
the  map  again  to  find  out  what  phases  of  the  eclipse  can 
be  observed  from  various  communities.  Throughout  the 
eastern  portion  of  the  country,  the  moon  will  rise  during 
the  total  phase  of  the  eclipse  ( before  mid-eclipse  along  the 
East  Coast ) .  When  the  moon  rises  it  will  be  seen  completely 
within  the  earth's  shadow,  and  its  emergence  from  the 
shadow  can  be  observed  from  8:57  p.m.  to  10:03  P.M., 
EST.  From  the  central  portion  of  the  United  States,  the  ris- 
ing moon  will  appear  partly  shadowed  by  the  earth  and  will 
continue  to  leave  the  shadow  as  it  rises.  The  umbral  phases 
of  the  eclipse  will  end  before  moonrise  in  the  western  por- 
tion of  the  country,  but  the  moon  will  still  be  in  the  penum- 
bra, except  in  the  northwestern  area  shown  on  the  map. 

One  advantage  of  a  lunar  eclipse  that  is  already  in  prog- 
ress at  moonrise  is  that  it  affords  the  opportunity  to  take  a 
photograph  with  some  interesting  landscape  effects,  as  the 
one  shown  on  the  opposite  page.  The  moon  is  low  enough 
so  that  the  landscape  can  easily  be  included  in  the  camera 
frame,  and  there  is  still  plenty  of  twilight  for  illumination. 
Relatively  distant  landscape  features  should  be  selected  so 
they  will  be  sharp  at  the  infinity  focus  necessary  for  moon 
pictures.  A  telephoto  lens  is  desirable,  since  the  longer  focal 
length  results  in  larger  images.  A  tripod  should  also  be 
used,  if  available,  because  exposures  of  about  two  seconds, 
with  fast  film,  are  needed  to  catch  the  faint  light  on  the 
eclipsed  moon. 

It  is  interesting  to  consider  how  much  of  the  world  can 
observe  a  lunar  eclipse.  If  the  effects  of  atmospheric  re- 
fraction and  the  horizontal  parallax  of  the  moon  are  not 
taken  into  consideration,  it  is  approximately  true  that  the 


55 


Irregularity  of  the  earth's  shadow  is  caused  by  variations 
in  the  elevation  and  darkness  of  the  surface  of  the  moon. 


In  total  eclipse  of  December,   1963,  strange  bright 
lower  left,  is  from   sunlight  bent  by  earth's   atmosp 


moon  can  be  seen  from  half  the  world  at  any  one  moment. 
But  when  we  consider  that  a  lunar  eclipse  lasts  for  several 
hours  at  least,  and  that  the  moon  will  be  setting  at  some 
places  and  rising  at  others  during  those  hours,  it  becomes 
apparent  that  any  one  such  eclipse  can  actually  be  observed 
from  much  more  than  half  of  the  world. 

The  lunar  eclipse  of  June  24,  for  example,  can  be 
observed  from  part  or  all  of  every  major  land  mass  except 
Australia,  and  it  does  not  even  miss  Australia  by  much. 
When  the  moon  first  enters  the  earth's  dark  shadow  at 
6:09  P.M.,  EST,  it  will  be  directly  overhead  at  a  point 
just  off  the  west  coast  of  Africa  near  Walvis  Bay;  the  half 
of  the  world  that  extends  from  Sumatra  and  the  eastern 


V              MOON   RISES 

/   : 

■■1 

'n 

WHILE  LEAVING 

S          MOON  RISES 

PENUMBRA 

<? 

J> 

m  PARTIAL 

D 

.  ECLIPSE 

,^ 

MOON  RISES 

,    DURING 

p 

TOTALITY 

TOTAL   LUNAR    ECLIPSE  JUNE   24,    1964 

Moon  enters  penumbra  4:58  p.m.,  EST 

Moon  enters  umbra  6:09  p.m.,  EST 

Total  eclipse  begins  7:16  p.m.,  EST 

Middle  of  eclipse  8:06  p.m.,  EST 

Total  eclipse  ends  8:57  p.m.,  EST 

Moon  leaves  umbra  10:03  p.m.,  EST 

Moon  leaves  penumbra  11:14  p.m.,  EST 


Indian  Ocean  to  western  South  America  can  see  this  ta 
place.  When  the  moon  leaves  the  umbra,  nearly  four  li 
later,  it  will  be  overhead  at  a  point  ofE  the  coast  of  Bj 
near  Rio  de  Janeiro,  and  can  be  seen  from  central  A 
westward  to  the  central  Pacific,  nearly  to  New  Zea 
From  everywhere  within  these  two  overlapping  li 
spheres— an  area  that  includes  nearly  two-thirds  oi 
world— some  part  of  the  umbral  phase  of  the  eclipse 
be  observed.  If  we  also  consider  the  penumbral  phas 
the  eclipse  (when  the  moon  is  within  the  earth's  pj 
shadow),  the  area  of  the  earth  from  which  some  pa 
the  June  24  eclipse  can  be  seen  becomes  even  greatf 
then  includes  nearly  three-fourths  of  the  earth. 

OF  course,  this  might  be  labeled  a  very  technical  ^ 
cism.  Certainly  all  of  the  umbral  and  penun 
eclipse  cannot  be  observed  from  the  two-thirds  to  t 
fourths  of  the  world  described  above,  or  from  hali 
world  either.  The  entire  umbral  phase  of  the  June  24  ec 
is  visible  from  only  about  one-third  of  the  world, 
the  total  duration  of  the  eclipse  (including  all  phases) 
be  observed  from  only  about  one-fourth  of  the  world. 

Even  the  entire  total  phase  of  the  eclipse  is  visible  : 
less  than  half  of  the  world— 47  per  cent,  to  be  precise, 
moon  will  be  visible  at  some  moment  or  other  while 
totally  immersed  in  the  earth's  shadow  on  June  24  ; 
about  53  per  cent  of  the  world's  surface. 

To  sum  up,  the  moon  can  be  seen  from  half  the  wor 
any  single  moment  during  the  eclipse— as,  of  course,  il 
be  seen  at  any  time,  eclipse  or  not.  If  the  effects  of  pan 
and  refraction  are  not  considered,  however,  the  statei 
that  ''half  the  world  can  see  a  lunar  eclipse"  (implying 
all  of  the  viewing  half  is  able  to  observe  all  of  the  phei 
enon)  might  be  accurate  in  one  limited  sense,  but  bec( 
too  generalized  to  have  much  practical  significance. 


Dr.  Nicholson  is  Assistant  Chairman,  Astronomer,  and 
letturer  at  The  Aiwericatv  Museum-Hayden  Planetariu 


56 


SKY  IN       " 
E  AND  JULY 


TIMETABLE 

June    1  Midnight 

June  15  11:00  P.M. 

July     1  10:00  P.M. 

July   15  9:00  P.M. 

July  31  8:00  P.M. 

(Local  Standard  Time) 


<#■:■..-• 


:i^fW 


i  7:  Jupiter,  prominent  in  the  morning  sky,  can  be  seen 
and  to  the  left  of  the  crescent  moon,  and  above  and  to 
It  of  the  moon  in  the  morning  sky  of  the  8th. 
i  9:  A  partial  solar  eclipse,  visible  in  Australia,  occurs. 
ion  arrives  at  perigee  (nearest  earth)  shortly  before  new 
The  resulting  perigee  spring  tide  will  bring  abnormally 
les  to  coastal  areas. 

15:  Saturn  becomes  stationary  in  right  ascension  and 
to  move  in  a  retrograde  (westerly)  direction. 

19:  Venus,  at  inferior  conjunction,  passes  between 
nd  sun  and  moves  into  the  morning  sky. 
21:  The  sun  arrives  at  the  summer  solstice  at  3:57  a.m., 
mmer  begins  in  the  Northern  Hemisphere. 

24:  A  total  lunar  eclipse  occurs,  the  end  visible  from 
f  the  United  States  (see  map  opposite). 

27:  Mercury  is  at  superior  conjunction  and  passes 
e  morning  into  the  evening  sky. 

1:  Mars  may  be  seen  in  the  morning  sky  as  a  reddish 
ignitude  object  about  six  degrees  north  of  the  red  star 
an  in  Taurus. 

7:  Venus  is  becoming  prominent  in  the  morning  sky, 
ind  left  of  the  crescent  moon  before  sunrise.  Mars  is 


t  -i*  Last  Quarter  July     2,    3:31  P.M.,  EST 

New  Moon  July     9,    6:31  a.m.,  EST 

First  Quarter  July  16,    6:47  A.M.,  EST 

Full  Moon  July  24,  10:58  A.M.,  EST 

Last  Quarter  July  31,  10:29  p.m.,  EST 

now  fainter  and  closer  to  the  moon,  above  and  to  the  right  of  it. 

July  9:  The  second  solar  eclipse  within  a  month  occurs. 
This  is  also  a  partial  eclipse,  visible  from  northern  Siberia, 
Greenland,  and  North  America.  It  is  visible  from  the  parts  of 
Alaska  above  the  Arctic  Circle,  where  it  will  occur  at  about 
midnight  of  July  8-9. 

July  11:  Venus  becomes  stationary  in  right  ascension  and 
resumes  direct  (easterly)  motion. 

July  18:  Venus  and  Mars  are  in  conjunction  at  about  2:00 
A.M.,  EST.  They  will  be  close  in  the  morning  sky  before  sun- 
rise, with  Mars  to  the  north  (left)  of  brilliant  Venus. 

July  29:  The  Delta  Aquarid  shower  occurs  during  late  July 
and  early  August,  and  reaches  maximum  today.  The  moon  will 
interfere  with  late  night  observations. 

Saturn  rises  before  midnight  in  June;  and  is  visible  through 
the  rest  of  the  night,  and  is  In  the  south  by  dawn. 

in  July,  Jupiter  and  Saturn  are  morning  stars.  Jupiter  rises 
before  midnight  by  the  end  of  July  and  appears  very  bright 
(magnitude  —1.8)  in  the  south  by  dawn.  Saturn  (magnitude 
0.9)  is  visible  in  the  southeast  after  dark  and  in  the  southwest 
by  morning.  The  planet  Mercury  may  now  be  observed  low  in 
the  west  shortly  after  sunset  as  the  month  comes  to  an  end. 


gECQRPlNGg 


■  !X)UNDS  or  THE  S£A  is  a  7"  x  33  RPH  W 
recording  that  fits  regular  turniabLes, 
and  plays  for  12  minutes.  On  one  side 
we  walk  along  the  shore  listening  to 
the  gulls  and  the  surf,  on  the  other  we 
sail  out  of  Newport  on  a  foggy  morning 
listening  to  the  whistles  and  the  bells. 
^  TH£  SEA  AT  CASTLE  HILL  is  a  12"  mono  LP 
for  those  who  are  perfectly  satisfied 
to  hear  the  surf  without  any  comment. 
In  places  the  bell  in  the  Lighthouse  is 
heard  above   the  waves.  One   listener 

writes:  "THE  SEA  AT  CASTLE  HILL  is  the 
best  yet  .'  I  have  practically  worn  it 
out  listening  to  it,  but  it  could  never 
wear  me  out  because  it  is  so  tranquil- 
lizing." On  Side  B  of  this  record  is  a 
recording  of  the  side-wheeler  ALEXANDER 
HAMILTON  on  a  trip  up  the  Hudson  River. 
Beautiful  whistles,  and  the  rythmic 
sighs  and  clanks  of  the  steam  engine. 
■  BIRDS  ON  A  HAY  HORNING  is  another  12" 
giving  on  Side  A  thirty-six  bird  songs 
just  as  you  would  hear  them  in  the  East 
in  Spring.  A  narration  identifies  the 
birds  heard.  On  Side  B  the  same  songs 
are  given  without  any  talking.  Alfred 
L.Hawkes  of  the  Audubon  Society  of  R.I. 
says  of  this:  "Designed  for  simple  lis- 
tening enjoyment,  it  can  also  be  used  to 
sharpen  up  one's  ear  for  identification 
or  to  recall  the  pleasure  of  a  Spring 
morning   in   the  country.  " 


Birds  on  a  IHaii  niorhina 


Prices,    including  postage: 

1 — I  SOUNDS  or  THE   SEA,    7"  x  33,      S  1.25 

I 1  THE  SEA  AT  CASTLE  HILL,    12"     $5.00 

I 1  BIRDS  ON  A  HAY  HORNING,    12"     $5.00 

\      I  All    three  of   the  above   for     $  10.00 

DROLL  "?:A.NKEES  INC. 

PROVIDENCE,    R.I.     02906 


Fu'l   refund  if  not   satisfied.    A   List  of 
cur  records  mailed  on  request.    Try  One! 


About  the  Authors 

Mr.  Luther  C.  Davis.  Jr.,  the  author 
of  "The  Amazon's  Rate  of  Flow."  is  the 
A^i'^tant  Chief  of  the  Foreign  Hydrol- 
ogy Section  in  the  Water  Resources 
Division.  Geological  Survey,  United 
States  Department  of  the  Interior.  Mr. 
Davis  devotes  most  of  his  time  to  im- 
plementing the  water  resources  investi- 
gation sector  of  the  U.S.  Technical  As- 
sistance Program  to  underdeveloped 
countries.  In  1963.  he  and  three  other 
engineers  of  the  U.S.  Geological  Survey 
participated  in  the  hydrologic  expedi- 
tion, on  which  his  article  is  based. 

"Expositions.    Exhibits    and    Today's 
Museums"  is  the  work  of  Mr.  Gordon 
Rekkie.  Chairman  of  the  Department  of 
Exhibition    and    Graphic    Arts    at   The 
American  Museum.  Mr.  Reekie,  who  was 
born   in   Barking.   England,   studied   at 
the  University  of  London,  the  Southend 
School  of  Art.  and  at  the  Phoenix  Art 
Institute  and  the  New  School,  in  New 
York  City.  Before  joining  the  staff  of  the 
Museum  in  1953,  Mr.  Reekie  held  posi- 
tions as  an  art  editor  and  art  director. 
Mr.  Campbell  Grant,  author  and  il- 
lustrator,   prepared    the    renderings    of 
paintings    that    accompany    his    article. 
"California's    Legacy    of    Indian    Rock 
Art."  Mr.  Grant  is  a  Trustee  and  Re- 
search Associate  of  the  Santa  Barbara 
Museum  of  Natural  History,  a  Trustee 
and  Vice   President  of  the   Santa   Bar- 
bara Botanic  Garden,  and  a  Trustee  of 
the  Santa  Barbara  Museum  of  Art.  He 
has  written  many  articles  on  rock  paint- 
ings,   and    is    at    present    extending    a 
museum     survey     of    aboriginal     picto- 
graphs  to  include  all  of  California  south 
of  San  Francisco.  Mr.  Grant  wrote  and 
illustrated    The    Chumash    Indians    and 
their  Rock  Painting,  which  is  to  be  pub- 
lished   this   year    by    the    University    of 
California  Press. 

"Hermaphroditism  in  Bahama 
Groupers"  is  explored  in  the  article  by 
Dr.  C.  Lavett  Smith,  Assistant  Cura- 
tor of  the  Department  of  Ichthyology  at 
The  American  Museum.  Dr.  Smith  is 
also  Administrative  Co-ordinator  of  the 
Lerner  Marine  Laboratory,  in  Bimini, 
the  Bahamas,  a  Museum  field  station. 
Dr.  Derek  J.  de  Solla  Price,  author 
of  "Astronomy's  Past  Preserved  at  Jai- 
pur." is  Avalon  Professor  of  the  History 
of  Science  and  Chairman  of  the  Depart- 
ment of  the  History  of  Science  and 
Medicine  at  Yale  University.  He  re- 
ceived his  doctoral  degrees  in  physics 
from  the  University  of  London  and  in 
the  history  of  science  from  Cambridge 
University.  He  has  worked  as  an  experi- 
mental and  mathematical  physicist,  has 
taught  at  the  University  of  Malaya,  has 
served  as  consultant  to  the  Smithsonian 
Institution,  and  was  a  Donaldson  Fel- 
low at  the  Institute  for  Advanced  Study. 


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58 


Good  Hunting  with  Bolex 


lature  motion  pictures,  Bolex  is 
nswer.  It  is  lightweight,  yet  the 
l)le  Swiss  precision  manufacture 
dependable  that  it  has  been  Srom 
ighest  mountains  to  the  depths  of 
;a,  from  the  arctic  to  the  tropics. 


'  professional  film-makers  de- 
on  it  completely, 
addition  to  Swiss-made,  world- 
1  precision  manufacture,  you 
ith  each  H-16  these  features: 
lexibility  from  extreme  wide- 
to  extreme  telephoto  to  the 
zoom  lenses;  indoor  or  outdoor 


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small  and  big-screen  repro- 
duction is  notneeded, 
the  Bolex  H-8  has 
all  the  above  fea- 
tures plus  a  100' 
8mm  film  capacity. 


utility;  speeds  from  12  to  64  frames 
per  second;  frame  counter  and  single- 
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phenomena;  time  lapse;  full  film  re- 
wind; a  registration  claw  that  assures 
professional  film  steadiness.  The  Rex 
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ing while  filming,  variable  shutter, 
and  push-button  spool  ejectors. 


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No  wonder  the  Bolex  is  favored  by 
so  many  scientific  photographers. 


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Please  send  me  more  information 
about  nature  photography  with  the 
Bolex.  I  am  especially  interested  in : 


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6o 


'Preparing  for  tomorroi 


By  Perez  Malande  Olindo 


THIS  ARTICLE  is  intended  to  represent 
a  varied  mixture  of  African  outlook 
on  the  preservation  of  wildlife.  Ecologi- 
cal variables,  social  setups,  and  other 
environments  limit  any  broad  generali- 
ties. To  gain  the  support  and  co-opera- 
tion of  Africans  of  various  regions,  sug- 
gestions and  approaches  to  wildlife 
conservation  must  be  restricted  to  cer- 
tain specific  zones,  but  can  be  applied 
to  other  areas  as  mass  education  in  wild- 
life conservation  is  enhanced.  By  virtue 
of  restricted  travels  on  my  continent.  I 
have  confined  my  comments,  as  far  as 
possible,  to  my  homeland— to  the  Kenya 
of  yesterday  and  of  today  and.  in  places, 
to  the  Kenya  of  tomorrow.  I  have  in  no 
way  attempted  to  outline  a  governmental 
policy;  I  have  tried  to  present  a  current 
situation  and  indicate  possible  directions. 

I  was  born  a  few  miles  from  Lake  Vic- 
toria in  one  of  the  most  densely  popu- 
lated regions  of  Kenya.  In  this  area  there 
are  very  few  large  game  animals  today, 
although  we  enjoy  a  great  variety  of 
wild  birds.  Through  the  stories  told  in 
the  evenings  as  part  of  youth  education 
(storytelling  is  very  much  a  continuing 
.\frican  custom  for  passing  on  informa- 
tion), we  learned  that  once  there  were 
many  large  game  animals— lions,  ele- 
phants, buffaloes,  antelopes— but  these 
disappeared  as  the  population  increased. 
This  was  partly  because  of  the  great  de- 
mand for  grazing  areas  for  domestic  live- 
stock and  the  need  for  land  to  cultivate. 

Lions  were  a  danger  to  domestic  ani- 
mals adjacent  to  uncleared  areas.  (In 
1948  I  started  schooling,  and  in  our 
first  reader  was  a  story  of  how  a  lion  had 
devastated  an  area  not  too  far  from  our 
school,  killing  people  and  cattle,  and  of 
how  the  invader  had  been  ultimately 
killed  to  save  the  rest  of  the  people.) 
Other  wild  game,  particularly  antelopes, 
used  to  invade  gardens  in  great  numbers 
when  cultivated  beans  and  peas  started 
flowering.  So  most  of  the  animals  were 
hunted  as  they  encroached  on  human  in- 
terests. To  encourage  hunting,  the 
people  who  had  killed  the  truly  fierce 
animals,  such  as  lions,  or  the  big  ani- 
mals, such  as  elephants,  received  special 
recognition.  In  some  ways  this  enhanced 
their  social  status,  especially  with 
women.  As  a  result,  people  in  my  age 


Three  male  lions  bask  in  a  game  area  at 
the  Ngorongoro  Crater,  which  is  situated 
in  Great  Rift  Valley,  northern  Tanganyika. 


group   have   grown   up   in   an   area 
prived  of  the  natural  beauty  and 
ness  of  much  of  our  wildlife. 

Conservation  Education 

WHEN  I  was  a  high  school  sen: 
began,  through  a  friend,  to 
respond  with  Dr.  George  Petrides,  a 
servationist  and  a  Professor  of  Zoc 
at  Michigan  State  University,  who 
worked  in  Kenya  and  Uganda.  By  le 
Dr.  Petrides  introduced  me  to  Mr. 
Simon,  now  in  Switzerland  with  th 
ternational  Union  for  the  Conservi 
of  Nature,  who  drew  my  attentio 
publications  that  would  help  me  ui 
stand  more  about  wildlife.  Withou 
knowing  it,  I  had  encountered  a  ch 
in  my  life.  I  put  aside  my  aspiratioi 
becoming  an  engineer  or  medical  do 
and  decided  to  study  a  field  in  wh: 


t  . 


&l*!^>-_.-  .   '-." 


ery  little  but  one  for  which  I  had 
led  a  great  interest, 
espondence  with  the  United 
intensified,  and  after  successful 
tion  of  high  school,  I  received  ad- 
1  to  Central  Missouri  State  Col- 
d  arrived  in  the  United  States  in 
s  a  private  student.  Soon  after- 
udge  Russell  E.  Train  of  the  Tax 
of  the  United  States,  who  was 
esident  of  the  African  Wildlife 
jhip  Foundation,  got  in  touch 
le  and  undertook,  through  the 
tion.  to  finance  my  education. 

African  Wildlife  Leadership 
tion  is  based  on  several  premises. 
:  For  better  or  for  worse,  the  fu- 

most  of  Africa's  game  country 

fate  of  its  wildlife  resources  are 
hands  of  Africans; 
id:  Africans  themselves  must  be 
ound  economic  reasons  for  pre- 

their  game  resources;  and 
1:    Selected    Africans    must    be 
;d   with  the  know-how  required 
le  conservation  and  management. 

organizers  believe  Africans 
participate  in  the  affairs  affect- 
;ir  own  existence— tlie  control, 
ment,  and  development  of  nat- 
ources  in  Africa— and  liave  acted 


swiftly  and  firmly  on  these  noble 
premises.  The  Foundation  is  paying  all 
expenses  for  the  education  of  four  Afri- 
can students  in  the  United  States— three 
from  Tanganyika  and  myself— including 
round-trip  passages,  and  hopes  to  be 
able  to  finance  others.  In  this  way  it  is 
insuring  that  Africans  will  be  educated 
to  the  realization  of  the  importance  of 
wildlife  in  their  own  countries.  The 
Foundation  has  also  contributed  to  the 
founding  of  the  College  of  African  Wild- 
life at  Moshi  in  Tanganyika,  on  the 
slopes  of  Mount  Kilimanjaro,  between 
the  Serengeti  Plains  and  Tsavo  National 
Park.  From  the  college,  one  is  within 
easy  reach  of  the  Amboseli.  Mara,  Lake 
Manyara,  and  the  Ngorongoro  Crater 
game  areas.  From  here  an  eye  can  be 
cast  on  the  profile  of  African  game  prob- 
lems. Here,  too,  carefully  selected  Afri- 
cans are  being  trained  in  principles  and 
techniques  of  wildlife  management.  In 
the  full-fledged  move  to  Africanize  our 
civil  service,  the  replacement  of  expatri- 
ates by  untrained,  unqualified  men 
would  spell  disaster  for  game.  The  insti- 
tution has  the  capacity  to  expand  to  be- 
come the  best  of  its  kind  in  the  world— 
if  it  receives  the  necessary  support. 
In    the    United    States,    the    African 


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Watching  a  praying  mantis 
through  the  razor-sharp  lens  of  a 
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so  absorbing  that  you'll  forget  to 
release  the  shutter!  For  with  a 
Honeywell  Pentax,  you  see  exactly 
what  the  film  will  see — in  sharp 
focus,  with  exact  composition 
and  completely  controlled  depth 
of  field. 

Mantes,  praying  or  other- 
wise, and  most  other  insects,  like 
to  pose  for  Honeywell  Pentax  pic- 
tures. (Birds,  animals,  and  flowers 
do,  too.)  For  any  type  of  photog- 
raphy, you  wiU  find  a  world  of 
pleasure  in  the  dependability  of 
the  Honeywell  Pentax. 

The  Hla  (f/2  lens,  speeds  to 
l/500th)  is  $169.50;  the  H3v 
(f/1.8  lens,  speeds  to  1/lOOOth)  is 
$229.50,  and  the  H3v  with  f/2 
lens  is  $199.50.  See  them  at  yotir 
dealer's  soon! 


H 


For  full-color  brochure,  write  to 
Ron  Hubbard  (209),  Honeywell, 
Denver,  Colorado  80217. 


Honeyivell 


PHOTOGRAPHIC     PRODUCTS 

6i 


Wildlife  Leadership  Foundation,  in  co- 
operation with  the  Department  of  the 
Interior,  is  providing  African  student 
groups  with  summer  orientation  and  in- 
struction in  the  national  parks  and  wild- 
life areas,  so  that  whatever  their  profes- 
sions may  be  ultimately,  they  will  be 
better  prepared  to  serve  Africa  and  use 
her  resources  wisely. 

In  1962.  I  transferred  to  Michigan 
State  University  to  study  with  Dr.  Pe- 
trides,  and  in  the  summer  of  1963  I  re- 
turned to  Kenya,  where  I  was  privileged 
to  conduct  a  Conservation  Education 
Program  for  forty-five  high  schools  and 
teacher  training  colleges.  This  program 
was  organized  in  co-operation  with  the 
Kenya  Government  and  was  financed  by 
the  Foundation.  The  topic  for  the  lecture 
tour  was  "The  Importance  of  Wildlife 
to  the  Economy  of  Kenya."'  Knowing 
that  an  independent  Kenya  could  utilize 
as  many  informed  citizens  as  possible, 
high  school  and  college  students  at- 
tracted us  as  the  most  immediate  future 
policy  makers.  The  teachers,  on  the 
other  hand,  would  have  a  large  propor- 
tion of  tomorrow's  citizens  under  their 
instruction,  and  were  thus  in  a  very  stra- 
tegic place  to  influence  and  shape  the 
future.  The  lectures  were  planned  and 
prepared  to  point  out  the  resources  and 
problems  in  each  local  area  visited. 


Three  months  is  not  enough  for  an 
educational  program  such  as  the  one  I 
conducted,  so  I  was  thrilled  when  the 
director  for  Swahili  radio  programs  in 
Nairobi  asked  me  to  write  a  thirteen- 
part  series  on  wildlife  for  public  infor- 
mation. Although  I  was  returning  to  the 
States  to  complete  my  education,  I 
agreed  to  undertake  this  public  service. 
I  recorded  three  of  the  programs  at 
Michigan  State,  and  prepared  ten  other 
scripts  to  be  read  by  broadcasters  in 
Kenya.  We  are  now  broadcasting  the 
program  at  the  rate  of  one  fifteen-minute 
segment  per  week.  It  is  our  hope  that 
the  timing  of  this  program— before  the 
popular  world  news— will  find  many 
Swahili-speaking  people  waiting  by 
their  radio  sets. 

The  African   Heritage 

DURi.N'G  my  lecture  tour  last  summer, 
1  noticed  that  a  shift  of  values  is 
afoot  all  over  Kenya.  One  hears  such 
expressions  as  "'Wildlife  is  our  herit- 
age"; "Wildlife  is  important  to  our 
country'';  "Wildlife  should  be  saved"'; 
"Wildlife  should  be  preserved."  One 
also  hears,  "The  game  department 
sliould  tell  us  more  about  these  wild  ani- 
mals and  why  they  are  given  the  land 
we  need  to  produce  crops."  Most  of  the 
expressions— up    to    the    last    one— have 


been  picked  up  or  learned  from  a 
that  have  been  written  about  wild' 
from  declarations  by  African  le 
The  last  one,  with  others  like  "Of 
importance  is  wildlife  to  our  cii 
background?"  or  "What  is  the  eco 
importance  of  these  animals  yoi 
about  to  us?"  indicates  an  unde 
need  for  information  and  educatii 
the  people. 

For  a  long  time  non-Africans 
maintained  that  if  the  African  g 
responsibility  to  rule  his  own  co 
he  would  have  no  regard  for  wild 
a  natural  resource.  They  were  mis 

At  the  World  Conference  of  t. 
ternational  Union  for  the  Conser 
of  Nature,  held  in  Nairobi  from  S( 
her  16  to  24.  1963.  Kenya  delivei 
convictiim  in  its  Wildlife  Manifes 

"The  natural  resources  of  this  ci 
—its  wildlife  which  offers  such  an 
tion  to  visitors  from  all  over  the 
the  beautiful  places  in  which  the; 
mals    live,    the    mighty    forests 
guard  the  water  catchment  areas  s 
to  the  survival  of  man  and  beast- 
priceless  heritage  for  the  future. 

"The  Government  of  Kenya,  full 
izing  the  value  of  its  natural  resc 
pledges  itself  to  conserve  them  fc 
terity  with  all  means  at  its  dispoi 


RAtil. 


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62 


Ir.  Ohivdo  earned  his  B.A.  degree 
t  Michigan  State  University,  where 
e  studied  conservation  techniques 
ith  Dr.  George  Petrides.  He  is  now 
1  Kenya  again,  beginning  a  career  in 
ame  management  and  conservation. 


We  are  confident  of  the  cooperation 
he  other  Governments  of  East  Africa 
his  important  task  but,  at  present,  we 
unable,  unaided,  to  provide  the  spe- 
ist  staff  and  money  which  are  neces- 
i.  We  therefore  invite  other  nations, 
lovers  of  nature  throughout  the 
Id,  to  assist  us  in  honouring  this 
mn  pledge. 

Jomo  Kenyatta, 
Prime  Minister 
L.  G.  Sagini, 

Minister  for  Natural  Resources 
R.  Achleng  Oneko, 

Minister  for  Information, 
Broadcasting  and  Tourism 
robi,  18th  September,  1963." 

or  the  first  time  in  the  history  of 
lya,  the  government  had  taken  a 
id  on  the  question  of  the  future  of 
ican  wildlife— a  stand  that  will  re- 
n  as  a  reference  point  from  which  to 
:ct  future  policies. 

1  many  ways  we  have  been  chal- 
ked, but  to  outline  a  rigid  future  pro- 
n  now  would  be  wishful  thinking, 
vever,  as  we  seek  to  develop  a  sensi- 
y  to  the  needs  of  the  animals  and  to 
k  with  the  changing  environment  in 
;r  to  get  the  maximum  yield  of  our 
liable  resources,  a  definite  confidence 
eveloping  about  the  future  of  Africa, 
will  work  together  with  experts  from 
over  the  world  to  insure  the  survival 
\frican  wildlife.  We  wish  to  guide 
approach  to  wildlife  education  and 
lagement  by  a  continued  appraisal  of 
ntific  findings  for  every  problem  that 
ht  confront  us.  The  hardest  task  may 
1  out  to  be  that  of  having  the  courage 
lisprove  our  previous  findings  when 
discover  our  own  mistakes. 

Reflection 

myth  of  long  existence  developed 
the  assumption  that  the  approach 
ifrican  problems  inevitably  lay  in  its 
onal  parks.  This  has  not  been  the 
;,  as  the  program  did  not  have  mean- 
and  appeal  for  the  people.  In  Kenya, 
il   co-operation    was    seldom    sought 

local  ideas  were  ignored.  For  this 
ion,  national  parks  were  interpreted 
Africans  as  an  exploitation  of  local 
>urces  by  a  foreign  government  that 

run  by  strangers.  The  denial  of  ac- 
i  to  family  lands  was  considered  a 
itive  measure  rooted  in  the  "do-as- 
-are-told-or-else"    principle    of    colo- 

administration. 
ome  enlightened   preservation  ideas 
ribal  game  reserves  began  to  appear 


in  1960,  based  on  a  maxim  accepted  in 
many  countries— that  those  people  living 
on  the  land  should  get  the  first  and 
greatest  benefits  from  the  legal  exploita- 
tion and  from  the  scientific  and  sport- 
ing aspects  of  game  they  live  with.  A 
realization  is  coming  into  existence  that 
only  a  proprietary  interest  at  the  local 
level  can  invoke  concern  and  perma- 
nence in  wildlife  management.  New  con- 
clusions have  grown  up  in  Kenya,  where- 
in the  people  are  increasingly  anxious 
and  able  to  tackle  things  for  themselves 
—a  condition  that  necessitates  a  co-ordi- 
nated effort  between  the  government 
and  the  local  councils  for  wildlife  pro- 
tection elected  by  the  people  themselves. 

During  1961  and  1962,  a  new  system 
was  developed,  intended  first  to  trans- 
form the  old-style  "national  reserves." 
The  Kenya  plan  called  for  local  respon- 
sibility for  wildlife  conservation,  di- 
rected by  the  motives  of  stimulating 
revenue  through  employment  opportuni- 
ties, trade,  land-use  benefits,  and  pres- 
tige. The  aim  was  to  use  bylaws  to 
protect  the  habitat  under  the  covering 
protection  of  the  national  game  laws. 
The  first  reserve  to  be  so  launched  was 
Amboseli  in  Masailand  near  Mount  Kili- 
manjaro. This  was  a  fine  choice,  because 
in  1960  it  was  approaching  a  point  of 
land  misuse  impossible  to  restore  by 
any  amount  of  knowledge.  The  Mara 
was  also  established  in  Kenya  Masai- 
land.  Meanwhile,  another  African  Dis- 
trict Council  game  reserve  was  being  de- 
veloped by  the  Meru  tribe.  This  reserve, 
which  has  had  and  is  still  having  a  real 
battle  to  meet  both  capital  costs  and 
maintenance  needs,  is  about  100  miles 
northeast  of  Mount  Kenya  at  an  altitude 
of  2.500  feet.  As  a  game  reserve  it  has 
a  distinctive  atmosphere  of  wilderness 
and  peace.  This  is  the  country  where 
Elsa,  Joy  Adamson's  world-famous 
lioness,  and  her  cubs  were  living  free, 
and  where  Elsa  is  buried.  It  is  a  dry- 
season  or  dry-year  refuge  for  animals 
from  the  wilderness  areas  to  the  north 
and  east  of  it. 

The  Meru  reserve,  promoted  and  ap- 
preciated by  the  people,  could  be  more 
secure  than  any  other  statutory  national 
park,  because  it  is  rooted  in  the  under- 
standing and  determination  of  the  local 
people.  Such  a  determination  should  be 
reinforced  by  an  appropriate  education 
that  would  suitably  equip  more  people 
to  manage  the  resources. 

Man  has  the  ability  and  the  capacity 
to  learn  many  things.  He  learns  to  ap- 
preciate art  and  music,  and  the  process 
of  his  learning  is  never  complete  until 
he  has  grasped  its  underlying  signifi- 
cance. This  is  also  the  case  with  the 
appreciation  of  wildlife.  Yet  it  has  been 
assumed— and  even  included  in  many 
writings— that  the  African's  use  of  wild- 
life and  his  methods  of  hunting  or  col- 
lecting the  resources  were  and  are  by 


Rosaceae 
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Miranda  F  is  so  quiet  only  you  know 
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focusing  (5x-15x).  A  newly  designed 
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63 


Her  eyes  tell  you  why... 

Perceptive,  intelligent,  serious  —  so  eager 
to  learn.  A  little  love  and  a  little  help 
would  make  a  big  difference  in  the  life  of 
this  American  Indian  child. 

For  Cecilia  Bright  Eagle's  parents  are 
very  poor.  They  have  no  money  with 
which  to  replace  her  shabby  clothing,  to 
buy  her  personal  books,  or  give  her  a 
cash  allowance  and  other  things  she 
needs  so  much  to  attend  the  off-reserva- 
tion school.  So,  when  her  non-Indian 
classmates  gather  to  share  some  exciting 
little  girl  secret,  or  talk  of  a  class-party  or 
trip,  Cecilia  goes  off  by  herself  to  hope, 
to  dream,  that  one  day  she  might  share 
such  fun  and  feel  like  one  of  them. 

You,  your  school,  your  organization 
can  help  make  a  dream  come  true  for 
Cecilia,  or  some  other  Indian  girl  or  boy. 
Just  a  $  10  monthly  contribution  provides 
one  Indian  child  with  suitable  clothing, 
personal  books  and  a  cash  allowance  for 
school  activities.  It  is  an  act  of  love  that 
will  bring  you  a  heart-warming  reward. 
A  photograph,  the  story  and  letters  from 
the  child  you  help  will  start  off  a  warm 
person-to-person  relationship.  Please 
give  one  Indian  youngster  an  even  break 
—  and  the  sense  of  belonging  to  the  wider 
world  around  him. 

SCF 

Save  The  Children  Federation,  Norwalk,  Connecticut 

I  wish  to  contribute  S120.00  annually  to  help  an 

American  Indian  girl  Q   boy  Q  Enclosed  is  my  first 

payment: 

SIO.OO  a  month     D  $  60.00  semi-annually   G 

S30.00  a  quarter   D  $120.00  annually  Q 

I  cannot  sponsor  a  child.  Enclosed  is  contribution 

ot  $ 


Name_ 


Contributions  are  income  tax  deductible.        NH  6-4 


"instinct"!  If  one  stated  that  the  Ameri- 
can founding  fathers  went  after  buffalo 
or  passenger  pigeons  by  "instinct."  he 
would  be  ridiculed.  Everyone  must  learn 
in  order  to  be  wise. 

Semantic  Antagonism 

ONCE  the  European  was  afraid  to 
think  of  the  Africans  as  people,  and 
so  he  blamed  on  them  the  decimation  of 
Kenya  wildlife.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
European  pioneer  into  the  Kenya  high- 
lands was  pictured  as  a  man  who  pushed 
wildlife  peacefully  back  and  cleared  the 
virgin  land.  In  this  context,  his  gun  was 
only  a  tool  to  protect  the  crops  and  the 
settlers'  families  from  the  menace  of  the 
wild  jungles,  the  wild  animals,  and  the 
savages  who  were  considered  to  be  an 
integral  part  of  the  habitat. 

Many  books  and  publications  on  the 
problems  of  African  wildlife  have  made 
extensive  use  of  such  terminology  as 
"tribesmen."  "natives."  and  "primitive 
hunting  methods."  which  are  definitely 
not  appreciated  in  Africa,  and  make  our 
people  look  upon  wildlife  as  an  exten- 
sion of  outside  humiliation  and  subjec- 
tion. In  addition  there  is  the  current  use 
of  the  word  "reserve."  as  applied  to 
areas  set  aside  for  game;  it  is  also  ap- 
plied to  areas  that  have  been  set  aside 
by  colonial  powers  as  living  confines  for 
the  .African  people.  Obviously,  this  is  an 
unfortunate  word  to  be  used  for  game 
areas,  because  it  has  been  considered  an 
element  of  comparison  between  the  two 
occupants  of  the  reserves. 

Kenya's  Immediate  Needs 

To  raise  living  standards.  I  believe, 
our  agrarian  economy  must  be  de- 
veloped, and  emphasized  in  many  ways, 
including  a  total  re-evaluation  of  land- 
use  practices.  The  economic  potential  of 
wildlife  is  not  completely  known,  but  its 
importance  is  reflected  in  the  contribu- 
tion of  tourism  to  the  country's  economy. 

Today,  through  mass  media,  the 
government  will  inform  the  people  of 
the  greatness  of  Kenya's  natural  re- 
sources—a new  idea  and  a  reality  that 
gives  the  people  a  new  national  pride. 
The  Minister  for  Broadcasting  and  Tour- 
ism has  spoken,  the  Minister  for  Natural 
Resources  speaks,  students  and  teachers 
speak,  concerned  personalities  are  com- 
ing from  all  corners  of  the  globe  to  our 
support.  The  new  drive  is  part  of  the 
nation's  march  into  the  new  era. 

Already  our  transformation  has  been 
rapid,  and  one  wonders  whether  the 
world  can  really  understand  the  inner 
feeling  that  illuminates  African  young- 
sters with  joy  and  gladness  when  they 
realize  that  they  are  growing  up  to  take 
responsibilities  with  a  new  destiny!  It  is 
the  beginning;  and  we  shall  make  mis- 
takes, which  in  a  way  will  constitute  a 
practical  basis  for  corrective  measures, 
and  a  springboard  to  progress. 


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64 


five  unusual  and 

rewarding  tours 

to  the  four  corners 

of  the  world 


CLASSICAL   STUDY   TOURS 


WITH   AUTHORITATIVE    GUEST    LECTURERS 


IT-LT-3081 

TWO   WINTER   CRUISES   TO   EGYPT   AND   UP  THE   NILE 

ir  and  River  Boat  to  the  Sites  and  Temples  of  Egypt  and  Nubia  Tours  depart  on 

vember  6  and  November  27.  Guest  lecturers  accompanying  the  two  cruises  are' 

.  G.  H.  James,  M.A.,  Asst.  Keeper  of  Egyptian  Antiquities  at  the  British  Museum. 

Dr  H.  W.  Fairman,  M.A.,  Professor  of  Egyptology  at  the  University  of  Liverpool 

.,  ,      „      Professor  C.  A.  Trypanis.  M.A.,  Ph.D.,  the  University  of  Oxford. 

These  Nile  Cruises  have  been   immediate  "sell-outs"   in  the  past,   due  to  the 

high  quality  of  leadership  and  services  provided. 

IT-LT-3085 

ROMAN  FRANCE-SOME  SITES  AND  CITIES  IN  PROVENCE 

s  18-day  tour  starts  on  September  7  and  the  all-inclusive  cost  is  only  $790  00 

-ovence,  the  oldest  Roman  colony  in   Gaul   is  the  starting  point-and  from   here 

we  begin  our  tour  which  includes  Apt.  Roussilon,  Avignon,  Villeneuve    Orange 

larming  Vaison-la-Romame,  St.  Remy  with   its  newly  discovered  Glanu'm    Aries! 

Nimes.  les  Saintes-Maries,  Aigues-Mortes.  Les  Baux,  Marseilles,  and   Paris 

This  IS  a  tour  into  one  of  Europe's  most  beautiful  regions-a  region  full  of  color 

and  atmosphere— in  addition  to  the  thousands  of  monuments  to  the  past 

s  IS  a  tour  completely  different  from  other  tours— concentration  on  ONE  of  th= 

provinces  of  France.  The  tour  is  also  for  those  who  love  good  food  and  wines. 

IT-LT-3076 

CRUSADER   CASTLES,   SITES   AND    MONUMENTS    IN 
LEBANON,   SYRIA,   JORDAN   AND    ISRAEL 

22-day  tour  departs  on  October  27.  All-inclusive  cost  only  $1,175  00 
Professor  A.  W.  LAWRENCE  will  be  the  guest  lecturer  on  a  most  unusual  and 
tour  of  the  Near  East.  Included  in  the  program  are  the  Krak  of  the  Knights  and 
ma,  Aleppo  and  Palmyra,  a  full  day  at  Jerash,  Petra,  Karak,  Acre  and  Caesarea 
a— all  in  addition  to  more  easily  accessible  places  as  Beirut,  Baalbek,  Damascus, 
nan,  Jerusalem  and  Haifa.  Early  bookings  are  essential  to  guarantee  your  seat. 
nber  of  participants  on  these  tours  is  strictly  limited  to  a  maximum  of  thirty 
rJ"  ^°?1^  "=?=/"en  fewer-and  early  booking  is  essential.  Please  send  in 
Don  at  the  foot  of  this  page,  requesting  the  details  on  the  particular  tour  you 
rested   in. 


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;  send  folder  describing  your  tour 

T-3073  n   IT-LT-3053  Q   ITLT-3081  D   IT-LT-3085 


IT-LT-3073 

AN    EXPLORER'S   TOUR  THROUGH   ASIA  visiting 
JAPAN    .    SIBERIA    •    OUTER    MONGOLIA 
CENTRAL  ASIATIC   REPUBLICS   OF  THE  USSR 
IRAN    •    SYRIA    .    LEBANON    •    JORDAN 

Crossing  from  Japan   to  Siberia  by  steamer-Khaborovsk  and 

Irkutsk  in   Siberia-Ulan   Bator,  Karakoram  and  a  day 

with  Mongolian  tribesmen  in  the  Gobi  desert-the  ancient  cities 

of  Bokhara  and  Samarkand-by  steamer  across 

the   Caspian    Sea-Persepolis,    Shiraz  and    Isfahan    in 

Persia-archeological   sites   in   Lebanon,  Syria,   and  Jordan. 

Tour  conducted   by  Lars-Eric  Lindblad,   departs 

from  New  York  and  San  Francisco  on  July  6,  circles  the  Globe, 

and   lasts  two   months- 

$3,600.00 

IT-LT-3053 

WITH    DR.    J.   ALDEN    MASON   TO   THE 
ARCHAEOLOGICAL   SITES   IN    PERU,   GUATEMALA 
AND   MEXICO 

The  two  tours  in  1963  were  so  successful  and  sold  out  so  early, 

that  Dr.  J.  Alden  Mason  has  agreed  to  lead  one 

(but  only  one)  tour  in  October,  1964  to  the 

pre-Columbian   sites   in   South  and  Central  America. 

This  year  we  haue  added  four  days  for  leisure,  making 

the  tour  25  days.  Departure  will  be  on  October  24-and 

the  cost  will  be  $1,650.00 


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WASHINGTON    NEWSLETT 


By  Paul  Mason  Tilden 


BAUSCH  &  LOMB  ^ 

66 


DURING  the  spring  of  1963  the  Supreme 
Court  of  the  United  States  arrived 
at  a  decision  that  will  surely  have  a  pro- 
found effect  on  the  course  of  human 
affairs  in  the  arid  lands  of  the  south- 
western United  States— the  so-called  Pa- 
cific Southwest.  It  will  also  pose  serious 
problems  for  conservationists  in  the 
United  States  and,  perhaps,  in  other 
countries  as  well. 

Little  noticed  by  the  public  at  the  time, 
the  Court's  decision  in  the  case  of  Ari- 
zona vs.  California  triggered  the  release, 
less  than  a  year  later,  of  federal  plans 
for  one  of  the  greatest  water  develop- 
ment schemes  the  world  has  ever  seen 
—the  Interior  Department's  multibillion- 
dollar  Pacific  Southwest  Water  Plan. 

For  years,  the  state  of  Arizona  has 
claimed  that  it  has  been  shortchanged 
in  its  allotted  portion  of  the  7.5  million 
acre-feet  of  water  that  arrives  in  the 
lower  basin  of  the  mighty  Colorado  River 
during  a  year  of  average  flow.  This  is  the 
volume  remaining  after  the  states  of  the 
upper  basin— Colorado,  Utah.  Wyoming, 
and  Nevada— have  exacted  their  toll  for 
irrigational.  municipal,  and  industrial 
purposes.  Essentially,  the  decision  of  the 
Court  awarded  thirsty  Arizona  a  larger 
share  of  water,  leaving  equally  thirsty 
southern  California,  with  its  sprawling 
cities  and  rich  agricultural  lands,  to  look 
elsewhere  for  that  share  of  the  precious 
mineral  it  had  drawn  from  the  Colorado. 

Under  the  Southwest  Water  Plan, 
water  would  be  pumped  into  the  central 
part  of  Arizona  to  open  up  new  lands  to 
irrigated  agriculture;  to  serve  the  state's 
booming  urban  centers  and  new  indus- 
tries; to  relieve  the  strain  on  ground- 
water supplies  that,  at  the  current  rate 
of  withdrawal,  are  being  depleted  far 
beyond  any  possible  natural  replenish- 
ment. To  compensate  for  the  water  lost 
to  southern  California  farms  and  cities, 
the  Plan  proposes  the  construction  of 
huge  aqueducts  to  transport  additional 
water  from  new  reservoirs  on  the  rivers 
of  far-northern  California. 


It  is  the  central  Arizona  phase 
mammoth  project  that  is  of  most 
diate  concern  to  conservationist 
many  scientists.  In  order  to  raise 
rado  River  water  and  pump  it  int 
rior  Arizona,  two  new  high  dan 
proposed  for  the  already  much-da 
river  in  order  to  generate  the  nee 
hydroelectrical  power.  These  ar 
Bridge  Canyon  and  Marble  C; 
dams,  the  first  to  be  not  far  abo 
already  silt-choked  headwaters  of 
Mead  behind  Hoover  Dam  on  th 
zona-Nevada  border;  the  second 
miles  northeast  of  the  upriver  bou 
of  Grand  Canyon  National  Park.  ( 
two.  the  Bridge  Canyon  dam  and 
voir  would  be  by  far  the  most  destr 
in  terms  of  scientific  interest  an 
tional  park  system  policy. 

The  reservoir  that  would  form  h 
Bridge  Canyon  dam  would  back 
through  the  entire  river-reach  of  ( 
Canyon  National  Monument,  adjac 
Grand  Canyon  Park  on  the  latter's 
ern  extremity,  and  into  the  sceni 
scientific  treasure  house  of  the  pa 
self.  Taken  together,  these  two  par 
tem  areas  preserve  for  Americans 
for  all  the  people  of  the  world,  the 
portions  of  the  world's  most  specta 
and  instructive  example  of  nature' 
sive  powers— the  Grand  Canyon  c 
Colorado.  It  is  not  necessary  he 
dwell  at  any  length  on  the  scientif 
portance  of  the  two  preservations 
fice  it  to  say  that  the  waters  of  the  B 
Canyon  reservoir  would  inundate  p 
a  geologic  record  that  presently  c; 
the  visitor,  casual  or  otherwise,  s 
back  into  the  remote  history  of  the 
as  to  confound  the  imagination— a  r 
presenting  perhaps  2.000  million 
of  earth  building  and  earth  destru 
The  reaction  of  conservationists  t 
phase  of  the  Pacific  Southwest  \ 
Plan  has  been  sharp.  Secretary  o 
Interior  Stewart  L.  Udall  has  been  ci 
squarely  in  the  middle  of  a  battle 
gives  every  evidence  of  becoming  a  i 


In  the  case  of  the  Plan— which,  it 
be  said,  has  political  overtones— 
secretary  will  be  in  the  position  of 
ipting  to  ride  two  horses,  each  head- 
n  a  different  direction, 
e  of  these  horses  is  Interior's  Bu- 
of  Reclamation,  which  has  been 
;ed  with  formulating  the  Plan  and 
ing  it  to  completion  if  it  is  approved 
ongress.  The  other  horse  is  Inte- 
National  Park  Service  and  its  fol- 
g  of  conservationists;  these  latter 
to  enlist  the  support  of  laymen  and 
tists.  both  countrywide  and  world- 
if  possible,  to  oppose  at  least  the 
;e  Canyon  dam  portion  of  the  Plan. 
iservationists  have  pointed  out  that 
ectrical  power  needed  to  operate  the 
j1  Arizona  portion  of  the  Southwest 
r  Plan  can  probably  be  generated 
xpensively  and  less  destructively  by 
lal  power  derived  from  the  vast  and 
tapped  coal  deposits  of  the  Four 
;rs  country— that  area  surrounding 
ingle  geographic  point  shared  by 
ate  boundaries  of  Colorado.  Utah, 
Mexico,  and  Arizona.  The  battle  is 
ted  to  be  a  long  and  bitter  affair. 

Our  Sliding  Suburbs 

w  and  again  one  of  those  cozy  little 
Cape  Cods  or  split-levels  in  Amer- 
iuburbia  more  or  less  abruptly  be- 
to  move  downhill— a  phenomenon 
ularly  noticeable  during  the  spring 
melt,  or  after  prolonged  summer 
I  rains.  An  occurrence  of  this  sort  is 
rdinarily  understood  by  the  home- 
■,  but  it  presents  no  particular  chal- 
to  the  geologist. 

at  has  happened  is  this:  the  devel- 
I  bulldozer  has  stripped  protective 
nd  plant  cover  from  a  geological 
tion  that  is  particularly  vulnerable 
e  softening  action  of  excessive 
d  water  —  a  stratum  of  clay,  per- 
or  a  formation  of  decomposed, 
aden  schist  or  slate.  In  the  pres- 
jf  unusual  amounts  of  water,  and 
a  sufficient  gradient,  the  stratum 
)ecome  unstable  and  commence  to 

With  it  flows  suburbia. 
;ing  note  of  the  ever  increasing  dis- 
n  of  the  natural  landscape  and  its 
lying  components  in  the  vicinity  of 
urban  centers,  the  United  States 
gical  Survey  has  initiated  detailed 
s  of  a  number  of  major  American 
and  their  satellite  suburbs,  with 
to  producing  geological  maps  that 
e  interpreted  by  developers,  road 
rs.  industrialists,  and  others  who 
nake  decisions  as  to  the  best  loca- 
tor their  projects, 
ssessing  suburbia  as  a  whole,  it  is 
3  say  that  many  decisions  in  the 
lave  been  made  with  more  haste 
ntelligence.  Many  a  suburbanite, 
ly  viewing  the  mess  that  only  yes- 
was  home,  would  agree  with  the 
[f  geologist  who  recently  said:  "Too 


often  important  geologic  information  is 
not  utilized  in  the  planning  stage  of  ur- 
ban renewal  and  suburban  development." 

Toward  Better  Water 

MANY  conservationists  feel  that  one 
of  the  more  encouraging  develop- 
ments of  the  past  several  years  has  been 
the  increasing  congressional  interest  in 
problems  relating  to  the  pollution  of  the 
nation's  water  resources.  This  interest 
centers  around  major  rivers,  lakes,  bays, 
estuaries,  canals,  and  other  water  bodies 
usually  referred  to  in  legislation  as  "in- 
terstate waters"  or  "navigable  waters." 
Many  bills  dealing  with  water  pollu- 
tion either  on  a  broad  front  or  by  specific 
types  of  offense  have  been  introduced 
into  the  88th  Congress. 

Typical  of  the  broad-spectrum  pollu- 
tion abatement  bill  are  two  similar  meas- 
ures, one  of  which  has  already  easily 
passed  the  Senate;  the  other,  at  this  writ- 
ing, is  in  House  subcommittee  hearing 
(S.  649.  Muskie  and  Humphrey,  and  its 
companion  House  bill.  H.R.  3166.  Blat- 
nik).  These  bills  would  amend  the  exist- 
ing Federal  Water  Pollution  Control  Act 
to  establish  a  Federal  Water  Pollution 
Control  Administration ;  increase  grants 
for  construction  of  municipal  sewage 
treatment  plants;  authorize  issuance  of 
regulations  to  aid  in  preventing,  control- 
ling, and  abating  pollution  of  navigable 
waters,  and,  as  the  short  title  of  many 
legislative  proposals  puts  it,  accomplish 
"other  purposes."  The  proposals  would 
also  establish  the  post  of  Assistant  Secre- 
tary for  Water  Pollution  Control,  with 
jurisdiction  over  certain  parts  of  the  pol- 
lution abatement  program  suggested  by 
the  bills.  Enactment  of  these  measures 
during  the  88th  Congress  seems  likely. 
In  the  category  of  "specific  offense" 
bills,  might  be  cited  H.R.  4571  (Reuss). 
which  would  amend  the  Federal  Water 
Pollution  Control  Act  to  protect  naviga- 
ble waters  from  pollution  by  petroleum- 
based  detergents.  (A  more  complete 
discussion  of  this  subject  will  appear  in 
a  future  issue  of  Natural  History.) 
Some  housewives  still  have  the  notion 
that  the  detergents  they  buy  at  the  super- 
markets are  merely  a  high-powered  kind 
of  conventional  soap.  They  are,  in  fact, 
no  such  thing.  Many  are  based  on  a 
petroleum-derived  chemical,  alkyl  ben- 
zene sulfonate,  which,  when  released  into 
sewers  and  thence  into  river  or  lake 
waters,  maintains  its  chemical  identity 
over  a  long  period  of  time.  It  is,  in  the 
language  of  the  technician,  not  easily 
"degradable"  by  water  organisms  into 
simple  and  harmless  chemical  com- 
pounds. Congressman  Reuss's  measure 
would  set  certain  standards  of  decompos- 
ability  for  petroleum-based  detergents 
marketed  in  the  United  States. 

It  is  quite  likely  that  this  bill  will 
receive  no  action  during  the  88th  Con- 
gress; but  it  has,  at  least,  served  notice 


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on  detergent  manufacturers  that  their 
chemists  should  busy  themselves  inves- 
tigating substitute  chemicals  more  sus- 
ceptible to  biodegradation.  And,  indeed, 
there  appears  to  be  a  move  by  the  manu- 
facturers in  just  this  direction— a  move 
that  has  perhaps  been  hastened  some- 
what by  bills  like  H.R.  4571. 

There  is  another  kind  of  water  pollu- 
tion that  is  far  more  difficult— perhaps 
impossible  —  to  deal  with  legislatively. 
This  is  the  spillage,  accidental  or  other- 
wise, of  crude  or  heavy  fuel  oil  off  the 
nation's  coasts.  Spillage  can  occur  in 
several  ways  —  through  the  customary 
cleaning  of  a  tankers  oil  tanks  after  it 
leaves  port,  the  pumping  of  part  of  a 
vessel's  fuel  supply  to  "lighten  ship" 
after  a  grounding  in  shoal  waters  or  on 
a  reef,  or  by  the  actual  breakup  of  a  ship 
at  sea.  A  certain  amount  of  pollution 
from  the  last-mentioned  source  is.  of 
course,  inevitable. 

A  serious  although  hardly  necessary 
case  of  water  pollution  by  fuel  oil  oc- 
curred recently  off  the  southwest  coast  of 
Florida.  A  British  freighter  of  Liberian 
registry,  carrying  a  cargo  of  phosphate, 
went  aground  on  Pulaski  Shoal  close  to 
Fort  Jefferson  National  Monument  at  the 
tip  of  the  Florida  Keys.  A  rescue  vessel 
from  Key  West  stood  by  to  help  pull  the 
freighter  free,  but  its  captain  refused 
assistance.  The  captain  requested  United 
States  Coast  Guard  permission  to  lighten 
ship  by  dumping  500  tons  of  fuel  oil 
overboard.  The  Coast  Guard  refused  per- 
mission. The  oil  was  jettisoned  anyway. 
Slobbered  with  heavy  oil  were  the 
beaches  and  shallow  waters  of  Bush. 
Garden,  and  Long  Keys,  within  Fort  Jef- 
ferson National  Monument.  The  result 
was  heavy  mortality  to  marine  and  bird 
life.  Bush  Key,  incidentally,  is  the  only 
known  nesting  site  in  the  United  States 
for  both  the  sooty  and  noddy  terns. 
Countless  species  of  migrating  birds  use 
these  islands  of  the  Dry  Tortugas  as  way- 
stops  on  their  annual  flights  back  and 
forth  between  North  America  and  Cuba 
and  South  America.  The  shallow  waters 
of  the  island  chain  are  veritable  mu- 
seums of  tropical  and  semitropical  ma- 
rine life,  and  valuable  breeding  and 
nursery  grounds  for  the  commercially 
important  shrimp. 

It  will  take  years  to  assess  the  total 
damage  done  by  this  one  deliberate  oil 
spill,  which  coated  the  islands  and  their 
tidal  flats  with  gummy,  congealing  fuel 
oil.  Conservationists  were  furious,  but 
little,  apparently,  could  be  done. 

The  Standard  Approach 

MUCH  has  been  written  of  late  con- 
cerning economic  depression  and 
poverty  in  the  Appalachian  Mountains. 
The  mountain  system  actually  runs  from 
Alabama  into  Canada,  but  economists 
and  sociologists  have  focused  their  atten- 
tion on  that  portion  of  perhaps  170.000 


Latitude  43°46'  N.  —  Longitude  69"  19'  II 

THE 

FORTUNATE 
ISLAND 


Ten  miles  off  the  coast  of  Maine,  at 
Island  in  Time,  whose  cliffs  and  shore 
line,  woods  and  meadows  offer  sane 
tuary  to  the  creatures  and  growinj 
things  of  air,  land  and  water.  And  t( 
mankind. 

For  here  the  crowds  and  confusioi 
of  mainland  living  are  distant;  neithe 
streetlights  nor  neon  signs  dim  th^ 
stars;  no  juke-boxes,  bars  or  cocktai 
lounges  disturb  the  guiet;  cars,  radii 
and  television  remain  on  the  main 
land. 

Unexpected  species  reward  birder 
and  botanists.  Photographers  am 
painters  discover  scene  after  sceni 
worthy  of  record.  And  waiting  to  bi 
found  by  all:  peace,  quiet,  beauty. 

Ports  of  departure  for  Monhegai 
Island  are  Boothbay  Harbor  and  Por 
Clyde  with  daily  boat  service  fron 
each. 

THE  ISLAND  INN 

Box  JN 
Monhegan  Island,  Maine 

June  20-Seplemier  9     Direct  Dial  207-372- 


? 


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Address- 
City 


TiLDEN,  a  writer  and  editor  in 
nation's  capital,  often  contributes 
imns  pertaining  to  government 
vities    and    the    natural    sciences. 


e  miles  that  includes  southern 
ylvania.  parts  of  Maryland,  all  of 
Virginia,  a  bit  of  Ohio,  and  por- 
of  Virginia.  Kentucky,  Tennessee, 
ma.  North  Carolina,  and  Georgia. 
s  "Appalachia,"  so  often  employed 
llywood  as  a  type  locale  for  slouch 
long  rifles,  bare  feet,  and  illicit 
—a  picture  that  is,  of  course,  of 
al  accuracy. 

erty  in  Appalachia  is  an  undeni- 
act.  The  conservation  history  of 
of  this  vast  mountain  area  has  been 
n  one.  Many  of  its  steep  slopes, 
ed  of  organic  cover  by  ax  and  fire, 
lever  re-established  their  original 
mmunities.  Coal  strip  miners  have 
essly  chewed  and  gouged  into  the 
flanks  of  an  essentially  valley- 
idge  topography,  and  the  raw 
s  spew  forth  silt  and  acids  to 
the  narrow  bottom  lands  and  poi- 
le  streams.  Here,  one  family  in 
lives  on  an  annual  income  of  less 
3.000,  and  here  the  average  rate 
employment  is  about  7  per  cent, 
of  Appalachia's  male  inhabitants 
irought  up  to  be  coal  miners,  but 
:um.  hydropower.  and  mechanized 
;  techniques  have  robbed  them  of 
ivelihoods. 

probably  true  that  a  certain  per- 
e  of  Appalachia's  population  has 

be  told  that  it  lives  in  poverty, 
loverty  is  a  relative  condition  and 
IS  not  easily  defined,  but  by  stand- 
immonly  accepted,  there  is  a  great 

Appalachia,  both  economically 
ucationally. 

y  in  1963  the  late  President  Ken- 
ommitted  the  federal  government 
:ogram  of  Appalachian  economic 
nee  through  establishment  of  the 
;nt's  Appalachian  Regional  Com- 
1,  aimed  at  working  with  the  af- 
states  through  the  Conference  of 
ichian  Governors.  Thus  was  estab- 
a  joint  federal-state  group  of  ap- 
ite  bureau  heads  that,  under  the 
anship  of  Undersecretary  of  Com- 
Franklin  D.  Roosevelt,  Jr..  was  to 
I  study  of  the  problems  of  Appa- 
and  formulate  both  long-  and 
:rm  programs  for  alleviation  of 
;ed  conditions. 

;ervationists  have  followed  the 
if  the  Commission  with  interest, 
vould  appear  that  there  is  much 
jpalachia  can  do,  vrith  a  helping 
om  the  government,  to  help  itself. 
:  the  long  history  of  misuse  and 
jf  its  lands  and  the  pollution  of 
ers,  some  judicious  repair  work, 
the  guidance  of  sound  scientific 
iservation  principles,  could  yet  do 


much  to  salvage  the  fading  economy  of 
an  area  from  which  much  has  been  taken 
but  to  which  little  has  been  returned. 

One  of  the  most  promising  ways  of 
attacking  poverty  in  Appalachia  would 
seem  to  be  to  capitalize  on  its  wilder- 
ness qualities  by  cultivating  additional 
outdoor  recreational  opportunities  for 
the  people  of  more  highly  urbanized  sur- 
rounding areas— in  other  words,  cultiva- 
ting the  tourist  crop  in  place  of  the 
scanty  corn  and  beans  of  eroding  hill- 
sides. This  approach  would  entail  the 
restoration  of  a  reasonably  natural  land- 
scape by  reforestation  and  by  the  en- 
forcement of  tough  strip-mining  laws. 
Above  all.  conservationists  have  hoped 
that  recommendations  for  ailing  Appa- 
lachia would  bypass  the  weather-beaten 
twin  remedies  to  economic  ills  that  have 
always  been  so  dear  to  the  hearts  of  fed- 
eral and  state  planners  as  temporary  so- 
lutions—the big  dam  and  the  big  highway. 
In  this  hope,  the  conservationists  have 
been  largely  disappointed.  The  Commis- 
sion's report  to  the  President  was  re- 
cently released,  and  leading  the  list  of 
"priority  areas  of  regional  investment 
for  the  immediate  future"  in  Appalachia 
was  "provision  of  access  both  to  and 
within  the  region."  This  translates  it- 
self from  the  officialese  into  a  network 
of  highways  to  lace  the  area— approxi- 
mately 2,600  miles  of  them.  Following 
quickly  in  the  report  was  "construction 
of  facilities  both  to  exploit  and  control 
the  abundant  rainfall  of  Appalachia." 
Again  translating,  this  says:  high  dams, 
low  dams,  big  dams,  little  dams. 

One  recommendation  of  the  Commis- 
sion was  for  another  Blue  Ridge  park- 
way, a  development  that  caused  one 
Washington  wag  to  observe  that  it  may 
in  the  future  be  difficult  to  see  the  Blue 
Ridge  for  the  parkways.  (The  Blue  Ridge 
Mountains  already  have  one  federal 
parkway  athwart  their  narrow  summits.) 
While  some  of  the  recommendations  of 
the  Commission  seemed  sound  enough, 
conservationists  had  hoped  for  some- 
thing with  a  little  more  imagination. 


This  list  details  the  photographer,  artist, 
or  other  source  of  illustrations,  by  page. 

COVER-Campbell  Grant  Copyrighted   John 

14-Emil  Schulthess,  Wanamaker  Phila 

?1^'^I;,5mu''  28-top,  Sinclair  Refining 

15-AMNH  Co 

16-17-U.S.  Geol.  Survey  28-29-bot.,  AMNH 

except  16-top,  AMNH  30-31-Leonard  Lee 

after  U.S.  Geol.  Survey  Rue  III 

18-19-AMNH  after  Luther  32-41-Campbell  Grant 

20-CulVr^Pictures,  Inc.  tlc%ils-toT\h^^'' 

21-AMNH  John  Lep  ^     ' 

22-top,  The  Bettmann  m  m     i!=„  ■  n    *■ 

Arrhivp    Inr  48-51-Henri  Cartier- 

22-23-bot     Mus.  f'''°"'  Magnum  except 

National  d'Histoire  50-Werner  Bischof, 

Naturelle,  Paris  Magnum 

23-top,  AMNH  Archives  53-Francis  0  Neill,  Pic- 

24-Carnegie  Mus.,  '"''lal  Parade,  Inc. 

Pittsburgh  54-AMNH 

25-AMNH  55-left,  Am.  Mus.-Hayden 

26-top,  Norsk  Folkemu-  Plan.,  right.  Dr.  H.  W. 

seum,  Oslo  Kendall,  Sky  and  Telescope 

26-27-bot.,  AMNH  60-61-George  Holton, 

27-top,  Designed  and  Photo  Researchers,  Inc. 


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THE  STARS 
BROUGHT  DOWN 
TO  EARTH 

Every  day  people  are  experiencing  the 
excitement  of  "discovering"  the  new  mag- 
azine, Review  of  Popular  Astronomy. 
It"s  like  a  first  look  through  a  new  tele- 
scope ...  a  relaxed,  informal  and  differ- 
ent magazine  for  the  amateur,  student, 
teacher,  rank  beginner  and  nature  lover. 
PopUL.^R  Astronomy  has  everything  the 
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".  .  .  nothing  but  pure  enjoyment  ...  a  must  for 
any  amateur."  John  W.  Fuller,  Chatham,  N.  J. 

*'.  .  .  fully  intelligible,  even  to  the  beginner.  It 
■talks'  and  'discusses'  the  information  in  a  lively 
and  interesting  manner."  Barry  Crist,  .N'eivport,  Penn. 
";  like  RPA  because  it  deals  with  popular 
astronomy.  It  takes  a  lot  of  the  complicated  and 
technical  aspect  out  of  'just  plain  stargazing'." 
James  L.  Hill,  Otlaw,!,  Ontario 

But .  . .  don't  take  our  word  ...  or  that  of 
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REVIEW  OF  POPULAR  ASTRONOMY 

214  NH.  S.  Bemiston  Ave,  P.O.  Box  231 
St.   Louis,   Mo.     63105 

BACK  LOG  CAMP,  on  Indian  Lake,  Adirondacks, 
New  York,  attracts  those  wlio  love  the  unspoiled 
wilderness  and  actively  welcome  escape  from 
civilization's  noises  and  "advantages."  Bird 
watchers  and  nature  lovers  are  in  Nirvana.  July  3 
to  Sept.  8.  Reductions  for  families  and  longer 
visits.  Brochure;  Mrs.  Henry  J.  Cadbury,  Haver- 
fotd,  Pa.  After  June  27,  address  Back  Log  Camp, 
Sabael,  N.Y. 


Additional  Reading 

THE  AMAZON'S  RATE  OF  FLOW 

White  Waters  and  Black:  E.xpedi- 
TiON  ON  THE  AMAZON.  G.  MacCreagh. 
Douhleday- Anchor,  N.Y.,  1961. 

"Amazon  River  Investigation,  Recon- 
naissance Measurements  of  July  1963." 
R.  E.  Oltman  and  others.  U.  S.  Geologi- 
cal Survey  Circular  486.  Department  of 
the  Interior,  Washington,  1963. 

Am AZONLA.  Excursion  Guidebook  No. 
8.  Lucio  de  Castro  Soares.  Int.  Geo- 
graphical Union.  Rio  de  Janeiro,  1956. 

The  Sea  and  the  Jungle.  H.  M.  Tom- 
linson.  New  American  Library,  N.Y., 
1961.  (Paperback.) 

EXPOSITIONS.  EXHIBITS 
AND  TODAY'S  MUSEUMS 

The  Story  of  Exhibitions.  Kenneth 
W.  Luckhurst.  The  Studio  Publications, 
N.Y.,  1951. 

1851  AND  the  Crystal  Palace.  Chris- 
topher Hobhouse.  John  Murray,  London, 
1937. 

Exhibition  and  Display.  James  Gard- 
ner and  Caroline  Heller.  F.  W.  Dodge 
Corporation,  N .Y .,  1960. 

Habitat  Group  and  Period  Room.  Al- 
bert E.  Parr.  Curator,  AMNH.  Vol.  VI, 
No.  4.  1963. 

CALIFORNIA'S  LEGACY 
OF  INDIAN  ROCK  ART 

The  California  Indians.  Edited  by 
R.  F.  Heizer  and  M.  A.  Whipple.  Univer- 
sity of  California  Press,  Berkeley,  1951. 

Caves  of  California.  W.  R.  Halliday. 
A  Special  Report  of  the  Western  Speleo- 
logical Survey,  Seattle,  1962. 

Indian  Art  of  the  United  States. 
F.  H.  Douglas  and  R.  d'Harnoncourt. 
The  Museum  of  Modern  Art,  N.Y.,  1941. 

Indian  Art  in  America.  F.  J.  Dock- 
stader.  N.Y.  Graphic  Society,  Greenwich, 
1961. 

HERMAPHRODITISM 
IN  BAHAMA  GROUPERS 

"Functional  Hermaphroditism  and 
Self-Fertilization  in  Serranid  Fish."  E. 
Clark.  Science,  Vol.  129,  pages  215-216; 
1959. 

Oogenesis:  The  Storage  of  Develop- 
mental Information.  C.  Raven.  Perga- 
mon  Press,  TV.  7.,  1961. 

"Sexual  DiflFerences  and  Normal  Pro- 
togynal  Hermaphroditism  in  Atlantic 
Seabass.  Ccntropristes  striatus."  N.  Lav- 
enda.  Cope;o,No.  3, pages  185-194;  1949. 

ASTRONOMY'S  PAST 
PRESERVED  AT  JAIPUR 

"The  Astronomical  Observatories  of 
Jai  Singh."  G.  R.  Kaye.  Archaeological 
Survey  of  India,  Neiv  Imperial  Series, 
Calcutta.  Vol.  XL,  1918. 

Maharaja  Sawai  Jai  Singh  II  of  Jai- 
pur AND  his  Observatories.  M.  F.  Soon- 
awala.  Jaipur  Astronomical  Society, 
Jaipur,  1952. 


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GENUINE  SIAIVIESE  PORCEI 
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.  .  .  from  the  hot,  fetid  and  dimly 
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Oriental  art.   In  addition  to  the  in-      M 
dividual  porcelain  coins,  fine  pieces     SB 
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WHALE 
TEETH 

Sperm  whale  teeth  were  usei 
in  the  past  for  whaler' 
scrimshaw  hobby  to  pas; 
long  hours  at  sea.  Toda; 
these  teeth  are  valued  fo 
oddity  and  curiosa.  Eacl 
$3.25  .  .  .  two  for  $5.75.  Sizei 
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JOHN  REID,  Box  68 
Hackensack,  New  Jersei 


70 


I( 


All  things  are  ready,  if  our  minds  be  so." 


—  Shakespeare 


The  insistent  questing  of  the  creative  mind  is  the 
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Monsanto,  St.  Louis,  Missouri    63166 


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This   highly  informatii 


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BIG  DETAILED  35"  x  46"  MOON  MAP 

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THE  WORLD  OF  DINOSAURS 

ONE  HUNDRED  MILLION 

YEARS  AGO 

In  this  set  of  monsters— the  dinosaurs  that  ruled  th^  eanli 
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purple)      potassium    sodii 


Stock    No.   70.336-E    $9.50    Postpal 

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IDENTIFY  430  BIRDS  WITH 
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EDMUND   SCIENTIFIC   EXHIBIT 

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How  Nikkor  lenses  help  make  the  Nikon  F  most  versatile  of  all  35s. 


The  lens  is  often  referred  to  as  the  heart  of  the  camera. 
But,  with  the  Nilcon  F  it  is  both  heart  and  soul — so 
important  is  the  contribution  of  Nikkor  optics  to 
its  versatility  and  performance.  There  is,  in  fact,  no 
other  camera  with  the  variety  or  quality  of  lenses,  as 
those  available  for  the  Nikon  F. 

Consider  the  8mm  super-wide,  wide-angle  Fisheye 
Nikkor  with  its  amazing  180°  coverage.  What  other 
camera  can  offer  its  equal?  And  where  will  you  find 
the  likes  of  the  PC  Nikkor — the  lens  that  brought 
perspective  correction  to  35mm  photography? 
Now  imagine  a  500mm  lens  that  measures  only  7% 
inches  in  length,  and  a  1000mm  lens  that's  only  18 
inches  long.  These  two,  unusual  catadioptric  systems 
have  covered  so  many  man-shoot  and  missile-launch- 
ing assignments,  they  are  literally  part  of  the  space  age. 


Nikkor-Zoom  lens  design  is  so  far  advanced  that  only 
3  lenses  are  needed  to  cover  from  medium  wide  angle 
to  12-time  telephoto:  Nikkor-Zoom  f3.5,  43  to  86mm; 
the  f4,  85  to  250mm;  and  the  f9.5,  200  to  600mm. 
And  then,  the  55mm  Micro-Nikkor,  a  lens  with  in- 
credible resolving  power  whose  focusing  range  extends 
from  infinity  to  1 : 1  magnification.  And  the  new  Medi- 
cal-Nikkor  with  built-in  ring-light  electronic  flash, 
where  setting  the  desired  magnification  pre-determines 
the  working  distance,  marks  the  film  for  identification 
and  automatically  fixes  the  exposure  aperture. 
In  all,  there  are  23  interchangeable  Nikkor  lenses  for 
the  Nikon  F,  all  contributing  to  the  inevitable  fact 
that  the  Nikon  F  is  the  most  versatile  of  all  35s.  See 
the  Nikon  F  at  your  camera  dealer  soon.  For  com* 
plete  details,  write  to  Dept.  NH-6 


ERi 


NIKON  INCORPORATED      111  Fifth  Avenue      New  York  3,  N.  Y.      Subsidiary  of  Ehrenreich  Photo-Optical  Industries,  Inc. 


70%  OF  THE  WORLD'S 
POPULATION  SHARES 
THESE  MARVELOUS 
SECRETS... 

70%  of  the  world's  animal  population  is  made  up  of  insects,  whose  enormous 
variety,  fabulous  skills,  amazing  habits  are  only  now  becommg  known  to  man- 
through  modern  science  and  modern  photography. 

This  book  of  remarkable  photographs  and  accurate,  informed  text  shows  you  (as 
vou  could  not  find  out  on  your  own)  the  miracles  that  take  place  m  your  own 
backyard,  under  the  leaves,  beneath  the  stones,  in  the  pond,  beneath  the  bark  of 
the  trees. 

Only  years  of  travel  and  meticulous  study  could  teach  you 
all  that  THE  AMAZING  WORLD  OF  INSECTS  reveals  at  a  glance! 
Thev  are  all  here:  from  all  over  the  globe— from  beetles  that  look  like  medieval 
knights  in  full  armor  to  rainbow-hued  tropical  butterflies,  from  msects  as  famil- 
iar as  the  charming  ladybird  to  such  unfamiliar  species  as  the  frightenmg  weta 
of  New  Zealand!  And  the  spellbinding  text  and  lavish  plates  of  this  book  disclose 
"unbelievables"  of  matchless  excitement  no  other  area  of  animal  life  otters. 

THE  AMAZING  WORLD  OF  INSECTS  tells  you: 

■  why  the  emirs  of  Centra!  Asia  kept  pits  full  of  assassin  hugs 

■  how  the  crane  fly  shares  a  navigation  system  with  the  most  modern  rockets 

■  how  bulldog  ants  keep  "milch  herds"  of  other  insects 

■  how  earwigs  care  for  their  young  with  incredible  devotion 

Learn  of  the  bearded  caresses  of  the  giraffe  weevil;  the  short  memory  of  cock- 
roaches, and  hundreds  of  other  scientific  wonders. 

For  photographer  as  well  as  nature  lover, 

THE  AMAZING  WORLD  OF  INSECTS  is  Invaluable. 

These  phoiocraphs  were  all  taken  of  living  insects  in  their  native  surround- 
ings  No  attempt  »-as  made  to  control  the  insect  hy  chemical  means— each 
insect  was  fully  alive  and  awake  when  the  picture  was  taken.  Photog- 
raphers will  appreciate  not  only  the  beauty  of  the  plates  but  the  descrip- 
tion of  the  apparatus  and  equipment  used.  Nature  lovers  will  cherish  the 
naturalness  of  each  pose. 
THE  AMAZING  WORLD  OF  INSECTS  is  a  gem  of  book  production. 
The  book  is  luxuriously  bound  in  heavy,  simulated  gold  cloth,  stamped  with 
a  butterfly  wing  design.  It  is  one  of  the  most  beautiful  bindings  ever  pro- 
vided for  a  nature  book. 

The  excellence  of  the  paper  brings  out  the  finest  photographic  details,  the  full 
magnificence  of  the  color  plates  — and  the  whole  design  of  the  book  makes  it  a 
worthy  addition  to  any  art  book  collection. 

THE  AMAZING  WORLD  OF  INSECTS 

by  Arend  T.  Bandsma  &  Robin  T.  Brandt 
$9.95 

At  your  bookstore,  or  use  this  time-saver  coupon  to  order 

I"      ^        ,     ,--  NH6 

Dept.  400 

The  Macmillan  Company  •  60  Fifth  Avenue,  New  York  10011 

I  enclose  '^9.95.  Please  send  me  Bandsma  and  Brandt's  THE  AMAZING 
WORLD  OF  INSECTS  (50667).  I  understand  that  you  will  pay  all  postage  and 
handling  charges,  and  that  I  may  return  the  book  in  10  days  for  full  refund  it 
I  am  not  pleased. 


Name  (please  prinl)_ 


The  Leaf-insect:  a  species  In  which  virgin  birth  is  a  norn 
process! 


Queensland    Elephant    Beetle     one    of    th 
night  prowling  beetles  found   in  Australia 


\atural 
Historv, 


Incorporating  Nature  Maga 


!C.  ¥" 


?.«•  "  '^      A- 


August-September  1964  •  500 


Naturally, 
you  can't 
beat  the 
system 


Problem:  howto  get  close  up  to  a  man-shy  lion  in  its  natural  habits 
without  putting  your  life  on  the  line.  For  the  Hasselblad  photogr 
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ens  of  matched,  precision  accessories.  If  you  need  his  name  an 
address, write:  Paillard  Incorporated,  1900  LowerRd.,  Linden,  N. 


Photo  by 
Jon  Abbot  with 
Hasselblad  500C 
500mm  lens. 


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PRESIDENT 

Alexander  M.  White 

DIRECTOR 

James  A.  Oliver 

ASSISTANT  DIRECTORS 

Walter  F.  Meister,  Joseph  M.  Chamberlain 


MANAGING  EDITOR 

Robert  E.  Williamson 

EXECUTIVE  EDITOR 

Helene  Jordan 

ASSOCIATE  EDITORS 

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COPY  EDITORS 

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REVIEWS 

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PHOTOGRAPHY 

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CONTRIBUTIONS 

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David  Linton,  Julian  D.  Corrington 


EDIIORIAL    ADVISERS 

Gerard  Piel  Gordon  F.  Ekholm 

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Natural  Histor 

Incorporating  Nature  Magazine 


THE  JOURNAL  OF  THE  AMERICAN  MUSEUM  OF  NATURAL  HISTC 


Vol.  LXXHI 


AUGUST-SEPTEMBER  1964 


ARTICLES 
"LITTLE  SNAKE  WITH  HANDS"  Charles  M.  Bogert 

MANAGEMENT  OF  WATER  IN  ARID  LANDS  George  H.  Davis 

PILGRIM  OF  THE  RIVER  Janis  A.  Roze 

ARCHES  AND  BRIDGES  OF  STONE  W'iUard  Luce 

ARMOR-PLATED  AND  JAWLESS  DEVONIAN  FISH     David  L.  Dineley 


DEPARTMENTS 

BOOKS  IN  REVIEW 

SKY  REPORTER 

SCIENCE  IN  ACTION: 
ON  ETHNOLOGICAL  TACTICS 

ABOUT  THE  AUTHORS 

NATURE  AND  THE  CAMERA 

ADDITIONAL  READING 


Pieter  Fosburgh 
Thomas  D.  Nicholson 

Robert  L.  Carneiro 
David  Linton 


CIRCULATION  MANAGER 

Joseph  Saulina 


COVER:  Double  O  Arch,  located  in  Arches  National  Monument  in  southeas 
Utah,  is  only  one  of  many  spectacular  arches  and  bridges  found  throughout 
state's  red  rock  country.  These  massive  structures  have  been  formed  over 
centuries  by  the  combined  erosive  forces  of  wind,  freezing,  and  water  seep 
While  many  of  the  arches  and  bridges  are  visited  by  thousands  of  tourists  ( 
year,  others  are  isolated  by  extremely  formidable  terrain.  In  the  article 
begins  on  page  42,  Willard  Luce,  a  native  Utahan,  discusses  geological  asp 
of  the  spans.  The  author  took  the  cover  photo  and  those  accompanying  the  I 

The  American  Museum  is  open  to  the  public  without  charge  every  da 
during  the  year.  \  our  support,  through  membership  and  contribution; 
helps  make  this  possible.  The  Museum  is  equally  in  need  of  suppoi 
for  all  of  its  work  in  the  fields  of  research,  education,  and  exhibitior 

Publicalion  Office:  The  American  Museum  uf  Nalural  History,  Cenlral  Park  West  at  79th  Street,  New 
N.  Y.  10024.  Published  monthly,  October  through  May:  bimonthly  June  to  September.  Subscription:  SI 
year.  In  Canada,  and  all  other  countries:  S5.5D  a  year.  Single  copies:  S.50.  Second  class  postage  pa 
New  York,  N.  Y.,  and  at  additional  offices.  Copyright,  1964,  by  The  American  Museum  of  Nalural  Hi 
No  part  of  this  periodical  may  be  reproduced  without  the  written  consent  of  Naturat.  History.  The 
NATLEli  Magazine,  registered  U.S.  Patent  Office.  Unsolicited  manuscripts  and  illustrations  submitted  t 
editorial  office  will  be  handled  with  all  possible  care,  but  we  cannot 
The  opinions  expressed  by  authors  are  their  own  and  do  not  necessarily 


is  that  fly 

9  miles  nonstop 


fs  that  can  spot 
I  a  mile  away 


ijoy  these  and  1001  other  wonders  of  THE  BIRDS 
br  10  days  as  a  guest  of  the  HIJJ  Nature  Library 


)S  have  fascinated  mankind  since  the 
awn  of  time.  Ancient  priests  sought  omens 
r  entrails.  Rome  was  saved  by  the  warning 
if  geese.  Until  recently  coal  miners  used 
es  to  warn  them  of  lethal  gas. 
the  birds  that  inhabit  our  earth— 100  bil- 
Tong,— puzzle  as  well  as  fascinate.  How 
bird  perch  without  falling  off?  How  can 
mingbird  hover  in  air  like  a  helicopter? 
:an  a  kiwi  lay  an  egg  that  weighs  one 
is  much  as  the  kiwi  itself? 
ecent  years  our  scientific  knowledge  of 
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astonishing  facts: 

Some  fowls  provide  a  temperature-regu- 
ated  incubator  by  amassing  exactly  the 
)roper  amount  of  decaying  leaves,  trash 
ind  sand. 

k'ultures,  once  reputed  to  be  plague  car- 
iers,  actually  have  an  important  func- 
ion  as  efficient  sanitary  squads. 


-^^^imm-^ 


►  A  ruby-throated  hummingbird  beats  its 
wings  at  the  fantastic  rate  of  50  to  70 
times  a  second,  while  the  ponderous  peli- 
can flaps  its  wings  as  slowly  as  1.3  times 
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Only  the  resources  of  TIME  and  LIFE  could 
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ROGER  TORY  PETERSON,  who  wrote 
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EXAMINE  IT  FREE.  You  are  invited  to 
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'ERGARTENS"  are  organized  by 
or  penguins  for  young  ones 
nough  for  collective  care, 
ins  fight  to  mother  a  stray. 


CHANGING  OF  THE  GUARD.  Present- 
ing a  twig,  a  common  egret  hands 
mate  the  job  of  guarding  eggs,  a  task 
at  which  male  and  female  take  turns. 


TO:  TIME-LIFE  BOOKS,    DEPT.  4724         XVII 
TIME  &  LIFE  BUILDING 
CHICAGO,  ILLINOIS  60611 

Please  enroll  me  as  a  subscriber  to  the  LIFE 
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«J 


An  unusual  portrait 
of  nature's 
swiftest 
creature 


BOOKS  I  IN  REVIEW 


A  naturalist's  book  Ik 


The  Story  of  a  Cheetah 
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In  W'alden,  Thoreau  wrote:  "I  long  ago 
lost  a  hound,  a  bay  horse,  and  a 
turtle-dove,  and  am  still  on  their  trail. 
Many  are  the  travellers  I  have  spoken 
concerning  them,  describing  their  tracks 
and  what  calls  they  answered  to.  I  have 
met  one  or  two  who  had  heard  the  hound, 
and  the  tramp  of  the  horse,  and  even 
seen  the  dove  disappear  behind  a  cloud, 
and  they  seemed  as  anxious  to  recover 
them  as  if  they  had  lost  them  them- 
selves." 

Emerson,  Thoreau's  neighbor,  used  to 
peer  curiously  at  him  from  time  to  time, 
like  a  boy  looking  over  the  backyard 
fence.  He  concluded  that  Thoreau 
marched  to  the  beat  of  another  drum- 
mer, but  he  readily  conceded  that  the 
march  was  purposeful  and  the  drumbeat 
strong,  and  when  Thoreau  wrote  of  his 
search  for  the  horse  and  the  hound  and 
the  turtledove,  Emerson  knew  exactly 
what  he  was  talking  about. 

The  mid-nineteenth  century  produced 
the  best  of  American  nature  writing  and 
the  most  mature  thinking.  Thoreau 
viewed  nature  subjectively,  but  could 
project  his  views  brilliantly  to  make 
them  applicable  or  at  least  a  matter  of 
interest  to  all  men.  The  Olympian  Emer- 
son, writing  with  greater  detachment, 
nevertheless  acknowledged  a  deep  and 
personal  and  unregretted  involvement  in 
the  natural  world.  Longfellow  wrote  of 
nature  with  love  and  gentleness,  but  it 
was  no  mere  sentimental  journey;  when 
he  considered  the  subject,  as  he  so  often 
did,  the  mind  was  with  the  heart.  So  it 
was  with  Melville  and  Hawthorne,  al- 
though their  philosophical  estimates— or 
prejudices,  perhaps— were  radically  dif- 
ferent from  those  of  Longfellow.  Mel- 
ville was  suspicious  of  nature,  suspicious 
that    its   beauty   was   the    beauty   of   a 


whore,  and  Hawthorne  felt  at  times 
its  enormous  power  placed  an  almos 
tolerable  burden  on  mere  man.  M 
while.  Audubon  walked  through 
writing  and  painting  with  a  keen  e; 
receptive  mind,  and  a  skillful  hanc 
All  of  these  men.  and  many  otl 
worked  at  the  same  time.  Although  I 
views  varied  enormously,  there  w, 
community  of  spirit  and  interest  tha 
tablished  a  great  tradition  in  Amer 
writing  and  that  compared  favor 
with  the  brilliant  nature  writing  b 
done  in  England  at  the  same  time. 

All  this  was  a  hundred  or  more  y 
ago.  What  has  happened  since  in 
broad  field  of  American  nature  wril 
and  what  have  we  now?  Emerson  an( 
contemporaries  could  look  at  natur 
they  chose.  It  was  at  their  doorsteps, 
beyond  lay  a  vast  region  of  promise 
they  really  had  no  need  to  explor 
order  to  put  man  in  his  place.  It 
enough  to  know  it  was  there. 
Thoreau.  Walden  Pond  served  a 
springboard  for  a  leap  into  the  univei 
Emerson,  looking  out  on  his  backy 
could  write  his  massive  essay  Nat 
Longfellow,  with  little  wandering,  w 
a  poem  with  the  same  title. 

Now.  things  are  different.  A  senS' 
urgency  has  come  upon  us  as  our  civil 
tion  has  moved  inexorably  upon  our 
ural  environment,  and  we  fly  off  on 
kinds  of  tangents  seeking  to  ana 
what  is  left,  trying  to  discover  mean 
preserving  it  (conservation  in  its  n 
ern  concept  was  an  unknown  word  in 
nineteenth  century ) .  exploring  new  w 
of  using  our  heritage,  and  exploring, 
our  rapidly  retreating  frontiers.  Expa 
ing  populations  and  industries  h 
made  our  interest  in  the  natural  w( 
increasingly  practical  on  the  one  hai 
escapist  on  the  other.  There  seems  to 
little  time  for.  or  inclination  tow£ 
deep  thought  about  nature;  perh 
America  today  is  not  the  time  or  pi 
for  it.  It  would  be  interesting  to  see  1 
Emerson  would  write  if  he  were  v 
us  now.  I  doubt  if  he  could  be  detach 
These  changes  have  profoundly 
fected  modern  American  writing  ab 
nature,  and  other  factors  have  also  b( 
at  work.  Illustrations,  little  used  in  ' 
mid-nineteenth  century,  are  now  an 
pectable  part  of  almost  any  book,  i 
merely  as  decorations  but  as  media 
carry  the  story.  This  is  particularly  ti 
of  photographs,  certainly  effective 
properly  used,  but  too  often  employ 
these  days  in  what  seems  to  be  an  eff 
to  relieve  the  writer  of  his  burden. 


hutwn  of  the  Eagles."  by  Dai  id    Napoleon  presents  imperial  standaids  to  Ins  troops.  An  illustration  trom  "The  Aae^  of  Napoleon.' 

i  '     ' 


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Gardeners! 
Outdoor  Enthusiasts! 
Piiotographers! 

The  Mushroom 
Hunter's 
Field  euide 

Revised  and  Enlarged 

By  Alexander  H.Sinilli 


Here  is  a  practical  and  authoritative  guide  to 
successful  mushroom  hunting— written  in 
plain  language  by  a  University  of  Michigan 
scientist  who  really  knows  his  mushrooms. 
Aided  by  89  color  plates,  243  superb  black 
and  white  photographs,  Alexander  H.  Smith 
tells  when,  where,  and  how  to  spot  188  edible 
and  poisonous  varieties-and 
provides  keys  that  insure 
identification  in  a  matter  of 
minutes. 

To  get  started  on  this  fas- 
cinating hobby  order  from 
your  bookstore  or  send  $6.95 
today  to  Dept.  NH,  University 
of  Michigan  Press,  Ann  Arbor, 
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University  01  Michigan  Press 

Ann  Arbor 


Amazing 
Star  Maps 

send  $1.50 

Amazing  because  you  don't  have  to 
"figure  them  out."  These  "maltese 
cross"  charts  match  up  with  what 
you  actually  see  in  the  sky,  facing 
north,  south,  east,  west,  each  hour 
of  each  night  of  the  year. 

STAR  MAPS  FOR  BEGINNERS  were 
devised  by  astronomers  I.  M.  Levitt 
&  Roy  K.  Marshall.  As  pamphlets 
they  sold  150,000  in  museums.  Just 
published  in  book  form,  $1.50  in 
paper,  spiral-bound  (or  $3.95  in 
cloth) .  At  your  booksellers  or  write 
Simon  and  Schuster,  Dept.  C,  630 
Fifth  Ave.,  New  York,  N.  Y.  10020. 


Then  there  is  the  publishing  business, 
which  today  does  a  good  deal  more  than 
just  publish.  It  seeks  out  authors,  looks 
for  new  angles  and  new  means  of  com- 
mercializing old  ones,  and  in  general 
stimulates  a  vast  output  of  books  ranging 
from  how-to-do-its  to  lyrical  descriptive 
tracts  and  esoteric  biological  treatises. 

In  general,  these  interests  and  activi- 
ties would  seem  a  welcome  development. 
There  is  money  to  be  made  in  attempting 
to  satisfy  the  increasing  appetite  of  the 
public  for  outdoor  subjects.  The  field  is 
inexhaustible,  and  its  exploration  should 
be  encouraged.  Yet  if  one  examines  the 
flood  of  nature  books  now  on  the  market, 
one  cannot  help  concluding  that  there 
has  been  a  lack  of  discrimination  by  pub- 
lishers, editors,  or  both.  Many  of  the  new 
books  do  not  even  deserve  to  be  reviewed, 
but  they  are  published.  Perhaps  the 
thought  is  that  the  hungry  public  will 
devour  anything. 

Proceeding  from  the  general  to  the 
particular,  let  us  have  a  look  at  a  few 
of  the  books  that  have  appeared  recently. 
The  Last  Redwoods,  published  by  the 
Sierra  Club  in  San  Francisco,  hand- 
somely combines  the  old  tradition  of 
good  writing  and  careful  research  with 
the  new  techniques  of  photography  dedi- 
cated to  a  purpose— in  this  case  the  pres- 
ervation of  Sequoia  sempervirens.  This 
species  of  redwood,  found  on  a  narrow 
strip  along  the  northern  coast  of  Cali- 
fornia, is  in  trouble,  although  many  of 
its  members,  still  living  and  healthy, 
made  their  appearance  before  Christ. 
Their  preservation  depends  upon  the 
protection  of  a  whole  watershed  and  not 
just  the  isolation  of  scattered  stands.  The 
establishment  of  a  Redwoods  National 
Park  is  projected,  and  in  a  Foreword  to 
the  book  Secretary  of  the  Interior  Udall 
states  categorically  that  this  will  be  done 
if  the  public  demand  is  sufficient.  It 
should  be,  and  so  should  the  demand  for 
the  book.  It  contains  no  silly  sentimen- 
tality, no  overstatement,  no  purple  prose, 
just  facts  and  reasonable  projections  on 
the  possible  future  of  Sequoia  semper- 
virens, and  sensational  photographs  of 
what  must  surely  be  the  most  photogenic 
tree  in  the  world.  The  Last  Redwoods  is 
expensive,  and  for  some  will  be  only  a 
coffee  table  decoration,  but  John  Muir, 
founder  of  the  Sierra  Club,  would  have 
been  proud  of  it. 

Richard  Cooley's  Politics  and  Conser- 
vation, is  also  a  book  with  a  purpose, 
although  it  is  manufactured  on  a  much 
more  modest  scale.  The  ponderous,  even 
forbidding,  title  suggests  a  "heavy" 
book;  it  is  not.  This  is  the  story  of  the 
Alaskan  salmon  fisheries,  of  their  use 
and  misuse  since  they  were  first  estab- 
lished commercially  in  1878,  and  of  the 
five  species  of  salmon  that  inhabit  Alas- 
kan waters,  in  some  instances  all  in  the 
same  river.  When  they  go  to  spawn,  then 
to  die  in  the  rivers  of  their  birth,  salmon 


may  travel  fifty  miles  a  day  and  the  tot 
mileage  may  be  as  much  as  two  tho 
sand  miles.  Salmon  movements  are  st 
a  fascinating  mystery,  and  Mr.  Cool 
writes  of  them  well  and  carefully. 

The  burden  of  his  book,  however,  a 
pears  to  be  an  indictment  of  the  comme 
cial  fisheries  and  of  the  governmei 
which  has  tried  to  regulate  commerci 
interests  through  one  federal  agency 
another.  Mr.  Cooley  contends  that  in  fa 
the  commercial  interests  regulate  t 
government  agencies.  In  the  interest 
conserving  the  salmon  population— ai 
with  it,  of  course,  the  fisheries— the  a 
thor  favors  private  ownership  rath 
than  the  present  free  fisheries  syste: 
Under  the  latter,  he  says,  competiti 
for  an  already  dwindling  resource 
stimulated  rather  than  regulated,  and  t 
attitude  is  to  hell  with  conservation  ai 
the  devil  take  the  hindmost.  He  is  su 
ported  in  these  views  by  Alaska's  Sf 
ator  Gruening  in  the  Introduction. 

The  further  nature  retreats  from  i 
the  closer  we  want  to  get  to  it.  Boo 
help  serve  the  purpose;  if  we  ourseh 
cannot  experience  the  pleasures  a: 
stimulations  of  the  receding  frontiers, ' 
can  at  least  enjoy  them  vicariously.  Su 
books  should  be  very  well  written,  a: 
not  all  of  them  are. 

In  Runes  of  the  North,  Sigurd  01s 
tells  us  of  the  country  from  Lake  Suj 
rior  to  the  Yukon.  I  have  consulted  s( 
eral  dictionaries  and  carefully  read  t 
publisher's  pronouncements  concerni 
this  book,  but  I  am  still  not  quite  su 
what  a  rune  is,  in  this  book's  conte: 
If  a  man  goes  out  to  hand  dig  a  well  ar 
after  several  failures,  finally  hits  wat 
and  hangs  up  a  cup  nearby  so  that 
can  feel  the  exhilaration  of  drinki 
from  his  homemade  water  supply,  is  tl 
a  rune?  In  Mr.  Olson's  book,  it  is- 
whole  chapter's  worth,  in  fact.  By  a 
definition,  a  rune  connotes  mystery  a: 
magic,  and  there  would  seem  to  be  litl 
of  either  in  a  well-digging  operatic 
which  has  been  done  before  by  quite 
few  people. 

The  mystery  and  magic  are  in  the  a 
thor's  mind  and  eye.  He  seems  to  be  pi 
occupied  not  so  much  with  the  face  ai 
facts  of  nature  as  with  his  personal  ] 
actions,  which  at  times  are  purely  se 
sual.  This  is  legitimate— up  to  a  poii 
But  when  he  writes  a  chapter  abo 
catching  trout  on  a  wind-blown  lake 
the  Quetico— Superior  wilderness, 
would  be  interesting  to  know  just  wh 
kind  of  trout  he  was  catching.  Then,  if 
felt  it  absolutely  necessary,  he  could  , 
on  to  tell  us  how  he  and  his  son  pui 
meled  each  other  in  their  exuberance. 

In  view  of  the  author's  impressi 
knowledge  of  biology  and  geology,  ai 
his  long  experience  in  the  country 
which  he  writes,  the  lay  reader  mig 
expect  something  more,  or  at  least  ho] 
for  it.  Subjectivity  in  reporting  about  tl 


il  world  is  all  very  well  if  properly 
ed,  but  it  can  be  sophomoric. 
)ther  book,  startlingly  similar  to 
Ison's,  is  Helen  Hoover's  The  Long- 
•ived  Forest.  Here  she  follows  the 
IS  in  Mr.  Olson's  north  country, 
;es  an  incredible  number  of  things, 
personal  observations  are  buoyed 
th  biological  notes  garnered  from 
nd  there,  not  all  of  them  accurate, 
g  other  things,  she  says  this: 
I  I  surprised  a  bear,  contemplating 
moval  of  a  suet  feeder,  a  nourish- 
te  before  hibernation."  Bears,  as  it 
ns,  don't  hibernate, 
this  is  a  good  and  readable  book, 
t  gives  the  reader  some  insight 
le  "Changing  Seasons  in  a  North- 
ilderness,"  which  is  the  book's  sub- 
But  I  regret,  even  resent,  the  cozi- 
ind  the  interpolation,  whereby  an 
r  undertakes  to  move  into  the 
of  his  natural  subjects  and  speak 
em  with  the  voice  of  authority, 
unusual  book,  recently  published, 
nond  Breland's  Animal  Life  and 
with  well-executed  and  authentic 
ations  by  Matthew  KalmenofE. 
5  not  really  a  reference  book,  as  the 
iher  suggests,  but  rather  a  collec- 
E  notes  and  paragraphs  on  subjects 
ig  from  mammals  to  mollusks. 
,  however,  are  carefully  indexed, 
i  a  result  the  book  does  indeed  have 
reference  value. 

!  author  undertakes  to  dispel  many 
;  myths  and  fallacies  in  current 
ation.  Do  snakes  commit  suicide? 
gles  carry  off  young  children?  Is 
such  a  thing  as  the  "bear  hug"? 
loles  blind?  What  animal  can  open 
5ter?  What  was  the  manna  of  bib- 
imes?  What  mammal  has  the  dis- 
)n  of  being  man's  worst  enemy? 
these  and  many,  many  more  make 
I  fascinating  bedside  reader,  ex- 
ly  well  written,  with  careful  atten- 
3  fact.  It  has  no  real  sequence,  al- 
h  mammals,  mollusks,  insects,  and 
are  each  discussed  in  separate 
s.  The  book  can  be  opened  at  ran- 
nd  read  with  considerable  pleasure 
enefit. 

s  last  statement  also  applies  to 
al  of  the  Seasons,  by  Hal  Borland, 
5  here,  as  always,  a  competent  and 
ive  writer.  Its  subtitle,  "A  Selec- 
f  Outdoor  Editorials  from  The  Neiv 
Times"  adequately  suggests  what 
sader  will  find,  but  there  are  in- 
rable  pleasant  surprises.  Mr.  Bor- 
as is  his  custom,  roams  through  the 
al  world,  looking  at  nuthatches, 
g  the  December  wind,  and  sensing 
ysteries  of  twilight.  Nothing,  be  it 
;  as  the  weather  or  as  small  as  a 
,  is  beyond  his  range, 
a  matter  of  convenience,  perhaps, 
Iso  to  give  his  musings  a  sense  of 
luity,  Mr.  Borland  follows  the  sea- 
There  are  365  essays  in  this  book, 


eheeehako 

That's  Indian  for  "greenhorn",  up  in 
the  Last  Frontier  country  of  Alaska. 
But  to  Wayne  Short,  it's  a  proud  word. 

In  this  exciting  book,  he  tells  the 
story  of  how  he  and  his  family 
(cheechakoes  all)   settled  on  a 
lonely  Alaskan  island,  learned  to 
live  by  hunting  and  fishing  —  just 
like  the  pioneers  of  a  century 
ago  —  and  found  a  home  they 
would  never  want  to  leave. 

The    ,      , 

Cheeenakoes 

By  WAYXE  SHORT 

18  illustrations  by  Peter  Pamall  ; 
.95,  now  at  your  bookstore  RANDOM  HOUSE  i! 


REINHOLDw/t. 


BIOLOGICAL  CONTROL 
OF  INSECT  PESTS 
AND  WEEDS 


IS  destined  to  become  the  classic  reference  on  this  vital  subject.  All  theory,  research,  and 
practical  applications  included  is  authoritative,  well-documented,  and  current.  The  specialized 
experience  and  world-wide  reputation  of  the  authors  insure  an  accurate  thoroughness  and 
sound  contemporary  discussion  of  such  important  topics  as:  conservation  and  increasing 
natural  enemies,  weed  control,  successful  biological  control  projects  throughout  the  world, 
new  natural  enemies  in  most  major  countries,  the  ecological  basis  of  control,  quarantine 
handling,  culture  methods,  and  many,  many  more.  This  book  represents  over  200  man-years 
of  research  and  teaching  in  biological  control. 

BIOLOGICAL  CONTROL  OF  INSECT  PESTS  AND  WEEDS  is  edited  by  Paul  DeBach, 

Entomologist  and  Professor  of  Biological  Control  at  the  University  of  California, 
Riverside.  E.  I.  Schlinger,  of  the  same  university,  is  Assistant  Editor. 
Published  August,  1964.        930  pages.        Fully  Illustrated.        $22.50 

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one  for  each  day  of  the  year,  and  each 
is  dated.  But  there  is  no  need  for  the 
reader  to  follow  consecutively;  he  may 
skip  happily  from  August's  moon  to  Jan- 
uary's snowbird,  and  nothing  is  lost. 

But  what  has  happened  to  Thoreau's 
turtledove?  Are  there  any  who  have  seen 
it?  Perhaps  there  are.  John  Hay,  in  The 
Great  Beach,  writes  of  the  outer  coast 
of  Cape  Cod,  and  he  does  it  extremely 
well.  There  is  no  escapism  in  this  book, 
only  sound  observation  and  thought, 
which  even  admit  to  the  presence  of 
beach  buggies  on  what  might  otherwise 
have  been  a  tranquil  scene.  There  is  no 
resentment  at  the  intrusion  of  man  and 
mechanism,  only  resignation  and  adjust- 
ment. "The  Cape,"  writes  Mr.  Hay,  "is 
caught  up  in  the  human  scheme  of 
things,  and  we  can  hardly  avoid  looking 
at  it  with  modern  eyes,  for  good  or  ill." 
Mr.  Hay's  eyes  are  modern  in  the  best 
sense  of  the  word,  and  what  he  sees  he 
writes  about  without  any  of  the  clum- 
siness, carelessness  in  fact,  or  projec- 
tion of  self  that  characterize  so  much  of 
our  modern  nature  writing.  He  is  modest, 
restrained,  and  thoughtful. 

Virginia  Eifert,  in  her  Journeys  in 
Green  Places,  writes  of  the  shores  and 
woods  of  Wisconsin's  Door  Peninsula, 
which  she  describes  as  "a  long  finger  of 
limestone  and  sand  thrusting  into  north- 
ern Lake  Michigan."  This  is  country  she 
knows  and  loves  well,  and  this  shines 
through  clearly.  When  she  finally  finds 
a  calypso  orchid  after  years  of  search, 
the  reader  shares  in  her  excitement. 

Mrs.  Eifert  writes  very  well,  and  she 
has  the  further  advantage  of  being  a 
competent  geologist  and  botanist.  In  ad- 
dition, she  seasons  the  scientific  ap- 
proach with  such  descriptions  as  one  of 
an  old  man  who  "liked  to  wander  about 


the  country,  looking  at  the  mountains 
and  rivers  and  oceans  that  the  Lord  had 
made.  Since  the  Lord  had  gone  to  all  the 
trouble  of  making  them,  he  thought  the 
least  a  man  could  do  was  go  and  look  at 
them."  "I,  too,"  the  author  states,  "feel 
that  this  is  the  least  I  can  do." 

She  does  a  lot  more.  In  fact,  it  is  quite 
possible  that  she  and  Mr.  Hay  are  rar- 
ities among  our  modern  writers.  They 
may  have  seen  Thoreau's  turtledove  dis- 
appearing behind  a  cloud.  At  least,  they 
are  looking  for  it. 

Mr.  Fosburgh  is  a  free-lance  nature 
ivriter  ivho  frequently  contributes  to 
these  pages.  His  latest  book,  published 
by  Macmillan,  is  "The  Natural  Thing." 


A  History  of  Domesticated  Animals, 
by  Frederick  E.  Zeuner.  Harper  &  Row, 
$12.00;  560  pp.,  illus. 

THIS  is  the  only  extensive  book  on 
domesticated  animals  now  available 
in  English.  The  book  is  divided  into  two 
parts:  the  first  discusses  the  origins  and 
evolution  of  domestication;  the  second 
deals  with  domesticated  animals  under 
subdivisions  concerning  preagricultural 
domestication  of  mammals,  early  agri- 
cultural domestications,  mammals  do- 
mesticated for  transport  and  labor,  mam- 
mals used  as  pest  destroyers,  various 
other  mammals,  and  domesticated  birds, 
fishes,  and  insects.  A  twenty-nine  page 
bibliography  and  twenty-page  index  con- 
clude the  work.  The  book  has  numerous 
photographs  and  drawings. 

The  history  of  domestication  falls 
within  the  province  of  two  sciences, 
archeology  and  zoology.  From  the  view- 
point  of  the   professional   or   advanced 


amateur  archeologist,  this  book  v 
provide  most  useful  source  material, 
the  taxonomic  zoologist  or  geneticist 
is  more  of  a  nightmare.  The  auth 
himself  an  archeologist,  seems  to 
aware  of  the  genetic  concept  of  spec 
tion,  but  also  seems  unable  to  incor 
rate  it  into  his  writing.  Some  of  his  s 
tematic  revelations  state  that  the  coy 
and  domestic  dog  are  unable  to  hybrid: 
and  that  the  "hyaena  dog"  (cape  hu 
ing  dog,  Lycaon  pictus)  is  "a  meml 
of  the  hyaena  family,  and  not  a  do 
Both  of  these  statements  will  surpi 
mammalogists.  Another  shortcoming 
the  book  is  that  there  is  no  definition 
exactly  what  a  domestic  animal  is. 

Although    technical    and    well    do 

mented,  the  book  is  quite  readable  £ 

its  shortcomings  may,  hopefully,  stir 

late  research  into  this  fascinating  fie 

Richard  G.  Van  Geli 

The  American  Muse 

Birds  on  a  May  Morning  (12-ii 
L.P.),  S5.00;  recorded  by  Droll  Yank 
Incorporated. 

USUALLY  it  is  more  fun  to  observe 
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produces  many  a  paraphernalia-la( 
monster  questing  in  the  woods— inte 
stealthy,  but  somehow  able  to  step 
dry  branches  at  the  rate  of  thirty  j 
minute  and  to  somersault  into  m 
gullies.  Oddly  enough,  even  at  the 
stant  of  the  worst  fall  imaginable,  a  b 
begins  to  sing,  and  as  soon  as  the  m 
ster  can  stand  up,  he  hoists  his  mic 
phone,  presses  the  button  of  his  tc 
recorder,  and  for  a  wild  moment  : 
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City 


Toward  a  long 
view  of  health 

OUR  MOST 

INTERESTING 

DISEASES 

How  do  our  living  habits  and 
our  heredity  relate  to  our 
major  diseases  today?  What 
new  developments  have  been 
evolved  to  explore  and  fight 
them?  A  leading  authority  has 
startling  things  to  say  on 
these  vital  questions,  of  in- 
terest to  layman  and  scientist 
alike. 

HAROLD 
BURN,  M.D. 

Author  of 
Drugs,  Medicines  and  Man 

$4.50  at  all  bookstores 

SCRIBNERS 


SPECIMENS  TAKE  ON 
A  NEW  LIGHT  WHEN 


SEEN  THROUGH 
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»,|  Bausch  &  Lomb's  Illuminated 
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This  lightweight  magnifier  is  oper- 
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w 


Bond  hunts  down  in  Ian  Fleming's 
thrillers.  The  monster  then  yawps:  "Bat- 
teries are  dead."  Or  he  may  grin  with 
triumph,  only  to  discover  later  that  a 
circuit  melted.  Bird  song  records  emerge 
from  all  this  by  a  mysterious  process 
known  as  "good  luck." 

The  present  one,  by  Droll  Yankees 
Inc..  takes  the  listener  to  the  farm  of 
Richard  E.  Dana  in  North  Pomfret,  Ver- 
mont, where  a  bird  concert  commences 
with  the  crowing  of  a  Plymouth  cock. 
The  other  artists  are  thirty-six  undomes- 
ticated  species  from  field,  orchard, 
woods,  and  swampy  places.  An  instruc- 
tive human  voice  identifies  them  with 
some  reverence  on  Side  A,  but  only  the 
birds  themselves  are  heard  on  Side  B. 
Thus  a  sagacious  statement  on  the  album 
jacket  suggests  that  "the  record  may  be 
used  as  a  guessing  game,  to  learn  the 
bird  songs,  or  simply  to  bring  back  the 
joyful  sounds  of  a  May  morning."  Most 
listeners  won't  quibble  with  that.  Al- 
though somewhat  boring,  the  record  is 
technically  adequate,  and  the  Audubon 
Societies  of  Rhode  Island  and  Massa- 
chusetts have  endorsed  it. 

William  George 
The  American  Museum 

Troy  and  the  Trojans,  by  Carl  W. 
Blegen.  Frederick  A.  Praeger,  $6.95; 
240  pp.,  illus. 

PROFESSOR  BLEGEN— a  modern  succes- 
sor of  Heinrich  Schliemann,  whose 
remarkable  deductions  first  unearthed 
Troy— led  an  expedition  from  the  Uni- 
versity of  Cincinnati  to  the  site  of  Troy. 
There,  in  seven  meticulous  campaigns, 
the  results  of  Schliemann's  excavations 
were  tested  and  refined  (1932-38).  After 
the  Trojan  enterprise  was  finished,  Ble- 
gen undertook  the  excavation  of  Nestor's 
Pylos.  a  Homeric  site  untouched  by 
Schliemann,  which  has  since  become  fa- 
mous as  the  location  of  Linear  B  ar- 
chives. This  discovery  gave  the  impetus 
to  the  decipherment  of  the  earliest  form 
of  written  Greek. 

At  Troy,  Blegen  applied  a  system  of 
strictly  scientific  and  unsensational  dig- 
ging. Little  seemed  left  to  be  excavated 
when  the  Cincinnati  expedition  started, 
but  with  the  aid  of  small  tools,  patience, 
and  keen  observation  the  preliistoric  rec- 
ord was  read  in  minute  detail.  The  new 
book  on  Troy  gives  an  abbreviated  but 
straightforward  account  of  the  findings. 
The  description  of  the  growth  of  the 
citadel  of  Troy  is  developed  from  its 
earliest  stages  (about  3000  B.C.)  to  the 
time  of  the  Trojan  War  (here  dated 
about  1260  B.C.)  and  its  brief  aftermath. 

As  a  sample  of  methodical  archeologi- 
cal  reporting  the  new  volume  is  excel- 
lent. It  demonstrates  how  a  strict  separa- 
tion of  material  facts  and  theoretical 
speculation  can  be  maintained.  Many 
new  insights  resulted  from  the  observa- 


Explore  new  worlds  of 
nature  and  science! 


The  EVOLUTION    ^ 
of  BIOLOGY  ^ 


M.   J.   SIRKS, 

University  of  Groningen 
CONWAY   ZIRKLE, 

University  of  Pennsylvania 

A  vivid  account  of  the 
rise  of  biology  from  the 
dawn  of  civilization  to  the 
spectacular  advances  of  the  20th  Centur; 
Book  brings  to  life  the  struggle  again 
ignorance  and  disease— and  the  excitir 
breakthroughs  of  our  more  enlightene 
era.  Unforgettable  portraits  of  the  world 
foremost  scientists  offer  new  insights  inl 
the  nature  and  history  of  biology.  37 
pp.,  illus.  1964.  (230)  $ 

BOY'S  BOOK 
of  FISHES 

EDWARD  C.   MIGDALSK 

Yale  University 

This  superbly  illustrated  guide  answe 
just  about  any  question  a  boy  could  a; 
about  fishes.  In  clear,  easy-to-read  lai 
guage,  it  explains  how  fish  swim,  breath 
eat,  migrate  vast  distances,  etc.  Packe 
with  hints  on  locating  and  identifyir 
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174  pp.,  illus.  (231)  } 

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-all  by  PERCY  A.  MORRIS, 

Museum  of  Natural  History,  New  Haven 

MODERN 
ADVANCES 
in  SCIENCE 

A  Layman's  Guide 

JAMES   STOKLEY, 

Michigan  State 
University 

Here  are  the  amazing  facts  behind  th 
new  scientific  achievements!  In  simpl 
layman's  terms,  this  book  explains  moc 
ern  breakthroughs  in  the  exploration  ( 
outer  space,  new  energy  sources,  appl 
cations  of  the  laser,  etc.,  as  well  as  starl 
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I  n  Check  enclosed      D  Send  C.O.D. 

!  Name 

I  NH-l 

I  Address 

j  City 


-Zone State . 


)f  data  previously  neglected.  The 
of  animal  bones  and  vegetable  re- 
may  be  referred  to  here  as  an  ap- 
iate  example.  Much  was  learned 
agriculture,  hunting,  fishing,  diet, 
van  warfare  from  these  sources  of 
ice.  and  interesting  changes  in  en- 
nent  are  now  apparent.  The  horse 
uddenly  introduced  at  the  begin- 
if  Troy  VI.  soon  after  2000  B.C..  by 
;  who  archeologically  are  marked 
vcomers  to  the  site.  These  new  in- 
;nts,  as  is  pointed  out  in  the  inter- 
ive  section,  were  probably  related 
earliest  Greeks,  who  entered  their 
homeland  at  about  the  same  time, 
orse  must  have  been  of  strategic 
tance  in  the  successful  movements 
immigrants. 

volume  is  well  illustrated  and 
lue  respect  to  the  previous  genera- 
)f  Trojan  excavators.  It  should  be 
IS  a  modern,  unbiased  account  of 
at  a  famous  prehistoric  site. 

Machteld  J.  Mellink 
Bryn  Mawr  College 

Treasure  of  the  Great  Reef,  by 
r  C.  Clarke.  Harper  &  Row,  $4.95; 
1.,  illus. 

the  ingredients  for  an  exciting 
iventure  tale  are  here:  exotic  lo- 
Ceylon)  ;  a  true  treasure  hunt  off 
jerous  reef;  legends  of  lost  ships; 
tic  marine  creatures;   and  an  in- 

crew  of  skin  divers.  Combine 
slements  with  the  fine  storytelling 

of  the  versatile  Mr.  Clarke,  add 
ous  photographs,  and  settle  down 

evening's  entertainment. 
it  of  the  action  takes  place  near 
reat  Basses  reef  off  the  southeast 
of  Ceylon  in  what  is  literally  a 
'ard  of  lost  ships.  In  addition  to 
rrative  of  the  recovery  of  sunken 
re  (including  a  bronze  cannon), 
ok  rambles  into  all  manner  of  re- 
iubjects:  the  history  of  wrecks  and 
recovery;   observations  on  the  be- 

of  sharks;  the  legal  problems  of 
water  archeology;  movie-making; 
ques  for  the  preservation  of  re- 
:d  objects;  giant  squid;  and.  above 
in  diving. 

William  N.  Tavolga 
The  American  Museum 


)C.Y.    by    Peter   Farb.    Time, 
■  192  pp.,  illus. 


Inc., 


a  glance,  this  volume  in  the  "Life 
lature  Library"  appears  to  be  one 
in  the  recent  spate  of  lavishly  illus- 
nature  books.  The  numerous  il- 
tions— both  full  color  and  black 
rhite— are  well  chosen  and  repro- 
;  many  have  lengthy  captions.  The 
deserves  more  than  casual  perusal 
the  author's  chapters,  which  run 
or  less  parallel  to  the  pictures  and 


You  may  never  have  to  shoot  an  Alose  Pseudaharenous  being 
fitted  with  a  contact  lens.  But  there  is  no  reason  why  you 
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Nikon   Inc. Ill  Fifth  Ave.,  N.Y.3.  subsidiary  of  EhrenreichPhoto-Optlcal  industries,  mc. 


13 


A  fascinating  look  at 
the  world's  most 
astonishing  animal 


SILENTLY,  BY 


Written  and 
illustrated 


NIGHT! 

b,  RUSSELL  PETERSON 

Disarming,  delightful,  and  unique  in  its 
intelligent  and  entertaining  treatment 
of  the  world  of  bats,  Russell  Peterson's 
new  book  Is  that  rare  and  wonderful 
thing,  a  natural  history  classic. 

"Bats  vary  to  a  degree  which  hardly 
seems  possible,"  says  the  author,  a 
mammalogist  who  has  led  expeditions 
to  New  Guinea  and  Australia  for  the 
American  Museum  of  Natural  History. 
"It  is  true  that  they  do  not  swim  under 
water  (although  they  can  swim  on  top 
of  it  if  they  have  to),  but  they  seem  to 
do  nearly  everything  else— from  fishing 
to  eating  nectar  and  pollinating  flow- 
ers. They  differ  in  magnitude  from 
something  near  hummingbird  size  to 
giants  with  a  wingspread  of  just  under 
six  feet,  and  they  vary  in  physical  size 
from  a  limpid-eyed  ball  of  fur  to  a 
frightful  looking  apparition  which  would 
rival  a  gargoyle  on  a  buttress  of  Notre 
Dame." 

Silently,  By  Night  is  full  of  intrigu- 
ing information,  personal  anecdote,  and 
scientific  data  about  bats  and  men, 
bats  as  food,  bats  in  captivity,  vampire 
bats  and  cannibal  bats,  bat  "sonar"  and 
its  contribution  to  the  New  Technol- 
ogy, bat  species,  anatomy,  and  habits. 

Mr.  Peterson  has  illustrated  his  text 
with  nearly  forty  striking  illustrations 
-ten  of  them  full  pages.  General  read- 
ers, amateur  naturalists  and  profes- 
sional scientists  will  find  his  perceptive 
commentary  a  rich  source  of  unusual 
material  about  an  unusual  subject,  and 
his  enthusiastic  writing  style  guaran- 
tees hours  of  pleasure  for  readers  of 
all  ages.  Order  copies  from  your  local 
bookseller,  or  mail  the  coupon  below. 

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their  captions,  set  a  high  standard  in 
popular  science  writing.  Themes  in- 
clude: biotic  communities,  energy  flow 
as  exemplified  by  food  chains,  adapta- 
tions of  various  sorts,  biological  rhythms 
and  cycles,  parasitism,  beneficial  mu- 
tualization,  predation,  competition,  pop- 
ulation fluctuations,  extinction,  and  so 
on.  The  complexity  of  interrelationships 
within  the  biota  is  reiterated  or  implied 
constantly,  and  there  is  a  steady  under- 
current of  conservation  attitude.  The 
latter,  especially,  dominates  in  the  con- 
cluding chapter  on  man  versus  nature. 
Again,  the  examples  are  familiar— water 
and  air  pollution,  radioactive  fallout, 
biocides,  the  population  explosion,  and 
other  aspects  of  our  present  "predica- 
ment of  being  a  ruler  over  the  earth 
without  knowing  the  [ecological]  rules." 
There  is  a  vacant  ecological  niche  for 
this  book  on  many  a  bookshelf. 

Ralph  S.  Palmer 
Univ.  of  the  State  of  Neiv  York 

Fish-Shape  Paumanok,  Nature  and 
Man  on  Long  Island,  by  Robert  Cush- 
man  Murphy.  American  Philosophical 
Society,  $3.00;  67  pp.,  illus. 

THIS  book  is  a  graphic  account  of  the 
rise  and  fall  of  the  flora  and  fauna  of 
Long  Island,  and  constituted  the  1962 
Penrose  Memorial  Lecture  at  the  Ameri- 
can Philosophical  Society.  Dr.  Murphy's 
account  rests  on  his  detailed  knowledge 
of  conservation  as  he,  among  few,  has 
learned  it  at  the  font— by  observation  and 
study.  His  research  is  profound  and  the 
evidence  is  written  with  clarity,  accu- 
racy, and  forceful  logic. 

Few  books  have  been  written  on  his- 
torical themes  from  the  viewpoint  of  the 
trained  scientist  and  conservationist.  Dr. 
Murphy's  short  essay  stands  with  Aldo 
Leopold's  A  Sand  County  Almanac  as  an 
example  of  great  scientific  literature. 
The  author  is  an  outstanding  scientific 
prophet  of  our  democracy. 

The  period  covered  in  Fish-Shape  Pau- 
manok extends  from  the  time  of  the  last 
retreating  glacier  to  the  crowded  plazas 
of  modern  supermarkets  and  beyond  to 
the  heritage,  if  it  may  still  be  called  that, 
of  future  residents  of  Long  Island.  Gla- 
cial formations,  the  establishment  of  the 
original  flora  and  fauna,  and  the  vagaries 
of  wind,  weather,  and  tides  are  presented 
in  an  introduction  to  the  island.  Introduc- 
tions of  other  sorts  then  follow.  These 
include  Algonkin  Indians  and  the  early 
English  and  Dutch  settlers.  The  latter 
introduced  a  chain  reaction— slow  and 
long  extended— that  led  to  a  complete  al- 
teration of  the  Long  Island  scene. 

The  sec|uence  of  historical  events  pre- 
sents the  tragic  effects  of  inept  farming, 
overhunting,  and  the  resultant  depletions 
of  plants  and  animals,  even  to  extinction 
—locally  and  completely.  It  dramatizes 
bounty  systems,  fires,  and  the  systematic 


removal  of  forests  to  supply  both  si 
and  shore.  Human  appearances  and  i 
partures  are  aptly  considered,  too. 

This  theme  of  flux  is  extended  to 
elude  the  changed  ecology  of  the  Lo 
Island  landscape  caused  by  introducti( 
of  exotic  plants,  pollution  by  deterge: 
and  chlorinated  hydrocarbons,  the  r 
ages  of  suction  dredges,  bulldozers,  a 
land  developments.  And  the  end  is  i 
yet.  what  with  the  filling  of  ponds,  dil 
and  fills  on  wetland  savannas,  and  mi 
of  concrete  slabs  leading  from  here 
nowhere.  Dr.  Murphy  sounds  a  clear  c 
for  immediate  federal  ownership  of  tj 
wilderness  area  still  existing  on  the  F 
Island  seashores.  All  told,  the  story  o 
fauna  and  flora  has  probably  never  b« 
presented  in  better  perspective.  The  be 
is  profusely  illustrated  with  sketcl 
by  nineteenth-century  artist  William 
Mount,  supplemented  with  photograj 
and  paintings  of  past  and  present  seen 
The  bibliography  is  excellent  and 
quotations  from  Walt  Whitman  are  i 
and  nostalgic.  This  is  a  masterful  p 
sentation  by  an  eminent  scientist  a 
conservationist. 

Edvfin  p.  Greaser, 
Hofstra  Univer. 

Wasp  Farm,  by  Howard  Ensign  Eva 
The  Natural  History  Press,  $3.95;  j 
pp.,  illus. 

In  the  overlap  of  the  fields  of  sciei 
and  literature,  I  have  often  felt  t 
there  are  primarily  two  groups  of  p 
ticipants— competent  scientists  who  c 
not  write  well  and  competent  writ 
with  a  limited  knowledge  of  scier 
There  are  exceptions,  but  they  are 
few.  Gonsequently,  when  a  scientist  v 
writes  with  ease  appears  on  the  see 
we  are  indeed  fortunate,  and  when  t 
scientist  is  one  of  the  leading  authoril 
in  his  field  and  has  a  skill  with  his  ] 
that  rivals  his  scientific  acumen,  th 
is  reason  to  rejoice.  Rejoice  we  mi 
then,  in  the  abilities  of  Howard  Ens 
Evans  as  demonstrated  in  JFasp  Fa, 
This  small  book  treats  with  gentle  hui 
and  sound  philosophy  the  behavior, 
pecially  the  nesting  activities,  of  a  vi 
ety  of  wasps  that  Evans  encounte: 
when  he  lived  on  an  eight-acre  "Wi 
Farm"  near  Ithaca,  New  York.  Infon 
tion  about  the  ways  of  the  fascinat 
wasps  is  augmented  by  data  gaii 
through  the  author's  studies  of  the 
sects  in  various  parts  of  the  West 
Hemisphere  and  through  the  investi 
tions  of  others.  I  cannot  say  wheti 
you  should  read  this  book  because  of 
scientific  content  or  because  of  its 
lightful  literary  style,  but  in  any  ev 
I  urge  you  (be  you  scientist  or  layms 
to  read  it  if  you  are  seeking  an  evenir 
enjoyable  enlightenment. 

Jerome  G.  Rozen, 
The  American  Muse 


H 


'WIMJW^ 


_i   -i  ^. 


\^Jr  AJXI; 


This  man  is  producing  a  flame  three  times  hotter  than  the  surface  of  the  sun! 
He's  a  process  engineer  with  the  Manufacturing  Development  section  at  the 
General  Motors  Technical  Center,  and  he's  operating  a  plasma  jet  torch. 
The  30,000-degree  flame  is  so  hot  that  it  melts  the  toughest  heat-resistant 
metals  so  that  they  can  be  sprayed  like  paint  .  .  .  and  provide  a  protective 
coating  for  the  searing  heat  that  rocket  parts  must  undergo. 

This  is  just  a  sample  of  the  work  of  over  600  people  at  GM's  Manufacturing 
Development  section.  Their  job  is  to  improve  manufacturing  processes  by 
developing  new  tools  and  techniques.  They  develop  ideas  and  make  them 
practical . .  .  make  them  work!  It  may  mean  a  way  to  make  stronger  steering 
gear  components,  a  new  way  to  finish  a  refrigerator,  better  techniques  for 
electroplating  car  parts,  an  improved  method  of  assembling  radio  transistors, 
and  there  are  countless  others. 

Manufacturing  Development,  along  with  the  Technical  Center  staffs  of  Re- 
search, Engineering  and  Styling,  is  a  highly  important  part  of  the  General 
Motors  team  ...  a  big  reason  for  GM's  technical  advances  year  after  year. 

GENERAL  MOTORS  IS  PEOPLE... 


"Little  Snake 
With  Hands " 


7 

4 


Amphisbaenids  are  a  taxonomic  enigma 


K':"-  :,"/"];'"Vi' 


^^ 


'  '^i'^'^^'sr--' 


'i-S 


t'"\'C: 

'3". 

V/c-  ■/ 

By  Charles  M.  Bogert 

At  the  southern  part  of  the  pen- 
XjL  insula  of  Baja  California,  Mexi- 
cans working  in  the  fields  occasionally 
unearth  a  small,  nearly  blind,  burrow- 
ing animal  they  know  as  the  axolote. 
On  the  mainland  of  Mexico,  roughly  a 
thousand  miles  to  the  southeast  in  the 
state  of  Guerrero,  a  similar  creature 
inhabits  sandy  areas  bordering  the 
Balsas  River.  In  Guerrero,  the  natives 
call  it  a  culebrita  con  manitas,  literally 
a  "little  snake  with  [little]  hands." 
The  animal  does  resemble  a  snake  in 
having  a  forked  tongue  and  no  ear 
openings  or  movable  eyelids.  Its  ser- 
pentine appearance  is  further  height- 
ened by  a  slender,  pinkish-lavender 
body,  little  larger  in  diameter  than  a 
pencil.  Despite  these  characters,  each 
of  the  short,  stout  limbs  behind  its 
head  terminates  in  five-clawed  digits. 

Detailed  examination  of  these  seem- 
ingly preposterous  reptiles  reveals 
traits  that  they  share  with  a  blind, 
limbless  burrower  restricted  to  Flor- 
ida. No  less  astonishing,  they  more 
closely  resemble  other  blunt-tailed, 
superficially  wormlike,  limbless  rep- 
tiles known  from  subterranean  habi- 
tats, principally  in  Africa  and  South 
America.  Approximately  130  species 
of  these  reptiles  have  been  discovered. 
All  have  features  in  common  with 
those  in  Mexico  and  the  one  in  Florida. 
For  this  reason  they  are  placed  in  one 
family,  the  Amphisbaenidae. 

No  other  family  of  reptiles  has 
a  distribution  quite  so  bizarre.  Among 
snakes  and  lizards  a  few  large  families 
are  widely  and  more  or  less  continu- 
ously distributed  in  two  or  more,  but 
seldom  in  all,  continents.  At  the  other 
extreme,  a  few  families— perhaps  once 
somewhat  more  diversified— have 
dwindled  to  a  single  species.  Such  lone 
survivors  as  the  earless  monitor  (Lan- 
thanotidae)  of  Borneo  or  the  tuatara 
(Rhynchocephalidae )  of  New  Zealand 
are  restricted  to  one  island,  a  few 
islets,  or  a  tiny  fraction  of  a  larger 
land  mass.  Occasionally  two  or  three 
species  of  a  family,  the  footless  lizards 
(Anniellidael  of  California  and  Baja 
California,  for  example,  are  adjacent 
in  one  small  portion  of  a  continent. 


Two  LEGS  ending  in  five  digits  (not 
all  show  in  photograph)  are  typical  of 
Bipes  biporiis,  also  known  as  axolote. 


It  is  sufficiently  mystifying  to  find 
relatives  of  the  iguana  in  Madagascar 
and  the  Fiji  Islands,  when  all  other 
members  of  the  family  are  in  the 
Americas.  What  is  more  surprising, 
amphisbaenids  are  distributed  on 
parts  of  five  continents,  although  the 
majority-  of  the  species  are  concen- 
trated in  two  clumps  on  opposite  sides 
of  the  Atlantic.  Nowhere  else  are  am- 
phisbaenids so  abundant  as  they  are  in 
the  tropical  and  subtropical  portions 
of  Africa  and  South  America.  They  in- 
habit several  islands  bordering  the 
Caribbean,  but  these  populations  are 
essentially  outposts  of  those  in  the 
South  American  center.  The  West 
Indies  species,  however,  nearly  out- 
number the  few  that  seem  at  first  to 
be  haphazardly  distributed  in  warmer 
portions  of  the  northern  continents. 

All  of  these  are  found  on  peninsulas. 
The  map  (page  19)  shows  that  in 
North  America  there  are  four  species. 
Three  inhabit  areas  bordering  on  the 
Pacific— two  on  the  mainland  of  Mex- 
ico, a  relatively  narrow  southern  ex- 
tension of  the  continent,  and  one  in 
Baja  California,  a  slender  strip  of 
land  flanking  the  northwest  coast  of 
the  main  peninsula.  To  the  east  one 
species  is  restricted  to  peninsular 
Florida.  The  one  in  Europe  occurs  at 
the  southern  end  of  the  Iberian  Penin- 
sula. The  few  species  east  of  the  Medi- 
terranean in  Asia  Minor  inhabit  either 
the  Arabian  Peninsula,  or  Turkey  and 
Iran,  both  of  which  are  bordered  on 
two  sides  by  water. 

PERHAPS  peninsular  climates,  which 
are  less  rigorous  than  those  char- 
acteristic of  regions  farther  inland,  ac- 
count for  this  distribution.  Seasonal 
changes  are  less  pronounced  because 
the  more  stable  temperature  of  the  ad- 
jacent water  exerts  its  effects  on  the 
land.  In  other  words,  environmental 
conditions  on  peninsulas  more  nearly 
approximate  those  prevailing  in  the 
habitats  of  amphisbaenids  in  Africa 
and  South  America.  The  ancestral  am- 
phisbaenids conceivably  adopted  sub- 
terrestrial  habits  in  order  to  avoid  the 
adverse  conditions  on  the  surface, 
where  temperatures  fluctuate  more 
rapidly  and  exceed  the  extremes  en- 
countered in  the  soil. 

The  amphisbaenids  in  western  Mex- 
ico are  the  most  isolated  group  in  the 
family.  They  are  exceptional  in  one 
other  respect— retention   of  the  front 


17 


r 


r^'-^ 


V  J'  i\ 


>^ 


^  j^^ 


Lateral  vNnri.ATioNS  of  body  propel 
Florida  sand  skink  under  surface.  Sand 
falls  in  tunnel,  marking  sinuous  trail. 

limbs.  Like  the  limLless  amphisbaenids 
found  outside  Mexico,  they  have  rem- 
nants of  hip  bones.  We  can  assume  that 
the  Mexican  species  arose  because  of 
the  geographical  isolation  of  one  as- 
semblage of  similar  individuals  at  an 
early  stage  in  the  history  of  the  Am- 
phisbaenidae.  This  population  perhaps 
became  separated  from  its  relatives 
before  many  of  them  had  parted  with 
one  or  both  pairs  of  legs. 

THE  fossil  record  shows  that  liz- 
ards arose  in  the  Jurassic  Period, 
possibly  150  million  years  ago.  As  the 
dinosaurs  and  their  relatives  declined, 
the  lizards  began  to  flourish.  They 
branched  out  as  they  exploited  unoc- 
cupied habitats,  and  their  form  and 
habits  changed.  By  the  time  the  ruling 
reptiles  faded  from  the  scene  at  the 
close  of  the  Cretaceous,  lizards  were 
advancing  on  several  fronts.  Those  in 
one  line  followed  a  trend  leading  to- 
ward the  loss  of  limbs,  of  ear  openings, 
and  of  movable  eyelids,  and  became 
snakes.  These  peculiarities,  among 
others,  suggest  that  snakes  evolved 
from  lizards  adapted  for  life  under- 
ground. It  is  possible,  even  probable, 
that  amphisbaenids  were  exploiting 
subterranean  habitats  before  the 
snakes  appeared.  Remains  of  the  oldest 
indisputable  snake,  from  the  Upper 
Cretaceous,  antedate  by  a  few  million 
years  the  most  ancient  amphisbaenids 
thus  far  recovered.  But  these  are  from 
the  Eocene  (45  to  55  million  years 
ago ) ,  and  by  that  time  the  amphisbae- 
nids were  highly  specialized  burrow- 
ers  differing  little  from  those  today. 
Paleontologists  are  likely  to  be 
pleased,  rather  than  surprised,  there- 
fore, should  fossil  amphisbaenids  even- 
tually be  found  in  rocks  older  than 
those  containing  snakes.  With  fossils 
no  older  than  those  of  the  Eocene, 
however,  amphisbaenid  ancestry  is  as 
obscure  as  that  of  the  man  who  told 
CarlSandburg,  "I  don't  know  who  my 


'11 


C"- 


:ZAiA 


Front  end  of  Bipes  plods  on  short 
limbs,  steering  trunk.  When  reptile 


burrows  in  sand,  belotv,  it  holds  L 
against  body  and  pushes  head  doi 


ancestors   were,   but   we've   been    de- 
scending for  a  long  time." 

Certain  it  is  that  amphisbaenids 
have  been  descending  for  a  long  time, 
literally.  Selection  resulted  in  their 
becoming  increasingly  streamlined. 
The  elongation  of  the  body  and  the 
loss  of  limbs  facilitated  their  progres- 
sion through  the  soil.  They  dispensed 
with  the  eardrum  along  with  ear  open- 
ings—a source  of  friction  to  an  animal 
moving  in  an  underground  environ- 
ment. The  detection  of  airborne 
sounds  was  then  no  lona;er  an  asset. 


although  amphisbaenids  retain 
inner  ear  and  the  bone  (extraco 
mella)  that  once  transmitted  sou 
waves  from  the  eardrum.  Other  mo 
fications  may  enhance  the  reception 
sound  waves  transmitted  through  • 
soil.  Although  snakes,  too,  lack  i 
openings,  they  are  sensitive  to  sour 
of  low  frequency— 100  to  700  eye 
per  second— as  investigators  at  Prin 
ton  have  shown.  Bone  conduction 
counts  for  their  reception  of  both  s( 
borne  and  airborne  vibrations  witl 
this  range.  Hence,  this  may  also 


of  amphisbaenids.  Amphisbaenid 
protected  with  a  transparent  cov- 
;  derived  from  a  "window"  in  the 
r  lid  that  fused  with  the  upper, 
d  little  friction  when  the  head  was 
it  through  the  soil.  With  no  pre- 
n  on  vision  under  such  conditions, 
ver,  the  eyes  deteriorated.  Their 
^es  are  discernible  in  some  spe- 
or  deeply  buried  in  the  most 
mlined.  where  they  can  be  seen 
in  the  translucent  hatchlings. 
ptiles  foraging  on  the  surface 
see,  hear,  or  smell  their  prey,  or 
oy  such  specialized  organs  as 
red  (heat)  receptors  to  locate 
ith  few  exceptions,  subterrestrial 
es  depend  largely  upon  scent- 
possibly  sound— to  locate  their 
Beetle  larvae,  termites,  or  earth- 
is  may  produce  enough  noise 
feeding  or  squirming  through 
ail  to  be  detected  by  an  amphis- 
d.  The  British  naturalist  Hans 
w  found  the  culebritas  con  mani- 
ving  in  patches  of  moist  alluvial 
along  the  Balsas  River,  where 
left  tunnels  at  least  a  foot  below 
lurface  that  could  be  followed 
ny  direction."  When  Hobart  M. 
1  reached  the  Balsas  in  1932,  a 
^  shower  had  preceded  his  arrival, 
lie  found  amphisbaenids  nearer 
jrface.  Several  were  under  large 
s,  often  near  the  bases  of  trees 
irubs,  where  the  soil  remained 
.  Tunnels  readily  identified  as 
of  the  two-legged  amphisbaenid 
sd  that  several  had  worked  their 
0  the  undersurface  of  rocks, 
/eral  of  the  culebritas  Smith  cap- 
had  been  eating  small  beetles. 
;ntly  a  foraging  amphisbaenid 
Dcate  and  devour  insects  or  simi- 
rey  without  coming  to  the  sur- 
It  is  equally  probable  that  in- 
or  their  larvae  gain  access  to 
unnels  amphisbaenids  create  as 
move  about.  An  amphisbaenid 
Florida,  Rhineura  floridana.  was 
n  a  gallon  jar  of  moist  sand  and 
ved  sporadically  as  it  worked  its 
along  the  side  of  the  container, 
reptile  often  left  tunnels  in  den- 
patterns,  as  though  it  had  ex- 
d  various  areas  in  the  jar.  When 
tes  were  added  to  the  jar,  how- 
it  became  evident  that  it  was 
than  luck  that  led  the  animal  to 
rey.  Shortly  after  the  termites 
released  on  the  surface,  most  of 
crawled  into  a  fissure  in  the 
at  the  edge  of  the  jar.  Almost 
diately  the  Rhineura  headed  to- 


ward them,  vigorously  pushing  its 
head  into  the  soil  and  momentarily  re- 
treating while  it  thrust  out  its  forked 
tongue.  Leaving  a  somewhat  sinuous 
tunnel  in  its  wake,  the  worm-shaped 
reptile  nevertheless  veered  little  from 
the  course  that  led  to  its  prey,  and 
within  a  few  moments  was  rapidly 
seizing  and  swallowing  termites. 

However,  the  performance  of  the 
Rhineura  did  not  reveal  whether  it  was 
hearing  or  smelling  its  way  to  the 
insects.  Repeated  use  of  the  tongue 
strongly  suggests  that  it  was  being 
used  to  sample  the  ambient  air.  Odor- 
ous particles  adhering  to  or  dissolved 
in  the  film  of  mucus  on  its  forked  tip 
were  being  carried  to  paired  receptors 
in  the  roof  of  the  mouth.  Snakes  and 
some  lizards  employ  the  forked  tongue 
in  a  similar  fashion.  When  the  tongue 
is  withdrawn  the  tips  are  thrust  into 
a  pair  of  depressions  that  lead  to 
chemoreceptors.  or  specialized  organs 
of  smell,  in  the  palate.  By  creating 
tunnels,  amphisbaenids  may  well  pro- 
vide avenues  for  the  transmission  of 
both  sound  and  scent.  Amphisbaenids 
from  Baja  California,  at  least  those 
kept  in  moist  sand  in  the  laboratory, 
occasionally  come  to  the  surface.  The 
small  holes  they  leave  as  they  re-enter 
the  sand,  usually  by  backing  into  the 
burrow,  probably  prove  inviting  to 
insects  or  insect  larvae  seeking  shelter. 

LIMBLESS  amphisbaenids.  although 
j  once  looked  upon  by  Europeans 
as  rather  quaint  serpents  from  the 
Mediterranean  region,  have  been 
known  since  ancient  times.  The  Aztecs, 
whose  interest  in  natural  history  led 
them  to  maintain  zoological  and  bo- 
tanical gardens  in  their  capital,  were 
probably  aware  of  the  two-legged  rep- 
tile in  Guerrero.  No  specimen  reached 
Europe,  however,  until  more  than  two 
centuries  after  the  Spaniards  had  con- 
quered Mexico.  An  amphisbaenid  with 
limbs,  described  as  a  reptile  bipede, 
was  first  depicted  in  1789  in  a  French 
encyclopedia.  For  almost  another  cen- 
tury the  creature  remained  nearly  as 
m^^thical  as  the  unicorn  and  the  griffin, 
although  it  had  acquired  a  scientific 
name.  Bipes  canaliculatus. 

Two-legged  amphisbaenids  were  not 
rediscovered  until  the  latter  part  of 
the  nineteenth  century.  The  first  to 
reach  any  serious  student  of  natural 
history  came  from  the  Balsas  Valley. 
Similar  reptiles  were  found  in  187-5 
near  La  Paz  in  Baja  California.  Nearly 
two    decades    afterward,    in    1894,    a 


E3  AmieUa  pulcha 

I Annielh  geronomemis 

■■   -   Ophisaunis  aitenuatus 
^   Anrhjtrvpsh  papillo.ms 
OphjMiuni^  comprcsstis 
M   Ophiwtinii  ventraUs 
Hi   Sco^eps  rcynnldsi 

Limbless  and  near-limbless  lizard 
distribution  in  N.A.  is  shown, aboie. 
Bottom  map  plots  living  and  fossil 
Amphisbaenidae    in   the   Americas. 


FOSSILS 
R   ...Rhineiim 
0  ...  Other  genera 
. . .  Eocene 

O  . . .  Oligocene 


Mexican  naturalist.  Alfredo  Duges,  re- 
ceived specimens  taken  near  the  Bal- 
sas River.  Another  was  sent  to  him 
from  Tecpan  de  Galeana,  a  town  on 
the  coastal  side  of  Guerrero,  a  few 
miles  to  the  northwest  of  Acapulco. 
Duges  noted  that  this  specimen  dif- 
fered from  the  others  in  having  but 
three  digits.  Furthermore,  those  from 
inland  localities  along  the  Balsas  also 
had  tails  proportionately  twice  as  long 
as  the  one  from  Tecpan. 

Duges  was  reasonably  sure  that  this 
one  belonged  to   a  species  unknown 


19 


previously.  To  verify  his  belief  he 
sent  the  specimens,  along  with  his 
notes,  to  Professor  E.  D.  Cope  in  Phil- 
adelphia. Cope  agreed  that  the  short 
tailed,  three-toed  individual  was  not 
canaliculatus.  and  for  it  he  used  thf 
name  tridactylum  that  Duges  had  pro 
posed.  But  examples  of  the  two  spe 
cies  from  Guerrero  proved  to  diflei 
from  those  obtained  in  Baja  Califor 
nia,  which  Cope  recognized  as  a  thin 
species.  It  resembled  the  one  inhabit 
ing  the  Balsas  Valley  in  having  fiv 
digits  and  a  tail  about  twice  th 
length  of  its  head.  Whereas  specimen 
from  the  Balsas  had  six  pores  near  th 
base  of  the  tail,  those  from  Baja  Cal 
fornia  had  only  two.  Cope  also  note 
peculiarities  in  the  scales  on  the  hea( 
but  to  call  attention  to  the  more  obv 
ous  character  of  the  pores,  he  name 
the  species  biporus.  Unlike  the  specie 
in  Baja  California,  the  three-toed  spi 
cies  had  four  pores. 

Such  pores  are  not  invariably  di 
cernible  on  amphisbaenids.  Althou" 
pores  of  the  sort  are  retained  by  a 
three  species  of  Bipes,  some  of  tl 
limbless  members  of  the  family  lac 
them.  These  structures  are  not  indi 
pensable,  therefore,  nor  are  they  co 
fined  to  burrowing  reptiles.  Simil 
pores  are  found  in  many  terrestri 
lizards  of  distantly  related  familif 
and  in  some  species  are  confined 
males.  Hence,  they  may  play  sor 
obscure  role  in  pairing  or  courting  £ 
tivities,  but  field  and  laboratory  inv( 
ligations  of  mating  behavior  in  lizar 
have  failed  to  reveal  their  functic 

Almost  nothing  has  been  learn 
J^\_  about  the  courtship  of  amph 
baenids.  Relatively  few  of  the  1 
species  that  might  be  studied  unc 
controlled  conditions  in  the  laboratc 
are  easily  found,  and  they  are  i 
widely  distributed.  Thus  far,  Sij 
tridactylum  has  been  so  extraordiu 
ily  elusive  that  doubts  arise  conce 
ing  the  source  of  the  specimen  Duj 
obtained.  The  two  five-toed  species  i 
seldom  encountered  far  from  the  t 
or  three  Mexican  sites  where  ei 
first  became  known.  But  not  one  ad 
tional   three-toed  specimen   has   bi 


Similarities  and  dissimilarities  in 
tongues  of  lizards  are  of  interest  to 
taxonomists.  Tongues  of  amphisbaenid 
and  teiid,  top,  display  such  striking 
resemblance  that  it  reinforces  beliei 
they  descended  from  common  ancestor 


Eariess  monitor 


Gila  monster 


orted  since  Duges  described  the 
;ies  70  years  ago.  The  only  speci- 
1  that  Cope  or  anyone  else  has  seen 
i  probably  shipped  from  Tecpan  de 
eana,  as  Duges  reported.  But  per- 
s  it  was  found  elsewhere  and 
ely  mailed  from  that  town.  After 
[  over  half  a  century  additional 
;imens  surely  should  have  been  dis- 
ered,  if  only  by  accident,  in  the 
le  area.  Nevertheless,  when  the  na- 
s  of  Tecpan  and  the  surrounding 
ntry  are  asked  if  they  ever  uncover 
•britas  con  manitas  they  merely 
c  surprised.  Should  they  be  asked 
!ther  the  animalitos  con  dos  pies 
;le  animals  with  two  feet )  are 
■  found  hiding  beneath  rocks  in 
area,  they  may  glare  suspiciously, 
le  questioner  inquiring  about  enan- 
,  or  trolls?  Does  he  expect  a  serious 
y  to  such  questions? 
Tianito,  or  troll,  would  be  little 
appropriate  than  "two-handed 
rowing  snake,"  a  name  used  in 
4  for  the  Bipes  in  Baj  a  California, 
vas   supplanted   by   "mole   lizard"' 

"two-footed  worm  lizard."  neither 
vhich  is  much  better.  Anyone  who 
erves  an  amphisbaenid  crawling, 
fever,  first  might  suspect  that  it  has 
:e  in  common  with  an  earthworm 
a  the  habitat  they  share.  Despite 
functional  limbs,  Bipes  is  more 
mlike  than  lizard-like  in  appear- 
e.  When  unearthed  with  sand  ad- 
ing  to  its  body,  it  usually  remains 
ionless.  Gradually  the  coiled  body 
lifests  signs  of  life,  and  the  limbs 
in  a  sort  of  overhand  stroke,  as 
ugh  the  creature  expected  to  swim. 
:  front  end  soon  plods  along  pur- 
efully,  but  the  rest  of  it,  two-thirds 
more  of  the  body,  inches  along 
:hworm  fashion.  The  head  and 
bs  seem  to  steer  rather  than  drag 
trunk,  which  more  often  progresses 
alternately  advancing  the  skin  and 
1  pulling  the  body  forward  inside 
Vhen  Bipes  re-enters  the  sand,  how- 
r,  it  holds  the  limbs  flush  against  its 
ly,  thrusts  its  head  down  at  an  an- 

and  pushes  it  beneath  the  surface. 
Vere  it  not  for  the  vestiges  of  eyes 
the  head,  its  appearance  would  be 
re  deceptive,  but  no  more  so  than 
vernacular  name.  This  was  not  in- 
ded  to  convey  the  impression  that 

"worm  lizards"  are  worms.  But 
y  may  not  be  lizards,  either.  The 
blem  of  deciding  what  they  are  is 
)ld  and  as  cumbersome  as  the  fam- 
name  Amphisbaenidae.  This  is  de- 
;d  from  the  generic  name  Amphis- 
na,  the  Latinized  version  of  a  Greek 


term  meaning  "to  go  at  both  ends." 
Although  it  has  been  suggested,  it  is 
questionable  whether  Linnaeus  se- 
lected the  name  in  1758  because  he 
realized  that  the  burrower  could  move 
backward  or  forward  with  equal  facil- 
ity. The  probability  is  greater  that 
Linneaus  chose  Amphisbaena  because 
it  had  been  used  since  ancient  times 
for  a  fabulous  serpent  with  two  heads. 
Moreover,  Linnaeus  had  obtained 
specimens  from  Brazil,  where  the 
name  cobra  de  duas  cabecas  or  "snake 
with  two  heads,"  is  still  in  use  as  the 
vernacular  name  for  a  large  amphis- 
baenid possessing  a  rounded  snout, 
well-hidden  eyes,  and  a  blunt  tail. 
Brazilians  apply  the  same  name  to 
the  slender,  limbless  amphibians  now 
called  caecilians  (Natural  History, 
October,  1962).  Linnaeus  would  not 
have  brooded  over  this  confusion,  for 
he  himself  had  classed  caecilians,  am- 
phisbaenids,  and  miscellaneous  limb- 
less lizards  as  snakes. 

UNTIL  naturalists  made  detailed 
studies  of  the  structure  of  the 
animals  they  classified,  such  deficien- 
cies were  inevitable.  But,  faults  and 
all,  Linnaeus'  work  provided  the  im- 
petus for  more  intensive  studies  of 
structures  and  relationships  in  both 
plants  and  animals.  When  his  succes- 
sors made  increasingly  better  use  of 
such  information,  it  became  evident 
that  caecilians  bore  more  resemblance 
to  salamanders.  Amphisbaenids,  cor- 
rectly recognized  as  reptiles  much 
earlier,  posed  no  problems,  but  only 
because  no  one  asked  whv  they  had 
been  called  snakes.  The  limbless  liz- 
ards were  not  satisfactorily  distin- 
guished from  the  snakes  until  1841, 
when  Sir  Richard  Owen  devised  a 
classification  that  incorporated  numer- 
ous improvements.  Notwithstanding 
his  advanced  ideas,  he  still  maintained 
that  amphisbaenids  were  snakes. 

Various  students,  notably  Professor 
E.  D.  Cope,  questioned  Owen's  conclu- 
sions. Pointing  out  that  several  of  the 
limbless  lizards  resembled  the  amphis- 
baenids in  one  way  or  another.  Cope 
maintained  that  they,  too,  should  be 
regarded  as  lizards.  But  Cope  also 
noted  that  the  amphisbaenids  might 
have  arisen  independently  from  the 
common  ancestors  of  snakes  and  liz- 
ards. If  the  amphisbaenids  arose  ear- 
lier than  the  snakes,  as  Cope's  state- 
ment implies,  and  both  share  features 
with  the  subterranean  lizards,  their 
resemblances  can  be  attributed  to  con- 
vergence. In  other  words,  all  charac- 


teristics they  share  are  not  those  of  a 
common  ancestor.  Snakes,  burrowing 
lizards,  and  amphisbaenids  are  some- 
what alike  because  each  group  at  some 
time  in  its  history  became  adapted  to 
the  same  sort  of  habitat.  Nevertheless, 
Cope  preferred  to  regard  amphisbae- 
nids as  extremely  specialized  lizards. 
Within   recent  years   Cope's   views 


EcG  TOOTH  jutting  forward  beneatli  a 
West  Indian  amphisbaenid  hatchling's 
snout,  top,  is  replaced  in  the  aduh, 
center,  by  a  curved-back  median  tooth. 
Egg  tooth  of  snake  hatchling,  bottom, 
is  lost  and  not  replaced  in  the  adult. 


21 


have  teen  accepted  with  growing  skep- 
ticism. If  amphisbaenids  are  lizards, 
they  are  far  enough  removed  from  any 
normal  lizard  to  be  aptly  described  as 
outlandish.  There  is  no  doubt,  how- 
ever, that  they  should  be  grouped  with 
the  lizards  and  snakes,  the  only  other 
reptiles  that  have  paired  copulatory 
organs.  Moreover,  the  amphisbaenids 
gain  their  release  from  the  egg  by 
slitting  the  leathery  shell  with  an  egg 
tooth  in  precisely  the  same  fashion 
as  snakes  and  lizards.  Although  the 
hatchling  sheds  the  egg  tooth  shortly 
after  emerging,  it  is  a  real  tooth  of 
dentine  covered  with  enamel.  Such 
teeth  are  not  found  on  turtles,  croco- 
dilians,  and  the  tuatara,  whose  hatch- 
lings  escape  from  the  egg  by  breaking 
the  shell  with  a  caruncle.  This  is  a 
horny  outgrowth  of  the  skin  on  the 
snout,  the  same  sort  of  egg-breaker 
used  by  birds. 

Although  egg  teeth  are  peculiar  to 
snakes,  lizards,  and  amphisbaenids. 
once  more  the  amphisbaenids  prove  to 
be  nonconformists.  They  not  only  have 
a  strikingly  different  egg  tooth  but  also 
a  distinctive  feature  associated  with 
it.  In  snakes  and  lizards  the  egg  tooth 
is  near  the  end  of  the  bone  supporting 
the  snout,  just  outside  the  mouth. 
When  the  egg  tooth  is  shed  it  is  never 
replaced,  even  in  the  lizards  and  the 
few  snakes  with  teeth  at  the  front  of 
the  upper  jaw.  The  egg  tooth  of  am- 
phisbaenids, however,  is  attached  in- 
side the  mouth,  but  curves  forward  so 
that  the  chisel-like  tip  extends  under- 
neath the  snout  be^'ond  the  lower  lip. 
This  alone  would  not  be  so  remark- 
able, but  in  amphisbaenids  the  egg 
tooth  is  replaced  by  a  stout  tooth, 
which  is  nearly  always  the  largest 
one  at  the  front  of  the  jaw.  This 
tooth,  sometimes  feebly  cusped.  curves 
slightly  inward,  wholly  different  from 
its  predecessor. 

It  is  exceptional  for  reptiles  to  have 
a  tooth  centered  under  the  snout. 
Lizards  of  one  family,  the  geckos, 
have  paired  egg  teeth,  which  they  shed 


but  never  replace.  Whatever  teeth 
mammals  have  at  birth  are  commonly 
replaced  by  somewhat  different  teeth 
later  in  life.  Nearly  all  snakes  and  liz- 
ards replace  teeth  or  fangs  almost  con- 
tinuously throughout  their  lives.  The 
replacement  teeth  invariably  conform 
in  shape,  but,  keeping  pace  with 
growth,  they  are  progressively  larger 
than  their  predecessors.  Amphisbae- 
nids are  unique  in  having  the  egg 
tooth  replaced  by  a  completely  dif- 
ferent kind  of  tooth  in  the  same  socket. 
The  median  tooth,  perhaps  with 
some  peculiar  advantage  to  a  reptile 
seizing  its  prey  in  the  confines  of  its 
burrow,  presumably  arose  from  the 
egg  tooth.  As  an  earlier  innovation 
the  egg  tooth  appeared  in  the  ancestral 
lizards  before  they  branched  out  into 
family  groups  and  gave  rise  to  snakes 
and  amphisbaenids.  The  lizards  and 
their  offshoots  have  continued  to  be 
the  innovators— the  reptiles  that  in- 
vaded new  habitats,  essayed  new 
modes  of  reproduction,  and  penetrated 
new  regions.  Species  with  offspring 
having  the  egg  tooth  are  now  twenty 
times  as  numerous  as  those  whose 
young  emerge  with  a  caruncle,  which 
might  well  serve  as  the  hallmark  of  the 
conservative  minority. 

IN  structures,  habits,  and  habitats 
the  turtles,  crocodilians.  and  the 
tuatara  differ  little  from  their  vener- 
able ancestors.  All  these  reptiles,  and 
there  are  scarcely  350  species,  live  on 
land,  in  the  water,  or  divide  their  time 
between  the  two.  A  few  turtles  and 
crocodiles  are  marine,  or  partly  so, 
and  some  turtles  tolerate  desert  en- 
vironments. Otherwise  their  adapta- 
bilities are  limited.  None  of  them  lives 
in  trees,  shrubs,  or  on  cliffs,  and  while 
one  turtle  inhabits  crevices,  none  of 
these  reptiles  has  dispensed  with  limbs 
and  become  fossorial.  Not  one  has 
switched  from  laying  eggs  to  giving 
birth  to  its  young.  In  contrast,  numer- 
ous snakes  and  lizards  and  at  least 
two  amphisbaenids  bring  forth  fully 


formed  young.  Other  members  of  1 
family  deposit  eggs  in  their  burroi 
but  what  the  majority  of  the  amp! 
baenids  do,  no  one  knows. 

Obviously,  however,  their  adap 
bility  did  not  come  to  a  standstill  oi 
they  were  specialized  for  life  und 
ground.  They  have  become  furtl 
specialized  in  shape,  size,  and  me; 
of  progressing  in  subsurface  envin 
ments  that  vary  from  humus  to  san 
soil  or  rocky  terrain.  Species  resist! 
to  desiccation  tolerate  relatively  c 
environments,  although  most  of  tb 
are  restricted  to  moist  soil. 

If  amphisbaenids  were  advanc 
burrowers  by  Eocene  times,  they  n 
have  staked  their  claim  to  subter 
nean  habitats  a  hundred  million  ye; 
ago.  Conceivably  the  primitive  snal 
had  barely  begun  to  exploit  the  advi 
tages  of  living  underground  when  tl 
encountered  amphisbaenids.  Compi 
tion  with  more  advanced  burrow 
may  not  have  affected  the  snakes.  ] 
certainly  some  of  them  returned  to  t 
restrial  habitats.  Back  on  the  surfa 
the  primitive  snakes  could  get  ale 
without  external  ears  or  functioi 
limbs.  With  light  once  more  an  f 
ment  of  their  environment,  howev 
vision  was  advantageous.  Terresti 
snakes  re-elaborated  their  partly 
generated  eyes,  but  the  eyes  contini 
to  deteriorate  in  snakes  that  adhe! 
to  dark,  subterranean  habitats.  ' 
might  hazard  the  guess  that  the  bli 
snakes,  Typhlops  and  relatives,  n 
more  widely  distributed  than  amp! 
baenids,  but  scarcelv  more  numero 
descended  from  a  primitive  snake  tl 
gained  access  to  regions  the  amp! 
baenids  failed  to  reach. 

Meanwhile,  terrestrial  snakes,  fr( 
of  the  restrictions  that  their  erstv/I 
fossorial  existence  had  impos 
branched  out  and  advanced  along  lii 
that  led  in  some  instances  to  spec 
of  fairly  gigantic  proportions.  Fosi 
found  in  Eocene  deposits  in  Eg; 
and  Patagonia  reveal  that  snakes  li 
attained   lengths   in   excess   of  thi 


22 


The  conservative  amphisbaenids 
ined  relatively  insignificant. 

rHATEVER  their  place  of  origin, 
they  managed  in  one  way  or  an- 
te circumvent  barriers.  Some 
'  million  years  ago  amphisbae- 
were  fairly  widespread  in  North 
•ica.  Fossils  found  in  Oligocene 
iits  in  Wyoming,  Colorado,  and 
e  Dakotas  closely  resemble  the 
es  Rhineura  floridana,  now  iso- 
in  Florida.  As  noted  earlier,  the 
;nce  of  relict  populations  of  am- 
aenids  in  warm  regions  as  far 
Je  the  Tropics  as  Turkey  and  the 
ern  part  of  the  Iberian  Peninsula 
rhaps  attributable  to  the  less  rig- 
i  climates  on  peninsulas, 
sh  climatic  conditions  once  ex- 
at  least  sporadically,  in  portions 
e  world  that  are  much  cooler 
•.  It  is  reasonable  to  infer  that 
imphisbaenids  penetrated  such 
ns  as  Wyoming  during  periods 
the  terrain,  the  climate,  and 
features  of  the  environment  ap- 
mated  those  prevailing  today  in 
da.  At  best,  locomotion  through 
or  soil  is  laborious  and  time 
iming.  Hence  the  dispersals  of 
lisbaenids  must  have  been  pain- 
slow.  As  Hans  Gadow  observed 
years  ago,  an  amphisbaenid  pop- 
)n  might  expand  its  distribution 
rate  of,  say,  ten  feet  per  year, 
I  a  continuity  of  suitable  terrain. 


If  this  is  a  fair  guess  and  the  shift 
was  in  one  direction,  the  range  of  the 
hypothetical  species  would  have  ex- 
panded less  than  four  miles  since  the 
beginning  of  the  Christian  Era.  In 
Gadow's  words,  "this  is  a  mere  noth- 
ing in  point  of  time."  It  would  have 
required  125,000  years  for  the  species 
to  extend  its  distribution  a  little  more 
than  200  miles.  "To  round  out  this 
fanciful  calculation  to  a  quarter  of  a 
million  years,"  Gadow  continues, 
"100.000  years  may  then  be  allowed 
for  hitches  on  the  journey,  such  as 
waiting  for  sandy  patches  to  join.  Idle 
dreams?  Not  at  all,  since  our  calcula- 
tions afford  an  insight  into  what  can 
be  done  in  time  by  a  slowly  spreading 
kind  of  creature." 

Gadow  wisely  avoided  detailed  dis- 
cussion of  the  complexities  of  dis- 
persal. It  will  suffice  to  note  that  on 
very  rare  occasions  land-dwelling  ani- 
mals accidentally  reach  distant  out- 
posts on  natural  rafts  or  other  objects 
on  which  they  are  carried  to  land 
masses  otherwise  inaccessible.  It  seems 
highly  improbable  that  amphisbaenids 
reached  Africa  from  South  America 
(or  traveled  in  the  opposite  direction ) 
in  this  manner,  but  can  we  be  sure 
that  something  of  the  sort  does  not 
happen,  say  once  every  ten  million 
years?  Had  the  two  continents  drifted 
apart,  numerous  other  family  groups 
would  be  distributed  in  a  similar  man- 
ner. Instead,  other  families  on  both 


Typical  traits  of  amphisbaenids  are 
median  tooth,  at  left,  stout  teeth,  and 
a  compact  skull  (four  times  life-size). 


continents  are,  or  were,  more  nearly 
worldwide  in  distribution. 

We  need  not  assume  that  the  am- 
phisbaenids crossed  an  expanse  of  salt 
water  as  wide  as  the  Atlantic,  how- 
ever, if  they  were  once  extensively 
distributed.  Negative  evidence,  where 
the  fossil  record  is  concerned,  does 
not  preclude  the  possibility  that  am- 
phisbaenids once  inhabited  much  of 
Asia.  It  is  no  strain  on  the  imagina- 
tion to  assume  that  they  existed  in 
North  America  much  farther  to  the 
northwest  than  Wyoming  during  the 
Eocene  or  later.  If  so,  amphisbaenids 
might  have  moved  from  one  continent 
to  the  other  at  the  same  time  that 
camels,  horses,  and  other  land  mam- 
mals were  en  route  between  Asia  and 
North  America. 

WHATEVER  explanation  is  accept- 
able, if  the  amphisbaenids  ex- 
panded their  distribution  no  more 
than  1.600  miles  every  million  years, 
as  Gadow  suggests,  they  have  had 
ample  time  since  the  Eocene  to  spread 
over  every  continent.  Presumably  they 
encountered  insurmountable  barriers 
in  some  parts  of  the  world.  More  to  the 
point,  we  might  infer  that  the  distribu- 
tion of  the  group  has  been  contracting, 
rather  than  expanding,  during  the  last 
ten  to  twenty  million  years.  Gaps  in 
the  range  of  the  family  suggest  wide 
extinctions  of  populations,  if  not  of 
species,  in  several  areas. 

Much  like  amphisbaenids,  the  limb- 
less or  nearly  limbless  lizards  now 
inhabiting  North  America  tend  to 
avoid  the  more  extreme  climates  in  the 
interior  of  the  continent.  Two  closely 


Bone  structure  of  Bipes  biporus  is 
shown  in  X-ray,  but  its  vestigial  rear 
limbs  are  too  small  to  see  in  picture. 


23 


related  footless  lizards  of  one  genus  of 
Anniella,  are  confined  to  warm  areas 
in  California  and  northwestern  Baja 
California.  An  odd  little  relict.  Anely- 
tropsis,  with  relatives  in  the  Philip- 
pines, New  Guinea,  and  Malaysia,  is 
found  only  in  a  narrow  strip  along  the 
eastern  edge  of  the  Mexican  plateau. 
Three  reptiles  of  the  genus  Ophisau- 
rus,  known  as  glass  lizards  because  of 
their  slender,  fragile  tails,  inhabit 
Florida.  The  distributions  of  two  of 
these  extend  to  portions  of  the  coastal 
plain,  but  the  third  is  the  exception. 
Its  range  extends  as  far  north  as  the 
Great  Lakes  and  west  to  eastern  Texas, 
and  individuals  are  occasionally  found 
near  the  Caribbean  coast  of  Mexico  as 
far  south  as  \eracruz. 

One  other  North  American  lizard, 
not  yet  limbless,  but  with  the  limbs 
greatly  reduced,  is  confined  to  Flor- 
ida. This  is  the  Florida  sand  skink, 
Neoseps,  a  burrower  with  a  single 
digit  on  the  front  limbs  and  only  two 
on  the  hind  limbs.  Where  the  family 
is  more  abundanth  represented,  par- 
ticularly in  Africa  and  Asia,  a  few 
skinks  have  become  limbless.  In  both 
these  continents  skinks  exhibit  virtu- 


ally all  stages  in  the  reduction,  from 
five  digits  to  none,  and  in  some  there 
is  no  external  sign  of  limbs.  When 
vestiges  of  both  pairs  of  limbs  are 
present  on  skinks.  however,  there  are 
fewer  digits  on  the  front  limbs.  Fur- 
thermore, remnants  of  the  hind  limbs 
persist  after  the  forelimbs  disappear; 
the  hind  limbs  never  disappear  first. 

THIS  is  true  of  other  families,  with 
one  notable  exception— lizards  in 
the  family  Teiidae.  Relatively  few  of 
these  inhabit  North  America,  where 
only  the  whiptails,  Cnemidophorus, 
are  widely  distributed.  In  South  Amer- 
ica, however,  the  family  is  extraordi- 
narily well  diversified.  The  family 
includes  the  tegus  (Tupinambis) ,  liz- 
ards large  enough  to  prey  upon  small 
mammals  and  birds,  but  there  are  also 
a  number  of  tiny  burrowers  in  the 
group.  The  limbs  are  reduced  in  sev- 
eral of  these,  in  some  instances  to  bud- 
like remnants.  Curiously,  in  this  fam- 
ily the  hind  limbs  are  in  more  ad- 
vanced stages  of  reduction.  In  some 
species  retaining  forelimbs.  the  hind 
limbs  are  missing  completely. 

In  this  respect,  therefore,  they  re- 
semble Bipes,  the  two-legged  amphis- 
baenids  of  Mexico.  Nearly  eighty 
years  ago  a  Belgian  herpetologist, 
George  A.  Boulenger,  employed  by  the 
British  Museum  (Natural  History), 
observed  that  the  scales,  skull  struc- 
ture, and  worm-shaped  body  of  some 
teiids  were  similar  to  those  of  am- 
phisbaenids.  E.  D.  Cope  ascribed  this 
to  convergence.  Others  who  held  sim- 
ilar views  may  not  have  compared  the 
tongues  of  teiids  and  amphisbaenids. 
Comparisons  reveal  a  startling  resem- 
blance. Tongues  of  burrowing  teiids 
conform  closely  to  those  of  amphis- 
baenids. On  each  the  fleshy  base  is 
covered  with  scales  arranged  like  shin- 
gles, and  the  forked  tips  are  similar. 
This  resemblance  might  be  attributed 
to  convergence,  but  were  this  so.  other 
fossorial  lizards  should  share  the  pecu- 
liarity. Obviously  they  do  not.  how- 
ever, for  the  tongue  of  the  Mexican 
burrower  Anehtropsis  closely  resem- 
bles that  of  its  Asiatic  relatives  in 
being  covered  with  transverse  plates 
and  grooves  instead  of  the  superfi- 
cially fishlike  scales. 

Consequently  there  is  little  likeli- 
hood that  the  tongues  of  teiids  and 
amphisbaenids  are  alike  because  of 
convergence.  Burrowing  proclivities 
account  for  the  reduction  or  loss  of 
limbs.  The  extraordinary  tendency  of 


species  in  both  groups  to  retain  f 
limbs  after  losing  those  at  the  re£ 
less  readily  explained.  Coupled  ■ 
peculiarities  of  the  tongue,  this 
trait  lends  support  to  the  belief 
amphisbaenids  and  teiids  descer 
from  a  common  ancestor. 

It  need  not  be  disconcerting  to 
characteristics  of  snakes  combine 
amphisbaenids  with  those  of  liza 
Several  fossorial  lizards  are  snake 
and  a  few  primitive  snakes  re 
vestiges  of  the  hind  limbs,  occasion 
with  other  features  of  the  ances 
lizard.  The  amphisbaenids.  howe 
have  their  own  peculiarities.  The} 
tain  features  of  the  lizard  and  ] 
also  resemble  snakes,  but  they  are 
readily  confused  with  either.  The  ! 
rowing  teiids  parallel  the  amphis 
nids,  and  appear  to  retain  the  ances 
tongue.  But  they  have  not  advai 
far  enough  along  similar  lines  to  { 
licate  other  characters.  Only  the 
phisbaenids  have  a  soft  skin  fori 
of  numerous  rings,  each  composei 
flat,  square  plates.  No  other  re] 
replaces  the  egg  tooth,  and  few  oti 
for  that  matter,  have  a  median  t( 
in  the  upper  jaw. 

Several  less  conspicuous  pecu] 
ities  point  to  an  extremely  anc 
separation  of  the  amphisbaenids. 
much  easier  to  bridge  the  gap  betw 
the  snakes  and  lizards  with  an  ai 
of  burrowers  than  it  is  to  link  the 
phisbaenids  to  either  group.  It 
mains  to  be  ascertained  whether  tl 
reptiles  antedate  the  snakes,  but 
phisbaenids  have  been  amphisbaei 
for  well  over  fifty  million  years.  V 
impeccable  logic,  those  who  call 
phisbaenids  lizards  can  argue  1 
these  reptiles  could  spend  even  ni 
time  in  subterranean  habitats  witli 
finding  a  place  in  the  sun.  But 
criterion  is  not  their  antiquity:  i 
the  extent  of  their  divergence.  On ' 
basis,  amphisbaenids  warrant  recoi 
tion  as  a  distinct  group,  apart  fi 
the  snakes  and  lizards. 

Since  they  are  not  lizards  and  i 
tainly  not  ^vorms.  they  also  deser? 
vernacular  name  more  appropr: 
than  worm  lizards.  Culebritas 
manitas  has  erroneous  implicati 
too.  but  W'hat  is  more  descriptive 
Bipes  than  a  "little  snake  with  handi 


Overhand   motion   of  legs,   left,  i 
characteristic    of   B.    biporus'   "wal 
Bipes  has  vestigial  eyes,  right, 
probably  finds  prey  by  sound  or  sm 


24 


Management  of  Wate 

Technology  alone  cannot  solve  problems 


By  George  H.  Davis 

ONE  OF  THE  GREATEST  HOPES  for 
coping  with  the  world  population 
explosion  is  by  expanding  food  and 
fiber  production  in  the  "underde- 
veloped" lands  of  the  arid  zones.  Most 
desert  soils  are  rich  in  mineral  nutri- 
ents, and  in  much  of  the  arid  zone  the 
climate  would  permit  year-round  crop- 
ping. This  fortunate  combination  per- 
mits tremendous  production  per  acre 
when  such  soils  are  irrigated.  Parts  of 
the  arid  southwestern  United  States 
have  seen  intensive  development  of 
irrigated  agriculture,  especially  the 
San  Joaquin  and  Imperial  valleys  in 
California  and  the  Salt  and  Gila  river 
valleys  in  Arizona.  Experience  in  these 
areas— the  failures  as  well  as  the  suc- 
cesses—can point  the  way  to  similar  in- 
tensive development  in  other  arid  parts 
of  the  world.  The  following  discussion 
is  based  largely  on  experience  in  Ari- 
zona and  California,  and  in  the  San 
Joaquin  Valley  particularly,  although 
the  antecedents  of  irrigation  date  back 
to  prehistory. 

Remains  of  the  works  of  ancient  lost 
civilizations  in  arid  lands  throughout 
the  world— Babylon  in  Mesopotamia, 
the  Roman  irrigation  works  of  the 
oases  of  the  western  desert  of  Egypt, 
the  Hohokam  Indian  ruins  of  the  Salt 
River  Valley  in  Arizona,  to  name  but 
three— are  mute  reminders  of  man's  in- 
ability to  manage  water  resources  suc- 
cessfully. In  these  areas  disruption  of 
the  existing  social  order  by  invasion 
or  by  some  natural  disaster,  such  as 
drought,  may  well  have  played  an  im- 
portant part  in  the  destruction  of  a  cul- 
ture based  on  irrigated  agriculture,  but 
there  is  evidence  that  in  all  three  cases 
man  failed  to  cope  effectively  with  a 
water  problem. 

In  Mesopotamia  there  is  widespread 
evidence  that  the  productivity  of  the 
soil  declined  owing  to  salinization— the 
concentration  of  salts  in  the  soil  zone 
as  a  result  of  inadequate  drainage  and 
surface  evaporation.  In  the  oases  of 
the  western  desert  of  Egypt  shrinking 
of  the  irrigated  area  was  caused  by  a 
decline  in  the  flow   of  wells   as  the 

26 


natural  pressure  that  raised  tlie  water 
to  the  surface  of  the  land  w'as  depleted. 
In  some  of  the  oases,  Roman  wells  dug 
to  an  artesian  aquifer  ( one  that  con- 
tains water  under  sufficient  pressure  to 
raise  the  water  above  the  top  of  the 
permeable,  water-yielding  deposits ) 
flowed  at  relatively  high  topographic 
levels  in  a  series  of  isolated  valleys. 
The  flow  made  it  possible  to  irrigate 
lower-lying  lands  by  gravity  flow  from 
the  wellheads.  But  the  flow  exceeded 
replenishment,  and  the  artesian  head 
was  reduced  until  the  wells  ceased  to 
flow.  Rows  of  Roman  wells  may  still 
be  seen  along  several  stages  of  canals, 
each  built  to  replace  a  higher  system 
as  the  artesian  head  declined.  By  the 
close  of  the  Roman  period  the  head 
had  dropped  so  low  that  only  small 
oases  in  the  bottoms  of  the  valleys 
could  be  irrigated  with  flowing  weUs. 

The  Hohokam  culture  flourished  in 
the  Salt  River  Valley  at  the  present  site 
of  Phoenix,  Arizona,  from  about  the 
beginning  of  the  Christian  Era  to 
about  A.D.  1400.  The  Hohokam  people 
disappeared  before  the  arrival  of 
Europeans,  and  little  is  known  of  their 
relations  to  other  Indian  groups.  There 
is  some  evidence  that  the  Pima  Indians 
are  descendants  of  the  Hohokams,  al- 
though the  Pimas  speak  of  the  Hoho- 
kams as  a  vanished  race;  in  fact,  the 
term  Hohokam  means  '"those  who  have 
gone"  in  the  Pima  language. 

Diversion  of  the  waters  of  the  Salt 
River  into  large  canals  made  possible 
the  irrigation  of  tens  of  thousands  to 
perhaps  a  quarter  of  a  million  acres. 
The  longest  canal  was  12  miles  long, 
and  a  total  of  175  miles  of  Hohokam 
canals  has  been  mapped.  Some  of  the 
main  canals  were  as  much  as  30  feet 
deep  and  75  feet  wide— large  even  by 
modern  standards.  The  Hohokam 
canals  were  not  fixed  systems;  several 
were  built,  each  upslope  from  its  pre- 
decessor. Evidently  this  was  because  of 
progressive  waterlogging  —  drowning 
of  plants  by  continuous  saturation  of 
the  root  zones— and  accumulation  of 
alkali  in  the  soils  of  the  lower  lands. 
The  solution  of  moving  upstream  with 
successive  diversions  could  not  be  car- 


'.«#>     ^i. 


•Tu 


ried  above  rock  outcrops  in  the  bed 
the  Salt  River.  Thus,  the  Hohokan 
inabflity  to  cope  indefinitely  w 
waterlogging  and  salinization  brouj 
their  culture  to  an  end. 

In  the  so-called  underdevelop 
modern  countries,  many  of  which  £ 
arid,  great  benefits  may  be  realized 
developing  small  water  supplies  i 
human  or  stock  use.  This  is  relativ( 
easy,  and  involves  studies  to  locate 
adequate   source   of   drinkable   wa 


n  Arid  Lands 


ii'-^-.^' "  ■'•■i*' 


elatively  unsophisticated  engi- 
g  works  to  move  the  water  from 
irce  to  where  it  is  to  be  used. 
■  engineering  works,  such  as 
ind  pumps  to  lift  ground  water 
surface,  and  pipelines  or  ditches 
ivey  water  overland  from  a 
,  stream,  or  small  surface  reser- 
an  drastically  alter  a  primitive 
(ly.  Where  the  environment  and 
ly  are  favorable  for  irrigation, 
;hnology  is  equal,  for  the  most 


part,  to  the  task.  Basically  we  are  still 
building  dams,  wells,  and  canals  as  did 
the  Romans  and  Babylonians,  al- 
though, of  course,  our  construction 
techniques  are  far  more  sophisticated. 
The  most  complex  problems  in  water 
supply  in  arid  zones  relate  to  the 
proper  management  of  the  supplies. 
For  example,  although  evaporation 
may  impose  a  practical  limit  on  the 
storage  of  water  in  surface  reservoirs 
in  arid  basins,  this  does  not  mean  that 


Water  is  sent  to  thousands  of  acres 
in  San  Joaquin  Valley  via  a  diversion 
canal  carrying  runoff  from  Friant  Dam. 


we  have  exhausted  all  possibilities  of 
further  water  development.  Data  from 
current  research  suggest  that  evapora- 
tion from  reservoirs  can  be  drastically 
cut  by  the  use  of  thin  films  of  chemi- 
cals (such  as  cetyl  alcohol)  that  float 
on  the  water  surface  but  have  no  effect 
on  the  quality  of  water.  Another  prom- 
ising method  of  evaporation  reduction 

27 


involves  the  use  of  submerged  bubbler 
devices,  similar  to  the  familiar  fish 
bowl  aerator  that  brings  cool  water  to 
the  surface.  Evaporation  from  open 
water  surfaces  increases  as  the  water 
temperature  increases.  Thus,  the  con- 
stant circulation  of  cool  water  to  the 
surface  reduces  the  evaporation  rate. 
With  adequate  knowledge  of  the  geo- 
hydrology  of  arid  basins,  it  would  be 
feasible  in  many  places  to  store  tre- 
mendous quantities  of  water  under- 
ground in  the  irrigated  area.  This 
would  involve  putting  surface  water 
underground  when  surpluses  were 
available  and  pumping  it  out  when  the 
surface  supply  was  deficient. 

OF  all  water  management  difficul- 
ties in  arid  lands,  salinization 
may  well  be  the  most  frustrating,  and 
has  plagued  irrigators  for  3,000  years. 
Even  today  it  is  not  controlled  beyond 
the  primitive  technique  of  washing  the 
accumulated  salt  out  of  the  soil  by 
applying  excess  water.  Much  the  same 
could  be  said  of  waterlogging.  In  many 
areas  we  continue  to  apply  surface 
water  for  irrigation  so  liberally  that 
the  water  table  rises  to  the  surface  and 


Irrigation  well,  often  used  in  arid 
western  U.S.,  uses  much  electricity  or 
fuel  and  requires  skilled  maintenance. 


literally  drowns  the  very  crops  that  we 
are  attempting  to  grow. 

The  damage  from  waterlogging  is 
twofold.  Most  crops  cannot  survive  a 
long  period  of  saturation  of  the  root 
zone;  however,  this  is  only  a  short- 
term  damage  that  causes  crop  loss  until 
the  water  table  can  be  lowered.  Salini- 
zation is  much  more  serious.  The 
mineral  content  of  the  soil  moisture 
increases  whenever  evaporation  or 
transpiration  can  occur— for  example, 
after  an  application  of  water  for  irri- 
gation. Where  the  water  table  is  several 
feet  or  more  below  land  surface,  the 


soil  solution  is  normally  diluted  a: 
flushed  by  succeeding  applications 
water,  and  the  dissolved  salts  are  ci 
ried  away  or  become  concentrated 
the  ground  water.  On  the  other  haii 
where  the  water  table  is  so  close  to  la: 
surface  that  evaporation  of  groui 
water  takes  place,  there  is  no  oppc 
tunity  for  residual  salts  to  esca 
downward.  Moreover,  dissolved  sa, 
are  brought  to  the  surface  in  t 
evaporating  ground  water,  and  i 
crease  the  soil's  salt  content. 

This  concentration  of  salts  is  ofti 
doubly  damaging.  First,  it  is  toxic 


28 


3.  Second,  if  the  solution  has  a 
percentage  of  sodium  in  relation 
Icium  and  magnesium,  soils  con- 
ng  even  a  small  amount  of  clay 
be  rendered  virtually  imperme- 
because  of  the  swelling  of  the  clay 
cles.  Crop  yields  decrease  as  per- 
lility  decreases,  until  further  cul- 
on  is  unprofitable, 
e  best  time  to  control  waterlog- 
and  salinization  is  before  exten- 
damage  has  occurred.  In  most 
it  is  possible  to  maintain  the 
:  table  at  a  safe  level  by  keeping  a 
ice    between    the    local    ground 


M 


ITIAL  (HIGH) 
VTER  TABLE 


>i*>»^^    iSP©  <S>tf  ^4li 
NAL  (LOW)  .^^"2, 

^TER  TABLE  4^=      ' 


Commonplace  windmill  pumps  often 
can  revolutionize  local  economies  in 
many  of  the  underdeveloped  arid  lands. 


water  that  is  pumped  and  the  irriga- 
tion water  that  is  brought  in  from  out- 
side the  irrigated  area.  In  places  where 
ground-water  levels  cannot  be  con- 
trolled by  pumping  for  irrigation— for 
example,  where  the  quality  of  ground 
water  is  too  poor  for  irrigation  or 
where  wells  cannot  be  developed  eco- 
nomically—deep surface  ditches  may 
be  the  most  inexpensive  solution. 

A  problem  unique  to  arid  lands, 
which  has  only  recently  come  to  light, 
is  the  severe  compaction  that  takes 
place  in  many  soils  during  the  early 
days  of  irrigation.  In  humid  climates, 
rainfall  exceeds  evaporation  and  plant 
demand;  consequently,  excess  water 
can  percolate  through  the  soil  and  re- 
plenish the  saturated  zone  of  ground 
water.  In  arid  lands,  the  sparse  rain- 
fall either  evaporates  or  is  used  by 
hardy  desert  plants,  which  are  capable 
of  reducing  the  soil  moisture  far  below 
the  level  at  which  water  will  percolate 
downward  by  gravity.  Thus,  after  a 
long,  dry  summer  the  soil-moisture  de- 
ficiency may  be  such  that  3  to  4  inches 
of  water  would  have  to  be  supplied  to 
the  soil  before  any  could  move  down- 
ward. In  many  arid  areas  this  soil- 
moisture  deficiency  is  never  met,  and 
infiltration  can  occur  only  where  water 
concentrates,  as  in  stream  channels. 

Stream  flow  in  arid  lands  is  com- 
monly in  the  form  of  flash  floods,  and 
often  the  flow  could  be  better  classified 
as  thin  mud  rather  than  water.  Much 
air  is  entrained  in  deposits  of  this 
origin  and,  when  dry,  such  soils  may 
contain  up  to  50  per  cent  air  space. 


SAND 

POROSITY  30% 
WATER  YIELD  25% 


SILT 

30'  POROSITY  35% 
WATER  YIELD  10% 


GRAVEL 

-«*ijr«»  «»'o-»!S.^  Ji»-J*€   5'   POROSITY  25% 

s". .#/iR . i  P. .•n,*i.<s^yr      water  yield  2§% 


CLAY 

POROSITY  40% 
WATER  YIELD  2%  I 


Small  amounts  of  clay  can  give  suffi- 
cient dry  binding  strength  to  preserve 
the  initial  frothy  structure,  even  under 
loads  of  several  hundred  feet  of  over- 
lying sediments.  However,  when  wet- 
ted, the  clay  slakes,  the  air  is  squeezed 
out,  the  deposits  compact,  and  the  land 
surface  subsides. 

This  phenomenon,  termed  hydro- 
compaction,  was  first  observed  on  a 
large  scale  in  the  early  1950's  in  the 
western  San  Joaquin  Valley  when  large 
areas  of  virgin  land  were  put  under 
cultivation  and  irrigated  with  ground 
water.  Compaction  caused  the  land  sur- 
face to  sink,  and  within  a  year  or  two 
irrigation  ditches  that  originally  were 
3  feet  deep  and  5  feet  wide  had  become 
broad  swales  15  to  20  feet  deep  and  50 
feet  wide.  As  the  ditches  became 
deeper  they  had  to  be  abandoned  be- 
cause they  were  below  the  level  of  the 
lands  that  were  to  be  irrigated.  The 
sinking  was  accompanied  by  cracking 
of  the  soil,  which  ruptured  pipelines 
and  caused  structural  damage  to  roads, 
wells,  and  buildings. 

EVEN  more  severe  was  the  effect  of 
soil  compaction  on  what  had  been 
nearly  level  irrigated  fields.  Wherever 
water  accumulated— at  a  slight  depres- 
sion in  a  field  or  where  a  ditch  or  pipe 
leaked— the  surface  sank.  This  situ- 
ation was  constantly  aggravated  as  ex- 
cess water  found  its  way  to  the  ever 
deepening  depressions.  Releveling  of 
the  fields  only  alleviated  the  condition 
temporarily.  Within  a  few  years  the 
originally  level  valley  floor  had  been 
changed  into  a  hummocky  prairie. 

A  government  test  plot  that  was  kept 
continually  submerged  sank  10  feet 
within  19  months,  and  sinking  con- 
tinued even  after  the  water  supply  was 
cut  off.  During  the  test  a  cumulative 
depth  of  129  feet  of  water  had  infil- 
trated. Continuous  observation  of  the 
surface  sinking,  coupled  with  tests  of 
the  subsurface  deposits,  showed  that 
compaction  of  the  deposits  and  the  re- 
sulting settling  took  place  as  the  water 
moved  downward  toward  the  water 
table,  locally  300  feet  deep.  Computa- 
tions based  on  the  slowing  of  the  rate 
of  advance  indicated  that  five  and  a 
half  years  would  be  required  for  water 
from  a  constant  source  to  reach  a  depth 
of  200  feet,  and  it  could  take  several 


Molecular  attraction  holds  water  in 
sediments  and  is  greatest  in  such  fine 
material  as  silt.  Gravel  drains  freely. 

29 


Hydrocompaction  test  plot  shows  ten- 
foot  drop  after  previously  level  land 
was  subjected  to  17  months  of  flooding. 


decades  for  water  applied  at  the  sur- 
face to  reach  the  saturated  zone.  Ulti- 
mate stabilization  of  the  land  surface 
could  not  be  expected  earlier. 

Similar  compaction  phenomena  have 
since  been  reported  in  many  places  in 
some  arid  western  states— Nevada, 
Utah,  Arizona,  and  Colorado.  Compre^ 
hensive  studies  of  the  geology  and  hy 
drology  of  the  San  Joaquin  compaction 
by  an  interagency  committee  of  fed 
eral  and  state  organizations  have  re^ 
vealed  the  causes  and  predicted  future 
effects.  This  knowledge  is  vital  in  plan 
ning  major  structures  such  as  high 
ways  and  canals  that  must  cross  the 
compactible  soils.  The  only  practical 
solution  so  far  has  been  to  plan  for 
compaction  in  the  hope  of  minimizing 
financial  losses.  Steel  pipelines  have 
replaced  leaking  ditches  and  the  less 
flexible  concrete  pipelines,  and  irriga- 
tion by  sprinklers  has  replaced  irriga- 
tion by  gravity  from  ditches.  Research 
now  under  way  offers  some  promise 
for  hastening  the  ultimate  soil  compac- 
tion by  speeding  infiltration  through 
such  means  as  drilling  numerous, 
closely  spaced  holes  in  canal  bottoms. 
If  this  proves  feasible,  water  could  be 
introduced  into  the  abnormally  dry 
deposits  at  various  depths,  and  in  this 
way  the  wait  for  natural  downward 


movement  could  be  greatly  shortened. 
Probably  the  most  severe  single  haz- 
ard stemming  from  arid-land  irriga- 
tion is  deterioration  of  the  quality  of 
water  through  use.  The  principal  eco- 
nomic use— growing  crops— invariably 
results  in  a  concentration  of  dissolved 
mineral  matter  in  the  outflow  from  irri- 
gated areas,  and  municipal  and  indus- 
trial uses  usually  add  undesirable 
chemicals  to  the  water.  In  irrigation 
the  difiiculty  is  uncomplicated  but  un- 
avoidable; plants  use  water  for  temper- 
ature regulation  and  to  form  carbohy- 
drates, but  they  remove  little  of  the 
dissolved  minerals.  Moreover,  most 
soils  in  arid  climates  characteristically 
contain  much  natural  soluble  salt,  be- 
cause of  lack  of  leaching  by  rain  water. 

IN  arid  lands  water  commonly  is 
used  many  times  in  its  trip  from  the 
point  where  it  falls  as  rain  or  snow 
until  it  finally  reaches  the  sea.  For  ex- 
ample, in  the  South  Coastal  Basin  of 
California,  which  includes  the  Los  An- 
geles area,  use  of  water  is  so  effective 
that  only  8  per  cent  of  the  supply  to  the 
area  annually  wastes  to  the  ocean.  Yet, 
in  each  cycle  of  use  some  of  the  water 
discharges  to  the  atmosphere  and  thus 
the  remaining  water  becomes  more 
mineralized.  With  ground  water,  each 
cycle  of  pumping  and  replenishment 
results  in  a  more  concentrated  blend 
of  water  and  dissolved  minerals. 


In  the  early  development  of  aric 
lands,  as  in  our  own  West,  the  problem 
of  increasing  mineralization  grows 
gradually,  and  it  is  only  in  recent  years 
that  it  has  become  critical  in  majoi 
streams.  For  example,  in  1960  the  sum^ 
mer  flow  in  some  reaches  of  the  San 
Joaquin  River  exceeded  3,300  ppm. 
(parts  per  million  by  weight )  dissolved 
solids,  and  was  unsuitable  for  irriga- 
tion of  certain  crops  and  for  some 
other  uses.  Many  specialists  considei 
irrigation  with  water  that  exceeds 
1,500  ppm.  dissolved  solids  to  be  harni' 
ful  to  the  soil,  and  feasible  only  under 
the  most  favorable  combination  ol 
soils  and  drainage.  The  deterioration 
of  the  water  of  the  San  Joaquin  Rivei 
has  grown  progressively  more  serious 
because  of  the  great  expansion  in  irri- 
gated acreage  since  1946,  and  the  re- 
sulting increases  in  mineralized  drain- 
age returned  to  the  streams.  Much  oi 
this  additional  acreage  is  on  the  driei 
western  flanks  of  the  San  Joaquin  Val- 
ley, where  the  soils  typically  contain 
abundant  gypsum  (calcium  sulfate) 
and  other  salts.  Some  drainage  waters 
from  the  irrigated  lands  contain  nearly 
as  much  mineral  matter  as  sea  water 
(35,000  ppm.),  although  calcium  and 
sulfate  compounds  predominate  over 
those  of  sodium  and  chloride,  which 
are  more  harmful  to  plants. 

Fortunately,  engineering  solutions 
are  possible  in  the  San  Joaquin  Basin. 


30 


ireas  now  affected  are  in  the  lower 
of  the  basin.  Plans  are  under  way 
itercept  the  highly  concentrated 
lage  water  and  convey  it  in  canals 
lewaters  beyond  irrigation  diver- 
,  thus  restoring  the  quality  of  the 
m  waters  so  that  they  are  suitable 
rrigation  of  downstream  lands, 
ery  water  user  contributes  dis- 
d  mineral  matter  to  the  streams, 
many  downstream  users  are  ad- 
ly  affected.  The  required  waste 
isal  systems  are  far  beyond  the 
;  of  individuals  or  even  of  local 
-  agencies,  just  as  sewage  disposal 
;ity  is  beyond  the  resources  of  in- 
ual  homeowners.  The  obvious  way 
ipose  of  irrigation  waste  waters  is 
regional  or  basin-wide  system, 
lother  pressing  problem  of  the 
jlogy  of  arid  lands  is  overdevel- 
:nt  of  the  water  supply.  Where  the 
is  irrigated  from  streams,  farmers 
lonly  place  more  land  under  irri- 
n  in  wet  years  than  the  stream 
upply  in  dry  years.  The  principal 
i  in  this  situation  are  in  low  crop 
3  in  dry  years  and  consequent  loss 
pital  investments.  However,  with 
;turn  of  wet  years  the  system  may 
stored. 

lere  ground  water  is  the  irriga- 
Bupply  the  situation  is  much  dif- 
t  and  the  losses  may  be  much 
severe.  Ground  water  generally  is 
ned  from  wells  that  tap  saturated 
-yielding  deposits— granular  ma- 
s  such  as  sand  and  gravel  that 
in  water  in  the  irregular  openings 
;en  the  grains.  In  sand  and  gravel 
openings  commonly  comprise  20 
I  per  cent  of  the  total  volume  of 


material.  In  liner  materials,  such  as  silt 
and  clay,  the  percentage  of  openings, 
termed  porosity,  often  is  from  30  to  40 
per  cent  of  the  total  volume,  but  such 
materials  release  their  water  slowly. 
Furthermore,  the  finer  the  grains  the 
greater  is  the  proportion  of  water  re- 
tained by  molecular  attraction  when 
the  material  is  drained.  Thus,  a  dry 
desert  valley  may  contain,  within  a 
hundred  feet  of  land  surface,  sufficient 
water  to  cover  the  area  to  a  depth  of  20 
to  40  feet.  For  example,  hydrologists 
estimate  that  the  ground-water  storage 
capacity  of  the  San  Joaquin  Valley 
(surface  area  10,000  square  miles)  in 
the  zone  from  10  feet  to  200  feet  below 
land  surface  is  93  million  acre-feet  ( 1 
acre-foot  :=  43,560  cubic  feet) .  This  is 
ten  times  the  normal  annual  flow  of  the 
streams  into  the  valley  and  more  than 
three  times  the  capacity  of  Lake  Mead, 
behind  Hoover  Dam  on  the  Colorado 
River,  the  largest  surface-storage  res- 
ervoir in  America.  Moreover,  this  esti- 
mate is  based  only  on  the  water  that 
would  drain  from  the  sediments  by 
gravity,  and  deliberately  ignores  the 
even  greater  quantities  held  indefi- 
nitely by  molecular  forces  in  the  fine 
silty  and  clayey  deposits. 

NATURALLY,  recharge  to  the  ground- 
water reservoir  is  vital.  When 
wells  are  pumped  for  irrigation  some 
of  the  water  applied,  commonly  as 
much  as  half,  returns  to  that  reservoir. 
This,  together  with  infiltrating  rainfall 
or  stream  flow,  makes  up  the  recharge. 
When  the  average  long-term  discharge 
exceeds  recharge,  however,  the  basin 
is  overdrawn,  in  much  the  same  sense 


that  a  bank  account  is  overdrawn  when 
checks  consistently  exceed  deposits.  To 
carry  the  analogy  further,  we  generally 
start  ground-water  development  with  a 
full  bank  account.  When  the  drafts  ex- 
ceed the  deposits,  we  are  reminded 
each  month  by  a  bank  statement;  in 
the  ground-water  reservoir  this  has  its 
parallel  in  the  hydrologist's  report  of 
recession  of  water  levels. 

Overdraft  of  ground  water  can  end 
in  complete  depletion  of  the  saturated 
zone  in  shallow  basins  or,  more  com- 
monly, in  the  lowering  of  water  levels 
to  a  depth  at  which  further  pumping 
becomes  uneconomical  and  enough 
land  goes  out  of  irrigation  to  bring 
the  withdrawals  into  balance  with  re- 
charge. The  economic  effects  on  water 
users  are  painful,  to  say  the  least.  As 
water  levels  recede,  large  investments 
are  required  to  chase  the  supply  down- 
ward. For  example,  wells  must  be  deep- 
ened, pump  bowls  lowered,  and  power 
plants  enlarged.  And  the  cost  of  all 
these  must  come  out  of  the  income  pro- 
duced by  the  use  of  the  water. 

One  of  the  more  lasting  effects  of 
overdevelopment  of  ground-water  sup- 
ply in  dry  climates  is  the  compaction 
of  the  water-bearing  deposits  that  takes 
place  with  the  decline  of  water  pres- 
sure in  artesian  aquifers— those  in 
which  the  water  is  confined  under  pres- 
sure by  relatively  impermeable,  over- 
lying deposits  such  as  clay  and  silt. 
The  water  pressure  helps  to  support  the 
overlying  load.  When  the  pressure  is 
reduced  by  pumping,  the  effective 
load  on  the  water-bearing  deposits  in- 
creases. The  materials  then  compact  to 
compensate  for  the  water  removed,  and 


NE-GRAINED    LAYER    OF 
GH  POROSITY. 


iME  LAYER  AFTER  COM- 
iCTION.  POROSITY  DE- 
tEASES.  WATER  ESCAPES 
I  ADJACENT  SAND. 


SURFACE    SUBSIDENCE    IS    CAUSED    BY    COMPACTION 
SEDIMENTS  OF  CONFINED  ZONE.  PUMPING  REDUCES  PRE 
SURE   IN   THE  ZONE,   WHICH   COMPACTS.   THE  OVERLYING 
CONFINING  BED  SETTLES  FROM   ABC  TO  AB'C 


.••O-  Q. 


31 


STREAM  FLOW  AND  QUALITY 

CHARACTERISTICS 

JULY  1955 


•  STOCKTON  WATER  QUALITY 


STREAM  FLOW  AND  QUALITY 

CHARACTERISTICS 

APRIL  1956 

STREAM  FLOW 


Relative  quantity  of  stream  flow  and 
salt  load  of  San  Joaquin  River  system 
in  its  high  and  low  stages  is  shown  in 
the  widths  of  the  gray  and  green  lines. 


the  land  surface  settles.  Such  subsid- 
ence is  not  evident  to  the  casual  ob- 
server and  generally  is  detected  only 
by  precise  surveying. 

In  the  western  San  Joaquin  Valley 
the  maximum  settlement  due  to  pump- 
ing has  been  as  much  as  25  feet.  Simi- 
lar overdevelopment  of  artesian  aqui- 
fers has  resulted  in  as  much  as  11  feet 


of  subsidence  in  the  Santa  Clara  Val- 
ley, California,  and  several  feet  at  Las 
Vegas,  Nevada.  Known  areas  of  sub- 
sidence exist  in  other  arid  or  humid 
parts  of  the  United  States. 

The  damages  from  such  compaction 
are  subtle.  Well  casings  collapse  pre- 
maturely, canal  gradients  change  and 
disrupt  water-delivery  schedules,  river 
gradients  change,  resulting  in  aggra- 
vation of  flood  hazards,  and  in  the 
Santa  Clara  Valley  there  has  been  ex- 
tensive inundation  by  the  salty  waters 


from  neighboring  San  Francisco  B; 

Compaction  usually  is  irreversib 
restoration  of  artesian  pressure  i 
not  cause  expansion  of  the  materii 
Thus,  the  reduction  in  ground-wa 
storage  represented  by  the  compacti 
is  a  permanent  loss,  in  the  same  sei 
that  siltation  of  a  surface  reservoir 
a  permanent  loss  of  capacity. 

What,  then,  can  be  done  to  mi 
the  most  effective  use  of  water  in  a 
lands?  The  answer  is  that  there  is 
simple  cure-all.   Rather,  the  soluti 


32 


in  wise  management  of  this  most 
ic  natural  resource  for  the  greatest 
d  of  all  the  people.  Such  considera- 
ns  as  hydroelectric  power  genera- 
,  flood  control,  irrigation,  dilution 
'astes,  maintenance  of  fisheries  and 
llife,  and  recreation  facilities  must 
ivaluated  in  adequate  planning, 
ive  major  categories  that  require 
ntionare:  fl)  regulation  of  stream 

by  means  of  reservoirs  and  water- 

1  management;    (2)   improvement 

maintenance    of    water    quality 

lugh  adequate  control  of  pollution 

contamination;  (3)  proper  use  of 
erground  storage;  (4)  increase  in 

efficiency  of  water  use  through 
lination  of  wasteful  irrigation  prac- 
s  and  the  substitution  of  crops 
I  low  water  requirements  for  those 
1  high  requirements;  and  (5)  in- 
se  of  fresh-water  supplies  by  such 
ns  as  desalinization,  weather  mod- 
[tion,  and  importation  of  water 
n  areas  of  water  surpluses, 
esearch  fields  that  offer  great  pos- 
lities  in  increasing  efficiency  of 
3r  use  in  arid  lands  include:  reduc- 

of  water  use  by  wasteful  plants; 
iction  of  canal  seepage  and  of 
joration  from  reservoirs;  water- 
lity  management ;  forecasting  river 
s;  saline-water  conversion;  im- 
/ement  in  re-use  of  water;  and  ap- 
ations  of  nuclear  energy. 

iNE  other  matter  that  cannot  be 
'  overemphasized  is  the  need  for 
sion  of  conflicting  and  often  un- 
istic  state  and  federal  laws  govern- 
water  to  make  them  consistent  and 
gruent  with  our  present  knowledge 
lydrology.  Unfortunately,  discus- 
is  of  water  rights  have  been  noted 
e  for  discord  than  harmony— wit- 
;  those  of  India  and  Pakistan  over 
Indus  River,  and  Israel  and  Syria 
r  the  Jordan.  In  most  arid  areas  of 
world,  where  water  means  the  dif- 
nce  between  a  prosperous  life  or 
3  survival,  probably  the  most  im- 
tant  objective  is  to  get  water  users 
fork  together  for  the  greatest  long- 
a  good  for  society.  Our  knowledge 
[ydrology  is  adequate,  for  the  most 
t,  to  meet  the  technical  problems 
;  arise;  the  greatest  difficulties  lie 
he  fields  of  law,  of  sociology,  and 
conomics. 

tor's  Note:  This  is  the  third  in 
;ries  of  articles  that  will  describe 
wide-ranging  research  activities  of 
United  States  Geological  Survey. 


HYDROLOGrC  TRENDS  IN  SANTA  YNEZ  RIVER  BASIN 

DROUGHT  DROUGHT 

1930      1935      1940      1945      1950      1955 


ri n n 

PRECIPITATION  AT  SANTA  BARBARA 


5-YEAR  PROGRESSIVE  AVERAGE 


lllillli 


Bars  on  graph  show  the  annual  rainfall        year  progressive  average,  on  which  the 
at  Santa  Barbara.  Dotted  line  is  five-        low  points  represent  drought  periods. 


n ~n  n  r-r 

RUNOFF,  SANTA  YNEZ  RIVER  NEAR  LOMPOC 


I 


5-YEAR  PROGRESSIVE  AVERAGE 


Runoff  of  Santa  Ynez  River  supplies        Note  way  fluctuations  are  accented,  in 
water  for  the   city  of   Santa   Barbara.        particular  during  periods  of  drought. 


WATER  LEVELS  IN  WELLS 


\/\A/^ 


A^S/^^/'-'^^^^ff^ 


n n n 

ON  FLOOD  PLAIN  NEAR  BUELLTON 


7f^^A 


/^ 

DN  UPLA 

MD 

NEAR  Sfi 

N 

lA  YNEZ 

c 

■\ 

V 

\/ 

■< 

%l^ 

1 

^ 

Ground  water  near  a  stream  fluctuates        fluctuate  more  (B) ;  marked  overdraft 
most  in  droughts  (A);  irrigated  areas        is  evident  in  irrigation  pumpage  (C). 


1    1 
PUMPAGE 

4U 

OTHER 
BUELLTON 
LOMPOC  PLAI 

M 

i 

On 

20 

iii8 

! 

MB 

ii 

II 

0 

'  : 

1 

1? 

1 

Greatly  expanded  irrigation  through       World  War  II,  and  is  typical  of  many 
pumpage   of   ground   water   followed       western    stales,   including    California. 


33 


In  January,  after  high  waters  from  rainy  season  have  begun 
to  subside,  turtles  arrive  on  islands  in  Orinoco  to  lay  eggs. 


Groups  of  females,  after  basking  in  the  sun  for  several  day 
move  over  the  sandy  beaches,  searching  for  adequate  nest  site 


-umiftif 


.^m^C 


iHjHj 


''"*Sw«»>i*«#%>. 


34 


Hlgrim  of  the  River 

3  cycle  of  the  Orinoco  turtle  has  many  unusual  features 


iEZUELAN  INDIANS  call  the  Orin- 
o  River  "Father  of  All  Waters." 
ie  any  good  father  it  has  been 

surprises  for  its  children— the 
IS,  and  every  explorer,  past  and 
t.  Our  story  is  about  one  of 
surprises— the  Orinoco  River 
Arrau  (Podocnemis  expansa), 
life  cycle  presents  some  extra- 
ry  features.  For  long  months  the 

feed  in  the  Orinoco  and  its 
ries,  but  from  January  to  April 
)urney  to  a  few  isolated  beaches 

central  Orinoco.  There,  thou- 
of  determined  creatures  creep 
he  sandy  beaches,  lay  millions 
i,  then  travel  back  again  to  their 
il  feeding  grounds. 
Arrau  is  the  largest  New  World 
fater  turtle,  a  little  smaller  than 
!en  sea  turtle  (Chelonia  mydas) . 

has  a  worldwide  oceanic  dis- 
on.  Our  record  measurement 
;  carapace  of  a  female  was  89 
eters  ( nearly  3  feet ) ,  although 
3rage  is  about  2  feet.  Some  ex- 
>   in   the   past   have    submitted 

measurements,   probably   cor- 


By  Janis  a.  Roze 

rect,  for  it  seems  that  the  largest  mem- 
bers of  any  animal  species  disappear 
and  their  total  number  diminishes  as 
soon  as  man  starts  hunting  them.  The 
weight  of  the  female  Arrau  averages 
45  to  55  pounds,  and  some  captured 
specimens  have  weighed  more  than 
100  pounds.  The  males  are  smaller: 
their  almost  circular  shells  are  about 
one  and  one-half  feet  in  diameter. 

If  one  is  to  look  for  mystery  and 
drama  in  nature,  it  can  certainly  be 
found  with  this  animal.  Arrau  is  a 
species  of  what  is  probably  one  of  the 
oldest  groups  of  living  turtles.  Its  im- 
mediate ancestors  have  been  traced 
back  to  the  Age  of  Reptiles  (Mesozoic 
Era).  It  survived  when  the  dinosaurs 
became  extinct,  lived  during  the  de- 
velopment of  many  of  the  recent  ani- 
mals, including  man.  and  now, 
ironically,  is  itself  in  danger  of  extinc- 
tion. This  is  not  because  it  could  not 
succeed  in  the  evolutionary  struggle, 
but  because  of  that  newcomer  in  na- 
ture— man.  At  present,  Arrau  are  dis- 


tributed throughout  tropical  South 
America,  but  it  is  in  the  Orinoco  River 
that  they  are  particularly  abundant. 

During  the  rainy  season,  the  Orin- 
oco and  its  tributaries  cannot  hold  all 
the  water  supplied  by  the  tropical 
rains,  and  they  overrun  the  river  beds, 
invading  adjacent  savanna  lowlands, 
called  llanos  in  northern  South  Amer- 
ica. For  months  these  extensions  are 
Arrau  feeding  grounds.  They  eat 
fruits,  flowers,  roots,  and  soft  vege- 
tation. When  the  rains  diminish  and 
the  waters  slowly  retreat  into  their 
river  beds,  so  also  do  the  Arrau.  Then 
they  start  their  long  pilgrimage  to  the 
sandy  beaches,  which  at  that  time  are 
covered  by  more  than  thirty  feet  of 
water.  The  large  and  small  tributaries 
of  the  Orinoco  are  the  roads  on  which 
the  turtles  travel,  sometimes  for  more 
than  a  hundred  miles,  in  ever  in- 
creasing numbers.  Once  they  reach 
the  Orinoco,  they  continue  either  up- 
stream or  downstream,  sometimes 
fighting  strong  currents,  sometimes 
passing  violent  rapids  and  other  ob- 
stacles. They  stop  eating,  and  the 
whole  life  activity  from  this  point  on 
is  directed  to  reaching  the  beaches. 
The  males  seem  to  be  the  first  to  arrive 
at  the  remanso  (tranquil,  protected 
waters)  near  the  sandy  beaches,  where 
the  eggs  will  soon  be  laid;  a  few  days 
later  the  females  arrive,  and  mating 
takes  place. 

AFTER  the  mating,  each  step  of  the 
cycle  is  well  marked,  as  are  most 
well-established  rituals  in  nature.  The 
water  level  is  still  dropping,  increasing 
the  size  of  the  many  sand  beaches 
around  the  island,  when  on  an  early 
morning  in  late  January  the  water's 
edge  is  adorned  with  a  row  of  shiny, 
wet  bodies  of  Arrau  females.  They 
have  started  the  first  step— basking  in 
the  sun.  In  the  early  days  there  are 
only  a  few  of  them,  but  soon  many 
parts  of  the  water's  edge  are  covered 
with  dark  clusters  of  turtles;  some- 
times there  are  up  to  six  thousand 
basking  in  the  fiercely  hot  tropical  sun. 
They  do  not  fight  with  each  other— 

35 


there  is  no  aggressive  competition 
among  them.  When  all  the  available 
places  are  occupied,  other  females  wait 
patiently  in  the  water,  their  heads  ex- 
tended like  periscopes,  until  one 
basker  decides  she  had  enough  sun  or 
is  frightened  off  by.  perhaps,  unusual 
noises  or  a  predator.  All  the  others 
follow  as  she  backs  into  the  protective 
water.  After  about  five  minutes  they 
all  return  and  slowdy  reoccupy  the 
water's  edge. 

Their  resistance  to  sunshine  is  re- 
markable—some females  bask  almost 
uninterruptedly  for  six  or  more  hours. 
Others  retreat  after  an  hour  or  so  and 
reappear  later.  The  excessive  heat 
raises  the  metabolism  in  the  females' 
bodies,  which  are  loaded  with  matur- 
ing eggs.  The  first  date  of  basking 
varies  from  year  to  year,  probably  de- 
pending on  the  end  of  the  rainy  season 
and  the  time  at  which  water  in  the 
river  begins  to  recede.  Because  rains 
have  their  own  regulations,  it  is  im- 
possible to  predict  when  in  a  given 
year  the  reproductive  activity  will  start. 

IT  is  somewhere  between  the  11th  of 
January  and  25th  of  February, 
while  water  is  still  dropping  and  the 
sun  is  bright  in  the  sky.  that  the  second 
step  in  the  ritual  takes  place.  After 
sunset  the  turtles  retreat  to  the  water, 
but  only  for  a  few-  hours.  If  you  near 
the  water's  edge  when  the  moon  is 
dark  or  clouded  over,  you  can  sense 
the  thousands  of  Arrau  present  in  the 
rernanso,  or  hear  the  dry,  hard  sound 
when  two  large  female  bodies  clash 
together,  so  full  is  the  rernanso  of  fe- 
males eager  to  start  egg  laying.  Then 
they  begin  to  emerge  from  the  water, 
usually  in  groups.  The  first  night  is 
generally  used  for  exploring  the  beach, 
and  only  twenty  or  thirty  females  ap- 
pear. Some  begin  to  lay  eggs  at  once. 
\vhile  others,  after  long  walks  all  over 
the  beach,  postpone  this  activity.  The 
next  morning  their  trails  are  found  in 
the  otherwise  undisturbed  sand,  and 
by  following  their  steps  it  is  possible 
to  register  their  behavior.  After  a  few- 
days  several  hundred  or  even  several 
thousand  Arrau  climb  out  of  the  water 
and  the  high  season  has  begun. 

While  thousands  of  turtles  appear 
year  after  year  on  the  same  sandy 
beaches,  hundreds  of  humans  do  the 
same,  easily  removing  many  eggs  and 
baby  turtles,  and  a  good  part  of  the 
female  turtle  population.  The  story  of 
turtle  hunting  far  antedates  the  white 
man's  discovery  of  the  Americas,  but 

36 


in  latter  years,  with  the  advance  of  our 
civilization,  the  destruction  has  be- 
come more  effective,  and  the  turtle  has 
begun  to  show  signs  of  diminishing. 
The  Venezuelan  Government,  worried 
about  the  situation,  offered  generous 
research  funds  for  our  School  of  Bi- 
ology of  the  Universidad  Central  de 
Venezuela  to  make  an  ecological  and 
economic  studv  of  this  renewable  na- 
tural resource  that  provides  means  of 
living  for  many  riberenos  ( people  who 
live  on  the  river  banks) ,  be  they  Indi- 
ans or  crioUos.  who  are  the  descend- 
ants of  the  Spanish. 

For  the  last  four  years  we  have  es- 
tablished, during  the  reproduction 
period  of  the  Arrau,  a  temporary  bio- 
logical field  station  on  abandoned, 
isolated  Cuba  Island,  located  in  the 
middle  of  the  Orinoco  near  the  Vene- 
zuelan-Colombian border,  to  studv  the 
reptile.  The  island  is  about  five  miles 
long  and  two  miles  w ide  and  its  beach, 
Playa  del  Medio,  is  one  of  the  main 
arenas  for  egg  laying.  Within  fifty 
miles  are  three  or  four  more  beaches 
where  the  vearlv  pilgrimage  ends. 

To  obtain  as  precise  data  as  possible 
we  soent  manv  sleepless  nights  on  the 
sandy  beach  of  Cuba  Island  observing 
—or.  it  might  be  said,  feeling— our  way 
with  our  hands  toward  some  kind  of 
know  ledge  in  the  darkness.  The  turtles 
come  out  of  the  water  in  groups.  Some 
four  or  five  move  ahead,  then  stop  and 
listen :  nieanw  bile  some  from  behind 
pass  them  and  walk  for  a  while,  only 
to  stop  after  a  few  yards  to  listen  and 
observe.  They,  in  turn,  are  overtaken 
by  others,  and  so  it  goes  until  the 
group  has  reached  some  of  the  highest 
elevations  of  the  beach.  There  they 
begin  to  dig  nests,  and  there  other 
groups  mix  with  them.  During  the 
walk,  a  female  stops  from  time  to  time 
and  throws  sand  on  her  back  with  her 
front  legs  as  if  she  is  trying  the  quality 
of  sand.  Their  approach  can  be  heard 
from  some  distance  by  a  typical  "gurc, 
gurc"  sound.  This  is  particularly  loud 
on  the  final  nesting  sites,  and  it  seems 
that  it  has  to  do  with  some  character- 
istic of  the  sand— perhaps  a  higher 
concentration  of  salts  or  other  miner- 
als. We  could  produce  the  same  tvpe 
of  sound  on  other  turtle  islands  in  the 
Orinoco  by  walking  over  the  sand. 
Curiouslv.  sands  from  beaches  that  are 
not  used  by  turtles  usually  do  not  pro- 
duce this  distinctive  noise. 

Sometimes  we  arrived  on  the  nest- 
ing sites  early  in  the  evening,  fell 
asleep,  and  awoke  to  find  turtles  all 


TriiTLiN  dig  fmall  holes  to  receii 
their  eggs  at  the  bottom  of  the  larj 
holes  they  dig  first,  above  and  righ 


\     < 


%='^>» 


■a 


3  in  one  square  meter  of  ground 
dug  up  and  the  eggs  counted.  The 
ge  per  nest  was  from  82  to  85. 


around  us— moving,  digging,  or  laying 
eggs.  The  first  night  we  did  not  know 
how  to  pass  unnoticed  and  make  the 
needed  observations.  Since  it  was  al- 
most impossible  to  see  anything,  we 
walked  among  them,  but  soon  found 
out  that  the  turtles  rightly  took  us  for 
strangers  and  returned,  running,  to 
the  river.  So  we  crawled  on  our  bellies. 
The  observation  was  much  more  diffi- 
cult, but  at  least  the  Arrau  did  not  run 
away.  On  occasion,  to  reassure  the 
turtles,  we  extended  our  hands  later- 
ally and,  first  with  one  hand  and  then 
with  the  other,  we  threw  sand  on  our 
backs  as  the  females  were  doing— and 
it  did  the  trick. 

WHEN  a  female  decides  she  has 
found  the  right  place,  she  starts 
digging  immediately,  using  all  four 
legs.  First,  there  are  strokes  with  front 
legs  that  throw  the  sand  to  the  pos- 
terior; then,  one  at  a  time,  the  hind 
legs  finish  the  job.  throwing  the  sand 
laterally  four  or  five  feet  away.  When 
the  legs  on  the  right  side  tire,  the  fe- 
male uses  the  legs  on  the  left  side  until 
a  hole  about  three  feet  in  diameter 
and  almost  two  feet  deep  is  produced. 
This  is  a  difficult  task,  for  the  sand  is 


dry  and  the  walls  fall  in  repeatedly, 
but  the  female  goes  on  until  she  is 
finished,  although  from  time  to  time 
she  relaxes  for  a  few  seconds. 

When  the  large  hole  is  dug  she  uses 
her  hind  limbs  to  scoop  out  a  smaller 
hole— about  twelve  inches  deep  and  ten 
inches  wide— in  the  bottom.  This  is  the 
spot  where  the  eggs  will  be  laid.  The 
wet  sand  starts  at  that  depth,  and  both 
during  and  after  digging  the  female 
irrigates  it  with  her  cloacal  liquid  to 
facilitate  egg  laying  and  to  contribute 
to  the  firmness  of  the  nest  walls.  When 
the  nest  is  carved  large  enough  she 
makes  a  last,  quick  move,  throwing  her 
body  backward  to  cover  the  nest  hole 
completely  with  the  carapace.  From 
this  moment  on  she  is  unmovable. 
Earlier,  any  suspicious  sound  or  move- 
ment could  frighten  her  away.  Once 
the  egg  laying  starts,  however,  we  dis- 
covered we  could  move  around  freely. 
We  could  touch  her  head  or  legs  or 
body,  throw  sand  on  her— nothing 
could  force  her  to  budge.  We  capital- 
ized on  this  behavior  by  opening  one 
side  of  a  nest  and,  with  our  hands 
inside  it,  feeling  the  eggs  actually  fall- 
ing and  the  turtle  using  her  tail  to 
distribute  them  in  the  nest.  For  about 


37 


twenty  minutes  nothing  is  heard  but 
a  peculiar  moaning.  The  eggs  come 
out  at  intervals  of  four  to  fourteen  or 
more  seconds.  At  first,  two  or  three 
are  laid  at  once;  later,  one  by  one. 
When  the  egg  laying  nears  its  end,  a 
curious  gargling  sound  is  heard,  as  if 


air  is  coming  from  the  cloaca.  By  this 
time,  the  stupendous  effort  has  filled 
the  female's  eyes  with  tears  that  roll 
down  her  sand-covered  face.  But  the 
job  is  only  half-done. 

Immediately  after  finishing  the  egg 
laying,  and  without  lifting  her  body, 
she  starts  closing  first  the  nest,  then 
the  large  hole.  It  is  a  good  hour's  ac- 
tivity, as  she  not  only  covers  the  hole, 
but  smooths  over  a  surrounding  area 
about  twelve  feet  long  and  five  feet 
wide.  One  end  of  this  area,  as  far  as 
possible  from  where  the  eggs  are 
buried,  she  does  not  cover  completely 
but  leaves  a  small  depression  in  the 
ground.  This  gives  the  appearance  of 
a  recently  covered  nest,  and  may  be 
designed  to  confuse  predators.  Com- 
pletely exhausted,  with  wet  eyes, 
bloody  hind  limbs,  and  a  tired  body, 
she  returns  to  the  river.  The  following 
year,  on  the  same  beach,  the  pattern 
will  be  repeated. 

Sometimes  egg  laying  starts  early 


in  the  morning.  The  first  rays  of  t 
sun  heat  the  sand  beaches  so  rapid 
that  on  more  than  one  occasion  i 
have  found  exhausted  females  w] 
have  died  before  being  able  to  rea^ 
the  saving  waters.  While  the  egg  la 
ing  is  in  full  swing  at  night,  mai 
females  go  on  basking  during  the  da 
time  until  their  time  to  lay  has  coir 
and  this  most  intensive  activity  m 
last  up  to  two  months. 

TO  obtain  data  about  the  product: 
ity  of  our  beach  we  made  a  tra 
sect,    opened    one    square    meter 
ground  every  ten  meters,  then  dug  o 
and  counted  all  the  nests  and  the  nuj 
ber  of  eggs  in  them.  The  number 
eggs   varies   greatly;    the   average 
around  82  to  86,  although  young  i 
males,  called  lechonas,  lay  only  50 
60.  The  record  number  obtained  fro 
a  single  nest  is  150.  The  eggs  are  so 
shelled,  elastic,  and  almost  round.  T 
native  boys  play  ball  games  with  thei 


Embryomc  de\  elopment  of  Podocnei7us  expcmsa  takes  about 
45  days.  In  top  photograph,  two-  or  three-day-old  embryo  is 
easily  visible  through  the  thin  egg  membrane.  Before  hatching, 

38 


the  caruncle— a  beaklike  projection— forms  on  the  snout  ju 
below  the  nostrils.  This  is  used  to  break  the  shell,  and  th( 
the  turtle  begins  its  struggle  up  through  sand  to  the  ligt 


the  middle  of  April  all  the  fe- 
have  gone.  The  incoming  rains 
;he  water  level  rise  quickly,  and 
lach  is  abandoned  except  for 
;ds  of  predaceous  birds,  which, 
the  egg-laying  period,  hunt  for 
lished  or  badly  closed  nests  to 
ifter  the  departure  of  the  fe- 
however,  the  birds  wait  for  the 
ngs  to  come  out  of  their  safe, 
ground  nests.  Among  the  most 
int  birds  are  vultures,  like  the 

0  (Coragyps  atratus)  and  Cari- 
"aracara  plancus) ,  or  the  tallest 

American     flying     bird,     the 

Bird   (Jabiru  mycteria) ,  and 

)od  Ibis  (Mycteria  americana) . 

well-protected  eggs  continue  to 

p  at  an  almost  constant  under- 

1  temperature  of  31  to  32  de- 
;entigrade.  After  three  days  of 
tion  the  embryo  can  be  seen 
,  and  after  ten  days  the  unmis- 
;   shape   of   a   young  turtle   is 

through  the  thin  membrane. 


However,  the  development  continues 
for  at  least  forty-five  days.  Then  the 
hatchling  breaks  the  soft  shell  and 
starts  to  struggle  upward  to  the  light. 
The  sand  above  is  soft,  but  it  takes  two 
or  three  days  for  them  to  reach  the 
surface.  When  those  uppermost  tire, 
the  ones  below  overtake  them,  the 
strongest  reaching  the  surface  first. 

Near  the  surface  the  intense  heat  of 
the  sun,  which  has  raised  the  sand 
temperature  to  over  60  degrees  centi- 
grade, repels  the  young  turtles;  so  it  is 
only  late  at  night  or  in  the  early  morn- 
ing hours  that  the  hatchlings  break 
the  surface  and  start  running  toward 
the  water.  We  have  called  this  journey 
the  "death  race,"  for  as  soon  as  the 
two-inch,  one-ounce  creatures  appear, 
all  the  vultures  and  other  birds  begin 
a  fantastic  banquet.  The  baby  turtles 
run  as  fast  as  they  can:  they  scurry, 
stop,  and  then  race  off  again.  But  soon 
the  beach  is  covered  with  empty  shells 
—the  bodies  have  been  eaten  out  by 


vultures.  The  larger  birds  swallow  the 
turtles  whole.  Sometimes  the  tiny 
racers  do  not  seem  to  know  where  the 
water  lies,  and  they  run  down  the  first 
slope  they  find.  Many  times,  certainly, 
it  leads  them  to  the  river,  but  at  other 
times  the  inclination  leads  them  to- 
ward the  center  of  the  island.  The 
birds  swoop  down  to  kill  the  first 
several  thousand  hatchlings,  but  as 
more  keep  running  among  the  dead 
bodies  of  their  brethren,  the  birds 
have  some  difficulty  in  distinguishing 
which  is  dead  and  which  is  a  live  turtle 
that  has  hesitated  for  a  moment. 

For  the  young  turtles  who  reach  the 
water,  the  calamities  are  not  over. 
Large  and  small  fishes,  like  the  Valen- 
ton  ( Brachyplatystoma  filamento- 
sum),  Cajaro  ( Phractocephalus  hemi- 
hopterus) ,  or  Pavon  fCichla  sp.j,  as 
well  as  the  Orinoco  crocodile  (Croc- 
odyliis  intermedius )  or  the  South 
American  caiman  (Caiman  crocodilus 
crocodilus)  are  waiting  to  swallow  the 
unfortunate  creatures,  and  the  death 
race  continues  until  the  relatively  few 
fortunates— perhaps  5  per  cent— have 
reached  the  turbid  Orinoco  waters. 

Nature  sometimes  plays  a  tragic 
trick;  the  rains  start  earlier  than  usual 
and  the  waters  rise  so  fast  that  many 
nests  are  inundated  before  the  young 
have  hatched.  The  year  1963  was  a 
particularly  bitter  one;  several  million 
eggs  and  newborn  turtles  never 
reached  the  surface.  It  was  a  sad  oc- 
cupation to  open  nest  after  nest  and 
find  lifeless  young  or  grayish  eggs 
with  their  rotting  embryos. 

Toward  the  end  of  May  the  river 
rises  over  the  beaches,  leaving  visible 
only  a  tiny,  vegetation-covered  portion 
of  the  island.  Even  this  is  sometimes 
overrun  by  the  violent  waters.  But  the 
Arrau  will  return  again  as  long  as 
there  is  an  opportunity,  and  if  man 
does  not  wipe  them  out  entirely. 

IN  1800  Baron  von  Humboldt,  the 
German  explorer-naturalist,  pro- 
vided good  descriptions  of  some  as- 
pects of  turtle  exploitation  by  Indians. 
Although  they  captured  the  females 
for  meat,  they  much  preferred  the 
eggs.  Von  Humboldt  speaks  of  about 
33  million  eggs  laid  on  one  beach  in 
one  season,  and  his  calculations  in- 
clude 100-  to  120-thousand  nests.  The 
Indians,  who  frequently  worked  for 
Christian  missionaries,  collected  mil- 
lions of  eggs  in  their  baskets,  washed 
them,  and  then  threw  them  in  curia- 
ras     (small,    canoe-like    boats),    and 


39 


squashed  them.  Then  they  were  left  un- 
til an  oily  substance  from  the  "whites" 
floated  on  the  surface.  This  was  col- 
lected and  used  as  fuel  for  lamps. 
There  was  a  time  when  turtle  eggs  sup- 
plied most  of  the  oil  for  lamps  through- 
out northern  South  America.  Turtle  oil 
is  still  used  for  cooking.  Even  now, 
turtle  eggs,  fresh  or  dried,  are  consid- 
ered a  delicacy. 

A  T  one  time  Indians  who  attempted 
_/-\^  to  catch  the  females  had  to  com- 
pete with  jaguars,  which  were  then 
abundant.  The  animals  knew  how  to 
flip  a  female  onto  her  back  so  they 
could  eat  her  at  leisure.  Another  great 
enemy  of  the  turtles  was  the  Orinoco 
crocodile,  and  records  show  that  in  a 
single  night  the  Piaroa  Indians  killed 
eighteen  large  crocodiles  during  the 
turtle-nesting  season.  When  a  demand 
developed  for  crocodile  skins  for  ex- 
port, they  were  hunted  eagerly,  and 


soon  became  scarce  in  the  main  stream 
of  the  Orinoco;  thus,  fashion  helped  to 
rid  the  Arrau  of  at  least  one  enemy. 

During  the  May  to  December  feed- 
ing period,  the  Arrau  is  caught  in  sev- 
eral ways.  The  criollos  use  a  blunt 
hook  baited  either  with  a  mango  or  a 
topocho—a  variety  of  banana— while 
the  Indians  use  bows  and  arrows  or 
harpoons,  but  in  either  case  the  Arrau 
are  fierce  antagonists.  Their  legendary 
resistance  was  confirmed  by  a  female 
we  caught  on  the  beach.  She  had  a 
rusty  arrowhead  in  the  middle  of  her 
brain;  the  reptile  had  lived  with  it  for 
years,  judging  from  the  state  of  the 
iron.  To  honor  the  resistance  of  this 
Arrau,  we  solemnly  marked  her,  and 
the  riberenos  acceded  to  our  request 
that  she  be  released. 

The  great  respect  that  the  natives 
hold  for  the  Arrau  is  shown  by  the 
many  legends  told  from  generation  to 
generation.  For  instance,  no  woman 


is  permitted  on  the  turtle  islands.  Ei 
those  who  approached  had  to  stay 
their  boats  and  away  from  the  bea 
When  questioned  about  this,  an  Ind: 
answered:  "Why,  certainly.  That's 
cause  of  the  Turtle  Lady."  The  be! 
is  that  during  the  daytime,  when 
sand  is  sizzling  hot.  the  Turtle  La 
appears.  She  is  a  tall,  beautiful,  bla 
haired  woman  in  a  white,  diaphan( 
gown.  She  walks  among  the  baski 
rows  of  turtles,  encourages  them,  a 
shows  them  the  best  areas  in  wh: 
to  bask.  She  orders  away  the  ones  tl 
have  stayed  too  long  in  the  sun,  a 
points  out  the  highest  beaches  whi 
hatchling  survival  is  best.  In  short,  1 
Turtle  Lady  protects  the  female  turl 
in  all  ways,  but  she  is  jealous  of  a 
other  woman,  and  will  harm  her  a 
guide  all  the  turtles  to  other  bead 
should  one  approach.  In  addition,  s 
will  injure  any  man  who  is  on  1 
beaches  when  she  is  there.  This  etl 


Local  people  on  the  Orinoco  catch 
turtles  on  their  breeding  grounds  and 
pen  them  before  shipping  them  to  market. 

40 


Tracks  of  females  seeking  nest  sites 
cover  the  beach.  Wavy  lines  between  the 
footprints    are   made    by    turtles'    tails. 


m 


-fsr 


/ision— and  many  Indians  swear 
lave  seen  her  walking  among  the 
s  like  a  nature  spirit— has  more 
r  to  protect  the  Arrau  than  all  the 
nment  laws  put  together.  The 
are  disobeyed  readily,  even 
enforced  by  National  Guards- 
Needless  to  say,  we  agreed  that 
urtle  Lady  should  be  respected! 
ring  the  darkest  nights— so  goes 
er  story— when  the  females  are 
:ided  and  confused  about  where 
t  what  time  to  start  egg  laying, 
Ibador  (the  Whistler)  appears. 
Whistler  is  a  huge  male  turtle,  and 
listle  guides  the  females  straight 
nesting  grounds  that  were  indi- 
during  the  day  by  the  Turtle 
The  Whistler  can  see  on  the 
3t  nights,  and  sometimes  he  can 
e  so  that  no  human  ear  can  hear 
he  female  turtles  hear  him, 
h,  and  his  magic  call  is  obeyed 
of  them.  When  the  Whistler  is 


on  the  beach,  he  warns  the  females  of 
danger,  including  the  approach  of 
men.  The  turtle  collectors,  therefore, 
have  always  tried  to  catch  the  Whistler 
before  attempting  to  capture  the  tur- 
tles, but  so  far  they  have  been  notably 
unsuccessful.  Also,  there  are  many 
nights  when  turtles  lay  eggs  but  the 
men  can  find  none  in  the  darkness. 
This,  too,  is  arranged  by  the  Whistler. 
In  myth  and  reality,  then,  the  Arrau 
is  an  integral  part  of  the  lives  of  the 
Indians,  who  cherish  the  other's  exist- 
ence. The  Indians  do  not  "possess"  the 
Arrau— or  anything  else  that  lives  in 
the  Father  of  All  Waters— as  we  pos- 
sess, or  think  we  possess,  our  houses, 
streets,  sometimes  even  our  wives  and 
children.  They  sincerely  share  their 
lives  with  the  turtles,  attempting  to 
outwit  them  by  an  honest  competition 
in  which  man  is  armed  with  his  intel- 
ligence, and  the  Arrau  is  protected  by 
its    instinct    and    its    mystical    allies. 


Rusty  arrowhead,  apparently  carried  for 
years,   is  lodged  in   this   turtle's   skull. 


MtaMHMi 


.^ 


f^    0>^> 


4^J 


/^■-.^ 


«M       -md 


Arches  and  Bridges 


42 


)f  Stone 


,— ,  by  WILLARD  LUCE 

X  HE  STATE  OF  UTAH  has  the  greatest  collection 
of  natural  arches  and  bridges  in  the  world,  many  of 
them  now  in  three  national  monuments:  Arches  Na- 
tional Monument,  Natural  Bridges  National  Monu- 
ment, and  Rainbow  Bridge  National  Monument. 
In  Arches  National  Monument  near  Moab,  Utah, 
there  are  eighty-eight  known  natural  arches.  Some 
are  no  larger  than  small  windows,  while  one,  the 
291-foot  Landscape  Arch,  is  considered  the  long- 
est natural  span  in  the  world.  A  good  many  others 
have  openings  large  enough  to  serve  as  railroad 
tunnels,  and  one,  DeHcate  Arch,  could  curve  up 
and  over  a  three-story  building.  The  rocks  of  the 
Monument  are  primarily  of  Entrada  sandstone,  al- 
though Carmel  formations  and  Navaho  sandstone 
are  also  present.  Entrada  is  a  brown  or  reddish- 
brown,  fine-grained  sandstone  with  subordinate,  in- 
terbedded  siltstone  and  claystone.  The  Entrada  is 


oipapu  Bridge,  above,  is  located  in  Natural 
Bridges  National  Monument.  It  has  a  261-foot  span. 

Double  Arch,  left,  resulted  from  the  effect 

of  wind,  frost,  and  water  seepage  on  Entrada  stone. 


43 


probably  of  a  combined  water  and  wind  origin;  it 
exhibits  sections  that  are  typically  deposited  in 
water,  while  others,  strongly  cross-bedded  (cross- 
stratified),  were  probably  dune  or  wind  deposits. 
On  the  basis  of  stratigraphic  position,  Entrada  is 
assigned  to  the  Late  Jurassic  Period. 

Utah's  red  rock  country  has  been  affected  by 
various  geological  processes.  In  some  in- 
stances, an  intrusion  of  salt  forced  the  rocks  upward 
into  huge  anticlinal  folds  or  domes.  The  pressure 
from  underneath  and  the  upthrusting  caused  a 
warping  and  finally  a  cracking  of  the  Entrada  sand- 
stone. Joints,  or  cracks,  ran  parallel  to  each  other 
and  to  the  axis  of  the  anticline.  The  upward  move- 
ment of  the  anticline  also  hastened  the  erosion  of 
the  post-Entrada  material.  Erosion  continued,  eat- 
ing down  into  the  parallel  joints  and  into  the  sec- 
ondary cross-joints  that  ran  at  right  angles.  Soil 
collected  between  the  fins,  and  plants  grew  there, 
sending  roots  into  the  tiniest  cracks.  Freezing  and 
thawing  helped  widen  the  space  between  the  fins. 
While  such  intrusions  did  alter  the  surface  and 
texture  of  rocks,  they  were  not  responsible  for  the 
formation  of  arches.  Water,  wind,  and  frost  played 
the  major  roles  in  this  phenomenon.  As  these  three 
forces  gradually  ate  away  at  the  rock  slabs,  under- 
cutting started,  and  the  softer  material  was  washed 
or  blown  away.  This  occurred  in  the  Entrada  sand- 
stone, but  it  happened  far  more  rapidly  in  the 
Carmel  formation,  which  is  of  a  soft  and  crumbly 
nature.  Because  the  wind  is  seldom  still  on  the  high 
Colorado  Plateau  country,  sandblasting  became  a 
continuous  process.  Slowly,  holes  were  worn 
through  the  fins,  and  arches  were  born. 


Liooking-glass  Arch,  below,  l\ainbow  Bridge,  right,  is 

rises  symmetrically  in  most  famous  in  Utah.  It 

the  South  Moab  area  just  spans  278  feet,  curving  309 

east  of  U.S.  Route  106.  feet  above  Bridge  Canyon. 


\ 


fc^*" 


''•kS 


^^^i^' 
y  *  '^i 


Uelicate  Arch,  located  in 
Arches  National  Monument, 
could  encompass  a  three-story 
office  building  within  its  arc. 


At  other  locations,  seepage  of  water  formed  al- 
coves, or  caves,  by  dissolving  the  cementing  ma- 
terial and  washing  it  and  bits  of  sandstone  away. 
Potholes  formed  on  top  of  the  sandstone  ledges, 
gradually  becoming  deeper,  until  finally  a  large 
hole  formed  in  the  top  of  the  cove,  in  some  cases 
causing  the  whole  roof  to  collapse.  The  Double 
Arch  is  a  product  of  both  these  processes.  Coves 
working  in  from  two  directions  finally  perforated 
the  slab  of  sandstone,  while  potholes  working  down 
from  the  top  caused  the  roof  to  collapse.  Two  gird- 
ers were  left,  reaching  out  from  one  apex  to  form 
one  of  the  most  unusual  structures  in  Arches  Na- 
tional Monument. 

The  most  obvious  diiference  between  a  natural 
bridge  and  a  natural  arch  is  that  a  bridge  spans  a 
watercourse,  although  the  watercourse  may  be  dry 
most  of  the  year.  For  example,  the  canyons  of  Nat- 
ural Bridges  National  Monument,  in  the  southeast 
corner  of  the  state,  are  usually  free  of  running 
water,  but  during  spring  runoffs  and  flash  floods, 
they  sometimes  carry  a  huge  volume  of  water  mixed 
with  sand,  trees,  and  even  boulders. 

RUNNING  water  also  plays  an  important  role  in 
the  formation  of  any  natural  bridge.  Slowly, 
over  eons  of  time,  a  stream  bed  wears  down  into 
rock.  Twisting  and  turning,  the  water  digs  an  oxbow 
channel  deeper  and  deeper  into  the  thick  layer  of 
sandstone.  As  it  continues  wearing  downward,  the 
moving  water  also  pushes  and  churns  against  the 
side  of  the  channel  until  finally  it  wears  a  hole 
through  the  oxbow  and  takes  a  shortcut.  This  is  the 
beginning  of  a  natural  bridge,  and  the  size  of  the 
hole  is  one  guide  to  estimating  its  age.  A  bridge  that 
has  a  small  opening,  with  a  thick  slab  of  stone  above 
it,  is  considered  to  be  more  recently  formed  than 
one  with  a  large  opening  overhung  by  a  thin  girder. 

On  this  basis,  the  three  White  Canyon  bridges  of 
Natural  Bridges  National  Monument  may  be  classi- 
fied as  "young."  "middle  aged."  and  "old."  Kachina 
Bridge,  the  youngest,  has  a  span  of  206  feet,  but 
curves  only  98  feet  above  the  canyon  floor,  while 
the  sandstone  arc  above  the  opening  is  107  feet 
thick.  Sipapu  Bridge  is  middle  aged.  It  is  also  the 
largest  and  most  beautiful  of  the  three.  It  has  a 
261 -foot  span,  and  its  56-foot-thick  beam  of  stone 
curves  166  feet  above  the  canyon  floor.  The  Owa- 
chomo  is  the  oldest.  Its  thin,  1 1-foot-thick  girder  is 
97  feet  above  the  canyon  floor  and  spans  200-foot- 
wide  Armstrong  Canyon. 

Rainbow  Natural  Bridge,  itself  a  national  monu- 
ment, is  the  largest,  most  colorful,  and  certainly  the 
best-known  of  all  Utah's  natural  bridges.  It  is  lo- 
cated in  one  of  the  most  inaccessible  areas  in  the 
United  States,  Alaska  excluded.  Within  a  radius 
of  fifty  miles  there  are  only  two  improved  roads, 
neither  of  them  heading  for  Rainbow  Bridge.  To 
reach  it  by  land  requires  a  fifty-mile  drive  over  a 
primitive  road  that  ends  fourteen  miles  from  the 
bridge.  From  then  on  there  is  only  a  winding  trail 
through  the  red  rock  canyons.  It  fights  its  way  from 
one  canyon  to  another,  always  creeping  deeper  and 


46 


deeper  into  a  desert  of  barren  sandstone.  Rainbow 
is  much  easier  to  reach  from  the  Colorado  River, 
and  as  waters  from  the  recently  flooded  Glen  Can- 
yon Dam  continue  to  back  up  into  Aztec  and  Bridge 
canyons,  boats  will  be  able  to  reach  almost  to  the 
bridge.  Unlike  other  bridges  in  the  state.  Rainbow's 
spanning  beam  arches  gracefully  and  symmetrically 
up  and  over  the  canyon  beneath  it.  This  is  why  the 
Navahos  call  it  Nonnozoshi,  or  Great  Stone  Arch, 
and  the  Utes  call  it  Barohoini,  The  Rainbow.  But 
neither  of  the  names  prepares  the  visitor  for  its  tre- 
mendous size.  Its  arch  is  278  feet  across  and  309 
feet  above  Bridge  Canyon,  and  there  is  room 
enough  beneath  it  for  our  National  Capitol. 

In  addition  to  the  natural  arches  and  bridges  de- 
scribed in  this  article,  there  are  others  scattered 
throughout  Utah's  red  and  white  rock  country. 
Many  are  in  the  area  that  soon  may  become  Can- 
yonlands  National  Park,  which  would  be  near  the 
junction  of  the  Green  and  the  Colorado  rivers. 


i  he  North  Window,  one  of 
many  smaller  arches  near  Moab, 
is  65  feet  high.  Its  beam 
measures  approximately  130  feet. 


I  his  fortress-like  structure 
has  been  aptly  christened . 
Turret  Arch.  It  is  located  in 
Arches  National  Monument. 


Armor-plated 

and  Jawless 

Fish 


D 


evonian 


Fossil  record  is  clue  to  pteraspid  habitat 


By  David  L.  Dineley 


Among  the  most  curious  aniir 
_/\_  ever  to  appear  in  the  waters 
the  Northern  Hemisphere  were 
ostracoderms,  an  ancient  group 
jawless,  armor-plated  fishes,  many 
which  may  have  looked  rather  1 
giant  tadpoles.  Most  of  them  were 
tv\  een  four  and  twenty  inches  long,  1 
a  few  grew  to  larger  size.  Their 
mains  are  most  often  found  in  ea 
Devonian  rocks,  deposited  betwf 
380  and  400  million  years  ago, 
though  they  apparently  existed  duri 
earlier  Ordovician  times.  By  the  e 
of  the  Devonian  Period  they  beca 
extinct,  yet  there  remains  the  poi 
bility  that  our  modern  agnathous, 
jawless,  fishes— the  lampreys  and  h; 
fishes— may  be  descended  from  osl 
coderm  ancestors.  In  recent  yci 
there  have  been  some  very  detailed  c 
cussions  of  the  affinities  betueen  tb 
two  agnathous  groups.  These  affinit 


48 


wide  scope  for  conjecture,  be- 
s  only  the  bony  armor  and  scales 
e  ostracoderms  remain,  while  the 
;rn  lampreys  and  hagfishes  pos- 
no  comparable  hard  parts. 
;tracoderms  were  entirely  aquatic 
ures,  with  varying  amounts  of  ar- 
about  the  head  and  body.  They 
lly  lacked  paired  fins  and  they 
1  by  waggling  a  stout  tail.  In  place 
ws  and  teeth,  some  had  a  structure 
irecting  or  scooping  up  food  into 
mouth;  others  may  have  had 
ir-like  "lips."  Basically  there  were 
cinds  of  ostracoderms— those  that 
a  head  skeleton  largely  compris- 
1  single  complex  shield  of  bone 
Osteostraci) ,  and  the  more  varied 
p  (the  Heterostraci ) ,  in  which  the 

and  body  were  encased  in  sepa- 
Dony  plates.  Although  we  have  yet 
id  an  ostracoderm  with  any  sort 
hy  "backbone,"  there  is  no  doubt 


that  those  animals  were  true  verte- 
brates, and  were  among  the  first  to 
leavetracesof  aspecializedmodeoflife. 

The  pteraspids  were  perhaps  the 
most  successful  of  the  heterostracans, 
and  their  fossils  are  sufficiently  numer- 
ous to  provide  us  with  a  fairly  detailed 
picture  of  their  natural  history.  At  the 
turn  of  the  century,  six  or  seven  spe- 
cies of  Pteraspis  had  been  described ; 
the  number  of  valid  species  today  is 
six  times  greater,  and  as  many  yet- 
undescribed,  related  types  are  known. 
Geological  studies  by  various  workers, 
including  the  author,  have  helped  to 
give  an  idea  of  the  environment  and 
the  changing  conditions  in  which  these 
animals  lived. 

Pteraspids  were  rather  trowel- 
shaped  and  flattened  little  creatures, 
usually  a  few  inches  long,  and  with 
strong  tails  with  the  lower,  finlike  lobe 
larger  than  the  upper.  This  lower  part 


of  the  tail  served  to  keep  the  creature's 
nose  down  as  it  swam.  The  snout  was 
a  more  or  less  elongated,  solid,  single 
bony  plate.  Just  behind  its  lower  hind 
margin  lay  a  narrow,  transverse 
mouth.  The  eyes  peered  forward  and 
sideways  and  were  relatively  small. 
The  nasal  cavity  probably  opened  into 
part  of  the  mouth.  A  pineal  organ  was 
present  between  the  eyes.  Over  the 
central  part  of  the  back  and  belly  were 
large,  symmetrical  median  plates,  or 
discs,  while  slender,  somewhat  bowed 
branchial  plates  ran  along  the  shallow 
sides  of  the  body.  At  the  hind  end  of 
these  branchial  plates  lay  the  bran- 
chial, or  gill,  openings  from  which 
water  was  expelled  after  it  had  passed 
over  the  gills.  Beyond  these,  cornual 
plates  formed  the  hind  "corners"  of 
the  carapace.  From  the  center  of  the 
hind  margin  of  the  dorsal  disc  pro- 
jected a  spine,  which,  together  with  the 


49 


Coelolepid 


cornual  plates,  may  have  helped  to 
stabilize  movement  through  the  water. 
While  the  plates  forming  the  top  and 
sides  of  the  carapace  were  often  found 
fused  together,  the  ventral  disc  always 
seems  to  have  fallen  away  after  the 
animal  died,  and  it  possibly  never 
coalesced  with  the  other  armor. 

ONLY  very  rarely  has  the  delicate 
assemblage  of  small  plates  about 
the  mouth  been  preserved.  The  oral 
plates,  hinging  down  from  their  pos- 
terior ends,  formed  an  apparatus 
rather  like  a  mechanically  expandable 
scoop  or  shovel.  Clearly,  such  slender 
structures  were  not  used  for  biting  or 
crushing.  None  has  been  found  to  be 
worn  or  abraded,  and  presumably 
they  were  covered  by  or  linked  with  an 
epidermis  that  allowed  them  to  splay 
out  forward  and  downward.  One  can 
picture  this  device  being  used  to  scoop 
up  mud  or  food  from  the  bottom. 

Behind  the  animal's  flattened  and 
boxlike  front  part,  the  rear  half  of  the 
body  was  laterally  compressed  and 
covered  with  bony  scales  that  were 
overlapped,  thick,  and  regular.  The 
largest  were  on  the  flanks,  and  occa- 
sionally two  scales  seem  to  have  fused 
to  form  curious  "double  scales." 

Both  the  plates  and  the  scales  have 
the  same  remarkable,  three-layered 
structure.  Outermost  is  a  layer  of  den- 
tine, which  bears  an  ornamentation  of 
"ribs,"  tubercles,  and  so  on.  In  the 


middle  is  a  cellular  or  spongy  bone 
layer,  which  is  the  thickest  of  the  three. 
On  the  inner  side  is  smooth,  laminated, 
bony  tissue.  The  sensory  canal  system 
runs  through  the  middle  layer  and  con- 
nects with  the  outside  via  small  pores. 
All  of  the  features  described  above 
are  very  typical  of  the  pteraspids,  espe- 
cially the  fine  ribbing  seen  on  the 
plates  of  the  carapace.  On  the  interior 
of  the  carapace  is  a  remarkably  con- 
stant arrangement  of  impressions  that 
gives  a  clue  to  the  disposition  of  or- 
gans within  the  body. 

From  the  impressions  inside  the 
dorsal  shield  we  can  reasonably  sug- 
gest that  a  pair  of  small  nasal  capsules 
lay  just  above  and  behind  the  mouth, 
with  the  nostrils  opening  into  the 
mouth,  and  behind  these  lay  a  promi- 
nent pineal  organ,  two  semicircular 
canals,  and  gill  chambers  in  pairs. 
Supporting  the  various  soft  tissues, 
respiratory  system,  and  so  forth,  was 
possibly  a  mass  of  cartilage.  We  have 
never  yet  discovered  fossils  in  which 
this  cartilage  had  become  ossified,  and 
possibly  no  pteraspid  ever  developed  a 
rigid  bony  endoskeleton.  Seven  or 
more  pairs  of  gill  sacs  or  chambers 
were  present,  and  may  have  been  simi- 
lar to  those  of  modern  jawless  fishes. 
They  must  have  been  connected  with 
the  mouth  and,  either  directly  or  via  a 
common  canal,  with  the  branchial 
openings,  which  lay  close  to  the  hind- 
most sac.  Water,  taken  in  at  the  mouth. 


passed  into  the  pharynx  and  throuj 
a  small  connection  into  each  g: 
cavity.  What  kept  the  water  moving 
not  easy  to  see.  The  rigid  box  of  a 
mor  prevented  "breathing"  mov 
ments— contraction  and  expansion— 
the  head  and  body.  It  is  thought  vei 
unlikely  that  currents  produced  by  tl 
waving  of  cilia,  little  hairlike  proje 
tions  from  the  gut  wall,  could  ha' 
been  strong  enough  to  propel  an  ar 
mal  as  large  as  Pteraspis.  Profess 
D.  M.  S.  Watson  of  London  has  su 
gested  that  the  water  was  kept  movii 
by  muscular  tissue  that  "squeezed" 
along  the  system,  as  in  hagfishes  t 
day.  He  thinks  that  in  at  least  OJ 
heterostracan  this  tissue  was  a  stroi 
sheet  attached  to  the  ventral  surfa 
of  the  brain  case  not  far  behind  t 
eyes  and  just  in  front  of  the  first  pa 
of  gill  sacs.  The  fact  that  the  venti 
disc  resisted  fusion  with  the  oth 
plates  suggests  that  it  may  have  be 
hinged  by  tissue  and  moved  by  t 
respiratory  activity  going  on  above 
In  common  with  other  primiti 
aquatic  vertebrates,  the  ostracoden 
possessed  a  sensory,  or  lateral  lii 
system.  This  was  a  network  of  fi 
canals  that  ran  along  the  sides  of  t 
body  and  formed  a  complex  patte 
over  the  head,  similar  to  that  of  t 
modern  lamprey.  In  the  pterasf 
carapace,  as  we  have  seen,  it  involv 
a  system  of  canals  running  throu 
the   middle   layer   of   the   plates  a 


50 


TYPES  of  ostracoderms—jawless  vertebrates— are 
1  in  rocks  of  Silurian  and  Devonian  Periods, 
h  of  pteraspid,  right,  was  closed  by  "scoop"  of 
ral  plates,  probably  set  in  the  membrane.  Plates 
:en  In  longitudinal  section  in  bottom  drawing. 


ing  the  exterior  through  numer- 
inute  pores.  It  has  been  recently 
sted  that,  as  in  certain  modern 
,  the  lateral  line  system  may  have 
oned  as  an  "echo-sounder,"  lo- 
;  objects  by  measuring  the  re- 
l  vibrations  set  up  by  the  swim- 
movements  of  the  animal  itself, 
rk  or  turbid  water  this  would 
3een  particularly  useful. 

RT  from  the  anatomical  interest 
offered  by  these  fishes,  we  have 
absorbing  problems  concerning 
geological  and  geographical  dis- 
ion,  life  history,  and  habits, 
of  the  ostracoderms  are  known 

from   isolated   or  fragmentary 

and  scales.  Many  of  the  first 
pid  fossils  to  be  discovered  were 
amplete  that  they  were  regarded 

remains  of  moUusks,  sponges, 
er  invertebrates.  The  true  chor- 
ature  of  these  fossils  was  event- 
established  in  1858  by  T.  H. 
y  in  London.  Complete  speci- 
are  still  very  rare.  Only  in  1935 
detailed  account  of  newly  found 
ete  fossils  published  by  Dr.  E.  I. 

of  the  British  Museum.  Pteras- 
however,  are  now  known  over 

wide  geographical  area.  Origi- 
discovered  in  Britain  and  Ger- 

they  have  since  been  found  in 
s  and  Belgium,  Poland,  the 
ne,  and  Spitsbergen.  In  North 
ca  they  have  been  found  in  Nova 


Scotia,  the  Canadian  Arctic  Islands, 
Ohio.  Colorado,  Wyoming,  and  in  the 
Canadian  Rocky  Mountains. 

Most  frequently  the  pteraspids  are 
found  together  with  various  other  os- 
tracoderms and  placoderms  ("plate- 
skinned"  fishes  with  primitive  jaws) 
in  sandy  formations  often  called  the 
"Old  Red  Sandstone"  in  Great  Britain. 
These  deposits  are  usually  and  essen- 
tially non-marine— the  sediments  of 
deltas,  lakes,  and  flood  plains.  Often 
the  ostracoderm  remains  occur  in  iso- 
lated pockets  and  segregations,  as 
though  swept  together  by  streams  and 
currents.  Here,  at  least,  the  impression 
is  gained  that  the  pteraspids  and  other 
ostracoderms  lived  in  inland  waters. 
Occasionally  they  are  found  in  marine 
sediments  and  this,  together  with  their 
distribution  on  each  side  of  the  Atlan- 
tic, prompts  the  question  of  whether 
or  not  the  animals  spent  at  least  part 
of  their  life  in  the  sea.  Many  of  us 
who  have  searched  for  the  earliest 
ostracoderms  have  produced  evidence 
to  show  that  they  originally  inhabited 
marine  waters  and,  indeed,  the  ma- 
jority of  pre-Devonian  specimens  have 
been  recovered  from  marine  deposits. 
During  the  Devonian  Period,  however, 
the  animals  seem  to  have  migrated  to 
fresh-water  habitats  (where  they  even- 
tually suffered  extinction) .  What  were 
the  reasons  for  this  change  of  habitat 
and  was  it,  in  fact,  as  complete  as  the 
fossil  record  suggests? 


So  similar  are  the  faunal  succes- 
sions on  both  sides  of  the  Atlantic  that 
there  must  have  been  communication 
between  the  now  widely  separated 
regions,  with  ostracoderms  migrating 
or  dispersing  from  a  common  center. 
I  recently  found  that  the  pteraspids  in 
Nova  Scotia,  for  example,  appear  to 
have  been  very  closely  related  to,  and 
contemporary  with,  those  in  Britain. 
If  continental  drift  is  not  invoked,  the 
distances  over  which  the  dispersal  oc- 
curred amount  to  more  than  2,000 
miles,  even  if  the  center  of  dispersal 
lay  midway  between  the  Old  World 
and  the  New.  If  the  continents  are 
grouped  together  in  a  manner  accept- 
able to  the  proponents  of  the  drift 
hypothesis,  the  distances,  while  con- 
siderably reduced,  are  still  large. 

Although  the  majority  of  pteraspid 
occurrences  are  in  beds  of  Old  Red 
Sandstone  type,  it  is  becoming  obvi- 
ous that  these  fluvial,  lacustrine,  and 
deltaic  environments  were  in  direct 
connection  with  the  open  seas.  This 
can  be  seen  in  the  geological  succes- 
sions in  Germany,  southwest  England, 
and  eastern  North  America.  Since 
pteraspid  migration  across  dry  land 
was  impossible  and  dispersal  was  un- 
likely to  have  been  very  extensive  in 
fresh  waters,  this  connection  with  the 
sea  assumes  great  importance,  for  it 
presents  a  way  in  which  the  animals 
may  have  migrated  over  wide  areas. 
We  believe  that  very  probably  these 


51 


Food  and  debris  may  have  entered  gut, 
as  water,  squeezed  from  gill  pouches, 
left  the  body  via  branchial  openings. 

ostracoderms  spent  part  of  their  life 
cycle  in  the  sea,  especially  the  shallow 
coastal  waters.  As  they  were  bottom- 
dwelling  creatures,  it  is  likely  they 
never  moved  far  from  the  shallows, 
and  may  have  spent  part  of  their  cycle 
in  the  ancestral  home  of  the  verte- 
brates, later  moving  into  fresh  waters. 
The  most  numerous  of  the  earliest 
pteraspid  types  seem  to  have  lived  in 
Spitsbergen,  and  it  may  well  be  that 
the  migrations  of  successive  groups  of 
ostracoderms  began  somewhere  in  the 
northern  Arctic. 

Pteraspis  and  its  relatives  lived  in 
times  of  great  geological  and  biologi- 
cal change.  Mountain-building  move- 
ments on  a  wide  and  drastic  scale  were 
in  progress,  affecting  not  only  geogra- 
phy, but  perhaps  the  climate  as  well. 
("Dinosaurs  of  the  Arctic,"  Natural 
History,  April,  1964.)  No  doubt  these, 
in  turn,  exerted  much  influence  on 
pteraspid  history  and,  indeed,  on  the 
development  of  all  the  vertebrates. 

PERHAPS  we  are  now  in  a  position 
to  outline  something  of  pteraspid 
life  history  and  mode  of  existence. 
Nothing  is  known  of  the  reproductive 
mechanisms  in  these  ancient  jawless 
fishes,  but  possibly  large  numbers  of 
eggs  were  laid  at  each  breeding  season. 
These  may  have  been  deposited  on 
sandy  or  shingle  bottoms  in  the  sea. 
Here  food  particles  would  have  been 
plentiful,  and  the  young  may  have 
spent  some  time  lurking  in,  or  feeding 
on,  the  bottom  sediments.  The  larvae 
were'  probably  active  swimmers,  ca- 

52 


pable  of  rapid  and  widespread  dis- 
persal. At  this  stage  in  its  existence 
the  creature  lacked  the  armor  plates 
and  bony  scales  of  the  adult,  and  it  is 
not  surprising  that  so  far  we  have  not 
found  it  in  fossil  form. 

One  worker  has  suggested  that  the 
rigid  adult  carapace  originated  in  a 
fusion  of  scales— perhaps  a  result  of 
tension  and  compression  forces— over 
the  head  and  trunk  region  of  the 
pteraspid  ancestors  in  early  Paleozoic 
times.  The  scales  coalesced  around 
their  adjacent  growing  edges,  and 
tended  to  attach  themselves  around 
dorsal  and  ventral  nuclei  to  form 
discs.  During  late  Silurian  and  De- 
vonian times  the  ossification  in  the 
scales  of  many  ostracoderms  set  in 
around  both  dorsal  and  ventral  disc 
centers  and  at  other  points  that  were 
the  sites  of  the  paired  plates.  In  some 
types,  scaled  areas  persisted  between 
the  major  plates,  and  apparently  the 
scales  were  never  completely  absorbed 
by  the  larger  units.  Around  the  mar- 
gins of  many  plates  there  is  a  some- 
what different  kind  of  ornamentation, 
indicating  the  most  recently  formed 
part,  where  bony  material  was  depos- 
ited as  a  rim  around  the  nucleus  of 
fused  scales.  Once  the  carapace  formed 
a  complete,  rigid,  boxlike  structure, 
no  further  growth  was  possible. 

We  see  Pteraspis  as  a  specialized 
type  of  agnath,  successfully  adapted 
for  its  mode  of  life,  despite  its  rather 
clumsy  appearance.  Although  perhaps 
poorly  equipped  as  far  as  sight  and 
hearing  were  concerned,  sensory 
canals  may  have  provided  it  with  a 
means  of  registering  other  stimuli. 
The  mouth  apparatus  seems  to  have 
been  an  excellent  mechanism  for  bot- 
tom feeding  or  for  scooping  up  food 
as  the  creature  swam.  From  this  it 
seems  that  the  food  was  essentially  of 
soft,  small  particles,  with  tiny  plants 
or  animals  or  even  decaying  matter 
forming  the  bulk  of  it.  Forms  with 
long  snouts  may  have  used  them  to 
probe  and  stir  mud  and  bottom  debris; 
the  blunt-nosed,  broad  pteraspids  may 
have  merely  passed  across  the  surface 
of  the  substrate  or  over  fronds  and 
patches  of  weed  with  open  mouths.  It 
is  more  than  possible  that  the  animals 
were  "mud-eaters"  that  took  in  mud 
and  digested  the  organic  matter  in  it. 
It  has  also  been  suggested  that  tenta- 
cles about  the  mouth,  like  those  of 
catfish,  might  have  been  present  to 
assist  in  probing  debris  on  the  bottom. 
Some  Russian  ostracoderms  have  been 


thought  to  have  been  plankton-feed' 
sucking  in  floating  microscopic  < 
mals  and  plants,  but  such  a  feed 
method  is  not  likely  among  pterasp 
Food  particles  (and  perhaps  mud)  1 
water  taken  in,  perhaps  in  gulps. 
the  mouth  would  have  been  pas 
back  into  the  pharynx,  where  some  s 
of  filter  mechanism  may  have  sie 
out  the  food  and  other  solid  partii 
and  directed  them  into  the  aliment 
tract  while  the  water  passed  into  the 
sacs.  This  filtering  system  was  pr 
ably  of  soft  tissues  only,  for  we  h 
no  fossil  trace  of  it.  It  may  have  c 
sisted  of  sticky  surfaces,  rather  tl 
the  comblike  system  of  baleen  wha 
While  food  particles  were  digestec 
the  gut,  mud  and  sand  may  h 
passed  along  to  the  anus.  In  the  b 
known  species,  P.  rostrata,  the  a 
was  small  and  close  to  the  carapE 
suggesting  a  small,  short  gut,  proba 
not  designed  for  mud  feeders. 

ONE  of  the  interesting  aspects 
ostracoderm  life  that  I  have 
vestigated  in  recent  years  is  that  of 
range  of  environments  and  the  ecolc 
involved.  Pteraspid  remains,  like  th 
of  most  ostracoderms,  usually  I 
though  not  always)  occur  as  cone 
trations  in  sediments  that  show  si| 
of  current  action.  Nevertheless,  fr 
the  way  in  which  numbers  of  th 
fossils  occur  together  in  the  rocks 
seems  highly  probable  that  the  anim 
lived  together  in  small  groups 
schools  in  the  Old  Red  Sandstc 
lakes  and  deltas  and  that  they  a 
occurred  near,  if  not  actually  in,  1 
open  sea  waters.  Very  often  they  iir 
have  inhabited  some  environme: 
with  other  ostracoderms  and  even  w 
small  placoderms,  many  of  which  wi 
active  predators  with  snapping  jai 
Some  of  these  other  creatures  h 
much  the  same  mode  of  life  and  woi 
have  been  attracted  by  the  same  fe( 
ing  opportunities,  although  it  is  inti 
esting  to  see  that  the  pteraspids,  oil 
established,  seemed  to  have  crowd 
out  almost  every  other  sort  of  heti 
ostracan  from  the  area.  The  contei 
porary,  possibly  predatory, placoderi 
do  not  seem  to  have  been  large  enou| 
to  prey  on  the  adult  pteraspids,  1 
though  they  may  have  fancied  t 
young.  Of  the  other  inhabitants 
the  ostracoderms'  environment— osti 
cods,  pelecypods,  miriapods,  and  e 
rypterids— only  the  last  would  ha' 
constituted  any  hazard.  With  the 
pincer-claws   they   could   have  ma( 


work  of  the  small  ostracoderms. 
at  we  have  discussed  above  ap- 
o  the  pteraspid  group  of  ostra- 
ns  as  a  whole,  but  we  must  re- 
er  that  they  were  among  the  last 

ostracoderm  groups  to  appear 
lat  they  had  a  fairly  long  evolu- 
y  span— at  least  throughout  all 
ver  Devonian  times  (15  million 
.  During  this  period  they 
led    out    into    many    different 

each  no  doubt  adapted  to  a 
jlar  environment  and  mode  of 
ice.  Generally  speaking,  the 
t  types  were  small  and  blunt- 
;    later   pteraspids    were    either 

long-snouted    species    or    big, 


broad-nosed  types.  The  biggest  of  all, 
known  in  southwest  England,  ap- 
proached six  feet  in  length  and  was  a 
relative  giant.  From  what  we  can  tell 
from  the  rather  metamorphosed  rocks 
containing  it,  it  seems  to  have  lived  in 
a  coastal  lagoon  environment. 

Inevitably  we  must  ask  what  caused 
the  extinction  of  this  peculiar  group  of 
animals  and,  of  course,  there  is  no 
simple  and  obvious  answer.  It  was 
probably  a  combination  of  geographi- 
cal, geological,  and  biological  circum- 
stances. Sluggish  in  movement,  poorly 
provided  with  senses  to  warn  of  im- 
pending danger,  and  having  little  but 
their  armor  for  protection,  the  later 


pteraspids  may  have  fallen  prey  to 
placoderms.  In  their  larval  and  im- 
mature stages  they  may  have  been 
especially  easy  victims  of  other  verte- 
brates or  large  invertebrates.  Chang- 
ing climatic  conditions,  possibly  with 
extensive  desiccation,  could  have  been 
fatal.  By  Middle  Devonian  times 
pteraspids  had  virtually  disappeared. 
Other  ostracoderms  persisted  longer 
by  adapting  to  new  modes  of  life  and 
perhaps  by  shedding  their  armor.  It  is 
possible  that  our  modern  lampreys  and 
liagfishes  are  descended  from  these, 
but  here  the  fossil  record  is  completely 
lacking.  We  are  allowed  conjecture, 
but  have  few  facts  after  the  Devonian. 


rsal  projections,  with 
:eption  of  DREPANASPSIS, 


PROTASPIS 

(DORSAL 


RHINOPTERASPIS' 

(DORSAL) 


PROTOPTERASPIS 


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PRIMITIVE  ANCESTRAL 
HETEROSTRACAN 


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SKY  REPORTER 

Moon's  face— first  wonder  of  our  sky 

By  Thomas  D.  Nicholson 

"T"he  face  of  the  moon,  acclaimed  as  the  most  beautiful  and  im- 
I  pressive  sight  that  a  telescope  can  show  the  human  eye,  was  selected 
by  astronomers  at  The  American  Museum-Hayden  Planetarium  as  the 
first  of  seven  celestial  objects  to  be  featured  in  "The  Seven  Wonders 
of  the  Universe,"  the  summer  program  for  this  year. 

The  identification  of  seven  wonders  follows  a  tradition  dating  from 
antiquity,  when  travelers  in  the  ancient  Greek  world  selected  from 
among  the  artistic  monuments  erected  by  man  the  seven  that  were 
most  spectacular  in  their  beauty  and  grandeur.  The  earliest  known 
list  of  objects,  called  the  Seven  Wonders  of  the  World,  was  made  by 
Antipater  of  Sidon  in  the  second  century  B.c  They  were  the  pyramids 
of  Egypt,  the  hanging  gardens  of  Babylon,  the  statue  of  Zeus  at  Olym- 
pia,  the  temple  of  Artemis  at  Ephesus,  the  tomb  of  King  Mausolus  at 
Halicarnassus,  the  Colossus  of  Rhodes,  and  the  great  lighthouse 
(Pharos)  at  Alexandria.  The  reputation  of  these  seven  wonders  re- 
mains today,  although  thousands  of  years  have  elapsed  since  the  last 
was  built  and  little,  if  anything,  is  now  left  of  their  former  glory. 

The  ancients  never  explained  why  exactly  seven  wonders  were 
named,  although  the  number  seven  has  always  had  a  special  mystical 
meaning.  There  are  seven  days  in  the  week,  named  after  the  seven 
wandering  stars  in  the  sky  (five  visible  planets,  sun,  and  moon),  and 
some  of  the  best-known  groups  of  stars  in  our  universe  (Orion,  the 
Big  Dipper,  the  Pleiades,  the  Northern  Crown)  each  contain  seven 
stars  of  exceptional  brightness. 

The  choice  of  celestial  objects  to  be  included  among  the  Seven 
Wonders  of  the  Universe  was  a  great  challenge.  It  was  decided,  first 
of  all,  that  each  of  the  seven  wonders  should  be  a  real,  physical  object 
that  we  can  see  or  photograph,  rather  than  a  concept  or  a  physical  law, 
such  as  the  expanding  universe.  Second,  we  decided  to  base  our  selec- 
tion upon  the  celestial  objects  visible  from  earth,  even  though  some  of 
the  choices  might  appear  quite  different  or  even  insignificant  from  an- 
other place  in  the  universe.  Third,  each  of  our  seven  wonders  should 
be  unique— either  the  only  one  we  know  or  the  most  impressive  of  a 
class  of  similar  objects.  And,  finally,  each  should  relate  in  some  way 
to  our  plan  of  showing,  through  seven  objects,  the  design  of  the  uni- 
verse. Our  choices  met  these  criteria  admirably. 

The  face  of  the  moon,  for  example,  is  unique  because  it  is  the  only 
celestial  body  on  which  we  can  clearly  see  the  features  of  a  solid  sur- 
face. On  only  one  other  world  in  space,  the  planet  Mars,  can  we  observe 
anything  at  all  of  the  solid  surface,  and  that  very  indistinctly.  The 
moon  itself  can  hardly  qualify  as  one  of  the  greatest  celestial  bodies. 
Neither  in  size,  in  mass,  in  distance,  nor  in  the  role  it  plays  in  the 
universe  does  it  match  other  awe-inspiring  objects  in  our  sky.  It  is 
merely  a  satellite,  an  attendant  of  a  planet,  one  of  thirty-one  such  satel- 
lites in  the  solar  system,  and  by  no  means  the  largest  of  those.  But  its 
remarkable  face  is  certainly  a  wonder  of  our  sky. 

On  the  face  of  the  moon  we  can  observe  tens  of  thousands  of  indi- 
vidual markings  or  objects,  some  thirty  thousand  of  which  have  been 


In  composite  photo  of  moon,  south  is  at  top,  west  left, 
as  in  an  observatory  telescope  view.  Dark  areas  are  plains. 


Large  crater  at  left  center,  above,  is  Posidoiiiiis,  sixty- 
two  miles  across  with  walls  up  to  6,000  feet  high.  Inside, 
several   straight  clefts  intersect  at  a   small  central   crater. 


Both  Eudoxus  (upper)  and  Aristoteles  craters,  located 
in  northern  area  of  moon,  have  steep,  terraced  walls  that 
rise   about    11,000   feet.   Aristoteles   is    sixty   miles   across. 

S6 


Dr.  Nicholson,  the  regular  author  of  this  column,  is  also 
Chairman  of  The  American  Museum-Hayden  Planetarium. 


identified  and  named.  We  can  see  mountains  and  valle' 
and  great,  flat,  dark  plains;  we  observe  crater-like  form 
tions,  from  tiny  pits  a  quarter-mile  across,  to  mountai 
walled  depressions  over  a  hundred  miles  in  diameter;  \ 
find  long  and  tenuous  ridges  marring  the  level  plain 
straight  and  narrow  trenches  extending  a  hundred  mil 
and  more,  and  bright,  splashlike  rays  fanning  out  fro 
some  craters  as  far  as  halfway  around  the  moon. 

The  origin  of  the  countless  structures  and  features  < 
the  moon's  face  has  long  been  one  of  the  most  hotly  debati 
mysteries  in  astronomy.  Are  they  scars  left  from  the  turb 
lent  surface  of  the  moon  when  it  was  created?  Are  thi 
products  of  eruptions— volcanism  and  gas  discharges— fro 
a  hot.  interior  lunar  core?  Did  they  come  from  collisioi 
with  swarms  of  meteoroids  early  in  the  moon's  histo; 
when  its  surface  may  have  been  semisolid?  Could  they  ] 
the  results  of  a  continual  bombardment  by  meteoroids  ov 
the  billions  of  years  of  the  moon's  existence,  some  resu 
ing  in  violent  explosions  upon  impact?  Almost  any  theo] 
can  be  partly  supported  by  evidence  from  structures  se( 
somewhere  on  the  moon  and  by  analogy  with  terrestri 
features.  Yet  the  same  theories  can  be  flatly  contradicted  1 
the  appearance  of  countless  other  lunar  features. 

As  varied  as  the  face  of  the  moon  appears,  there  are  all 
f^  signs  of  remarkable  uniformity.  The  bright  rays,  se( 
best  at  full  moon,  differ  in  size  with  the  crater  they  su 
round.  The  tiny  craterlets  and  crater  pits  seem  too  fi 
quently  arranged  in  lines  and  curves  to  be  the  result 
chance.  The  rills— long  clefts  in  the  surface— are  straig 
for  long  distances,  crossing  mountains,  plains,  and  crate 
in  their  unwavering  paths.  It  is  doubtful  that  they  are  ac( 
dental  faults  in  the  crust.  The  fine  structure  of  ridges  ar 
gullies  surrounding  high-walled  craters  resembles  t( 
closely  the  dried-out  watercourses  we  find  on  semiar 
slopes  on  earth.  Almost  everywhere  we  search  in  the  co 
fused  detail  of  the  moon's  face,  we  find  strange  signs  ^ 
form  and  pattern  and  similarity. 

There  is  an  urgency  about  studying  the  face  of  the  moc 
today,  with  man  on  the  threshold  of  landing  there.  Will 
future  space  craft  come  to  rest  on  a  hard,  firm  surface  - 
rock?  Or  wifl  it  settle  into  a  sea  of  dust?  Some  dust  shou 
be  there,  from  micrometeoroids  that  have  rained  down  c 
the  moon  for  ages,  from  the  pounding  of  the  rock  surfai 
by  larger  particles  from  space,  from  the  cooling  and  hea 
ing  that  occur  quickly  during  the  cycle  of  lunar  day  at 
night.  Much  of  the  powdered  matter  may  have  settled  in 
valleys  and  depressions,  however,  leaving  higher  surfao 
with  only  a  thin  coating.  But  even  this  could  be  a  proble: 
if  it  billowed  up  into  great  obscuring  clouds  from  the  a 
haust  of  a  retrorocket  during  descent.  There  is  some  ev 
dence,  on  the  other  hand,  that  dust  on  the  moon's  surfa( 
compacts  into  a  semifirm  honeycomb  structure.  If  so,  tl 
space  craft  may  come  down  on  a  slightly  crushable  su 
face— rather  like  a  reluctant  sponge— which  the  retrorock 
exhaust  could  break  off  and  throw  about  in  huge  chiml< 

The  surface  of  the  moon,  then,  is  the  first  of  our  Sevf 
Wonders  of  the  Universe  to  be  discussed  here-the  ta 
talizing  face  of  a  fossil  world  that  will  play  an  increasing 
significant  role  in  the  future  history  of  our  own  plan( 


SKY  IN  AUGUST 
SEPTEMBER 


TIMETABLE 
August  1  Midnight 

August  15  11:00  p.m. 
September  1  10:00  P.M. 
September  15        9-""  ■>  " 


^'-^r-x-~-.         ^---* 

,'''"*■'■'- >^ 

^r                \       +           y'Os 

> 

i-                /                     *-^;„ 

CAl 

1;          -._..  X^. 

> 

.■^^PRICORNUS. 


August  7,  2:17  p.m.,  EST 
August  14,  10:19  P.M.,  EST 
August  23,  12:25  A.M.,  EST 
August  30,     4:15  A.M.,  EST 


!t  4:  Mars,  Venus,  and  the  moon  line  up  nicely  in  the 
Sky  this  morning  before  sunrise.  The  late  crescent 
ses  first  (about  1:30  a.m.,  local  mean  time),  followed 
fteen  minutes  by  brilliant  Venus  and  then  the  reddish 
y  dawn,  all  three  are  well  up  in  the  east,  the  moon 
and  toward  the  right  of  Venus,  Mars  lowest  and  to- 
!  left  of  Venus.  During  the  4th,  the  moon  passes  both 
nd  Mars  and  rises  on  the  morning  of  the  5th  later 
sr  than  Mars. 

;t  5:  Mercury  is  at  greatest  easterly  (evening)  elonga- 
may  be  seen  in  the  western  sky  shortly  after  sunset, 
/vever,  is  an  unfavorable  elongation  for  viewing, 
t  11:  The  Perseid  meteors,  radiating  from  near  the 
ar  Mirfak,  reach  maximum  tonight.  This  is  one  of  the 
iwers  of  the  year,  with  an  hourly  rate  of  from  twenty 
or  several  nights. 

;t  24:  Saturn  reaches  opposition,  remaining  in  the  sky 
nset  to  sunrise,  and  is  at  its  most  distant  position 
!  earth  this  year— 815,000,000  miles. 
;t  28:  Venus  is  again  in  conjunction  with  Mars.  The 
unction,  on  July  18,  occurred  when  Venus  was  moving 


Full  Moon 
Last  Quarte 


September  21,   12:31  p.m.,  EST 
September  28,  10:01  a.m.,  EST 


slowly  in  right  ascension  as  Mars  passed  Venus  in  the  sky. 
Now,  in  August,  Venus  is  moving  more  rapidly  eastward  again 
and  has  once  more  overtaken  Mars. 

September  2:  The  crescent  moon  is  again  near  Venus  and 
Mars  in  the  east  this  morning.  This  time,  the  moon  and  Mars 
are  both  to  the  right  of  and  higher  than  Venus.  The  bright 
star  Pollux  also  joins  the  group,  above  and  left  of  Venus. 

September  18:  Mercury  is  at  greatest  westerly  elongation. 
This  is  a  favorable  elongation  in  the  morning  sky.  For  several 
days  before  and  after,  Mercury  will  be  above  the  eastern 
horizon  for  an  hour  and  a  half  before  sunrise. 

September  21:  The  full  moon  occurring  today  is  the  harvest 
moon.  Moonrise  occurs  at  nearly  the  same  hour  for  three  days 
in  a  row,  the  20th,  21st,  and  22nd. 

September  22:  The  sun  is  at  the  autumnal  equinox  at 
7:17  P.M.,  EST.  Autumn  begins  in  the  Northern  Hemisphere. 

Throughout  August  and  September,  Venus  and  Mars  are 
close  in  the  morning  sky,  each  rising  about  three  hours  before 
the  sun.  Saturn,  at  opposition  in  late  August,  Is  In  the  sky 
most  of  the  night  through  both  months.  Jupiter  Is  well  up  In 
the  eastern  sky  by  midnight  and  remains  visible  until  dawn. 


CHRISTIAN  OIL  LAMPS  .  .  . 

FROM  ANCIENT  PALESTINE! 

GENUINE:  Excavated  terracotta  oil  lamps, 
ancient  Palestine,  4th-7th  Cent.  A.D.  FROM: 
early  Christian  necropolis.  USED:  ceremoni- 
ally; lamps  ancient  glow  rekindled  with  oil  & 
wick.  Symbolizes  knowledge,  serves  to  stimu- 
late the  intellect.  Superb  display  piece  for 
home  &  office,  on  hardwood  base. ...$10.  ppd. 

PRE- 

COLUMBIAN 
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ent  Mexico's  fa- 
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Each  head  elegantly  dis- 
played on  modi 


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excite,  stimulate  and  please 
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Aver.ige  Specimen     S  7.50 


CLEOPATRA  AGE  JEW^ELRY 

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untains  of  LURISTAN! 
n  of  bronze  arrow- 
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Swords,  spears,  axes,  from  Luris- 
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Dept.  N-8B  •  520  5th  Ave.,  •  N.  Y.,  N.  Y.  10036 


On  ethnological  tactk 


By  Robert  L.  Carneiro 

THE  TYPICAL  ethnographic  monograph 
is  an  impersonal  document.  It  pre- 
sents in  a  completely  detached  and  ob- 
jective manner  an  account  of  the  way  of 
life  of  a  preliterate  people.  Nowhere 
does  the  ethnographer  intrude  his  per- 
sonality or  interject  the  frustrations  and 
exhilarations  that  accompanied  the  col- 
lection of  his  data. 

Yet,  the  story  of  how  an  ethnologist 
makes  contact  with  primitive  people,  how 
he  gains  their  confidence,  and  gradually 
pieces  together  a  picture  of  their  culture 
deserves  to  be  told.  What  follows  is  an 
attempt  to  present,  in  an  admittedly  dis- 
connected and  anecdotal  way.  some  of  my 
experiences  that  may  impart  an  idea  of 
what  it  is  like  to  work  and  live  among 
primitive  peoples. 

My  field  work  has  been  done  in  the 
Amazon  Basin  among  the  Kuikuru  of 
central  Brazil  and  the  Amahuaca  of  east- 
ern Peru.  In  both  cases  it  was  a  joint 
venture  with  my  wife.  Gertrude  Dole, 
who  is  also  an  anthropologist. 

The  first  problem  in  carrying  out  field 
work  is  to  establish  relations  with  the 
tribe  you  have  selected  for  study.  The 
recommended  procedure  is  to  work 
through  an  intermediary  who  has  the 
confidence  and  good  will  of  the  natives. 
Our  initial  meeting  with  the  Kuikuru 
took  place  at  a  remote  outpost  of  the 
Brazilian  Indian  Service  where  some 
thirty  Kuikuru  had  come  for  a  visit.  Here 
we  made  friends  with  a  number  of  them 
and  apprised  them  of  our  intention  to 
live  among  them.  By  the  time  we  arrived 
at  the  village,  they  not  only  were  expect- 
ing us  but  had  even  begun  to  build  us  a 
house  for  our  stay. 

Our  introduction  to  one  group  of  Ama- 
huaca Indians  came  through  a  mission- 
ary-linguist who  had  built  himself  a 
house  deep  in  the  forest  and  had  influ- 
enced several  Amahuaca  families  to 
come  to  the  area.  We  entered  the  village 
of  the  other  Amahuaca  group  we  studied 
with  no  advance  word  at  all.  Their  cor- 
dial reception  was  especially  surprising, 
for  these  Amahuaca  were  firm  believers 
in  piiA/ocos— white  men  who  appear  sud- 
denly among  Indians  with  the  intention 
of  killing  them  and  rendering  their  fat 
for  use  as  airplane  grease. 

Following  a  friendly  initial  contact, 
the  ethnographer  can  usually  count  on  a 
"honeymoon  period."  But  this  state  of 
affairs  may  change  abruptly.  One  morn- 
ing a  Kuikuru.  to  whose  friend  I  had  re- 
fused a  bar  of  soap  the  day  before,  told 
us  we  were  stingy  and  would  have  to  get 
out  of  the  village.  For  a  couple  of  hours 


our  field  session  seemed  wrecked.  Bu 
occurred  to  us  to  stage  an  enorm 
giveaway  of  our  presents,  and  thus  di 
onstrate  our  generosity  to  everybod) 
gambit  that  proved  effective.  Our  li 
was  more  consistently  good  among 
Amahuaca.  Our  relations  with  them  w 
excellent  from  the  start,  and  remainec 
the  same  high  level  throughout. 

The  Problem  of  Gifts 

SOUTH  AMERICAN  Indians  are  unaba 
edly  materialistic,  and  one  of 
surest  ways  of  pleasing  them  is  to  ( 
tribute  presents  with  a  free  hand, 
machete,  a  mirror,  a  fishhook,  or  a  p 
of  scissors  will  all  find  a  ready  recepti 
but  the  gift  usually  will  be  accepi 
without  the  slightest  outward  sign 
gratitude.  The  average  Amazonian 
dian  will  hide  completely  whatever  s 
isfaction  a  present  gives  him.  acting 
if  he  were  only  getting  what  he  deseryi 
Indeed,  there  is  no  word  for  "thank  yo 
in  any  Indian  language  I  know.  The  m 
we  ever  got  from  the  Kuikuru  by  way 
acknowledgement  was  enu  figei,  "it  ii 
present,"  and  that  we  already  knew. 
It  is  always  a  vexing  problem  to  deci 
how  often  to  give  presents,  to  whom,  a 
on  what  basis.  It  is  a  good  idea  to  try 
give  material  items  for  services  renderi 
But  this  economic  principle,  so  clear 
the  Western  mind,  often  fails  to  impn 
Indians.  My  bitterest  experience  alo 
these  lines  occurred  about  midw 
through  the  field  session  among  the  Ki 
kuru.  Ten  men  had  helped  me  brii 
supplies  back  to  the  village  from  t 
Kuluene  River,  eight  miles  away.  I  ga 
each  of  them  a  bar  of  soap,  several  lar 
fishhooks,  and  some  fishing  line,  makii 
it  clear  that  they  were  being  paid  f 
their  valued  service.  They  understood  t 
all  right,  but  many  of  the  other  men  wl 
had  not  helped  also  wanted  soap,  fis 
hooks,  and  fishing  line— and  made  thin, 
difficult  until  they  got  them. 

Conforming  to  Customs 

ONE  of  the  myths  about  ethnograpli 
field  work  is  that  you  must  alwa 
eat  or  drink  whatever  the  natives  put 
front  of  you.  If  you  fail  to  do  so.  tl 
belief  runs,  the  people  will  be  offende 
and  your  studies  will  be  jeopardizei 
Being    extremely    finicky    about    fooi 


Dr.  Carneiro,  Associate  Curator  of 
South  American  Ethnology  at  The 
American  Museum,  spent  nearly  one 
year  with  the  Amahuaca  and  Kuikuru. 


58 


rcT,  I  soon  decided  to  put  this  shib- 
1  to  the  test.  One  day  a  gourd  bowl 
f  manioc  gruel  was  offered  to  me, 
turned  it  down.  Nothing  happened. 
fCuikuru  did  not  even  seem  sur- 
I.  Actually  most  Tropical  Forest 
IS  are  very  permissive,  and  will  not 
I  force  their  customs  on  others, 
theless,  to  take  some  of  the  un- 
lusness  out  of  my  refusals  I  soon 
:d  the  appropriate  Kuikuru  excuses, 
IS  tugupotsi—^my  stomach  is  full." 
ship  ties  are  very  important  to 
ive  peoples,  and  one  of  the  ways 
ome  established  as  a  real  human 
is  to  show  that  you  are  also  part 
inship  network.  This  can  be  done 
wing  photographs  of  yourself  with 
elatives.  It  helps,  too,  if  you  can 
■y  your  relatives  with  the  prevail- 
inship  terms.  The  Kuikuru  and 
Liaca  never  tired  of  asking  to  see 
ctures.  and  would  take  great  in- 
In  showing  them  to  others,  indicat- 
e  relationship  each  person  in  the 

bore  to  us. 
1  the  Kuikuru  and  Amahuaca  us- 
addressed  us  by  kinship  terms. 
Kuikuru,  even  persons  we  judged 
if  our  own  age.  liked  to  elevate  us 
eration,  calling  us  father  and 
•.  The  Amahuaca  men.  however. 
ach  other  either  hochi,  "older 
r,"  or  chambi,  "younger  brother." 
less  of  the  actual  relationship  that 
between  them.  They  fitted  me  into 
stem,  and  I  soon  learned  whom 
Lidged  older  and   whom  younger 

The  Amahuaca  even  suggested  I 
r  wife  chipi,  "younger  sister,"  and 
e  call  me  hochi,  which  is  how  hus- 
nd  wife  address  each  other  within 
iship  system. 

The  Language  Barrier 

HOUT  question,  the  major  prob- 
m  facing  ethnologists  studying 
ve  tribes  is  the  language  barrier, 
lly  there  is  at  least  one  bilingual 

in  the  society,  and  often  he  be- 
he  principal  informant,  especially 
natters  where  the  comprehension 
:le  details  is  important.   But  bi- 

persons  are  often  atypical  indi- 
,  and  it  is  good  practice  to  use  as 
informants  as  possible,  cross- 
ig  the  information  supplied  by 
iinst  that  of  another.  To  do  this, 
:se,  one  needs  at  least  a  rough 
g  knowledge  of  the  language.  If 
to  be  in  the  field  a  year  or  less, 
g  the  native  language  fluently  is 

the  question.  However,  I  have 
hat  in  three  months  one  can  ac- 
mough    facility   to   phrase   intel- 

questions  about  a  variety  of 
s  and  to  understand  much  of  the 

of  the  replies. 

)ugh  I  am  not  a  specialist  in  lin- 
:,  I  find  Indian  languages  fascin- 
truggling  to  decipher  a  language 


This  is  Questar,  the  first  modem  20th  century 
telescope.  Mark  it  weU,  for  it  has  made  history.  It 
weighs  but  7  pounds,  and  each  Questar  resolves 
finer  detaij  than  either  theory  or  practice  predict 
for  its  3.5-inch  aperture.  Never  mind  what  we  say: 
the  photographs  Questars  take  record  their  powers 
of  resolution   for  everyone  to  see. 

This  cutaway  photograph  shows  some  of  the  in- 
novations that  Questar  in  1954  brought  to  the  art 
of  telescope  design.  First,  perhaps,  is  the  Questar 
thin-edge  perforate  mirror  that  does  away  with 
much  useless  glass  because  it  is  held  only  by  its 
central   hole   without   metallic   contact. 

It  is  mounted  on  a  long  sliding  thimble  that 
sUps  along  the  central  light  baffle  tube  which  pre- 
vents daylight  flooding  and  lets  Questar  be  aimed 
right  next  to  arc  lights  without  halations  and 
false  images. 

_  This  moving  mirror  lets  Questar  focus  from 
mfinity  to  only  7  feet.  Conventional  telescopes 
cannot  attempt  this  feat,  but  must  remain  inflexible. 
Thus  was  born  a  whole  new  instrument,  the  world's 
first  long-distance  microscope.  It  has  proved  to  be 
a  very  useful  tool  of  science. 

Let  us  look  at  this  array  of  stainless  steel  tubes. 
Here  is  jewelry  for  fair!  The  long  mirror  thimble 
touches  only  at  small  pads  on  either  end,  and  is 
precision  ground  to  microns.  The  little  tube  up 
front  has  a  wall  no  thicker  than  a  stiff  piece  of 
paper,  and  fits  so  well  we  need  not  fasten  it. 

The  photograph  shows  a  few  of  the  19  internal 
knife-edged  stops  which  line  the  tubes  to  catch 
internal  low-angle  reflec^lcns  that  no  paint  alone 
can  stop. 

The  lieht-absorbing  paint  we  do  use  is  very 
special.  This  paint  is  sprayed  upon  the  inside  of 
the  aluminum  barrel  too,  where  all  rays  that  do 
not  enter  nearly  parallel  to  the  optical  axis  come 
to  rest.  The  making  of  these  aspherically  matched 
Maksutov  optics,  which  Questar  first  mastered  and 
brought  to  the  world  in  1954,  is  still  a  problem. 
Our  solution  of  it  is  direct  and  bold.  We  just 
reject  two  perfect  systems  to  obtain  one  superfine 
enough  to  bear  our  name.  The  rejects  are  re- 
worked until  they  either  make  the  grade  or  are 


discarded.  That's  right,  we  guarantee  each  Questar 
to  far  exceed  its  Dawes  limit  of  resolution.  Only 
one  of  each  three  sets  met  this  test  during  1961, 
'62  and  '63,  despite  the  fact  that  our  skilled 
opticians  have  made  more  Cassegrain  compound 
high-power  Maksutov  telescopes  than  all  other 
makers  combined.  In  the  beginning  we  had  no 
idea  superfine  optics  could  be  made  at  all.  But 
when  they  occasionally  turned  up,  we  said,  "Fine, 
let's  try  to  make  them  all  that  way.  Let's  make 
the  best  small  telescopes  in  the  world." 

Does  your  telescope  have  a  driving  wheel  whose 
diameter  is  half  the  length  of  its  tube?  Ours  does, 
and   it   shows   plainly   here   in   the   cutaway  base. 

Above  it  can  be  seen  the  3  stainless  steel  disks 
of  our  butter-smooth  gearless  slow  motion  drives. 
It  took  us  5  years  to  learn  how  to  control  the 
manufacture  of  these.  We  purchase  18-8  stainless 
sheet  from  a  Philadelphia  warehouse  and  cut  it 
into  4-inch  strips  of  a  certain  thickness.  We  send 
them  to  a  firm  that  owns  a  4',-2-inch  micro-rolling 
mill  in  Connecticut.  When  they  are  rolled  enough 
times  to  meet  our  final  thickness,  to  plus  or 
minus  3  microns,  our  strips  have  work-hardened 
to  the  proper  temper,  and  when  stamped  into 
disks,   will   stand   up   for  years   of  normal   use. 

We  write  about  these  details  to  inform  those 
who  cherish  fine  hand-finished  mechanisms.  Few 
people  realize  that  good  telescope  mountings  are 
costly  and  exacting  machines.  We  find  we  have 
an    investment    in    special    tools    of    over    S35,000. 

What  do  we  get  out  of  all  this  care  and  con- 
science, this  stubbornness  of  purpose?  It  is  very 
simple.  We  not  only  have  gained  a  worldwide 
reputation  but  we  count  ourselves  supremely 
lucky  to  have  such  satisfying  work  as  the  making 
of   these   beautiful   instruments. 

Priced  from  S795.   Literature  on  request. 

QUESTAR 

BOX    60    NEW    HOPE,    PENNSYLVANIA 


59 


AN  INVITATION  TO  TWO  EXCITING  LINDBLAD  TRAVEL  TOURS  INTO  ANTIQUIT 


PRE-COLUMBIAN  ARCHAEOLOGICAL  SITES  IN   PERU, 
GUATEMALA,   HONDURAS,   MEXICO  and  YUCATAN 
WITH   DR.  J.  ALDEN   MASON 

Our  1963  tour  of  Pre-Columbian  archaeological  sites  under  the  expert  leade 
ship  of  Dr.  J.  Alden  Mason  was  sold  out  within  a  few  weeks  after  it  had  bet 
announced. 

The  1964  tour  is  even  more  exciting.  This  year  Dr.  J.  Alden  Mason,  (Curat 
Emeritus  at  the  University  Museum,  Philadelphia,  Pa.  and  Editor  of  publication 
Brigham  Young  University,  New  World  Archaeological  Foundation),  is  again  oi 
lecturer.  Long  familiar  with  the  areas  Dr.  Mason  will  take  you  to  Peru,  where  we  visit  Lima  with  its  many  site 
Cuzco,  Machu  Picchu,  Trujillo  with  Chan-Chan.  Then  to  Guatemala  where  we  spend  two  days  at  Tikal,  stop 
Antigua,  Lake  Atitlan,  Chichicastenango  and  Santiago.  In  Honduras  we  visit  the  fabulous  ruins  of  Copan  ar 
in  Mexico  we  have  extended  our  stay  to  include  not  only  the  sites  around  Mexico  City,  but  we  also  visit  Oaxa( 
with  Mitla  and  Monte  Alban.  Finally— Yucatan  with  Chichen  Itza  and  Uxmal— but  this  year  also  Baiancancl 
and  the  very  fascinating  excavations  at  Dzibilchaltun. 

The  size  of  the  group  is  of  course  limited  and  an  early  registration  is  recommended. 

The  tour  departs  on  October  23,  1964  and  the  price  for  the  28  days  is  $1,650.00. 


THE  CUNEIFORM  WORLD  WITH  DR.  CYRUS  GORDON 

The  exciting  tour  into  Antiquity  starts  on  April  6  and  returns  to  the  United  States  on  May  3,  196i 
after  having  visited  Lebanon,  Syria,  Iran,  Iraq  and  Jordan. 

A  study  of  the  Sumero-Akkadian  civilization  and  its  impact  on  the  origins  of  Western  cultui 
will  form  part  of  the  program.  This  unforgettable  journey  through  time  to  the  wellsprings  of  oi 
civilization  will  certainly  be  meaningful  not  only  to  the  expert  but  also  to  the  amateur  archaeologist. 

Our  lecturer,  Dr.  Cyrus  Gordon,  has  served  as  an  archaeologist  on  many  expeditions  in  the  Near  East.  He  pa 
ticipated  in  the  unearthing  of  the  Royal  Tombs  at  Ur,  in  discovering  the  mines  of  King  Solomon,  and  decipherir 
the  Tell  al-Amarna  tablets  found  in  Egypt. 

Dr.  Gordon  is  the  author  of  many  books  and  articles  on  the  ancient  countries  we  are  visiting.  Among  the  boof 
are  ADVENTURES  IN  THE  NEAREST  EAST;  THE  WORLD  OF  THE  OLD  TESTAMENT,  AND  BEFORE  THE  BIBLI 
THE  COMMON  BACKGROUND  OF  GREEK  AND  HEBREW  CIVILIZATION.  For  many  years  he  has  taught  tti 
languages,  history,  and  archaeology  of  Egypt,  Greece,  and  the  Near  East. 

Our  tour  to  Greece  and  Egypt  last  spring  was  a  great  success,  but  many  had  to  be  left  behind  due  to  lack  of  spaci 
Please  register  early. 

MAIL    COUPON    FOR    DESCRIPTIVE    FOLDER 


To  Lindblad  Travel,  Inc. 
One  East  53rd  Street 
New  York  22,  N.  Y. 

Please  send  me  the  folders  describing  the  Archaeological  tours  to  the  PRE-COLUMBIAN  ARCHAEOLOGICAL  SITES  with 
Dr.  J.  Alden  Mason  and  the  TOUR  OF  THE  NEAR  EAST-THE  CUNEIFORM  WORLD  with  Dr.  Cyrus  Gordon. 


Name- 
Street- 


_City_ 


T  different  from  your  own— one 
is   never   been   written   down— is 

challenging,  often  gratifying, 
;asionally  amusing.  For  instance, 
ikuru,  who  were  already  familiar 
atehes,  called  them  gitifutofo.  a 
omposed  of  the  morphemes  gid^ 

■fu;  "knowledge";  and  -tofo. 
Be."  Thus,  literally,  a  watch  is 
ling  whose  purpose  it  is  to  pro- 
lowledge  of  the  sun."  This  is  a 
ly  reasonable  name  for  it,  since 
r  means  the  Kuikuru  have  to  indi- 
;  elapsed  time  during  the  course 
T  is  by  the  changes  in  the  position 
lun. 

r  having  seen  a  pair  of  binoculars, 
r,  the  Kuikuru  had  no  name  for  it. 
t  time  I  showed  them  mine  I  de- 

0  give  it  a  Kuikuru  name,  pat- 
on  their  word  for  watch.  With 
rable  lexicographic  pride  I  called 
pefutofo,  "something  whose  pur- 
is  to  provide  knowledge  of  what 
way."  The  Kuikuru  nodded  and 
rtrhen  I  told  them,  and  I  was  sure 
;ored  a  success.  Only  later  did  I 
■  that  kuope  did  not  mean  "far" 
ut  was  a  place  on  a  small  stream 
Dn  which  I  had  happened  to  train 
iculars  that  day. 

Mlophones  and  Oinks 

language  offers  its  own  special 
)blems;  the  Amahuaca  language, 
iple,  is  extraordinary  in  the  num- 
illophones  it  contains.  An  allo- 
s  a  unit  of  sound  that  is  inter- 
nerely  as  a  permissible  variation 
ler  sound,  rather  than  a  separate 
f  itself.  Thus  p  and  b,  t  and  d, 
,  s  and  th,  m  and  mb,  n  and  nd, 
and  0  and  u— all  separate  and 
sounds  in  English— are  only 
allophones  in  Amahuaca.  This 
ly  lead  one  astray.  For  instance, 
ere  in  my  notes  I  had  the  word 
;o  weed,"  and  elsewhere  I  found 

1  uruge  with  the  same  meaning. 
I  interpreted  them  as  synonyms, 
ter  dawned  on  me  that  different 
5eemed  to  me,  they  were  varying 
ciations  of  the  same  word. 

iru  had  a  fair  amount  of  allo- 
•ariation.  but  not  to  the  extent  of 
ca.  It  did,  however,  have  a  very 
sound,  the  interpretation  of 
uzzled  us  for  a  long  time.  We 
lecided  that  it  was  a  uvular  g. 
dt  is  much  like  that  produced  by 

trying  to  imitate  a  frog. 
;  was   another  method   of   com- 
ion    between    the    Indians    and 
s,  although  mainly  it  promoted 

good  feelings  rather  than  the 
mding  of  specific  points.  The 
ca  are  relatively  unmusical,  and 
iked  us  to  sing,  but  the  Kuikuru 
ipped  asking.  Their  favorite  song 
Ids  was  "Old  MacDonald  Had  a 
We  gave  so  many  command  per- 


formances of  it  during  the  time  we  spent 
with  the  Kuikuru  that  we  grew  to  curse 
the  day  it  was  composed.  But  it  amused 
us  to  hear  a  Kuikuru,  at  some  unex- 
pected moment,  muttering  under  his 
breath,  "Chick,  chick  .  .  .  quack,  quack 
.  .  .  oink,  oink." 

What  Julius  Beerbohm  observed  of  the 
Tehuelche  of  Patagonia  many  years  ago 
applies  to  the  Kuikuru  today:  "They  are 
as  easy  to  please  as  they  are  difficult 
to  satisfy."  We  often  felt  obliged  to  in- 
dulge many  of  their  whims  and  desires 
and  this  usually  called  for  large  amounts 
of  patience.  Of  course,  you  cannot  accede 
to  everything,  and  when  you  have  to 
draw  the  line,  the  refusal  must  be  made 
acceptable.  For  instance,  after  spending 
our  first  ten  days  in  the  village  in  a 
Kuikuru  house,  we  found  living  condi- 
tions so  difficult  that  we  decided  to  set 
up  our  tent.  The  Kuikuru,  who  wanted 
us  in  their  midst  all  the  time,  were  not 
pleased  at  the  idea,  but  did  not  object 
outright.  However,  when  we  had  selected 
what  seemed  an  ideal  site  and  began  to 
clear  it,  a  very  serious-looking  delegation 
of  men  suddenly  confronted  us.  We  had 
made  a  bad  choice,  they  said.  The  area 
was  full  of  fitsifitsi  (a  certain  kind  of 
bush  spirit),  and  if  we  pitched  our  tent 
there,  we  would  have  no  peace  at  night. 

Knowing  that  some  objection  would 
be  raised  to  any  site  we  picked,  we  were 
not  disposed  to  be  talked  out  of  our 
move.  At  the  same  time,  I  did  not  want 
to  risk  antagonizing  the  Kuikuru.  If 
they  said  the  place  teemed  with  fitsifitsi, 
then  it  teemed  with  fitsifitsi.  It  occurred 
to  me  that  the  only  way  to  fight  a  super- 
natural argument  was  with  another  one. 
From  a  suitcase  I  produced  a  bottle  of 
vitamin  pills  and,  with  gestures  com- 
bining mystery  and  flamboyance,  took 
one  pill  from  the  container.  All  we  had 
to  do,  I  said,  was  to  take  one  of  these 
pills  at  night,  and  no  fitsifitsi  in  his  right 
mind  would  dare  molest  us.  The  Kuikuru 
limply  gave  up  the  effort  to  dissuade  us 
and  quietly  left.  (I  should  add.  however, 
that  there  were  many  "I  told  you  so's" 
when,  a  few  months  later,  a  large  tree 
limb  weakened  by  termites  fell  on  our 
tent  and  almost  demolished  it.) 

So  far  I  have  dealt  mostly  with  estab- 
lishing and  maintaining  good  relations 
with  the  people  one  is  studying.  But  an 
ethnographer  is  not  in  the  field  to  win 
popularity  contests.  He  may  never  suc- 
ceed in  really  ingratiating  himself,  or 
in  enjoying  his  tenure  in  the  field,  but 
if  he  can  come  back  with  notebooks 
bulging,  he  has  done  his  job. 

Approaches  May  Vary 

THE  method  of  gathering  ethnographic 
information  varies,  of  course,  with 
individuals;  no  two  ethnographers  work 
in  exactly  the  same  way.  On  some  proj- 
ects my  wife  and  I  used  quite  dissimilar 
approaches— not  merely  in  order  to  com- 


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62 


plement  each  other's  work  but  also  be- 
cause our  temperaments  differ,  and 
because  differences  in  sex  affect  rela- 
tions with  the  informants.  In  many  in- 
stances my  wife  found  it  most  productive 
to  use  an  unstructured,  casual  method  by 
which  she  could  pick  up  and  follow  the 
topic  of  the  moment.  I  often  found  it 
most  successful  to  begin  with  a  number 
of  points  I  wanted  to  investigate,  and 
to  subject  informants  to  a  more  formal 
type  of  interrogation. 

Like  ethnologists,  informants  also 
differ  one  from  another.  Some  individ- 
uals may  be  eager  and  colorful  infor- 
mants, but  unreliable;  others  may  be 
reliable,  but  disinclined  to  give  more 
than  the  bare  bones  of  an  answer. 

Individual  spheres  of  knowledge  dif- 
fer, too.  The  man  with  the  greatest  store 
of  ribald  tales  may  be  poor  on  genealogy, 
while  the  kinship  specialist  may  be  too 
reserved  to  be  a  good  informant  about 
scatology.  Sex  differences  are  also  im- 
portant in  terms  of  what  a  person  knows. 
Indian  men,  for  instance,  can  readily 
identify  constellations  and  tell  the  time 
of  year  by  them,  while  the  women  iden- 
tify the  seasons  of  the  year  by  the  fruit- 
ing and  flowering  of  trees  and  are 
ignorant  of  the  stars. 

Sometimes  one's  initial  assessment  of 
an  informant  may  turn  out  to  be  wide 
of  the  mark.  Pablo,  one  of  the  first 
Amahuaca  I  met  after  landing  on  Chu- 
michinia  Island  in  the  Ucayali  River, 
reminded  me  of  a  pirate  of  the  South 
China  Sea.  He  had  a  scraggly  little 
beard,  the  rudiments  of  a  droopy  mus- 
tache, and  even  the  traditional  shifty 
eyes.  From  the  moment  I  saw  him  I 
thought  to  myself,  "This  man  is  going 
to  mean  trouble  for  us."  Trouble?  A 
sweeter  man  never  was  born.  Indeed, 
Pablo  proved  to  be  the  most  obliging 
informant  I  have  ever  known.  As  a  mon- 
ument to  his  accommodating  nature  I 
offer  the  following  incident. 

I  had  made  arrangements  to  talk  with 
Pablo,  but  rain  delayed  me.  and  when 
I  arrived  I  found  him  sprawled  on  the 
porch  of  one  of  the  houses.  He  had  spent 
the  morning  drinking  masato,  "manioc 
beer."  and  was  virtually  stupefied.  Un- 
der these  circumstances  anyone,  any- 
where in  the  world,  has  the  solemn  right 
to  be  left  severely  alone.  But  with  a 
dulled  sense  of  social  proprieties  I  de- 
cided to  ask  Pablo  one  question,  fully 
expecting  to  be  told  where  to  get  off.  To 
my  astonishment,  Pablo  made  a  supreme 
effort  to  collect  his  wits  and  answered. 
Emboldened.  I  asked  another.  Again 
Pablo  replied.  In  a  most  extraordinary 
display  of  concentration  he  continued 
to  force  himself  to  answer  every  question 
I  put  to  him.  But  most  remarkable  of 
all  was  that  if  a  question  were  slow  in 
coming.  Pablo  would  say,  "iQue  otra 
cosita  mas.  Lobelto?"  (What  other  little 
thing,  Robert?) 


Pablo  surely  rates  an  A  4-  for  wil 
ness.  but  he  scored  only  about  a  B- 
such  things  as  depth  of  knowledge 
reliability.  The  perfect  informant 
does  not  exist.  The  person  to  whom 
can  say.  "Tell  me  everything  your 
pie  believe  about  eclipses,"  and 
proceeds  to  do  just  that  in  a  clear, 
nected.  and  exhaustive  manner  is  m 
be  met  with— at  least  in  my  experie 
Moreover,  in  dealing  with  a  numbt 
informants  there  are  inevitably 
crepancies  in  their  information  that 
not  be  reconciled.  There  is  no  si 
"true"  version  of  a  myth,  any  more  1 
there  is  a  true  description  of  a  fitSi 
or  of  the  human  soul.  Generally  one 
find  that  there  is  a  core  of  attrib 
common  to  all  or  most  accounts, 
then  a  variety  of  details  shared  by 
cessively  fewer  accounts.  This  raisei 
problem  in  recording  field  data,  bi 
does  in  writing  up  an  account.  J 
monographs  present,  one  might  say, 
"mean"  of  a  culture  without  presen 
its  "standard  deviation."  Some  siir 
fication  is  inevitable  in  a  monogr, 
but  it  is  misleading  not  to  point  out  y 
divergences  in  belief  and  practice  e] 
for  the  divergences  themselves  are 
ture  patterns. 

Rewards  Offset  Hardships 

WHILE  they  lead  a  simple  life, 
Kuikuru  and  Amahuaca  have 
keen  and  sometimes  subtle  sense 
humor,  and  did  not  place  us  outside 
compass.  Early  in  our  stay  among 
Kuikuru  we  began  making  a  house  c 
sus  in  order  to  learn  the  names  of  evf 
one  who  lived  in  the  village.  The  easi 
way  to  do  this  was  to  count  hammoi 
and  inquire  who  slept  in  each.  In  1 
house  we  saw  two  hammocks  that  1 
been  strung  up  higher  than  the  otlie 
When  we  asked  who  slept  in  them 
were  told.  "Oh,  they  belong  to  Kapi: 
and  his  wife  Kuagutafa.  They've  gone 
the  Kuluene  to  fish,  but  should  be  ba 
in  a  few  days."  The  days  lengthen 
into  weeks  and  inquiries  about  Kapii 
and  Kuagutafa  brought  the  same  rep 
Finally  we  tumbled  to  the  fact  that 
such  couple  existed,  and  that  the  K 
kuru  were  merely  pulling  our  legs. 

I  am  often  asked  if  I  enjoy  doing  fif 
work.  No  simple  yes  or  no  answer  can 
given  to  this  question.  The  insects,  t 
heat,  the  mildew,  the  intestinal  parasiti 
and  all  the  other  hardships  of  life 
the  rainy  tropics  make  it  impossible 
give  an  unqualified  "yes."  Yet  life  ivi 
the  Kuikuru  and  Amahuaca  was  ofti 
pleasant,  even  delightful,  and  this  we 
far  to  efface  the  hardships.  But  tl 
greatest  reward  of  all  for  an  ethnologii 
the  thing  that  makes  field  work  wor 
while  regardless  of  anything  else,  is  tl 
intense  satisfaction  of  discovering  ar 
recording  ethnographic  information  th 
has  never  previously  been  made  know 


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About  the  Authors 

Mr.  Ch.\rles  M.  Bogert,  whose  ar- 
ticle describes  the  strange  creatures 
known  as  amphisbaenids.  is  Chairman 
and  Curator  of  The  American  Museum  s 
Department  of  Herpetology.  Among  Mr. 
Bogert's  particular  scientific  interests 
are  the  thermal  requirements,  ecology, 
and  evolution  of  reptiles,  the  zoogeogra- 
phy of  Africa  and  North  America,  and 
behavior,  taxonomy,  distribution,  and 
morphology  of  reptiles  and  amphibians. 

"Management  of  Water  in  Arid  Lands" 
is  the  work  of  Mr.  George  H.  Davis,  a 
hydrogeologist  with  the  Water  Resources 
Division  of  the  U.S.  Geological  Survey. 
Formerly  in  charge  of  ground-water 
studies  by  the  Geological  Survey  in  the 
Central  Valley  of  California,  Mr.  Davis 
specializes  in  ground-water  geology  and 
studies  of  land  subsidence.  He  is  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Geological  Society  and  of  the 
Association  of  Petroleum  Geologists. 

Dr.  Janis  a.  Roze,  author  of  "Pilgrim 
of  the  River,"  is  a  Research  Associate  in 
the  Department  of  Herpetology  at  The 
American  Museum,  where  he  is  prepar- 
ing a  monograph  on  New  World  poison- 
ous coral  snakes.  Dr.  Roze  is  Professor 
of  Zoology  and  Head  of  the  Department 
of  Zoology  at  the  Universidad  Central  de 
Venezuela,  in  Caracas,  which  awarded 
him  its  Gold  Medal  of  Merit  in  science. 
In  1962  he  received  the  Venezuelan  Na- 
tional Science  Research  Award.  Dr.  Roze 
is  a  specialist  in  herpetology  and  ecol- 
ogy, and  has  made  extensive  investiga- 
tions of  turtle  ecology  in  Venezuela,  of 
reptiles  (particularly  snakes),  and  of 
conservation  problems. 

In  "Arches  and  Bridges  of  Stone,"  Mr. 
WiLLARD  Luce  discusses  some  of  the 
striking  rock  formations  of  his  native 
Utah.  Mr.  Luce,  who  teaches  elementary 
school,  is  a  graduate  of  Brigham  Young 
University,  in  Provo,  where  he  lives.  He 
has  written  many  articles  on  travel. 

Dr.  David  L.  Dineley.  whose  article 
about  pteraspids  appears  under  the  title 
"Armor-plated  and  lawless  Devonian 
Fish,"  is  Professor  of  Geology  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Ottawa.  He  was  born  in  Eng- 
land, educated  at  the  University  of  Bir- 
mingham, and  began  his  teaching  career 
at  the  Universities  of  Exeter  and  Bristol. 
His  main  fields  of  interest  are  conodonts 
("Problematic  Conodonts"  appeared  in 
Natural  History,  January,  1963),  os- 
tracoderm  fishes,  and  Devonian  rocks.  In 
pursuit  of  these  interests  he  has  visited 
Scandinavia,  Spitsbergen,  and  Germany. 
He  is  currently  ending  a  summer  geolog- 
ical expedition  to  Somerset  Island,  Arc- 
tic Canada,  in  search  of  pteraspids  and 
other  fossils  that  he  is  now  studying. 


r 


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63 


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64 


Methods  for  bringing 
scenery  home  on  film 

By  David  Linton 


FALL  FOLL^GE  and  landscapes  seem  to 
cry  out  to  be  photographed— and  in 
color,  of  course.  It  often  seems  that  with 
such  breath-taking  coloration  for  a  sub- 
ject, one  has  only  to  point  the  camera 
in  almost  any  direction  and  a  great  pic- 
ture is  sure  to  result. 

All  too  often  a  sad  awakening  comes 
when  the  slides  are  returned  by  the  proc- 
essing laboratory— the  spectacular  scen- 
ery may  look  flat  and  dull.  Things  that 
stood  out  brilliantly  in  the  scene  may  be 
lost  in  the  picture.  The  magic  and  en- 
chantment have  vanished,  and  what  re- 
mains is  proof  of  the  adage  that  a  picture 
of  a  beautiful  subject  will  not  necessar- 
ily be  a  beautiful  picture. 

Except  in  a  wide-screen  movie  theater, 
a  picture  cannot  fill  our  whole  field  of 
view  as  scenery  does.  That  a  picture  is 
small  (at  least  comparatively)  and  flat, 
while  a  landscape  is  vast  and  recedes 
into  the  distance,  makes  the  difierence 
between  subject  and  picture  more  notice- 
able in  landscapes  than  in  photographs 
of  other  subjects. 

There  is  also  an  optical  difference  be- 
tween the  visually  perceived  scene  and 
the  picture.  When  we  look  at  a  scene 


-^- 


we  can  take  in  an  extremely  wide 
while  simultaneously  seeing  dista 
jects  in  a  fairly  large  scale.  To  apf 
this  effect,  a  camera  would  have  t( 
the  attributes  of  both  very  short 
length  (wide-angle)  and  very  Ion" 
length  (telephoto)  lenses,  an  optic 
possibility.  This  is  the  most  fre 
cause  of  disappointment  in  land 
photographs— everything  appears 
both  tiny  and  far  away. 

Selectivity  is  Crucial 

THE  key  to  landscape  photogra 
and  to  most  other  kinds  of  pho 
phy— is  selection.  The  impressive 
of  a  wide  view  cannot  be  reprodui 
a  picture  that  will  be  held  in  the 
Therefore,  the  photographer  must 
the  portion  of  the  scene  that  be 
presses  the  qualities  he  wants  to  po 
Since  distance  is  an  important  fac 
almost  all  landscapes,  he  must  sell 
area  that  will  allow  him  to  produ 
effect  of  depth  in  the  flat  photogra 
Visually,  distance  is  revealed 
combination  of  cues.  At  near  dist 
(up  to  about  two  hundred  feet)  th 
crepancy  between  the  views  seen  l 


5  gives  us  a  sense  of  the  third 
jn.  Beyond  that  range  we  rely 
rences  in  appearance  of  objects 
LIS  distances.  The  colors  of  far- 
jects  are  less  bright  than  those  of 
;s.  and  shadows  are  not  as  dark 
ights  as  light.  Remote  scenery  is 
with  a  bluish  haze,  produced  by 
tering  of  light  by  particles  of 
'  and  dust  in  the  air.  Our  impres- 
distance  is  also  affected  by  the 
iize  of  objects ;  if  an  object  looks 
though  we  know  it  is  large,  we 
at  it  is  far  away, 
photograph,  the  means  of  por- 
iistance  are  more  limited.  Even 
lotography  is  not  much  help  in 
les,  because  most  such  scenes 
Ear  away  to  register  differently 
o  views.  The  size  of  objects  may 
i  depth  effectively  in  a  photo- 
scause  the  whole  picture  is  so 
laller  than  the  original  scene. 
ative  size  differences  between 
It  different  distances  are  useful 
aying  depth  in  a  picture.  These 
is  mean  that  the  hazy  appear- 
uced  contrast,  and  softer  colors 
F  objects  are  the  most  impor- 
cators  of  depth  in  photography, 
lalities  are  attributes  of  what  is 
i  "atmospheric  perspective." 
nds  like  treason  to  advocate 
the  brilliant  colors  of  fall,  but 
;actly  how  nature  shows  us  that 
arts  of  a  scene  are  distant,  and 
every  device  that  will  help  give 
re  depth. 


OBJECTS    and    haze    in    the 
d    depth    to    this    landscape. 


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UNDER  THE  AUSPICES  OF  THE  SOCIETY  FOR  HELLENIC  TRAVEL 

TWO  WINTER 

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TUNEH  EL  GEBEL,  TELL  EL  AMARNA,  THE  ROCK  TOMBS  OF  MEIR,  ABYDOS, 
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Guest  Lecturers  accompanying  the  two  cruises  are: 
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Professor  H.  W.  Fairman,  M.A.,  Brunner  Professor  of  Egyptology  in  the  University  of  Liverpool. 
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Atmospheric  perspective  works 
much  the  same  way  in  color  and 
black-and-white  pictures.  In  both  cai 
it  may  be  increased  or  decreased,  wit 
certain  limits,  by  the  use  of  appropri 
filters  on  the  camera  lens.  If  no  fi! 
is  used,  the  haze  will  generally  app 
more  pronounced  in  the  photograph  tl 
it  did  to  the  photographer's  eye. 
reasons  for  this,  and  a  detailed  disi 
sion  of  how  to  control  the  renditioj 
atmospheric  perspective  in  photograp 
were  presented  in  this  column  in  IN 
UR.\L  History.  October.  1963. 

A  simple  experiment  will  show  1 
atmospheric  perspective  operates  in 
ture.  Look  at  a  distant  scene.  Then  1 
at  the  same  scene  framed  by  nearby 
jects  (two  trees,  for  example).  The 
ference  in  color  and  contrast  betw 
foreground  and  distant  areas  will  be 
parent.  By  framing  the  scene,  we  1 
vided  points  of  comparison  that  alio 
atmospheric  perspective  and  the  rela 
size  of  objects  to  suggest  distance. 

Ideally  there  should  be  objects 
only  in  the  foreground  but  also  at  sev 
different  distances.  When  these  pli 
are  separated  from  one  another  by 
mospheric  perspective  and  variation 
lighting,  they  create  an  impressioi 
depth  and  add  interest  to  the  pictut 

We  will  not  necessarily  make  the 
possible  picture  when  the  atmosphei 
clearest.  In  fact,  soft,  misty  days 
often  more  auspicious  for  landscape 
tography.  In  any  season,  one  of  the 
times  to  take  pictures  of  scenery  is  in 
diately  after  a  rain.  Another  good 
is  early  in  the  morning,  when  the  st 
low  and  provides  more  lighting  cent 

Back-lighted  Scenes 

THE  type  of  lighting  is  of  the  grei 
importance  in  landscape  photo 
phy.  In  general,  front  light,  or  light  i 
ing  from  behind  the  camera,  mak 
scene  appear  flat.  Side  light  gives  i 
separation  between  planes  at  diSt 
distances,  and  back  light  (when  the^ 
era  is  pointed  toward  the  light  sou 
gives  the  most. 

Back  lighting  requires  a  few  pre 
tions.  but  the  improvement  in  the  r 
justifies  the  extra  care.  The  sun  sh 
usually  be  hidden— behind  a  moui 
or  tree,  perhaps,  or  outside  the  pi( 
area.  A  lens  shade  should  alway 
used,  but  it  is  doubly  important  fori 
lighted  pictures.  When  the  angle  0 
sun  is  low.  however,  a  lens  shade 
not  be  sufficient  to  keep  direct  sun 
from  falling  on  the  lens.  In  such  1 
the  photographer  should  try  to  kee] 
camera  in  the  shade  of  some  objec 
deliberately  cast  a  shadow  for  the 
pose.  In  this  type  of  work  a  single 
reflex  or  camera  with  a  ground- 
back  is  desirable  because  the  ii 
formed  by  the  lens  can  be  examine 
fore  the  picture  is  taken  to  make 


66 


>T  AND  FRAMING  lead  viewer's  gaze 
itograph  through  series  of  planes. 


no  stray  light  striking  the  lens, 
naking  the  exposure  always  look 
mage  with  the  lens  diaphragm 
down  to  the  aperture  you  will 
metimes  light  striking  the  lens 
ise  a  bright  spot  in  the  picture 
he  image  of  the  lens  diaphragm, 
nay  not  be  visible  when  the  dia- 
ls fully  open.  In  other  cases, 
iking  the  lens  may  cause  an  over- 
shed  out"  appearance,  which  can 
;nized  when  one  is  accustomed  to 
dng  system  of  a  specific  camera. 

'icking  a  Point  of  View 

;  the  elements  of  a  landscape  can- 
usually  be  rearranged,  the  selec- 
i  viewpoint  for  the  picture  is  the 
apher's  most  important  decision, 
ihoice  depend,  to  a  great  extent, 
;  of  lighting  and  the  relative  posi- 
'  the  parts  of  the  scene.  Along 
ighways,  the  preselected  viewing 
at  look  out  over  a  great  valley  or 
of  hills  are  fine  for  sight-seeing, 
m  they  are  not  good  viewpoints 
lOgraphy  because  the  entire  scene 
ily  far  away,  with  little  in  the 


foreground  or  middle  distance.  It  is  far 
better  to  scramble  up  a  hillside  or  stroll 
down  into  a  forest  in  search  of  a  more 
favorable  position. 

One  particular  problem  with  land- 
scapes is  that  they  are  likely  to  stretch 
out  in  a  long  horizontal  shape,  produc- 
ing a  picture  that  has  all  of  its  sub- 
ject matter  in  a  thin  line  at  the  bottom, 
while  most  of  the  picture  space  is  empty. 
Shooting  from  a  higher  viewpoint  and 
aiming  slightly  downward  will  help  fill 
the  picture  area  and  it  may  improve  the 
perspective.  Even  the  slight  difference 
between  the  waist  level  viewpoint  of 
some  cameras  and  the  eye  level  view- 
point of  others  is  enough  to  be  notice- 
able. A  long  low  scene  can  often  be 
greatly  improved  by  photographing  it 
from  the  top  of  a  stationary  automobile. 
Many  professional  photographers  carry 
a  stepladder  with  their  field  equipment. 

Mountains  pose  a  different  problem  be- 
cause it  is  often  difficult  to  find  a  position 
from  which  they  really  look  like  moun- 
tains. If  they  are  photographed  from  be- 
low it  will  generally  be  necessary  to  tilt 
the  camera  upward  to  get  the  top  of  the 
mountain  in  the  picture.  This  makes  it 
seem  to  lean  backward.  Even  when  using 


You  need 
never  miss 


taking 


pictures 
because  it's 
raining, 
snowing, 
hailing, 
too  damp, 
too  dry, 
too  cold, 
too  warm 
...or  too 

anything 


the  newNikonos 
by  Nikon  even 
takespictures 
underwater. . . 
withouta 
housing. 


See  this  amphibious,  all-weather  35mm 
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67 


a  view  camera,  with  which  this  optical 
effect  can  be  corrected,  the  view  from 
below  will  not  give  a  satisfactory  ren- 
dering. Neither  will  a  view  from  above, 
which  tends  to  dwarf  the  subject.  The 
one  really  satisfactory  viewpoint  would 
be  from  halfway  up  a  facing  mountain. 
Obviously  there  are  many  mountains  that 
have  no  neighbors  of  the  right  height  and 
at  a  suitable  distance.  In  such  cases,  a 
helicopter  would  be  a  fine  camera  plat- 
form except  for  the  excessive  vibration. 

Color  and  Composition 

AUTUMN  foliage  runs  a  color  scale 
from  yellow  through  red.  Think  for 
a  moment  how  a  painting  would  look  if 
limited  to  the  same  bit  of  the  spectrum. 
In  nature  the  effect  may  be  breath-tak- 
ing, but  a  color  picture  containing  only 
reds,  oranges,  and  yellows  is  more  likely 
to  be  stifling.  Some  contrast— in  color  as 
well  as  intensity— is  essential  to  the  vis- 
ual organization  of  a  picture. 

The  contrasting  areas  need  not  be 
large  and  they  should  never  be  equal.  A 
picture  that  is  half  blue  sky  and  half 
orange  leaves  would  look  static  and  un- 
satisfying. But  a  small  area  of  contrast- 
ing color,  properly  placed,  can  balance 
a  great  mass  of  foliage.  A  small  lake, 
reflecting  the  blue  of  the  sky.  or  an  out- 
cropping of  rock  will  serve  nicely.  Even 


D.4VID  Linton's  by-line  has  appeared 
under  photographs  in  all  the  nation's 
leading  magazines.  His  camera  column 
is   a   regular   feature   on  these   pages. 


the  dark  gray  line  of  a  highway  may  help 
the  picture,  although  most  of  us  would 
prefer  not  to  bring  man-made  objects 
into  a  natural  scene.  A  smaller  area  of 
foliage— perhaps  even  a  single  tree— can 
be  balanced  against  a  larger  area  of  sky, 
but  this  generally  provides  contrast  only 
in  color  and  not  in  intensity.  Therefore 
it  may  be  desirable  to  include  a  very 
bright  or  very  dark  patch— a  bird,  a 
snow-capped  mountain,  or  a  foreground 
object  in  silhouette. 

Photographing  Flowers 

THE  same  principle  applies  to  photo- 
graphs of  flowers.  Pictures  of  masses 
of  blossoms  are  rarely  satisfactory.  It  is 
better  to  select  one  outstanding  speci- 
men and  devote  extra  care  to  photo- 
graphing it  in  a  closeup  or  semicloseup 
view.  One  of  the  few  ways  a  whole  field 
of  flowers  can  be  used  effectively  in  a 
photograph  is  as  a  background.  While 
landscape  photographs  need  extra  atten- 
tion to  the  foreground,  in  photographs 
of  flowers  it  is  usually  the  background 
that  is  difficult  to  cope  with.  When  we 


look  at  a  flower  we  are  able  to  cone 
trate  our  attention  on  it.  and  we  rar 
notice  the  background.  How  differeni 
is  when  we  see  it  in  a  photograph!  Oi 
recorded  on  film,  a  distracting  ba 
ground  cannot  be  ignored. 

Since  most  flowers  are  comparativ 
small,  they  are  usually  photographed 
close  range,  and  the  background  is  ofi 
out  of  focus.  The  contrast  between 
sharp  principal  image  and  the  unshi 
background  helps  create  a  feeling 
depth,  but  the  background  must  also  i 
fer  from  the  subject  in  color  and  brig 
ness  to  make  the  subject  stand  out. 

Here  again,  back  lighting  is  extrem 
useful.  In  fact,  one  may  almost  reve 
the  old  box  camera  rule  and  say,  "Ne 
shoot  with  the  sun  at  your  back." 

This  list  details  the  photographer,  art 

or  other  source  of  illustrations,  by  pa 

COVER-Willard  Luce  Dept.  of  Water  Resourc 

16-San  Diego  Zoo-R.  Van  31-AMNH  after  U.S. 

Nostrand  Geological  Survey 

18-Charles  M.  Bogert  ex-  32-AMNH  after  State  ( 

cept  top,  AMNH  California.  Dept.  of  Wa 

19-AMNH  Resources 

20-AMNH  after  33-AMNH  after  U.S. 

M.  A.  Smith  Geological  Survey 

and  S.  B.  McDovaell  34-41-Janis  A.  Roze 

oJic~piy"^[l    M  B,.„^rt   42-47-Willard  Luce 
24-25-Charles  M.  Bogert    .„  ^,    omnh  aftor  naui 
26-29-U.S.  Bureau  of  Rec-^r^^-AMNH  after  Oavi 
lamation  except  29-bot-      "'"^'J^^, .  ,  „^ 
torn,  AMNH  after  U.S.  Geo-  54-56-Lick  Observator 
logical  Survey  57-AMNH 

30-State  of  California,       64-67-David  Linton 


t  A  Greciar 

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Members  of  The  Museum  are' 
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Please  send  check  or 
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I  ORIOLES   ONLY 

new  Oriole  Feeder  will  attract  many 
old  beauties  to  your  garden.  (See 
1  photo.)  Their  colorful  antics  are  a 
.  A  heartwarming  gift  for  any  occa- 
ss.  easy  to  clean.  Money  back  ffuar- 
instructions.  Sorry  no  COD's.  Price 
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y  Erwin  M.  Brown.  HumminKbird 
Pt.  N,  6818  Apperson  St.,  Tujunga, 
>  makers  of  the  original  and  popular 
ird  Bar."®) 


Ad(ditional  Reacding 

"LITTLE  SNAKE  WITH  HANDS" 

"Studies  on  Amphisbaenids  (Amphis- 
baenia,  Reptilia).  1.  A  Taxonomic  Re- 
vision of  the  Trogonophinae.  and  a 
Functional  Interpretation  of  the  Amphis- 
baenid  Adaptive  Pattern."  Carl  Gans. 
Bulletin  AMNH,  Vol.  119,  pages  129- 
204,  1960. 

"The  Origin  of  Snakes."  A.  d'A.  Bel- 
lairs  and  Garth  Underwood.  Biological 
Review,  Vol.  26.  pages  193-237,  1951. 

"Miscellaneous  Notes  on  Mexican  Liz- 
ards." Hobart  M.  Smith.  Journal  of  the 
Washington  Academy  of  Sciences,  Vol. 
39,  pages  34-43.  1949. 

MANAGEMENT  OF  WATER 
IN  ARID  LANDS 

Hydrology.  Edited  by  0.  E.  Meinzer. 
McGraw-Hill,  N .Y .,  1942. 

The  Conservation  of  Ground 
Water.  H.  E.  Thomas.  McGraw-Hill, 
N.Y.,  1951. 

Ground  Water  Hydrology.  D.  K. 
Todd.  John  Wiley  &  Sons,  N.Y.,  1959. 

The  Role  of  Ground  Water  in  the 
N.\tional  Water  Situation.  C.  L.  Mc- 
Guinness.  U.S.  Geological  Survey  Water 
Supply  Paper  1800,  1963. 

PILGRIM  OF  THE  RIVER 

The  Reptiles.  Archie  Carr.  Life  Na- 
ture Library,  Time,  Inc.,  N.Y.,  1963. 

The  Green  Turtle  and  Man.  James 
J.  Parsons.  University  of  Florida  Press, 
Gainesville,  1962. 

Personal  Narrative  of  Travels  to 
the  Equinoctial  Regions  of  America, 
During  the  Years  1799-1804.  Alexan- 
der von  Humboldt  and  Aime  Bonpland. 
Ill  Vols.  Henry  G.  Bohn,  London,  1852. 

ARCHES  AND  BRIDGES  OF  STONE 

"Rainbow  Bridge  National  Monu- 
ment: Arches  National  Monument;  Nat- 
ural Bridges  National  Monument."  All 
three:  National  Park  Service,  U.S.  Gov- 
ernment Printing  Office,  1963. 

ARMOR-PLATED  AND  JAWLESS 
DEVONIAN  FISH 

E\  OLUTION  OF  THE  VERTEBRATES.  E.  H. 

Colbert.  John  Wiley  &  Sons,  N.Y.,  1955. 

Fossils:  A  Guide  to  Prehistoric 
Life.  F.  H.  Rhodes.  H.  S.  Zim,  and  P.  R. 
Schafler.  Golden  Press,  N.Y.,  1962. 

Evolution  Eimerging.  W.  K.  Gregory. 
Macmillan,  /V.F.,  1951. 

SCIENCE  IN  ACTION 

Native  Peoples  of  South  America. 
Julian  H.  Steward  and  Louis  C.  Faron 
McGraw-Hill,  N .Y .,  1959. 

Headhunters'  Heritage.  Robert  F. 
Murphy.  University  of  California  Press, 
Berkeley,  1960. 

The  Cubeo  Indians  of  the  North- 
west Amazon.  Irving  Goldman.  Illinois 
Studies  in  Anthropology,  No.  2,  Univer- 
sity of  Illinois  Press,  Urbana,  1963. 


in  the  World? 


From  the  Amami  Islands* 
to  the  Zulus  of  Africa** 
...you  will  find  It  in  Folkways'  catalog 
of  over  600  Long  Playing  authentic  Folk 
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Science,  Jazz,  Literature  and  Childrens 
series.  Write  for  complete  free  catalog. 

'FE  4448  Music  of  the  Amami  Islands 
'*FE  4503  Africa  South  of  the  Sahara 

FOLKWAYS  RECORDS 

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which  this  information  is  obtained. 

Write:  Department  NH-64A,  Correspond- 
ence Instruction,  University  of  California 
Extension,  Berkeley.  California  94720. 


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70 


All  things  are  ready,  if  our  minds  be  so." 


—  Shakespeare 


The  insistent  questing  of  the  creative  mind  is  the 
vital  force  behind  Monsanto' s  widespread  research 
programs  .  .  .  We  have  800  scientists  doing  just  that. 

They  think,  experiment,  develop,  apply  .  .  .  and 
their  results  are  impressive — 500  new  products 
in  the  past  10  years,  ranging  through  such  diverse 
fields  as  petroleum  and  fibers  to  building 
materials  and  packaging. 

From  these  continuing  efforts  spring  the  new 
ideas  and  variety  of  products  that  will  help 
shape  tomorrow — its  cities,  homes  .  .  .  its  agriculture 
and  industry. 

We  sense  no  limits  to  the  mind  of  man. 


Monsanto 


Monsanto,  St.  Louis,  Missouri    63166 


Cape  Hatteras... 

Conservation  saved  it  for  you.  See  it  on 

J.  here  may  be  pirate  gold  buried  on  these  wild 
and  lonely  North  Carolina  beaches.  Certainly, 
ships  with  costly  cargoes  were  wrecked  there. 
But  to  most  men,  the  wild  shifting  dunes,  the 
foaming  breakers,  the  haunting  loveliness  of 
sea  and  sand  are  treasures  enough. 
A  dedicated  group  of  North  Carolina  citizens 
thought  such  treasures  should  belong  to  the 
entire  nation,  for  all  to  enjoy.  A  newspaper  edi- 
tor campaigned  to  preserve  them.  Members  of 
such  groups  as  the  Audubon  Society  and  Izaak 
Walton  League  joined  in. 
But,  there  was  no  money  for  land  purchase. 
So  public-spirited  citizens  raised  it  themselves. 
They  got  substantial  help  from  private  founda- 
tions. And  the  state  of  North  Carolina  appro- 
priated matching  funds. 
Now,  more  than  70  miles  of  this  primitive 


your  way  to  the  New  York  World's  Fair. 

region  is  your  Cape  Hatteras  National  Seashore. 

You  and  every  other  American  own  it,  as  you 
should.  For  along  this  windswept  beach,  among 
these  \Aind-carved  dunes,  you  can  find  satisfac- 
tion no  crowded  street  can  offer,  a  spiritual  re- 
growth  that  renews  and  strengthens  your  ties 
with  Nature  and  with  mankind.  Through  con- 
servation, this  wild  beauty  will  remain  to  give 
your  great-grandchildren  satisfaction  when 
they,  too,  make  their  rendezvous  with  the  land. 

Cape  Hatteras  must  not  be  the  last  of  America's 
scenic  glories  to  be  so  preserved.  We  need  more 
natural  areas  set  aside,  so  that  all  Americans, 
for  all  time,  can  keep  the  look  of  far  horizons 
in  their  eyes. 

Such  conservation  helps  everybody.  It  needs 
everybody's  help. 


Free  tour  service;  I 

you  are  driving  to  tli' 
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elude  visits  to  Capi 
Hatteras  or  othe. 
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\Smlain 


A  GREAT  NAME  IN  Oil 


FOF 


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He  interprets  blueprints,  sketches,  orders,  ideas  .  .  .  and  he  puts  them  into 
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There  are  16,000  foremen  in  GM  ...  a  great  many  of  them  up  from  the  ranks 
of  the  men  they  supervise.  Their  knowledge,  experience  and  judgment  are 
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People — able,  dedicated  people — are  GM's  greatest  asset  .  .  .  and  none  is 
more  important  than  the  foreman,  a  capable,  experienced  member  of  the 
General  Motors  management  team. 


GENERAL  MOTORS  IS  PEOPLE 

Making  Better  Things  For  You 


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The  magnificent  color  plates  alone,  showing  2,000  art  ob- 
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2A 


PRESIDENT 

Alexander  M.  White 

DIRECTOR 

James  A.  Oliver 

ASSISTANT  DIRECTORS 

Walter  F.  Meister,  Joseph  M.  Chamberlain 


MANAGING  EDITOR 

Robert  E.  Williamson 

EXECUTIVE  EDITOR 

Helene  Jordan 

ASSOCIATE  EDITORS 

Harry  Atkins,  Beth  Stokes 

COPY  EDITORS 

Florence  Brauner,  Florence  Klodin 

REVIEWS 

Francesca  von  Hartz 

PHOTOGRAPHY 

Lee  Boltin 

PRODUCTION 

Thomas  Page 
Mairgreg  Ross,  Asst. 

CONTRIBUTIONS 

Ernestine  Weindorf 


CONTRIBUTING  EDITORS 

Paul  M.  Tilden.  Thomas  D.  Nicholson 
David  Linton,  Julian  D.  Corrington 


EDITORIAL    ADVISERS 

Gerard  Piel  Gordon  F.  Ekholm 

Gordon  Reekie  Donn  E.  Rosen 

T.  C.  Schneirla         Richard  K.  Winslow 

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Natural  Histor 

Incorporating  Nature  Magazine 

THE  JOURNAL  OF  THE  AMERICAN  MUSEUM  OF  NATURAL  HIS 


Vol.  LXXIII 


OCTOBER  1964 


ARTICLES 
SCIENCES  MEET  IN  ANCIENT  HASANLU 


R.  H.  Dyson,  ] 


RARELY  SEEN  SONGBIRDS  OF  PERU^S  HIGH  ANDES 

William  G.  Geor^ 

MAPPING  THE  SURFACE  OF  THE  EARTH 

Morris  M.  Thompson  and  Julius  L.  Spee 

RETURN  OF  THE  BEAVER  Sydney  Andersc 

TINY  DRIFTERS  OF  THE  SEA  John  J.  Lee  and  Hugo  Freudenth 

MIGRATION  IN  MAINE  Paul  J.  Fournii 

PLACE  FOR  ALL  THINGS  Paul  Bohanno 

TOTEM  POLES:  FAMILY  TREES  Frederick  J.  Dockstad, 


DEPARTMENTS 
BOOKS  IN  REVIEW 
SKY  REPORTER 
ABOUT  THE  AUTHORS 
NATURE  AND  THE  MICROSCOPE 
ADDITIONAL  READING 


Harry  L.  Shapii 
Thomas  D.  Nicholsc 

Julian  D.  Corringtc 


COVER:  Many  songbirds  in  the  Peruvian  Andes  are  among  the  least  fami 
South  American  birds.  The  three  species  on  the  cover  are:  Buthraupis  mm 
top.  Hooded  Mountain  Tanager:  Chlorornis  reijjerii.  Grass  Green  Tanagei 
Iridosornis  reinhardti,  Yellow-naped  Tanager.  Starting  on  page  26.  Dr.  W 
G.  George  discusses  these  and  other  birds  found  in  Peru.  The  plates  werf 
specially  for  this  article  by  the  outstanding  bird  artist  Mr.  Arthur  S 
Vegetation  is  rendered  as  accurately  as  available  information  permits.  I 
on  cover  are  Philodendron  verrucosum;  the  orchid  is  Masdevallia  panduri 

The  American  Museum  is  open  to  the  public  without  charge  every  c 
during  the  year.  Your  support,  through  membership  and  contributio 
helps  make  this  possible.  The  Museum  is  equally  in  need  of  supp 
for  all  of  its  work  in  the  fields  of  research,  education,  and  exhibiti 

Publication  Office  :  The  American  Museum  of  Natural  History,  Central  Park  West  at  79th  Street,  N 
N.  Y.  10024.  Published  monthly,  October  through  May:  bimonthly  June  to  September.  Subscription: 
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No  part  of  this  periodical  may  be  reproduced  without  the  written  consent  of  Natural  History.  1 
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editorial  office  will  be  handled  with  all  possible  care,  but  we  cannot  assume  responsibility  for  thei: 
The'  opinions  expressed  by  authors  are  their  own  and  do  not  necessarily  reflect  The  American  Museum'i 


This  will  exercise  your  arms 


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then  did  sit-ups,  deep  knee  bends,  squat  thrusts  and 
dozen  other  tiresome  routines  to  exercise  the  rest  of 
)odies.  They  didn't  have  the  Exercycle*  automatic 
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3A 


The  stonj 

of  a 

Vervet  Monkey 

on  an 
African  farm 


A  charming  story,  joy- 
ously told,  about  a  tiny 
"blue"  monkey  who 
came  to  live  with  the 
author  and  her  sister 
when  he  was  ten  days 
old.  Delightful  reading 
for  everyone  fascinated 
by  the  meeting  of  man 
and  animal,  or  anyone 
who  has  ever  consid- 
ered keeping  a  small 
wild  creature  as  a  pet. 


ZEPHYR 

by 

Charlotte 
Truepeney 

Photographs,  drawings 
$3.95  at  all  bookstores 

SCRIBNERS 


BOOKS    IN  REVIEW 


Three  histories  of  man 


'By  Harry  L.  Shapiro 

A  Million  Years  of  Man.  by  Richard 
Carrington.  The  World  Publishing  Co., 
ST. 50;  335  pp.,  illus.  And  Then  Came 
Man,  by  Hartmut  Bastian.  The  Viking 
Press,  $6.95;  354  pp.,  illus.  From  Ape 
Man  to  Homer,  by  H.  E.  L.  Mellersh. 
Taplinger,  $5.00;  222  pp.,  illus. 

THE  discoveries  of  science  are  gen- 
erally first  announced,  as  is  proper, 
in  technical  journals  or  in  books  written 
for  highly  specialized  readers.  Most  sci- 
entists, having  done  this,  feel  they  have 
discharged  their  responsibility  to  society. 
But  there  is  another  public  with  an  ap- 
petite for  knowledge  that  never  or  rarely 
encounters  these  publications.  It  is  com- 
posed of  general  readers  who  are  curious 
and  interested  in  the  general  progress  of 
scientific  investigation— and  this  includes 
scientists  reading  in  areas  outside  their 
own  specialties.  Lacking  the  highly  tech- 
nical knowledge  and  vocabulary  to  pur- 
sue scientific  reports  filled  with  allusive 
and  cryptic  statements,  or  the  stomach 
for  the  minutiae  of  technical  papers, 
these  readers  have  created  a  market  and 
a  demand  for  books  on  science  written 
in  terms  that  are  accessible  to  them.  The 
gift  for  this  kind  of  so-called  popular 
writing  is  unfortunately  not  widely  dis- 
persed among  scientists,  who  in  any  case 
are  usually  reluctant  to  undertake  it  at 
the  expense  of  their  research.  As  a  re- 
sult, a  growing  class  of  professional  writ- 
ers has  taken  on  the  job  of  translating 
the  technical  works  of  science  into  the 
vernacular  and  making  them  palatable 
to  as  wide  a  readership  as  possible.  It 
must  be  admitted  that  if  something  of 
precision  and  accuracy  is  often  lost  in 
this  process,  the  gain  in  communication 
and  education  may  be  a  compensation. 

All  three  books  under  review  here 
belong  in  this  category  of  popular  sci- 
ence writing.  A  scientist  in  the  fields  the 
books  represent  is  inevitably  faced  with 
certain  problems  when  he  comes  to  them 
as  a  critic.  Obviously,  if  he  is  reasonable, 
he  cannot  expect  the  extreme  caution 
and  qualification  characteristic  of  tech- 
nical writing.  That  would  be  inappro- 
priate, not  to  say  self-defeating.  But  on 
the  other  hand,  how  much  latitude  is 
reasonable  in  order  to  make  a  book  in- 
teresting? I  suppose  in  the  end  the 
standards  demanded  by  such  hypotheti- 
cal reviewers  would  vary. 

Richard  Carrington's  A  Million  Years 
of  Man  is  a  solid  piece  of  work.  It  covers, 
as  the  title  suggests,  pretty  much  the 
whole  story  from  the  emergence  of  man- 


like creatures  up  to  modern  times, 
introductory  chapters  are  devote( 
fairly  standardized  information  on  n 
primate  ancestry,  with  emphasis  or 
evolution  of  those  characters  thai 
sumed  particular  importance  as  a  1 
heritage  of  early  man.  After  recour 
man's  biological  evolution,  the  au 
continues  with  his  cultural  developn 
On  the  whole  it  is  a  well-informed  s 
that  is  marred  by  errors  in  detail 
are  often  typical  of  professional  wr 
who  are  not  trained  in  the  field  thej 
cultivating.  For  example,  the  bony  1 
ridges  are  identified  as  areas  of  atl 
ment  for  the  jaw  muscles.  They  are 
The  australopithecines  are  classed 
family.  They  are  a  subfamily.  In 
gence  is  said  to  "depend"  on  the  hi 
body  size  ratio.  This  presents  a  fals( 
pression  of  a  relationship  that  is  si 
somewhat  sticky  problem. 

More  troublesome,  however,  is  the 
dency  to  read  a  social  philosophy 
the  history  of  cultural  developn 
Aside  from  any  dissent  I  might  regi 
I  question  whether  this  book  is  an 
propriate  place  for  it. 

Bastian's  And  Then  Came  Man  ti 
the  origin  of  man  and  his  cultur 
one  of  the  end  products  of  organic  ei 
tion.  Most  of  the  book  is  devoted  tc 
origin  of  the  earth  and  the  histor 
the  life  that  invested  it.  Considering 
little  space  is  left  in  the  text  for  man 
his  works,  the  coverage  is  fairly 
quate.  if  not  distinguished.  For  rea 
interested  in  the  whole  panorama  of 
,4nd  Then  Came  Man  offers  a  rea 
ably  good  but  elementary  coverage, 
not  know  whether  the  publisher  or 
author  or  some  other  culprit  is  res 
sible  for  the  illustrations.  Some  of  t 
are  not  only  poor,  but  are  even  grc 
inaccurate.  For  example,  a  "family" 
meant  to  illuminate  the  text  does 
agree  with  it:  it  places  Australopith 
earlier  in  time  than  Zinjanthropus. 
signing  a  wrong  date  to  him.  and 
Pithecanthropus  appearing  twice  at 
ferent  time  levels,  neither  of  whic 
correct,  and  without  making  it  c 
whether  these  two  are  meant  to  be 
same  type  or  not. 

From  Ape  Man  to  Homer  is  by  H.  1 
Mellersh.  an  amateur  biologist,  ace 
ing  to  the  publisher's  information  on 
dust  jacket.  Mr.  Mellersh  is  concei 
here  mainly  with  the  cultural  ev 
leading  up  to  the  establishment  of  ci 
zation  and  terminating  with  the  Hebi 
and  the  Greeks.  In  a  little  over  two  1 


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dred  pages  Mr.  Mellersh  can  obviously 
do  no  more  for  this  tremendous  story 
than  provide  thumbnail  sketches  of  the 
various  periods  and  peoples  he  includes. 
But  what  he  does  provide  is  done  with 
considerable  proficiency.  Since  the  docu- 
ments that  illuminate  this  stretch  of  time 
are  refractory  and  often  open  to  a  variety 
of  interpretations,  there  is  some  freedom 
allowable  to  an  author.  In  general,  Mr. 
Mellersh  exhibits  respect  for  the  data. 

Dr.  Shapiro.  Chairman  of  the  Department 
of  Anthropology  and  Curator  of  Physical 
Anthropology  at  The  American  Museum., 
is  a  frequent  contributor  to  this  section. 


On  Safari,  by  Armand  Denis.  E.  P.  Dut- 
ton  &  Co.,  S5.95:  320  pp.,  illus. 

IT  would  be  normal  to  expect  that  the 
autobiography  of  a  man  who  has  spent 
his  lifetime  photographing  wild  animals 
and  primitive  peoples  would  be  packed 
with  information,  excitement,  and  im- 
pressions. Armand  Denis"  autobiography 
is  but  little  more  informative  than  a 
biography  in  "Who's  Who."  and  it  cer- 
tainly tells  little  of  the  man  behind  the 
camera.  In  fact,  the  book  is  so  devoid  of 
personality  or  character  that  it  is  a  huge 
disappointment. 

From  his  boyhood  animal  collecting  to 
his  current  weekly  television  photogra- 
phy. Denis  simply  tells  the  reader  what 
happened.  Nowhere  does  one  really  find 
out  how  the  author  is  affected.  Nowhere 
does  one  get  the  feeling  of  a  tropical 
camp,  a  real  impression  of  a  co-worker 
or  a  native  king,  or  the  thrill  of  adven- 
ture. Considering  that  Mr.  Denis  worked 
for  so  many  years  with  animals,  there  is 
surprisingly  little  in  the  way  of  original 
observations  about  wildlife. 

This  is  not  a  bad  book.  It  is  readable 
but  unimaginative.  It  is  illustrated  with 
photographs  that  range  from  good  to  sur- 
prisingly poor  for  a  professional  photog- 
rapher. The  captions,  as  well  as  the 
pictures,  show  a  lack  of  imagination. 

Richard  G.  Van  Gelder 
The  American  Museum 

The  Alps,  by  Wilfrid  Noyce  and  Karl 
Lukan.  G.  P.  Putnam's  Sons,  $15.00;  312 
pp.,  illus. 

I  am  told  by  those  familiar  with  the 
subject  that  this  attractive  book  on 
the  Alps  is  comprehensive  in  coverage 
and  accurate  in  fact.  I  shall,  therefore, 
limit  my  comment  to  the  photographs, 
layout,  and  reproduction  in  terms  of  the 
interest  and  excitement  they  may  or  may 
not  create. 

This  is  the  age  of  the  picture  book. 
Some  are  good;  many  are  sterile,  in  that 
they  treat  only  of  the  surface  aspects  of 
nature,  objects,  and  people.  They  may 
be  informative,  but  it  is  increasingly  ap- 
parent that  aesthetic  and  emotional  fac- 


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tors  should  be  added  to  create  impact 
and  transmit  conviction.  The  efficiency 
of  the  medium  and  the  standardization 
of  procedures  weaken  much  of  the  per- 
ception and  interpretation  that  are  the 
prime  qualities  of  communicative  art 

The  opportunities  latent  in  the  con- 
cept of  the  picture  book  are  seldom  re- 
vealed. To  one  who  has  never  directly 
experienced  the  subject,  the  successful 
picture  or  picture  series  should  convey 
authenticity  and  also  give  impressions  of 
the  intrinsic  beauty  of  the  subject  and 
comprehension  and  spirit  of  the  artist. 

Some  of  the  photographs  in  the  book 
succeed  in  this  goal,  but  certain  factors 
in  layout  and  reproduction  seriously  in- 
terrupt the  logical  and  appropriate  flow 
of  the  images.  The  choice  of  an  apricot- 
tan  paper  for  the  text  sections  seems 
unfortunate  in  relation  to  the  clear  pal- 
ette and  mood  of  the  mountain  scene.  It 
is  especially  disturbing  in  conflict  with 
the  rather  bleak,  cold  black  values  of  the 
plates.  When  seen  opposite  each  other 
the  illustrations  have  a  rather  consistent 
quality  of  vigor  and  tonal  value. 

What  is  called  "change-of-pace"  is 
very  important  in  any  picture  sequence. 
There  should  be  variation  not  only  of 
subject  but  also  of  tonal  weight  and  of 
picture  size  and  shape  to  hold  one's  in- 
terest. Occasionally  a  full  double-page 
spread  is  rewarding,  and  an  occasional 
blank  page  will  give  a  certain  relief  in 
any  extended  sequence.  "Bleeds."  or 
pictures  running  to  the  edge  of  the  page, 
are  risky  when  the  edges  of  the  pictures 
are  important.  I  have  a  sense  of  crowd- 
ing in  this  book;  a  small  picture  with  a 
generous  amount  of  white  margin  around 
it  sometimes  can  be  more  impressive 
than  the  same  picture  as  a  full  page, 
especially  if  there  is  a  monotony  of 
crowded  pages  in  the  book. 

At  the  turn  of  the  nineteenth  century 
Coleridge  wrote  that  all  art  was  the  bal- 
ance of  the  external  and  the  internal. 
Art  should  not  deny  the  external  world, 
and  should  do  much  more  than  merely 
translate  it  at  the  informative  level. 
Every  serious  picture  book  should  be 
considered  an  opportunity  for  something 
more  than  mere  representation.  The 
reader  and  viewer  should  be  drawn  into 
some  emotional  and  aesthetic  experi- 
ence, not  necessarily  at  the  level  of  the 
creative  artist,  but  certainly  at  a  level 
beyond  his  ordinary  experience.  Moun- 
tains, because  of  their  sheer  grandeur 
and  scale,  dominance  of  form,  and  ad- 
venturous connotations,  hold  their  own 
in  spite  of  the  frequent  absence  of  the 
elements  of  art  in  their  interpretation. 

Most  of  the  scenes  in  this  book  are 
very  good  record  pictures— clean,  honest, 
sharp,  and  uninspired.  Opinion  will  differ 
because  of  personally  nurtured  ideas  of 
the  mountain  scene.  Most  of  the  photo- 
graphs appear  to  have  been  printed  by 


AIR- INDIA 


UNDER  THE  AUSPICES 

OF  THE  SOCIETY 
FOR  HELLENIC  TRAVEL 

TWO 

WINTER 

CRUISES 

TO  EGYPT  AND 

UP  THE  NILE 

By  Air  and  River  Boat 
TO  VISIT  ITS  FAMOUS 

SITES  AND  TEMPLES 
4th  to  27th  November 

and  25th  November 
to  18th  December  1964 

LONDON,  CAIRO,  THE  PYRAMIDS 
OF  GIZA,  SAQQARA,  MEMPHIS 
MELLAWI,  TUNER  EL  GEBEL, 
TELL  EL  AMARNA,  THE  ROCK 
TOMBS  OF  MEIR,  ABYDOS,  DEN 
DERAH,  KARNAK,  LUXOR,  WEST 
ERN  THEBES,  ESNA  AND  EDFU 
KOM  OMBO,  ASWAN,  KALABSHA^ 
ABU  SIMBEL  (OPTIONAL),  ELE 
PHANTINE  AND  KITCHENER  IS 
LANDS,  WADI  NATRUN  (OPTION 
AL),  THE  FAYUM  (OPTIONAL) 
CAIRO. 

Guest    Lecturers    accompanying 

the  two  cruises  are: 

Mr.    K.    A.    Kitchen,    B.A.,    Lecturer    in 

Egyptian   and   Coptic   in  the   University 

of  Liverpooi. 

Professor  H.  W.  Fairman,  M.A.,  Brunner 
Professor  of  Egyptology  in  the  Univer- 
sity of  Liverpool. 

For  folder,  please  write: 


Lindblad  Travel,  Inc., 

One  East  53rd  Street 
New  York  22,  N.  Y. 

Please  send  me  by  return  mail,  copy 
of  your  folder  describing  the  two  Winter 
Cruises  to  Egypt  and  Up  the  Nile. 


Name  (Mr.  Mrs.  Miss)_ 

Street 

City 


Natural  history  stories 

for  young  people 

and  their  elders 


AMERICAN  WILD  HORSES 

By  B.  F.  Beebe.  Illustrated  by 
James  Ralph  Johnson.  The  his- 
tory of  wild  horses  in  America, 
from  the  wild  ponies  that  inhabit 
islands  off  the  Atlantic  coast  to 
the  mustangs  in  the  west,  and 
what  is  being  done  to  save  them 
from  destruction.  S3. 95 

THE  DINOSAUR  HUNTERS 

By  Robert  Plate.  A  fascinating 
dual  biography  of  Othniel  C. 
Marsh  and  Edward  Drinker 
Cope,  two  extraordinary  men 
who  exhausted  their  fortunes  on 
hunts  for  dinosaur  remains.  Bib- 
liography and  Index.  84.50 

AMERICAN  WOLVES, 
COYOTES,  AND  FOXES 

By  B.  F.  Beebe.  Illustrated  by 
James  Ralph  Johnson.  The  au- 
thor of  many  distinguished  books 
on  American  wildlife  presents 
fascinating  and  little-known 
facts  about  wolves,  coyotes,  and 
foxes  that  live  in  the  United 
States.  S3.75 

THE  WILD  SWANS  FLY 

By  Pauline  Innis.  Illustrated 
with  photographs.  This  wildlife 
story  about  the  rare  and  beauti- 
ful Whistling  Swan  tells  the  ex- 
citing tale  of  two  swans  who  are 
separated  from  their  flock  dur- 
ing a  migratory  flight.         S3. 75 

ANIMALS  OF  THE  ARCTIC 

By  Alfred  Powers.  Illustrated. 
These  accounts  of  the  many 
kinds  of  animals  that  live  above 
the  Arctic  Circle  combine  a 
wealth  of  factual  data  with  dra- 
matic first-hand  accounts.  Late 
fall.  S4.95 

DAVID  McK AY  COMPANY,  Inc. 

750  Third  Avenue,  N.  Y.  10017 


the  same  photofinisher,  and  whatever 
leveling-off  of  quality  and  impact  he  did 
not  accomplish  the  engraver  and  press- 
man completed.  Among  my  selections  of 
the  most  expressive  shots,  only  one  pho- 
tographer (Erick  Weber)  is  represented 
by  as  many  as  three  pictures;  another 
(Albert  Steiner)  by  two  pictures.  Hence, 
it  cannot  be  said  that  there  is  a  concen- 
tration of  the  style  of  a  small  number 
of  mountain  photographers.  The  other 
photographs  remain  rather  sterile  and 
conventional;  some  are  of  salon  charac- 
ter, others  are  weak  and  indecisive. 
Many  are  sentimental  arrangements  or 
include  far  too  much  in  the  field  of  view. 
The  merits  of  simplifying,  cutting  to  the 
essence  of  things,  and  printing  with  con- 
viction of  tone  and  texture  often  are 
overlooked  by  both  photographer  and 
editor.  A  good  editor  can  suggest  appro- 
priate cropping,  but  should  not  crop 
without  the  photographer's  permission! 
After  many  perusals  of  the  photo- 
graphs in  this  book.  I  feel  I  have  gained 
a  good  look  at  many  aspects  of  a  re- 
markable part  of  the  earth's  surface. 
However,  as  I  read  the  text  I  feel  a  sharp 
perception  of  the  basic  qualities  of  the 
mountain  scene  and  a  rewarding  sense 
of  adventure.  These  do  much  to  fill  in 
the  gaps  of  mountain  experience  that  are 
only  sometimes  evident  in  the  photo- 
graphs themselves. 

Ansel  Adams 
Photographer  and  Conservationist 

The  Art  of  Warfare  in  Biblical 
Lands  in  the  Light  of  Archaeologi- 
cal Study,  by  Yigael  Yadin.  McGraw- 
Hill  Book  Co.,  Inc.,  $25.00;  2  volumes, 
484  pp.,  illus. 

Scientific  and  popular  studies  of  the 
social,  historical,  and  economic  phe- 
nomenon of  warfare  generally  pay  little 
attention  to  the  ancient  Mediterranean 
world  before  the  Greeks,  "i  et  the  lands 
that  formed  this  world— Egypt.  Palestine- 
Syria,  Mesopotamia,  Asia  Minor,  and 
Iran— constantly  rang  to  the  clash  of 
arms.  Their  histories,  which  existed  for 
a  good  two  millenniums  before  the  fall  of 
Troy  and  which  to  a  large  extent  are  the 
chronicles  and  annals  of  their  kings  and 
armies,  continued  even  into  Roman 
times.  For  the  modern  scholar  and  inter- 
ested layman  alike,  however,  there  has 
existed  no  comprehensive  work  that 
dealt  with  the  totality  of  warfare  as  prac- 
ticed in  the  ancient  Near  East,  together 
with  descriptions  of  the  development  of 
weapons  and  of  armor,  of  land  and  sea 
tactics,  of  grand  strategy,  of  doctrines 
of  attack  and  defense,  and  of  logistics 
and  training.  Such  a  work  now  exists  in 
the  book  of  Professor  Yadin,  who  is 
doubly  qualified  to  write  it,  first  as  a  bib- 
lical archeologist  and  second  as  a  major- 
general  in  the  Israeli  Army. 

Each  volume  contains  two  equally  im- 


*^ 


TWO  I<^EW 

RECOMD/A^GS  : 


SONGS  OF  THE  FORE^ 


SUNG  BY  THE  HERMIT  THRUSH,  THE 
WCDD  THRUSH,  AND  OTHER.  WCBDLAND   Bin 

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water  is  a  soothing  sound  anywhei 
On  this  record,  the  soft  rushing 
a  woodland  brook  is  the  sound  thn 
we  foLLow.  As  we  record  the  strt 
from  its  source  to  the  sLow-mov 
swamp  where  we  are  caught  by  darknet 
we  hear,  among  others,  the  Phoebe,  ■ 
Fox  &  the  Great  Horned  O^L.  Commei 
on  Side  A  wiLL  make  you  feel  at  ht 
on  the  downstream  trip.  Same  trip 
your  own  on  Side  B.  S  1,25  postpa. 

■  SOHGS  OF  THE  FOREST.  12"  mono  I 
To  the  human  ear,  certainly  the  mi 
musically  talented  of  North  Amerii 
birds  are  the  Thrushes.  On  tl 
recording,  you  wilt  hear  the  end  It 
variations  on  the  individual  thei 
available  to  the  Wood  Thrush  and  i 
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up  the  Hudson  on  the  Side-Vheei 
ALEXANDER  HAMILTON.  Beautiful  sit 
whistles  wail  and  sigh.  $  5, 

Prices,    including  postage: 

I 1  THE  BROOK,   7  inch  hi-fi,   $  1, 

t 1  SONGS  OF  THE  FOREST,    12"  $  5. 

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DROLL  "f:OwNKEES  IN( 

providence:,    R.I.     0290 

Please  send  to: 

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address 

Please  send  the  records  as  my  gift  i 

Nome  .............................••' 

.................••.•..•.••..•  addre: 


'EECE  AND  EGYPT 

IRNEY  INTO  ANTIQUITY. 

[ally  planned  for  those  with  a  serious  (professional  or  amateur) 

!St  in  the  great  archaeological  sites  of  the  Mediterranean 

itions. 

week  tours  featuring  a  seven  day  cruise  on  the  Nile  River  for 
nter  travel  season. 

In  addition  to  Athens  and  Cairo  itinerary  includes: 

SOS  LUXOR  and  DENDERA 

-lA  THEBES  and   KARNAK 

'lA  ESNA  and  EDFU 

II  KOM  OMBO  and  ASWAN 

lose  who  wish,  an  optional  trip  by  Hydrafoil  to  Abu  Simbel  is  also 
;d. 

'  departures  October  12,  1964  through  May  3,  1965. 

;roup  is  limited  to  10  persons  and  will  be  accompanied  by  top 
who  are  trained  archaeologists. 

insportation  by  fine  iet  aircraft  of  Lufthansa  German  Airlines, 
'uise  aboard  the  Isis  or  Osiris,  modern  air-conditioned  vessels 
ed  for  comfort.  Accommodation  in  deluxe  hotels. 

our  cost  from  $1,454.70  per  person. 


RUSSIAN  ART  TREASURES 

^^       DC       f^CCAt    *  comprehensive  tour  for  those  with 
/  ^      gfC      jCCiw      ^  serious  interest  in  Russia's  diverse 

and  beautiful  masterpieces. 
A  special  group  will  depart  from  New  Yorl<  May  16,  1965  via  Lufthansa 
German  Airlines. 

Itinerary  includes: 

MOSCOW 

LENINGRAD 

TASHKENT 

BUKHARA 

SAMARKAND 

26  days,  total  tour  cost  $1,965.00  per  person. 


EREVAN 
TBILISI 
KIEV 
PRAGUE 
VIENNA 


LUFTHANSA 


GERMAN        AIRL 
LUFTHANSA  GERMAN  AIRLINES,  Dept.  UX522 
410  Park  Avenue,  New  York,  N.  Y.  10022 

Please  send  me  details  on  the  following  tour,  or  tours. 
n   Greece  And  Egypt  Tour  Into  Antiquity 
□    Russian  Art  Treasures  Tour 


ADDRESS- 
CITY 


My  Lufthansa  Travel  Agent  is_ 


it  parts:  the  text,  which  chrono- 
lly  describes  and  discusses  the 
s  aspects  and  techniques  of  war- 
1  the  lands  of  the  Bible,  and  the 
,  which  thoroughly  illustrate  and 
ement  the  preceding  discussions. 
:hronological  framework  around 
the  text  is  based  is  that  of  the  Old 
nent.  Volume  I  covers  the  period 
the  most  ancient  beginnings  in 
I.e.  (the  fortifications  of  Neolithic 
o)  until  the  conquest  of  Canaan 
hua.  Volume  II  continues  from  the 
f  the  Judges  until  the  kingdoms  of 
and  Israel,  and  concludes  with  a 
ehensive  bibliography,  a  subject- 
for  the  plates,  and  the  illustration 
s  for  both  volumes, 
text  is  supplemented  by  numerous 
rawings  in  black  and  white.  The 
ty  of  plates  are  in  color  and  are 
r  of  special  note.  On  the  one  hand, 
re  well  chosen  and  vividly  portray 
litary  tools  and  techniques  of  the 
t  Orient.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
s  not  always  accurate,  but  this  is 
ir  flaw  in  an  otherwise  ambitiously 
ved  and  brilliantly  executed  work. 
lOugh  Yadin  claims  that  this  is 
pioneer  attempt  to  investigate  the 
3  aspects  of  ancient  preclassic  war- 
ictually  it  is  much  more.  In  my 
1,  it  is  the  most  significant  book 


written  to  date  on  biblical  military  arts. 
It  will  long  remain  a  classic  for  the  bib- 
lical scholar,  the  orientalist,  the  military 
historian,  and  all  who  are  interested  in 
the  ancient  military  past  of  man. 

Ala.n  R.  Schulman 
Columbia  University 

Green  Medicine,  by  Margaret  B.  Krieg. 
Rand  McNally,  $5.95;  462  pp.,  illus. 

THERE  is  scarcely  a  person  in  the 
world  who  has  not  used  plants,  plant 
products,  or  their  synthetic  equivalents 
for  therapeutic  purposes.  The  Americans 
seem  to  consume  tranquilizers  (origi- 
nally derived  from  plants)  like  popcorn; 
Europeans  are  antibiotic-happy,  and  the 
Chinese  process  roots  and  herbs.  All  this 
is  in  addition  to  various  plant  derivatives 
such  as  curare,  quinine,  digitalis,  dicu- 
marol,  and  many  other  products  that  are 
used  in  the  treatment  of  specific  diseases. 
The  story  of  the  history,  the  ideas, 
and— above  all— the  men  and  women  who 
are  engaged  in  the  search  for  plants  of 
medicinal  value  should  have  been  told 
many  times,  for  it  is  exciting,  important, 
and  of  vital  interest  to  all  of  us.  Yet 
Margaret  Krieg,  a  professional  writer, 
seems  to  have  been  the  first  to  recognize 
that  there  was  something  worth  telling. 
In  her  preface,  she  details  the  increasing 


interest  in  the  field  and  discusses  the 
reasons  why  she  wrote  this  book. 

It  is  inevitable  that  Green  Medicine 
will  be  compared  to  the  standard  pattern 
for  such  reporting-the  classic  Microbe 
Hunters,  by  Paul  de  Kruif.  I  regret  that 
Green  Medicine  suffers  badly  by  com- 
parison. The  book  is  too  breathy,  too 
cute,  and  too  wide-eyed.  Although  fa- 
miliar with  most  of  the  subject  matter, 
I  became  somewhat  lost  in  trying  to  fol- 
low the  thread  of  her  tale.  It  is  a  pity 
that  the  book  is  not  all  the  good  things 
it  might  have  been,  for  as  De  Kruif  made 
America  aware  of  bacteriology  and  stim- 
ulated many  young  people  to  enter  ca- 
reers in  this  science,  so  Mrs.  Krieg  might 
have  called  attention  to  pharmacognosy 
and  plant  sciences.  She  almost  makes  it, 
but  not  quite. 

Nevertheless,  Green  Medicine  has 
many  good  things  to  recommend  it,  and 
the  book  is  cheerfully  endorsed  for  those 
who  want  an  over-all  view  of  an  impor- 
tant area  of  economic  botany.  It  is  un- 
usually accurate— no  small  praise.  The 
author  has  taken  the  trouble  to  visit  most 
of  the  people  about  whom  she  has  writ- 
ten. Her  examination  of  the  voluminous 
literature,  her  historical  notes,  and  her 
reportage  of  current  research  is  almost 
faultless,  if  uncritical.  She  has  at- 
tempted,  with   considerable   success,  to 


ARCHAEOLOGICAL 

TOUR 

OF  THE 

NEAR  EAST 

This  exciting  tour  into  Antiquity  starts 

on  April  6  and  returns  to  the  United  States  on 

May  3,  J 965,  after  having  visited  Lebanon, 

Syria,  Iran,  Iraq  and  Jordan. 

A  study  of  the  Sumero-A  kkadian  civilization  and 

its  impact  on  the  origins  of  Western  cidture 
will  form  part  of  the  program.  This  unforgettable 

journey  through  time  to  the  wellsprings  of  our 

civilization  will  certainly  be  meaningful  not  only 

to  the  expert  but  also  to  the  amateur  archaeologist. 

Our  lecturer.  Dr.  Cyrus  Gordon,  has  served 

as  an  archaeologist  on  many  expeditions  in 

the  Near  East.  He  participated  in  the  unearthing 

of  the  Royal  Tombs  at  Ur,  in  discovering 

the  mines  of  King  Solomon,  and  deciphering  the 

Tell  al-Amarna  tablets  found  in  Egypt. 

Dr.  Gordon  is  the  author  of  many  books  arid 

articles  on  the  ancient  coimtries  we  are 

visiting.  Among  the  books  are  ADVENTURES 

IN  THE  NEAREST  EAST;  THE  WORLD 

OF  THE  OLD  TESTAMENT,  AND  BEFORE 

THE  BIBLE;  THE  COMMON  BACKGROUND 

OF  GREEK  AND  HEBREW  CIVILIZATION. 

For  many  years  he  has  taught  the  languages, 

history,  and  archaeology  of  Egypt,  Greece, 

and  the  Near  East. 

Our  tour  to  Greece  and  Egypt  last 

spring  was  a  great  success,  but  many  had  to 

be  left  behind  due  to  lack  of  space. 

Please  register  early. 


ARCHAEOLOGICAL  TOUR-I.T.L.T.  3136 


LINDBLAD  TRAVEL,  INC. 

ONE    EAST   53rd   STREET 
NEW   YORK   22,    N.  Y. 


Name   (Mr.   Mrs.   Mi! 

Address 

City 


ORNITHOLOGICAL 

SAFARI 

THROUGH 

EAST  AFRICA 


When  one  thinks  of  Africa  it  is 

usually  in  terms  of  white  hunters,  lions, 

elephants  and  Kilimanjaro.  Few  people 

are  aware  that  while  looking  at  Rhino  they  can 

also  watch  the  fascinating  Red-billed 

Oxpecker,  without  whom  the  Rhitw's  life  would 

be  a  misery,  or  study  the  friendly  relationship 

between  the  elephant  and  the  egret. 

Nowhere  in  the  world  is  there  a  greater,  more 

accessible  selection  of 

native  species  of  birds  than  in  Kenya. 

In  Kenya,  there  are  1033  full  species  ranging 

from  the  West  African  forest  birds  in  the  Kakamega 

Forest  to  the  marine  species  on  the  shores 

of  the  Indian  Ocean.  Lake  Nakuru,  whose  several 

millions  of  flamingos  may  be  seen,  has  been 

described  by  Roger  Tory  Peterson,  American 

Ornithologist,  as  the  "most  fabulous  bird 

spectacle  in  the  world." 

You  are  invited  to  join  a  special  tour  of 

"Bird  Watchers",  leaving  New  York  for 

Kenya  on  February  17 ,  1965. 

The  internationally  renowned  ornithologist, 

John  G.  Williams  of  the  Coryndon  Museum  in 

Nairobi,  will  act  as  advisor  to  the  expedition. 

Mr.  Williams  led  the  Queeny  Expedition  of 

the  American  Museum  of  Natural  History  in  1950, 

the  Chicago  Natural  History  Expedition  in  1954, 

the  British- American  Expedition  to  Angola  in 

1957,  the  Carnegie  Expedition  in  1958,  and  the 

Los  Angeles  Museum  Expedition  in  1963. 

The  tour  will  include  visits  to  Lake  Magadi, 

Amboseli  Game  Reserve,  the  Treetops, 

Lakes  Naivasha,  Nakuru,  Baringo  and  Hannington, 

Kakamega  Forest,  and  Sirimon  Track  on 

Mount  Kenya — among  other  places. 

This  is  an  opportunity  for  educational  and 

meaningful  travel  offered  by  Lindblad 

Travel  of  New  York. 


ORNITHOLOGICAL  TOUR-I.T.L.T.   3131 


LINDBLAD  TRAVEL,  INC. 

ONE    EAST    53rd   STREET 
NEW   YORK  22,    N.  Y. 


I 


Name   (Mr.    Mrs.    Miss)_ 

Address 

City 


[HE  LIVING 
riLDERNESS 


AS  SEEN   BY 

Rutherford  G. 
Montgomery 


lAGINE  being  able  to  spend 
lost  of  your  life  in  the  wilderness 
IS  of  the  United  States— the  for- 
,  deserts  and  mountains— observ- 
and  studying  the  wildlife  that 
'.  abounds  in  our  country.  That  is 
rare  privilege  Rutherford  Mont- 
lery  has  bad.  In  this  fascinating 
k  he  tells  all  about  it. 

e,  in  THE  LIVING  WILDER- 
3S,  is  a  personal  aequaintance- 
)  with  wild  animals  as  they  live 
their  lives  in  their  native  babi- 
with  a  detailed,  first-hand  de- 
ption  of  their  manner  of  life, 
r  habits,  their  individual  traits, 
ngly  related  by  a  peerless  story- 
er. 

'n  the  basis  of  bis  own  experi- 
es,  the  author  tells  you  where  to 
s  for  wild  animals,  large  and 
11,  from  black  bears  and  cougars 
accoons  and  pocket  mice;  how 
observe  them  and  learn  their 
s,  discover  their  individual  traits 
respect  their  way  of  life. 

HE   LIVING   WILDERNESS, 

ne-of-its-kind  volume  of  aiii- 
I  lore,  is  illustrated  with  pencil 
tches  by  the  wildlife  artist, 
npbell  Grant,  and  32  animal 
itographs.  Index.  $8.50 


QUIL 

:ESS 

)OK 


3DD,  MEAD  &  COMPANY 

:  Park  Ave  S.,  New  York  10016 


erect  a  solid  foundation  for  an  intelligent 
reading  of  the  chemotherapeutic  news 
that  is  published  almost  daily  in  news- 
papers and  popular  magazines.  Glimpses 
of  the  international  politics,  industrial 
co-operations  and  lacks  thereof,  and  of 
the  labor  that  forms  the  basis  for  dis- 
covery are  all  most  fascinating. 

Richard  M.  Klein 
A'.  Y.  Botanical  Garden 

Photographing  Nature,  by  David  Lin- 
ton. The  Natural  History  Press,  $1.95; 
262  pp.,  illus. 

Mr.  LINTON  is  a  well-known  magazine 
and  scientific  photographer,  and 
has  a  great  deal  of  experience  in  the  field 
he  is  writing  about.  Unfortunately,  the 
subtitle  of  this  paperback— ^4  handbook 
for  the  beginner  and  the  expert— is  a 
misnomer,  as  the  book  is  too  complex  for 
the  beginner  and  too  elementary  for  the 
expert.  In  the  first  half  of  the  book  the 
beginner  will  be  faced  with  complicated 
concepts  and  an  excess  of  verbiage  that 
will  only  further  confuse  him;  the  expert 
will  learn  nothing  that  is  not  already  a 
part  of  his  craft. 

In  the  second  half  of  his  book,  Mr. 
Linton  has  done  a  better  writing  job,  but 
he  skips  and  skims  over  vast  scientific 
areas  in  a  very  unscientific  way,  leaving 
the  beginner  hopelessly  confused,  and 
the  expert  a  little  frustrated  with  bits 
and  pieces  of  hints  that  are  not  suffi- 
ciently explained. 

This  reviewer  feels  that  better  editing 
on  the  part  of  the  publisher  would  have 
made  better  use  of  the  valuable  material 
that  Mr.  Linton  has  to  offer. 

Jack  Manning 
The  New  York  Times 

Byzantine  Aesthetics,  by  Gervase  Ma- 
thew.  The  Viking  Press,  $6.50;  189  pp. 

Russian  ballet,  suggests  the  author, 
is  one  of  the  best  introductions  to 
Byzantine  art,  but.  in  fact,  one  of  the 
best  introductions  is  the  book  under  re- 
view. No  one  interested  in  Byzantine  civi- 
lization can  afford  to  neglect  this  learned, 
sensitive,  and  illuminating  commentary. 
Father  Mathew  reviews  works  of  art  in 
the  light  of  Byzantine  texts,  expounds 
the  aesthetic  theories  disclosed  by  the 
literature,  and  provides  insight  into  nu- 
merous aspects  of  the  Byzantine  world: 
personalities,  situations,  and  places.  Due 
emphasis  is  given  to  the  part  played  by 
the  Byzantine  emperors,  to  the  impor- 
tance of  liturgy— religious  and  lay— and 
to  the  contribution  of  the  extraordinary 
civil  service  of  the  times.  "It  seems." 
states  the  author,  "to  have  possessed 
some  of  the  close-knit  texture  of  a  good 
Late  Victorian  club."  By  the  sixth  cen- 
tury, however,  John  Lydus,  a  Byzantine 
civil  servant  of  the  period,  wrote  that 
formerly  it  was  the  custom  "to  employ 


New35mm 
underwater  camera 
requires  no  housing 

Water-proof,  corrosion-resistant, 
pressure-proofed  to  depths  of  160  feet, 
the  new,  amphibious  Nikonos  is 
virtually  indestructable. 
And  it  is  unusually  trim  and  compact  — 
thoughtfully  designed  for  greatest  ease 
and  speed  in  handling.  Large,  knurled 
knobs  are  provided  for  setting  exposure. 
All  markings  are  large  and  legible.  There 
is  none  of  the  bulk  and  unwieldiness 
experienced  with  underwater  housings. 
Furthermore  the  Nikonos  is  as  much 
at  home  in  fair  and  inclement  weather 
as  under  water.  It  is  affected  by  neither 
rain,  snow,  sleet,  mud  nor  dust.  And  it  is 
impervious  to  heat  and  cold,  mildew  and 
fungus.  Washing  it  under  a  tap  makes 
it  as  good  as  new. 

The  Nikonos  uses  standard  35mm  film; 
accepts  flash,  filters,  and  other 
accessories;  and  it  is  equipped  with  an 
interchangeable  35mm  f2.5  Nikkor  lens. 
Price  is  only  $169.50.  For  complete 
details,  write  to  Dept.  NH-10. 

Nikon  Inc.  ill  Fifth  Ave.  N. Y.  3 ,  N.Y. 

Subsidiary  of  Ehrenreich  Photo-Optical  Industries,  Inc. 
In  Canada :  Anglophoto  Ltd.,  Montreal  9,  P.Q. 

NIKONOS 

BY  NIKON 


II 


to 
admiring  comments  on  your 
perspicacity  when  you  shop 


tkey/HuSeu^kcp 


only  the  finest  paper  in  official  business 
while  the  clerks  were  as  resplendent  as 
the  paper  they  wrote  on.  But  now  both 
are  gone  and  they  exact  a  most  mean  and 
miserable  fee  and  issue  leaves  of  grass 
instead  of  leaves  of  paper,  with  cheap 
writing  that  smells  of  poverty." 

The  main  factors  in  Byzantine  aesthet- 
ics were  a  recurrent  taste  for  classical 
reminiscence,  an  essentially  mathemati- 
cal approach  to  beauty,  an  absorbed  in- 
terest in  optics— experiments  in  light, 
color,  and  space— and,  finally,  a  belief  in 
the  existence  of  an  invisible  world  of 
which  the  material  is  the  shadow.  "This 
then,"  wrote  Plotinus  in  the  third  cen- 
tury A.D.,  "is  how  the  material  becomes 
beautiful— by  communicating  in  the 
thought  that  flows  from  the  Divine." 
Father  Mathew  points  out  that  there  is 
little  literary  evidence  that  Plotinus' 
writings,  titled  Enneads,  were  known  to 
the  medieval  Greeks,  but  the  altering  art 
forms  of  the  late  third  century  coincided 
with  a  new  Greek  theory  of  aesthetics 
that  provides  an  explanation  for  much 
of  Byzantine  art.  The  medieval  Greeks— 
they  called  themselves  Romans— had  a 
zest  for  multiple  and  hidden  meanings, 
for  harmony  of  color  and  proportion,  and 
for  tactile  sensations  caused  by  rich  ma- 
terials—gold, silver,  enamel,  marble, 
semiprecious  stones,  ivoi'y,  and  silk.  In- 


deed, the  patterns  on  some  of  the  fi: 
Byzantine  silks  could  only  be  seen  w 
the  wearer  moved.  They  liked  stra 
machines:  fountains  that  sang  as  I 
played,  birds  of  gold  screeching 
beating  their  wings,  automatic  toys  o: 
kinds,  and  the  secret  of  Greek  fire 
well  kept.  All  this  is  a  far  cry  from 
strictures  of  the  nineteenth  cent 
which  knew  Byzantine  art  only  in  te 
of  late  Greek  and  Russian  icons 
frescoes;  little  more  than  fifty  years 
one  of  the  most  complex,  subtle,  Ic 
and  beautiful  of  all  artistic  styles 
partially  dismissed  as  "the  narrow 
ficiency  of  perpetual  iteration."  A 
reading  Father  Mathew's  enchan 
book  such  strictures  become  obsole 
John  Beckw 
Fogg  Art  Museum,  Hat 

People  of  Eight  Seasons,  by  B 
Manker.  The  Viking  Press,  $20.00;] 
pp.,  illus. 

Interest  in  the  life  and  habits  of 
Lapps  began  as  far  back  as 
Roman  historian  Tacitus  and  contir 
today.  More  than  thirty  thousand 
these  self-sufficient  people,  Europe's 
nomads,  still  follow  their  reindeer  li( 
north  of  the  Arctic  Circle  and  still 
skis,  as  they  have  for  thousands  of  ye 


Be  Tsukiko's  guest  on  your 

Japan  Air  Lines  flight  for  the  I 

"Gardens  around  the  world  toui 

We  are  happy  to  announce  that  JAL  has  been  chosen  for  the  fourth  consec^ 

year  as  the  principal  carrier  for  this  50-day  tour,  led  by  Mr.  and  Mrs.  Fredric  Lei 

The  tour  departs  New  York  March  15,  1965  and  returns  May  3. 

You  will  see  Athens,  cradle  of  Western  civilization.  Cairo,  Luxor  and  its  Vaiie; 

the  Kings.  Kenya,  East  Africa's  wild  life  and  flowers.  Stay  at  the  Mt.  Kenya  Si 

Club  and  Treetcps.  Be  palace  guests  of  Indian  maharaias.  Visit  Princess  Chumbh 

palace  gardens  in  Bangkok.  Shop  in  the  most  exciting  market-place— Hong  Kong.  \ 

Taiwan's  mountain  grandeur  and  stay  in  quaint  lapanese  inns.  Revel  in  Hawaii's  beaul 

gardens. 

The  tour  cost  with  deluxe  accommodations  throughout  is  $4,000  and   is  limitec 
membership. 


For  free  information,  clip  this  coupon  and  send  tO: 

JAPAN  AIR  LINES  CO.,  LTD. 

"Gardens  Round  the  World  Tour"   Dept. 
620  Fifth  Avenue 
New  York,  N.  Y.  10020 

NAME 


J 


Toward  a  long 
view  of  health 

OUR  MOST 

NTERESTING 

DISEASES 

How  do  our  living  habits  and 
our  heredity  relate  to  our 
major  diseases  today?  What 
lew  developments  have  been 
evolved  to  explore  and  fight 
:hem?  A  leading  authority  has 
startling  things  to  say  on 
;hese  vital  questions,  of  in- 
erest  to  layman  and  scientist 
ilike. 

HAROLD 
BURN,  M.D. 

Author  of 
Drugs,  Medicines  and  Man 

$4.50  at  all  bookstores 

SCRIBNERS 


i.  happily  civilized  couple, 
do  consider  "roadless  area" 
lost  poetic  phrase  on  any  map, 
lore  the  world's  wild  Edens, 

afoot  and  by  canoe, 
^ere  are  their  adventures 

on  three  continents, 
;counted  with  rare  beauty 
and  humor. 


3y  PAUL  BROOKS 

tVif/i  67  pen-and-ink  sketches  by 

the  author,  and  invaluable 

food  and  equipment  lists 

$4.95  •  now  at  better  bookstores 

:fRED'A-KNOPF,  Publisher 


>^ 


The  text  of  this  beautifully  designed 
book  by  Ernst  Manker.  Senior  Curator 
of  the  Nordiska  Museet.  Stockholm,  de- 
tails the  Lapps'  adaptation  of  their  lives 
to  migration  patterns  of  reindeer,  on 
which  they  depend.  The  author  outlines 
the  mystery  of  their  origin  and  describes 
their  land  and  its  natural  resources. 
Then,  using  one  present-day  family  as  an 
example,  he  follows  the  complex  series 
of  marches  and  countermarches  that 
make  up  the  yearly  cycle— a  year  of  eight 
seasons.  Within  the  framework  of  this 
simple  life,  the  author  finds  there  is  room 
for  adventure,  beauty,  and  philosophy. 

Nature  drawings  and  illustrations  by 
Ake  Gustavsson  enhance  the  clarity  and 
charm  of  the  text.  Large  color  photo- 
graphs show  details  of  the  costumes,  and 
there  are  excellent  sketches  of  camp  life 
and  the  industries  of  the  people.  It  is 
rare  to  find  a  book  as  authoritative  and 
at  the  same  time  as  beautiful  as  People 
of  Eight  Seasons. 

Philip  C.  Gifford 
The  American  Museum 

Pueblo  Gods  and  Myths,  by  Hamilton 
A.  Tyler.  University  of  Oklahoma  Press, 
$5.95;  313  pp.  Book  of  the  Hopi.  by 
Frank  Waters.  The  Viking  Press,  SI 0.00 ; 
347  pp.,  illus.  The  Sioux,  by  Royal  B. 
Hassrick.  University  of  Oklahoma  Press, 
$5.95;  337  pp.,  illus. 

ONLY  the  most  determined  readers, 
or  those  with  considerable  prior 
knowledge,  will  be  able  to  learn  much 
about  Pueblo  religion  from  Hamilton  A. 
Tyler's  Pueblo  Gods  and  Myths.  This  is 
not  because  of  a  lack  of  information,  for 
the  author  has  obviously  done  consider- 
able library  research  and  presents  a 
great  deal  of  data.  The  trouble  is  that 
in  writing  about  all  the  Pueblo  tribes. 
Tyler  must  face  the  problem  of  differ- 
ences among  the  Pueblos.  When  he 
ignores  these  differences,  the  reader  does 
not  know  for  which  Pueblo  the  informa- 
tion is  valid,  and  when  he  deals  with 
them,  the  discussion  of  the  different 
names  and  attributes  of  the  deities  in  the 
various  Pueblos  is  overwhelming.  This 
confusion  is  compounded  by  frequent 
allusions  to  other  religions  (principally 
ancient  Greek ) .  which  do  not  help  the 
reader  understand  Pueblo  Indian  reli- 
gion. Consequently,  Tyler  fails  to  pre- 
sent a  coherent  picture  of  the  religion 
either  of  a  single  Pueblo  tribe  or  of  all 
the  Pueblos. 

Book  of  the  Hopi,  by  Frank  Waters, 
deals  with  the  religion  and  history  of 
this  tribe  (one  of  the  Pueblos)  since  the 
initial  Spanish  contact  in  1540.  The  bulk 
of  the  book  discusses  religion  and  is 
based  upon  interviews  with  Hopi  inform- 
ants tape  recorded  by  the  author  over 
a  period  of  three  years,  translated  by  a 
Hopi,  and  edited  and  rearranged  into 
a  format  resembling  the  Bible.  Waters 


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13 


tends  to  take  Hopi  myths  and  the  testi- 
mony of  his  informants  at  their  face 
value  when  applying  them  to  such  prob- 
lems as  the  origin  of  the  Hopi.  Thus, 
he  has  them  coming  from  Asia  to  North 
America  by  way  of  the  Pacific-hopping 
from  island  to  island  and  occasionally 
making  use  of  drifting  continents.  Once 
here,  they  wander  all  over  the  conti- 
nent, helping  to  build  the  civilizations 
of  Mesoamerica  and  the  great  Serpent 
Mound  in  Ohio  before  finally  settling  in 
their  present  location.  This  is  nonsense, 
but  not  much  worse  than  some  of  Waters' 
interpretations  of  later  historical  events. 
His  description  and  interpretation  of  the 
conquest  of  the  West  is  a  mixture  of 
righteousness  and  chauvinism.  The  book 
is  beautifully  illustrated  and  contains 
some  excellent  photographs,  but  in  view 
of  the  text,  one  can  only  regret  the  time 
and  money  the  publishers  have  devoted 
to  this  volume. 

Hassrick's  The  Sioux  is  a  straightfor- 
ward ethnography  of  the  Teton  Dakota. 
The  Dakota,  commonly  called  the  Sioux, 
are  typical  warriors  and  buffalo  hunters 
of  the  Great  Plains.  Of  all  the  American 
Indians,  the  Indians  of  the  Plains  are 
best  known  to  Americans  because  of 
their  frequent  appearances  in  motion 
pictures,  and  of  the  Plains  Indians,  the 
Sioux   are  probably  most  renowned   in 


story  and  drama.  Yet.  until  now,  there  has 
not  been  a  good  popular  ethnography 
of  any  of  the  Dakota  groups.  Hassrick 
has  admirably  filled  this  need  for  the 
Teton  Dakota.  He  knows  his  people  well 
and  has  written  a  book  that  is  a  must 
for  anyone  interested  in  the  Sioux  or  in 
the  Plains  Indians  in  general. 

Stanley  A.  Freed 
The  American.  Museum 

The  Amazing  World  of  I^'sects.  by 
Arend  T.  Bandsma  and  Robin  T.  Brandt. 
The  MacmiUan  Co.,  $9.95;  46  pp.,  illus. 

THIS  is  another  insect  picture  book, 
but  one  with  a  major  advantage.  The 
photographs  are  outstanding— in  fact,  I 
have  never  seen  better  ones  and  do  not 
expect  to  for  a  long  while.  Many  of  them, 
although  greatly  magnified,  show  almost 
incredible  sharpness  and  depth.  While 
some  are  posed  (with  pretty  flowers) 
there  is  no  evidence  of  the  use  of  dead 
or  anesthetized  specimens,  a  technique 
that,  to  me  at  least,  verges  on  faking. 

The  text  falls  far  short  of  the  illustra- 
tions, being  badly  lacking  in  organiza- 
tion. Some  sound  generalizations  about 
insects  are  given,  and  many  interesting 
facts  are  related  about  the  species  and 
groups  pictured.  However,  the  insects 
—all   from   Europe,   Australia,   or   New 


Zealand— are  indiscriminately  mixed 
gether,  often  with  no  clue  as  to  w 
they  came  from.  Not  all  are  ideni 
as  to  family,  which  would  have  h( 
readers  in  other  lands.  Some  highly 
togenic  groups  receive  disproportio 
representation,  while  others,  promi 
and  worldwide,  are  omitted.  Alth( 
many  of  the  specimens  were  identifie 
museum  entomologists,  there  are  er: 
such  as  identifying  a  common  Euro] 
bee  ( Anthidium)  as  a  wasp,  and  in 
eral  confusing  ichneumon  and  pars 
wasps,  flies  and  social  wasps.  De 
such  weaknesses  in  the  text,  howl 
the  magnificently  reproduced  pi 
graphs  are  a  joy. 

Alexander  B.  Ki 
The  American  Mm 


NOTE:  In  past  years,  the  Decemt 
sue  of  this  magazine  has  carried  a  s] 
review  section  surveying  science 
for  young  people.  This  year,  lioweve 
survey  will  appear  in  November.  Th 
cision  to  change  the  date  was  basea 
the  large  number  of  requests  we  havl 
ceived  from  teachers  and  librarians,  v 
point  out  that  their  purchasing  perioi 
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I  MIGRATION 

aid  R.  Griffin.  A  one-ounce  sand- 
•akes  an  annual  trip  of  4800  miles, 
y-hatched  plovers  fly  their  8000 
>utes  without  parental  guidance. 
y  no  facet  of  nature  has  baffled 
!ople  than  the  incredible  migration 
s.  In  this  authoritative  and  con- 
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EAN  CULTURE  HISTORY 

dell  C.  Bennett  and  Junius  B.  Bird. 
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a  to  the  high  civilization  of  the 
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most  fascinating  segments  of  the 
of  man. 
ardbound,  $5.00;  paperback,  $1.95 

ANS  OF  THE  PLAINS 

ert  H.  Lowie;  illustrated  with  80 
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the  Cheyenne,  Sioux,  Crow,  and 
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islands  that  will  be  read  with  avid  inter- 
est by  the  general  reader  and  with  knowing 
interest  by  the  specialist."— Boston  Globe. 
With  photographs,  charts,  glossary,  iden- 
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for  the  rockhound  on  locating  rocks  and 
minerals  in  the  area. 

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7)  AFRICA  AND  AFRICANS 

by  Paul  Bohannan.  "May  well  be  the  best 
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9)  INVITATION  TO  ANTHROPOLOGY 

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lunar  observation  to  date  and  looks  to  a 
future  lunar  colony. 

Hardbound.  $3.50;  paperback,  95(! 

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Illustrated. 

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13)  INDIANS  OF  THE 
NORTHWEST  COAST 

by  Philip  Drucker;  illustrated  with  77  pho- 
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■■FREE  EXAMINATION  COUPONIB 

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THE  NATURAL  HISTORY  PRESS 

Dept.  4-NH-lO 
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Sciences  Meet  ii 


P^^^ 


Anci 


len 


Hasanl 


I 


^A|j^        By  R.  H.  Dyson,  Jr. 


Aerial  view  oI  TVIimiliit:!)  Citadel 
mound  at  Hasanlu  shows  'Hh-century 
B.C.  excavation.  Ne\v  digs,  at  upper 
right,  have  reached  12th-century  level. 


i6 


it  fire  to  their  houses  which 
lilt  with  art;  I  made  the  smoke 
im  them,  like  a  hurricane,  I 
cover  the  face  of  the  sky.  .  .  . 

Wusasir  the  home  of  Haldia,  I 
master  in  the  palace,  residence 
ia,  I  lived  as  ruler. 

rooms]  filled  full,  which  over- 
with  heaped  up  treasures,  I 
e  seals  of  its  reserves : 

alents  18  minas  of  gold,  167 
2Y2  minas  of  silver,  pure 
lead,  carnelian,  lapis  lazuli  .  .  . 
ntities  of  precious  stones, 

y  staffs  of  ivory,  of  ebony,  of 
3c?]  with  [their]  pommels  set 
d  and  silver, 

isins  of  bronze,  [large  vessels] 
ze,  vessels  for  washing  of 
.  .  bronze  cauldrons,  pots  of 

nulticolored  robes  and  tunics 
of  blue  ivool  and  ivool  to  be 
f  the  scarlet  color  of  the  coun- 
Jrartu  and  Kilhu.  .  .  ." 


THUS  DID  Sargon  II,  the  great  mili- 
tary leader  of  the  Assyrians  in  the 
eighth  century  B.C., boast  of  his  success 
in  a  campaign  in  northwestern  Iran  in 
which  he  blunted  the  power  of  Urartu 
by  capturing  the  famous  temple  of 
Musasir  with  all  of  its  treasure.  The  list 
of  booty  shows  us  the  richness  of  the 
material  culture  of  the  times  and  indi- 
cates a  prime  incentive  for  such  a  cam- 
paign. The  ninth  century  had  also  been 
a  time  of  much  military  activity.  In  the 
reign  of  Shalmaneser  III  (858-824 
B.C.)  the  Assyrians  first  ventured  east 
into  the  Zagros  Mountains  and  the 
high  plateau  of  Iran.  A  visual  record 
of  some  of  these  campaigns  is  still  pre- 
served on  the  bronze  gates  from  Bala- 
wat,  now  in  the  British  Museum. 

In  view  of  the  many  towns  and  vil- 
lages reported  as  having  been  left  in 
smoking  ruins  by  the  Assyrians,  it  is 
not  surprising  that  many  abandoned 
city  mounds  dot  the  landscape  in  this 
part  of  Iran.  One  of  these,  Hasanlu,  lies 
a  few  miles  south  of  Urmia,  a  salt  lake 
in  a  rich  valley-plain  known  today  as 
Solduz.  In  ancient  times  Solduz  lay  on 
the  border  of  the  country  of  Mannai, 
which  occupied  the  area  to  the  south 
and  east.  Control  of  Mannai  was 
sought  by  both  Assyrians  and  Urar- 
tians.  Excavations  at  Hasanlu  during 
the  past  seven  years  have  uncovered 
the  charred  remains  of  a  great  citadel 
filled  with  weapons,  jewelry,  pottery, 
and  the  burned  remains  of  inhabitants 
trapped  under  wooden  columns  and 
brick  walls— victims  of  some  sudden 
attack  in  the  late  ninth  century  B.C. 
Thus  today,  2,700  years  later,  pre- 
served through  the  twin  accidents  of 
charring  and  unexpected  burial  be- 
neath collapsed  buildings,  a  mass  of 
exciting  evidence  on  the  world  of  the 
ninth  century  is  coming  to  light.  Under 
the  combined  scrutiny  of  archeology 
and  several  of  the  disciplines  in  the 
biological  and  physical  sciences,  our 
knowledge  of  this  world  is  gradually 
expanding. 

Consider,  for  example,  bits  of  wood 
found  in  the  form  of  charcoal  or  pre- 
served by  contact  with  oxidized  objects 
of  bronze  or  iron.  Microscopic  exam- 
ination of  the  cell  structure  in  these 
small  fragments  often  makes  it  possible 
to  identify  the  species  of  tree   from 


Copper  relief  on  Balawat  gates  from 
Iraq-Iran  border  shows  Assyrians  in  a 
battle  with  Urartians.  Battle  gear  is 
like  that  found  on  Hasanlu  artifacts. 


which  they  came.  Such  identifications 
are  of  interest,  because  the  present 
landscape  in  Solduz  is  treeless  except 
for  poplars  and  willows  planted  along 
irrigation  canals  or  growing  along  the 
Qadar  River,  and  small  orchards  of 
fruit  trees  planted  near  houses.  The 
only  trees  that  now-  grow^  here  naturally 
are  high  up  on  the  slopes  of  the  Zagros 
Mountains  and  represent  a  remnant 
mixed-oak  forest.  In  the  ninth  century 
B.C.,  a  greater  variety  of  woods  appears 
to  have  been  available  locally  and  trees 
were  often  mature  w  hen  cut.  Poplar,  as 
at  the  present  time  in  Solduz,  was  the 
favorite  wood  for  building,  and  was 
used  for  rafters,  door  frames,  and 
columns  in  the  large  buildings  that  we 
have  excavated.  In  some  instances  the 
columns  stood  at  least  twenty  feet  high, 
made  from  tree  trunks  trimmed  down 
to  a  diameter  of  about  two  feet. 

kR.  Henry  Michael  of  the  Center 
'for  Applied  Science  in  Archaeol- 
ogy at  the  University  Museum  in  Phila- 
delphia cut  and  polished  a  fragment  of 
this  w  ood  and  found  an  average  yearly 
growth  of  about  4.4  mm.  The  regular- 
ity of  the  growth  pattern  indicates  that 
the  tree  received  an  adequate  and 
steady  supply  of  water.  On  the  basis  of 
observable  ring  patterns  from  modern 
poplars  we  may  estimate  that  the  col- 
umns would  have  been  made  from 
mature  trees  at  least  fifty  years  old. 
Probably  they  grew  by  the  river  or  a 
canal  in  the  manner  of  modern  pop- 
lars. Poplar,  a  soft  wood  used  in  the 
United  States  today  primarily  for 
paper  pulp,  was  also  used  at  Hasanlu 
in  the  manufacture  of  small  objects 
such  as  buttons,  bosses,  and  cores  for 
objects  of  hammered  copper.  Another 
important  wood  was  elm,  a  hardwood 
used  for  beams  in  one  of  the  main 
buildings  and  for  the  shafts  of  iron- 
tipped  spears  and  arrows.  Still  another 
piece  of  hardwood,  identified  as  the 
handle  of  a  bronze  mace,  was  boxwood 
( Buxus  sempervirens) ,  which  was  once 
common  in  Asia  Minor,  but  is  now 
scarce.  Objects  of  boxwood  are  men- 
tioned frequently  in  lists  of  the  plunder 
carried  off  from  Musasir  by  Sargon. 
The  rest  of  the  wood  identifications, 
all  of  which  were  provided  through  B. 
Francis  Kukachka  of  the  United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture  Forest 
Service  Laboratory  in  Madison,  Wis- 
consin, include  cypress,  hawthorn, 
and  apple  or  pear.  Fragments  of  these 
woods  were  all  from  small  objects.  The 
hawthorn  was  from  a  small  bowl,  and 


17 


Part  of  a  drinking  horn  of  hammered 
copper,  this  horse  head  was  found  in 


the  ruins  of  a  great  pillared  hall  that 
collapsed   during   sacking   of  Hasanlu. 


Fragments  from  ivory  plaque,  at  top, 
show  diamond-eyed  visages  of  Hasanlu 
citizens  of  9th  century  B.C.  At  center 


are  pieces  of  woven  fabric,  and  at  the 
bottom  are  buttons  cast  from  antimony, 
probably  Transcaucasian  importations. 


the  apple  or  pear  wood  formec 
handle  of  a  bronze  mace.  Indin 
of  course,  we  thus  learn  that  appl 
pears  were  available  food. 

BESIDES  fragments  of  wood,  nu 
ous    plant    remains    have 
found  among  the  charred  ruins, 
agricultural   economy  they   refle 
very  similar  to  that  already  know 
the  Assyrians.  The  major  crops 
six-rowed    hulled    barley     (Hon 
polystichum] ,  a  glume  wheat    (j 
cum    dicoccum,    or    emmer),    ai 
naked   wheat    I T .   vulgare,   or   b 
wheat ) .  The  six-rowed  barley  h 
long  archeological  history  in  the  . 
East,   beginning   about   4000   B.i 
probably    originated    from    the 
rowed  barley  grown  at  Jarmo  in  m 
ern  Iraq  about  6500  B.C.  Wheat 
also  one  of  the  original  domestic 
plants,  and  emmer  has  been  comm 
associated  with  early  village  fan 
from    western    Asia   to    Scandin; 
These  cereal  crops  were  grown  in  f 
prepared  with  iron  hoes  or  wo( 
plows  and  were  harvested  with 
sickles.  Tools  of  these  types  have  ] 
found  at  Hasanlu.  Once  the  grain 
harvested,  the  usual  procedure  wi 
thresh  it  by  spreading  it  on  cle, 
land  and  trampling  it  by  driving  c 
or  donkeys  around  on  it  in  cir 
Then  it  was  winnowed  by  tossin 
into  the  air    (probably  with  woe 
forks,    although    three-pronged 
pitchforks  were  also  known ) .  G 
flour  for  bread  was  ground  on  1; 
stone  querns,  and  the  bread  was  ba 
in  domed  clay  ovens.  Beer  may  } 
been  brewed,  as  it  was  by  the  Ass 
ans,  for  large  vats  more  than  hal 
tall  as  a  man  have  been  found  ass 
ated  with  large  pottery  funnels.  I 
possible,  however,  that  these  vats  1 
wine,  as  remains  of  crushed  gr£ 
(Vitis  vinijera)  also  have  been  foi 
Certainly,     sun-dried    raisins    wc 
have  supplemented  the  diet.  Even 
day  grapes  form  a  large  crop  in 
valley    in    late    summer.    Among 
other  plants  identified  by  the  fam 
Danish   paleobotanist   Hans   Helb 
were    millet     {Panicum    miliaceui 
chickpea  (Cicer  arietinum) ,  figs  ( 
cus  caricci) ,  and  quince  (Cydonia 
longa).  Millet  was  grown  through 
the  Near  East,  having  been  used 
predynastic   Egypt,   and  in   Iraq  i 
Bronze  Age  Iran ;  chickpeas,  one  of 
most   nutritious    legumes    grown 
human  consumption,  were  cultiva 
as  early  as  2500  B.C.  in  Palestine  ; 


BLACK  SEA 


CAUCASUS  MOUNTAINS 
A 


MEDITERRANEAN   SEA 


X 

o 


ISRAELITES  /^ 


SIDON 
•TYRE 

-^    A 


RED 

SEA 


■B  TRADE  ROUTES 
▲  ANTIMONY 
■   IRON 
A  GOLD 
D  COPPER 
4  SILVER 

•  LEAD 

•  TIN 

0  VARIOUS  SHELLS 


PERSEPOLIS 


cia.  The  figs,  which  were  found 
ng  on  a  string  or  a  straw,  probably 
3  imported  from  Assyria,  where 

were  grown  in  the  gardens  of 
irsabad  and  elsewhere.  The  custom 
Tinging  figs  is  very  old;  they  have 
1  found  in  that  condition  at  Tarsus 
1  the  Middle  Bronze  Age  (1900- 
3  B.C.)  •  The  prehistoric  occurrence 
uince  at  Hasanlu  seems  to  be  the 

reported.  In  view  of  the  close 
tical  and  cultural  connections  be- 
in  Hasanlu  and  Assyria,  as  shown 
leologically  and  indicated  histor- 
y  (although  we  do  not  know 
anlu's  ancient  name) ,  we  may  also 
ulate  that  in  addition  to  these 
ts,  the  gardens  of  Hasanlu— like 
e  of  ninth-century  Assyria— may 

have  contained  such  herbs  as 
t,  basil,  thyme,  and  fennel,  as  well 
arlic,  onions,  leeks,  lentils,  beets, 
lettuce.  All  of  these  plants  grow 
he  area  today,  although  none  of 
1  has  been  preserved  from  the 
h  century.  A  fruit  pit  and  wood 
ments  show  that  two  or  more  trees 
1  the  apple,  pear,  apricot,  plum, 
each  group  were  being  grown,  al- 
igh  we  cannot  at  the  moment 
ify  which.  They  are  all  cultivated 


throughout  the  general  region  today. 
Like  the  plants,  the  animal  bones  re- 
covered from  some  of  the  excavations 
show  that  the  local  domestic  animals 
were  similar  to  those  of  the  nearby 
Assyrians.  The  identifications  of  do- 
mestic and  wild  animals  must  be  made 
by  comparing  each  bone  with  those  of 
known  animals  until  they  can  be 
matched.  This  is  the  work  of  zoologists 
who  specialize  in  the  study  of  the  early 
stages  of  still-living  species.  Dr. 
Charles  A.  Reed  of  Yale  University, 
one  of  the  investigators  of  the  subject 
in  the  Near  East,  has  undertaken  the 
task  of  making  the  final  identifications 
of  some  of  the  Hasanlu  bones.  As 
might  be  expected,  the  major  domestic 
animals  are  present— cattle,  sheep, 
goat,  and  horse.  Among  the  local 
fauna  was  boar,  as  indicated  by  the 
tusks  that  have  been  found.  These  ani- 
mals are  still  hunted  in  the  area,  and 
in  winter  come  down  from  the  hills  to 
forage  in  the  fields. 

A  NIMAL  bone  was  used  in  the  manu- 
_/~\_facture  of  small  artifacts  such  as 
buttons  or  tiny  arrowheads  for  hunting 
birds  or  small  game.  Among  other 
bone  objects,  the  most  common  are 


tall,  rectangular  containers  made  from 
long  bones  and  decorated  with  incised 
concentric  circles.  Sometimes  they  are 
equipped  with  four  tiny  feet  on  which 
they  stand  upright.  Unique  among  the 
containers  is  one  carved  on  four  sides 
in  low  relief  with  representations  of 
animals  and  men.  The  latter  are  shown 
drinking— an  activity  that  the  local  in- 
habitants obviously  enjoyed,  to  judge 
by  the  numerous  drinking  vessels 
found.  One  of  these  was  in  the  form  of 
a  sensitively  fashioned  horse  head  of 
hammered  copper.  Among  the  small 
containers  of  bone  and  bronze,  some 
held  a  powdery  gray  substance  that 
was  analyzed  spectroscopically  by  the 
University  Museum  chemist,  Eric 
Parkinson.  In  each  case  the  major  ele- 
ment was  lead.  In  early  historic  times 
in  the  Near  East,  galena,  a  form  of 
lead,  was  used  as  an  eye  paint,  to  ward 
off  disease,  and  for  religious  reasons. 
Powdered  antimony  was  used  in  the 
same  way.  The  material  was  ground  up 
on  a  small  palette  and  mixed  with 
water  or  a  solution  of  some  water- 
soluble  gum  into  a  paste  known  as 
kohl,  which  was  then  spread  on  the 
eyelid  with  the  finger  or  a  small  stick 
of  bone,  wood,  or  ivory.  Such  a  "kohl 


19 


stick"  was  found  with  the  carved  bone 
container,  showing  that  the  latter  was 
in  fact  an  ancient  cosmetic  jar. 

IN  addition  to  using  eye  paint  to  en- 
hance their  appearance,  the  Ha- 
sanlu  people  also  wore  necklaces  of 
metal,  stones,  and  sea  shells.  The 
shells,  like  the  plants  and  animal 
bones,  lead  us  to  our  colleagues  in 
natural  history,  since  their  identifica- 
tion provides  us  with  a  knowledge  of 
habitat.  This,  in  turn,  indicates  the 
direction  from  which  the  shells  have 
been  traded.  Dr.  R.  Tucker  Abbott  of 
Philadelphia's  Academy  of  Natural 
Sciences  has  made  the  needed  technical 
identifications.  Surprisingly,  none  of 
the  shells  comes  from  the  Caspian  Sea, 
which  is  less  than  two  hundred  miles 
away.  Instead  they  are  from  the  Red 
Sea,  the  Mediterranean  Sea  (over  five 
hundred  miles  due  west),  or  from  the 
Persian  Gulf  (a  similar  distance 
south).  Among  the  Mediterranean 
shells  is  a  "triton"  shell,  Charonia 
variegata  (Lamarck)  ;  a  "cone"  shell, 
Conns  mediterraneus  Bruguiere;  and 
a  small  spiral  shell,  Nassarius  gibbosu- 
lus  (Linne) .  Shells  of  the  latter  species 
are  fairly  common  at  Ashur,  Hasanlu, 


Tepe  Sialk  (near  Kashan  in  central 
Iran),  and  Tepe  Hissar  (near  Dam- 
ghan  in  northeastern  Iran).  A  fourth 
shell,  Murex  brandaris  Linne,  is  from 
the  rock  whelk,  which  was  used  by  the 
Phoenicians  in  the  preparation  of  the 
famous  Tyrian  purple  dye  (Natural 
History,  January,  1964) .  While  great 
piles  of  the  discarded  whelk  shells  have 
been  found  at  Sidon  near  Tyre  on  the 
Mediterranean  coast,  the  occurrence 
of  the  shell  in  a  necklace  at  Hasanlu 
suggests  that  they  were  used  second- 
arily for  trade.  Significantly,  perhaps, 
one  necklace  at  Hasanlu  contained 
only  shells  from  the  Red  Sea  and  the 
Mediterranean,  suggesting  that  the 
necklace  itself,  rather  than  the  loose 
shells,  may  have  been  a  trade  item. 
The  two  shells  native  to  the  Red  Sea— 
Engina  mendicaria  Linne  and  Colum- 
bella  julgurans  Lamarck— most  prob- 
ably followed  the  established  overland 
trade  route  through  Palestine  and 
Syria  to  Assyria  and  Iran  along  with 
the  Mediterranean  shells. 

By  far  the  most  common  shells  were 
those  found  in  the  Red  Sea  and  Persian 
Gulf,  and  in  the  Indian  Ocean.  No 
doubt  they  were  traded  along  the  main 
routes  up  the  Tigris   and  Euphrates 


rivers  to  Assyria  and  thence  overla: 
to  Hasanlu  and  points  east.  A  toe 
shell;  a  conch  shell  {Strombus  decor 
subsp.  persicus  Swainson)  ;  an  Oli 
shell;  and  several  others  (Nerita  poL 
Linne,  Conus  ebraeus  Linne,  Charor 
tritonis  Linne,  and  Murex  virgine 
Roding)  complete  the  list.  Two  mari 
bivalves  {Crassitella  sp.  and  Glyc 
meris  sp.)  were  also  found,  alo 
with  a  snail  (Clanculus  pharaom 
Linne)  native  to  the  coast  of  Arab 
These  shells  are  combined  on  some 
the  necklaces  with  shells  from  t 
Mediterranean,  indicating  that  th 
were  either  traded  separately  at  tin 
or  else  were  restrung  either  in  Assyi 
or  at  Hasanlu. 

THE  contribution  of  malacology 
archeology  does  not  end  w: 
the  identification  of  sea  shells,  1 
among  the  excavated  remains  the 
were  also  shells  of  fresh-water  mussi 
and  land  snails.  These  belong  to  ti 
species,  both  of  which  are  found  frc 
the  northwestern  corner  of  Ir 
through  Turkey.  The  snail  is  Hei 


Molds  for  bronze  casting  were  eitl 
open  faced  or  double.  Half  of  a  doul 
mold  for  ax  and  lironze  ingot  are  sho^\ 


dina  Rossmassler,  and  the  fresh- 
:er  mussel  is  Unio  durieui  De- 
yes.  The  clam  shells  occur  rather 
ely,  but  the  snail,  which  is  edible, 
urs  in  large  quantities,  showing 
t  it  formed  a  part  of  the  local  diet. 
Ihells  were  not  the  only  imports 
n  far  away.  Ivory  was  used  in  small 
ntities  for  plaques  carved  in  low 
ef  or  for  parts  of  figures  carved  in 
round.  While  there  is  the  possibil- 
that  the  raw  ivory  may  have  been 
orted  from  Pakistan  across  Iran- 
more  likely,  via  the  Persian  Gulf— 
e  is  an  equal  possibility  that  it 
e  from  Syria,  where  elephants  in- 
ited  the  upper  Euphrates  Valley 
1  they  disappeared  about  the  sev- 
I  century  B.C. 

he  ivory  plaques  probably  formed 
sides  of  small  boxes,  which  were 
)rated  with  scenes  representing  the 
1  inhabitants.  The  figures  shown 
:he  plaques  and  on  other  objects 
1  Hasanlu  wear  knee-length  tunics 
;ned  at  the  waist  with  a  belt.  Some 
lese  costumes  were  of  leather  (two 
ments  have  been  identified  chemi- 
r)  and  others  were  of  woven  tex- 
.  Charred  patches  of  textile  have 
1  recovered  and  examined  by 
old  Burnam  of  the  Textile  Depart- 
t  of  the  Royal  Ontario  Museum, 
combed  yarn  was  made  from  wool 
lohair  and  used  in  the  making  of 
)th  of  tabby  construction— a  weav- 
method  in  which  the  warp  and 

threads  pass  over  each  other  al- 
ately.  Most  of  the  pieces  exhibit 
ft-faced  tabby  weave  in  which  the 
ids  of  the  weft  are  tightly  packed 

obscure  those  of  the  warp.  In 
3  instances,  the  surface  of  the  cloth 
)vered  with  a  pile  or  fringe.  On 
specimen,  the  pile  was  in  the  form 
oops  made  in  a  technique  pre- 
sly  known  only  later  in  Coptic 
Dt.  Sometimes  the  pile  is  as  much 
:ree  centimeters  long. 

[OTHER  fragment  preserves  the 
sewed  joining  of  two  selvages, 
another,  embedded  in  clay,  shows 
lants  of  some  red  coloring.  (Red, 
ly  be  noted,  was  a  prominent  color 
le  cloth  looted  from  Musasir  by 
on.)  Even  three  balls  of  yarn 
;d  up.  The  discovery  of  these  tex- 
fragments  is  a  unique  event  in 
ian  prehistory,  as  no  other  sites 
produced  actual  fabrics  beyond 
mpressions  in  verdigris  found  on 
V  pieces  of  prehistoric  copper  at 
and  Tepe  Sialk.  The  earliest  his- 


Cast  copper  basin  handle  in  the  shape 
of  a  bird  was  cleaned  electrolytieally. 

Analysis  of  iron  dagger  blade,  right, 
showed    that    technically    it    is    steel. 

Macehead,  broken  open,  shows  mold 
on  inner  surface.  Shaft  fitted  in  hole. 


toric  textile  found  at  Susa  dates  to  the 
sixth  century  B.C.  Unfortunately,  no  in- 
formation as  to  the  type  of  loom  is  in- 
dicated by  the  cloth,  but  the  discovery 
of  over  a  dozen  doughnut-shaped  clay 
weights  and  other  weights  of  stone 
suggests  the  use  of  a  vertical  loom  in 
which  the  bottom  of  the  warp  was 
held  down  by  weights.  Should  this 
prove  to  be  the  case,  it  may  be  a  point 


of  considerable  interest,  because  such 
looms  were  used  in  this  period  by 
Halstatt  Iron  Age  people  in  central 
Europe  and  by  the  Greeks.  Since  re- 
lated tribes  speaking  Indo-European 
languages  were  entering  Iran  at  this 
time,  there  is  the  possibility  that  they 
may  have  introduced  this  type  of  loom. 
Besides  the  wool  and  mohair  mate- 
rials, several  woven  bits  were  made 


Oxides  now  replace  the  once-solid  iron 
in  plaque  decorated  with  winged  horse. 


Chasing  and  repousse,  as  in  Hasanlu 
bowl  detail,  were  common  in  goldwork. 


from  a  bast  fiber  of  some  kind— pro 
ably  hemp,  clearly  not  flax.  This  bs 
fiber  was  also  used  to  make  weft-fao 
tabby  cloth,  but  in  at  least  two  i 
stances  it  is  found  as  the  thread  ( 
which  beads  were  strung.  It  also  w 
used  for  woven  belts,  as  shown  by  ii 
pressions  preserved  on  the  corrodi 
surface  of  a  copper  belt  plaque.  Sor 
species  of  grass  was  also  employed 
make  the  rope  that  was  used  to  li 
the  inside  and  the  outer  edge  of 
copper  helmet. 

The  copper  used  in  the  helmet  w 
one  of  a  variety  of  metals  recover 
at  Hasanlu.  Others  were  antimor 
lead,  silver,  bronze,  iron,  and  gold.  T 
variety  is  not  surprising,  in  view  of  t 
fact  that  lead,  silver,  copper,  and  in 
occur  together  at  Mount  Sahand  i 
the  east  shore  of  Lake  Urmia  abo 


miles  northeast  of  Hasanlu,  in  the 
ri  Mountains  about  a  hundred 
;  northwest  between  Lake  Urmia 
Lake  Van,  and  around  the  head- 
rs  of  the  Diyala  River,  about  a 
red  miles  south.  Additional  metal 
;es  lay  around  the  upper  reaches 
e  Tigris  River  in  Turkey  and  the 

River  in  Transcaucasia.  Thus, 
y  lines  existed  both  locally  and 
igh  the  great  countries  of  Assyria 
Qrartu.  An  additional  source  of 
lony  lay  southeast  at  Takht-i- 
man  in  what  is  now  Afshar  Prov- 
of  Iran.  Little  field  work  has  yet 
done  in  search  of  mines  and  struc- 

associated  with  these  early  ore 
es,  and  almost  no  scientific 
ses  have  been  made  of  the  local 
amples  for  comparison  with  ex- 
ed  metal  objects.  When  this  work 
een  done,  it  may  be  possible  to 
lint  the  sources  of  these  metals 
precisely. 

E  presence  of  pure  antimony  at 
lasanlu  in  the  form  of  cast  but- 
surprised  us.  At  first  sight,  they 
r  to  be  hammered  native  silver, 
:  was  only  by  means  of  the  spec- 
ipe  that  their  true  nature  was 
rered.  Probably  they  represent 
ts  from  Transcaucasia,  for  ob- 
made  of  antimony  were  common 
t  area  in  the  ninth  century,  but 
oddities  elsewhere  in  almost  all 
Is.  Certain  of  the  bronze  weapons 
es  and  daggers— also  suggest 
;t  with  this  area.  Like  antimony, 
vas  imported.  Part  of  it,  at  least, 
lave  come  from  Zenjan,  east  of 
du,  for  many  gold  objects  have 
excavated  in  the  mountains  be- 
that  city  and  the  Caspian  Sea, 
ome  are  closely  related  stylisti- 
:o  objects  at  Hasanlu.  The  docu- 
tion  of  gold  at  Hasanlu  is  a  great 
tage  to  us,  because  it  provides 
es  of  known  age  and  archeologi- 
ntext  in  Iran.  Modern  forgeries 
nian  gold  antiquities  have  been 
iblem  for  museums  for  many 
but  there  has  been  no  known 
d  of  checking  the  authenticity  of 
sees  objectively.  It  has  been  gen- 
accepted  that  gold,  essentially  an 
metal,  does  not  change  signifi- 
over  the  years.  This  conclusion 
t  altogether  certain,  however, 
it  remains  to  be  tested  in  the 
)f  the  new  methods  of  investiga- 
leveloped  by  modern  chemistry 
hysics.  Several  pieces  of  gold  of 
;nt  known  ages,  including  some 


from  Hasanlu,  were  photographed 
under  the  electron  microscope  by  Mrs. 
Althea  Revere  of  Vineyard  Haven, 
Martha's  Vineyard,  Massachusetts.  In 
the  photographs,  the  outlines  of  vari- 
ous shapes,  the  bodies  of  which  have 
the  same  light  color  as  the  background, 
may  be  seen.  Mrs.  Revere  believes 
that  these  predominantly  octahedral 
forms  may  be  an  indication  of  the  an- 
tiquity of  the  object,  as  they  were  not 
seen  in  the  one  modern  object  studied. 
Whether  these  shapes  are  to  be  ex- 
plained in  this  way  is  not  yet  clear;  at 
present  they  simply  represent  an  un- 
explained phenomenon. 

Additional  gold  objects  documented 
to  different  periods,  and  some  of  those 
photographed  by  Mrs.  Revere,  are  now 
being  studied  by  Dr.  P.  Hornblower 
at  the  Research  Laboratory  for  Ar- 
chaeology and  the  History  of  Art  at 
Oxford  University,  with  an  electron 
probe  analyzer.  This  is  a  specialized 
instrument  that  scans  cross-sections  of 
the  gold  objects.  It  is  hoped  that  it  may 
be  possible  to  detect  some  evidence  of 
change  in  the  region  of  impurities  in 
the  gold's  outer  surfaces.  This  might 
appear  as  a  purer  gold  content  near  the 
surface  because  of  the  disappearance 
of  less  stable  impurities.  The  question 
is  unanswered,  but  holds  some  promise 
for  the  future. 

Among  the  problems  presented  by 
the  Hasanlu  metal  objects  is  that  of 
discovering  the  use  to  which  some  of 
them  were  put.  Take,  for  example,  a 
group  of  bronze  objects  that  are  com- 
monly called  maceheads,  but  which 
are  sometimes  also  referred  to  as  end 
pieces  for  furniture  legs.  These  occur 
in  several  forms.  Often  they  look  like 
a  ball  set  on  a  short  tube.  Sometimes 
the  ball  is  replaced  by  the  many  pro- 
jecting points  of  a  star.  The  latter 
form  is  certainly  a  true  macehead,  for 
one  example  has  been  found  with  the 
impression  of  its  wooden  handle  still 
intact.  The  ball-shaped  forms  are,  how- 
ever, more  problematical.  Tubes  of 
several  of  these  were  filled  with  a 
powdery  gray  substance,  which,  upon 
analysis,  proved  to  be  powdered  lead- 
just  as  in  the  case  of  the  bone  con- 
tainers. The  powder  filled  the  hollow 
central  tube,  which,  in  the  case  of  the 
star-shaped  mace,  was  the  socket  for 
the  wooden  handle. 

These  ball-shaped  forms  were  fur- 
ther shown  to  be  containers  rather  than 
maceheads  when  one  of  them  was  found 
with  a  small  wooden  plug  still  in  posi- 
tion at  one  end  of  the  tube.  Lying  be- 


Knife  haft  is  adorned  in  cloisonne, 
using  gold  strips  and  inlays  of  stone. 

tween  the  central  opening  into  which 
the  lead  powder  was  packed  and  the 
bronze  outer  surface  of  the  ball  was  a 
gray-buff  clay  core  left  inside  from  the 
casting,  and  consisting  of  aluminum, 
silica,  and  other  elements.  Clearly 
these  were  used  as  kohl  jars  and  not  as 
maceheads  or  furniture  attachments. 

A  NOTHER  problem  involves  the  diffi- 
jr\_  culty  of  uncovering  sufHcient  sur- 
face of  badly  corroded  objects  to  re- 
construct their  original  appearance.  It 
is  possible  to  pick  up  some  of  the  lines 
or  raised  surfaces  by  brushing  the 
corrosion  lightly  to  remove  the  dust 
and  loose  particles,  and  by  then  ob- 
serving them  in  light  directed  at  dif- 
ferent angles.  This  examination  may 
be  aided  on  occasion  by  the  use  of  an 
X-ray,  a  technique  used  on  several 
Hasanlu  pieces  by  Drs.  Madden  and 
Parthe  of  the  School  of  Metallurgical 
Engineering  at  the  University  of  Penn- 
sylvania. By  combining  visual  and 
X-ray  information,  partial  reconstruc- 
tions have  been  possible,  as  in  the 
case  of  a  hammered  copper  plaque 
from  a  box  found  crushed  on  the  floor 
of  the  pillared  hall  in  Burned  Build- 


23 


ing  III  at  Hasanlu.  The  plaque  repre- 
sents archers  defending  a  fortified  wall 
from  its  towers.  The  fortification  bears 
a  striking  resemblance  to  the  wall 
surrounding  the  Citadel  at  Hasanlu 
and  recalls  Urartian  towers  seen  on 
the  Balawat  gates.  Where  the  corro- 
sion is  not  too  advanced  the  metal  can 
be  cleaned  successfully  by  soaking  it 
in  constantly  changing  distilled  water 
over  long  periods.  Unfortunately,  such 
treatment  is  not  always  possible.  Cast 
bronze  fares  better  in  this  respect  than 
thin,  hammered,  copper  sheet  metal, 
which  is  highly  vulnerable  to  corro- 
sion and  is  often  not  solid  when  found. 


OBJECTS  of  iron  are  even  more  vul- 
nerable to  destructive  forces  of 
weathering.  The  ninth  century  B.C. 
marks  the  high  point  of  the  early  Iron 
Age  in  this  part  of  Iran,  and  many 
tools  and  weapons  were  made  of  the 
material.  When  excavated,  they  are  all 
too  often  simply  a  pile  of  rust  main- 
taining a  semblance  of  the  original 
shape  (what  metallurgists  call  a  '"pseu- 
domorph")  but  little  else.  Some  pieces 
can  be  prevented  from  falling  apart  if 
they  are  first  impregnated  with  poly- 
vinyl and  then  removed  from  the 
ground,  but  none  of  these  any  longer 
contains  a  core  of  solid  iron.  Conse- 


Carved  bone  cosmetic  box  has  a  small 
hole  at  base  for  one  of  two  pegs  that 
held  bottom  of  the  container  in  place. 


Gold  granulation  decorated  edge  of 
IVa-inch  limestone  square  with  an  agate 
set  in  its  surface.  Its  use  is  unknown. 


quently,  no  amount  of  cleaning  aw 
of  the  corrosive  products  will  rev 
any  original  metal  forms  within  1 
mass  of  iron  oxide;  so  we  must 
satisfied  to  observe  what  we  can  vi 
ally,  as  in  the  case  of  the  winged  ho: 
plaque  shown  here.  An  X-ray  reve 
only  that  there  are  a  number  of  ho 
around  the  outer  rim,  probably  us 
to  attach  the  object  to  some  backi 
material.  In  spite  of  the  disappearar 
of  the  core  metal,  some  technical  d; 
can  be  obtained,  as  the  work  carr: 
out  on  an  iron  dagger  blade  by  J 
Reed  Knox,  Jr.,  of  the  University 
Pennsylvania  School  of  Engineerii 
has  recently  proved.  A  cross-secti 
was  cut  from  the  end  of  the  broli 
blade,  was  mounted  on  Lucite,  grouj 
and  polished.  It  was  then  possible 
study  the  structure,  which  includet 
few  tiny  particles  of  metal  in  oxi 
matrix.  The  particles  proved  to  bf 
typical  high-carbon  steel  with  a  fi 
lamellar  structure  called  pearlite.  1 
ghost  of  some  of  the  structure 
mained  in  the  oxide  after  the  ir 
itself  had  disappeared.  The  stu 
showed  that  the  blade  had  been  f; 
ricated  by  hammering,  and  that  it  h 
been  cooled  at  a  slow  rate  from  a  hi 
temperature.  According  to  Dr.  Cy 
Smith  of  M.I.T.,  the  bronze  hilt  h 
been  cast  onto  the  tang  of  the  ir 
blade,  for  some  of  the  bronze  had  r 
into  a  seam  in  the  iron.  This  casting- 
technique  was  also  used  in  the  mai 
facture  of  some  Luristan  bronze  a 
iron  daggers.  Whether  the  producti 
of  a  high-carbon  steel  was  intentioj 
will  be  better  known  when  other  spe 
mens  are  studied.  What  is  shown  i 
the  first  time  by  this  particular  analy 
is,  as  Knox  points  out,  that  "it  is  p 
sible  to  distinguish  ancient  wrou< 
iron  from  steel  by  metallurgii 
means,  although  all  metal  has  be 
converted  to  oxide." 

Thus,  modern  techniques  of  analy 
and  modern  knowledge  of  natural  h 
tory  are  able,  by  working  in  tand( 
with  the  archeological  spade,  to  bri 
new  perspective  to  natural  histc 
and  to  the  history  of  technolo; 
Together  they  begin  to  reveal  son 
thing  of  the  "heaped  up  treasures' 
which  Sargon  spoke;  treasures  of 
field  of  knowledge  infinitely  rid 
than  even  he  could  ever  have  imagin( 


Hammered  silver  beaker  has  raisi 
electrum-overlaid  figures.  Impress! 
of  textile  shows  on  corroded  surfa 


24 


^^^^^^!^^^^ 


"\m&^\x§^  mf'*<m        ■  ■■        rWrr-  '  ^^^kSrM^: 


,«r-'Vj 


•»«>.'■  •.■~\-<.''  -^ 


1^ 


■   .  "■"■  -.-       -     *"^^ 


By  WILLIAM  G.  GEORGE 

-L  HE  Peruvian  Andes  look  as  forbidding  as  they  ever  have, 
I  suppose,  but  this  is  ofFset  today  by  roads  that  cross  the 
river  canyons,  scale  the  cliffs,  and  traverse  the  ridges.  Not 
long  ago  I  traveled  upward  by  car  into  the  highest  habitats 
of  the  Andean  avifauna,  and  for  nine  months  easily  scouted 
through  regions  that  the  early  naturalists  had  to  labor  hard 
even  to  reach. 

Some  of  the  tanagers,  honeycreepers,  and  finches  that 
occupy  the  brush  and  woodlands  of  the  Peruvian  Cordil- 
leras rank  among  the  least  known  of  South  American  birds. 
Their  nests,  eggs,  and  life  histories  still  remain  unreported, 
and  their  distribution  and  seasonal  movements  have  yet  to 
be  fully  worked  out.  Furthermore,  many  unanswered  ques- 
tions exist  concerning  the  degree  of  relationship  that  the 
various  species  have  to  each  other  within  the  songbird 
assemblage  to  W'hich  they  belong,  the  American  Nine-pri- 
maried  Oscines  (Natural  History,  February,  1963). 

The  South  American  members  of  this  group,  numbering 
about  500  living  species,  include  principally  the  vireos, 
wood  warblers,  blackbirds,  orioles,  and  the  already  men- 
tioned honeycreepers,  tanagers,  and  finches.  One  of  the 
least  typical  is  the  Giant  Conebill,  Oreomanes  fraseri.  I 
found  it  a  common  bird  at  about  13,000  feet  in  the  Depart- 
ment of  Puno,  along  the  road  from  Nufioa  to  Macusani. 
There  the  road  climbs  a  grassy  ridge  and  enters  a  rich, 
parklike  woodland  that  seems  misplaced  at  that  altitude  and 
in  that  region.  The  trees  in  this  area  are  Polylepis.  They  are 
40  feet  or  less  in  height  and  have  a  peculiar  bark,  rather  like 
that  of  shagbark  hickory,  consisting  of  paper-thin  layers 
that  tend  to  separate,  peel,  curl,  and  flap  noisily  in  the  con- 
tinuous wind. 

IN  appearance,  size,  and  habits,  the  Giant  Conebill  gen- 
erally parallels  the  Sittidae,  or  nuthatches— a  family  of 
holarctic  songbirds  that  does  not  reach  South  America.  It 
feeds  in  the  bark  and  less  often  works  among  the  leaves. 
It  crawls  over  the  trunks  and  larger  branches,  but  never 
descends  face  downward  or  delivers  group  contact  and  for- 
aging calls,  as  do  nuthatches.  It  searches  for  insects  by 
using  its  long  bill  both  as  a  probe  and  as  pliers  to  grip 
the  sheets  of  bark  and  wrench  them  away.  This  operation 
produces  splintering  sounds  and  tugging  movements  that 
merge  with  the  rustling  of  the  wind-blown  bark.  Because 
the  outer  bark  surfaces  are  cinnamon-colored  like  the  cone- 
bill's  underside,  and  the  inner  bark  surfaces  are  bluish  gray 
like  the  conebill's  back,  the  bird  is  so  well  camouflaged  that 
it  ranks  high  among  species  that  provide  support  for  the 
theory  of  protective  coloration  in  animals. 

The  bird  seems  to  be  confined  to  Polylepis  and  to  pre- 
fer the  most  luxuriant  growths.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
bird  also  occurs  in  the  impoverished  Polylepis  that  grow 
as  mere  bushes  on  many  of  the  dry  western  slopes  of  the 
Andes.  This  is  a  recent  discovery,  and  one  that  indicates 
the  species  may  well  be  found  in  places  beyond  its  present 

26 


Rarely  Seen 
Songbirds 
of  Peru's 
High  Andes 


recorded  range.  The  bird  heretofore  has  been  known  onl 
from  the  eastern  Andean  slope  from  Bolivia  to  Colombii 
I  suspect  it  will  soon  be  found  in  northwestern  Chile,  for 
encountered  a  specimen  in  stunted  Polylepis  of  the  westei 
sierra  above  Tacna,  not  far  from  the  Peruvian-Chilean  bo 
der,  across  which  Polylepis  woodlands  presumably  extern 

The  mating  of  the  Nuiioa  population  was  in  progress  o 
October  19, 1962.  The  males  were  chasing  and  were  singir 
from  their  treetop  perches  a  high-pitched,  plaintive,  an 
monotonous  "ssit,  ssit,  ssit,"  or  "sseet,  sseet,  sseet."  Whe 
I  returned  to  the  site  on  November  30,  small  mixed  flocl 
of  adults,  immatures,  and  a  few  juveniles  were  presen 
As  the  conebill  painting  shows,  the  juveniles  have  oddl 
streaked  and  spotted  breasts,  a  characteristic  of  some  juv 
niles  of  another  and  better-known  bird  of  the  tempera 
zone  of  Peru,  the  Coal-black  Flower-piercer,  Diglossa  ca 
bonaria.  This  may  indicate,  in  combination  with  certai 
technical  data,  a  near  relationship  of  the  two  species. 

In  the  Department  of  Cuzco,  northeast  of  Nuiioa,  tl 
Chestnut-belted  Finch,  Poospizopsis  caesar,  inhabits  wide 
spaced  brush  thickets  in  steep  ravines  among  the  stark  hil 
above  Paucartambo.  It  is  a  Peruvian  endemic  of  narro 
distribution  and  of  wild  habit.  They  fly  from  their  thicke 
instantly  on  sighting  a  human  being;  after  spanning  se 
eral  hundred  yards  they  plunge  into  another  thicket  ar 
vanish.  The  juveniles,  which  I  saw  being  fed  by  adults  c 
December  9,  flew  off  as  quickly  as  the  adults. 

The  Tit-like  Dacnis,  Xenodacnis  parina,  is  another  P 
ruvian  endemic,  and  clearly  an  aberrant  form.  Its  princ 
pal  habitat  may  be  Gynoxis,  a  soft-leaved  shrub.  On  tl 
western  slope  of  the  great  mountain  Picchupicchu.  Gyno^ 
grows  immediately  below  the  lowest  limits  of  Polylef 
brush.  Almost  silvery  in  appearance  because  of  its  pall 
gray  leaves,  and  standing  about  eight  feet  in  height, 
forms  a  conspicuous  zone  that  can  be  easily  spotted  agair 
its  background  of  dark  soil  and  brown  rocks. 

Numerous  Tit-like  Dacnis'  were  present  in  the  Gynoi 
on  Picchupicchu  from  December  21  to  January  24.  Thf 
breeding  season  had  ended  prior  to  the  December  date,  ai 
the  entire  population,  adults  and  immatures  alike  (I  s£ 
no  juveniles) ,  were  still  undergoing  the  post-breeding  mo 
They  moved  in  small  groups  among  the  bushes   in  t 


Illustrations  by  Arthur  Singer 


/ifliin^<^^^^,^iik 


Dubusia  tacniala 


ines,  feeding  on  insects  down  in  the  maze  of  bare,  col- 
ral  stems  that  together  emerge  from  the  earth  in  the 
:e  of  a  main  stem.  When  disturbed,  the  birds  seemed 
ctant  to  abandon  one  ravine  in  favor  of  another;  they 
lid  simply  slip  out  of  view  or  fly  within  the  ravine  for  a 
rt  distance.  They  have  a  low,  deft,  and  effortless  style  of 
It,  and  even  as  they  launch  themselves  suddenly  out  of 
ish  they  are  strikingly  graceful.  None  of  them  emitted 
notes  at  any  time  when  I  was  in  the  area. 
enodacnis  is  one  of  those  "problem"  genera  that  per- 
;  the  taxonomist.  Alone  of  the  American  Nine-primaried 
ines  it  has  the  bill  of  a  titmouse.  Its  tongue  refinements, 
to  some  extent  its  feeding  behavior,  also  parallel  those 
le  titmice,  or  Paridae,  a  northern  family  that  does  not 
^e  into  South  America  and  with  which  Xenodacnis 
es  relatively  few  significant  traits.  For  example,  titmice 
;  ten  primaries  in  the  wing  while  Xenodacnis  has  nine, 
there  are  other  important  anatomical  disjunctions  be- 
;n  them.  Nevertheless,  Xenodacnis  merits  the  name 
nouse-like."  Accordingly,  it  provides,  as  does  the  Giant 
ebill,  an  example  of  a  neotropical  songbird  that  has 
lired  several  characteristics  of  holarctic  songbirds  from 
;h  it  is  genetically  distinct.  The  problem  is,  which  genus 
le  assemblage  of  nine-primaried  songbirds  may  be  its 
est  kin?  There  are  four  possibilities.  The  first  isDacnis, 
nus  of  honeycreepers,  the  males  of  which  exhibit  blue 
leir  plumage.  But  the  bills  of  all  Dacnis  are  sharp  and 
irved,  and  their  tongues  are  highly  modified  for  suck- 
nectar;  furthermore,  the  female  plumage  of  none  of 
1  is  like  that  of  Xenodacnis.  Traditionally,  it  is  true, 
nomists  have  aligned  Xenodacnis  with  Dacnis,  having 
.  guided  less  by  any  biological  similarity  of  the  species, 
spect,  than  by  the  occurrence  of  the  term  dacnis  in 
generic  names.  This  nomenclatorial  convergence  tends 
nply  close  relationships  of  the  species;  but  the  names 
;  coined  in  1817  and  1873,  during  the  period  of  explora- 
when  Andean  birds  were  relatively  unknown. 

HE  second  and  third  possibilities  lie  within  the  blue 
buntings  of  the  genera  Passerina  and  Cyanocornpsa, 
within  the  finches  of  the  genus  Catamenia.  The  males 
ese  species  are  totally  or  partly  deep  blue  or  slaty-blue, 
some  of  the  females  have  tawny-brownish  underparts 
the  female  of  Xenodacnis.  However,  the  buntings  and 
les  are  seed-feeders  and  have  tough,  thick-walled  stom- 
adapted  for  grinding  harsh  foods;  so,  to  a  large  ex- 
do  insectivorous  species,  for  the  chitinous  parts  of 
■  prey  must  be  mashed  during  digestion.  Xenodacnis 
[sectivorous,  yet  it  has  a  relatively  tiny,  thin-walled 
ach,  scarcely  better  developed  than  the  stomachs  of 
jr-feeders.  The  hint  in  this  seems  unmistakable;  Xeno- 
.is  probably  stemmed  from  a  honeycreeper  line,  and 
ibly  from  the  same  one  as  Dacnis  after  all. 
le  fourth  near  relative  is  another  honeycreeper  genus, 
Irostrum.  These  are  small,  warbler-like  species  that 
t  be  considered  because  they  possess  among  them  a 
;  spectrum  of  plumage  features  that  more  or  less  agree 
some  of  those  of  Xenodacnis.  To  be  honest  about  it, 
,  one  has  to  admit  that  the  Tit-like  Dacnis  is  a  species 
may  agitate  taxonomists  for  many  years  to  come, 
found  the  rest  of  the  birds  portrayed  in  the  paintings 
le  of  the  richest  birding  areas  in  Peru— the  Hacienda 
aynioc,  within  the  Department  of  Junin.  To  reach  it, 
must  travel  from  Palca  on  a  road  that  is  a  mere  twenty 


^ 


PAUCARTAMBO 


/t 


^       "NUN 


\  < 


PICCHUPICCHU  MT. 


(mainly  vertical)  kilometers  in  length.  After  leaving  the 
eastern  outskirts  of  Palca,  the  road  more  or  less  soars  over 
a  series  of  grassy  slopes  of  the  temperate  zone.  Ultimately 
it  crests  among  clumps  of  large,  lichen-clad  bushes,  de- 
scends into  and  out  of  the  hacienda  village,  and  enters  a 
valley.  It  ends  at  11.000  feet  on  a  ridge  overlooking  a  river 
canyon  choked  with  a  lush  forest  of  temperate  and  humid- 
temperate  trees  that  eventually  mix  far  below  with  the  up- 
per level  of  the  subtropical  vegetation. 

The  abundance  of  birds  during  late  May,  both  within  the 
forest  and  on  its  brushy  outskirts,  was  unlike  anything  I 
had  seen  before.  In  a  tropical  habitat  it  is  the  insects  that 
quicken  the  awareness  of  teeming  life.  At  Maraynioc  that 
awareness  comes  from  the  birds,  and  especially  from  hum- 
mingbirds like  the  Sparkling  Violet-ear  (Colibri  coruscans) 
and  the  giant  Sapphire-wing  (Plerophanes  cyanoptera) . 
The  conspicuous  Trochilidae  tend  to  eclipse  the  activities 
of  the  many  shyer  species.  The  Chestnut-bellied  Tanager, 
Delothraupis  castaneoventris,  and  the  Buff-breasted  Moun- 
tain Tanager,  Dubusia  taeniata,  w-ere  both  quiet  and  timid. 
They  fed  on  insects  and  buds  on  the  brushy  hillsides,  fre- 
quenting a  small  tree  named  Hesperomeles. 

The  morning  sky  was  usually  clear  and  blue  at  Maray- 
nioc, but  as  each  day  wore  on  mist  would  begin  to  gather 
far  down  in  the  subtropical  valley  of  Chanchamayo.  By 
early  afternoon  it  rose  through  the  river  canyon,  drench- 
ing the  forest  and  turning  out  hordes  of  gnats.  Thrushes, 
honeycreepers,  wrens,  hummingbirds,  finches,  flycatchers, 
and  some  tanagers— among  them  the  Chestnut-bellied— 
then  leaped  out  of  the  Hesperomeles  to  fly,  bills  snapping, 
through  the  gnat  swarms.  This,  as  much  as  the  mist  itself, 
signaled  the  approach  of  dusk  and  a  night  of  dankness. 

The  Grass  Green  Tanager,  Chlorornis  reifferii;  the  Yel- 
low-naped  Tanager.  Iridosornis  reinhardti;  and  the  Hooded 
Mountain  Tanager,  Buthraupis  montana— the  largest  of  all 
the  tanagers— stayed  within  the  high  foliage  of  the  humid 
temperate  forest,  foraging  together  in  wandering  bands. 
The  sound  of  bustling  and  twig  snapping  sounded  from 
wherever  they  fed,  and  entire  sprays  of  leaves  tumbled 
down  at  the  same  time,  yet  the  birds  were  difficult  to  see. 

The  forest  at  Maraynioc  remains  unspoiled.  The  owner 
of  the  hacienda  discourages  visitors,  and  the  forest  itself 
has  discouraged  the  zeal  of  the  lumbering  interests  in  Peru. 
As  a  result,  this  gloomy  and  moist  birding  heaven,  which 
clings  to  extraordinarily  steep  rock  walls,  seems  today  to 
be  little  threatened  by  the  encroachments  of  civilization. 


29 


Topographic  maps  portray  works  of  man  and  natun 

Mapping  the  Surface 

of  the  Earth 


By  Morris  M.  Thompson 
and  Julius  L.  Speert 


EVERYONE  IS  FAMILIAR  with  maps 
of  one  sort  or  another,  most  of 
which  depict  the  activities,  works,  or 
history  of  man  but  tell  little,  if  any- 
thing, about  the  natural  w  orld  he  lives 
in.  An  important  exception  is  the 
topographic  map. 

A  topographic  map  is  a  graphic 
representation  of  the  physical  features 
of  a  portion  of  the  earth's  surface, 
plotted  to  scale  on  a  flat  sheet.  It  de- 
picts relief,  w'ater  features,  vegetation, 
and  the  works  of  man,  thereby  por- 
traying the  cumulative  effects  of  the 
forces  of  nature  and  man. 

Because  they  literally  picture  the 
face  of  the  earth,  topographic  maps 
are  used  mainly  in  applications  re- 
lated to  surface  features.  Perhaps  the 
most  important  and  best-known  uses 
are  in  the  fields  of  engineering  and 
economic  development.  In  hydraulic 
engineering,  including  flood  control, 
water-power  development,  irrigation, 
water  supply,  and  the  design  of  dams 
and  reservoirs,  topographic  maps  are 
a  prime  necessity,  for  they  show  in 
detail  the  characteristics  of  the  drain- 
age basins  involved.  Highways,  rail- 
roads, power  lines,  sewers,  and  other 
arteries  cannot  be  planned  economi- 
cally and  safely  without  precise  knowl- 
edge of  the  terrain,  most  readily  ob- 
tained from  topographic  maps. 

In  many  instances,  a  real-estate  sub- 
division, including  its  lots,  streets, 
sewers,  and  other  utilities,  is  first  laid 
out  on  a  topographic  map.  A  manu- 
facturing concern  seeking  a  site  for 
a  new  factory  is  apt  to  study  numer- 
ous topographic  quadrangle  maps  to 
find  a  location  near  water,  transporta- 
tion routes,  power  supplies,  raw  ma- 
terials, labor  supply,  and  its  poten- 
tial markets.  The  list  of  uses  in  civic, 
economic,  and  in  industrial  develop- 
ment could  be  extended  indefinitely, 

30 


but  we  mean  to  focus  our  attention  on 
the  use  of  topographic  maps  in  study- 
ing natural  features. 

Perhaps  the  most  popular  use  of 
such  maps  among  nature  enthusiasts 
is  in  the  planning  of  outdoor  recrea- 
tion. Because  the  topographic  map 
shows  woodland,  trails,  streams,  and 
hills,  it  is  ideal  for  planning  hikes; 
hunting,  fishing,  and  camping  trips; 
and  similar  excursions.  From  the 
community  point  of  view,  the  topo- 
graphic map  is  a  prerequisite  to  the 
planning  and  construction  of  parks, 
playgrounds,  natural-state  reserva- 
tions, and  wildlife  refuges. 

THE  information  shown  on  topo- 
graphic maps  generally  falls  into 
the  following  four  distinct  categories: 
hypsographic,  hydrographic,  wood- 
land, and  culture. 

Hypsographic,  or  relief,  features  of 
a  map  are  normally  printed  in  brown, 
and  the  usual  method  of  showing  relief 
is  by  means  of  contours.  A  contour  is 
an  imaginary  line  on  the  ground,  all 
points  of  which  are  at  the  same  eleva- 
tion, or  height,  above  a  horizontal 
reference  datum,  usually  mean  sea 
level.  Thus,  the  shoreline  of  a  quies- 
cent pond  or  lake  is,  in  effect,  a  con- 
tour. Lines  drawn  on  the  map  to  rep- 
resent the  contours  are  contour  lines, 
but  are  frequently  called  contours,  for 
short.  If  you  envision  a  hilltop  sliced 
off  bv  a  horizontal  plane,  the  perimeter 
of  the  slice  is  a  contour.  Picture,  now, 
another  horizontal  slice  twenty  feet 
below  the  first,  then  another,  and  an- 
other, and  so  on.  The  perimeter  of 
each  slice  would  determine  a  contour 
line  on  the  map.  With  the  slices 
twenty  feet  apart  vertically,  we  have 
set  a  contour  interval  of  twenty  feet. 

If  the  ground  is  steeply  sloping, 
the   contour   lines   will    be    close   to- 


Corumbia  Crest  '     - 

MOUNT    ■■      RAINIER    ,  /„ 


Topographic  map  shows  crater  of  an 
inactive  volcano  as  well  as  numerous 
glaciers  emanating  from  Mount  Rainier. 


.-^ 


^/  rM" 


Landscape  of  Mount  Rainier  was  made 
from  northeast  at  sunrise.  At  left  of 
Columbia  Crest  is  the  Gibraltar  Rock. 


31 


gether;  if  it  is  gently  sloping  or  almost 
flat  ground,  the  contours  will  be  widely 
spaced.  Thus  we  can  determine  the 
slope  of  the  ground  by  the  spacing  of 
the  contour  lines.  If  the  ground  is  so 
steep  that  the  contours  would  be 
crowded  on  the  map,  we  must  use  a 
larger  contour  interval  to  allow  more 
room  between  them.  Similarly,  if  we 
double  the  scale  of  the  map  we  auto- 
matically spread  the  contour  spacing 
and  can  use  a  smaller  contour  interval 
without  crowding.  In  practice,  the 
interval  selected  is  that  which  can  best 
portray  the  character  of  the  terrain  at 
map  scale  without  undue   crowding. 

CONTOURS  on  a  map  would  have 
little  meaning  unless  they  could  be 
identified.  Therefore  it  is  customary 
to  emphasize  every  fifth  contour  and 
to  label  these  "index"  contours  with 
their  elevation.  Then,  to  read  the 
height  of  any  point  on  the  map,  the 
heights  of  the  adjoining  contours  are 
determined  by  counting  the  number  of 
contour    intervals    from    the    nearest 


Menan  Buttes,  in  Idaho,  are  really 
volcanic  cinder  cones.  Large  craters 
are  indicated  by  depression  contours. 


labeled  contours,  and  the  height  of  the 
point  is  interpolated  by  estimating  its 
relative  distance  from  the  two  adjoin- 
ing contours.  With  a  little  practice  this 
can  be  done  accurately. 

Much  can  be  learned  about  an  area 
from  a  study  of  its  contour  map.  If 
the  ground  has  a  uniform,  steady 
slope,  the  contours  will  be  equally 
spaced.  If  the  country  is  rough,  this 
will  be  reflected  in  the  irregularity  of 
the  contours.  Some  common  topo- 
graphic features  are  shown  in  the 
illustration  comparing  a  perspective 
drawing  with  a  topographic  map 
(bottom,  right) .  Note  how  easily  each 
feature  can  be  recognized  from  the 
shapes  of  the  contours. 

In  multicolored  renderings  of  the 
maps,  hydrographic,  or  water,  fea- 
tures are  usually  printed  in  blue.  These 
include  oceans,  lakes,  rivers,  streams, 
glaciers,  canals,  and  swamps.  As  the 
level  of  the  ocean  is  usually  the  refer- 
ence datum  for  elevation,  its  shore- 
line is,  except  for  minor  technical 
refinements,  the  zero  contour.  Since 
rivers  and  streams  run  downhill  from 
their  source,  they  must  cross  all  con- 
tours between  source  and  mouth.  Note 


on  the  illustrations  (right)  how  tl 
shape  of  the  contours  clearly  indicat 
the  location  of  a  watercourse  or  m 
ural  drain.  Canals  are  characterizi 
by  their  straight  lines,  a  condition  n 
usual  in  natural  watercourses,  and  i 
the  fact  that  they  usually  run  near 
parallel  to  the  contours  instead 
crossing  them,  as  streams  do.  Swamj 
occur  in  flatland  that  is  poor 
drained,  and  are  shown  by  speci 
symbols.  Glaciers  appear  on  mou 
tain  slopes,  with  their  surface  definf 
by  blue  contours. 

Woodland  is  shown  on  maps  by 
green  overprint.  Special  symbols  a: 
used  to  portray  orchards,  vineyard 
and  other  distinct  types  of  vegetatio 

Culture  is  the  name  given  to  tl 
works  of  man  that  are  shown  on  top 
graphic  maps.  This  category  includi 
all  types  of  construction,  roads,  rai 
roads,  political  boundaries,  and  plai 
names.  They  are  usually  printed  i 
black,  but  red  is  also  used  to  he] 
classify  certain  types  of  highways  ar 
boundary  lines.  If  all  the  building 
in  heavily  built-up  areas  were  showi 
such  areas  would  appear  almost  so 
idly  black.  To  avoid  this,  built-u 
urban  areas  are  shown  by  a  screene 
red  overprint,  with  the  street  pattei 
fully  developed,  and  all  houses  i 
the  area  are  omitted  except  landmai 
buildings,  such  as  public  building 
schools,  and  churches. 

Most  people  tend  to  take  the  su 
face  of  the  earth  for  granted.  It  w£ 
here  when  we  arrived,  we  expect  t 
leave  it  here  when  we  depart,  and  v 
are  unable  to  notice  any  significai 
changes  in  it  during  our  stay.  Tli 
study  of  geology  teaches  us,  howeve: 
that  the  earth's  surface  is  not  stabl( 
It  is  undergoing  constant  chang 
under  the  influence  of  all  of  the  force 
of  nature,  both  from  within  the  eart 
and  from  without.  Some  of  the  intej 
nal  forces  act  so  slowly  as  to  be  ur 
noticeable  except  to  the  expert.  The 
account  for  the  gradual  rising  or  se 
tling  of  continents  and  of  the  ocea 
floor.  Other  internal  forces,  such  a 
earthquakes  and  volcanic  eruptioiii 
produce  such  sudden  and  catastrophi 
changes  that  they  are  abundantly  ap 
parent.  Many  of  our  great  valleys  an 
mountain  ranges  have  been  forme 
during  a  shrinking  of  the  earth's  cms 
in  much  the  same  way  that  the  surfac 
of  a  prune  becomes  wrinkled  as  th 
plump,  fresh  fruit  is  dried. 

But  while  powerful  forces  are  worl 
ing  from  within  to  change  the  face  o 


ER-55  PROJECTORS 


TRACING  TABLE 


ED  AERIAL  PHOTOS  are  projected 
rni  optical  model  of  terrain  on 
ng  table,  permitting  operator  to 


convert  3-D  image  to  topographic  map. 
Below,  sketch  of  river  valley,  bay,  and 
hooked  sand  bar  is  compared  to  a  map. 


the  earth,  equally  powerful  but  more 
subtle  forces  are  working  from  with- 
out to  sculpt  the  surface  into  the 
various  features  that  are  so  familiar 
to  us.  These  external  forces  include 
wind,  sun,  rain,  frost,  rivers,  ocean 
waves,  glaciers,  and  vegetation.  Each 
operates  in  its  own  way,  alone  or  in 
conjunction  with  others,  and  forms 
features  characteristic  of  its  powers. 
Some  of  these  forces  and  surface  fea- 
tures they  create,  which  show  on  topo- 
graphic maps,  are  discussed  below. 

ACTION  of  rivers:  Rivers  work  in 
two  principal  ways  to  change 
the  face  of  the  earth.  Together  with 
freshly  fallen  rain,  the  rivers  and 
streams  scour  the  surface  of  the  earth 
and  the  river  beds;  they  undercut 
riverbanks  and  carry  away  soil.  Later, 
when  the  water  is  no  longer  able  to 
carry  the  load,  it  deposits  the  sediment 
on  flood  plains,  deltas,  or  alluvial  fans. 

Glacial  erosion:  The  work  of  gla- 
ciers in  some  respects  resembles  that 
of  rivers;  glaciers  erode  the  earth 
along  their  path,  carry  the  load  a 
distance,  and  drop  it  as  the  leading 
face  melts  and  recedes.  The  typical 
products  of  glacial  erosion,  such  as 
cirques,  drumlins,  and  eskers,  are  read- 
ily identified  on  topographic  maps. 

Work  of  the  wind:  Wind  sculpture 
is  most  evident  in  areas  of  sparse 
vegetation.  Its  handiwork  is  easily 
recognized  in  such  features  as  bar- 
khans  and  dune  ridges. 

Coastal  formations:  Tides,  waves, 
and  ocean  currents  produce  character- 
istic patterns  along  the  coastlines  in 
the  form  of  barrier  beaches,  hooks, 
spits,  and  other  features. 

Volcanic  physiography :  The  char- 
acteristic shape  of  a  volcanic  cone  and 
its  crater  are  easily  recognized  on 
a  topographic  map  (opposite  page). 

Influence  of  vegetation:  The  effect 
of  vegetation  on  physiography  is  less 
obvious  than  that  of  the  principal 
erosive  forces— wind  and  water.  It 
is  mostly  protective;  it  tends  to  re- 
tard the  erosive  action  of  the  others. 
But  since  vegetation  requires  a  favor- 
able combination  of  moisture  and  tem- 
perature, there  are  regions  where 
trees  do  not  grow,  either  because  of 
lack  of  water  or  because  of  low  aver- 
age temperatures  at  high  altitudes  and 
at  high  latitudes.  The  timber  line,  be- 
yond which  trees  are  scarce,  is  often 
well  defined  on  topographic  maps. 
By  the  same  token,  tree  growth  is 
likely  to  be  more  lavish  where  there 


33 


is  ample  water  and  where  tempera- 
tures are  favorable.  Thus  we  often 
find  that  growth  is  denser  and  the 
trees  are  larger  along  watercourses 
than  in  the  surrounding  countryside. 

CONSIDERING  the  vast  amount  of  in- 
formation involved,  the  reader 
may  well  wonder  how  topographic 
maps  are  made.  Prior  to  the  modern 
age  of  mechanization  and  automation, 
say  thirty  or  forty  years  ago,  prac- 
tically the  entire  process  was  done  in 
the  field.  The  principal  tools,  still 
used  extensively  today,  were  the  plane 
table  ( a  drawing  board  supported  on 
a  tripod)  and  an  alidade  (a  sighting 
telescope  fastened  to  a  flat  base  with 
a  straightedge  for  drawing  lines  on 
the  map  manuscript) .  In  addition,  the- 
odolites and  transits  (for  measuring 
angles) ,  steel  tapes  and  stadia  rods 
(  for  measuring  distances ) ,  and  levels 
and  level  rods  (for  measuring  eleva- 
tions )    were  used  for  control  surveys. 

The  topographer  reached  the  area 
to  be  mapped  by  the  best  transporta- 
tion available  to  him.  From  then  on 
it  was  his  responsibility  to  cover  the 
ground— on  horseback,  by  canoe,  on 
foot,  or  by  whatever  combination  of 
facilities  he  could  manage— as  best  he 
could,  carrying  his  equipment.  Even 
when  the  automobile  arrived  on  the 
scene,  many  of  the  areas  to  be  mapped 
were  far  removed  from  passable  high- 
ways, and  much  of  the  country  still 
had  to  be  covered  by  the  more  primi- 
tive means  of  transportation. 

The  season's  work  would  be  started 
with  a  clean  sheet  of  map  manuscript 
paper  on  the  plane  table.  On  this 
would  be  plotted  a  projection  grati- 
cule (network)  of  parallels  and  meri- 
dians (latitude  and  longitude)  to  con- 
tain the  area.  Then  any  control  sta- 
tions previously  established  by  control 
surveys  would  be  plotted  in  correct 
position  with  respect  to  the  projection 
lines.  At  this  point,  the  topographer 
was  ready  for  the  field.  All  too  often 
he  was  also  the  control  surveyor,  and 
the  two  operations  overlapped. 

With  the  plane  table  set  up  on  a 
high  vantage  point,  a  large  expanse  of 
ground  could  be  surveyed.  Distant 
points  were  located  and  plotted  on 
the  manuscript  by  triangulation,  in- 
tersection, and  resection  techniques. 
Elevations  of  points  were  computed 
from  vertical-angle  measurements 
with  the  alidade.  Contours  were 
sketched  to  fit  the  measured  elevations 
while    the    topographer    studied    the 

34 


actual  shape  of  the  ground.  Drainage 
was  located  and  plotted,  and  cultural 
features  were  added  to  the  map.  By 
diligent  search  for  ground  evidence 
and  legal  records,  and  extensive  in- 
quiry of  local  residents,  information 
was  obtained  on  political  boundaries, 
names,  and  other  essential  map  data. 

With  all  available  field  information 
assembled,  the  map  manuscript  was 
brought  into  the  headquarters  office 
for  fine  drafting  and  reproduction. 
Thus  another  topographic  quadrangle 
map  was  born. 

With  the  advent  of  modern  aircraft, 
precision  aerial  cameras,  and  related 
plotting  equipment,  a  new  era  de- 
veloped in  map  making.  No  longer 
does  the  topographer  cover  the  ground 
on  foot  or  on  horseback,  sketching  as 
he  goes.  No  longer  is  he  severely  re- 
stricted by  short  working  seasons  or 
adverse  weather.  Through  the  eye  of 
the  aerial  camera,  his  vantage  point 
has  been  moved  from  the  hilltop  to  a 
point  thousands  of  feet  above  the 
ground.  He  can  now  see  both  sides  of 
the  distant  mountain  range  instead  of 
only  the  near  side.  He  can  study  the 
photographs  in  comfort  in  an  air- 
conditioned  laboratory  and  measure 
the  ground  surface  with  greater  speed 


and  economy  than  was  possible  befc 
By  studying  the  pictures  in  ov 
lapping  pairs  through  an  optical  s 
tem  in  which  the  left  eye  sees  one  f 
ture  and  the  right  eye  sees  the  oth 
he  can  get  a  three-dimensional  opti 
model  and  see  and  measure  the  re] 
in  fine  detail.  In  fact,  the  view  av: 
able  in  the  stereoscopic  model  (pi 
31,  top)  is  superior  in  almost  all 
spects  to  that  observed  from 
ground  stations. 

THE  viewing  system  contains 
"floating  dot"  or  similar  dev 
that  can  be  raised  or  lowered  by  ' 
operator  to  keep  it  "on  the  grour 
as  it  is  moved  over  the  model.  A  per 
moves  over  the  map  manuscript 
trace  the  path  of  the  dot  over  1 
model.  Thus  the  photogrammeti 
traces  roads  and  streams,  buildin 
forests,  and  other  details.  By  movi 
the  floating  dot  along  the  ground 
a  constant  height  above  sea  level, 
traces  a  contour  on  the  model  and 
the  map.  For  the  next  contour  he  me 
ly  raises  or  lowers  the  dot  by  one  c( 
tour  interval  and  repeats  the  proce 
Nevertheless,  field  work  has  i 
been  completely  eliminated.  To  ma 
tain     correct     scale,     position,     a 


TIME  TOPOGRAPHER  worked  with  an 
ide  and  a  plane  table,  left,  which 
acked  with  supplies  to  survey  site. 


V 


G    O    R   G    E 


.C'.""-^"" 


viTE  Gorge,  Grand  Canyon,  right, 
mapped  at  turn  of  century.  Tinted 
:1  corresponds  to  air  view,  below. 


AL   PHOTO   shows   fidelity  of  map. 
rado  River  scoured  the  mile-deep 

<■.     I)t-Il Kip     C  (IIlll)UI-    .llf    (  Iit1-. 


\^^ 


35 


Hoover   Dam,   lower   left,   above,   is         of  topographic  map.  Surveys  before 
shown  in  enlargement  of  small  part         flooding  yielded  submerged  contours. 


Overhead  aerial  view  of  Lake  Mead 
and  Hoover  Dam,  bottom  center,  above, 
is  step  in  preparation  of  such  a  map. 

36 


Promontory  Point  and  Hoover  Dam 
are  seen  in  an  oblique  photo.  Compare 
this  view  with  the  illustrations  at  left. 


orientation  of  the  map  and  of  eac 
stereo  model  used  to  prepare  it,  ai 
to  insure  accurate  positions  and  el 
vations  of  the  features  shown,  son 
field  measurements  are  still  neede 
For  this  purpose,  points  that  are  di 
tinctly  recognizable  on  the  picture  a 
identified  on  the  ground,  and  contr 
surveys  are  run  to  determine  the 
latitude,  longitude,  and  elevation, 
needed.  Some  of  these  control  poir 
are  marked  on  the  ground  with  ol 
cial  bronze  or  aluminum  tablets  set 
masonry  or  rock,  and  are  shown  ( 
the  maps  by  appropriate  symbo 
They  are  useful  as  a  reference  datu 
for  many  other  kinds  of  surveys.  0th 
points,  intended  only  for  the  specii 
mapping  project,  are  not  so  marke 
After  the  photographic  models  ha 
been  assembled  and  adjusted  to  fit  t 
ground  control,  and  after  all  t 
visible  topographic  detail  has  be 
transferred  to  the  map  manuscri] 
there  is  still  need  for  further  field  i 
vestigation.  A  competent  "field  co; 
pletion"    surveyor    takes    the    mar 


ipt  into  the  field  with  his  plane 
le  and  alidade.  By  a  few  judicious 
asurenaents  he  tests  the  accuracy  of 

office  compilation.  He  verifies  the 
)togrammetrist's  interpretation  of 
p  detail.  Was  that  break  in  the 
sds  a  trail  or  a  mountain  stream? 
hat  building  a  barn  or  a  factory? 

adds  detail  that  was  obscured  by 
ise   foliage   or   by   heavy   shadow. 

obtains  information  on  political 
mdaries.  place  names,  and  similar 
a  not  obtainable  from  the  photo- 
phs.  After  field  completion,  the 
nuscript  is  returned  to  the  office  for 
ting,  cartographic  processing,  and, 
mately,  publication. 

^HE  basic  responsibility  for  pre- 
paring and  publishing  general 
pose  topographic  maps  of  the 
ited  States  and  its  outlying  areas 
been  assigned  to  the  United  States 
(logical  Survey.  The  topographic 
ps  prepared  by  other  government 
ncies  in  connection  with  their  regu- 
activities  are  edited  and  published 


by  the  Geological  Survey  and  are  in- 
cluded in  the  National  Topographic 
Map  Series.  The  standard  map  unit  is 
a  quadrangle,  a  four-sided  figure 
bounded  by  parallels  of  latitude  and 
meridians  of  longitude.  The  area 
covered  by  a  quadrangle  map  depends 
on  the  size  of  the  quadrangle  and  its 
location  with  respect  to  latitude.  For 
example,  a  7Vo-minute  quadrangle, 
covering  71,4  minutes  of  latitude  by 
7V2  minutes  of  longitude,  usually  at  a 
scale  of  1 :24.000  I  or  one  inch  to  2,000 
feet  I,  may  have  an  area  between  49 
and  70  square  miles;  a  15-minute 
quadrangle,  usually  at  a  scale  of 
1:62,500  (approximately  one  inch  to 
the  mile ) ,  may  have  an  area  between 
197  and  280  square  miles.  Another 
important  series,  at  the  scale  of 
1 :250,000,  covers  one  degree  of  lati- 
tude by  two  degrees  of  longitude,  with 
areas  varying  between  6,346  and  8,669 
square  miles. 

Approximately  70  per  cent  of  the 
United  States  is  covered  by  accurate 
modern  maps  in  the  7V2-minute  and 


15-minute  series,  and  an  active  pro- 
gram is  under  way  to  complete  this 
coverage  as  soon  as  possible.  Cover- 
age in  the  1 :250,000-scale  series  is  vir- 
tually complete  today.  A  descriptive 
folder  on  topographic  maps,  index 
circulars  for  each  state  showing  the 
availability  of  specific  maps,  and 
other  map  information  may  be  ob- 
tained from  the  Map  Information  Of- 
fice, U.S.  Geological  Survey,  Wash- 
ington 25,  D.C. 

In  this  article  we  have  touched  only 
briefly  on  topographic  maps— what 
they  are,  how  they  are  made,  what 
they  show,  how  they  can  be  obtained, 
and  a  few  of  their  uses.  Many  excel- 
lent books  have  been  written  on  this 
subject  and  on  specific  aspects  of  it. 
To  a  student  of  nature  and  natural 
history,  the  topographic  map  presents 
an  invaluable  record  of  the  evolution 
of  the  earth's  surface:  what  happened 
to  it  in  the  past,  and  what  is  hap- 
pening today.  The  topographic  map 
is  a  powerful  tool  in  nature  study 
that  is  all  too  frequently  overlooked. 


fm^^r: 


-^        -^;'~-  •-. 


>*■  ■    •    -■jg'^^ 


Return  of  the  Beavei 

Economic  factors  have  had  a  large  bearing  on  population  flu: 


By  Sydney  Anderson 


THE  HISTORY  of  the  North  American  beaver  presents  a 
conservation  problem  that  has  affected  many  of  our 
continent's  natural  resources— that  of  maintaining  a  proper 
balance  between  overexploitation  and  overprotection.  The 
beaver  first  became  a  significant  economic  entity  during 
the  sixteenth  century  as  fur  trade  originating  in  North 
America  attained  large-scale  international  proportions.  At 
first,  trade  was  carried  on  only  to  a  limited  degree  by 
French  fishermen  who  got  furs  from  Indians  in  exchange 
for  trinkets.  The  prices  these  pelts  brought  in  Europe  pro- 
vided an  incentive  for  many  of  the  fishermen  to  become 
full-time  trappers,  but  most  of  their  activities  were  carried 
out  along  the  coast.  As  the  demand  for  hats,  trimmings,  fur 
for  linings,  and  leather  shoes  began  to  increase  toward  the 

38 


end  of  the  sixteenth  century,  Henry  IV  of  France  saw  ; 
fur  trade  a  way  of  building  an  economic  empire.  With  th 
vision,  he  sent  many  explorers  to  the  coasts  of  Nova  Scot 
and  Newfoundland. 

But  although  it  was  the  French  who  led  the  way,  it  w; 
ultimately  the  powerful  Hudson's  Bay  Company— create 
in  1670— that  came  to  dominate  the  fur  trade  in  Norl 
America.  While  Europe  provided  Hudson's  Bay  and  lessi 
companies  with  a  market  for  marten,  otter,  wolverin 
mink,  and  other  pelts,  the  largest  demand  by  far  was  fi 
beaver.  It  has  been  estimated  that  between  the  years  18J 
and  1877,  Hudson's  Bay  sold  nearly  three  million  beav 
pelts.  As  the  continent  was  being  settled,  the  range  of  tl 
beaver  was  extensive— from  coast  to  coast  and  from  Alas! 


^sm^ 


When  a  beaver  dives, 
nose  and  ear  valves  shut 
and  remain  closed  until 
the  animal  surfaces.  The 
beaver  is  able  to  remain 
underwater  15  minutes. 


Heavy  outer  coat,  soft, 
dense  underfur.  and 
body  oils  all  combine 
to  keep  animal  warm 
and  insulate  it  against 
icy  streams  and  cold  air. 


39 


to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  with  the  exception  of  the  frozen 
tundra  and  some  drier  areas  of  the  interior.  Subjected  to 
continuous  exploitation  over  many  decades,  however,  they 
began  to  disappear— first  from  local  streams,  then  from 
river  systems,  and  finally  from  entire  states.  About  1900, 
when  the  beaver  population  in  the  United  States  fell  to  its 
lowest  level,  many  state  legislatures  passed  laws  prohibiting 
beaver  trapping.  In  some  areas,  a  few  of  the  animals  sur- 
vived and  multiplied,  and  some  game  departments  obtained 
beavers  from  other  states  and  released  them  in  the  wild. 
Gradually,  the  beavers  spread  as  the  young  sought  new 
homesites,  moving  upstream,  downstream,  and  overland- 
becoming  abundant  again  in  habitats  where  their  numbers 


had  been  virtually  exterminated.  In  Illinois,  for  exampl 
the  beaver  population  had  nearly  disappeared  by  1912. 1 
1924,  beavers  were  reintroduced,  and  by  1950  they  wei 
found  in  45  of  the  102  counties  in  the  state  and  numberf 
over  3,500.  By  1954,  beaver  were  in  55  counties. 

As  beavers  became  more  numerous,  so  did  complain 
that  they  were  cutting  crops,  flooding  cultivated  lands  wil 
their  dams,  and  damming  up  irrigation  ditches.  At  firs 
game  managers  tried  trapping  them  alive  and  moving  the 
to  other  areas.  This  method  of  control  was  expensive,  ar 
it  eventually  became  ineffective  as  the  beavers  sprea 
Other  methods  were  tried;  sometimes,  state  employei 
trapped  and  pelted  the  beavers,  special  hunting  permi 
were  granted  to  landowners  troubled  by  the  animals,  ar 
occasionally  open  seasons  were  declared.  In  many  state 
economic  factors  have  had  a  decided  effect  on  the  ups  ai 
downs  of  beaver  management.  In  Illinois,  the  annual  ha 
vest  declined  from  659  in  1951  to  250  in  1955,  althou^ 
the  beaver  population  was  increasing.  The  state  huntir 
and  trapping  regulations  and  the  low  price  for  pelts  di 
couraged  many  trappers. 

CURRENTLY,  we  are  beginning  to  realize  that  neithi 
uncontrolled  exploitation  nor  absolute  protection 
satisfactory  in  regulating  the  beaver  population.  The  be 
management  must  be  based  on  such  factors  as  reprodu 
tive  and  mortality  rates,  food  supplies,  and  degree  ar 
rate  of  dispersal. 

Having  traced  the  pendulum-like  fortunes  of  the  beav 
in  North  America,  it  is  appropriate  to  examine,  at  lea 
briefly,  the  object  of  so  much  intellectual,  economic,  ar 
legislative  attention.   Many  books  and   articles  have,  < 


Beavers  have  a  varied 
diet,  such  as  duckweed 
and  many  other  aquatic 
plants,  grass,  shrubs,  the 
roots  of  soil  plants,  bark 
and  outer  layers  of  trees. 


Dams  are  usually  built 
only  in  smaller  streams. 
By  raising  water  levels, 
they  provide  pools  in 
which  beavers  store  food 
and  hide  from  predators. 

40 


SPLIT  claws  on  webbed  hind  feet  groom  fur,  spreading 
proofing  oil.  The  forefeet,  center,  manipulate  foods. 


Upper  incisors  hold  the  wood,  while  the  lower  pair  cut. 
Lips  draw  tight  behind  teeth  and  permit  underwater  cutting. 


16,  been  written  about  the  beaver— perhaps  because 
with  his  capacity  to  build  things,  is  especially  inter- 
in  animals  that  also  have  the  ability  to  construct, 
d  in  Eurasia  as  well  as  North  America,  beavers  are 
orld's  second  largest  rodents;  only  the  South  Ameri- 
:apybara  is  bigger.  American  beavers  are  usually 
ded  as  a  species,  Castor  canadensis,  separate  from 
'Id  World  Castor  fiber.  At  one  time,  however,  Ameri- 
eavers  were  introduced  into  Finland,  where  they  inter- 
with  native  beavers  and  produced  fertile  offspring, 


which  indicates  that  probably  all  the  living  beavers  are 
members  of  the  same  species. 

In  the  Pleistocene,  another  North  American  beaver  was 
the  giant  Castoroides,  whose  remains  have  been  found 
in  several  widely  separated  northern  states,  indicating  its 
extensive  range.  From  nose  to  tail,  they  measured  over 
seven  feet— longer  than  a  black  bear.  The  average  modern 
beaver  measures  between  three  and  four  feet  and  weighs 
from  thirty  to  seventy-five  pounds.  Like  all  rodents,  beavers 
have  two  pair  of  gnawing  teeth— one  pair  in  the  upper  and 


■m-.i 


Offl*^'  '  ,««.■>;*-, 


41 


Cut  trees  are  peeled  for  food;  the  remainder  may  be  used 
in  dams.  In  winter,  sticks  are  cached  in  mud  beneath  ice. 


Some  trees  cut  by  beavers  measure  more  than  one  foot  in 
diameter.  They  can  fell  smaller  ones  within  a  few  minutes. 


another  in  the  lower  jaw.  A  space  separates  them  frc 
chewing  teeth  that  are  located  farther  back  in  the  mou 
These  large  front  teeth  are  one  of  the  beaver's  most  d 
tinguishing  features  and  enable  it  to  perform  such  fe, 
as  felling  a  tree  more  than  a  foot  and  a  half  in  diamet 
Other  remarkable  anatomical  features  allow  beavers 
thrive  in  water,  while  equally  remarkable  habits  help  thi 
create  and  maintain  conditions  necessary  for  their  surviv 
Underfur  of  an  unusually  soft,  smooth,  and  dense  qual 
traps  air,  insulating  the  beaver's  skin  from  contact  w 
water  or  cold  air.  The  animal's  legs  are  short  and  stroi 
The  large  hind  feet  have  five  webbed  toes,  forming 
powerful  paddle.  The  two  inside  toes  have  split  claws  w 
which  the  beaver  grooms  itself.  The  front  feet  are  smal 
and  not  webbed.  The  "trade-mark"  of  the  beaver,  of  cour 
is  its  broad,  flattened,  scaly  tail.  Ten  to  twelve  inches  lo 
and  six  inches  wide,  it  is  used  for  steering  and  to  a  les: 
extent  for  propulsion  when  the  animal  swims.  The  tail  a 
serves  as  a  prop  when  a  beaver  stands  while  gnawing, 
when  it  carries  mud,  stones,  grass,  or  other  materials  w 
the  forefeet  to  plaster  a  lodge  or  a  dam. 

IN  addition  to  these  two  structures,  beavers  also  bu 
burrows  and  canals.  Dams  are  usually  built  in  smal 
streams  to  raise  the  water  level,  while  canals  are  used 
transport  food,  and  lodges  and  burrows  provide  shel 
from  adverse  weather  or  predators  such  as  bobcats,  moi 
tain  lions,  or  man.  Lodges,  like  dams,  are  usually  built  oi 
in  smaller  streams  and  are  perhaps  the  most  interest! 
beaver  structures.  Roughly  conical  in  shape,  a  lodge  ir 
measure  thirty  feet  across  the  base.  Sometimes  it  beg 
as  a  pile  of  tree  limbs  left  around  a  burrow  or  feeding  pli 
after  the  bark  has  been  eaten.  Converting  such  a  pile  ii 
a  lodge  involves  the  expenditure  of  much  beaver  enerj 
Limbs,  grass,  mud,  and  rocks  are  piled  higher  and  high 
Usually,  more  than  one  underwater  passage  is  built  ii 
the  lodge,  whose  interior  may  be  enlarged  to  six  or  eij 
feet  across.  The  top  of  the  lodge  is  the  thinnest  part  a 
often  allows  some  ventilation.  Although  most  lodges  i 
surrounded  by  water,  some  are  built  against  a  bank 
over  the  entrance  to  a  burrow  in  the  bank. 

While,  as  indicated  earlier,  beaver  habits  have  made  I 
animals  unpopular  with  some  farmers  and  other  las 
owners,  it  should  be  added  that  beaver  structures  often  h< 
positive  effects.  In  parts  of  the  western  United  States,  : 
instance,  beaver  dams  conserve  water  by  slowing  do 
runoff,  and  prove  beneficial  to  agricultural  and  otl 
interests  by  stabilizing  the  flow  of  streams.  Ponds  creal 
by  the  dams  may  also  aid  in  flood  control  by  acting 
catch  basins,  as  well  as  providing  water  for  irrigation 

The  activities  of  the  beaver,  then,  are  both  benefic 
and  detrimental  to  the  interests  of  man— depending  on  1 
circumstances  in  each  local  area.  The  eventual  status 
the  animal  in  terms  of  protecting  and  limiting  its  popu 
tion  will,  in  turn,  be  dependent  upon  continuous  reseai 
carried  on  in  every  environment  where  the  beaver  is  foui 


Beavers  cannot   determine  the  direction  in  which  a  ti 
will  topple,  and  consequently  animals  are  sometimes  kill 

LoDGEHOUSE   Contains  one   large  room,   and   must  be  ni 
deep  water  where  the  entrance  tunnels  can  open  under  i 


y,^ 


/f.mm^ 


"*I3*.  ••>•, 


^- 


5  7,  f 


ALTHOUGH  FISH  are  probably  the 
.  most  obvious  members  of  the 
marine  biota,  it  is  becoming  increas- 
ingly apparent  that  their  importance, 
as  well  as  their  numbers,  is  dwarfed  by 
multitudes  of  smaller,  less-known  or- 
ganisms. A  man  casually  watching  the 
waves  from  ship  or  shore,  or  even  from 
the  vantage  point  of  a  diver,  can  only 
imagine  this  world  that  is  made  up  of 
microorganisms— diatoms,  radiolaria, 
acantharia,  foraminifera,  dinoflagel- 
lates,  yeasts,  molds,  and  bacteria. 

For  obvious  reasons,  more  is  known 
about  the  creatures  that  live  on  the 
edges  of  the  ocean  than  about  those 
inhabiting  the  depths.  Also,  it  is  easier, 
and  certainly  more  economical,  for  a 
biologist  to  put  on  hip  boots  and  wade 
out  a  few  feet  to  collect  organisms  than 
it  is  to  find  a  ship  that  is  equipped  to 
handle  collecting  in  the  open  ocean. 
Fortunately,  as  increasing  emphasis  is 
put  on  studies  of  the  sea,  more  oceano- 
graphic  research  vessels  are  becoming 
available.  For  instance,  we  have  been 
especially  fortunate  in  having  the  co- 
operation and  assistance  of  the  United 
States  Coast  Guard  in  our  studies,  and 
have  traveled  on  a  number  of  their 
patrols  to  make  deep-sea  collections. 

Although  plankton  is  found  in  all 
the  oceans  and  at  all  depths,  water 
rapidly  absorbs  sunlight,  so  that  photo- 
synthetic  organisms  are  rarely  found 
deeper  than  250  feet.  It  is  in  this  photic 
zone  that  the  many  small  animal  spe- 
cies are  found  feeding  on  the  marine 
photosynthetic  algae.  Collecting  them 
is  simply  a  matter  of  straining  out  the 
plankton  from  the  water  with  a  special 
plankton  net— a  large  cone  of  very  fine 
nylon  mesh  attached  to  a  metal  frame. 

Our  primary  interest  has  been  the 
collection  of  planktonic  foraminifera, 
a  large  group  of  marine  amoebae 
that  have  tests,  or  shells,  of  calcite. 
Usually  they  are  relatively  minor  con- 
stituents in  a  mixed  population  of 
organisms  dominated  by  pelagic  crus- 

44 


Tiny  Drifters 
of  the  Sea 


By  John  J.  Lee  and  Hugo  Freudentha 


tacea.  However,  we  have  sometimes 
been  fortunate  enough  to  find  them  in 
large  numbers,  or  "blooms,"  where 
ideal  conditions  have  permitted  the 
foraminifera  to  multiply  rapidly,  over- 
growing other  organisms. 

Recently  we  have  learned  more  about 
the  seasonal  and  spatial  distribution 
of  foraminifera,  and  have  been  able, 
by  culturing  them  in  the  laboratory,  to 
begin  to  understand  their  physiology. 
The  foraminifera  contain  a  number  of 
unusual  cytological  organelles  of  as  yet 
unknown  function.  Perhaps  some  of 
them  serve  as  flotation  devices,  since  a 
freshly  collected  foraminifer  will  sink 
like  a  stone.  The  noted  biomathemati- 
cian  Sir  D'Arcy  Thompson  remarked 
on  this  apparent  paradox  nearly  fifty 
years  ago.  Indeed,  it  is  difficult  to 
understand  how  an  armor-encased 
amoeba  can  be  found  floating  within  a 
few  meters  of  the  surface  in  water  more 
than  five  miles  deep.  Many  foramini- 
fera, as  well  as  the  radiolaria,  acan- 
tharia, and  some  pelagic  diatoms,  bear 
spines.  These  structures  increase  the 
surface  area  of  the  organism,  allowing 
it  to  plane  near  the  surface  on  the 
turbulence  of  the  waves. 

THE  left  center  photograph  shows 
a  mixed  group  of  foraminifera. 
Globigerina  hulloides  is  the  yellower, 
more  rotund  species,  while  Globoro- 
talia  truncatulinoides  is  the  flatter  and 
the  more  closely  coiled  one.  Next  to 
these  (right  center)  is  an  individual 
Orbulina  sp..  one  of  the  most  beautiful 
of  the  spined  foraminifera.  It  is  a 
creamy-white,  glossy  sphere,  some  750 
microns  in  diameter  (1.000  microns 
equal  one  millimeter).  In  addition  to 
the  long  spines,  pseudopodial  append- 
ages extend  through  the  delicate  round 
holes  in  the  test. 

We  have  often  found  radiolaria  and 
their  close  relatives,  the  acantharia, 
in  dense  blooms  accompanying  the 
foraminifera   during  the  winter   and 


spring  months  in  the  North  Atlanti 
These  radially  symmetrical,  spined  an 
mals  are  among  the  most  beautiful  an 
delicate  creatures  to  be  found  in  tl 
sea.  Their  shells,  while  intricate 
pierced  like  those  of  the  foraminifer 
are  not  of  calcite  but  of  biological 
secreted  silica  glass.  Beneath  the  shf 
lies  a  central  capsular  body  of  cyb 
plasm  often  colored  yellow,  red,  brow 
violet,  blue,  or  green  by  the  preseiK 
of  oil  droplets.  Most  radiolaria  ran; 
in  size  from  100  to  500  microns  ar 
are  well  represented  in  the  oceans. 

THE  acantharia  are  close  reli 
tives,  both  phj'logenetically  an 
morphologically,  of  the  radiolaria,  bi 
differ  in  that  they  have  a  thin  mar 
brane  around  the  central  capsule,  an 
their  skeletal  material  is  constructed  i 
strontium  and  calcium  sulfates  in  add 
tion  to  silicates.  Because  the  acanthar 
are  able  to  absorb,  concentrate,  an 
incorporate  strontium  as  a  part  of  the 
normal  metabolic  processes  they  ai 
uniquely  useful  in  various  studies  ( 
radioactive  fallout  over  the  great  e: 
pauses  of  the  oceans  of  the  world. 

The  largest  and  most  elegant  of  a 
the  animals  that  we  have  collecte 
are  the  medusae.  These  are  mult 
cellular,  radially  symmetrical  coelei 
terates  ranging  in  size  from  one  to  iii 
millimeters  in  diameter.  They  may  1 
variously  colored  or  nearly  transpa 
ent.  They  prey  on  clam  larvae,  cop 
pods,  and  ostracods  by  using  rows  i 
'"stinging  cells"  borne  on  arms  thi 
surround  a  central  digestive  cavity. 

From  the  standpoint  of  classic 
ecology,  the  sea  has  been  considerf 
a  relatively  infertile  environment.  Tl 
increasing  world  population,  with  i 
demands  for  a  higher  standard  of  e: 
istence,  is  now  forcing  all  nations  1 
reappraise  their  views  about  the  sea 
productivity  and,  in  many  cases,  1 
embark  on  basic  research  progran 
concerned  with  marine  microbial  lif 


Mixed  planktonic  foraminifera 


Spherical  foraminifer 


i^H* 


% 


# 


# 


• 


Planktonic  medusa 


Migration  in  Maine 


Eastern  brook  trout  are  threatened  by  man-made  obstacles 


DUT  leaps  falls  to  reach  remote 
grounds   in   Misery   Stream. 


Low-water  period,  before  late  autumn 
rains,  precedes  the  October  trout  run. 


\UL   J.    FOURNIER 

lY  AUTUMN,  far  up  on  the  lonely 
!adwaters  of  Misery  Stream  in 
estern  Maine,  an  event  takes 
lat  is  seldom  witnessed  save  by 
asional  woodsman  or  a  disin- 

I  moose  or  deer— the  spawning 
ion  and  courtship  of  Salvelinus 
lis,  the  brook  trout. 

fish,  also  known  afEectionately 
rlers  as  brookie,  redspot,  or 
ail,  is  a  member  of  that  large 
of  so-called  cold-water  fishes 
to  ichthvologists  as  salmonoids, 
nclude  most  of  the  fishes  known 
nly  as  trout  and  salmon.  As  do 
if  its  cold-water  cousins,  the 
trout  spawns  in  the  fall, 
big  trout  of  northern  Maine, 
for  a  relatively  few  "resident" 
refer  the  region's  deep,  cold 
id  ponds  to  the  streams,  which 
id  primarily  as  breeding  and 
'  areas.  The  approach  of  the 
g  season  manifests  itself  in 
s  northern  areas  as  early  as  mid- 
when  miles  of  the  traditional 
and  summer  fishing  spots  in  the 
ecome  virtually  bare  of  sizable 
lost  overnight.  That  is  the  time 
le  trout  emerge  from  their  mid- 
r  lethargy  and  embark  upon  the 
iges  of  the  dangerous  journey 

II  reach  its  climax  a  couple  of 
later  on  spawning  beds  far  up 

ler  streams  and  rivers, 
ng  late  August  and  early  Sep- 
the  trout  cease  feeding  and 
congregate  at  the  mouths  of 
tributaries.  Throughout  this 
with  fish  packed  into  relatively 
reas,  knowledgeable  fishermen 
ap  a  bounteous  harvest.  The 
tirred  to  a  high  pitch  of  excite- 
rike  pugnaciously  at  practically 
e  presented  to  them. 


Another  manifestation  of  the  ap- 
proaching spawning  season  is  the  un- 
usual appearance  of  the  trout  brought 
in  by  the  fall  fishermen.  The  roe-heavy 
females  have  a  distended,  rounded  con- 
formation. The  bellies  and  fins  of  the 
male  are  alive  with  color  that  ranges 
from  glowing  orange  to  nearly  blood- 
red.  The  red  and  black  spots  on  the 
body  deepen  and  show  very  promi- 
nently. In  addition,  some  of  the  larger 
males  grow  a  hook,  known  as  a  "kype," 
at  the  tip  of  the  lower  jaw.  The  pur- 
pose of  the  kype  is  a  mystery  to  ichthy- 
ologists. It  is  common  to  most  salmon- 
oids, especially  the  salmon  group. 

The  trout  usually  remain  schooled  at 
mouths  of  the  tributaries  until  mid- 
October,  waiting  for  conditions— espe- 
cially the  water  temperature— to  be 
right  before  starting  the  upstream 
push.  Usually  the  most-favored  spawn- 
ing beds  are  miles  upstream,  and  the 
intervening  mileage  is  composed 
chiefly  of  boulder-studded  rapids  and 
riffles.  The  trout  must  fight  up  every 
inch  of  the  way.  often  being  forced  to 
leap  over  small  waterfalls  and  the  rem- 
nants of  old  logging  dams.  Lumber- 
men's log-driving  dams  have  often 
formed  insurmountable  barriers  to  the 
migrating  fish,  and  even  the  dam- 
building  efforts  of  beavers  frequently 
bar  the  way  to  the  coveted  spawning 
grounds.  Maine  biologists  and  game 
wardens  often  tear  down  or  dynamite 
portions  of  these  old  dams  to  make 
passageways  for  the  fish. 

Adding  to  the  journey's  hazards  are 
a  host  of  predators.  Chief  among  these 
in  the  Maine  area  are  mink  and  otter. 
I  received  firsthand  proof  of  this  one 
day  last  fall.  I  approached  a  small 
waterfall  to  watch  the  fish  leaping  and 
arrived  just  in  time  to  see  a  large  mink 
emerge  from  the  deep  pool  below  the 
falls,  stagKerina;  under  the  weiofht  of  a 


trout  nearly  as  long  as  itself,  and  drag 
its  prize  under  a  nearby  brush  pile.  On 
another  occasion,  while  checking  the 
spawning  beds  farther  upstream,  my 
attention  was  attracted  to  a  tall  clump 
of  grass  on  the  stream  bank  when  a 
Canada  jay  dropped  into  it.  A  moment 
later  it  popped  up  again  with  some- 
thing hanging  from  its  bill.  I  parted 
the  grass  and  found  a  mound  of  eggs, 
a  few  entrails,  and  a  couple  of  large 
fins— all  that  remained  of  what  had  ob- 
viously been  a  good-sized  female  trout. 

One  Maine  fishery  biologist  told  me 
he  has  often  caught  blue  herons  in  the 
act  of  killing  trout  (they  kill  large  fish 
by  stabbing  them  in  the  spine  with 
their  sharp  bills! ,  and  he  believes  they 
may  take  a  heavy  toll  of  the  spawners 
when  they  are  jammed  into  the  narrow 
confines  of  the  spawning  beds.  And,  of 
course,  there  are  the  human  poachers. 

Most  Maine  game  men  and  woods- 
men are  of  the  opinion  that  the  area's 
healthy  population  of  black  bears  prey 
little,  if  at  all.  on  the  spawning  trout, 
as  do  their  famous  salmon-fishing 
cousins  of  the  Pacific  Northwest.  This 
they  attribute  to  the  fact  that  the 
Maine  trout  are  not  driven  by  the 
frenzied,  do-or-die  determination  of 
the  northern  Pacific  salmon  and, 
therefore,  are  more  likely  to  shy  away 
from  anything  as  large  and  menacing 
as  a  black  bear. 

ON  the  other  hand.  I  once  saw  trout 
acting  in  a  most  irrational  man- 
ner. Several  days  of  torrential  rains 
had  brought  the  stream  up  over  its 
banks,  and  the  water  pouring  over  the 
falls  was  too  much  for  the  trout  to 
scale.  They  were  trapped  in  the  pool 
for  several  days,  and  in  desperate  at- 
tempts to  clear  the  obstacle  many 
leaped  along  the  edges  of  the  rushing 
water  and  slammed  head-on  into  the 
stone  ledges,  where  a  number  of  them 
lay  on  the  bare  rocks  for  several 
seconds,  stunned  by  the  impact.  In- 
deed, when  I  stepped  close  to  the 
water's  edge  to  see  them  better,  several 
crashed  against  my  feet  and  legs  with 
such  force  that  I  had  to  step  back  to 
avoid  actual  injury.  Had  I  been  so  in- 
clined, I  could  easily  have  picked  up 
all  the  trout  I  wanted  with  my  bare 
hands.  Presumably,  a  bear  would  have 
made  the  most  of  the  situation,  and 
certainly  the  bulk  of  my  body  and  my 
movements  must  have  appeared  as 
menacing  as  a  bear's  to  a  fish's  eye. 
Yet,  driven  by  the  urge  to  propagate, 
they  were  heedless  of  my  presence. 

47 


Fishery   biologist  digs  a  passageway 
for  the  trout  through  old  beaver  dam. 


Canada  jay  eats  dead  fish.  Note  eggs 
on  the  bird's  beak  and  near  its  feet. 


Salvelinus  has  always  been  particu- 
lar in  selecting  a  habitat  and  especially 
the  spawning  grounds.  For  one  thing, 
it  is  probably  one  of  the  least  tolerant 
of  all  fishes  to  polluted  or  silted  waters. 
For  another,  the  brook  trout  is  truly  a 
cold-water  fish.  It  is  seldom  found  in 
waters  warmer  than  60  to  65  degrees 
and  generally  prefers  it  colder.  Ideally, 
the  bottom  of  a  spawning  stream  is 
composed  of  coarse  gravel,  loose 
rubble,  or  fine,  clean  sand.  Whenever 
possible,  the  trout  also  chooses  a 
stretch  of  stream  bed  that  is  fed  by 
underground  springs  that  insure  a 
constant  supply  of  cold,  clean  water- 
especially  in  spots  where  the  tempera- 
ture is  near  the  ideal  egg-incubation 
point  of  40  degrees. 

THE  trout  generally  stay  on  the  beds 
for  several  days  to  a  week  or  more, 
and  their  presence  is  marked  by  con- 
siderable thrashing  and  splashing.  The 
males,  now  aggressively  vying  for  the 
females'  attentions,  engage  in  many 
battles,  marked  by  nipping,  shoving, 
and  lightning-fast  chases  upstream 
and  downstream.  A  fishery  biologist 
reported  he  had  once  watched  a  pair 
of  lusty  males  lock  jaws  and  roll  over 
and  over  a  long  stretch  of  rapids. 

Apparently  oblivious  to  this  vio- 
lence staged  for  her  benefit,  the  female 
critically  selects  a  suitable  site  and 
busies  herself  in  preparing  the  "redd," 
or  nest.  Lying  on  her  side  near  the 
bottom,  she  violently  flaps  her  blunt, 
powerful  caudal  fin  and  caudal  ped- 
uncle (tail  fin  and  muscular  tail  root) 
up  and  down.  Currents  generated  by 

48 


the  action  loosen  bottom  material  and 
wash  it  downstream.  Alternately  flap- 
ping and  resting,  she  remains  at  the 
task  until  the  nest's  dimensions  suit 
her.  Generally  it  is  from  four  to  twelve 
inches  deep,  and  one  to  two  feet  in 
diameter,  depending  to  some  extent  on 
her  size.  Then  the  female  slowly  swims 
in  over  the  nest  and  remains  nearly 
motionless,  while  one  or  sometimes 
two  males  move  next  to  her.  pressing 
against  her  sides.  Eggs  and  milt  are 
released  simultaneously.  Fertilization 
(in  the  form  of  the  male  spermatozoa 
entering  the  ovum  through  a  tiny  aper- 
ture called  the  micropyle,  which  is 
open  for  scarcely  two  minutes  after 
the  egg  is  released ) ,  takes  place  as  they 
drop  into  the  nest  and  are  mixed  by 
currents.  The  female  then  immediately 
moves  upstream  and  loosens  some  bot- 
tom material,  which  is  carried  down- 
stream and  covers  the  fertilized  eggs. 
The  process  of  spawning  is  a  tre- 
mendous, body-sapping  ordeal  to  the 
trout.  For  weeks  they  have  been 
battling  the  obstacles  of  frothing-white 
rapids,  leaping  over  near-vertical 
waterfalls,  and  evading  a  host  of  pred- 
ators. Yet,  overnight  the  stream  is 
left  nearly  empty  of  fish,  as  the  trout 
race  downstream  to  the  lake  or  pond 
from  whence  they  came.  There,  under 
the  protective  mantle  of  winter  ice  that 
sheaths  the  waters,  they  spend  a  rela- 
tively quiet  winter,  feeding  and  slowly 
regaining  the  strength  that  was  lost 
during  the  non-feeding  period  before 
spawning.  It  takes  them  many  weeks  to 
recuperate,  and  many  do  not  show 
their  characteristic  vitality  until  late 


winter  or  early  spring.  Some  probal 
do  not  survive. 

Meanwhile,  water  percolati 
through  the  loose  bottom  gravel  of 
spawning  beds  keeps  the  fertilized  ei 
moist  and  supplied  with  oxygen  dur: 
the  incubation  period,  which  vai 
with  the  water  temperature  and  ta 
about  90  days  at  40  degrees  Fahr 
heit.  After  hatching,  the  young  troi 
now  known  as  sac  fry  or  prolarva 
remain  in  the  nest  for  many  m 
weeks,  taking  nourishment  from 
yolk  sac  until  it  is  absorbed.  At  t 
point  they  wriggle  up  through 
gravel   and   emerge   into   the   stre; 


ust  contain  ample  nursery 
ir  the  advanced  fry  remain  in 
im  from  one  to  three  years. 
:heir  early  life,  the  young  feed 
y  on  immature  aquatic  insects 
er  minute  animal  life,  later 
ng  to  larger  insects  and  finally 
fish.  Growth  rate  varies  con- 
,',  depending  on  the  individual 
productivity,  but  generally 
ich  the  legal  length  of  six  to 
;hes  in  their  second  year. 
inus  fontinalis  has  long  been 
3  aristocrat  of  the  game  fish 
f  sport  fishermen.  Originally 
to  waters  from  Labrador 
"d  along  the  Appalachians  to 
and  westward  to  the  upper 
(pi  River  waters,  its  popu- 
s  caused  the  species  to  be  in- 
to many  parts  of  the  world. 
3  its  range  has  thus  been  vastly 
id  artificially,  its  natural 
as  been  drastically  reduced  in 
mes. 

f  the  waters  in  which  it  has 
oduced  come  anywhere  near 
the  exacting  requirements  of 
m  water  and  extensive  spawn- 
nursery  areas.  In  addition, 
the  waters  already  contain 
)ulations  of  other  fish  species, 
5  such  fiercely  competitive 
brown  trout  and  the  undesir- 
igh,"  or  "trash"  fish,  such  as 
srch,  with  which  the  trout  is 
)ed  to  compete.  The  brook 
ives  best  when  it  alone,  except 


c  BEDS  reached,  the  trout  will 
iiake  nests  to  receive  the  eggs. 


for  small  forage  fish,  occupies  a  fish- 
ery. In  many  of  the  stocked  waters,  few 
breeding  fish— probably  less  than  10 
per  cent— survive  from  one  year  to  an- 
other, and  much  of  the  trout  popula- 
tion exists  on  a  put-and-take  proposi- 
tion, governed  by  the  output  of  the 
hatcheries  and  the  regularity  of  the 
stock  truck's  visits.  In  the  wild,  per- 
haps 50  per  cent  survive. 

EVEN  on  their  traditional  home 
grounds  of  the  northeast,  the 
brook  trout  are  now  inexorably  losing 
ground  before  the  advance  of  civiliza- 
tion. More  and  more  waters  are  be- 
coming polluted.  Forests  are  being 
stripped  off,  with  subsequent  warming 
and  drying  and  increased  silting-in  of 
waterways.  Undesirable  fish  species 
are  infesting  once-exclusive  trout 
waters.  Many  experienced  woodsmen 
are  of  the  opinion  that  a  prime  trout- 
producing  stream,  such  as  Misery,  is 
"worth  every  fish  hatchery  in  the 
state ! "  Fishery  biologists  won't  go  that 
far,  but  they  readily  admit  that  natural 
reproduction  of  trout  is  more  efficient 
than  artificial  production.  They  have 
also  become  convinced  that  spawn 
from  wild  stock  is  far  superior  to  that 
produced  artificially  and  purchased 
from  out  of  state,  and  as  a  result  the 
Maine  Fish  and  Game  Department's 
Hatchery  Division  recently  began 
trapping  wild  spawning  trout  and 
stripping  them  of  their  eggs.  From 
these  they  hope  to  develop  a  strain  of 

FiNGERLiNGS  are  in  "nursery"  stream, 
where  they  stay  for  one  to  three  years. 


fish  that  will  become  brood  fish  as 
adults  and  will  supply  embryos  for 
future  stocking  of  streams. 

The  eastern  brook  trout  still  manage 
to  make  their  annual  pilgrimage  to 
their  ancient  spawning  grounds  as 
they  have  done  for  millenniums,  de- 
spite the  ever  increasing  obstacles 
thrown  in  their  paths  by  man  and  his 
"improvements,"  which  unfortunately 
include  pollution,  dams,  bulldozers, 
and  the  thoughtless  sowing  of  exotic 
fish  species.  If  such  programs  continue 
or  expand,  the  existence  of  wild  trout 
will  become  increasingly  precarious. 


•^'^^S*^^"lS^'tfSw 


'%i. 


SKY 
REPORTER 

The  wondrous  rings  of  Saturn 


By  Thomas  D.  Nicholson 

ONE  of  the  most  widely  used  astronomical  symbols  is 
that  of  a  ringed  planet.  The  use  of  this  symbol  is  a 
little  strange  in  one  way,  for  ringed  worlds  are  not  at 
all  common.  So  far  as  we  know,  there  is  only  one— the 
planet  Saturn— in  all  of  the  universe.  It  is  unique  and 
beautiful  to  behold,  in  telescope  or  in  photograph,  and 
somehow  stimulates  interest  and  challenges  the  imagina- 
tion. These  are  probably  the  reasons  why  Saturn  and  its 
rings  are  so  popular  as  a  symbol  of  astronomy.  These  are 
also  some  of  the  reasons  why  the  rings  were  the  second  of 
the  Seven  Wonders  of  the  Universe  chosen  by  astronomers 
at  The  American  Museum-Hayden  Planetarium. 

Saturn  should  be  easy  to  find  in  the  evening  sky  during 
October.  It  is  in  the  constellation  Aquarius  (see  map,  page 
53),  high  in  the  southeast  during  early  evening  hours. 
Meridian  passage  (when  Saturn  is  in  the  south)  occurs  at 
about  9:30  p.m.,  local  mean  time,  at  the  beginning  of  the 
month,  about  an  hour  earlier  in  the  middle,  and  two  hours 
earlier  at  the  end  of  the  month. 

Once  found,  Saturn  offers  anyone  with  a  small  telescope, 
or  even  a  pair  of  good,  steadily  mounted  binoculars,  an 
interesting  opportunity  to  relive  some  of  the  great  mysteries 
and  discoveries  in  astronomy.  This  October  the  rings  of 
Saturn  are  inclined  to  our  line  of  sight  from  earth  by  about 
10  degrees.  We  are  looking  down  at  the  north  face  of  the 
rings  and  can  see  Saturn's  north  pole  on  the  visible  hemi- 
sphere. At  this  inclination  it  would  be  difficult  to  identify 
rings  around  the  planet  with  a  small  optical  device,  but 
patient  watching  with  a  well-steadied  instrument  should 
easily  show  that  there  is  something  peculiar  about  Saturn 
—that  it  is  not  simply  a  spherical  object  but  has  an  append- 
age of  some  kind  on  either  side  of  it.  This  is  precisely  what 
Galileo  saw  in  July,  1610.  when  he  looked  at  Saturn  for 
the  first  time  with  a  telescope,  for  Saturn  and  its  rings  were 
oriented  for  him  just  about  the  w^ay  they  are  for  us  this  year. 

"I  have  observed  Saturn  to  be  triple  .  .  ."'  Galileo  wrote 
to  his  colleagues,  as  his  explanation  for  the  strange  ap- 
pearance of  the  planet.  But  it  was  to  become  stranger  still 
for  the  astronomer.  By  1612,  Galileo,  although  he  did  not 
realize  it,  was  looking  directly  along  the  plane  of  Saturn's 
rings,  because  the  earth  was  then  located  very  nearly  in  the 
ring  plane.  The  appendages  he  had  seen  in  1610  had  disap- 
peared completely,  and  Saturn  simply  looked  like  a  single 
disk,  just  as  it  will  appear  to  us  in  1966  when  the  earth 
again  passes  through  the  plane  of  the  rings.  Not  knowing 
what  he  was  looking  at.  Galileo  asked  in  a  letter,  "Has 
Saturn,  perhaps,  eaten  his  own  children?  Or  were  the 
appearances  [of  1610]  indeed  illusion  or  fraud?" 

50 


The  mystery  of  the  changing  appearance  of  Saturn  v 
explained  by  the  Dutch  astronomer  Christian  Huygens. 
first  put  forward  his  ideas  in  1656  in  the  form  of  an  ai 
gram,  which  reads  literally,  "It  [Saturn]  is  encircled 
a  ring,  thin,  plane,  nowhere  attached,  inclined  to  1 
ecliptic."  Later,  in  1659.  he  wrote  the  Systema  Saturniu 
in  which  he  described  and  explained  his  hypothesis  to  i 
count  for  the  changes  in  Saturn's  appearance. 

ACCORDING  to  Huygens,  Saturn  was  encircled  around 
equator  by  a  broad,  but  thin  ring  that  was  visil 
because  of  reflected  sunlight,  when  it  was  tilted  with  resp 
to  the  earth.  The  plane  of  this  ring,  because  of  the  inclii 
tion  of  Saturn's  equator,  is  inclined  to  the  ecliptic  by  ab( 
27  degrees.  Most  times,  the  earth  is  located  above  or  bel 
the  plane  of  the  rings,  so  that  we  can  see  one  face  or  anotl 
of  the  ring  tilted  to  our  line  of  sight.  But  on  two  occasic 
during  each  revolution  of  Saturn  around  the  sun  (29 
years ) ,  the  earth  is  in  the  plane  of  the  ring  so  that  it 
invisible  to  us.  This  explanation  of  Huygens'  accounted  i 
the  great  variations  in  the  appearance  of  Saturn  reporl 
by  Galileo  and  others.  It  happened  that  Galileo  discovei 
the  abnormal  appearance  of  Saturn  at  a  time  when  the : 
of  the  ring  was  slight  and  decreasing  swiftly.  Had  he  ( 
served  it  at  another  time,  he  might  himself  have  guess 
at  its  true  nature. 

Up  to  this  point,  we  have  spoken  of  a  "ring,"  for  it  v 
not  until  1675  that  anyone  suspected  that  it  was  not  men 
a  single  disk  that  surrounded  the  planet.  Giovanni  Cassi 


an  director  of  the  Paris  Observatory,  reported  that 
seen  a  dark  band  extending  through  the  ring.  He 
observed  that  "the  breadth  of  the  ring  was  divided 
rk  line  into  two  equal  parts,  of  which  the  interior 
irer  one  to  the  globe  was  very  bright,  and  the  ex- 
lart  slightly  dark."  A  third  ring  was  observed  by 
erican  astronomer  G.  P.  Bond  of  Harvard  College 
itory  in  1850.  Bond  saw  a  faint,  dusky  light  filling 
ion  inside  of  Saturn's  bright  ring,  clearly  casting 
w  on  Saturn.  The  new  ring  was  separated  from  the 
les  by  a  faintly  seen  dark  band,  and  its  inner  edge 
ierved  to  be  short  of  the  visible  surface  of  Saturn 
rhe  semitransparent,  veil-like  appearance  of  this 
5st  ring  prompted  the  English  astronomer  W.  Las- 
lame  it  the  crepe  ring. 

we  now  know  that  the  rings  of  Saturn  are  three: 
,  the  outer  ring;  Ring  B,  the  central  and  brightest 
id  Ring  C,  faintest  of  all,  the  crepe  ring.  The  linear 
r  across  the  entire  ring  system  is  about  169,300 
ling  A  is  about  10,150  miles  wide.  The  gap  between 
;r  and  inner  rings,  known  as  Cassini's  division,  is 
,750  miles  across.  Then  comes  Ring  B,  widest  of 
le  16,450  miles  across.  Inside  this,  with  no  appre- 
ivision,  is  Ring  C,  the  crepe  ring,  about  9,850  miles 
The  inner  edge  of  the  crepe  ring  is  some  6,000 
bove  the  visible  surface  of  Saturn.  All  in  all.  the 
dth  of  the  ring  system  is  about  38,200  miles, 
hickness  of  the  ring  system  remains  a  puzzle  even 
The  earliest  observers  noted  that  the  rings  were 


invisible  for  only  a  short  period  of  time  as  the  earth  passed 
through  their  plane— a  matter  of  hours,  certainly  less  than 
half  a  day.  This  fact  of  observation  supported  the  belief 
that  the  rings  were  quite  thin.  Successive  observers  who 
have  sought  to  estimate  the  rings'  thickness  have  produced 
smaller  and  smaller  values  as  better  instruments  became 
available.  In  1789,  W.  Herschel,  in  England,  estimated  the 
thickness  to  be  "less  than  280  miles."  Later  observers  low- 
ered this  figure,  and  in  1919,  the  value  put  forth  by  L.  Bell, 
in  the  United  States,  was  "less  than  ten  miles." 

As  to  the  structure  of  the  rings,  Cassini  suggested,  in 
1705,  that  Saturn's  rings  might  be  made  of  countless  small 
particles  in  orbit  around  the  planet.  The  French  mathema- 
tician and  astronomer  P.  S.  Laplace  proved  in  1785  that 
a  solid  ring,  unless  rotating,  would  collapse  under  Saturn's 
gravitational  attraction.  He  went  on  to  describe  a  system  of 
many  infinitely  thin  rings,  each  rotating  around  Saturn 
eccentrically,  and  each  unevenly  distributed  around  their 
circumference,  which  could  account  for  the  appearance  of 
a  solid  ring.  Aside  from  these  suggestions,  however,  it  was 
generally  believed,  until  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury, that  the  rings  were  solid. 

THE  theory  of  solid  rings  was  finally  abandoned  when 
James  Clark  Maxwell,  an  English  mathematician,  pub- 
lished his  paper  On  the  Stability  and  Motion  of  Saturn's 
Rings,  in  1859.  Maxwell  showed  that  a  solid  ring  or  system 
of  rings,  no  matter  how  the  mass  might  be  distributed 
around  the  planet,  could  not  remain  stable  for  long,  but 


SI 


White  bands,  spectrum  of  Saturn  and  rings,  are  crossed 
by  lines  showing  motion.  Variance  in  tilt  of  lines,  as  seen 
in  diagram,  indicates  that  rings  could  not  be  solid  mass. 


would  inevitably  disintegrate.  He  concluded  that  "the 
only  system  of  rings  which  can  exist  is  one  composed  of  an 
indefinite  number  of  unconnected  particles,  revolving  round 
the  planet  with  different  velocities  according  to  their  re- 
spective distances."  Thus,  be  theorized  Saturn's  rings  were 
an  enormous  number  of  satellites  revolving  around  the 
planet  in  a  common  plane.  Each  object,  of  course,  revolved 
in  accordance  with  Kepler's  laws  of  planetary  motion,  so 
that  the  more  distant  particles  moved  in  orbit  at  a  con- 
siderably slower  speed  and  for  a  longer  period  than  the 
ones  located  closer  to  the  planet. 

The  observational  proof  of  Maxwell's  theory  of  the  ring 
structure  was  provided  in  1895  by  James  E.  Keeler  of  the 
Lick  Observatory,  California.  Keeler  obtained  photographic 
spectra  across  the  long  axis  of  the  ring  system.  These  spec- 
trograms showed  the  typical  dark  line  spectrum  of  sunlight 
reflected  from  the  planet  and  from  the  bright  portions  of 
the  rings  on  either  side  of  the  planet  (illustration,  above). 
The  dark  lines  in  the  spectrograms  were  produced,  how- 
ever, by  a  rotating  source.  The  parts  of  Saturn  that  were 
rotating  toward  the  earth  caused  the  dark  lines  to  shift 
toward  the  violet  end  of  the  spectrum.  Where  the  reflecting 
surface  was  rotating  away  from  the  earth,  the  lines  were 
shifted  toward  the  red  end  of  the  spectrum.  The  cause  of 
the  shifts  was  the  well-understood  Doppler  effect,  whereby, 
with  respect  to  an  observer,  the  wavelength  of  light  from  a 
source  in  motion  is  increased  or  decreased  as  the  source 
is  in  motion  away  from  or  toward  the  observer. 

In  Keeler's  spectrograms  of  Saturn,  the  rotation  of  the 
planet  was  clearly  seen  in  the  inclination  of  the  dark  lines 
of  the  planet's  spectrum.  The  approaching  edge  of  Saturn 
caused  the  lines  to  shift  toward  the  violet,  and  the  receding 
edge  to  shift  toward  the  red  end  of  the  spectrum,  thus 
causing  the  inclination  of  the  lines  observed.  On  either  side 
of  the  spectrum  of  the  planet's  disk  were  the  narrow  spectra 
of  the  two  ends  of  the  rings.  If  the  rings  rotated  as  a  solid 
disk,  then  the  lines  in  the  spectra  of  the  rings  would  in 
each  case  be  inclined  in  the  same  direction  as  the  lines  in 
the  spectra  of  Saturn.  The  inclination  would  occur  because 
the  outer  edge  of  the  rings  would  be  rotating  fastest  and 


Dr.  Nicholson,  the  regular  author  of  this  column,  is  also 
Chairman  of  The  American  Museum-Hayden  Planetarium, 


would  cause  the  greatest  displacement  of  the  lines.  B 
such  was  not  the  case. 

The  thin  spectra  of  the  two  ends  of  the  rings  appeared 
be  untilted,  but  careful  inspection  of  the  plates  reveal 
that  each  showed  a  very  slight  displacement  in  the  oppos 
direction  of  the  tilt  of  the  lines  in  the  disk  spectrum.  Th 
the  outer  edges  of  the  rings  caused  a  lesser  displacement 
the  lines  than  did  the  inner  edges  of  the  rings.  This  indicat 
that  the  velocity  in  the  rings  is  least  at  the  outer  edge, 
it  must  be  if  the  ring  motion  obeyed  the  laws  of  planeta 
motion.  The  spectrograms  gave  direct  proof,  therefo 
that  the  rings  were  composed  of  individual  particles, 
Maxwell  had  proposed. 

But  what  were  the  particles?  Were  they  particles  creal 
or  left  over  from  the  original  cloud  that  condensed  ii 
Saturn  itself,  particles  that  had  failed  to  produce  one  la] 
satellite,  as  other  parts  of  the  original  cloud  had  produce 
Or  were  they  the  shattered  remains  of  a  satellite  that  1 
disintegrated  under  enormous  tidal  forces  imposed 
Saturn,  and  which  had  since  ground  themselves  into  d 
by  internal  encounters  among  them?  Both  these  theoi 
have  been  considered  seriously  by  astronomers. 

Studies  by  the  Russian  astronomer  M.  S.  Bobrov  fr 
1951-56  led  him  to  conclude  that  the  particles  composi 
the  rings  are  "fairly  large"  and  probably  have  rou 
angular,  and  pitted  surfaces.  In  1958  A.  F.  Cook  and  F. 
Franklin  of  Harvard  College  Observatory  studied  the  o; 
cal  properties  of  the  rings  and  decided  that  the  averj 
particle  size  is  still  open  to  question.  They  discussed  1 
hypotheses  as  equally  satisfactory  to  their  observatior 
one  in  which  the  average  particle  size  in  the  rings  is  ab 
a  yard  in  diameter;  the  other  in  which  the  particles 
microscopic  in  size.  Dr.  A.  Dollfus.  at  the  Pic-du-M 
Observatory  in  Paris,  suggested  in  1958  that  the  parti( 
are  long  and  thin,  with  their  long  axes  aligned  in  tl 
orbits.  G.  F.  Kuiper,  of  the  Yerkes  Observatory  in  ^ 
consin.  who  in  1943  discovered  the  atmosphere  of  Tit 
Saturn's  fifth  satellite,  has  found  evidence  that  ice  crys 
may  be  present  in  the  rings.  Much,  of  course,  still  is 
be  learned  about  the  particles. 

WITHOUT  its  rings,  we  would  hardly  hear  of  Sat 
itself,  for  it  would  be  paled  by  the  greater  size  i 
brightness  of  its  neighbor.  Jupiter.  With  the  rings.  Sat 
stands  alone  of  all  the  celestial  bodies  we  know— a  rin" 
world,  which  brightens  or  dims  as  its  rings  expose  or  h 
their  faces.  When  the  rings  are  open  wide  to  our  view 
they  were  in  1958.  and  will  be  again  in  1973,  Saturn  rh 
the  most  brilliant  of  stars,  except  for  Canopus  and  Sir 
But  when  the  rings  are  closed  to  our  view,  as  in  1965  i 
1966.  the  planet  fades  with  them,  until  it  is  no  more  not 
able  than  an  ordinary  bright  star. 

The  gradual  accumulation  of  knowledge  about  the  ri 
of  Saturn  has  not  in  any  way  tarnished  the  beauty  i 
grandeur  of  their  appearance.  Although  few  persons  I 
ever  get  to  see  the  rings  as  they  appear  in  a  telescope,  nei 
everyone  has  shared  something  of  their  maj  estic  appeara 
in  the  excellent  photographs  produced  by  modern  obsei 
tories.  In  the  entire  universe  around  us,  nothing  else 
motely  resembling  Saturn's  rings  has  ever  been  fou 


52 


MAGNITUDE  SCALE 

■#  —0.1  and  brighter 

•  0.0  to  +0.9 

*  +1.0  to  +1.9 

*  +2.0  to  +2.9 
+  +3.0  to  +3.9 

•  +4.0  and  fainter 


October  5,  11:20  A.M.,  EST 
October  13,  11:56  A.M.,  EST 
October  20,  11:45  P.M.,  EST 
October  27,     4:59  P.M.,  EST 


TIMETABLE 

ber    1      10:00  P.M. 
'-^r  15        9:00  P.M. 
!r31       8:00  P.M. 
iLocal  Mean  Time) 


ober  1:  The  late  crescent  moon  joins  Mars  and  Venus 

morning  sky  today.  About  two  hours  before  sunrise, 
s  well  up  in  the  southeast,  Venus  is  low  in  the  east,  and 
oon  is  between  the  two,  somewhat  closer  to  Mars.  On 
arning  of  the  2nd,  the  moon  rises  just  below  and  to  the 

Venus. 

Dber  4-5:  The  bright  star  near  Venus  in  the  morning  sky 
se  two  days  is  Regulus,  in  the  constellation  Leo.  On  the 
sgulus  is  to  the  left  of  Venus,  and  to  the  right  on  the  5th. 

is  in  conjunction  with  the  star  at  1:00  a.m.,  EST,  on  the 
ut  they  are  below  the  horizon  in  the  United  States. 
3ber  16:  Saturn  is  close  to  the  waxing  gibbous  moon  in 
ening  sky  tonight.  At  1:00  p.m.,  EST,  the  moon  passes 
degrees  south  of  Saturn.  By  dark  this  evening,  the  moon 
!  to  the  east  and  below  Saturn  in  the  southeastern  sky. 
Dber  20:  The  Orionid  meteor  shower  reaches  maximum 

but  the  brightness  of  full  moon,  in  the  sky  all  night,, 
ake  observation  of  meteors  rather  difficult. 
Dber  22:  Jupiter  and  the  moon  are  in  conjunction  at 


6:00  P.M.,  EST,  just  before  moonrise.  They  rise  in  tonight's 
sky,  in  the  early  evening,  quite  close  together. 

October  29:  The  conjunction  of  Mars  and  the  moon,  at 
4:00  A.M.,  EST,  is  visible  in  the  morning  sky  over  most  of  the 
United  States.  Mars,  at  that  time,  is  three  degrees  south  of 
the  waning  crescent  moon  in  the  southeastern  sky. 

Morning  stars  for  October  are  Venus  and  Mars.  Venus  (mag- 
nitude —3.6)  is  very  brilliant  over  the  eastern  horizon  at  dawn, 
rising  about  three  hours  before  sunrise.  It  rises  later  and 
appears  lower  as  the  month  progresses.  Mars  is  higher  and 
well  to  the  right  (south)  of  Venus  in  the  dawn  sky,  but  not 
nearly  so  bright  (magnitude  1.5)  as  Venus.  In  the  constella- 
tion Cancer,  it  rises  shortly  after  midnight. 

Jupiter  appears  above  the  eastern  horizon  shortly  after 
nightfall,  and  is  conspicuously  bright  (magnitude  —2.4)  until 
dawn.  Late  in  the  month,  it  moves  from  Taurus  into  Aries, 
still  going  in  s  retrograde  (westward)  direction.  Saturn  (mag- 
nitude 0.8)  is  in  Aquarius,  well  up  in  the  southeast  at  sunset. 
The  planet  remains  in  the  sky  until  it  sets  after  midnight. 


Place  for  All  Thing: 


'^^-■■■^^ 


m^^^ 


WKS^-. 


««K?% 


LESE  WOMAN  balances  her  goods 
id,  left,  as  she  walks  to  market. 


Vendors  and  buyers,  above,  congregate 
in  the  market  place  at  Gulu  in  Uganda. 


can  markets  fulfill  many  functions 


AUL  BOHANNAN 

RKET  PLACES  are  found  indige- 
nously throughout  North  Africa 
he    Congo,   and   are  especially 

developed  in  almost  all  parts 
t  Africa.  They  are  much  less  im- 
t  in  East  Africa  south  of  Ethi- 
nd,  until  they  were  introduced 
ropeans,  seem  to  have  been  all 
iknown  in  the  Rhodesias,  Mo- 
jue,  and  South  Africa. 
t  market  places  were  absent  in 
larts  of  Africa  until  the  colonial 

of  the  late  nineteenth  century 
lOt  mean  that  goods  were  not 
:  and  sold  on  the  market  prin- 
f  price,  regulated  by  supply  and 
d.  Nor  does  the  fact  that  market 
are  almost  overpoweringly  pres- 
other  parts  of  Africa  mean  that 
societies  are  dominated  by  the 
;  principle  and  its  accompany- 
al  principle  of  contract,  as  is  the 

the  modern  West.  The  market 

in  Africa  are  almost  as  im- 
t  politically  and  socially  as  they 
inomically. 

ket  places  can  be,  and  some- 
are,  highly  developed  institu- 
;ven  in  areas  in  which  trade  is 
andary  importance.  The  differ- 

one  that  was  drawn  at  least  as 
IS  Marx,  and  that  must  be  re- 

specifically    in    the    case    of 


Africa.  Marketing  is  an  activity  in 
which  the  producer  takes  some  of  his 
produce  to  market  and  exchanges  it 
for  other  produce.  This  is  a  difference 
in  degree  and  social  emphasis  from 
producing  for  the  market,  where  the 
producer  takes  his  produce  to  market 
and  exchanges  it  for  money  with 
which  he  buys  the  major  portion  of 
his  subsistence  from  the  same  market. 
While  many  agrarian  economies  are 
marked  by  highly  developed  produce 
markets,  the  societies  would  not  perish 
if  those  markets  were  to  disappear. 
People  would  be  made  uncomfortable 
and  they  would  have  to  change  their 
style  of  living,  but  the  society  would 
not  fall  apart  or  even  alter  its  structure. 

Trade,  on  the  other  hand,  is  an 
activity  in  which  entrepreneurs  buy 
in  cheap  markets  and  sell  in  dear 
markets.  That  marketing  and  trading 
often  go  hand  in  hand  does  not  mean 
that  they  are  inseparable.  Market 
places  appear  in  many  parts  of  Africa 
in  which  trade  was  only  minimally  de- 
veloped ;  trade,  across  the  Sahara  and 
along  the  east  coast,  often  took  place 
in  the  absence  of  market  places. 

Much  marketing  in  the  West  Afri- 
can and  Congolese  areas  was  done 
traditionally  by  women.  In  many,  but 
not  all,  of  these  areas  where  the  women 
were  the  chief  marketers,  the  men  were 
the  chief  producers.  There  have  been 


Tribal   youth   in   market  at  Langshi, 
northern  Nigeria,  holds  live  chicken. 


55 


\, ^  u  laJ     '^  p 

y-J^      r       HAUSA*  -^\       -^  \ 

DAHOMEY.  .YORUBAV      f-^-*^'- 
a>     •IBO 


ap  shows  areas  in 
est  Africa  where  market 
aces  are  most  highly 
iveloped.  DIoula  and 
3usa  kinship  groups  are 
ime  links  in  north-south 
ade.  Women  of  Dahomey 
id  Yoruba  dominate  in 
arket  activities.  Ibo  men 
e  now  replacing  women 
marketing  and  trade. 


for  decades  now— the  history  of  the 
matter  is  not  at  all  clear— many  women 
who  have  slipped  over  from  marketing 
into  trade,  particularly  if  (as  with  the 
Yoruba.  for  example)  men  did  the 
major  tasks  in  food  producing.  By  the 
second  and  third  decades  of  the  twen- 
tieth century  (  and  perhaps  long  before 
that  I  the  major  internal  trade  in  pro- 
duce throughout  the  West  African 
area  was  in  the  hands  of  women.  Al- 
though their  wealth  and  their  activities 
have  sometimes  been  grossly  overesti- 
mated by  travelers,  it  is  nevertheless 
true  that  some  women,  particularly 
from  the  Yoruba  and  Dahomey  areas, 
built  up  large  empires  in  trade,  and  in 
some  cases  became  the  chief  sources 
of  merchandise  for  European  import 
and  export  houses. 

TODAY  that  situation  is  changing. 
Competition  to  market  women  is 
coming  from  men  who  are  grasping 
more  and  more  of  the  trading  oppor- 
tunities as  the  market  expands  and  be- 
comes central,  rather  than  peripheral, 
to  the  economy.  The  clans  and  ex- 
tended families,  or  kinship  groups,  of 
Ibo  in  Nigeria,  for  example,  as  well  as 
new  "firms"  of  Ibo  founded  on  con- 
tractual relationships,  are  taking  over 
much  of  the  long-distance  trade.  Ibo 
women  resent  the  fact  that  their  trade 


Dancers  and  musicians  perform  in  a 
market  in  Ghana,  above.  The  guns  are 


fired  during  dance.  Medieval  marke 
of  Europe  also  offered  entertainmei 


Tribeswoman  examines  the  wares  of 
a  salt  seller  at  Langshi,  above.  Girl 


at  a  refreshment  stand  in  a  Ghani 
market,  below,  prepares  fruit  snacl 


S6 


en  their  marketing  is  now  being 
;ut  by  men. 

sa  and  Dioula  kinship  groups, 
have  always  provided  the  most 
ant  link  in  the  north-south  trade 
n  forest  and  savanna,  are  ex- 
ig  their  activities.  The  telegraph 

the  posts  and  telegraph  depart- 
of  the  government  makes  it  easy 
3  in  touch.  These  groups  own 
if  trucks.  The  result  is  that  Ibo 
lausa    trading    "empires"    are 

through  Nigeria  and  across  its 
iries  into  neighboring  coun- 
iVith  the  development  of  trade 

the  communications  and  trans- 
on  network,  the  market  prin- 
as  entered  more  fully  into  the 
'  all  Africans,  and  market  places 
iken  on  new  emphases, 
individual  transaction  in  most 
1  markets  involves  a  good  deal 
gling.  Traditionally— and  to  a 
xtent  today— prices  varied  with 
:us  of  the  individuals  involved: 
her  the  customer,  the  more  he 
pected  to  pay— and  he  would  be 
;d  to  pay  less.  On  the  other 
irices  in  some  areas— traditional 
ean  market  places,  for  example 
rigidly  controlled  by  the  king's 
cracy  and  by  producers'  guilds. 

rica,  labor  and  time  are  seldom 
luated  in  terms  of  money  be- 
hese  factors  of  production  are 
tributed  by  the  market  mechan- 
3nce  knew  a  Nigerian  who  car- 
xteen  gallons  of  palm  oil  on 
d  almost  fifty  miles  to  market. 
I  asked  why  he  did  not  take  a 
le  said  he  did  not  want  to  "spoil 
ley."  I  suggested  that  he  would 

his  body  if  he  did  not:  his 
as  that  he  would  recover.  This 
:  so  much  an  economic  choice— 
h,  from  the  economist's  point 
,  it  can  be  so  considered— as  dis- 
that  his  labor  might  be  sold. 

marketing  is  not  distinguished 
ving.  The  economy  cannot  be 
jished,  in  such  cases,  from  the 
ic  economy.  Everybody  "lives 
e  store." 

amount  of  internal  trade  that 
rough  the  market  places  in  vari- 
rican  countries  is  tremendous, 
3ody  has  any  idea  how  much 

or  what  value  of  goods  may 
'  be  distributed  in  this  way. 
3  and  measures  are  more  or 
ent,  although  in  many  parts  of 
itinent  standard  weights  and 
es  have  appeared  in  the  last  few 


Pygmies  in  Congo  inspect  fish  for 
which  they  will  swap  meat.  Coming  to 


market  from  outlying  areas,  Africans 
exchange  news  in  addition  to  staples. 


S>7 


Mats  for  sale  in  Sura,  Nigeria,  ; 
made  from  split  stalks  of  Guinea  co 

Containers  of  varied  shape  and  size 
measure  oil  of  palm  in  Doka,  Nigeria. 


Roots  and  binples  are  lashed  to  I 
top  of  Nigerian  shopper's  hat  in  Kai 

Hat  salesman  in  Nigeria  sits  beside 
fezlike  headgear  in  market  at  Panyani. 


?s.  The  quart  beer  bottle,  the 
rd-size  cigarette  tin  and  four- 
kerosene  tin,  and  an  empty 
shell  casing,  for  instance,  are  all 
s  measures.  There  are  also  many 
andardized  units  of  measure- 
Moreover,  no  formal  records  are 
y  individual  marketers, 
n  those  marketers  who  do  a  little 
trading  along  with  their  market- 
ver  separate  their  marketing  or 
rading  from  their  domestic  ac- 
;.  Obviously,  acquiring  any  kind 
ntitative  ideas  about  the  amount 
value  of  such  goods  becomes  a 
n  data  acquisition  that  has 
ly  been  tackled,  let  alone  solved. 

true  that  vast  quantities  of  local 
)duce  such  as  food,  craft  prod- 
ivestock,  cloth— everything  that 
itaff  of  life  and  the  basis  for  pro- 
ng society  —  may  go  through 
narkets  in  parts  of  West  Africa 
le  Congo.  Yet  in  relatively  few 
are  people  significantly  depend- 
the  markets  for  the  basis  of  their 
day  subsistence. 

kets,  however,  are  vital  links- 
re  the  very  nodes— in  the  trans- 
on  network.  The  famous  "bush 
ph"— the  rapid  spread  of  news 
!ans  unknown  to  Europeans— 
in  part  through  the  market 
Africa  is  a  country  on  the 
and  it  appears  that  it  always  has 
However,  the  peace  of  the 
jl  era  and  the  improvement  of 
that  accompanied  it  meant  that 
t  places  increased  in  number, 
e  amount  of  travel  to  and  from 
ting  increased  vastly,  and  there- 
le  bush  telegraph  worked  with 
and  better  efficiency, 
kets  are,  throughout  that  part 
continent  to  which  they  are  in- 
us,  organized  under  political 
ity.  Indeed,  in  those  parts  of 
nd  South  Africa  to  which  they 
leen  introduced,  it  was  colonial 
iment  that  introduced  them.  In 
tribal  areas  of  West  Africa, 
retain  direct  control  over  the 
ts  and  either  themselves  or 
h  special  deputies  maintain  the 
t  place  and  keep  the  peace  with- 
in other  areas,  committees  of 
representative  in  whatever  way 
sidered  important  to  the  com- 
T,  take  it  as  one  of  their  most 
i  civic  duties  to  maintain  a 
t  place  so  that  their  part  of  the 
can  be  "kept  on  the  map"  and 
rity  can  reign. 


All  African  market  places  are 
policed  by  someone.  In  many  areas, 
this  task  has  gone  to  the  policemen  of 
the  regular  local  government.  In 
others,  however,  they  are  policed  by 
special  appointees,  by  kinsmen  of  the 
chief,  or  special  groups  designated  by 
the  chief  or  by  the  elders.  These  police- 
men are  always  subject  to  the  authority 
of  somebody  who  is  the  headman  (it 
may  be  a  committee)  to  whom  they 
can  refer  wrongdoers  and  disputes 
that  occur  in  the  market  place.  Dis- 
putes inevitably  arise  in  market  places, 
because  people  may  cheat  each  other, 
and  because  they  may  meet  their 
enemies  and  their  debtors.  For  this 
reason,  every  ordinary  African  market 
has,  as  a  necessary  concomitant,  some 
place  in  which  a  court  is  in  session.  It 
may  be  no  more  than  a  market  court 
concerned  with  arguments  over  short- 
changing, quality  of  goods,  and  petty 
theft.  In  other  market  places,  however, 
the  judges  of  the  local  government 
may  set  up  their  courts. 

In  some  parts  of  Africa,  the  market 
authorities  enforce  quality  control. 
They  disallow  the  sale  of  rotten  meat 
or  other  unsatisfactory  goods.  The 
usual  approach  to  questions  of  quality 
is  caveat  emptor,  but  some  control  is 
maintained,  the  degree  varying  with 
the  personalities  and  power  of  the 
market  officials. 

These  administrators  are  usually 
rewarded.  They  may  be  paid  salaries 
by  the  local  government.  They  may, 
on  the  other  hand,  be  allowed  to  make 
a  levy  on  the  goods  sold  in  the  market. 
Sometimes  entry  fees  are  demanded 
from  marketers  who  intend  to  sell 
goods.  The  amount  of  the  levy  or  en- 
trance fee  is  itself  subject  to  what  the 
market  will  bear.  If  the  levy  is  too 
high,  traders  and  marketers  will  avoid 
such  market  places  and  establish  new 
ones  nearby.  The  only  way  to  avoid 
this  is  for  governments  to  demand  con- 
trol and  licensing  of  market  places— a 
situation  that  was  fairly  widespread 
in  colonial  Africa  and  is  found  in  a 
few  of  the  new  African  states. 

Market  places  can  "die,"  which 
means  merely  that  people  cease  to 
come  to  them.  They  can  also  be 
"stolen,"  which  means  that  one  gains 
popularity  at  the  expense  of  another. 
In  short,  the  location  of  market  places, 
their  organization,  and  their  popu- 
larity are  all  highly  volatile  and  sub- 
ject to  quick  change.  Since  it  is  to  the 
advantage  of  individuals  and  govern- 
ment officials  to  control  large  popular 


market  places  (by  so  doing  they  are 
able  to  see  and  influence  large  num- 
bers of  people),  few  petty  tyrannies 
can  be  kept  up  for  long. 

In  traditional  Africa,  almost  all 
market  places  were  associated  with 
religious  activities.  That  is  to  say,  they 
were  consecrated  in  one  way  or  an- 
other, and  to  this  day,  most  African 
market  places  have  shrines  associated 
with  them.  Such  consecration  guaran- 
teed that  supernatural  sanctions  would 
back  up  the  political  authorities  in 
their  maintenance  of  peace  in  the 
market  place.  These  sanctions,  and  the 
shrines  that  were  their  symbols,  varied 
with  the  particular  tribal  religion  in 
question.  They  may  have  been  no  more 
than  a  bundle  of  "medicine."  In  many 
areas  they  were  specially  consecrated 
trees.  In  some,  there  were  special  small 
huts  with  carved  figurines  in  them.  It 
is  well  recognized  that  it  is  impossible, 
in  even  the  best-policed  market  place, 
to  be  sure  that  all  who  cheat  or  steal 
or  water  their  beer  or  sell  bad  meat 
will  be  caught  by  the  mundane  authori- 
ties. Therefore,  it  is  best  to  reinforce 
vigilance  with  supernatural  sanctions. 
Violence  can  still  occur,  however. 
Today  weapons  are  forbidden— and 
usually  were  so  even  before  colonial 
governments  reinforced  the  practice. 
Moreover,  throughout  the  indigenous 
market  area  of  Africa,  people  sit  in  the 
position  in  the  market  place  closest  to 
the  path  leading  to  their  homes— this 
is  particularly  true  of  women  market- 
ers. Such  seating  arrangements  keep 
the  escape  routes  open.  Yet,  market 
places  are,  at  the  same  time,  often 
legal  sanctuaries,  because  of  their  posi- 
tion of  political  neutrality  and  their 
consecrated  shrines. 

MARKETS  are  also  fun.  Each  dis- 
plays an  element  of  the  fair  or 
the  carnival.  In  West  Africa  and  the 
Congo  they  are  major  centers  of  enter- 
tainment. Dancers  come  to  the  market 
and  display  their  skills.  Work  parties, 
wedding  parties,  christening  parties, 
and  spur-of-the-moment  parties  come 
to  the  market  to  dance  and  sing  and  to 
announce  their  good  news  to  enlarged 
audiences.  In  all  these  regards  African 
market  places  are  reminiscent  of  those 
in  Europe  during  the  Middle  Ages 
(and  indeed  up  into  the  eighteenth 
century),  which  were  also  fairs  held 
in  the  shadow  of  the  church  and 
policed  by  the  bishop  and  the  market- 
master  and  their  officials. 

Different  market  places  specialize  in 


59 


different  goods  and  in  different  activi- 
ties. One  market  is  a  good  place  to  buy 
Y  and  sell  Z.  The  next  one  may  be  well 
known  for  its  beer  drink,  and  the  one 
after  that  for  its  wise  counselors  and 
judges.  Such  specialization,  when  com- 
bined with  the  fact  that  markets  do  not 
meet  every  day,  lead  to  two  vital  points 
about  the  marketing  system  of  western 
Africa  and  the  Congo  particularly. 
First,  every  community  is  at  the  center 
of  a  group  of  markets  that  meet  every 
fourth,  fifth,  or  seventh  day.  depend- 
ing on  the  tribal  area.  There  is.  there- 
fore, an  association  of  market  places 
with  time  as  well  as  with  special  prod- 
ucts. In  a  neighborhood  with  markets 
that  meet  every  five  days,  each  com- 
munity is  likely  to  be  either  at  or  near 
the  center  of  a  ring  of  five  markets, 
each  of  which  meets  one  day  of  the 
five-day  "market  week"  that  results. 
These  market  rings  overlap  in  a  chain- 


mail  fashion,  and  spread  across  the 
countryside.  With  a  few  gaps  they  run 
from  Dakar  almost  to  the  Nile,  and 
south  well  into  the  Congo  Basin. 

IHE  other  major  characteristic  of 
the  market  system  is  that  goods 
can  move  through  market  places  and 
traverse  very  much  greater  distances 
than  can  people  themselves.  Every  dif- 
ferent African  product  that  goes 
through  a  market  place  follows  a  route 
based  on  the  specialization  of  market 
places  and  the  successions  through 
which  the  product  passes.  A  large 
number  of  "middlemen"  add  to  the 
price,  but  the  markup  is  amazingly 
small,  considering  the  number  of  in- 
termediary links  that  may  separate  a 
producer  from  a  consumer. 

Thus,  market  places  provide  an- 
other map,  based  on  a  different  insti- 
tution, by  means  of  which  space,  time, 


and  social  structure  are  co-ordinati 
This  market  map  permeates  differi 
tribes,  different  cultures,  and  crosi 
national  and  language  barriers.  IJ 
market  place  is  commonly  used 
several  tribes,  the  consecrated  shrii 
and  the  ritual  that  surrounds  tb 
contain  elements  from  each  tribal 
ligion.  There  may  be,  indeed,  v( 
highly  original  rituals  consciou 
created  and  especially  performed 
order  to  get  in  the  vital  elements  fn 
several  religious  systems. 

One  of  the  first  reactions  to  color 
control  was  the  vast  expansion  in 
number  of  market  places  in  Afri 
and  of  the  goods  that  went  throu 
them.  Only  later  did  the  market  pla 
themselves  begin  to  dwindle  as  th 
task  was  taken  over  by  modern  tra 
port  systems  and  expanding  firms  a 
thousands  of  entrepreneurs,  so 
petty,  some  handling  large  volume. 


Tailor   in  the   Bida   market,   Nigeria, 
presides  at  sewing  machine  under  tree. 

Disputes    are    dealt   with   by   offici 
in  a  market  place  in  southern  Moroc 


60 


Dortance  of  market  places  grew 
the  importance  of  the  market 
lie  also  increased.  The  "market" 
.  its  senses  was  spreading, 
ipean  governments  encouraged 
)wth  of  market  places,  and  by 
icing  coinage  and  demanding 
ices  be  paid  in  it  (and  abetting 
ation  of  goods  that  could  be 
with  it) ,  they  actively  hastened 
irgement  of  the  social  scope  for 
rket  principle. 

ey  is  probably  the  most  impor- 
igle  item  in  the  changing  of  an 
ly.  Money  is  a  cultural  trait  that 
;n  discovered  several  times  in 
tory  of  the  world,  including 
places  in  Africa.  However, 
1  money  and  money, 
ca  had  some  examples  of  general 
I  money— cowrie  shells  in  a  few 
in  West  Africa  and  the  Congo 
ich.  Most  African  money,  how- 
rved  only  one  purpose  and  can 
ed  "special  purpose  money." 
imple,  the  metal  "hoes"  of  the 
[  Guinea  and  Liberia  were  used 
ily    for    bridewealth:    aborigi- 


nally, one  could  not  use  them  to  acquire 
subsistence;  during  the  era  of  the  slave 
trade,  many  of  the  items  included  in 
the  "sortings"  of  goods  with  which 
slaves  were  purchased  were  limited  to 
payment  and  were  not  standards  of 
value;  they  were  also  the  prerogative 
of  certain  political  figures. 

Modern  economic  change  in  Africa 
is  the  result  of  the  victory  of  general 
purpose  money  and  the  concomitant 
spread  of  the  market  in  both  senses. 
When  that  economic  situation  is  com- 
bined with  the  kind  of  polity  known  as 
the  nationalist  state,  we  see  three  funda- 
mental tools  that  have  helped  create 
the  African  revolution. 

ONE  vivid  example  of  the  spread  of 
the  market  principle  in  Africa 
must  suffice.  In  many  parts  of  the  con- 
tinent, a  man  had  to  purchase  rights  in 
his  bride.  Those  rights  could  be  paid 
for  only  in  a  special  purpose  money 
—if  such  were  not  the  case,  the  trans- 
action would  amount  to  a  monetary 
evaluation  of  the  bride,  a  situation 
that  Africans   both   joke   about   and 


seriously  deny.  Bridewealth  in  East 
Africa  was  paid  in  cattle;  in  central 
Africa  in  spears;  in  West  Africa  in 
cowries,  metal  rods,  or  some  other 
special  purpose  money. 

When  special  purpose  moneys  were 
undermined  by  government  introduc- 
tion of  general  purpose  money,  it  often 
happened  that  coinage  came  to  be  used 
to  pay  bridewealth.  For  the  first  time, 
brides  "entered  the  market."  One 
could  work,  or  trade,  or  sell  produce, 
and  then  save  coinage  and  buy  a  wife. 
Wives  traditionally  never  entered  the 
same  market  as  farm  produce,  because 
there  was  no  "money"  that  could  evalu- 
ate both.  The  spread  of  the  market, 
here  and  in  many  other  areas  of  life, 
has  created  great  moral  problems. 

In  rural  Africa,  the  noisy,  colorful 
market  place  is  a  growing  phenome- 
non. But  a  reverse  trend  has  also  set 
in:  in  urban  centers,  the  market 
principle  and  its  institutionalization 
in  the  firm  have  begun  to  take  over. 
The  market  principle  is  becoming 
dominant,  and  the  market  place  is 
being   turned    into    the    supermarket. 


iiC^^  ^  ' 


M^'i 


..  v.r.A/»,: 


t-'^* 


By  Frederick  J.  Dockstader 


0m^^ 


fc 


,.;M^J 


,-.    I  -        -TN, 


iWr' 


M. 


•tfi' 


lotem  Poles: 
Family  Trees 


thwest  Coast  Indians  symbolized  their  histories  in  wood 


)rthwest  Coast  Indians  are  well 
for  their  sculpture,  and  these 
utstanding  examples  represent 
lions  of  totemic  art.  They  are 
larly  interesting  for  what  they 
their  owners.  All  are  from  the 
1,  one  of  the  three  branches  of 
imshian  Indian  peoples  living 
the  Skeena  River,  in  British 
3ia.  Thanks  to  Dr.  Marius  Bar- 


beau,  the  great  Canadian  ethnologist, 
records  and  names  of  many  of  the 
carvers  have  been  preserved. 

The  segments  of  design  present  a 
"family  tree"  or  narrative  history  of 
the  owner  and  are  placed  outside  his 
home.  The  famous  Skaimsem  Pole  at 
Gitwanlkul  (jar  left)  was  carved  about 
1870-80  by  Hesemhliyawn,  one  of  the 
greatest  of  Kitksan  sculptors.  The  de- 
sign shows  the  mythical  character 
Woodpecker  perched  atop  the  children 
of  the  legendary  Mountain  Eagle,  who 
in  turn  protects  the  many  children  of 
Git'weedzarat,  who  holds  his  favorite 
son  in  his  arms.  These  were  all  ances- 
tors of  the  Wolf  family,  of  which 
Weerhe— in  whose  honor  the  pole  was 
erected— was  head  chief. 

Also  fronting  Chief  Weerhe's  home 
is  the  Kaohdihgyet  Pole  (third  from 
left),  carved  somewhat  earlier  by  an 


unknown  Nass  River  artist.  It  is  a 
complex  repeat  design  of  the  mythical 
Split  Person  with  Weerhe's  children— 
a  tribute  to  his  large  family. 

Two  basic  forms  of  totemic  symbol- 
ism occur  in  the  Tsemelih  Pole  at  Git- 
segyukla  (second  from  left)  and  a  pole 
at  Kitwanga  (below) .  In  the  Tsemelih 
.Pole,  the  design  of  an  animal  with  a 
flat  tail  curled  against  the  body,  chew- 
ing on  a  stick,  identifies  Tsemelih  the 
Beaver.  The  Kitwanga  Pole  shows 
Gyedemranptaw,  a  legendary  forebear, 
holding  a  song  stick  or  a  chief's  staff, 
an  indication  of  prestige. 

Thus  one  can  "read"  these  poles,  and 
gain  an  introduction  into  the  family 
of  the  owner.  But  knowing  such  sym- 
bolic designs  is  not  enough,  for  the 
reader  must  also  be  familiar  with 
Tsimshian  legend.  For  example,  Tsi- 
wiladaw.,  an  ancestor  of  Chief  Weerhe, 
secretly  adopted  a  -woodpecker  as  a  pet 
and  hid  it  in  her  house,  where  it  grew 
into  a  mysterious  monster.  This  epi- 
sode is  merely  suggested  in  the  design. 
Just  recognizing  a  woodpecker  on  the 
pole  would  not  suffice  in  reading 
such  heraldic  insignia— one  roust  also 
know,  why  the  design  was  included. 


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PHOTOGRAPHIC     PRODUCTS 

64 


About  the  Authors 

Mr.  Robert  H.  Dyson,  Jr..  author  of 
"Sciences  Meet  in  Ancient  Hasanlu,"  is 
Associate  Curator  of  The  University  Mu- 
seum at  the  University  of  Pennsylvania. 
Mr.  Dyson,  an  archeologist  and  anthro- 
pologist, has  specialized  in  the  area  of 
Asiatic  prehistoric  archeology. 

"Rarely  Seen  Songbirds  of  Peru's 
High  Andes'"  is  the  work  of  Dr.  William 
G.  George,  Assistant  Professor  of  Zool- 
ogy at  Southern  Illinois  University.  The 
illustrations  that  accompany  Dr.  George's 
article  are  by  Mr.  Arthur  Singer,  who  is 
recognized  as  one  of  the  leading  bird 
painters  in  the  United  States. 

The  preparation  and  uses  of  topo- 
graphic maps  are  the  subject  of  Messrs. 
Morris  M.  Thompson  and  Julius  L. 
Speert,  civil  engineers  with  the  U.S. 
Geological  Survey.  Mr.  Thompson  is 
Deputy  Assistant  Chief  Topographic  En- 
gineer for  Research  and  Technical 
Standards.  Mr.  Speert  is  Chief  of  the 
Operations  Research  Unit  of  the  Control 
Surveys  Section. 

Dr.  Sydney  Anderson,  who  wrote 
"Return  of  the  Beaver,"  is  Assistant  Cur- 
ator in  the  Department  of  Mammalogy 
at  The  American  Museum.  His  major 
scientific  interests  include  the  syste- 
matics  and  biology  of  mammals. 

Drs.  John  J.  Lee  and  Hugo  Freud- 
ENTHAL  wrote  their  article  "as  a  by-prod- 
uct" of  studies  on  planktonic  foramini- 
fera  made  in  the  Department  of  Micro- 
paleontology  at  The  American  Museum, 
under  a  National  Science  Foundation 
grant  to  Dr.  Freudenthal.  The  authors 
are  respectively  Director  and  Associate 
Director  of  the  Living  Foraminifera  Lab- 
oratory. Dr.  Lee  is  Assistant  Professor 
of  Biology  at  New  York  University.  Dr. 
Freudenthal  is  Associate  Professor  of 
Biology  at  C.W.  Post  College. 

Mr.  Paul  J.  Fournier.  author  of  "Mi- 
gration in  Maine.'"  is  sports  editor  of  the 
Bath  Times.  He  has  long  been  interested 
in  natural  history,  was  a  registered  Maine 
guide  at  the  age  of  eighteen,  and  has  pub- 
lished many  articles  on  natural  history 
and  the  outdoors. 

African  market  places  are  discussed 
by  Dr.  Paul  Bohannan.  Professor  of 
Anthropology  at  Northwestern  Univer- 
sity, and  a  Fellow  in  1963-64  of  the  Cen- 
ter for  Advanced  Study  in  the  Behavioral 
Sciences.  Stanford  L'niversity.  Dr.  Bo- 
hannan has  spent  approximately  three 
years  in  Africa  doing  field  work  in  cen- 
tral Nigeria  and  in  Kenya.  The  article 
was  excerpted  from  his  book  Africa  and 
Africans  (Natural  History  Press).  © 
1964  by  Paul  Bohannan. 

Dr.  Frederick  J.  Dockstader,  author 
of  "Totem  Poles:  Family  Trees,"  is  Di- 
rector of  the  Museum  of  the  American 
Indian.  Heye  Foundation.  He  is  also  tlie 
Chairman  of  the  Indian  Arts  and  Crafts 
Board,  U.S.  Department  of  the  Interior. 


Want  to  escape  to  quiet,  sunny  desi 
Explore  primitive  native  villages  in 
Mexico  or  just  relax  beside  some  inv 
stream?  Perhaps  you  know  a  road  s( 
where  you'd  like  to  follow  to  the  end, 
all  the  same  with  an  Airstream  Land  Y 
— -  a  personal  highway  cruiser  outf 
down  to  the  smallest  luxurious  detai 
limitless  road  voyaging  .  .  .  good  t 
bathroom,  hot  and  cold  water,  refrij 
tion,  heat  and  light  independent  of 
side  sources  wherever  you  go  —  f 
night,  a  week,  or  a  month.  Airstream  I 
Yachting  means  real  travel  independ' 
—  no  time-tables,  tickets,  packing, 
just  tow  your  Airstream  lightly  behind 
car  and  follow  your  travel  whims  wher 
they  urge  you  to  go.  Yes,  it's  the  exci 
better  way  to  travel  here  in  North  Am 
or  anywhere  in  the  world. 

write  for  interesting  free  booklet 
"World  At  Your  Doorstep" 

AIRSTREAM  IN< 

750   CHURCH   ST.,   JACKSON   CENTER,   OHIO 
12804  E.  FIRESTONE,  SANTA  FE  SPRINGS  51,  I 


mature 
and  the 
croscope 

ireparing  your  own 
ilood  slides 

ly  Julian  D.  Corrington 


D  DIFFERS  from  Other  tissues  in 
t  it  consists  of  discrete  cells  and 
icles  floating  freely  in  a  complex 
e  plasma.  It  circulates  about  the 
rough  the  blood  vessels  and  per- 
jmerous  vital  functions,  grouped 
ansportation  and  protection.  The 
iroach  to  understanding  this  all- 
nt  tissue  is  to  prepare  and  study 
a  blood  slides;  even  the  beginner 
:e  first-class  specimens, 
ials  needed  for  this  fascinating 
iclude  blank  slides  and  cover 
an  alcohol  lamp,  lancets,  mount- 
le  labels,  and  one  bottle  each 
buffer,  and  alcohol.  All  of  these 

purchased  from  biological  or 
1  supply  houses. 

microscope  slides  are  made  of 
;1  grade  of  non-corrosive  glass, 
bubbles  or  striations.  The  regu- 
ize  is  3  X  1  inches,  with  other 
'  special  purposes,  and  they  are 
in  boxes  of  one-half  gross.  A 
type  has  a  portion  of  one  end 
o  permit  writing  on  it  with  pen 
il.  The  slides  appear  sparkling 
hen  unpacked,  but  they  should 
36  cleaned  before  use  and  then 

only  by  their  edges,  which  are 
round  to  prevent  cuts.  Cover 
:ome  in  various  sizes  and  shapes  ; 
ended  for  studying  blood  are  22 
lares,  thickness  1.  They  are  sold 

containing  one  ounce  of  covers, 
ilcohol  lamp  is  a  squat  bottle 
wick  and  cap  and  gives  a  low 
i.  Bunsen  burner  may  be  used 
if  it  is  turned  low.  Blood-letting 

are  of  many  sorts— needles. 
Dlungers— but  by  far  the  simplest 
lolets,  tiny  little  points  of  stain- 
;1,  each  sealed  in  a  paper.  They 
losable,  and  their  cost  is  low. 
gedorn  blood  lancet,  a  straight 
;edle  70  mm.  long,  is  also  used, 
referable  stain  is  Wright's  blood 
;st  purchased  as  a  solution  ready 
lecause  preparing  it  is  somewhat 


Braniff  flies  to  places 

where  Latin  American 

civilization  was  born. 


From  New/ York  (in  cooperation  v»/ith  Eastern  Air  Lines),  Miami,  Houston 
and  San  Antonio,  Braniff  flies  to  major  cities  in  Latin  America.  Enjoying 
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Drawing  on  forty  years  of  study  and  observation,  one  of  the  foremost 

anthropologists  of  our  time  discusses  both  the  role  of  the  individual  in  history  and 

the  impersonal  forces  influential  in  cultural  evolution.  Dr.  Mead  analyzes 

evolution  through  the  unique  condition  manifest  in  twentieth-century  man :  his 

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New  Haven  and  London 

In  Canada:  McGill  University  Press 


complicated.  It  is  customarily  furnished 
in  a  small  bottle  with  a  ground-glass  top 
equipped  with  a  dropper,  and  must  be 
kept  closed  when  not  in  use.  After  a 
while  precipitation  may  occur;  to  rem- 
edy this,  add  a  few  drops  of  pure  methyl 
alcohol.  This  alcohol  is  an  extremely 
poisonous  fluid  and  should  be  handled 
cautiously.  The  Mcjunkin-Haden  buffer 
solution  contains  phosphates,  has  a  pH 
(hydrogen-iron  concentration)  of  6.4. 
and  is  stable.  The  best  alcohol  for  the 
individual  experimenter  is  the  commer- 
cial grade  of  isopropyl  alcohol,  which  is 
tax-free,  as  it  is  not  potable.  The  mount- 
ant  may  be  Canada  balsam  or  one  of  the 
newer  synthetic  neutral  resins.  Slide 
labels  are  one-inch  squares  of  gummed 
paper,  to  be  affixed  to  the  left  end  of 
finished  slides.  The  pertinent  data  should 


be  printed  on  the  labels,  preferably  in 
black  India  ink. 

Preparing  the  Slides 

CLEANLINESS  is  of  paramount  impor- 
tance in  this  work.  Wash  the  slides 
and  covers  in  a  thick,  creamy  paste  of 
household  powder  cleanser  mixed  with 
a  little  water;  then,  without  rinsing,  set 
them  away  to  dry.  As  they  are  needed, 
polish  them  with  a  clean,  soft  cloth  or 
moist  chamois;  the  residue  of  powder 
comes  off,  leaving  the  glassware  shining 
and  clean.  An  alternative  is  to  bathe 
them  in  alcohol  before  wiping,  then  prop 
them  slantingly  against  some  object  such 
as  a  book  or  slide  box  so  that  they  may 
be  picked  up  rapidly  by  the  edges. 

To  obtain  a  blood  specimen  from  your 
finger,  use  the  following  procedure:  first, 


wash  one  finger  tip  with  soap  and  v 
blot  dry,  then  sterilize  with  a  h 
cotton  dipped  in  alcohol.  Pass  the  1 
through  alcohol  or,  better,  througl 
flame  of  the  lamp.  Pinch  the  fingf 
from  the  two  sides  until  it  is  suf 
with  blood,  then  puncture  with  a  s 
light  jab.  Pinch  the  finger  tip  aga 
produce  droplets  of  blood. 

Reject  the  first  drop  and  use  th( 
ond.  Place  a  single  small  drop  ii 
middle  and  toward  one  end  of  a 
and  immediately  hold  a  second  sli 
a  45-degree  angle  to  the  first,  so  th; 
drop  of  blood  is  within  the  acute  a 
As  the  drop  is  touched,  the  blood 
spread  out  along  the  line  where  tb 
slides  meet.  Immediately  push 
number  two  along  number  one.  dr: 
the  blood  out  into  a  thin  film.  The 


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scries  for  macro,  micro,  astro  and  copy  photography.  V 
the  f2  Auto-Nikkor  50mm  lens,  for  example,  the  Nikkc 
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be  pulled  out  (not  pushed  ahead 
inclined  slide),  a  process  accom- 

by  capillary  attraction.  In  this 
-  a  thin  film  can  be  secured  with- 
ishing  the  corpuscles.  Wave  the 
the  air  to  dry;  this  fixes  the  blood 
?hen  again  place  the  slide  in  a 
y  position,  film  side  up,  where  it 
main  until  further  processing, 
are  several  smears  in  this  manner, 
amine  one  under  the  microscope. 
■ed  cells  are  massed  or  clumped, 
p  of  blood  taken  was  too  large; 
:  are  fairly  large  circles  of  empty 
;ontaining  no  scatterings  of  cor- 
,  the  slide  was  greasy  and  im- 
y  cleaned.  If  most  of  the  slide 
ems  to  contain  only  innumerable 
rpuscles  and  few,  if  any,  white 
;les,  the  drop  was  too  large,  and 
;tes  all  followed  the  pushed  slide 
!nd  of  the  first  one.  In  a  correctly 
;d  smear,  the  corpuscles  are  uni- 
distributed. 

take  two  cover  glasses.  Place  a 
rop  of  freshly  drawn  blood  in  the 
of  one,  and  immediately  cap  it 
e  other,  so  that  the  corners  of  the 
project.  Then  quickly  slide  the 
lart  sidewise  without  lifting  or 
g.    When    properly    done,    there 

be  an  even,  thin  film  on  both 
Wave  them  in  the  air  to  dry.  and 
Im  side  up,  against  some  object, 
aking  these  films,  on  either  slide 
;r,  speed  is  essential  to  prevent 
)rtem  changes  of  the  blood  cells, 
n  all  actions  quickly,  but  remem- 
t  you  may  have  a  number  of  fail- 
fore  you  achieve  satisfactory  re- 
Inother  essential  is  sterilization. 

be  certain  to  sterilize  the  skin 
B  lancet  before  the  puncture  is 
and  sterilize  the  wound  again 
ithdrawing  blood  samples. 

Staining 

H  a  number  of  slides  and  covers 
epared  with  dried  blood  smears, 
;  ready  to  proceed  with  staining, 
a  counted  number  of  drops  of 
's  stain  on  the  smear.  Use  quite 
:or  the  slide,  one  or  two  for  the 
^lass— enough  to  cover  the  area 
;h  to  stain,  but  no  more.  You  may 

this  stain  with  a  toothpick  or  a 
ip  tube  of  fine  paper.  Allow  it  to 
ne  minute,  but  bear  in  mind  that 
It  batches  of  Wright's  stain  vary 
lat  and  one  can  never  tell  the 
ming  until  a  few  trials  are  made, 
without  draining  or  disturbing  the 
add  twice  as  many  drops  of  the 
solution  for  twice  the  length  of 
Example:   two  drops  of  Wright's 

minute;  four  drops  of  buffer  for 
nutes.  Next,  drain  into  a  waste 
cle  and  flush  with  distilled  water 
i  further  action.  Now  examine  the 
under  the  microscope.  The  red 
;les,  which  cover  the  field  and  are 


This  stunning  composition  is  worthy  of  John  James  Audubon.  Arrow  points  to  the  nervous  but 
unafraid  Water  Turkey,  hundreds  of  feet  from  a  standard  Questar.  Above  is  image  Questar 
reached  out  and  delivered  lo  35-mm.  negative  ready  for  enlargement.   Tri-X,  1/250  second. 


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clarity.  Beautiful  11x14  enlargements  are  practically  grain- 
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possible  sharp  wildlife  photographs  hke  this  without  tents  or 
towers  or  stalking  blinds.  At  left  the  versatile  Standard  Wide- 
Angle  Model.  The  latest  Questar  booklet  now  has  40  pages, 
8  of  them  in  color,  and  has  a  long  essay  on  what  we  have 
learned  about  telescopic  photography  in  10  years.  One  dollar 
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enormously  in  the  majority— 625  reds  to 
one  white— should  be  a  salmon-pink;  the 
whites  should  show  a  nucleus  that  is  blue 
to  purple.  In  order  to  check  your  stain- 
ing, have  handy  a  colored  plate  of  human 
blood  corpuscles  under  Wright's  stain. 
This  can  be  found  in  any  histology  text- 
book. If  the  nuclei  of  the  white  cells  are 
not  sufficiently  stained,  the  duration  of 
staining  was  not  long  enough  or  the  de- 
staining  with  the  buiTer  was  too  long. 

This  microscopic  examination  must  be 
done  quickly,  as  the  distilled  water  on 
the  slide  will  continue  to  destain.  When 
judged  satisfactory,  blot  the  preparation 
gently  with  filter  paper  and  wave  it  about 
to  air-dry.  With  films  you  wish  to  keep 
only  for  a  short  period,  use  films  on  cover 
glasses.  These  may  be  examined  by  plac- 
ing the  cover,  film  side  up.  on  a  blank 
slide.  Films  made  on  slides  should  be 
neither  covered  nor  labeled;  they  are  to 
be  used  only  with  oil-immersion  lenses. 
The  reason  for  allowing  them  to  remain 
uncovered  is  that  the  preparation  keeps 
better  and  the  stain  does  not  fade  as 
rapidly.  After  each  use,  flush  off  the  oil 
with  benzene. 

To  make  a  permanent  mount  of  films 
made  on  cover  glasses,  invert  the  cover, 
film  side  down,  over  the  center  of  a  clean 
slide  on  which  a  medium-sized  drop  of 
mountant  has  been  placed.  Gently  lower 
the  cover,  first  touching  one  edge  to  the 
slide,  then  letting  it  drop,  allowing  the 
mountant  to  spread  out  evenly.  Label 
and  keep  flat  until  dry,  then  store  or 
proceed  to  study.  Should  you  have  a  good 
film,  but  an  unsatisfactory  staining,  use 
buffer  until  the  slide  is  destained  and 
then     repeat     the     staining     procedure. 

Studying  the  Slides 

BLOOD  is  composed  of  a  fluid  plasma 
and  a  solid  content,  not  all  of  whose 
materials  are  cells;  hence  the  term 
"formed  elements"  is  usually  employed. 
Erythrocytes,  or  red  corpuscles,  com- 
prise by  far  the  largest  percentage  of 
these  formed  elements.  Their  function 
is  to  transport  oxygen  from  gills  or  lungs 
to  tissues  and  cells  all  over  the  body. 
They  are  biconcave,  circular  discs  in  all 
mammals  except  members  of  the  camel 
family,  in  which  they  are  oval.  In  all 
mammals  erythrocytes  lose  their  nucleus 
during  the  final  stage  of  their  formation 
in  the  bone  marrow,  causing  the  profile 
shape  to  change  from  biconvex  to  bi- 
concave. Lacking  nuclei,  they  are  not 
complete  cells  and  some  histologists  pre- 
fer the  more  precise  term  of  erythro- 
plastids.  In  vertebrates  below  mammals 
they  are  true  cells,  nucleated  and  oval. 
In  a  film  of  fresh  blood,  red  corpuscles 
are  not  red,  but  a  faint  greenish  yellow. 
In  mammals,  the  bright  red  color  results 
when  these  corpuscles  are  piled  up  in  a 
layer  of  appreciable  thickness.  Then 
they  transmit  the  red  end  of  the  spec- 
trum and  absorb  the  blue  end,  because 


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presence  of  the  pigment  hemo- 
the  characteristic  element  of 
s  iron.  In  most  arthropods  the 
;  is  hemocyanin,  with  copper  as 
linant  element,  which  combines 
ygen  to  impart  a  blue  color, 
lost  effective  way  to  study  eryth- 
is  to  place  a  medium-sized  drop 
I  blood  in  the  center  of  a  slide 
D  it  immediately  with  a  cover 
he  shape  and  size  of  these  cells 
;n  be  examined  in  fresh  condi- 
te  that  because  of  their  adhesive- 
ey  tend  to  stack  up  in  overlap- 
ws,  like  a  spilled-over  pile  of 
hese  stacks  are  called  rouleaux, 
few  minutes,  as  the  film  begins 


HILS  in  a  field  of  red  blood  cells. 

jt  the  edges,  cells  with  spiked 
— crenated  corpuscles— will  be 
1,  their  change  in  shape  caused 
ikage  from  loss  of  water.  If  dis- 
iter  is  added  at  the  edge  of  the 
)  it  can  run  under  and  dilute  the 
asma,  the  corpuscles  will  absorb 
sr,  swell  up,  and  become  faint 
,  In  this  swollen  condition,  they 
led  "blood  shadows."  If  the  ab- 
continues.  they  will  burst.  In 

stained  blood  the  center  of  each 
will  appear  either  darker  or 
han  the  periphery,  according  to 
th  to  which  the  microscope  is 
;  the  uninitiated  may  mistake  the 
or  a  nucleus.  But  as  the  focus 
;ed,  this  appearance  also  alters, 

results  merely  from  the  bicon- 
ape  of  the  cell.  In  sections  of 
stained  with  a  combination  of 
ylin  and  eosin,  the  red  cells  are 

in  a  properly  stained  Wright's 
ley  are  salmon-pink,  a  color  that 
ised  as  a  guide  for  judging  when 
:  is  correctly  stained. 

Leucocytes 

hite  blood  corpuscles,  or  leuco- 
,  are  the  only  true  cells  in  the 
3cause  they  possess  nuclei.  When 
ing  they  are  spherical,  but  they 
remarkable  power  of  changing 
'  sending  forth  pseudopodia,  like 
iba,  so  are  said  to  progress  by 
d  movement.  They  may  force 
y  between  adjacent  cells  in  the 
capillaries  and  pass  out  into  the 
ling  connective  tissues,  then  re- 
he  blood  via  lymph  channels.  In 


a  dried  blood  smear  white  cells  become 
flattened  and  their  size  is  larger  than 
when  they  are  circulating— the  reverse  of 
the  erythrocytes.  They  may  be  kept  alive 
for  some  time  on  a  warm  microscope 
stage.  Although  the  precise  function  of 
most  of  the  different  types  is  still  not  well 
understood,  leucocytes  have  been  called 
the  police  force  of  the  body.  This  is  be- 
cause, in  addition  to  their  amoeboid 
movement,  some  white  blood  corpuscles 
form  food  cups  of  pseudopodia,  like  an 
amoeba,  and  ingest  such  solid  particles 
as  bacteria.  This  ingestion  process  is 
known  as  phagocytosis,  "eating  of  a 
cell,"  and  is  one  of  the  methods  by 
which  the  body  combats  infection. 

Leucocytes  are  divided  into  two  main 
classes,  the  agranulocytes  and  the  gran- 
ulocytes—those  without  and  those  with 
numerous  distinct  granules  in  the  cyto- 
plasm. The  agranulocytes,  in  turn,  in- 
clude two  kinds,  lymphocytes  and  mono- 
cytes. Lymphocytes  embody  the  smallest 
of  white  cells— the  average  size  is  6  to 
8m  in  diameter,  although  they  range  up 
to  IS/ii.  It  is  believed  that  their  main 
function  is  the  production  of  antibodies 
following  infection.  They  make  up  20  to 
25  per  cent  of  the  white  corpuscles. 

When  stained,  the  small  lymphocytes 
appear  to  be  almost  entirely  composed 
of  a  spherical,  dark  purple  nucleus.  A 
thin  rim  of  cytoplasm  that  has  stained 
robin's-egg  blue  surrounds  the  nucleus. 
As  the  cells  increase  in  size,  the  relative 
amount  of  cytoplasm  also  increases.  An 
indentation  in  one  side  of  the  nucleus, 
scarcely  evident  in  small  lymphocytes, 
becomes  more  prominent.  The  cytoplasm 
may  contain  a  few  large  granules,  but 
these  are  not  constant. 

Monocytes  are  scarce.  They  comprise 
only  3  to  8  per  cent  of  the  white  cells, 
and  range  in  size  from  15  to  20m,  becom- 
ing the  largest  corpuscles  of  the  blood. 
In  color,  the  nucleus  is  lilac,  rather  than 
purple,  and  its  form  varies— it  may  be 
oval,  kidney-shaped,  horseshoe,  or 
twisted.  The  cytoplasm  is  grayish  blue 
and  somewhat  granular. 

Granulocytes  always  have  large  num- 
bers of  specific  granules  in  the  cyto- 
plasm, and  a  nucleus  that  is  spherical 
in  young  cells.  As  the  cell  ages,  it  shrinks 
and  divides  into  increasing  numbers  of 
lobes  connected  by  thin  strands. 

Most  numerous  of  all  leucocytes  are 
heterophils,  called  neutrophils  in  man. 
The  granules  in  this  type  are  so  numer- 
ous and  fine  that  they  cannot  be  counted. 
Heterophils  are  neutral  in  staining,  and 
take  on  a  lilac  coloration  with  Wright's. 
The  nucleus  is  three-  to  five-lobed  and 
stains  a  deep  blue.  Recent  investigation 
has  discovered  an  amazing  sex  difference 
in  the  cells.  Those  of  females  show  a 
small  knob,  called  the  drumstick,  at  one 
side  of  the  nucleus,  connected  to  the 
main  mass  by  a  slender  stalk.  The  drum- 
stick  is   thought   to    represent   the   sex 


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BAUSCH  &  LOMB  W 


Dr.  Corrington,  who  is  well  known 
in  the  field  of  microscopy,  recently 
retired  as  Professor  of  Zoology  at 
the   University   of  Miami   in   Florida. 

chromosome  and  to  be  present  in  all  fe- 
male neutrophils,  although  it  has  been 
observed  in  only  about  3  per  cent.  The 
cell  must  be  flattened  in  just  the  right 
plane   for  the  drumstick  to   be  visible. 

Eosinophils  comprise  only  2  to  5  per 
cent  of  the  white  cells  and  average  12m 
in  diameter.  In  a  properly  stained  smear 
they  may  be  spotted  instantly  by  their 
many  large,  bright  red,  cytoplasmic 
granules,  large  enough  to  be  counted. 
They  often  obscure  the  nucleus,  and 
seem  at  times  to  project  from  the  pe- 
riphery of  the  cytoplasm.  The  nucleus  is 
bilobed.  often  C-shaped,  and  blue. 

Basophils  are  so  uncommon  that  they 
are  encountered  rarely  and  with  diffi- 
culty, for  they  make  up  only  one-half  of 
one  per  cent  of  leucocytes.  The  granules 
are  like  those  of  eosinophils,  but  stain 
a  dark,  purplish  blue.  The  function  of 
basophils  and  eosinophils  is  unknown. 

Blood  Platelets 

BLOOD  platelets  are  bits  of  cytoplasm 
broken  off  from  the  pseudopodia  of 
megakaryocytes,  the  giant  cells  of  bone 
marrow.  Their  enumeration  is  difficult 
because  they  adhere  to  each  other  and  to 
every  surface  with  which  they  may  come 
in  contact.  Some  authors  believe  them  to 
be  present  in  the  ratio  of  250.000  per 
cu.  mm.  of  blood;  others  give  a  figure  as 
high  as  750,000.  Their  shapes  vary  from 
circular  to  irregular,  and  their  diameter 
ranges  from  2  to  4m.  With  Wright's  stain, 
a  platelet  has  a  purplish-red,  granular 
color  body  or  chromomere— either  cen- 
tral or  peripheral— and  a  pale  blue,  re- 
fractile.  clear  hyaloplasm.  Platelets 
occur  only  in  mammals,  and  function  as 
part  of  the  blood-clotting  mechanism. 

The  study  of  blood  can  furnish  many 
fascinating  hours  to  the  careful  micros- 
copist.  This  article  has  tried  to  provide 
an  introduction  to  technique  and  identi- 
fication. There  are  many  other  aspects  of 
the  subject  we  shall  undoubtedly  touch 
on  in  future  discussions  of  microscopy. 

This  list  details  the  photographer,  artist, 
or  other  source  of  illustrations,  by  page. 

COVER-Arthur   Singer  52-Lowell  Observatory 

16-25-  R.  H.  Dyson.  Jr.,  53-AIVINH 

except  16-bot.,  Courtesy  54-Colin  Turnbull 

of  British  Mus.;  19-AMNH  55-Rada   Dyson-Hudson 

after  R.  H.  Dyson,  Jr.  except  bot.  right,  Robert 

27-28-Arthur  Singer  M.  Netting 

29-AMNH  after  William  56-Colin   Turnbull    ex- 

G.  George  cept  center,  Robert  IVl. 

30-36-U.S.  Geological  Netting;  top  left,  AMNH 

Survey,  Dept.  of  Interior  after  Paul   Bohannan 

except  31-bot.,  Ansel  57_colin  Turnbull 

?K^T  Rr^t      Fairrhiid  58-60-Robert  M.  Net- 

AerialSurvey     New  York  \\"K\'T,  l^lf./'^^^' 

38-43-Leonar(i   Lee  Rue  K^|n  'v   pa  mer   Phot^ 

Ill-Annan  Photo  Fea-  a^nL 

tures  agency 

44-John  J    Lee  61-Colin  Turnbull 

45-Janies  R.  Allen  and  62-63-Dcnovan   Clem- 

John  J.  Lee  son- Annan  Photo  Fea- 

46-49-Paul  J.  Fournier  tures 

50-51— Lick  Observatory  66— Julian  D.  Corrington 


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FLASK    A:    Roman  Glass  Flaskiet,  approx.  3"  tall- 
SELECT   SPECIMEN  S23 

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FASCINATING   GUIDE 
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Additional  Reading 

SCIENCES  MEET 
IN  ANCIENT  HASANLU 

The  Heritage  of  Persia.  Richard  N. 
Frye.  World  Pub.  Co..  Cleveland.  1963. 

Iran  from  the  Earliest  Times  to 
THE  Islamic  Conquest.  R.  Ghirshman. 
Penguin  Books,  Ltd.,  Harmondsworth, 
1954. 

"Ninth  Century  Man  in  Western 
Iran."  R.  H.  Dyson.  Jr.  .Archaeology, 
Vol.  17.  No.  1.  pages  3-11.  1964. 

RARELY  SEEN  SONGBIRDS 
OF  PERU'S  HIGH  ANDES 

The  Birds  of  Colomria.  R.  M.  de 
Schauensee.  Livingston  Pub.  Co.,  Nar- 
berth.  Pa.,  1964. 

"Studies  of  Peruvian  Birds."  (1-66) 
.1.  T.  Zimmer.  AMNH  Novitates,  N.Y., 
19.31-53. 

MAPPING  THE  SURFACE 
OF  THE  EARTH 

Great  Surveys  of  the  American 
West.  Richard  A.  Bartlett.  University  of 
Oklahoma  Press,  Norman,  1962. 

The  Story  of  Maps.  Lloyd  A.  Brown. 
Little,  Broun  &  Co.,  Boston,  1949. 

Mapping.  David  Greenhood.  Univer- 
sity of  Chicago  Press.  Chicago.  1964. 

RETURN  OF  THE  BEAVER 

The  Fur  Trade.  Paul  Chrisler  Phil- 
lips. University  of  Oklahoma  Press. 
Norman,  1961. 

The  Beaver.  Its  Works  and  Its 
Ways.  Edward  Royal  Warren.  The  Wil- 
liams &  Wilkins  Co..  Baltimore,  1927 . 

TINY  DRIFTERS  OF  THE  SEA 

The  Sea  Around  Us.  Rachel  L.  Car- 
son. Oxford  University  Press,  N .Y .,  1951. 

Field  Book  of  Seashore  Life.  Roy 
Waldo  Miner.  G.  P.  Putnam's  Sons.  N.Y.. 
1950. 

MIGRATION  IN  MAINE 

"Fishes  of  Maine."  W.  Harry  Ever- 
hard.  Maine  Department  of  Inland  Fish- 
eries and  Game,  .Augusta.  1961. 

"The  Spawning  Habits  of  Cutthroat 
and  Eastern  Brook  Trouts."  0.  A.  Smith. 
Journal  of  Wildlife  Management,  Vol.  5. 
No.  4.  pages  461-71.  1941. 

PLACE  FOR  ALL  THINGS 

Markets  in  Africa.  Edited  by  Paul 
Bohannan  and  George  Dalton.  North- 
tcestern  Univ.  Press,  Evanston,  1962. 

Peasant  Marketing  in  Java.  Alice  G. 
Dewey.  Free  Press  of  Glencoe,  N.Y.. 
1962. 

Trade  and  Market  im  the  Early 
Empires.  Edited  by  Karl  Polanyi.  Con- 
rad M.  Arensberg.  and  Harry  W.  Pear- 
son. Free  Press  of  Glencoe,  N.Y.,  1957. 

TOTEM  POLES:  FAMILY  TREES 

The  Wolf  and  the  Raven.  Viola  Gar- 
field and  Linn  A.  Forrest.  University  of 
Washington  Press,  Seattle,  1948. 

"Totem  Poles."  Marius  Barbeau.  Bul- 
letin, National  Museum  of  Canada,  No. 
119,  Vol.  1-2,7950. 


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EDMUND  SCIENTIFIC  CCbarrington,  new  jersey 


Good  Hunting  with  Bolex 


For  nature  motion  pictures,  Bolex  is 
the  answer.  It  is  lightweight,  yet  the 
durable  Swiss  precision  manufacture 
is  so  dependable  that  it  has  been  from 
the  highest  mountains  to  the  depths  of 
the  sea,  from  the  arctic  to  the  tropics. 


Many  professional  film-makers  de- 
pend on  it  completely. 

In  addition  to  Swiss-made,  world- 
known  precision  manufacture,  you 
get  with  each  H-16  these  features: 
lens  flexibility  from  extreme  wide- 
angle  to  extreme  telephoto  to  the 
finest  zoom  lenses;  indoor  or  outdoor 


And  for  economy  where  audiences  are 
small  and  big-screen  repro- 
duction is  not  needed, 
the  Bolex  H-8  has 
all  the  above  fea- 
tures plus  a  100' 
8mm  film  capacity, 


SHOOTING  POSITION 


utility;  speeds  from  12  to  64  frames 
per  second;  frame  counter  and  single- 
frame  shooting  for  recording  natural 
phenomena;  time  lapse;  full  film  re- 
wind; a  registration  claw  that  assures 
professional  film  steadiness.  The  Rex 
models  offer,  in  addition,  reflex  view- 
ing while  filming,  variable  shutter, 
and  push-button  spool  ejectors. 


"-     _      --^^StSu.SSA^ifcJ 


UP,  TIME   LAPSE  ShOV/S  BLOOMING 

For  options,  you  may  have  these 
(plus  others  not  listed):  motor  drive; 
matte  box;  microscope  adapter;  exten- 
sion tubes  for  macrophotography;  un- 
derwater housing;  light  meter;  tripod. 

No  wonder  the  Bolex  is  favored  by 
so  many  scientific  photographers. 


Paillard  Inc. 
1900  Lower  Road 
Linden,  New  Jersey 

Please  send  me  more  information 
a  bout  nature  photography  with  the 
Bolex,  I  am  especially  interested  in: 


atura 


Bolex  saySyfrom  this  Christmas  on 

home  movies  won't  have  to  look  lilte 

'^home  movies." 


Not  with  Bolex  equipment 
under  the  tree.  That's  for  sure. 

You  see,  Bolex  doesn't  think 
home  movies  have  to  be  a  bore, 
The  kind  that  cause  you  to  fidget 
in  your  seat.  Or  make  excuses  to 
leave.  Fact  is,  we  feel  home  mov- 
ies should  be  downright  enter- 
taining. Something  to  do  instead 
of  watching  television.  And  they 
can  be. 

Just  take  the  Bolex  S-1,  for 
example.  Here's  a  camera  that 


will  make  you  lose  your  amateur 
standing.  It  has  an  f/1.8  zoom 
lens.  An  electric  eye  that  auto- 
matically measures  and  sets  ex- 
posures. Filming  speeds  of  12, 
18,  and  40  frames  a  second.  A  9 
to  30mm  zooming  range.  A  reflex 
viewer.  A  varia- 
ble shutter.  A 
film  rewind.  You 
name  it. 

And  to  learn 
liow  to  take 
those  great  mov- 
ies, we'll  even  throw  in  the  Bolex 
CineGuide  booklet  with  every 
camera  purchase. 

0.  K.  Now  let's  suppose  you've 
just  shot  a  great  film.  Should  you 
dump  it  on  any  old  projector? 
Why  mess  it  up?  Great  films 
should  be  shown  on  a  great  pro- 
jector. And  we  just  happen  to 
make  one.  The  Bolex  18-5  Auto- 
matic. It  automatically  threads 
itself,  has  zoom  lens,  and  can 


(0 


show  any  film  in  slow  motion.  We 
mean  real  slow  motion,  too.  E 
frames  a  second.  Without  evet 
flickering.  And  the  same  switcl" 
that  puts  you  in  slow  motion  aisc 
puts  you  in  reverse,  rewind-anc 
even  controls  room  lights.  Whai 
could  be  easier? 

Now  you  have  a  small  inkling 
as  to  how  we  feel  about  home 
movies.  Feel  the  same  way: 
Stop  in  at  your  local  dealei 
and  let  him 
demonstrate 
the  Bolex  S-1 
and  18-5. 
Give  them  this 
Christmas  to 
someone  you 
love  and  you'l 
be  giving  the  ( 
joy  of  fine  home 
movies  for 
many,  many  , 
Christ- 
mases  to 
come.  Do 
it  now.  Bolex 
has  never  been  easier  to  buy  bi 
cause  your  dealer  has  a  conver 
lent  payment  plan  handy. 

Check  the  Yellow  Pages  foi 
the  Bolex  dealer  nearest  you.  Oi 
write:  Paillard  Incorporatec 
1900  Lower  Road,  Linden,  N.. 


I  things  are  ready,  if  our  minds  be  so." 


—  Shakespeare 


insistent  questing  of  the  creative  mind  is  the 
I  force  behind  Monsanto' s  widespread  research 
',rams  .  . .  We  have  800  scientists  doing  just  that. 

y  think,  experiment,  develop,  apply  .  .  .  and 
'  results  are  impressive — 500  new  products 
he  past  10  years,  ranging  through  such  diverse 
's  as  petroleum  and  fibers  to  building 
zrials  and  packaging. 

n  these  continuing  efforts  spring  the  new 
s  and  variety  of  products  that  will  help 
?e  tomorrow — its  cities,  homes  .  .  .  its  agriculture 
industry. 

sense  no  limits  to  the  mind  of  man. 


Wim  Monsanto,  St.  Louis,  Missouri    63166 


PRESIDENT 

Alexander  M.  White 

DIRECTOR 

James  A.  Oliver 

ASSISTANT  DIRECTORS 

Walter  F.  Meister,  Joseph  M.  Chamberlain 


MANAGING  EDITOR 

Robert  E.  Williamson 

EXECUTIVE  EDITOR 

Helena  Jordan 

ASSOCIATE  EDITORS 

Harry  Atkins,  Beth  Stokes 

COPY  EDITORS 

Florence  Brauner,  Florence  Klodin 

REVIEWS 

Francesca  von  Hartz 

PHOTOGRAPHY 

Lee  Boltin 

PRODUCTION 

Thomas  Page 
Mairgreg  Ross,  Asst. 

CONTRIBUTIONS 

Ernestine  Weindorf 


CONTRIBUTING  EDITORS 

Paul  M.  Tilden,  Thomas  D.  Nicholson 
David  Linton,  Julian  D.  Corrington 


EDITORIAL    ADVISERS 

Gerard  Piel  Gordon  F.  Ekhohn 

Gordon  Reekie  Donn  E.  Rosen 

T.  C.  Schneirla         Richard  K.  Winslow 

Richard  G.  Van  Gelder 


ADVERTISING 

Frank  L.  De  Franco,  Director 
Ogden  Lowell,  Sales 
Nancy  Reice,  Asst. 


PROMOTION   MANAGER 

Anne  Keating 
Anne  Ryan,  Asst. 


Natural  Histor 

Incorporating  Nature  Magazine 

THE  JOURNAL  OF  THE  AMERICAN  MUSEUM  OF  NATURAL  HISK 


Vol.  LXXHI 


NOVEMBER  1964. 


ARTICLES 
CANNIBAL  OF  THE  POND 
STRANGLER  FIG,  NATIVE  EPIPHYTE 
LONG  JOURNEY  OF  THE  DOGFISH 
BRONZE  AGE  SEEN  IN  GRANITE 
LAKE  ERIE  NICHE  FOR  GULLS 


Syd  Radinovsky 

Virgil  N.  Argo 

Walter  N.  Hess 

Holger  Arbman 

Ralph  S.  Palmer 


DEPARTMENTS 
1964  SURVEY  OF  SCIENCE  BOOKS  FOR  YOUNG  PEOPLE 


SKY  REPORTER 
ABOUT  THE  AUTHORS 


TRAVEL  FAR  AND  NEAR: 
ART  OF  AJANTA  AND  ELLORA 


SCIENCE  IN  ACTION: 
THE  BIOLOGICAL  COLLECTOR 


ADDITIONAL  READING 


Thomas  D.  Nicholson 

Robert  S.  McCuUy 
Jack  J.  Rudloe 


CIRCULATION  MANAGER 

Joseph  Saulina 


COVER:  The  water  scorpion,  seen  impaling  a  guppy  in  a  laboratory  tank, 
an  interesting  combination  of  characteristics.  First,  it  is  not  a  scorpion;  it  i 
insect.  Second,  it  looks  like  a  walking  stick.  Third,  its  habits  are  very  sin 
to  those  of  the  carnivorous,  cannibalistic  praying  mantid.  Ranatra  jusca  Beam 
the  most  abundant  species  in  its  North  American  genus,  can  be  found  in  ni 
fresli-water  ponds.  Its  fascinating  life  history  has  been  studied  in  detail  by 
Syd  Radinovsky,  whose  article  begins  on  page  16.  He  took  all  the  photogra 
accompanying  his  text,  in  addition  to  the  extraordinary  portrait  on  the  co 

The  American  Museum  is  open  to  the  public  without  charge  every  da] 
during  the  year.  Your  support,  through  membership  and  contributions 
helps  make  this  possible.  The  Museum  is  equally  in  need  of  suppor 
for  all  of  its  work  in  the  fields  of  research,  education,  and  exhibition 


1  of  Natural  History,  Central 
•i.  10024.  I'ublished  niontily,  October  through  May:  biinonlhly  Jur 
-.  In  Canada,  and  all  other  countries:  S5.5D  a  year.  Single  cojiie 
•  York,  N.  Y.,  and  at  additional  offices.  Copyright,  li)64,  by  The 
part   of    this    periodical   may    be   reproduced    without    the   written    c 

.IDC     M.,    iVITUr        T,-a\aHiTeA      II    <;        P„t..n,      C\ff,^a        T  inc.l  i..i  r..rt       n.„Ti>i£„r: 


cation  Office;  The  

.  10024.  Published   monthly,  Oc 
all    othe 


You  will  6nd  N 


.  registered  U. 
ill  be  handled  ' 
iressed  by  authoi 


n  and  do  noi  i,ece»B«, 
ted   in  Reader's  Guid, 


rily 


i  Periodical  Lit 


APPRENTICE 


These  young  men  are  preparing  for  important  careers  with  General  Motors. 
Under  the  GM  apprentice  plan,  they  are  learning  the  diemaker's  skills.  Once 
they  have  mastered  this  craft — and  it  will  take  them  four  years  (8,000  hours) 
of  on-the-job  training  and  classroom  study — each  will  be  a  skilled  journeyman, 
qualified  to  make  the  complex  dies,  jigs  and  fixtures  so  vital  to  modern  industry. 

This  year,  2,753  General  Motors  apprentices  are  being  trained  for  this  and 
other  trades — more  than  30  in  aU.  They  are  learning  to  be  pattern  makers, 
pipefitters,  bricklayers,  toolmakers,  diesinkers,  electricians  and  millwrights, 
to  name  a  few.  From  the  time  they  start  training  they  are  paid  good  wages  on 
a  regular  rising  scale. 

At  the  conclusion  of  their  four-year  courses,  apprentices  will  have  gained  skills 
that  will  serve  them  well  throughout  their  working  careers.  They  are  free,  of 
course,  to  work  anywhere  they  wish — but  most  stay  with  GM.  We're  glad  of 
that.  We  need  them.  Talented  people  are  indispensable  to  General  Motors. 

GENERAL  MOTORS  IS  PEOPLE ... 

Making  Better  Things  For  You 


Natural  History's  1964  Surv 


FOR  THE  PAST  FOUR  YEARS,  this  maga- 
zine has  printed  in  its  December  issue 
a  review  section  devoted  to  books  in  the 
biological  sciences  published  for  young 
people.  The  appearance  of  the  fifth  an- 
nual survey  in  this  issue  reflects  a  direct 
response  to  a  demand. 

During  the  last  two  years  or  so,  an  in- 
creasing number  of  teachers  and  librari- 
ans have  asked  us  to  schedule  the  review 
at  an  earlier  date.  Their  reasons  are  two- 
fold: first,  schoolbook  purchasing  time 
takes  place  during  the  months  immedi- 
ately after  the  fall  term  reconvenes; 
second,  school  purchasers  sufficiently  re- 
spect the  opinions  of  our  reviewers  to 
■want  to  check  their  comments  before 
buying.  We  hope  this  year's  change  will 
be  of  help  to  those  members  of  our 
school  systems  who  are  faced  with  the 
enormous  responsibility  of  weeding  out 
the  mass  of  available  science  literature. 
We  also  hope  it  will  give  a  little  more 
time  to  the  Christmas  gift  buyer. 

As  in  previous  years,  the  survey  has 
been  prepared  by  reviewers  who  are 
members  of  the  scientific  staff  of  The 
American  Museum  of  Natural  History. 
The  71  books  reviewed  all  deal  with  the 
biological  and  earth  sciences  or  with 
astronomy  and  space— disciplines  that 
are  either  directly  or  peripherally  re- 
lated to  work  carried  on  in  the  scientific 
departments  of  the  Museum  or  The 
American  Museum-Hayden  Planetarium. 
As  a  result,  many  excellent  books  in  the 
physical  sciences  must  automatically  be 
eliminated  from  our  consideration.  This 
is  regrettable  but  necessary  in  view  of 
the  Museum's  frame  of  reference. 

It  might  be  of  interest  here  to  mention 
the  symposium  on  science  books  for 
young  people  that  was  in  the  planning 
stage  as  this  section  went  to  press  in 
1963.  Sponsored  jointly  by  the  Graduate 
School  of  Library  Sciences  at  Rutgers 
University  and  Natural  History,  it  at- 
tracted over  300  men  and  women  from 
several  states  to  New  Brunswick,  N.J., 
generated  much  heat,  and  may  even  have 
shed  a  little  light  on  the  question  of  how 
to  judge  a  science  book. 

Although  it  is  impossible  to  speak  here 
for  the  others  who  attended  the  full  day's 
meeting,  it  is  possible  to  speak  for  the 
reviewers  who  participated.  All  felt  the 
exchange  of  opinions  among  authors, 
publishers,  librarians,  teachers,  and  re- 
viewer-scientists was  extraordinarily 
stimulating.  All  felt  an  increased  respon- 
sibility to  the  reader. 

As  in  previous  years,  reprints  of  this 
year's  survey  will  be  made  available 
■without  cost  to  teachers  and  librarians 
■who  write  us  on  their  official  letterhead 
an'd   include   a   stamped,   self-addressed 


envelope.  Any  other  readers  who  wish 
reprints  may  obtain  them  at  the  cost 
price  of  20  cents  apiece. 

All  requests  should  be  sent  to:  Re- 
views, Natural  History,  Central  Park 
West  at  79th  St.,  New  York,  N.Y.,  10024. 

Anthropology 

THIS  year  it  has  become  evident  that 
it  is  impossible  for  a  social  anthropol- 
ogist adequately  to  review  the  archeo- 
logical  books  now  being  written  for 
young  people.  This  is  partly  because  of 
a  rise  in  the  level  of  sophistication  and 
abstraction  in  the  books  concerned,  and 
partly  because  of  the  ever  increasing 
complexity  of  the  field— each  branch  of 
the  general  anthropological  discipline  is 
turned  further  within  its  specialized 
self.  Particularly  with  books  for  young 
readers,  who  lack  the  critical  facility  of 
more-advanced  students,  one  must  be 
sure  of  the  facts,  and  one  must  be  able  to 
separate  opinions  from  those  facts. 
Therefore,  I  have  consulted  with  Shirley 
Blancke  on  the  general  archeology  books 
and  with  Dr.  Junius  Bird  on  the  book 
dealing  with  Peru  (both  are  with  this 
Museum ) ,  and  this  review  includes  their 
opinions  on  those  volumes. 

Adventuring  in  Archaeology,  by  C.  A. 
Burland  (Frederick  Warne).  is  written 
to  create  an  interest  in  archeology,  and 
it  will  probably  succeed.  It  consists  of 
one-  or  two-page  synopses  of  various  ar- 
cheological  topics  accompanied  by  many 
good  illustrations.  Unfortunately,  how- 
ever, much  of  Mr.  Burland's  information 
is  inaccurate  or  misleading.  His  plan  of 
Stonehenge  bears  little  resemblance  to 
the  monument,  and  his  description  of  its 
use  by  prehistoric  stargazers  is  com- 
pletely unfounded.  To  build  a  model  of 
a  house  on  pilings  sounds  like  fun.  but 
the  author  leaves  one  with  the  nine- 
teenth-century misconception  that  the 
Swiss  Lake  Dwellings  were  erected  high 
over  water,  when  in  fact  the  pilings  were 
deep  foundations  in  marshy  lake  shores. 

Curiously,  the  pile-dwelling  myth  has 
also  crept  into  a  book  that  is  on  a  much 
higher  level  scholastically.  Dr.  Gordon 
C.  Baldwin,  in  The  {Forld  of  Prehistory 
(Putnam),  provides  a  great  deal  of  de- 
tailed information  about  man's  past  in 
his  descriptions  of  various  "firsts"— 
first  inventions,  and  so  on- but  the  book 
is  rather  dull.  It  could  have  been 
leavened  considerably  by  good  illustra- 
tions, but  apart  from  one  or  two  maps  the 
pictures  are  restricted  to  small  draw- 
ings above  the  chapter  headings. 

A  more  lively,  if  semifictional  book 
is  Worlds  Lost  and  Found,  by  Azriel  Ei- 


senberg  and  Dov  Peretz  Elkins 
ard-Schuman).  It  is  a  collec 
stories,  half  of  which  deal  with 
literary  sources,  and  half  with  tl 
vation  of  biblical  towns.  These 
are  anecdotal,  along  the  lines 
am's  Gods,  Graves  and  Schola 
contain  some  fictional  conve 
based  on  fact.  They  are  told  in 
sorbing  fashion,  and  the  descri] 
the  method  by  which  Egyptiai 
glyphics  and  cuneiform  script  v 
ciphered  is  interesting  and  not  ii 

The  Search  for  Early  Man,  1 
E.  PfeifFer  (American  Heritagt 
vivid  and  arresting  account  of  01 
Age  man  and  some  of  the  mode 
who  have  dug  him  up.  It  pres« 
kinds  of  problems  archeologis 
when  probing  the  distant  past, 
nature  of  the  evidence  on  whii 
base  their  deductions.  The  illus 
of  sites  and  archeologists  at  w 
excellent,  but  some  of  the  recons 
scenes  of  Old  Stone  Age  life  shot 
been  omitted,  for  they  give  the 
sion  that  Paleolithic  man  wai 
lievedly  moronic.  However,  this 
worth  reading  and  conveys  the 
phere  of  genuine  archeology. 

Gold  and  Gods  of  Peru,  by  Ha 
mann  (Pantheon),  is  a  specific 
tailed  book  dealing  with  P 
archeology.  It  is  richly  illustral 
highly  attractive.  It  does  have 
small  errors,  but  these  do  not  of 
book's  value,  as  it  is  not  writ 
specialists.  Mr.  Baumann's  book 
stimulate  an  interest  in  Peruvian 
tory  and  the  Spanish  Conquest. 

Various  events  are  described  I 
the  eyes  of  witnesses  and  partici 
some  real,  some  fictional.  An 
boy,  captured  by  the  Spaniards, 
Pizarro's  arrival  in  Peru.  Guama 
De  Ayala,  the  remarkable  sixteei 
tury  writer  and  artist,  tells  of  t 
toms  and  past  of  his  people,  and  e 
of  his  drawings  are  used  to  il 
his  comments.  The  color  plates 
cellent  and  the  Andean  spe 
scenes,  and  people  were  well  chc 

Moving  into  the  realm  of  coni 
ary  peoples,  and  in  particular  tl 
the  North  American  continent,  v 
first  mention  two  books  that  do  n( 
erly  fall  within  the  scope  of  this 
but  should  nonetheless  be  mer 
Monuments  in  Cedar,  by  Edw 
Keithahn  (Superior),  has  a  ti 
contents  that  suggests  the  autli 
a  juvenile  audience  in  mind.  I 
text  and  arrangement  of  the  hoc 
this.  The  art  and  religion  of  the 
west  Indians,  described  by  me 
personal  reminiscences  and  ci 
chosen    pictures,    taken    by    p 


'  Science  Books  for  Young  People 


^raphers,  complement  the  work, 
is  would  reward  a  serious  student, 
ould  not  attract  a  young  reader 
no   prior   interest   in   the   subject. 

Keithahn  and  the  same  publisher 
produced  another  book,  Eskimo 
•ture,  a  readable  autobiography.  It 

well  stimulate  young  people  to  a 
r  interest  in.  and  more  serious 
of,  Eskimo  life.  The  photographs, 

at  the  turn  of  the  century,  could 
)een  better  in  content  and  quality, 
■e  tantalizing.  I  wish  a  few  more 

photographs  had  been  offered. 
)  very  disappointing  volumes  are 
f  a  series  published  by  Lyons  and 
han,   Indian  Legends   of  Eastern 
ca    and    Indian    Legends    of    the 

West.  Both  cite  Johanna  R.  M. 
k  as  author,  but  give  no  indication 
low  she  came  by  the  legends  or  the 
itions.  Both  volumes  also  carry 
■f  the  same  extraordinarily  con- 
[ding  introduction  by  G.  Waldo 
le,  full  of  such  paternalistic  non- 
as:  "The  Indian,  like  a  child,  had 
d  remarkably  acute  in  one  direc- 
but  undeveloped  in  others.  He 
grasp  but  one  truth,  and  that  with- 
y  abstract  reasoning." 

tales  are  not  arranged  in  a  way 
)nvinces  us  of  the  abstract  reason- 
)wer  of  those  responsible  for  the 
contents.  Regardless  of  Indian 
Its  such  as  tribal  origins  or  con- 
?  role,  the  legends  are  lumped  un- 
irious  states  as  they  exist  today, 
om  which  we  can  only  guess— since 
e  not  told— they  were  collected, 
mimaginative.  strictly  geographi- 
■angement  deprives  the  tales,  all  of 

are  full  of  intrinsic  interest,  of 
ely  the  background  against  which 
vould  have  had  full  impact  and 
1.    The    illustrations    by    Richard 

who  is  himself  an  Indian,  help 
the  books  somewhat  less  unattrac- 
■ut  as  science  they  are  worthless, 
ther  book  that  does  not  make  the 
is  The  Art  of  the  North  American 
,  by  Shirley  Glubok    (Harper  & 

It  is  lavishly  presented  with  ex- 
photographs,    type,    and    other 
hing  minutiae,  but  the  text  is  not 

the  space  it  takes.  Miss  Glubok 
Titten  some  descriptions  of  the 
graphs  that  do  not  make  a  reader 
wiser  than  had  there  been  no  text 

And  where  the  text  is  more  gen- 
with  information,  it  is  frequently 
ilized  to  the  point  of  being  misin- 
tion,  or  is  couched  in  unfortunate 

Even  with  the  few  words  allowed 
3  primarily  photographic  book,  a 
deal  more  could  have  been  said  of 
direct  significance.  As  for  the  pic- 

themselves,    they    are    presented 


merely  as  a  museological  gallimaufry. 

There  are,  however,  two  good  books 
about  North  American  Indians.  Needless 
to  say,  one  is  by  Robert  Hofsinde.  His 
Indians  at  Home  (Morrow)  follows  his 
usual,  straightforward,  simple  format. 
The  type  is  bold  and  the  author's  line 
drawings  show  something  important.  In 
making  the  home  his  central  theme, 
Hofsinde  again  limits  himself  to  a  sub- 
ject he  can  handle  with  ease  and  clarity 
in  a  short  book.  He  talks  of  the  Algon- 
quian  wigwam,  the  Iroquois  long  house, 
the  Seminole  chikee,  the  Mandan  earth 
lodge,  the  Pueblo  adobe,  and  of  the 
plank  house  and  the  Indian  home  of 
today.  He  tells  us  in  a  few  pages  more  of 
the  real  Indian,  his  life  and  thoughts, 
than  all  the  books  above  put  together. 

Also  good,  but  written  at  greater 
length,  is  Home  of  the  Red  Man,  by  Rob- 
ert Silverberg  (New  York  Graphic  So- 
ciety). Early  in  the  book  the  author 
writes:  "If  anything,  white  men,  with 
their  pinkish  skins,  deserve  the  name  of 
'red  men'  more  than  the  Indians!"  I, 
therefore,  wish  another  title  could  have 
been  chosen.  The  book  deserves  it,  for 
it  is  a  sensible  and  sensitive  general 
introduction  to  a  study  of  North  Ameri- 
can Indian  peoples.  It  covers  early 
history  and  attempts  to  depict  the  dif- 
ferent groups  of  Indians  as  they  were 
before  the  coming  of  the  pink  man.  It 
is  as  attractively  illustrated— by  Judith 
Ann  Lawrence— as  it  is  written,  and  no 
attempt  is  made  to  pander  to  lazy  young 
people.  This  book  should  interest  and 
inform  any  intelligent  student,  and  there 
is  a  useful  index. 

Turning  to  Africa,  we  are  faced  with 
another  problem  book.  Stories  from 
Africa  (Duell,  Sloan  and  Pearce)  are 
"retold  by  Shirley  Goulden"  and  glori- 
ously illustrated  in  color  by  Maraja. 
There  are  only  six  tales,  and  although 
each  stands  fully  on  its  own,  I  again  wish 
we  could  have  been  told  more  about  how 
the  tales  were  collected  and  from  where. 
A  short  introduction  to  each  tale  would 
in  no  way  have  detracted  from  this  book, 
and  I  think  would  have  added  enor- 
mously to  its  value.  Such  facts  might  in- 
terest the  young  reader  without  lessening 
the  pleasure  given  by  the  folk  tales. 

Africa:  Adventures  in  Eyewitness  His- 
tory, by  Rhoda  Hoff  (Walck).  claims  to 
tell  us  about  African  history  through  the 
written  word  of  observers  from  Herodo- 
tus on.  It  does  nothing  of  the  sort.  Pre- 
senting African  history  is  not  without 
problems,  but  there  are  much  more  reli- 
able ways  of  doing  it  than  by  citing  mis- 
cellaneous individuals  whose  only  com- 
mon qualification  seems  to  be  that  they 
have  at  one  time  or  another  set  foot  on 
the  African  continent.  Many  of  the  au- 


thors are  bigoted,  ignorant,  or  idiotic, 
and  it  is  difficult  to  see  what  one  can 
derive  from  this  book  except  the  jaun- 
diced vision  and  understanding  of  most 
of  those  quoted.  Rhoda  Hoff's  brief  in- 
troductions to  each  section  only  tell  us 
about  the  writers,  who  in  turn  tell  us 
more  of  themselves  than  of  Africa. 

The  Vikings,  by  Frank  R.  Donovan 
(American  Heritage),  with  Sir  Thomas 
D.  Kendrick  as  consultant,  is  as  finely 
illustrated  and  as  attractively  presented 
as  one  would  expect  of  a  Horizon  book. 
The  sensible  use  of  consultants  enables 
these  books  to  be  presented  uniformly, 
yet  with  a  reasonable  assurance  of  au- 
thenticity. They  do  not  set  out  to  be  aca- 
demic but  stimulate  a  healthy  interest 
by  arousing  a  healthy  imagination.  The 
Vikings  does  not  skirt  controversial 
areas,  such  as  the  alleged  Viking  "dis- 
covery" of  America,  and  cites  differing 
points  of  view. 

Finally,  having  begun  by  disclaiming 
the  right  of  a  social  anthropologist  to 
review  books  on  archeology,  it  is  a 
pleasure  to  welcome  a  book  on  contem- 
porary peoples  written  by  an  archeolo- 
gist.  Dr.  Baldwin—  who  also  wrote  The 
World  of  Prehistory,  reviewed  above- 
gives  us  another  book.  Stone  Age  Peoples 
Today  (Norton).  It  is  a  fine  offering.  It 
covers  hunters  and  gatherers  from  all 
over  the  world,  thus  bringing  together 
in  one  volume  a  wide  cross  section  of 
different  peoples  who  can  be  sensibly 
compared.  Dr.  Baldwin  chooses  not  to 
make  the  comparisons,  but  we  must  cer- 
tainly be  grateful  to  him  for  setting  forth 
the  necessary  material  in  the  way  he  has. 

There  are  a  number  of  points  with 
which  I  could  take  issue.  Some  of  them 
are  quibbles,  such  as  the  use  of  the  col- 
loquial term  "blackfellows"  for  Aus- 
tralian aborigines.  Dr.  Baldwin's  in- 
sistent use  of  the  term  "dwarf"  for 
pygmy  peoples  is  a  little  more  serious 
for  it  is  an  important  and  significant 
fact  that,  while  short,  they  are  not 
dwarfed.  Generalization  is  inevitable  in 
a  book  of  this  kind,  and  its  limitations 
must  be  accepted.  Some  of  the  author's 
generalizations  are  apt  to  be  gravely  mis- 
leading, however,  as  in  the  statements 
that  most  Bushman  dances  are  "purely 
for  pleasure,"  and  that  the  Andaman 
Islanders  have  "the  unique"'  custom  of 
exchanging  presents. 

A  map  showing  the  distribution  of 
hunters  throughout  the  world  would 
have  been  an  asset,  but  there  is  a  good 
index,  a  glossary,  and  a  short  bibliog- 
raphy. Dr.  Baldwin  crosses  from  one 
branch  of  anthropology  to  another  with 
ease  and  understanding,  and  he  has 
given  us  a  real  science  book  that  can  be 
used  as  such  in  teaching  young  people. 


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Colin  M.  Turnbull 

Astronomy 

SPACE  exploration  is  continuing  stead- 
ily, as  expected,  and  the  number  of 
books  on  the  subject  is  growing  even 
faster.  Unfortunately,  the  viewpoints  of 
most  of  the  authors  and  publishers  are 
as  limited  and  unimaginative  as  ever. 

One  of  the  worst  in  this  regard  is 
Gemini  and  Apollo,  by  Gardner  Soule 
(Duell,  Sloan  and  Pearce).  It  seems  to 
be  an  exercise  to  determine  how  little 
narrative  is  required  to  hold  together  a 
collection  of  forty  photos  and  art  pieces 
acquired  from  the  National  Aeronautics 
and  Space  Administration  and  the  pub- 
licity departments  of  twelve  corporations 
engaged  in  spacework.  The  effort  fails. 
A  better  enterprise  was  undertaken  by 
Irl  Newlan.  Manager  of  Technical  Infor- 
mation of  the  Jet  Propulsion  Laboratory 
of  the  California  Institute  of  Technol- 
ogy. He  has  written  an  authoritative  ac- 
count of  First  to  Venus  (McGraw-Hill) 
apparently  aimed  at  the  young  space  buff 
who  already  has  a  command  of  space  lan- 
guage. It  is  written  about  the  prepara- 
tion, launching,  and  flight  of  the  Mar- 
iner II  mission  to  Venus,  so  it  ought 
to  be  a  milestone.  Adventure  tales  should 
begin  dramatically,  and  this  starts  as  the 
launching  countdown  resumes  at  T-mi- 
nus-five-minutes  after  a  long  "hold"  or 
delay.  If  a  team  of  psychologists  was  told 
to  invent  some  activity  that  would  stead- 
ily increase  tension  and  excitement,  it 
could  not  do  better  than  to  use  a  count- 
down broken  by  occasional  unexplained 
and  frustrating  holds.  To  understand  the 
reason  for  tension,  one  must  know  what 
can  go  wrong,  what  has  gone  wrong,  and 
how  much  depends  on  all  going  well.  I 
suspect  Mr.  Newlan  lived  through  much 
of  the  adventure  he  reports,  and  his 
editors  may  have  shortened  his  tale. 
Throughout  the  book  1  have  the  feeling 
that  editors  and  a  predetermined  num- 
ber of  pages  forced  him  to  omit  much 
impressive  detail,  and  that  the  omissions 
have  not  been  successfully  smoothed 
over.  For  instance,  we  read:  "Ten  sec- 
onds until  shut-off  of  the  Atlas  main 
engines.  Then  crisis !  She  begins  to  roll ! 
The  seconds  tick  off.  'Mark  One,  on 
time!'  The  booster  engines  shut  off. 
'Mark  Two,  on  time!'  The  booster  en- 
gines separate.  On  the  thirty-fifth  roll. 
Atlas  recovers,  stabilizes;  only  three  de- 
grees to  spare.  Sustainer  engine  is  burn- 
ing normally."  That's  nice;  but  what 
would  have  happened  if  another  three  de- 
grees of  roll  had  occurred?  We'll  never 
know.  After  one  further  weak  reference 
to  this  "crisis,"  it  is  forgotten. 

This  is  an  excellent  idea  for  a  book 
and  might  have  succeeded  had  it  not 
been  rushed  onto  the  market. 


More  rocketry  is  treated  in  All 
Rockets  and  Space  Flight,  by  Ha: 
Goodwin  (Random  House).  As 
Director  of  the  Office  of  Scientil 
Technical  Information  of  NASA. 
not  criticize  Mr.  Goodwin's  techn 
formation  about  rockets,  but  I  can 
celestial  mechanics  are  faulty.  "! 
velocity  is  just  enough  to  carry  a 
craft  beyond  the  point  where 
gravity  can  bring  it  back  agaii 
spacecraft  is  barely  moving  as  it 
the  point  of  no  return."  Many  paj 
used  to  explain  this  incorrect  idea 
ally,  at  the  instant  of  burn  out- 
tion  into  orbit— the  craft  may  have 
velocity.  This  is  the  point  of  no 

The  author  also  misuses  Newton 
of  mechanics  to  "balance"  for 
achieve  orbits.  The  great  misforl 
that  the  wrong  explanations  are 
easier  to  write  and  visualize,  bul 
are  always  those  readers  who  reall 
to  understand,  and  they  will  find 
possible  to  follow  these  wrong- pa 
One  of  the  better  reviews  of  pi 
post-sputnik  rockets  and  space  re 
is  Our  Work  in  Space,  by  Wil 
(Macmillan).  It  is  written  by  an  , 
plished  author,  and  one  who  wa 
ciated  with  much  of  the  German 
research  in  the  1930's.  Thus  it  is  re 
and  should  be  considered  author 
While  I  feel  some  of  the  celesti 
chanics  could  be  improved,  I  ca 
recommend  this  book  for  its  pi 
Works  concerning  astronomy  r 
complete  range  this  year.  Two  se 
graphical  books  are  included.  P 
Astronomers,  by  Navin  Sullivan 
neum),  is  a  good  book.  Mr.  Sulliv; 
cusses  the  accomplishments  of  eij 
astronomers  from  Copernicus  to  si 
cent  times  that  four  of  them  ar 
active.  The  author  has  expended  a 
amount  of  time  in  research  for  this 
and  it  shows.  His  dramatic  accou 
discoveries  by  my  contemporaries 
accurate  as  my  personal  knowledg 
must  have  been  obtained  by  fir; 
interviews— or  secondhand  ones  at 
Evidence  of  Sullivan's  control  of  h 
terial  is  apparent  in  that  the  tale 
of  the  earlier  astronomers  are  j 
readable  as  those  of  living  pionee 
The  Quest  of  Johannes  Keple 
tronomer,  by  Barbara  Land  (D 
day),  shows  ICepler  to  have  been 
more  than  an  astronomer.  Any  si 
of  science  has  known  of  some  of  hi 
tributions  to  science,  although  G 
his  contemporary,  has  received 
more  attention  from  biographer; 
historians.  It  is  important  to  hai 
"quest  of  Kepler"  chronicled  fc 
younger  reader  so  he  may  become 
iar  at  an  early  age  with  this  truly  : 
mental  figure  of  science.  While  cei 
not  a  biography  or  even  a  reasonal 
count  of  the  life  and  times  of  Keple 
book  can  be  recommended  as  a  cle< 


e  statement  of  his  contributions 
ce  in  general  and  to  astronomy  in 
!ar.  I  would  not  recommend  it  as 
xposure  to  science,  however,  for, 

I  many  histories  of  science,  a 
)und  knowledge  of  the  subject  is 
if  the  significance  of  the  devel- 
3  described  is  to  be  understood. 
e  introduction  of  Star  Maps  for 
•rs,  by  I.  M.  Levitt  and  Roy  K. 

II  (Simon  and  Schuster),  the  au- 
laim    a    history    of   over   twenty 

experience  with  these  maps.  Ap- 
r  it  has  been  worth  it.  The  star 
e  designed  for  someone  quite  un- 

with  the  sky  and,  despite  their 
ntional  outlines,  they  succeed 
ell  in  giving  the  user  a  sense  of 
snsions  of  constellations  relative 
jther  and  to  the  terrestrial  scene, 
onth's  map  is  accompanied  by  a 
icussion  of  the  mythology  pecul- 
at  part  of  the  sky.  Although  the 
ive  no  more  (mercifully,  even 
an  the  unaided  eye  can  see,  the 
ipter  is  devoted  to  a  useful  dis- 
of  the  practical  properties,  mer- 

demerits  of  binoculars,  monoc- 
md  amateur  telescopes.  This 
es  the  desire  of  many  individuals 
late  from  constellation  study  to 
ig,  thus  to  advance  from  a  rather 
'inning  to  a  more  serious  enjoy- 
the  marvels  in  the  sky. 
lave  been  reaching  for  the  moon 
;e  they  knew  it  was  there;  now  it 
illy  within  grasp.  Viewing  it 
ir,  we  have  learned  much  about 
est  world  outside  of  the  earth, 
;h  of  what  is  known  is  reviewed 
oon,  by  Virgilio  Brenna  (Golden 
rhe  strikingly  realistic  and  beau- 
strations  will  catch  the  eye  first. 
!  real  photographs  of  lunar  sur- 
lels  built  in  Milan,  Italy.  They 
"ully  planned  to  illustrate  chang- 
lination  over  a  lunar  "day"  with 
)ect  to  the  appearance  of  the 
d  the  background  sky.  The  ex- 
d  relief  and  stark  shadows,  re- 
ily  by  earthshine,  are  all  there 
ss  the  reader  with  the  mood  of 
n  world.  However,  the  models 
jagged  to  conform  to  the  true 
the  heights  and  lengths  of  such 

Surprisingly,  the  models  also 
give  evidence  for  stratification, 
;  sedimentary  rocks  exposed  in 
rican  Southwest.  It  is  true  that 
;lmaker  could  ask  how  else  the 
Duld  be  seen  in  the  detail  he  pre- 
d  we  would  be  forced  to  shrug, 
mly  beginning  to  know. 

it   is   possible  to   criticize   the 

is  necessary  to  praise  the  book, 
ina  has  not  been  dogmatic,  he 
jeen  condescending,  gratuitous, 
[s  at  any  point;  he  lias  not  mini- 
lat  is  not  known,  nor  that  which 
;t  to  controversy.  He  has  dis- 
he  two  extreme  hypotheses  of 


crater  formation  with  arguments  for  and 
against  each.  And  herein  lies  the  great 
value  of  his  work:  Mr.  Brenna  has  ex- 
plained the  scientific  method  in  the  for- 
mulation of  a  hypothesis  and  in  the  test- 
ing of  it.  In  so  doing  he  is  not  afraid  to 
use  words  that  should  be  in  the  vocabu- 
lary of  any  good  high  school  student. 

When,  then,  will  Golden  Press  aban- 
don its  incongruously  puerile,  gaudy, 
washable  plastic  covers  in  favor  of  those 
that  might  indicate  the  respect  due  a 
young  adult  audience?  When  my  three- 
year-old  daughter  was  given  a  cloth- 
bound  book  for  Christmas,  she  exclaimed 
with  awe  and  quiet  pride:  "A  grown-up 
book!"  Are  those  in  this  book's  intended 
audience  any  less  responsible? 

The  earth  is  a  rotating  ball  revolving 
about  the  sun.  S.  Carl  Hirsch,  author  of 
The  Globe  for  the  Space  Age  (Viking), 
introduces  the  young  reader  to  this  fact 
with  enough  discussion  to  prove  how  in- 
adequate any  flat  map  must  be  in  the 
representation  of  large  areas.  Some  crit- 
ics may  remark  that  his  explanations  are 
incomplete,  but  others  will  point  to  the 
virtue  of  not  telling  too  much.  Anyone 
will  get  the  feeling  of  space  and  spher- 
icity, which  the  author  has  intended,  and 
the  reader  may  well  wish  to  learn  more 
of  the  problems  of  cartography,  geo- 
physics, or  astronomy. 

And  now  we  come  to  the  less  palat- 
able fare.  Astronomically,  The  Solar 
System,  by  Angelo  Rocca  (Duell,  Sloan 
and  Pearce),  is  acceptably  correct  (only 
about  three  minor  errors  of  fact  were 
noted),  probably  because  the  book  is 
superficial.  One  usually  cannot  go  far- 
right  or  wrong— in  fifty-eight  pages.  But 
I  wonder  why  this  Italian  book  was  trans- 
lated into  English.  It  may  have  been  use- 
ful in  the  Italian  market,  but  it  seems 
to  fill  no  significant  void  in  America.  As 
gaudy  as  The  Moon,  the  illustrative  ma- 
terial is  all  artwork.  The  artist  is  good 
and,  as  such,  enhances  the  verbal  exposi- 
tion. This  is  often  necessary,  but  if  a 
good  artist  merely  abstracts  excellent 
photographs,  what  is  the  purpose? 

All  astronomical  observation  is  con- 
ducted through  the  gathering  and  ana- 
lyzing of  electromagnetic  energy.  Light 
and  radio  waves  are  all-important  to  the 
astronomer,  and  must  be  thoroughly 
understood.  Light,  by  John  Rublowsky 
(Basic  Books),  is  no  help  in  spite  of  a 
positive  statement  by  Willy  Ley  in  the 
foreword.  Perhaps  he  didn't  read  the 
book.  The  author  insistently  shows  his 
ignorance  of  Galileo's  chronology.  He 
also  clearly  misunderstands  stellar  struc- 
ture and  evolution,  and  how  the  cosmic 
abundance  ratios  of  the  elements  were 
determined.  In  one  paragraph  he  says, 
"Color  can  exist  only  wliere  there  is 
strong  light."  He  follows  in  the  next 
with,  "Actually,  colors  are  not  really  col- 
ors at  all.  Ordinary  sunlight,  as  is  shown 
by  the  rainbow,  consists  of  all  the  colors 


From 
COLUMBIA 


THE  NATURAL 
GEOGRAPHY  OF  PLANTS 

Henry  Allan  Gleason 
and  Arthur  Cronquist 

Why  don't  beech  trees  grow 
west  of  Illinois?  Why  do  certain 
plants  tend  to  grow  around  cer- 
tain others?  What  can  you  tell 
about  different  land  areas  from 
the  plants,  even  from  a  car? 
This  handsomely  illustrated 
book  describes  the  factors  in- 
volved in  plant  distribution  in 
the  United  States  and  Ganada. 
The  common  species  of  differ- 
ent plant  communities  are  illus- 
trated and  arranged  to  make  a 
convenient  guide  for  Sunday 
afternoons  or  cross-country 
travels.  251  photographs.  $  1 0.00 


THE  INSECTS 

Url  N.  Lanham 

This  beautiful  book  is  a  natural 
history  of  the  insects,  written 
for  the  student,  the  amateur 
entomologist,  and  the  general 
reader.  The  author  writes  of 
the  origin  and  evolution  of  in- 
sects, flight,  sense  perception, 
behavior,  reproduction,  adap- 
tation, mating  habits,  and  many 
other  facets  of  an  amazing 
world. 25  photographs,  70draw- 
ings.  $6.95 


COLUMBIA  UNIVERSITY  PRESS,  o^pt  nii 

2960  Broadway,  New  York,  N.  Y  10027 


-i 


. copies   of  THE   NATURAL   GEOGRAPHY 

OF  PLANTS  @  $10.00  each 

. copies  of  THE  INSECTS  @  $6.95  ea. 

I  understand  that  I  may  return  the  copies 
within  10  days  at  no  charge  if  they  do  not 
live  up  to  my  expectations.  Otherwise,  I 
will  send  cost  of  books  plus  small  delivery 
charge. 


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from 
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THOSE  MYSTERIOUS 
ETRUSCANS 

By  Agnes  Carr  Vaughan.  A  fasci- 
nating re-creation  of  the  enig- 
matic civilization  that  flourished 
brilliantly,  though  briefly,  on  the 
Italian  peninsula. 

Illustrated,  $5.95 

ROAD  TO  NINEVEH 

The  Adventures  and  Excavations 
of  Sir  Austen  Henry  Layard 
By  Nora  Benjamin  Kiibie.  "A 
biography  of  one  of  the  most  im- 
portant figures  in  the  history  of 
archeology  .  .  .  extremely  read- 
able.''—/V.  Y.  Times 

Illustrated,  $5.95 


SECRET  OF  THE  FOREST 

By  Wolfgang  Cardan.  A  famous 
German  explorer  tells  of  his  quest 
for  the  hidden  temples  and  ob- 
scure origins  of  the  Mavan  peo- 
ple. ''  Illustrated,  $4.95 


AZTECS  OF  MEXICO 

Origin.  Rise  and  Fall  of 
the  Aztec  Nation 

By  George  C.  Vaillant.  Revised  and 
annotated  by  Suzannah  B.  Vaillant. 
An  updated,  completely  reset,  edi- 
tion of  a  classic  work. 

Illustrated,  $7.50 

THE  HOUSE  OF 
THE  DOUBLE  AXE 

A  Re-creation  of  Minoan  Life 
in  the  Palace  of  Knossos 
By  Agnes  Carr  Vaughan.  "Swift  and 
exciting  .  .  .  well-written  and  enter- 
taining."—5fl?i<rrfav  Review 

'Illustrated.  $5.95 

At  all  booksellers 


•II  DOUBLEDAY 


of  the  spectrum."  He  never  says  that 
color  is  a  physiological  response  to  the 
wavelengths  of  the  light  entering  the  eye. 
Mr.  Rublowsky  also  must  misunderstand 
how  a  prism  deviates  and  disperses  light 
or  he  would  not  have  allowed  his  name 
on  a  book  with  an  incorrect  illustration 
of  the  subject. 

Passing  on  to  the  glossary  at  the  end. 
I  count  twenty-one  wrong  or  misleading 
definitions  out  of  seventy-five  attempts. 
This  book  cannot  be  recommended. 

Another  work  in  my  growing  collec- 
tion of  horrible  examples  is  A  Short  His- 
tory of  the  Universe,  by  Arthur  S.  Gregor 
(Macmillanl.  Mr.  Gregor  writes  well, 
but  with  frequent  errors.  On  one  page 
he  misplaces  the  Magellanic  Clouds  by 
over  40  degrees.  A  600-foot  radio  tele- 
scope is  pictured,  although  the  construc- 
tion of  this  instrument  was  canceled  in 
1962.  two  years  before  the  copyright 
date  of  the  book.  Later.  Mr.  Gregor  be- 
gins a  tale  of  stellar  evolution,  which  is 
quite  wrong,  and  which  he  uses  again  in 
the  book.  In  another  example,  he  says, 
"Stars  differ  in  size,  color,  brightness, 
temperature,  and  chemical  composition. 
Such  differences  indicate  that  stars 
evolve  from  one  stage  to  another.''  No 
one  who  thinks  can  understand  how  the 
one  statement  can  be  related  to  the  other. 
Yet  there  it  stands  in  a  book,  and  "books 
contain  all  knowledge''  school  children 
are  trained  to  believe.  "Since  this  is  sci- 
ence, and  I  cannot  understand  it,  I  can- 
not understand  anything  scientific,"  a 
student  might  say,  using  perfect  logic. 
What  a  pity! 

It  is  beginning  to  appear  to  me  that 
some  bad  authors  read  other  bad  authors 
and  perpetuate  the  same  faults.  As  only 
one  of  the  many  examples  I  could  men- 
tion, the  600-foot  radio  telescope  error 
appears  in  both  Short  History  and  Light. 
Perhaps  some  writers  do  all  their  re- 
search at  high  school  science  fairs.  Pop- 
ularization does  not  mean  "write  a  book 
with  drama  and  small  words."  It  means 
that  an  author  must  understand  his  sub- 
ject and  explain  it  competently  to  inter- 
ested but  untrained  people  to  the  satis- 
faction of  audience,  editor,  and  scientist. 
K.  L.  Franklin 

Botany  and  Ecology 

THE  seven  titles  I  have  reviewed  this 
year  include  five  books  in  the  general 
field  of  conservation,  one  on  microbiol- 
ogy, and  a  biography  of  an  important 
but  little-known  American  naturalist  of 
the  nineteenth  century.  It  is  a  pleasure 
to  note  that  most  of  these  books  are  ex- 
cellent in  their  coverage,  interestingly 
written,  and  reasonably  free  of  technical 
or  interpretational  errors.  The  matter  of 
errors  in  scientific  information  has  been 
a  particular  point  of  criticism  in  previ- 
ous reviews  in  this  series.  Although  this 
year's  books  indicate  a  much  more  care- 
ful  approach   to   scientific   information. 


and  the  subject  matter  is  for  the 
part  applied  biology,  the  texts  cc 
few  basic  biological  facts  or  con 
It  seems  to  me  that  there  is  a  con; 
attempt  to  avoid  rather  than  to  pi 
such   facts  and   concepts   accurati 

Microbes  and  Men,  by  Harold  J.  i 
( McGraw-Hill ) ,  one  of  the  series  of 
tas  of  Science  Books"  produced  h 
National  Science  Teachers  Assoc 
with  support  from  the  National  C 
Institute,  is  an  exception  to  this  < 
alization.  It  considers  important  as 
of  basic  and  applied  biology.  pr( 
them  concisely  and  lucidly,  and  ap 
to  be  well  researched  and  car 
written.  (Since  I  am  not  a  microbiol 
this  evaluation  is  that  of  an  infc 
layman.)  There  is  a  brief  introdi 
to  the  history  of  the  discovery  of  r 
organisms  and  of  their  roles  in  b: 
chemical  cycles  and  diseases,  and  d 
sions  of  the  size  range  of  microc 
isms,  their  phylogenetic  relations 
their  astounding  reproductive  capa 
and  unbelievable  populations— "A 
ful  of  soil  contains  more  bacterial 
than  the  total  number  of  human  1: 
that  have  ever  lived  on  the  earth." 
ogenic  bacteria,  methods  of  prevs 
infection,  structures  and  processes 
human  body  that  inhibit  or  destro 
croorganisms,  methods  of  transmi 
and  techniques  for  detecting  and  i' 
fying  microorganisms  are  lucidly 
ered.  An  especially  interesting  ch 
concerns  chemotherapy  and  antil 
Teachers  and  students  will  also  ap 
ate  the  list  of  projects  and  experin 

Three  hooks— Conservation :  The 
lenge  of  Reclaiming  Our  Plan, 
Land,  by  C.  William  Harrison  {. 
ner)  ;  Conservation  and  You,  by 
S.  Hitch  and  Marian  Sorenson 
Nostrand)  ;  and  Ours  Is  the  Eart 
Allan  A.  Sollers  (Holt.  Rinehart 
Winston  1— are  complementary  cove 
of  conservation  in  the  United  S 
Harrison's  approach  is  historical 
other  authors  limit  their  texts  largi 
contemporary  problems  and  prac 
The  history  of  a  subject  can  be  m; 
dynamic,  fascinating  analysis  of  i 
philosophies,  contemporary  leaders 
selected  cause-and-effect  case  hist 
Harrison  adopted  this  approach,  ai 
tells  of  a  pristine  continent  that  was 
washed  by  thin  breakers  of  explor 
and  then  by  a  tidal  wave  of  exploit 
that  passed  rapidly  over  the  land 
left  eroded  and  depleted  soils,  rav 
forests,  and  exhausted  mineral  dej 
in  its  wake.  However,  his  objective  i 
to  damn  our  despoiling  ancestors,  1 
understand  the  shifting  philosopi 
natural  resources.  This  philosophic 
ysis  of  the  times  may  be  the  mos 
portant  concept  of  the  book.  The  u: 
lying  thought  of  each  era  is  cone 
stated,  and  clarified  by  real  or, 
conversations  were  unrecorded,  ficti 
quotations  from  a  man  of  the  time. 


0  have  some  criticisms  of  Harri- 
text.   For  example,  he  underesti- 

the  effect  of  the  pre-Columbian 

1  population  on  the  landscape.  In 
;  he  devotes  too  much  space  to 
us  matters  {the  hypothesized  per- 
:e  of  mammoths  in  the  Middle  West 
he  sixteenth  century)  and  to  mat- 
lat  have  little  relation  to  his  theme 
chapter  is  a  fictional  rundown  of 
tivities  of  various  North  American 
1  tribes  on  the  day  Columbus 
d  land  in  the  Caribbean). 

'  basic  biological  facts  are  men- 
in  the  text,  which  is  probably  for- 
,  since  several  that  are  presented 
ated  poorly.  For  example,  tran- 
ion.  the  evaporation  of  water  from 
tissues,  is  defined  as  "the  exhala- 
f  water  vapor  by  living  plants." 
;xt  is  illustrated  with  photographs, 
ey  lose  some  of  their  appeal  be- 
the  paper  used  in  the  book  is  yel- 
and  thin  enough  to  allow  type 
he  reverse  side  of  the  page  to  show 
;h.  Also,  the  photographs  some- 
do  not  correlate  with  the  text. 
5  Is  the  Earth,  subtitled  "Apprais- 
atural  Resources  and  Conserva- 
treats  water,  soils,  forests,  range- 
wildlife,  and  minerals  in  separate 
!rs  and  concludes  with  a  discussion 
ture  conservation  planning."  Al- 
1  the  organization  of  the  book  is 
itforward,  the  author  makes  fre- 
interpretational  errors— even  using 
iheading  declaring  that  ''Trees 
le."  He  consistently  personifies  na- 
nd  generally  conveys  a  superficial 
standing  of  his  subject.  Among  the 
reviewed  this  year,  this  one  is  out- 
ng  for  its  lack  of  technical  editing. 
s  especially  unfortunate,  because 
)pe  of  Sollers'  treatment  is  broader 
bat  of  most  books  on  conservation 
s  age  group. 

servation  and  You  is  a  review  of 
recent  or  contemporary  conser- 
problems— including  city  smogs, 
ent  and  pesticide  pollution,  radio- 
fallout— rather  than  a  comprehen- 
)verage  of  all  aspects  of  conserva- 
The  organization  of  this  text, 
red  with  that  of  Outs  Is  the  Earth, 
jdgepodge.  But  its  timeliness  and 
nversational  presentation  largely 
nsate  for  its  lack  of  order, 
problems  are  presented  factually, 
than  emotionally,  with  the  solu- 
hat  have  been  applied  or  proposed, 
.ces,  the  authors  are  surprisingly 
For  example,  they  admit  that 
ervation,  in  many  places,  means 
g  more  than  good  hunting  and 
;  available  to  sportsmen."  The  text 
strated  by  well-chosen  and  well- 
luced  photographs, 
principal  criticism  of  the  text  is 
nature"  is  personified  throughout, 
criticisms  include  the  use  of  the 
"food"  for  fertilizers,  the  state- 
that  there  are  no  young  saguaro 


cacti  in  Saguaro  National  Monument, 
and  the  implication  that  lichens  were  the 
first  terrestrial  plants. 

I  also  disagree  with  the  statement  that 
ecological  studies  can  be  carried  out  only 
in  places  "untouched  by  man's  design." 
Ecologists  have  comprehended,  and  in 
the  future  must  give  much  more  attention 
to,  the  interrelationships  of  organisms 
and  environment  in  the  man-dominated 
landscape.  Although  the  study  of  natural 
areas  will  always  be  of  vital  importance 
in  assessing  ecological  baselines  and  po- 
tentials, the  rapidly  maturing  science  of 
ecology  must  be  focused  on  the  altered 
environments  and  biotas  that  have  de- 
veloped as  a  result  of  human  modifica- 
tion. Let's  face  it.  man  is  here  to  stay— 
at  least  until  his  ignorance  of,  or  dis- 
regard for.  ecological  principles  results 
in  his  self-annihilation. 

A  fourth  book  in  the  general  field  of 
conservation  is  John  Upton  Terrell's  The 
United  States  Department  of  the  Inte- 
rior (Duell,  Sloan  and  Pearce).  This 
is  an  informal,  brief  description  of  "the 
chief  conservationist  of  the  nation."  The 
Department  houses  the  National  Park 
Service.  Bureau  of  Land  Management, 
Geological  Survey.  Bureau  of  Mines, 
Fish  and  Wildlife  Service.  Bureau  of 
Indian  Affairs,  and  a  number  of  other 
agencies  that  administer  the  natural  re- 
sources of  our  country.  The  Department 
is  large  but  this  book  is  small,  lacks 
details,  has  no  index,  and  is  not  too  well 
organized.  The  result  is  an  interesting 
introduction  to  the  activities  and  respon- 
sibilities of  the  Interior  Department,  but 
one  that  leaves  the  appetite  unsatisfied. 

Another  book  on  conservation  is  a 
career  guide.  Foresters  and  IP  hat  They 
Do,  by  John  and  Jane  Greverus  Perry 
(Watts) .  This  couple  wrote  the  excellent 
book,  reviewed  in  last  year's  column. 
Exploring  the  Forest.  The  present  vol- 
ume is  based  on  interviews  with  foresters 
on  the  job,  made  in  the  course  of  an 
8.000-mile  trip  during  1962,  and  it  also 
includes  a  great  deal  of  other  informa- 
tion provided  by  federal  and  private 
agencies.  It  is  a  broad  account  of  the 
many  facets  of  the  modern  profession  of 
forestry,  including  range,  wildlife,  and 
recreation  management,  and  should  al- 
low a  high  school  senior  to  gain  a  better 
concept  of  the  variety  of  work,  respon- 
sibilities, and  remuneration  associated 
with  the  job  of  forester. 

By  far  the  best  biography  of  an  Ameri- 
can naturalist  to  come  to  my  attention 
is  Plants  in  His  Pack,  a  Life  of  Edivard 
Palmer,  by  Janice  J.  Beaty  (Pantheon). 
Palmer,  the  son  of  a  Norfolk  County 
farmer,  was  born  in  eastern  England 
about  1830.  Early  in  his  life  he  developed 
a  great  interest  in  birds,  insects,  and 
other  living  things.  In  1849,  Palmer  im- 
migrated to  the  United  States  and  be- 
came a  protege  of  the  famous  naturalist, 
Dr.  Jared  Kirtland,  of  Cleveland.  His 
first  major  collecting  trip  was  as  a  mem- 


WILFRED 
THESIGER, 

author  of 

ARABIAN  SANDS. 

reports  on  seven 
years  with  the 
primitive  tribesmen 
of  a  watery  world 


In  the  vast  marshes 
where  the  Tigris  and  Eu- 
phrates meet,  one  of  the  world's 
least  known  peoples  leads  a 
strange,  primitive,  and  all  but 
amphibious  existence.  For  seven 
years,  Wilfred  Thesiger  shared 
this  life  as  one  of  them.  His  day- 
to-day  experiences  and  his  exten- 
sive travels  in  a  native  reed  canoe 
with  two  Arab  helpers  provide  a 
vivid  and  fascinating  picture  of 
an  anachronistic,  isolated  realm 
of  water  and  reeds,  of  floating 
houses  and  tyrant  sheiks.  Thesi- 
ger evokes  the  landscape  and 
its  teeming  wildlife  with 
great  beauty. 
110  superb 
photographs. 


201  Park  Avenue  Soutll 
New  York,  N.  Y.  10003 


WORLD'S  SMALLEST  35 

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f/2.8-f/22  focuses  down  to  9"  for  close-ups. 
Jewelled  Swiss  precision  mechanism:  1/2-1/500 
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slides  and  prints:  20"  x  24"  and  beyond... 
A  technical  miracle  of  Swiss  chronometer  preci- 
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ber  of  the  crew  of  the  Water  Witch, 
which  sailed  to  Paraguay  in  1853  to  ex- 
plore the  La  Plata,  Parana,  and  Para- 
guay rivers.  Palmer  made  many  other 
journeys— throughout  the  newly  opened 
American  West,  to  Mexico,  and  to  other 
areas— during  the  next  57  years,  and  he 
collected  more  than  100.000  plants,  many 
new  to  science,  as  well  as  thousands  of 
birds,  mammals,  insects,  shells,  and  In- 
dian relics.  Mrs.  Beaty  relates  the  ad- 
ventures, the  disappointments,  and  the 
intellectual  rewards  of  these  journeys  in 
a  manner  that  gives  the  reader  vicarious 
thrills  of  Indian  uprisings.  Civil  War 
battles,  and  lonesome  treks  through  un- 
inhabited wildernesses,  but  she  never 
overwhelms  the  reader  with  involved  bo- 
tanical descriptions  or  overdetailed  route 
outlines.  Palmer  is  properly  assessed  as 
one  of  the  most  active  collectors  of  nat- 
ural history  specimens  of  the  nineteenth 
century,  and  as  an  avid  collector  of  the 
plant  lore  of  the  Indians.  He  was  not  a 
botanist,  as  were  his  contemporaries  Asa 
Gray  and  George  Engelmann;  he  only 
collected  specimens  and  did  not  care  to 
spend  time  in  the  laboratory  studying 
and  classifying  them.  Plants  in  His  Pack 
will  provide  absorbing  reading  for  any- 
one interested  in  American  natural  his- 
tory or  in  the  conditions  of  travel  and 
living  in  the  Western  Frontier  region  of 
a  century  ago. 

Jack  McCormick 

Geography,  Geology 
and  Paleontology 

TWELVE  books  are  reviewed  in  this 
section.  The  first  six  are  excellent, 
one  is  adequate,  the  rest  are  poor-to-dis- 
astrous. Comparing  this  score  with  those 
of  previous  years.  I  feel  there  has  been 
some  progress.  The  excellent  books  are 
diverse  in  subject  matter,  and  include 
material  on  deserts,  polar  regions,  dino- 
saurs, and  caves.  They  are  also  diverse 
in  their  levels  of  sophistieation. 

An  excellent  biography  in  depth  has 
been  written  by  a  non-scientist.  Oliver 
Warner  presents  a  tremendous  amount 
of  information  in  Captain  Cook  and  the 
South  Pacific  (American  Heritage ) .  with 
Dr.  J.  C.  Beaglehole  of  New  Zealand 
acting  as  consultant.  There  is  enough 
historical  and  scientific  background  to 
enable  the  reader  to  sense  the  scholarly 
contributions  of  Cook  the  scientist  and 
to  appreciate  the  stature  and  growth  of 
the  man.  Captain  Cook  was  made  of 
hero's  stuff  and  he  makes  excellent  copy. 
Of  humble  origin,  he  made  his  way  to 
the  top  through  the  quality  of  his  mind 
and  the  steadfastness  of  his  purpose.  His 
major  contribution  was  the  exploration 
of  the  Pacific  Ocean,  accomplished  dur- 
ing three  voyages  between  the  years 
1768  and  1779.  As  this  book  makes  abun- 
dantly  clear,   Cook's  achievements   can 


be  viewed  in  two  ways:  as  the  culn 
tion  of  the  early  epoch  of  explon 
that  began  in  1513  when  Balboa 
"stout  Cortes'")  first  gazed  at  the  Fe 
Ocean;  or  as  the  beginning  of 
modern,  scientific  epoch  of  explora 
Either  way  you  have  a  good  story, 
an  important  one  from  the  viewpoi 
man  trying  to  get  information  about 
eventually  to  understand,  his  world 

The  striking  illustrations,  com 
by  the  editors  of  this  Horizon  bool 
elude  many  reproductions  of  cor 
porary  drawings,  paintings,  and  maj 

Speleology,  by  George  W.  Moore 
Brother  G.  Nicholas  (D.  C.  Heath) , 
authoritative,  soft-covered  book  on 
natural  history  of  caves.  In  additi( 
descriptions  of  caves  and  a  discu; 
of  their  complex  origins,  the  sciei 
authors  point  out  some  little-known 
ets  of  their  geology  and  biology, 
some  caves  "breathe"'  in  and  out  is 
cussed,  and  the  origins  of  this  phei 
enon  are  tracked  down  and  eventi 
expressed  in  the  form  of  a  simple  e 
tion.  Here,  in  capsule  form,  the  inte 
tual  adventure  of  physical  sclent 
presented:  the  odd  observation, 
analysis,  and  the  final  quantit 
theory  that  can  explain  and  predic 

The  biology  of  caves  is  examined 
similar  manner  and  interesting 
abound.  There  is  some  error,  how 
For  instance,  recent  studies  have  si 
conclusively  that  vampire  bats 
blood— not  lap  it.  as  stated  by  the 
thors.  Lapping  noises  would  wake 
sleeping  victims.  The  special  chara 
istics  of  cave  animals  are  used  as  a  i 
point  to  explain  their  evolution. 

The  small  size  and  relative  simpl 
of  the  cave  community  make  it  eas 
delve  into  important  ecological  concf 
the  interdependence  of  organisms, 
the  cycle  of  nutrients  through  produ' 
consumers,  and  decay  organisms. 

Another  good  biography,  this  on 
a  professional  writer,  is  The  Dino 
Hunters,  by  Robert  Plate  (McK 
Two  highly  interesting  men  domin 
the  scene  of  American  paleonto 
from  the  Civil  War  years  to  the  en 
the  century:  Othniel  C.  Marsh  and 
ward  D.  Cope.  During  these  years 
quest  for  scientific  knowledge  of 
American  West  commenced.  Among 
most  dramatic  fruits  of  this  harvest  i 
discoveries  of  vertebrate  fossils- 
simply  new  species  or  genera,  but 
types  of  mammals,  birds,  and  rept 
Fossils  of  giant  dinosaurs,  huge  and 
likely  mammals  of  long-extinct  ty 
and  toothed  birds,  all  were  discoverei 
Marsh  and  Cope  in  two  decades. 

The  two  principals  in  this  history 
came  engaged  in  a  titanic  battle 
scientific  recognition  and  competet 
make  the  first  discovery.  Both  men  s 
fortunes  in  the  task,  and  each  drove  1 
self  at  a  high  pitch.  As  the  battle 
tensified  it  became  more  underhan 


spies,  informers,  and  all-but-pitched 
■s   among  the   contenders  or  their 

collectors.  This  book  demonstrates 
although  the  history  of  science  is 
:y  of  discovery,  it  may  also  involve 
ireers  of  men  seeking  something  in 
ion  to  pure  truth. 

)arctica,  by  Carl  R.  Eklund  and  Joan 
man  (Holt.  Rinehart  and  Winston), 

best  book  for  the  general  reader  I 
seen  on  the  subject.  The  senior  au- 
Dr.  Eklund,  was  a  scientific  leader 
ilkes  Station  during  the  IGY  Ant- 
;  program,  and  the  book  is  filled 
interesting  and  accurate  informa- 
.nd  up-to-date  theory.  Key  problems 
itarctic  research  and  their  relevance 
;  whole  fabric  of  science  are  clearly 
)rth.  Pertinent  material  from  many 
ces  is  included-biology,  meteor- 
■,  geology,  and  geophysics, 
e  arid  lands  of  the  earth,  including 
;reat  deserts,  have  a  perennial  al- 
for  those  of  us  who  live  in  wetter 
;.  The  First  Book  of  Deserts,  by 
i    C.    Knight     (Watts),    examines 

regions  from  a  scientific  point  of 

(although  the  author  is  not  a  sci- 
t),  and  the  reader  is  rewarded  with 
)k  that  is  accurate,  informative,  and 
written.  The  illustrations  are  strik- 
and  are  integrated  with  the  text. 
Y  aspects  of  deserts  are  covered,  in- 
ng  their  origin,  the  life  that  dwells 
i,  the  formation  and  migration  of 
s,  and  mirages. 

an  Villiers  is  a  well-known  author 
ocean  adventurer  and  in  The  Ocean 
;ton)  he  has  given  us  a  record  of 
s  efforts  to  learn  to  travel  on  the  sea. 
uch  it  is  a  success,  beautifully  writ- 
)y  one  who  knows  ships,  sailors,  and 
time  matters.  The  title,  however,  is 
;ading.  The  book  is  not  about  the 
ns  as  objects  of  scientific  study.  Only 

slender   chapter   even    attempts   to 
r  this  voluminous  material. 
nal  Reefs,  by  Lois  and  Louis  Dar- 

(World),  is  an  adequate  presenta- 
of  a  scientifically  important  subject, 
pity  is  that,  with  a  little  more  effort, 
ight  have  been  excellent.  The  au- 
3  do  explain  what  a  reef  is  and  how 
jvelops,  but  the  reader  who  has  not 
rved  a  reef  under  water  will  not 
ly  be  able  to  picture  how  the  whole 
munity  is  knit  together,  and  what  the 
tion  is  between  the  living  reef  and 
rest  of  the  reef  complex, 
he  following  books  are  in  the  "poor- 
isastrous"  category  and  are,  there- 
,  reviewed  only  briefly, 
hree  books  that  seem  to  have  no  real 
pose  are  IFonders  of  Snoiv  and  Ice, 
Zhristie  McFall  (Dodd,  Mead)  ;  The 
iders  of  Water,  by  James  H.  Win- 
der (Putnam)  ;  and  When  the  Ice 
%e.  by  David  0.  Woodbury  (Dodd. 
id).  The  first  cannot  really  be  called 
,  but  it  is  certainly  pointless.  We  are 
:n  facts  and  photographs  of  ava- 
3hes,   nuclear   submarines,   Eskimos, 


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icebergs,  and  glaciers,  but  that  is  all. 

The  Wonders  of  Water  is  smoothly 
written,  but  is  a  mixed  bag  of  scientific 
and  historical  items  pertaining  in  some 
way  to  water.  Subjects  include  the  Span- 
ish Armada  and  the  use  of  water  in  fire 
fighting.  \^'hy  not  water's  crucial  role  in 
the  manufacture  of  soda  pop? 

In  When  the  Ice  Came  David  Wood- 
bury writes  well  enough  when  he  has 
nothing  but  anecdotes  to  relate,  but  is 
confusing  when  he  treats  matters  of  sci- 
entific importance.  Many  of  the  illustra- 
tions are  crude  and  unclear. 

Planet  Earth,  by  Gerald  Ames  and 
Rose  Wyler  (Golden  Press),  is  poor: 
there  are  too  many  topics  covered  in  too 
short  a  space,  and  the  illustrations  seem 
to  come  directly  from  the  French  Impres- 
sionist school.  As  patterns  they  are  inter- 
esting, but  as  science  illustrations  they 
are  confusing  and  often  misleading. 

The  Boys  Book  of  Mountains  and 
Mountaineering,  by  E.  C.  and  M.  E. 
Pyatt  (Roy),  is  unfortunate,  as  it  con- 
sists of  a  good  book  on  mountaineering 
history  and  techniques  juxtaposed  with 
a  poor  section  that  purports  to  be  a  sci- 
entific study  of  mountains.  The  chapter 
on  great  mountain  ranges  is  dull  and  the 
rest  of  this  section  is  filled  with  half- 
truths  and  equivocal  statements. 

John  Imbrie 


Zoology 


OF  the  twenty-four  books  reviewed 
for  this  section,  the  majority  con- 
cern aspects  of  the  natural  history  of 
various  animal  groups,  while  others  deal 
with  general  biology,  either  from  a  his- 
torical perspective  or  as  a  synthesis  of  re- 
cent research.  Some,  at  least,  stimulate 
the  imagination  and  may  even  entice 
the  young  reader  to  look  with  new  eyes 
at  life  around  him  and  to  carry  out  ex- 
periments on  his  own.  Several  volumes, 
however,  are  dull  and  pedantic— they 
give  facts,  but  are  hardly  worth  the 
reader's  time  or  the  publisher's  costs. 

In  A  Short  History  of  Biology  (Nat- 
ural History  Press).  Isaac  Asimov 
briefly  surveys  achievements  from  the 
beginnings  of  biological  science  to  con- 
temporary research  in  molecular  bi- 
ology. The  book— not  written  specifically 
for  young  readers— is  fast-paced  and 
lucid,  and  Asimov  presents  biological 
concepts  logically,  clearly,  and  with  a 
minimum  of  extraneous  detail.  The  in- 
fluence of  his  own  interests  in  biochem- 
istry, and  the  highly  publicized  current 
developments  in  this  field,  however,  have 
led  to  a  somewhat  biased  coverage.  He 
leaves  the  reader  with  the  impression 
that  the  study  of  evolution  concluded 
with  Darwin;  neglects  such  fields  as 
ecology  and  paleontology  after  Cuvier; 
omits  recent  research  in  the  mechanisms 
of  embryonic  development,  endocri- 
nology, and  animal  behavior.  Such  omis- 
sions would  be  understandable  in  a  short 


history,  if  Asimov  had  not  used  appri 
mately  the  entire  last  third  of  his  bool 
review  details  of  recent  discoveries 
biochemistry  and  molecular  biology. '. 
example,  two  pages  are  devoted  to  rai 
active  isotopes  as  tools  in  biochemis 
but  no  mention  is  made  of  their  usf 
paleontological  dating. 

For  the  intended  readers  of  this  be 
for  whom  illustrations  and  diagrams 
most  important,  the  few  line  drawi 
assist  the  text  but  little.  There  is 
index,  but  there  are  no  references 
anyone  who  might  wish  to  pursue 
ther  the  history  of  various  discipli 
within  the  science  of  biology. 

A  timely  volume  on  The  Reprodua 
of  Life  (Basic  Books)  is  by  Roberl 
Lehrman.  a  high  school  science  teac 
and  a  writer  of  considerable  skill.  ' 
author  stresses  the  fundamental  nal 
of  life  as  the  reproduction  of  self-ore 
izing  systems.  Here  is  a  wealth  of 
formation  woven  into  a  fine  accoun! 
reproduction  on  a  number  of  leve 
molecular  (DNA.  RNA,  and  proteii 
cellular  (mitosis  and  meiosis),  org 
ismic  (development  of  the  organism 
the  physiology  of  reproduction),  and 
cial  (mating  and  parental  behavic 
The  level  of  writing  is  fairly  soph 
cated— it  would  seemingly  have  to  be, 
the  ideas  covered— and  even  persons  'v 
some  knowledge  of  biology  and  chei 
try  could  profit  from  its  unifying  cono 

I  do  have  some  objections  to  this  b( 
however.  The  illustrations  were  exect 
by  the  author,  and  while  they  are  < 
quale,  many  should  have  been  lar 
Additional  diagrams,  especially  for 
lustrating  the  ideas  of  the  control 
development,  would  also  have  been  h 
ful.  The  author's  explanation  of 
processes  of  mitosis  and  meiosis  will 
be  easily  grasped  by  the  na'ive  reai 
Mr.  Lehrman  erroneously  states  I 
chromosomes  split  during  mitosis, 
this  is  not  rectified  by  his  later  treatm 
of  DNA  replication.  There  are  also  i 
eral  factual  errors  of  greater  or  lei 
importance.  There  is  an  index  but  tl 
are  no  references. 

In  spite  of  these  shortcomings.  I 
recommend  the  volume  because  of 
tacit  insistence  that  each  level  of  . 
logical  reproduction  is  to  be  underst 
from  an  analysis  of  the  organizatior 
that  particular  level,  and  thus  that 
understanding  of  life  cannot  be  redu 
solely  to  an  understanding  of  molecu 

A  relatively  new  area  of  scieni 
study  is  nicely  illuminated  by  the  sn 
volume  Animal  Photoperiodism, 
Stanley  D.  Beck  (Holt.Rinehart  and  ^ 
ston ) .  In  recent  years,  it  has  become 
creasingly  clear  that  internal  rhyth: 
processes  are  vital  for  the  life  of  an 
ganism.  Such  processes  appear  to  be 
ordinated  and  synchronized  with  e 
other  by  the  daily  rhythm  of  dayh 
and  darkness— in  other  words,  by 
photoperiod.  Photoperiodism  is  relev 


:  many  and  varied  processes  investi- 

by  such  biological  disciplines  as 
gy,  behavior,  endocrinology,  neu- 
jT,  and  biochemistry.  This  extremely 
and  well-written  text,  together  with 
e  but  appropriate  and  enlightening 
rations,  shows  the  importance  of 
periods  to  the  activities  and  inter- 
)rocesses  of  mammals  (including 
,  birds,  and  insects.  There  is  also  a 
er  on  biological  clocks,  which  seem 

temperature-corrected  and  rhyth- 
;hemical  processes  that  are  regu- 
by  environmental  cues. 
B  volume  is  indexed  and  has  a  list 
lated  readings.  Animal  Photoperi- 
i  is  highly  recommended  as  an  in- 
ction  to  this  subject.  The  publishers 
d  be   congratulated  for   obtaining 

an  excellent  manuscript  and  for 
icing  such  a  fine  little  volume, 
igraphies  of  three  famous  biologists 
appeared  in  the  "Immortals  of  Sci- 
'  series  published  by  Franklin 
i.  They  are  Louis  Pasteur:  Founder 
'.crobiology,  by  Mary  June  Burton; 
'es  Darwin  and  Natural  Selection, 
ice  Dickinson;  and  Gregor  Mendel 
ieredity,  by  Robert  N.  Webb. 
e  volume  on  Mendel  is  the  simplest 
he  dullest.  Its  limited  appeal  will 
those  of  junior  high  school  age  who 
not  yet  heard  the  familiar  story  of 
lei's  experiments  with  garden  peas. 

beginning  biology   textbooks   ex- 

with  greater  clarity  and  interest 
principles   of   heredity   Mendel   de- 

from  his  horticultural  work.  Men- 
is  a  person,  never  seems  to  come 
in  this  telling. 

e  biography  of  Pasteur  is  more  suc- 
j1.  It  is  aimed  at  a  slightly  older 
nee  that  might  have  had  a  bit  more 
ce.  It  starts  slowly,  but  gains  mo- 
iim    as    Pasteur    conquers    disease 

disease.  The  reader  is  caught  up 
16  excitement  as  Pasteur  devises 
for  the  diseases  of  silkworms, 
I,  and  men.  The  realization  that  mi- 
s  are  the  cause  of  disease  is  grad- 

impressed  upon  the  reader  as  it 
ipon  Pasteur.  The  spirit  in  which 
ught  many  of  the  leading  scientists 
;  time  for  acceptance  of  his  theory 
Bease  is  sympathetically  portrayed, 
^ouis  Pasteur  emerges  as  a  real  and 
ring  person. 

ce  Dickinson's  biography  of  Dar- 
vill  be  difficult  reading  for  all  but 
lost-advanced  high  school  students, 
details  of  the  voyage  of  the  Beagle 
ikimmed  over  rapidly,  and  more 
;   is   devoted   to   Darwin's   struggle 

illness,  his  difficulties  in  writing, 
;he  raising  of  his  family.  It  is  diffi- 
:o  see  why  it  was  necessary  to  write 
lOok  at  all,  for  the  type  of  student 
might  enjoy  it  is  capable  of  reading 
injoying  Darwin  in  the  original  or  of 
ng  any  of  the  multitude  of  books 
articles  about  him  that  were  pub- 
d  for  the  centennial,  in  1959,  of  the 


publication  of  On  the  Origin  of  Species. 
In  addition,  the  book  contains  one  glar- 
ing error:  Darwin's  contemporary,  Al- 
fred Russel  Wallace,  is  repeatedly  re- 
ferred to  as  Arthur  Wallace! 

In  spite  of  these  objections,  Darwin's 
theory  of  natural  selection  is  presented 
in  an  accurate  manner,  and  the  difficul- 
ties Darwin  experienced  both  from  the 
religious  and  the  scientific  personalities 
of  his  day  are  well  told. 

All  three  of  these  biographies  are 
sparsely  illustrated  with  lackluster 
drawings  that  add  little  to  the  clarity 
or  intent  of  the  texts.  All  are  indexed; 
the  Pasteur  book  contains  a  glossary. 

Although  advances  in  molecular  bi- 
ology may  make  headlines  and  fire  the 
imagination,  there  is  stiU  great  excite- 
ment and,  of  course,  escape  (particu- 
larly for  city  dwellers)  in  reading  about 
the  confrontation  of  raw  nature  as  writ- 
ten by  naturalists  and  scientists  from 
personal  experiences.  A  sampling  of 
such  writings  is  found  in  A  Sense  of 
(Fonder,  compiled  by  Dorothy  Shuttles- 
worth  (Doubleday).  This  anthology,  as 
stated  in  the  introduction,  "may  be  said 
to  touch  on  earth,  sea,  sky.  and  the  ani- 
mal kingdom,"  and  includes  works  from 
the  able  pens  of  W.  H.  Hudson,  Maurice 
Maeterlinck,  Rachel  Carson,  Charles 
Darwin,  William  Beebe.  Albert  Ein- 
stein, and  others.  I  especially  enjoyed 
the  selections  concerned  with  fossil  hunt- 
ing (Roy  Chapman  Andrews),  ocean 
waves  (Henry  Beston) ,  April  in  the  Ant- 
arctic (Richard  E.  Byrd),  wasp  ways 
(Jean  Henri  Fabre),  auroras  (John 
Muir),  and  tracks  and  trailing  (Ernest 
Thompson  Seton).  For  those  readers 
who  want  more,  there  is  a  bibliography 
of  other  writings  by  the  same  authors. 

Adventure  ivith  Freshwater  Animals, 
by  Richard  Headstrom  (Lippincott) ,  is 
a  guide  to  observation  of,  and  experi- 
ment with,  a  variety  of  invertebrates  and 
vertebrates  from  protozoans  to  turtles— 
forty-seven  adventures  in  all.  Mr.  Head- 
strom, who  illustrated  his  work  with 
line  drawings,  gives  some  insights  into 
the  lives  of  these  aquatic  animals  and 
provides  hints  on  where  to  find  them  and 
how  to  maintain  them  in  a  home  labora- 
tory. Aside  from  a  microscope,  which 
is  sometimes  required,  the  necessary 
equipment  is  easily  obtained  or  made. 
There  are  a  few  minor  errors  and  an  un- 
fortunate lack  of  an  index  and  reference 
list.  However,  the  book  can  be  recom- 
mended as  a  good  source  of  information 
for  the  student  who  wants  to  know  more 
about  the  fascinating  animals  that  in- 
habit lakes,  ponds,  and  streams. 

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how  spiders  spin  out  silk,  silken  webs  and 
traps,  how  orb  webs  are  made,  and  how 
spider  enthusiasts  can  collect  webs.  The 
drawings  and  photographs  are  both  of 
excellent  quality.  In  short,  this  small 
volume  is  a  delight  to  look  at  and  to  read. 
It  should  convert  many  of  all  ages  to  an 
appreciation  of  spiders  and  their  webs. 
Butterflies,  by  J.  F.  Gates  Clarke 
(Golden  Press),  is  an  introductory  text. 
It  briefly  describes  the  external  anatomy 
and  the  development  of  butterflies  and 
then  treats  of  187  familiar  North  Ameri- 
can species,  arranged  and  described  ac- 
cording to  families.  The  beautiful  color 
illustrations  by  Andre  Durenceau  go  far 
toward  making  this  a  successful  book. 
And  successful  it  is,  for  it  does  what  it 
intends  to  do— invites  "young  and  old  to 
learn  about  the  more  common  North 
American  butterflies."  The  book  is  in- 
dexed and  has  a  reference  list. 

A  book  on  Beetles,  by  Wilfrid  S.  Bron- 
son  (Harcourt,  Brace  &  World),  treats 
these  insects  as  "machines-plus."  The 
author's  analogy  of  a  beetle  to  an  auto- 
mobile does  not  come  off  well,  especially 
when  he  makes  such  errors  as  comparing 
a  beetle's  stomach  to  a  car's  motor,  and 
stating  that  the  radio  antenna  on  a  car 
is  sensitive  to  sound  vibrations.  His  dis- 
cussion of  beetle  behavior  is  sophomoric 
and  sometimes  anthropomorphic.  His 
discussion  of  the  beetle's  brain,  mind, 
and  feelings  is  plain  nonsense.  All  of  this 
is  unfortunate,  because  the  book  has  a 
certain  charm,  and  the  author's  many  il- 
lustrations are  fun  and  enlightening. 
References  and  an  index  are  provided. 
From  the  standpoint  of  interpreting 
behavior  with  precision,  by  far  the  best 
volume  of  those  reviewed  is  An  Ant  Is 
Born,  by  Harald  Doering  and  Jo  Mary 
McCormick  (Sterling).  Miss  McCor- 
mick,  the  author,  gives  a  good,  brief  ac- 
count of  ant  life  history  and  some  aspects 
of  behavior.  She  does  not  resort  to  an- 
thropomorphisms and  instincts  to  ex- 
plain their  behavior,  but  instead  shows 
that  ant  colony  organization,  at  least  in 
part,  is  dependent  upon  reciprocal 
stimulation  between  worker  and  worker, 
worker  and  queen,  and  worker  and 
brood.  Mr.  Doering's  many  superb 
photographs  and  the  legends  accom- 
panying them  excellently  supplement  the 
text  material.  (One  photograph  shows  an 
aphid  responding  to  tactile  stimulation 
from  an  ant  by  exuding  a  drop  of 
"honeydew.")  It  is  a  treasure  of  a  book. 
Either  of  two  books  on  fishes  could 
fill  a  gap  in  the  young  ichthyologist's 
or  fishing  enthusiast's  library.  Boy^s 
Book  of  Fishes,  by  Edward  C.  Migdalski 
(Ronald  Press),  and  Fishes  and  Their 
Ways,  by  Clarence  J.  Hylander  (Mac- 
millan),  deal  with  fish  anatomy,  phy- 
siology, reproduction,  and  habits.  Both 
describe  the  common  species,  particu- 
larly the  game  fishes,  of  streams  and 
lakes,  and  of  the  seas  bordering  the 
United  States. 


Mr.  Hylander's  book  is  more  com 
hensive,  and  I  think  by  far  the  b( 
volume,  although  it  contains  its  q 
of  minor  errors.  The  many  good  draw 
of  fresh-  and  salt-water  fishes  are  a 
cided  asset.  There  is  no  index,  but 
fish  species  are  listed  with  refer 
pages  under  their  respective  famili( 
Roy  Pinney's  Animals,  Inc.  (Doi 
day)  is  a  slim  volume  on  zoos  and  an 
collecting.  The  reason  for  its  exist 
seems  to  be  as  a  vehicle  for  nume 
photographs,  many  by  the  author, 
certainly  are  not  outstanding.  Mr. 
ney  tells  some  of  the  adventures  of  : 
animal  collectors  as  Frank  Buck,  Ar 
Jones,  Carl  Kauffeld,  and  Henry  1 
flich;  he  boringly.  but  fortuna 
briefly,  discusses  past  and  present  z 
he  relates  the  modus  operandi  for 
turing,  transporting,  selling,  and  ca 
for  zoo  animals;  he  speaks,  though 
very  energetically,  about  the  wo 
vanishing  wildlife.  There  is  a  short 
liography  and  a  list  of  current  pi 
paid  for  animals. 

The  World  of  the  Red-Tailed  Hawl 
G.  Ronald  Austing  (Lippincott) ,  is 
only  bird  book  reviewed  this  year, 
it  is  a  recommended  addition  to 
amateur  ornithologist's  or  natura 
library— no  matter  what  his  age.  IV 
of  the  author's  striking  photogr; 
show  red-tails  on  the  wing;  others  d« 
the  home  life  of  red-tails  and  the  di 
opment  of  the  young.  The  author  j 
his  own  observations  and  other  cut 
data  on  the  red-tail  through  the 
seasons  of  the  year.  His  long  hour 
observation  and  many  encounters  ' 
this  bird  make  his  text  a  stimulating 
The  red-tail  is  on  the  point  of  externa 
tion  in  many  parts  of  the  country, 
this  is  pointed  out,  but  not  with  s( 
mentality.  However,  red-tail  behavic 
often  explained  in  anthropomorj 
terms  or  by  the  concept  of  insti 
Bibliography  and  index  are  inclui 
Of  the  eight  volumes  on  mammals 
ceived  this  year,  six  are  for  the  r 
part  disappointing.  Mammals,  by  I 
aid  F.  Hoffmeister  (Golden  Press), 
a  text  that  starts  out  as  a  pretty 
introduction  to  the  biology  of  manin 
but  quickly  falls  into  a  run-of-the-ii 
encyclopedic  treatment.  Description; 
various  species  and  groups  of  mamn 
are  dull,  and  very  little,  if  anythino 
included  about  mammalian  commun 
tion.  social  behavior,  or  ecology.  S( 
of  the  colored  illustrations  are  good, 
many  are  poor.  The  book  has  some 
tual  errors  and  is  poorly  edited. 

The  less  said  about  Meet  the  M 
mals,  by  C.  H.  Keeling  (Watts), 
better.  It  is  poorly  organized  and  is  fi 
with  inaccuracies  and  fundamental 
rors.  Nature  is  considered  willful,  ; 
Lamarckian  theories  of  evolution  cr 
in.  The  author  gives  tips  on  how  to  c 
for  various  wild  mammal  pets  and  se( 
to  have  a  genuine  concern  for  anim 


her  in  captivity  or  in  the  wild. 
umal  Servants  of  Man,  by  J.  J. 
oy  (Lothrop,  Lee  &  Shepard),  con- 
3  the  domestication  of  dogs,  cats, 
;s,  cattle,  and  other  animals.  The 
might  have  some  appeal,  but  I'm 
luite  sure  to  whom.  There  are  many 
s,  especially  in  the  chapter  on 
keys  and  apes.  (I  think  the  author 
:hes  the  point  when  he  includes  the 
on.  orangutan,  and  gorilla  as  serv- 
of  man.) 

F.  Beebe's  American  Wolves,  Coy- 
and  Foxes  (McKay)  is  a  sort  of  do- 
urself  guide  to  killing  coyotes, 
es,  and  foxes  by  shooting  (from  the 
nd,  airplane,  and  snowmobile), 
ing,  poisoning,  trapping,  running 
hounds,  driving,  and  den  hunting, 
rrect  scientific  names,  many  anthro- 
orphisms,  textual  errors,  poor 
ng,  and  dreary  writing  further  mar 
book.  Miss  Beebe  also  has  written 
rican  Lions  and  Cats  (McKay) ,  but 
no  better. 

ild  Cats,  by  C.  B.  Colby  (Duell, 
n  and  Pearce),  is  a  dull  treatment 
le  world's  large  and  small  cats.  It 
ributes  nothing  to  what  has  already 
I  better  written  elsewhere, 
vo  mammal  books  that  can  be  recom- 
ded  for  young  people  were  not  writ- 
specifically  for  that  audience.  Gara- 
a,  by  Desmond  Varaday  (Dutton), 
tale  about  a  pet  cheetah,  who  is 
ribed  as  being  passionate,  sensitive, 
capricious.  The  author,  a  game 
len  of  a  private  African  reserve, 
s  an  interesting  account  of  life  in  the 
can  bush  and  sidelights  on  the  lives 
he  animals  in  his  domain— lions, 
ards,  crocodiles,  vultures,  jackals, 
las,  antelopes,  and  elephants.  The 
y  is  suspenseful  and  has  an  unex- 
ed  climax.  The  accompanying 
ographs  supply  local  color.  Unfor- 
tely.  the  book  is  laced  with  anthro- 
orphisms,  and  I  cannot  believe 
ything  the  author  says,  but  his  con- 
over  the  plight  of  many  African 
lals  and  his  sense  of  drama  make  his 
;  worth  reading. 

wealth  of  fascinating  information 
at  beavers  is  found  in  The  World  of 
Beaver,  by  Leonard  Lee  Rue  III 
)pincott).  It  stems  from  the  author's 
onal  observations  of  the  animals  over 
limber  of  years  and  through  every 
on.  Mr.  Rue  refutes  much  of  the 
sense  written  about  beavers  as  skilled 
ineers  with  the  knowledge  of  how  to 
trees  so  they  fall  into  the  water.  A 
i  account  is  given  of  the  ecology  of 
beaver  and  how  this  animal— the 
Id's  second  largest  rodent— affects  an 
I  in  which  it  settles.  The  author's 
tographs  clarify  many  points  (he 
1  swam  with  beavers  in  order  to  get 
erwater  shots  of  their  swimming 
hods).  The  few  anthropomorphisms 
lot  mar  the  volume's  excellence. 

Kenneth  K.  Cooper 


You  may  never  have  to  shoot  an  Alosa  pseudoharengus  being 
fitted  with  a  contact  lens.  But  there  is  no  reason  why  you 
shouldn't  enjoy  the  same  picture  quality  in  your  work.  All  it 
takes  is  a  35mm  camera  with  the  responsiveness  of  a  Nikon  F, 
and  a  lens  with  the  resolution  of  a  Nikkor. 
But  there  is  only  one  Nikon  F.  And  this  Nikon  F,  with  its  many 
accessories,  and  more  than  29  interchangeable  Nikkor  lenses, 
stands  out  as  the  finest  and  most  versatile  35mm  equipment 
today— a  complete,  comprehensive  system  whose  capabilities 
extend  into  every  aspect  of  the  photographic  process— from 
photomicrography  to  astrophotography— from  the  infinitesimal 
to  the  infinite.  See  itatyour  Nikon  dealer,  or  write  to  Dept.  NH-11. 

Nikon   InC.lll  Fifth  .Ave.,  N.Y.3.         ^  subsidiary  of  EhrenreichPnoto-Optical  industries,  mc. 


15 


Cannibal  of  the  Pone 

New  study  elucidates  biology  and  behavior  of  water  scorpio 


By  Syd  Radinovsky 

THE  WATER  SCORPION,  fiflwa/ra  fusctt 
Beauvois,  is  not  a  scorpion  at  all. 
It  is  an  insect  belonging  to  the  family 
Nepidae  of  the  order  Hemiptera.  De- 
spite its  name,  it  bears  little  resem- 
blance to  the  true  scorpion,  which  is 
terrestrial  and  has  a  long,  segmented 
abdomen  with  a  potent  sting  at  the  tip. 
In  appearance,  the  water  scorpion  re- 


sembles a  walking  stick— that  familiar, 
large,  sluggish  insect  whose  common 
name  is  so  apt.  However,  the  walking 
stick  is  an  orthopteran  and  a  mem- 
ber of  the  family  Phasmidae.  Func- 
tionally, R.  jusca  is  much  like  the  well- 
known  praying  mantid,  also  an  orthop- 
teran, of  the  family  Mantidae.  Both 
are  predaceous  and  both  exhibit  can- 
nibalism. Both  have  peculiarly  modi- 
fied raptorial  front  legs  that  strike  out 


Adult  water  scorpion,  which  greatly 
resembles  the  familiar  walking  stick, 

i6   " 


uses  raptorial  forelegs  to  seize  box- 
elder  bug  that  has  fallen  into  water. 


swiftly  to  grasp  prey.  Endowed  wi 
infinite  "patience,"  both  lie  in  wait  f 
their  prey  almost  motionlessly,  fro 
legs  in  an  upraised  position,  and  bo 
are  capable  of  slow  stalking.  Both  al 
have  functional  wings,  but  are  r 
strong  fliers. 

Water  scorpions  comprise  only  o 
of  a  number  of  families  of  aqua 
Hemiptera,  each  of  which  is  distinct] 
in  structure,  biology,  and  behavii 
Water  scorpions,  or  nepids,  are  d 
tinguished  from  all  other  water  br 
by  their  slender  and  elongate  cauc 
respiratory  tube,  which  consists  of  t 
filaments  with  middle  grooves.  Wh 
these  filaments  are  pressed  togeth 
the  grooves  form  a  tube  that  condu 
air  to  two  spiracles  situated  at  I 
caudal  end  of  the  abdomen.  Anotl 
distinguishing  feature  of  the  wa 
scorpion  is  the  presence  of  three  pa 
of  small,  oval,  disklike,  static  sei 
organs  at  the  sides  of  the  second,  thi 
and  fourth  visible  ventral  segmer 
These  probably  aid  in  orientation 
water  and  in  depth  perception.  1 
anterior  legs  are  raptorial;  the  mid 
and  hind  legs  are  slender  and  lo: 
Thus,  the  insect  is  better  adapted 
move  among  aquatic  vegetation  tl 
to  swim  in  open  water  where,  althoi 
the  legs  thrash  alternately  and  viole 
ly,  it  makes  but  slow  progress  forwa 

Three  easily  separable  genera 
water  scorpions  are  known  in  re 
rimmed,  fresh-water  ponds  in  No 
America.  The  genus  Nepa  is  stric 
eastern  and  Curicta  is  a  Neotropi 
genus,  only  two  species  of  which  re: 
into  the  southern  part  of  the  Uni 
States.  Ranatra  is  distributed  throu 
out  North  America,  and  R.  jusca  is 
most  abundant  species  in  the  genus 

All  water  scorpions  are  predate 
utilizing  their  environment  both 
a  source  of  food  and  as  a  place 
liide.  Their  dark,  brown-gray  cole 
tion  blends  perfectly  with  the  veg( 
tion.  Water  scorpions  commonly  pi 
themselves  in  an  optimal  predation  ; 
based  on  at  least  three  factors:  cam 
flage,  light,  and  prey  traffic.  Pla 
provide  cover  and  an  oviposition  s 


''""s;s^ 


'MfxM^SM 


W' 


M"^*'' 


t^gi^f- 


CAL  HABITAT  of  the  water  scorpion  Ranatra  fusca  is  a 
rimmed,  fresh-water  pond,  such  as  that  seen  at  top. 


After  first  molt,  nepid  hangs  head  down  from  the  reeds, 
as  at  left  center.  Other  insects  are  the  larvae  of  mosquitoes. 


:  areas  may  aid  in  camouflage,  as 
isects'  sticklike  appearance  is  con- 
ibly  more  enhanced  in  a  dark 
tion,  and  this  might  deceive  both 
and  possible  predators.  They  sta- 
themselves  in  areas  of  the  great- 
rey  activity  and  eat  a  wide  variety 
ther  aquatic  insects,  even  includ- 
small  fish.  Nepids,  in  turn,  are 
ed  upon  by  the  predaceous  diving 
e  Dytiscus,  the  dragonfly  nymph 
hna,  and  are  also  parasitized  by 
itic  mites. 

D  take  advantage  of  prey  traffic, 
ds  suspend  themselves  head  down- 
1,  at  an  angle  of  35  to  45  degrees 
I  the  vertical,  by  clinging  with 
.  the  middle  and  hind  pairs  of  legs 


to  the  stems  of  rushes,  reeds,  grasses, 
or  other  vegetation.  Their  raptorial 
forelegs  are  held  in  front  of  them, 
poised  and  ready  to  strike  out  at  any 
moving  object  that  chances  by.  The 
tibia  and  tarsus  of  the  forelegs  are 
scythelike  and  razor-sharp.  They  fit 
into  the  grooved  femur  like  the  blade 
of  a  pocketknife  fits  into  its  handle, 
and  can  form  a  viselike  grip.  Often  the 
nepid  uses  one  leg  to  catch  a  leg  of  its 
prey;  the  victim  can  escape  only  by 
leaving  its  leg  in  the  predator's  grasp. 
Periodically,  a  nepid's  need  for  oxy- 
gen compels  it  to  walk  backward  up 
the  vegetation,  thrusting  its  snorkel- 
like caudal  respiratory  tube  through 
the  water  surface.  Long  periods  of  sub- 


mergence are  found  in  many  aquatic 
Hemiptera.  Ranatra  fusca  can  stay 
under  water  for  periods  of  30  to  35 
minutes  before  surfacing  for  air. 

DURING  the  past  six  years  at  Cor- 
vallis,  Oregon,  and  in  Lawrence, 
Kansas,  I  have  studied  aspects  of  the 
biology  and  behavior  of  R.  fusca.  In- 
sects were  collected  from  fresh-water 
ponds  and  brought  into  the  laboratory 
for  close  and  constant  study.  Life  his- 
tory and  behavioral  data  accumulated 
in  my  Corvallis  studies  are  almost 
identical  with  those  from  Lawrence. 

In  general,  water  scorpions  over- 
winter as  adults  and  lay  eggs  in  the 
spring.  The  mating  appears  to  be  in- 


17 


Body  of  nepid,  at  left,  carries  a  1 
cluster    of   parasitizing    aquatic    m 


One  mosquito  larva  is  eaten  by  a 
nepid,  which  holds  another  by  for( 


Dragonfly  nymph,  at  left,  beloi 
a  principal  predator  of  Ranatra  fi 


fluenced  by  time  of  day.  On  occasion 
1  have  seen  mating  occur  in  the  after- 
noon, but  in  the  majority  of  cases  it 
takes  place  in  the  early  morning  or  late 
evening.  On  one  occasion,  duration  of 
mating  was  20  minutes,  although  the 
process  might  have  been  prolonged  or 
shortened  as  a  result  of  the  disturbing 
influence  of  the  light  that  was  used  to 
photograph  it. 

During  mating,  the  male  positions 
himself  beneath  and  to  the  side  of  the 


female.  The  dorsal  aspect  of  the  pos- 
terior portion  of  his  body  faces  the 
ventral  part  of  the  posterior  portion 
of  the  female.  The  ventrally  situated 
aedeagus  is  brought  upward  to  a  dor- 
sal position,  where  it  is  clasped  by  the 
female  genital  sclerites.  Transfer  of 
sperm  presumably  takes  place  at  this 
time.  The  two  halves  of  the  male's  res- 
piratory filaments  are  spread  apart  to 
permit  the  aedeagus  to  make  this  mi- 
gration upward. 


The  fertilized  female  climbs  ou 
the  water  and  onto  a  horizontally  fl 
ing.  soft,  dead  reed.  She  then  elev 
the  front  part  of  her  body  while  fir 
grasping  the  edges  of  the  reed  with 
second  and  third  pairs  of  legs, 
forelegs  are  held  together  on  a 
with  the  body,  which  slants  down  f 
the  head  at  an  angle  of  about  .35 
grees.  The  ovipositor  is  then  extm 
and  the  tip  is  pressed  into  the  reec 
a  downward,  backward,  and  forw 


\ 


•r" 


movement,  while  the  respiratory  fila- 
ments rest  on  the  reed.  After  piercing 
the  reed,  the  female  partially  with- 
draws her  ovipositor.  Then  she  opens 
it  laterally,  and  inserts  the  egg  into 
the  newly  made  hole. 

The  long,  respiratory  filaments  of 
the  egg  come  apart  in  a  V-shaped  fash- 
ion as  the  ovipositor  is  withdrawn. 
The  female  then  moves  forward  about 
one-eighth  to  one-quarter  of  an  inch 
and  repeats  the  process,  inserting  an 
egg  as  before,  until  as  many  as  50  eggs 
are  placed  in  a  straight  line.  In  those  I 
observed,  the  female  usually  returned 
to  the  row  of  eggs  several  days  or  even 
a  week  later  to  continue  ovipositing. 
The  eggs  are  elongate  oval  and  about 
3%  mm.  long;  the  respiratory  horns 
are  about  4  mm.  long. 

RECENT  research  by  H.  E.  Hinton 
on  the  structure  and  function  of 
the  nepid  egg  indicates  that  each  of 
these  horns  consists  of  a  central  mesh- 
work  that  contains  gas.  This  is  con- 
nected, according  to  species,  either 
directly  or  through  aeropyles  (fine 
canals  or  tubes),  with  a  peripheral 
plastron  meshwork.  The  plastron  itself 
is  an  air  storage  mechanism  in  the 
form  of  a  thin  film,  so  held  by  a  sys- 
tem of  unwettable  or  water-resistant 
hairs  or  scales  that  its  volume  remains 
constant.  The  plastron  meshwork  may 
cover  most  of  the  respiratory  horn  or 
may  be  confined  to  its  tip,  and  pro- 
vides a  large,  water-air  interface  when 
the  egg  is  immersed.  The  gas-contain- 
ing meshworks  of  each  horn  are  joined 
basally  to  the  gas-containing  mesh- 
work of  the  egg's  inner  shell  wall, 
making  the  air  film  of  the  former  con- 
tinuous with  that  of  the  latter.  The  egg 
shell  fills  with  air  only  after  the  egg 
has  left  the  common  oviduct.  The  plas- 
tron is  resistant  to  wetting  by  excess 
pressure,  and  so  provides  a  wide  safety 
margin  against  such  contingencies  as 
heavy  rains,  floods,  or  submersion  of 
reeds  by  other  animals.  As  long  as  ade- 
quate oxygen  is  dissolved  in  the  water, 
the  plastron  can  act  as  a  permanent 
physical  gill  that  needs  no  renewal, 
and  eggs  so  equipped  can  remain  sub- 
merged for  long  periods  of  time. 

Eggs  normally  are  laid  so  that  the 
respiratory  horns  and  sometimes  part 
of  their  apexes  project  above  the  sur- 
face of  the  water.  The  remainder  of 
the  egg  is  below  the  surface,  so  from 
this  point  of  view,  respiration  is  essen- 
tially terrestrial.  Presumably  the  plas- 
tron becomes  functional  only  during 


19 


Mating  takes  place  in  the  spring  and 
seems  to  be  influenced  bv  the  time  of 


day.  It  usually  occurs  either  during 
the  early  morning  or  the  late  evening. 


heavy  rains  or  when  the  egg  is  ot 
wise  immersed  in  water.  From  my  < 
experience,  eggs  purposely  submei 
for  as  long  as  three  or  four  days  de 
oped  apparently  normally  and  hate 
in  the  normal  time  into  nor 
nymphs.  There  is  a  possibility,  not 
investigated,  that  there  is  a  critical 
riod  of  incubation  during  which  t 
must  be  at  the  water  surface— with 
respiratory  horns  projecting  above 
water— after  which  they  can  be  tot 
submerged  and  still  develop  norm; 

IN  life  history  studies,  it  was  fa 
that  a  time  lapse  of  17  days 
curred  between  mating  and  ovip 
tion  (data  based  on  19  individua 
The  incubation  period  lasted  from 
to  19  days  (data  based  on  18  ii 
viduals).  Following  egg  hatch  tl 
are  five  nymphal  instars.  each  look 
like  miniature  adults.  The  first  : 
second  nymphal  instars  lasted  appr( 
mately  8  days  each,  the  third  in; 
about  8V2  days,  the  fourth  instar 
days,  and  the  fifth  and  final  instar- 
longest  of  the  five— 22  days.  A  tota 
76  to  80  days  was  required  from  < 
to  adult.  The  first  instar  nymphs  m( 
ured  6  to  7  mm.  from  tip  of  beak 
end  of  respiratory  tube;  the  second 
to  12  mm.,  the  third  18  to  20  mm., 
fourth  26  to  27  mm.,  the  fifth  45 
46  mm.  The  adult  was  63  to  68  n 
The  first  nymphal  instar  emerges 
forcing  open  a  small  round  cap  at 


Female  inserts  ovipositor  into  a  soft, 
dead,  floating  reed  and  deposits  eggs. 

20 


Two-forked  respiratory  horns  on  egg 
rise  above  surface  of  the  water,  right. 


RICATION  of  a  nymph  from  egg  is  seen  in  three  stages. 
5  at  first  are  close  to  body,  but  they  begin  to  unfold 


when  about  two-thirds  of  the  emergence  is  complete.  Nymph 
occasionally  becomes  entangled  in  sibling's  horns  and  dies. 


oent  end  of  the  egg.  Hatching  is  a 
inating  process  to  watch.  The  soft, 
lie,  bright  yellow,  red-eyed  nymph 
ly  emerges  from  the  egg  case,  get- 
larger  and  larger,  like  a  genie  from 
agic  lamp,  until  it  is  about  twice 
length  and  width  of  the  egg  that 
ained  it.  When  the  nymph  is  about 
thirds  of  the  way  out  of  the  egg  its 
which  until  this  point  have  been 
very  close  to  the  body,  begin  to 
lid.  This  first  nymph  utilizes  its 
[y  freed  legs  almost  immediately; 
ives  the  floating  reed  and  heads  for 


the  water.  Sometimes  it  becomes  en- 
tangled in  the  respiratory  horns  of 
other  eggs,  is  unable  to  extricate  it- 
self, and  perishes.  Soon  after  entering 
the  water  it  assumes  the  typical  head 
down,  angled  position  and  uses  the 
hind  and  middle  pairs  of  legs  to  cling 
to  the  reed  it  has  just  left. 

TO  survive,  first  instars  must  have 
floating  vegetation  that  reaches  al- 
most to  the  water  surface.  The  animals 
may  periodically  leave  their  islands 
of  support,  but  they  always  return. 


particularly  when  they  catch  prey.  I 
placed  first  instars  and  small  bits  of  the 
aquatic  plant  Elodea  in  34  x  24  mm. 
plastic  zipper  vials  filled  with  pond 
water  or  tap  water  that  had  aged  for 
48  hours.  The  Elodea  either  floated  or 
partially  submerged  in  an  almost  up- 
right position,  and  the  young  njmphs 
readily  gained  a  foothold  and  assumed 
their  typical  "resting-questing"  stance 
(head  downward  at  about  a  45  degree 
angle  to  the  vertical  plane  and  with 
outstretched  forelegs  ) .  Occasionally, 
the  Elodea  would  slip  down  to  the  bot- 
tom of  the  vial,  and  the  young  nepid 
would  remain  for  a  time  near  the  water 
surface,  floundering  and  thrashing  and 
apparently  unable  to  orient  to  the  rest- 
ing-questing position.  Eventually  the 
nymph  would  also  slip  down,  thrash 
around  the  bottom  of  the  vial  and,  if 
not  given  assistance  in  the  form  of  new 
floating  Elodea  (or  even  a  piece  of 
toothpick) ,  would  drown.  Early  morn- 
ing checks  sometimes  revealed  mortal- 
ity from  this  cause. 

In  addition  to  serving  as  a  support 
upon  which  the  nymph  can  back  up 
to  get  its  life-giving  supply  of  air,  and 
to  increasing  the  camouflaging  stick 
effect,  vegetation  also  provides  a  neces- 
sary anchor  upon  which  the  nepid 
braces  its  hind  and  middle  pairs  of  legs 
to  facilitate  the  lightning-fast  move- 
ments of  the  forelegs  when  making  a 
strike.  On  several  occasions  I  have 
observed  the  attack  and  capture  of  a 
late  instar  mosquito  larva  by  a  first 
instar  nepid  that  had  become  sepa- 
rated from  its  vegetation  refuge.  The 
struggling  larva,  about  the  same  size 
as  its   attacker,  pulled  the  latter  all 

21 


First  nymph,  just  a  half-hour  after  it 
has  left  egg,  assumes  preying  position. 


Nymphs,  right,  at  3V2  days  old,  hang 
from  surface  debris  and  wait  for  prey. 


over  until  the  nepid  encountered  some 
Elodea,  which  it  immediately  grasped 
with  one  or  both  pairs  of  posterior 
legs.  Once  firmly  anchored  to  the 
plant,  the  nepid  assumed  the  45  degree 
angle  position,  grasped  the  mosquito 
larva  with  both  its  raptorial  front  legs, 
and  then  inserted  its  beak.  Sometiines 
the  nepid  held  the  struggling,  wrig- 
gling larva  under  the  water  until  it 
subsided,  doubtless  because  of  anoxia, 
before  it  began  feeding. 

OFTEN  the  water  scorpion  cleaned 
its  scythelike  forelegs  with  its 
middle  legs  when  mosquito  larvae 
were  first  introduced  into  the  zipper 
vials.  This  pattern  of  behavior  was 
observed  in  all  instars.  Several  times 
the  same  behavior  was  observed  after 


an  insect  had  managed  to  escape  the 
clutches  of  the  nepid. 

Generally,  a  first  instar  nymph  in  its 
typical  prey-awaiting  position  would 
strike  and  capture  an  active  mosquito 
larva  within  seconds  after  the  larva 
was  introduced.  The  nymph  would 
affix  the  larva  to  its  beak  while  feed- 
ing, thereby  freeing  the  two  forelegs 
for  further  prey  capture.  If  another 
larva  came  by.  the  nepid  would  often 
strike  again,  and  if  successful  would 
hold  the  second  larva  in  one  of  its  fore- 
legs while  feeding  on  the  first  one. 
Occasionally  I  have  seen  an  adult  nepid 
use  its  only  free  appendage  to  strike 
out  and  capture  still  a  third  larva. 

Prior  to  molting,  the  first  instar 
nepid  becomes  enlarged,  inactive,  and 
unresponsive  to  introduced  prey.  The 


increase  in  over-all  size  is  proba 
caused  by  a  combination  of  feed 
and  the  extra  intake  of  air  and, 
water  in  preparation  for  the  molt, 
molting  begins,  the  skin  splits  ak 
the  posterior  head  region  and  the 
closed  second  instar  begins  a  slow  . 
steady  movement  forward  and  out 
its  cast  skin,  or  exuvia.  It  does 
use  its  legs  as  it  moves  forward;  tl 
remain  tight  against  the  body  c 
appear  to  be  enclosed  in  a  thin,  tra 
parent  sheath.  Waves  of  body  sw 
ings  that  move  slowly  backward  se 
to  aid  in  the  extrication.  Presuma 
blood,  air,  or  water  is  accumula 
anteriorly  and  then  forced  posterio 
along  the  outer  margins  of  the  bo 
When  the  second  instar  nymph 
about  four-fifths  out  of  its  exuvia, 


Molting  process,  above,  in  which  second  nymph  frees  itself 
from,  its  cast  first  nymphal  skin,  took  about  2V2  minutes. 


At  right,  the  third  and  larger  nymphal  instar  emerges  fr< 
its  old  skin,  and  is  humped  at  lower  left  of  the  photograj 


t-colored  legs  are  freed  from  the 
y  and  used  in  the  final  extrication 
n  the  exuvia.  This  second  nymph 
early  twice  as  long  as  the  first  and 
ppreciably  larger  in  girth. 

put  second  instar  nepids  into 
er  containers  (85  x  55  mm.  baby 
1  jars)  and  added  larger  pieces  of 
iea.  Stalking  of  prey  was  first  ob- 
ed  at  this  stage.  When  the  prey 

beyond  its  reach  the  nepid  occa- 
lally  moved  almost  imperceptibly 
ard  it,  in  a  manner  reminiscent  of 
stalking  movements  of  a  praying 
itid.  This  controlled  movement  was 
Dmplished  by  means  of  the  long, 
od-like  middle  and  hind  legs.  The 
les  of  extension  and  flexion  of  the 

to  the  body  slowly  changed,  with 

result   that    the    water    scorpion 


moved  forward,  upward,  downward, 
sideways,  or  backward,  ever  so  slowly, 
until  it  was  in  a  striking  position. 

The  second  nymph,  when  ready  to 
molt,  becomes  quiescent  and  enlarged 
and,  like  the  first  instar,  is  indifferent 
to  prey.  It  was  not  observed  to  feed 
within  four  hours  prior  to  molting.  On 
two  occasions  I  saw  two  large  and  rela- 
tively inactive  second  instar  nymphs 
strike  out  at  passing  mosquito  larvae, 
but  they  were  unable  to  hold  them, 
even  though  contact  was  made.  Of 
these  two  nymphs,  one  molted  5^2 
hours,  the  other  6%  hours  later.  The 
molting  process  for  the  second  nymph 
is  essentially  the  same  as  that  de- 
scribed for  the  first  instar.  Feeding 
does  not  take  place  for  several  hours 
after  a  molt  has  been  completed. 


The  third  nymph  is  again  appre- 
ciably larger  in  size,  and  wing  pads 
appear  for  the  first  time.  Feeding, 
stalking,  and  other  patterns  of  be- 
havior are  generallv  the  same  as  in  the 
preceding  instars.  The  molting  process 
differs  only  in  that  more  use  is  made 
of  the  legs  in  earlier  stages  of  extrica- 
tion from  the  exuvia. 

Other  than  increases  in  size  and 
appetite,  the  fourth  and  fifth  stages 
of  R.  jusca  exhibit  no  significant  be- 
havioral differences  from  those  of 
earlier  nymphs.  1  began  feeding  these 
later  instar  nepids  damselfly  and  drag- 
onfly nymphs,  water  boatmen,  back- 
swimmers,  small  hydrophilid  and  hali- 
plid  beetles,  and  other  live  material. 

A  hungry  adult  water  scorpion  will 
strike  at  virtually  anything  that  crosses 
its  path.  One  that  had  not  eaten  in 
many  days  struck  at  my  finger,  which 
I  held  above  the  water,  and  actually 
positioned  itself  so  that  it  could  break 
through  the  water  surface  in  an  at- 
tempt to  capture  aerial  prey.  In  this 
manner  they  can  grasp  terrestrial  in- 
sects that  have  fallen  into  the  water 
and  pull  them  below  the  surface  before 
beginning  to  feed. 


Asleep  or  awake,  the  water  scor- 
_[\_  pion  assumes  virtually  the  same 
resting-questing  position.  Sometimes, 
after  I  had  introduced  mosquito  lar- 
vae or  other  prey  early  in  the  morn- 
ing, the  nepid,  aroused  by  the  activity, 
apparently  woke  up,  made  a  feeble 
stab  at  the  prey,  and  invariably  missed 
on  the  first  two  or  three  strikes.  Sub- 
sequent strikes  were  speedier  and 
more  accurate,  until  the  action  was 
lightning-fast.  Hence,  a  kind  of  warm- 
ing-up period  is  exhibited  in  the  early 
morning.  Once  awake  the  nepid  usu- 
ally will  capture  the  introduced  prey 
with  one  strike  if  it  comes  close. 

After  the  prey  is  caught,  and  if  it 
is  not  struggling  too  violently,  the 
nepid  grasps  it  in  both  forelegs  and 
brings  it  up  to  the  elongated,  three- 
segmented  beak  that  houses  the  four 
long,  slender,  and  needle-like  pierc- 
ing stylets— the  two  mandibles  and 
the  two  maxillae.  The  maxillae  are 
the  main  stylets  of  the  beak.  They 
fit  together  to  form  two  tubes— a  saliv- 
ary tube  through  which  saliva  is 
pumped  into  the  body  of  the  prey, 
and  a  food  tube,  through  which  the 
body  fluids  of  the  prey  are  drawn.  The 
nepid  presses  its  beak  against  the  prey 
and  probes  around  and  over  the  sclero- 
tized  surface  in  search  of  a  soft,  mem- 

23 


branous  spot  (usually  an  interseg- 
mental membrane),  through  which  it 
inserts  the  needle  into  the  victim. 

I  once  observed  a  nepid  feeding  on 
a  haliplid  beetle  while  a  free  foreleg 
clasped  the  midsection  of  a  mayfly 
nymph.  A  second  nepid  approached 
and  tried  in  vain  to  take  the  mayfly. 
The  first  nepid  would  not  let  go;  the 
two  fought,  pulled,  tugged,  and  lunged. 
During  the  melee  the  first  nepid  con- 
tinued to  feed  on  the  haliplid.  Finally 
a  "compromise"  was  reached:  the  sec- 
ond nepid  began  to  feed  on  the  may- 
fly, while  the  first  one  continued  to 
feed  on  the  haliplid,  although  it  did 
not  relinquish  its  hold  on  the  mayfly. 
Five  minutes  after  the  second  nepid 
began  feeding,  the  first  nepid  dis- 
carded the  exsanguinated  haliplid  and 
began  sharing  the  mayfly  feast. 

On  one  occasion  I  introduced  a 
dytiscid  beetle  I  three-quarters  of  an 
inch  long)  into  an  observation  tank. 
Within  five  minutes,  an  adult  nepid 
caught  it,  but  could  not  penetrate  the 
exoskeleton.  The  nepid  held  the  active, 
struggling  dytiscid  under  water  for 
about  three-quarters  of  an  hour  and 
drowned  it,  then  pierced  a  leg  (be- 
tween coxa  and  trochanter)  and  be- 
gan to  feed.  Two  hours  later,  two 
nepids  were  sharing  the  meal,  which 
lasted  another  hour. 

CANNIBALISM  is  perhaps  the  great- 
est of  the  perils  to  confront  a 
nepid.  This  phenomenon  is  mani- 
fested in  many  ways,  and  nepids  are 
subj  ected  to  it  throughout  their  nymph- 
al  existence.  Generally  in  a  batch  of 
eggs  laid  about  the  same  time,  those 
nymphs  that  emerge  first  will  feed  on 
later  emerging  nymphs.  The  former 
will  cannibalize  only  after  their  exo- 
skeletons  have  undergone  at  least  two 
hours  of  hardening  and  darkening 
(sclerotization  and  melanization) . 
More  often,  the  newly  emerged  first 
nymph  becomes  the  victim  of  older 
nymphs  and  adults. 

Most  of  the  egg  hatch  occurs  some 
time  during  the  evening  and  early 
morning.  Probably  there  is  survival 
value  in  emerging  in  the  dark,  where 
some  protection  from  older  siblings 
may  be  afforded  during  the  first  criti- 
cal hours.  Perhaps  this  means  that 
a  circadian  rhythm  exists  that  has 
evolved  to  trigger  the  hatching  process 
at  an  optimum  time. 

When  we  add  cannibalism  to  the 
predation  of  other  aquatic  insects,  we 
can  appreciate  the  high  fecundity  of 

24 


Nepids  are  cannibals;  second  nymph 
here  feeds  on  first  nyniphal  sibling. 


nepids.  Wherever  I  found  adults  in  the 
spring  and  summer,  1  always  observed 
thousands  of  eggs  imbedded  in  the 
reeds.  Yet  later  in  the  season  I  never 
collected  more  than  nine  or  ten  adults 
at  one  time.  In  fact,  only  in  the  spring 
and  early  summer  have  I  collected  as 
many  as  a  dozen.  When  one  considers 
that  an  adult  water  scorpion  can  can- 
nibalize any  immature  individual,  and 
that  each  nymph  can  successfully  at- 
tack any  other  younger  or  smaller 
nymph,  each  adult  that  we  do  find  may 
represent  a  number  of  "nepids  that 
could  have  been."  On  the  other  hand, 
scarcity  of  adult  nepids  might  reflect 
either  flaw's  in  my  collecting  tech- 
niques or  late  summer  dispersal. 

There  is  much  more  to  be  learned 
about  Ranatra  jusca,  such  as  the  me- 
chanism of  orientation  and  the  sense 
organs  involved,  feeding  physiology, 
learning   ability,   rhythmic    activities. 


Adult  has  attacked  a  first  nym 
in  variation  of  cannibalism,  rig 


dispersal,  and  overwintering  sites 
have  found  adult  nepids  overwinter] 
in  mud  and  water  in  Oregon  (whi 
the  temperature  usually  stays  ab( 
freezing),  but  I  have  not  been  a 
to  find  the  overwintering  site  in  Le 
rence,  where  winter  freeze-ups  i 
prevalent.  The  nepids  apparently  c 
survive  under  the  ice  and  perhaps  b 
row  into  the  mud  where  the  tempe 
tures  are  above  freezing.  The  ad 
nepid  probably  goes  into  some  ki 
of  winter  diapause,  or  dormancy, 
which  respiration  is  consideral 
slowed  down.  Or  perhaps  the  adi 
crawl  or  fly  to  another  site,  where  tl 
spend  the  winter. 

This  type  of  studv  permits  one  to 
a  few  steps  beyond  biology  per  se  ii 
biological  and  experimental  behavi 
It  is  a  step  that  leads  to  the  ultim 
satisfaction  of  seeing,  thinking,  a 
ing,  doing,  and  drawing  conclusio 


25 


Strangler  Fig,  Natiy 


By  Virgil  N.  Argo 

A  NORTHERNER  driving  south  along 
the  Atlantic  Coast  for  the  first 
time  becomes  aware  of  an  increasing 
number  of  plant  species  that  are  living 
full  and  normal  lives  perched  on  the 
trunks  and  branches  of  roadside  trees. 
These  epiphytes  appear  in  about  this 
order:  mosses,  polpody  ferns,  Span- 
ish moss,  larger  bromeliads,  and  or- 
chids. The  last  two  classes  are  not  to 
be  seen  in  abundance  until  the  traveler 
reaches  the  latitude  of  the  Everglades 
in  Florida.  Manifestly,  they  are  all 
plants  that  do  not  grow  in  cold  weather 
and  need  frequent  rains  and  humid 
air.  They  have  special  leaf  and  root 
adaptations  for  obtaining  water  di- 
rectly from  the  falling  rain  or  from 
atmospheric  humidity. 

Not  until  one  reaches  the  coastal 
margins  of  the  southern  half  of  Flor- 
ida will  one  encounter  the  most  in- 
teresting of  our  native  epiphytes,  the 
strangler  fig,  Ficus  aurea. 

The  genus  Ficus  is  one  of  the  most 
remarkable  aggregations  of  closely  re- 
lated plant  species  in  the  world.  As  of 
1930,  the  Index  Kewensis  listed  1,580 
apparently  valid  species  that  are 
worldwide  in  distribution.  There  are 
895  listed  for  tropical  continental  and 
insular  Asia,  378  for  continental  Af- 
rica, 257  for  tropical  continental  and 
insular  America,  12  for  continental 
Europe,  and  38  species  are  listed  with- 
out locations.  They  vary  in  size  and 
form  from  large  trees  to  creeping 
vines,  but  all  exhibit  certain  unmistak- 
able characteristics.  The  most  signifi- 
cant and  recognizable  is  the  syconium, 
the  fig-type  fruit  (the  flask-shaped  end 
of  a  stem  or  receptacle)  lined  with  a 
large  number  of  minute,  one-seeded, 
closely  crowded,  reduced  flowers.  This 
fruit  structure  is  always  recognizable 
and  is  unique  to  the  genus.  Inciden- 
tally, the  Roman  name  for  fig  was 
ficus  but  the  Greek  name  was  sykon, 
hence  "syconium."  This  will  explain 
the  common  name  sycamore,  which  we 
give  to  species  in  the  genus  Platanus, 
because  they  have  leaves  that  resemble 
those  of  Ficus  sycomorus,  the  mul- 
berry fig  of  the  Near  East  and  the 
"sycomore"  of  the  Bible.  (Luke  19:2-4 
tells  of  Zacchaeus,  chief  of  the  publi- 

26    ' 


piphyt< 


Leaves  and  small,  immature  fruits  of  the  Ficus 
aurea  are  seen  in  close-up  of  the  twig,  above. 


Seedling,  which  began  on  bark  of  a  palm  tree, 
has  quickly  developed  roots,  stems,  and  leaves. 


Masonry  of  East  Martello  Tower  in  Key  West, 
Florida,  furnished  the  support  for  F.  brevifolia. 


27 


Palmetto  trunk,  above,  is  the  host  f 
a  fig  seedling,  rooted  near  the  grour 


Independent   growth  of  fig  can  occ 
when  seedling  starts  at  tree  base,  le 


Tree   roots   enclose  and  hold  up  i 
that  remains  of  a  masonry  wall,  rigi 


Cypress   trunk   is   barely   visible 
mass  of  intertwined   fig  roots,  belo 


cans,  who  climbed  a  "sycomore"  in 
Jericho  to  see  Jesus  pass  by.) 

The  edible  fig  of  worldwide  fame  is 
Ficus  carica,  with  its  hundreds  of  rec- 
ognized varieties.  Incidentally,  it  is 
one  of  the  few  species  that  does  not 
require  a  humid  tropical  climate.  This 
fortuitous  preference  for  a  warm  dry 
environment  accounts  for  its  impor- 
tance to  the  peoples  around  the  Med- 
iterranean. The  pollination  of  some 
varieties  of  carica  presented  to  horti- 
culturists of  this  country  a  problem 
that  was  not  solved  until  after  long 
study.  The  whole  story  of  the  fig  and 
the  fig  wasp,  Blastophaga  psenes,  is 
complex  enough  to  confuse  many  oth- 
erwise well-oriented  biology  students. 

OUR  own  Ficus  aurea  starts  out  in 
life  when  it  sprouts  from  a  seed 
left  by  a  bird  in  a  crevice  among  the 
leaf  bases  of  a  palmetto  or  on  the 
rough  bark  of  a  cypress  tree.  The  tiny 
seedling  rapidly  develops  roots,  stems, 
and  leaves.  It  has  no  special  water- 
collecting  structures,  but  it  does  have 
pronounced  resistance  to  wilting,  a 
characteristic  strikingly  illustrated  by 
some    of    the    other    latex-producing 

28 


■•^^■^««t«.^^ 


h 


'^^'■'^ 


^m^-- 


s  M\U 


^Si^ 


i^ 


■r 


^aI"^.:  ^ 


•i^2?<    *%r- 


•l,-,^    ^^.^ 


l:--*-!^- 


ts.  In  any  event,  it  thrives  and 
,'s  with  surprising  vigor,  and  soon 

and  sturdy  roots  have  extended 
n  the  trunk  of  the  host  tree  to  the 
ind.  During  this  period  of  its  early 
vth  one  is  hard  put  to  understand 

the  plant  obtains  enough  food  to 
)ort  its  rapid  and  extensive  growth, 
iter  the  roots  have  reached  and 
itrated  the  soil,  establishing  their 
lections  with  water  and  minerals, 
growth  speed  is  much  accelerated, 
first  roots  branch  abundantly  and 


are  joined  by  others  creeping  down  the 
outside  of  the  host.  They  increase  in 
diameter  and  flatten  against  the  trunk 
of  the  tree,  fusing  together  wherever 
they  touch,  until  the  host  is  encased  in 
a  strait  jacket  of  anastomosing  roots, 
which  suggest  nothing  so  much  as  a 
tangle  of  writhing  and  constricting 
serpents.  Some  roots  may  drop  free  to 
the  ground  and  grow  into  auxiliary 
trunks.  This  is  the  case  of  the  banyan, 
Ficus  bengalensis—a.  fairly  close  rela- 
tive that  often  begins  as  an  epiphyte. 


The  strangler  fig  does  not  absorb 
food  from  the  body  of  the  host  tree; 
an  increase  in  the  diameter  of  its  roots 
along  and  around  the  trunk  of  the  host 
causes  them  to  squeeze  against  it  so 
strongly  that  any  subsequent  increase 
in  trunk  diameter  is  prevented.  As  a 
result,  the  vascular  cambium  cannot 
produce  new  xylem  and  phloem  to  ac- 
commodate the  water  and  food  trans- 
port needs  of  normal  growth,  which, 
of  necessity,  stops.  Palmettos  are  mono- 
cots  and  do  not  have  expanding  trunks 

29 


Serpentine    effect    of    encroaching 
root  structure  is  seen  on  palmetto. 

since  they  lack  a  vascular  cambium. 
Instead,  they  produce  new  conducting 
tissue  at  the  growing  tip  of  the  trunk. 
If  the  strangler  fig  has  its  start  at  a  low 
point  on  the  palm  trunk,  the  host  may 
live  a  long  time  without  injury,  but  if 
the  interloper  starts  among  the  bases 
of  the  green  leaves  of  the  crown,  it 
lives  up  to  its  name  and  does  some 
strangling  of  the  terminal  bud.  It  also 
produces  shading,  which  interferes 
with  the  host's  photosynthesis.  In  any 
sequence  of  events,  the  strangler  fig 
will  grow  faster  than  the  host  and  will 
become  a  large  tree  with  spreading 
branches  and  heavy  foliage.  Its  trunk 
may  be  five  or  more  feet  in  diameter, 
completely  enclosing  the  host's  trunk. 
It  may  take  considerable  searching  to 
find  traces  of  the  dying  or  dead  host 
inside  the  meshwork  of  the  fig. 

Ficus  aurea  is  native  to  southern 
Florida  and  the  Caribbean,  but  an- 

30 


Strangler  fig  increases  rapidly  in 
diameter  and  will  ultimately  kill  host. 

other  strangler  fig,  Ficus  brevifolia, 
the  shortleafed  fig,  occurs  in  the  ex- 
treme southern  part  of  the  Florida 
mainland  and  the  Keys,  and  in  the 
Caribbean.  Its  appearance  and  habits 
are  almost  the  same  as  aurea,  but  the 
outline  of  the  leaf  is  slightly  but  con- 
sistently different,  and  the  small  fruit 
is  distinctly  stalked  in  contrast  to  the 
sessile  aurea  fruits.  F.  brevifolia  is 
not  as  abundant  as  aurea,  and  many 
Floridians  do  not  separate  the  two  spe- 
cies. (One  fine  specimen  of  brevifolia 
grows  down  over  the  surface  of  an  ir- 
regular fragment  of  brick  and  mortar 
construction  against  the  north  wall  of 
the  East  Martello  Tower,  adjacent  to 
the  municipal  airport  at  Key  West.) 

ALL  species  of  Ficus  produce  latex. 
^  The  India  rubber  tree,  Ficus  elas- 
tica,  was  the  first  source  of  commercial 
rubber,  but  it  has  been  replaced  by  a 
member  of  the  Euphorbiaceae.  Hevea 
brasiliensis,  and  has  now  been  retired 
to  the  passive  position  of  being  one  of 
our  most  popular  foliage  plants  for  the 
home.  The  most  revered  tree  in  the 
world  is  undoubtedly  Ficus  religiosa, 
the  sacred  Bo  Tree  of  Burma,  Ceylon, 
and  India.  Tradition  says  that  the  spe- 
cies was  born  the  same  year  as  Gau- 


Huge  fig.  right,  encloses  cypress  tri 
which  is  now  completely  rotted  aw. 

tama  Buddha,  and  that  he  sat  und 
its  shade  for  six  years  while  he  dev 
oped  his  philosophy.  Bo  Tree  mea 
literally  "Knowledge  Tree."  This  : 
minds  one  of  the  legend  that  Alex£ 
der  the  Great  camped  with  an  an 
of  seven  thousand  soldiers  under  0 
banyan  tree,  Ficus  bengalensis. 

The  Moraceae,  the  family  to  whi 
Ficus  belongs,  is  one  of  the  "Fi 
Families"  of  the  flowering  plants,  c( 
sidered  to  be  contemporary  in  ori| 
w  ith  the  Magnoliaceae  and  other  ea 
floras.  This  ancient  lineage  helps 
explain  the  multiplicity  of  species  a 
variety  of  life  habit  in  Ficus,  and  ac 
to  the  integrity  they  all  show  in  adh 
ing  to  the  basic  genus  pattern.  Fru 
may  be  produced  in  bizarre  fashio 
They  may  grow  along  the  mt 
branches  and  the  trunk  from  buds 
reduced  twigs  that  push  out  throu 
the  bark.  They  may  develop  on  und 
ground  parts  of  the  plant.  But  tl 
are  always  recognizable  figs.  Rela 
genera  of  the  Moraceae— mulberri 
paper  mulberries,  breadfruit,  a 
osage  orange— all  have  received  att 
tion  because  of  their  value  to  man,  ] 
the  number  of  species  in  these  gen 
is  extremely  small  compared  to  th 
that  have  evolved  in  the  genus  Fit 


Long  Journey  of  th 


THE  MIGRATION  of  animals  has  in- 
terested man  from  earliest  times, 
and  there  has  been  much  speculation 
regarding  its  nature,  including  its 
causes  and  meaning.  Some  animals  mi- 
grate because  of  seasonal  scarcity  of 
food,  others  because  of  severe  climates, 
and  still  others  to  find  a  suitable  place 
for  rearing  their  young.  In  all  cases,  it 
is  a  periodic  movement  between  sum- 
mer and  winter  homes.  The  master 
migrant  of  all  animals  is  apparently 
the  Arctic  Tern,  which  nests  north  of 
the  Arctic  Circle  and  winters  in  the 
Antarctic  regions,  completing  a  round 
trip  of  over  20,000  miles  yearly. 

Among  fishes  of  the  sea,  one  of  the 
great  migrants  is  a  small  species  of 
shark  known  to  scientists  as  the  spiny 
dogfish,  Squalus  acanthias.  It  makes  a 
round  trip  each  year  from  the  Caro- 
lina-Virginia coastal  waters,  where  it 
spends  the  winter,  to  Labrador.  Prob- 
ably few  fish  excel  this  shark  in  speed 
and  in  distance  traveled.  In  order  to 
cover  such  long  migration  distances, 
certain  physical  characteristics,  such 
as  streamlined  bodies  and  long,  power- 
ful tails,  are  essential.  These  dogfish, 
which  favor  water  that  is  between  42° 
and  58°  F.,  frequent  the  shore  waters 
of  the  coasts  of  North  America,  Eu- 
rope, and  the  Mediterranean.  While 

32 


By  Walter  N.  Hess 

they  are  usually  found  one  or  two  feet 
from  the  bottom  of  the  ocean,  they  may 
be  anywhere  between  the  surface  and  a 
depth  of  100  fathoms  or  more.  How- 
ever, they  have  never  been  found  in 
the  deep  ocean  and  do  not  enter  fresh 
water.  Unlike  many  common  fishes 
they  do  not  have  sw  im  bladders,  which 
may  account  in  part  for  their  ability  to 
move  from  considerable  depths  to  the 
surface  and  back  again  at  frequent 
intervals.  It  is  remarkable  that  they 
can  withstand  such  great  changes  in 
pressure  in  so  short  a  time. 

THE  name  dogfish  evolved  because 
sharks  hunt  the  prey  in  "packs." 
A  single  pack  may  be  composed  of 
more  than  1,000  sharks,  all  chasing  a 
single  school  of  fish,  usually  herring. 
It  has  been  estimated  that  as  many  as 
27,000,000  spiny  dogfish  are  caught 
unintentionally  by  fishermen  along  the 
Massachusetts  coast  in  a  single  year. 
If  one  adds  to  this  the  number  caught 
along  the  remainder  of  the  New  Eng- 
land and  Canadian  coasts,  the  total 
annual  catch  may  exceed  100,000,000. 
Of  all  the  fishes  in  the  ocean,  spiny 
dogfish  are  among  those  most  hated  by 
professional   fishermen   because   they 


are  destructive  both  to  edible  fish  a: 
to  fishermen's  nets.  In  Maine  coas 
waters  in  late  June,  we  have  oft 
found  recently  molted  lobsters  in  t 
stomachs  of  large  dogfish  sharks.  . 
other  times,  however,  the  lobster 
apparently  able  to  defend  itself  agair 
them.  There  is  every  reason  to  belie 
that  this  shark  is  also  destructive 
Canadian  lobsters  during  their  mo 
ing  period,  which  occurs  in  July  ai 
coincides  with  the  time  that  the  lar 
dogfish  are  abundant  in  Canadii 
waters.  Of  the  dogfish  not  discard( 
when  caught,  a  few  are  eaten  by  ma 
but  by  far  the  greatest  number— abo 
50,000  each  year— are  dissected 
college  and  university  laboratori 
throughout  this  country  and  Cana( 
because  in  some  ways  their  anaton 
bears  a  resemblance  to  the  structu 
of  the  human  embryo. 

Unlike  our  common  edible  fishe 
fertilization  and  embryonic  develo 
ment  in  spiny  dogfish  are  internj 
When  the  eggs  leave  the  ovaries  thf 
resemble  in  size  and  appearance  tl 
yolks  of  large  hens'  eggs.  From  01 
to  seven  of  them  usually  pass  into  eac 
oviduct,  where  a  thin,  horny  shell 
secreted  around  them,  forming  what 
often  called  a  '"candle."  At  this  tiir 
the  elongated  shell  is  transparent  an 


o 


gfish 


ble.  Each  of  these  clear,  protective 
s  usually  contains  more  than  one 
or  embryo. 

hen  the  embryos  are  about  nine 
ths  old  and  about  6I/2  cm.  long, 
lorny  shell  disappears;  from  that 
until  they  are  born  they  are  free 
ove  about  in  the  mother's  uterine 
:ies.  Food  for  growth  is  available 
eir  yolk  sacs,  but  they  must  obtain 
ed  oxygen  and  get  rid  of  body 
es  through  the  wall  of  the  mother's 
Js.  When  hatched  the  pups  are 
It  28  cm.  long  and  are  able  to  care 
hemselves.  Most  adults  range  from 
to  three  and  a  half  feet,  and  weigh 
n  to  ten  pounds.  Females  are 
lly  from  three  to  eight  inches 
er  than  males. 

a  pregnant  female  is  removed 
rom  the  water  within  three  or  four 
ths  of  term,  the  pups  often  are 
1  in  a  few  minutes.  When  placed  in 
vater,  they  quickly  swim  away  un- 
ley  find  a  kelp  plant  or  some  simi- 
protection  under  which  they  can 
.  The  pups  have  enough  food  in 
:  yolk  sacs  to  last  until  they  can 
in  their  own,  and  the  sea  provides 
jen  even  more  abundantly  than  do 
r  mothers.  Nevertheless,  because 
lelicate  sacs  are  easily  ruptured,  it 


A  STREAMLINED  BODY  and  powerful  tail  aid  dogfish  in  swimming 
long  distances.  Annual  round-trip  migration  covers   2,500   miles. 


Two   TRANSPARENT   EGG   CASES,   OF   Candles,   Contain   total    of   five 
eggs.  When  embryos  are  about  nine  months  old,  candles  dissolve. 


33 


Delicate  yolk  sacs  provide  food  for 
the  pups  until  they  can  get  their  own. 


is  very  doubtful  whether  these  prema- 
ture pups  can  survive  for  long  in  the 
sea.  But  if  they  are  placed  in  glass  or 
plastic  containers  so  that  their  yolk 
sacs  are  not  injured,  and  are  provided 
with  gently  running  sea  water,  they 
will  mature  in  the  same  manner  as  in 
the  uterus.  It  takes  22  months  for  the 
pups  to  develop  inside  of  the  mother. 
Apparently  this  gestation  period  is  one 
of  the  longest  known  among  animals, 
and  as  a  result  a  female  dogfish  gives 
birth  to  pups  only  every  other  year. 

Scientists  at  the  biological  labora- 
tories at  Woods  Hole,  Massachusetts, 
have  known  for  years  that  a  northern 
migration  of  the  sharks  passes  through 
the  coastal  waters  of  that  region  in 
April  and  May  and  that  a  southern 
migration  takes  place  in  October  and 
early  November.  I  have  observed  the 
northern  migration  in  May  and  June 
in  waters  near  Mount  Desert  Island, 
Maine,  and  the  southern  movement  in 
September  and  October.  Their  arrival 
in  Newfoundland  and  southern  Labra- 
dor coastal  waters— the  limit  of  their 
northern  range— in  June  and  July  and 
their  departure  south  in  the  autumn 
has  also  been  reported. 

Our  studies  indicate  that  the  pups 
are  not  born  during  migration  but  af- 
ter the  arrival  of  the  dogfish  in  the 
Carolina-Virginia  coastal  waters,  and 
that  female  dogfish  also  become  preg- 
nant in  these  waters.  F.  L.  Hisaw  and 
A.  Albert  state  that  when  sexually 
mature  females  arrive  at  Woods  Hole 
during  May,  they  can  be  divided  into 
two  distinct  groups,  depending  on  the 
stage  of  development  of  their  embryos. 
Embryos  in  the  earlier  periods  have 
barely  begun  to  develop  and  are  all  in 

34 


the  late  blastoderm  stage;  those  in  the 
later  period  are  fully  formed  and  have 
reached  an  average  length  of  about 
16  cm.  Furthermore,  examination  of 
large  pregnant  females  during  their 
southern  migration  in  Maine  waters  in 
early  September  reveals  embryos  that 
are  either  about  5  cm.  long  or  pups 
that  are  approximately  22  cm.  long. 
If  pregnancy  occurred  throughout  the 
year,  two  distinct  groups  such  as  have 
been  observed  would  not  exist.  More- 
over, since  all  embryos  in  the  early 
period  are  in  the  late  blastoderm  stage 
in  mid-May,  it  may  be  calculated  that 
pregnancy  occurred  about  two  months 
earlier,  at  which  time  the  sharks  were 
in  the  Carolina-Virginia  coastal  wa- 
ters. This  evidence  is  corroborated  by 
the  observation  that  the  16-cm.  em- 
bryos are  in  approximately  the  four- 
teenth month  of  development. 

Studies  also  show  that  between  8 
and  9  per  cent  of  large  female  dogfish 
sharks  that  we  have  caught  during 
migration  in  Maine  coastal  waters 
carry  no  young.  When  pregnant  dog- 
fish, either  with  early  or  late  embryos, 
are  placed  in  "live  cars"  and  anchored 
in  ocean  water,  they  abort  their  em- 
bryos in  a  short  time.  It  is  probable 
that  abortion  sometimes  occurs  when 
the  sharks  are  caught  on  trawl  lines  or 
are  otherwise  injured  during  migra- 
tion. There  is  no  placental  attachment 
to  the  mother,  so  abortion  is  easily 
accomplished.  Whenever  the  pregnant 
females  are  in  such  trouble  for  any  ex- 
tended length  of  time,  their  uterine 
sphincters  apparently  relax  and  they 
discharge  "excess  baggage."  From 
these  observations  it  appears  that  non- 
pregnant mature  females  either  do  not 
become  pregnant  at  all  or  have  aborted 
their  embryos  during  migration. 


In  the  northern  migration  of  b 
it  is  often  the  male  that  arrives 
at  the  destination,  but  this  conditic 
reversed  in  dogfish  migration, 
largest  females,  which  are  usu 
pregnant,  precede  all  others.  Then 
two-  and  three-year-old  females  arj 
somewhat  ahead  of  the  mature  mi 
and  last  are  the  immature  one-year 
males  and  females.  Perhaps  they 
leave  their  winter  quarters  about 
same  time,  but  when  they  reach 
Massachusetts  and  Maine  coasts, 
are  more  or  less  spread  out  and  se 
ated  into  these  different  groups  v 
of  course,  some  overlap.  The  orde 
migration  appears  to  be  largely  a  ] 
ter  of  the  strength  and  enduranc 
the  older  and  larger  dogfish.  S 
mature  females  are  much  larger  1 
mature  males  of  all  ages,  it  is  t( 
expected  that  they  would  reach  t 
destination  sooner.  Weak  or  yc 
dogfish  may  turn  back  before  read 
their  destination.  As  far  as  we  are 
to  determine,  there  is  no  evidenc 
sex  attraction  during  migration. 

WHEN  the  sharks  reach  the  C 
lina-Virginia  coastal  waters 
in  October,  the  number  of  females 
ceeds  the  number  of  males  by  a] 
five  to  one.  By  late  November 
early  December  the  species  becc 
much  more  abundant,  and  the  pert 
age  of  males  near  shore  is  fur 
reduced.  Our  studies  show  that 
pups  are  born  during  late  Decer 
and  January  in  protected  places 
shore.  Perhaps  pregnant  females  n 
sure  that  males,  as  well  as  other  1 
carnivorous  fish,  are  not  around  v 
the  young  are  born,  for  at  this 
most  of  the  mature  males  and  the 
mature  males  and  females  are  som 
to  40  miles  offshore.  Undoubted 
contributing  factor  to  this  segrega 
is  protection  of  the  newborn  from 
nibalism  by  others  of  the  species 

Studies  lead  us  to  conclude 
early  in  March,  about  two  month; 
ter  the  pups  are  born,  the  sexi 
mature  females  that  are  not  preg 
come  into  some  sort  of  oestrus, 
mature  males  that  have  been 
"bachelor"  quarters  now  come  to 
coastal  waters.  Commercial  collet 
of  dogfish  in  these  areas  tell  us 
this  is  the  only  time  during  the 
when  the  proportion  of  female 
males  in  the  Carolina-Virginia  co; 
waters  is  about  equal.  By  April  1,  i 
of  the  mature  females  seem  to  1 
become   pregnant,    and   at   this   \ 


CANADA 


f^ 


UNITED  STATES 


N  HATCHED,  dogfish  piips  measure 
Dximately  28  centimeters  in  length. 


lorthern  migration  is  under  way. 
le  of  the  great  mysteries  about 
ligration  and  feeding  activities  of 
:  small  sharks  is  how  they  keep 
her  in  packs,  since  the  sea  is  so 
ious  and  is  relatively  dark  at  the 
is  where  they  are  usually  found. 

their  larger  shark  relatives, 
anthias  have  an  exceedingly  keen 
:  of  smell  and  a  lateral  line  sense 
electing  vibrations  in  water;  these 
help  them  stay  together. 

Hamilton  College  in  central  New 
;  State  one  expects  to  see  robins 
[arch  14  and  rarely  is  one  disap- 
:ed.  Year  after  year  the  swallows 
n  to   Capistrano   on   March    19. 

believed  that  the  regularity  of 
ation  by  certain  birds  is  con- 
id  in  part  by  length  of  daylight 
by  the  hormones  associated  with 
reproductive  organs.  No  such 
rs  regulate  the  migrations  of  dog- 
because  their  arrival  in  a  given 
n  along  the  coast  varies  as  much 
I'o  or  three  weeks  from  year  to 

Changes  in  water  temperature 
available  food  have  a  decided 
:  and  are  probably  the  controlling 
derations  in  their  migrations. 

we  have  said,  the  fish  migrate 
iward  to  Labrador  in  the  spring 
return  to  the  Carolina-Virginia 
;  in  the  autumn— a  round  trip 
iproximately  2,500  miles.  To  ac- 
ilish  this  it  is  necessary  for  them 
ravel,  on  an  average,  about 
miles    each    day— certainly    a 

exceptional   feat   of  migration. 


ISH  CATCH  may  end  in  laboratory 
issection  by  students  of  anatomy. 


Sharks  leave  wintering  sites  around 
April   1,   and   return  in   late   October. 


i'>t  A  •%?'■'• 


Bronze  Age  Seen 


in  Granite 

Early  inhabitants  of  Sweden 
left  images  carved  in  rock 

By  HoLGER  Arbman 


ROCK  CARVINGS  and  paintings  in  caves,  on  rocky  m 
tain  slopes,  or  on  loose  stone  blocks  occur  in  r 
parts  of  the  world.  The  oldest  of  them  date  from  Paleol 
times,  and  the  latest  were  made  toward  our  own  time, 
ranging  from  perhaps  1,500,000  years  to  about  a  hun 
years  ago  (Natural  History,  June-July,  1964).  Sch 
and  amateurs  have  speculated  on  the  meaning  of  thest 
tures,  and  artists  have  found  in  them  a  source  of  ins 
tion.  But  apart  from  the  most  recent  carvings  we  are  r 
able  to  find  reliable  information  about  the  probably  r 
cal  significance  of  these  pictures  and  the  powers  that 
v,ere  intended  to  influence.  When  confronted  witii 
carvings  we  must  admit,  more  often  than  not,  that  sc: 
and  knowledge  have  their  limits.  A  rock  carving  is  1 
picture  book  without  a  text,  and  although  a  carving 
contain  symbols  of  an  apparently  magical  or  relij 
character,  the  concepts  to  which  the  symbols  were  ( 
nally  linked  have  long  since  vanished,  and  it  is  fair  ti 


36' 


tip-  V 


CURVING  at  \  itlycke.  near  parish  of  Tanum.  Sweden, 
i  group  probably  performing  ritual  dance  aboard  ship. 


RECUR   OFTEN   as   design   motifs   in   incised   pictures 
[ill  the  surface  of  sloping  rock  expanse  at  Vitlycke. 


ive  shall  probably  never  be  certain  of  the  meaning, 
ere  are  two  groups  of  rock  carvings  in  Scandinavia. 
)lder  group,  which  is  found  in  Norway  and  northern 
en,  depicts  reindeer,  elk,  bears,  whales,  water  birds, 
almon.  The  oldest  date  from  as  early  as  the  Stone  Age, 
)ximately  3000  B.C.,  but  the  majority  may  be  of  a  con- 
ably  later  origin. 

rther  south  in  Scandinavia,  in  scattered  areas  center- 
n  Bohuslan,  southern  Norway,  Uppland,  Ostergotland, 
outheast  Skane,  we  find  quite  different  carvings,  with 
ns  that  represent  ships,  sun  wheels,  soles  of  feet,  people 
Terent  positions,  w  eapons,  and  other  motifs.  These  are 
the  more  recent  Bronze  Age,  and  their  date  is  approxi- 
ly  1300—500  B.C.  To  judge  from  the  content  of  the 
res,  they  are  evidently  connected  with  fertility  magic, 
ulture,  and  cattle  raising. 

e  greatest  concentration  of  these  carvings  is  in  the 
ince  of  Bohuslan,  Sweden,  where  thousands  are  found 


Style   of   figures   differs   from  that   of   rock   carvings   in 
other  areas,  and  group  appears  to  be  work  of  a  single  man. 


Seven  humans  with  arms  raised  in  a  devotional  atti 
walk  behind  object  that  may  be  doll  carried  in  process 


on  cliffs  that  were  worn  smooth  by  the  inland  ice.  In  some 
places  there  are  large  areas  covered  with  figures ;  in  others 
the  pictures  occur  only  sparsely  and  are  often  rather 
casually  drawn.  It  is  probable  that  the  areas  with  many 
carvings,  often  of  high  artistic  quality,  were  originally 
sites  of  important  "public"  cults,  whereas  isolated  pictures 
may  represent  a  more  private  cult  associated  with  a  par- 
ticular homestead  or  family.  We  know  that  one  or  two 
thousand  years  later,  sometime  between  the  pagan  and  the 
Christian  eras,  private  cuhs  existed  on  farms  in  Scandi- 
navia. The  master  and  mistress  of  the  house  ofiSciated  as 
priests  and  only  the  family  and  members  of  the  household 
participated  in  the  ceremonies. 

THE  largest  groups  of  carvings  and  those  that  are  best 
in  quality  lie  within  a  fairly  restricted  area  in  the 
parish  of  Tanum,  in  Bohuslan.  Many  of  them  are  on  a  slope 
above  an  open  plain,  across  which  flows  the  Alnan  River. 
When  the  carvings  were  cut  into  the  cliffs  some  3,000  years 

38 


'^: 


',"'J\  ' 


1  •  .'*."*,  * 


>i 


the  plain  was  marshy  with  rich  water  meadows— excel- 
pastureland  but  impossible  to  cultivate.  Higher  up  on 
Jry,  sandy  soil  lay  the  farming  strips. 

T  us  examine  one  of  the  rock-carving  sites  near  Vit- 
lycke,  a  farm  lying  about  a  mile  south  of  Tanum.  The 
gns  are  cut  into  an  exposed,  light-colored  piece  of  a 
lite  hillside  that  slopes  gently  down  toward  the  plain, 
reen  the  carvings  and  the  valley  where  the  river  flows 
;  is  now  a  sparse  curtain  of  deciduous  trees,  but  these 
ji  recent  origin.  At  the  time  the  carvings  were  made, 
ock  sloped  straight  down  to  open  pastureland. 
1  a  sunny  day  it  is  difficult  at  first  to  distinguish  any- 
5  on  the  white  stone  apart  from  the  shadows  of  trees, 
gradually,  as  one's  eyes  adapt  to  the  light,  the  pictures 
•ge  and  are  seen  to  fill  the  whole  surface  of  the  rock, 
first  thing  we  notice  is  a  row  of  small  holes  punched 
the  surface,  crossing  it  like  the  tracks  of  a  marten  in 
y  fallen  snow.  To  the  sides  of  these  tracks  are  warriors 
lifted  axes  and  shields.  They  are  tall  and  slender  and 
almost  to  float.  Then  one  design  follows  another:  a 
of  stylized  ships,  human  figures,  animals,  and  unin- 
;ible  signs.  One  discerns  no  formal  arrangement  of  the 
ires,  but  there  is  somehow  a  certain  rhythm  as  one 
5  the  surface.  The  figures,  however,  were  not  placed 
azardly,  and  one  picture  seldom  cuts  into  another. 
)uld  seem  that  one  and  the  same  man  cut  all  the  pic- 
,  and  his  style  differs  clearly  from  that  of  carvings  in 
•  areas.  Yet,  the  carving  was  not  executed  as  a  planned 
)osition  or  a  huge,  homogeneous  mountain  picture, 
ipparently  developed  by  degrees  as  figure  was  added 
gure.  The  origins  of  such  carvings,  which  probably 
ig  to  a  particular,  limited  period  of  time,  must  be 
idered  in  connection  with  their  probable  significance, 
h  was  almost  certainly  magical. 

le  Vitlycke  carvings,  like  most  others  of  their  kind, 
dominated  by  pictures  of  ships,  which  are  usually 
n  without  human  figures,  but  with  small,  closely  drawn 
:es  that  may  represent  crew  members.  The  forms  of 
hips  vary  a  little,  but  they  all  depict  the  same  general 
of  boat:  high  stemmed,  with  a  projecting  keel  that 
have  been  an  underwater  ram.  Sometimes  the  prows 


are  topped  with  an  animal  head  {page  37)  that  is  reminis- 
cent of  the  dragon's  head  that  later  came  to  be  associated 
with  Viking  ships. 

Some  of  the  Bohuslan  rock  carvings  are  in  coastal  areas 
and  others  are  near  watercourses  farther  inland.  Because 
they  depict  many  weapons  similar  to  ones  shown  on  objects 
—especially  razors— found  in  graves,  we  have  been  able  to 
assign  them  to  the  Bronze  Age.  This  was  a  time  when  Scan- 
dinavia had  a  lively  trade  with  other  countries,  and  all 
bronze  used  for  weapons,  ornaments,  and  tools  was  im- 
ported. It  is  reasonable  to  suppose  that  the  Northmen  of 
that  period  had  a  considerable  navy,  although  it  was  per- 
haps not  comparable  with  that  of  the  Greeks  in  the  Myce- 
naean era  or  with  that  of  the  Phoenicians.  Thus,  it  is  quite 
natural  to  find  ships  among  the  rock  carvings,  but  what 
they  symbolize  is  harder  to  discover.  Are  they  boats  of  the 
Sun  or  some  other  god?  Do  the  pictures  depict  cult-boats, 
or  are  they  symbols  for  a  god?  We  do  not  know. 

ON  one  boat  at  Vitlycke  we  can  see  thirteen  people.  They 
are  kneeling,  and  all  but  two  are  holding  up  objects 
that  have  small  round  hollows  at  the  top.  It  is  an  elegant 
drawing,  very  suggestive  in  its  repetition.  One  might  guess 
at  its  being  a  picture  of  oarsmen  with  raised  paddles,  but 
this  seems  rather  improbable;  it  is  more  likely  to  be  a  group 
of  people  doing  a  ritual  dance  on  a  ship.  Their  attitude 
indicates  that  they  are  dancers,  and  this  would  jibe  with 
what  we  already  know  about  the  importance  of  dancing  in 
cults.  A  connection  with  a  cult  is  more  clearly  seen  in  the 
representation  of  a  procession,  which  is  shown  below. 
There,  seven  small  human  figures,  with  arms  raised  devo- 
tionally,  walk  in  line  behind  a  larger  object,  which  appears 
to  be  a  doll  carried  in  procession  (only  the  lower  part  shows 
in  the  photograph  I .  One  cannot  help  thinking  of  carnivals 
in  our  own  time,  in  which  huge  figures  of  different  kinds 
play  an  important  part.  Today  carnivals  are  fairly  detached 
from  any  deep  meaning,  but  they  are  remnants  of  religious 
or  magical  traditions.  Even  if  we  cannot  actually  trace  a 
line  from  the  rock  carvings  of  the  Bronze  Age  to  the  carni- 
vals of  the  present,  it  is  interesting  to  think  that  there  may 
have  been  connections  between  them. 

We  can  see  human  beings  in  action  in  many  other  situa- 


>V'%**"*t?  '  t'<        ' 


*     J^-^' 


39 


Marriage  scene  is  common  in  rock  images  throughout  the 
province  of  Bohuslan,  and  links  carvings  to  fertility  cult. 

Vibrant  depiction  of  charioteer  and  two-wheeled  vehicle 
provides  a  tantalizing  glimpse  of  life  in  the  Bronze  Age. 

Posterior  appendages  of  combatants  were  probably  tails 
of  animal  skins  worn  as  costume  by  participants  in  rites. 


■V 

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4l 

•1^ 

^ 

/-<  '  1 

r       * 

<    •*  1 

/       y^ 

.^^   iN-<, 

^ 

fcv^sT^ 

*          "^ 

IL.-'^yj 

r*'" 

^N^^ 

^-  ^.-^'"^ ' 

' '-T  ■^ 

*-  1 

^""*y 

j^    ^  i 

■"   V 

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i: 

i» ' 

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41 


tions,  too,  on  these  Vitlycke  carvings.  The  man  and  the 
woman  in  a  wedding  scene  (page  40,  top)  represent  a  com- 
mon motif  in  Bohuslan.  It  is  one  of  several  pictures  that 
give  us  at  least  some  idea  of  the  meaning  of  the  rock  carv- 
ings—their association  with  a  fertility  cult.  In  many  dif- 
ferent parts  of  the  world  harvesttime  has  been  the  occasion 
for  popular  rites  that  include  an  ancient,  symbolic  perform- 
ance of  a  marriage.  A  well-known  example  is  the  ritual 
marriage  ceremony,  hieros  gamos,  that  was  performed  at 
the  feasts  of  Dionysus  in  Athens.  This  celebration  marked 
a  stage  in  the  drama  of  the  seasons,  and  in  the  Vitlycke 
carvings  we  can  interpret  marriage  scenes  and  also  battle 
images  (on  pages  40  and  43)  as  having  a  similar  mean- 
ing. In  fact,  marriage  ceremonies  and  struggles  between 
the  representatives  of  summer  and  winter  were  both  ele- 
ments in  various  popular  festivals  of  recent  ages. 

A  prominent  feature  in  rock-carving  pictures  is  that  com- 
batants often  have  tails,  and  even  the  man  in  the  mar- 
riage scene  in  the  Vitlycke  carving  is  thus  adorned.  The 
tails  have  sometimes  been  interpreted  as  representing 
swords,  but  it  is  hardly  likely  that  warriors  armed  with 
swords  should  always  be  shown  fighting  with  other 
weapons,  such  as  axes,  spears,  or  bows.  Furthermore,  it 
would  seem  strange  that  men  who  are  plowing  fields  or 
participating  in  wedding  scenes  should  be  armed.  Often, 
the  men  shown  with  tails  have  horns,  too,  which  resemble 
those  of  a  bull.  It  seems  probable  that  these  pictures  repre- 
sent groups  of  celebrants  costumed  in  animal  skins  and 
tails.  Instances  of  rites  participants  who  wore  animal  skins 
or  tails  are  to  be  found  in  many  parts  of  the  world  and 
occur  particularly  in  connection  with  fertility  rites.  For  ex- 
ample. Pan,  the  fertility  god,  was  usually  shown  tailed. 

We  are  much  more  uncertain  about  how  to  interpret  the 
picture  of  a  huge  snake  advancing  upon  a  small  man  who 
stands  in  a  devotional  attitude  with  upstretched  hands 
(below).  It  is  clear  that  the  picture  is  connected  with  the 
concept  of  fertility,  since  the  man  is  ithyphallic.  It  is  pos- 
sible that  he  may  be  worshiping  the  snake,  which  repre- 
sents some  power,  perhaps  the  earth. 

A  dramatically  rendered  charioteer  (page  41)  is  even 
more  difficult  to  interpret.  He  stands  balanced  on  a  two- 


wheeled  chariot  drawn  by  an  elegantly  stylized  but  li 
static  horse.  The  only  thing  that  indicates  any  connec 
with  a  cult  is  that  the  man  has  horns— unless  these  ap 
dages  are  actually  meant  to  be  large  ears.  Otherwise 
scene  appears  to  be  a  genre  picture  from  everyday 
In  any  case,  it  is  very  interesting  for  us  to  have  a  pictu 
a  chariot  from  the  Bronze  Age. 

The  rock  carvings  at  Vitlycke  are  typical  of  the  1 
mountain  pictures  at  a  cult  center  in  Bohuslan.  The  fig 
on  the  cult-center  rocks  nearly  always  include  certain  i 
bols,  such  as  ships,  hollowed-out  basins,  soles  of  feet, 
^vheels,  with  meanings  we  cannot  fathom.  Perhaps 
represent  gods  that  were  not  allowed  to  be  depicted  in 
other  way.  This  is  known  as  aniconism  and  is  a  prim 
form  of  worship  of  a  sacred  object  that  symbolizes,  b 
not  meant  to  resemble,  a  god  or  supernatural  power, 
also  possible,  however,  that  they  were  drawn  as  sym 
for  certain  rites  occurring  in  the  cult.  Apart  from  the  i 
bolic  signs,  there  are  pictures  of  cult  ceremonies  and 
connected  with  crops,  fertility,  battles,  and  death,  w 
mark  the  beginning  of  the  next  year's  cycle.  It  is  posi 
that  these  scenes  were  cut  into  the  cliffs  at  the  same 
the  cult  ceremonies  were  performed  on  the  site  in  o 
that  the  power  should  continue  to  work  after  the  ceremc 
were  over.  It  is  very  doubtful  that  any  of  the  rock  carv 
portray  myths,  and  it  is  also  uncertain  whether  or  no 
can  point  to  any  of  the  figures  as  being  images  of  god 
has  been  suggested  that  the  very  large  human  figures 
meant  to  be  such  images.  This  is  possible,  but  it  is  r 
likely  that  the  figures  are  an  epiphany— an  apparitio 
manifestation  of  the  divine  power  and  its  way  of  disclo 
itself  to  the  faithful  who  are  represented  in  a  cult  cerem 
As  yet  we  have  not  been  able  to  find  proof  for  the  exist 
of  gods  in  human  form  during  the  Bronze  Age. 

DESPITE  the  difficulties  of  interpreting  the  content 
the  rock  carvings,  and  the  certainty  that  it  wil 
impossible  to  penetrate  deeper  into  the  world  of  ideas 
lies  behind  them,  these  pictures  will  always  have  a  fasc 
tion  for  modern  man.  When  we  stand  by  them,  we 
come  nearer  than  at  any  other  place  in  Scandinavia  tc 
people  who  inhabited  the  area  some  three  millenniums 


~,ri* 


Ithyphallic  male  and  giant  snake  are  hard  to  interpret. 
Manmay  be  worshiping  snake  that  symbolizes  a  great  power. 

42 


y^Kj^     — 


Scene  of  battle  may  be  associated  with  a  fertility  ( 
representing  strife  between  personified  summer  and  wii 


J.~-I-^ 


\ 


The  Great  Nebula  as  photographed  through  the  200-ineh  teles( 


SKY  REPORTER 

Orion  has  provided  man  with  beauty  and  mythic  inspirati< 


By  Thomas  D.  Nicholson 


IN  the  star-studded  sky,  there  is  one  region  more  remark- 
able than  all  the  rest— the  region  of  Orion.  Through  the 
ages,  the  stars  of  the  Orion  group  have  suggested  to  men 
everywhere  the  erect  figure  of  a  great  giant,  hunter,  or 
warrior.  In  Greek  mythology,  the  mighty  hunter  Orion  was 
the  son  of  Poseidon.  According  to  many  accounts,  he  was 
slain  by  the  goddess  Artemis  for  making  love  to  Eos,  and 
after  death  was  changed  into  a  constellation.  It  remains  the 
best-known  figure  among  the  stars,  and  it  has  become  one 
of  the  most  interesting  to  modern  astronomers.  For  these 
and  other  reasons,  Orion  is  the  third  of  the  Seven  Wonders 
of  the  Universe  chosen  by  astronomers  at  The  American 
Museum-Hayden  Planetarium. 

Each  year  in  the  month  of  November,  Orion— the  most 
brilliant  constellation  of  the  sky— rises  in  the  east  about 
three  hours  after  sunset.  Although  best-known  as  a  winter 

44 


constellation,  Orion  is  a  prominent  feature  of  the  < 
evening  sky  from  late  autumn— when  the  nights  are  gro 
longer— to  the  early  spring,  when  it  is  setting  in  the 
as  darkness  comes  on  during  the  shorter  nights  of  J 
and  May.  Even  when  the  constellation  is  low  in  the  sk 
it  is  before  midnight  in  November,  the  brilliance  and  ( 
of  its  stars  can  readily  be  observed  by  the  city  dw( 
for  Orion's  stars  are  among  the  brightest  we  see. 

The  seven  brightest  stars  of  Orion  are  gathered 
an  area  of  about  17  by  8  degrees  in  arc  and  easily  atl 
attention  by  their  striking  arrangement.  Six  are  1 
white  in  color;  the  seventh  is  red.  The  difference  in  c( 
is  caused  by  surface  temperatures,  blue-white  stars  b 
many  thousand  degrees  hotter  than  red  ones.  Four  : 
form  a  large,  slightly  irregular  rectangle,  and  the  other  t 
are  in   a  nearly  straight  line   in  the  center   of  the 


le.  This  grouping  suggested  "the  tallest  and  most  beau- 
of  men"  to  the  Greek  poet  Homer.  The  three  bright 
I  in  line  at  the  center  of  the  figure— Alnitak,  Alnilam, 
Mintaka,  from  left  to  right  as  we  see  them  in  the  sky 
1  in  the  upper  photograph  at  right  I —represent  the 
tline  of  the  figure  and  are  known  as  Orion's  Belt.  A 
p  of  fainter  stars  extends  down  and  to  the  left  of  the 
from  the  Sword  of  Orion. 

le  two  bright  stars  above  the  Belt  of  Orion  are  Betel- 
e— the  brightest— to  the  left,  and  Bellatrix  to  the  right. 
1  represents  one  of  the  shoulders  of  Orion;  usually 
Igeuse  is  at  his  right  shoulder,  when  the  hunter  is 
ired  as  facing  the  sky-watcher.  Below  the  Belt,  Rigel, 
e  right,  is  the  brightest  star,  and  marks  Orion's  left 
.  Saiph,  to  the  left,  is  the  figure's  right  knee. 

HE  names  of  these  stars  are  Arabic  words,  derived  from 
descriptive  terms  that  identified  the  stars'  positions  in 
maginary  figures  pictured  in  the  constellation  by  the 
;nts.  Betelgeuse,  for  example,  is  a  corruption  of  an 
)ic  term  referring  to  the  armpit  of  a  figure;  Rigel 
is  the  foot  or  the  knee.  Among  the  three  Belt  stars,  the 
3  Alnitak  is  an  Arabic  synonym  for  a  belt;  Alnilam  is 
an  Arabic  term  referring  to  a  string  of  pearls,  which 
an  early  symbol  for  the  Belt  stars:  Mintaka  refers,  in 
»ic,  to  a  girdle  or  belt.  As  mentioned  earlier,  six  of 
I  principal  stars  are  blue  giant  or  supergiant  stars  of 
t  brilliancy,  some  among  the  most  luminous  stars  we 
,'.  The  seventh  is  an  enormous  red  supergiant  star  with 
)1,  dull  red  surface,  but  so  large— about  900  times  the 
of  the  sun— that  the  total  amount  of  light  it  radiates 
smendous.  The  following  is  a  description  of  the  prin- 
characteristics  of  each  of  the  brightest  stars  in  Orion: 
itelgeuse  is  a  red  supergiant  star  known  to  be  a  spec- 
opic  double.  It  is  also  a  long-period,  irregular  vari- 
star,  changing  about  0.9  magnitude  over  a  period  of 
(fears.  It  has  a  surface  temperature  of  about  5,400 
ses  F.,  a  mass  about  40  times  the  sun's,  a  luminosity 
1  to  25,000  suns,  and  is  about  900  times  the  sun  in 
leter.  Betelgeuse  is  about  600  light-years  away, 
illatrix  is  a  blue  giant  with  a  surface  temperature 
!t  63,000  degrees  F.  Its  mass  is  roughly  five  suns;  its 
nosity  equals  10,000  suns.  It  is  some  80  times  the  sun 
ameter  and  about  470  light-years  from  earth, 
nitak  is  a  blue  supergiant  star— actually  a  visual  double 
The  brighter  component  has  a  visual  magnitude  of 
and  the  fainter,  separated  by  about  2.4  seconds  of 
is  4.2  magnitude.  Alnitak  has  a  surface  temperature 
),000  degrees  F.,  a  mass  of  15  suns,  a  luminosity  of 
30  suns,  and  is  about  20  times  the  sun  in  diameter, 
about  1,600  light-years  from  the  earth, 
nilam  is  another  blue  supergiant,  similar  in  tempera 
mass,  luminosity,  and  size  to  Alnitak,  and  about  the 
;  distance  from  earth. 

intaka,  a  very  hot  blue  giant  star,  is  a  visual  double, 
a  brighter  component  at  magnitude  2.5,  and  a  fainter 
Donent— distant  one  minute  of  arc— about  magnitude 
The  brighter  component  is  also  an  eclipsing  binary 
af  the  Algol  type,  with  components  separated  by  about 
lillion  miles,  revolving  around  each  other  in  a  period 
7  days.  Mintaka  has  a  surface  temperature  of  about 
30  degrees  F.,  a  mass  equal  to  ten  suns,  a  luminosity 
),000  suns,  and  a  diameter  of  about  12  times  that  of  the 
It  is  at  a  distance  of  about  1,500  light-years. 


Glowing  clouds  of  interstellar  gases  surround  the  seven 
bright  stars  that  make  up  the  figure  of  Orion,  the  hunter. 


HoRSEHEAD  Nebula  near  Alnitak  is  formed  by  a  dark  cloud 
intervening  between  earth  and  distant  field  of  bright  gas. 


45 


Great  Nebula  was  sketched  from  visual  observation.  The 
four  bright  stars  in  the   center  constitute  the  trapezium. 


Exposure  required  for  photo  has  obscured  the  trapezi 
Energy  from  four  stars  causes  surrounding  clouds  to  g 


Saiph  is  a  blue  supergiant  star  similar  in  characteristics 
to  Alnilam  and  Alnitak,  but  more  distant,  probably  at  about 
2,100  light-years  from  earth. 

RiGEL,  the  brightest  star  visually  of  the  seven,  is  a  blue 
supergiant  star,  with  components  0.34  magnitude  and 
7.0  magnitude  separated  by  about  7.2  seconds  of  arc.  The 
fainter  component  is  also  a  spectroscopic  binary  star  with 
a  period  about  9.9  days.  Rigel— the  bright  component— has 
a  surface  temperature  of  about  36,000  degrees  F..  a  mass  of 
20  suns,  a  luminosity  of  50,000  suns,  a  diameter  30  times  as 
great  as  the  sun's,  and  is  about  900  light-years  away. 

Four  of  the  seven  stars  described  above  are  separated 
from  the  earth  by  various  distances,  while  the  three  Belt 
stars  are  about  the  same  distance  away.  Clearly  then,  the 
figure  formed  by  the  seven  stars  in  our  sky  is  an  effect  of 
the  direction  from  which  we  observe  them.  If  we  could  see 
the  same  stars  from  some  other  point  in  space,  their  ar- 
rangement might  bear  no  resemblance  at  all  to  the  familiar 
and  spectacular  group  we  see  in  our  sky. 

The  entire  region  of  Orion,  as  can  be  seen  in  the  upper 
photograph  on  page  45,  is  surrounded  by  diffuse,  faintly 
glowing  clouds  of  gas.  These  bright  nebulae  are  especially 
apparent  around  the  star  Bellatrix,  the  Belt  stars,  and  in 
the  region  of  the  Sword,  but  other  faint  clouds  surround 
the  entire  constellation.  The  most  prominent  of  these  is 
the  one  around  the  star  Theta  Orionis.  the  brightest  star 
in  the  Sword  of  Orion.  Known  as  the  Great  Nebula  in 
Orion,  the  beautiful  cloud  is  shown  in  the  photograph  on 
page  44.  The  nebula  is  about  a  degree  across,  and  bright 
enough  to  be  seen  by  the  unaided  eye.  Visually,  or  in  a 
small  telescope,  it  has  a  faint  green  color.  Nearby  hot 
stars,  whose  radiation  is  rich  in  ultraviolet,  supply  the 
energy  that  causes  the  cloud  to  glow  in  visible  light.  About 
1,000  light-years  distant  and  about  ten  light-years  across, 
the  Orion  Nebula  contains  gas,  mostly  hydrogen,  equiv- 
alent in  mass  to  about  10,000  suns. 

The  very  bright  clouds  around  Alnitak  are  illuminated 
and  supplied  with  energy  by  that  star.  These  clouds  are 
about  1,200  light-years  distant.  But  there  is  apparently 
another  cloud  of  dark  gas  and  dust  between  the  earth  and 
the  more  distant  bright  clouds.  This  intervening  dark 
cloud,  some  300  light-years  distant,  is  silhouetted  by  the 
bright  clouds  beyond,  forming  a  very  beautful  pattern  of 
bright  and  dark  regions  in  the  sky.  One  small  dark  patch 
extends  into  the  brightness  in  a  shape  that  has  evoked  the 

46 


name  Horeshead  Nebula  (see  loiver  photograph,  page 
Some  of  the  stars  in  the  central  region  of  Orion,  ] 
the  Belt  and  the  Sword,  comprise  a  very  rich  associa 
of  hot  stars  of  the  spectral  classes  0  and  B,  which  nun 
in  the  several  hundreds.  There  are  also  many  short  per 
irregular  variable  stars  of  a  peculiar  nature  near  the  0 
Nebula.  These  variable  stars  are  of  a  type  often  found  a 
ciated  with  nebulae,  and  they  may  be  unstable  star 
study  of  the  color  and  brightness  of  the  stars  in  the  0 
association,  as  related  to  the  theoretical  evolution  of  1 
sive  stars,  indicates  that  the  system  is  made  up  of  ^ 
young  stars.  A  subsystem  in  the  region  of  Orion's  Belt 
been  estimated  to  be  about  five  million  years  old;  ano 
subsystem  of  stars  in  the  Sword  region  has  been  estim 
to  be  about  half  a  million  years  old. 

The  motions  of  some  of  the  stars  in  the  Sword  rej 
have  also  been  used  to  estimate  their  ages.  The  stars  ap] 
to  be  dispersing  from  the  system  at  a  speed  of  about 
miles  per  second,  which  would  indicate  that  some  are  ir 
order  of  100,000  years  old.  However,  three  appare 
"runaway"  stars  have  dispersed  from  the  system  by  n 
than  1,000  light-years.  These  stars— one  each  in  the 
stellations  Auriga.  Columba.  and  Aries— appear  to  be  r 
ing  away  from  the  region  of  the  Sword  at  about  80  n 
per  second.  Their  distances  and  velocities  indicate  that 
are  some  three  million  years  old,  if  part  of  the  system. 

THUS  many  of  the  stars  in  the  Orion  association  ap; 
to  be  members  of  a  very  young  group  a  few  mil 
years  old  as  compared  to  the  five  or  more  billion  years 
stars  like  the  sun.  Their  newness  suggests  that  stars 
still  being  born  in  that  region  of  the  sky.  Further  evidi 
that  Orion  is  a  region  of  continuing  stellar  creation  is  fc 
in  the  numbers  of  T-Tauri  type  stars  (yellow  and  red  di 
variables,  irregular,  and  believed  to  be  unstable)  fo 
within  the  nebulous  regions  of  the  constellation.  In  a 
tion,  a  number  of  Herbig-Haro  objects,  named  for 
astronomers  George  H.  Herbig  and  Guillermo  Haro, 
first  identified  them,  have  been  found  in  the  region.  T] 
are  nebulous,  starlike  images  with  emission  spei 
thought  to  be  protostars.  Both  T-Tauri  stars  and  Her 
Haro  objects  may  be  stars  in  an  early  stage  of  evolul 


Dr.  Nicholson,  the  regular  author   of  this   column,  is  a 
Chairman  of  The  American  Museum-Hayden  Planetarh 


MAGNITUDE  SCALE 

it  —0.1  and  brighter 
•k  0.0  to  +0.9 
«  +1.0  to  +1.9 
*  +2.0  to  +2.9 
+  +3.0  to  +3.9 
■  •    +4.0  and  fainter 


Moon  November    4,  2:16  A.M.,  EST 

Quarter  November  12,  7:20  A.M.,  EST 

/loon  November  19,  10:43  A.M.,  EST 

Quarter  November  26,  2:10  A.M.,  EST 


TIMETABLE 

Nov.      1         10:00  P.M. 

Nov.  15  9:00  P.M. 

Nov.  30  8:00  P.M. 

(Local  Mean  Time) 


Dvember  2— Saturn  is  stationary  in  rigtit  ascension  and 
mes  direct  (easterly)  motion. 

ovember  4— Mars  may  be  seen  in  tine  morning  sky,  1.3° 
h  of  tlie  briglit  star  Regulus,  in  Leo,  tow/ard  the  southeast, 
ovember  5— The  Taurid  meteors,  radiating  from  the  region 
e  Pleiades,  reach  maximum  today.  Meteors  of  this  shower 
jbserved  for  almost  a  month,  and  reach  an  hourly  rate  of 
0  per  hour  from  about  November  3  to  November  10.  Since 
lew  moon  is  just  past,  observing  should  be  excellent, 
ovember  13— Saturn  appears  3°  north  of  the  gibbous 
n,  toward  the  south  in  the  early  evening  sky. 
ovember  13— Jupiter  is  at  opposition,  that  is,  on  the  oppo- 
side  of  the  earth  from  the  sun.  It  is  then  at  its  greatest 
ince  from  earth  for  the  year— 372,500,000  miles— and  is 
ie  sky  from  sunset  to  sunrise. 

ovember  16— The  Leonid  meteors,  which  were  responsible 
he  great  meteor  storms  of  1799,  1833,  and  1866,  reach 
•  maximum.  The  present  hourly  rate  of  this  shower  is  only 
Jt  15.  Since  the  moon  is  almost  full,  observations  of  the 


Leonid  meteors  will  be  limited  to  the  hours  just  before  dawn. 

November  18— Venus  is  4°  north  of  the  bright  star  Spica, 
in  Virgo,  low  in  the  east  before  dawn. 

November  18— The  nearly  full  moon  and  the  planet  Jupiter 
appear  close  in  tonight's  sky.  At  moonrise,  Jupiter  is  above 
and  to  the  east  (left)  of  the  moon.  As  the  two  move  across  the 
sky  during  the  night,  the  motion  of  the  moon  in  its  orbit  can 
be  seen  easily  by  observing  how  it  changes  position  with 
respect  to  Jupiter.  At  11:00  p.m.,  EST,  the  moon  and  Jupiter 
are  in  conjunction  (Jupiter  2°  north  of  the  moon).  Thereafter, 
the  moon  moves  east  of  Jupiter. 

November  26— Mars  is  3°  south  of  the  last  quarter-moon 
in  this  morning's  sky.  The  star  Regulus,  in  Leo,  is  also  close 
by,  slightly  to  the  right  (west)  of  Mars.  All  appear  in  the  south- 
east just  before  dawn. 

November  30— Mercury  is  at  greatest  easterly  (evening) 
elongation,  and  may  be  seen  in  the  eastern  sky  shortly  after 
sunset.  This,  however,  is  an  unfavorable  elongation  for  view- 
ing, because  Mercury  is  situated  quite  close  to  the  horizon. 


I 


»?/   f' 


Beak  of  ring-billed  gull  has  band  of 
black,  which  is  imperceptible,  above. 


.ake  Erie  Niche 


or 


Gulls 


!alph  S.  Palmer 

lUARTER-CENTURY  AGO.  the  ring-billed  gull  (Lams  del- 
warensis)  nested  mainly  on  shoals  and  islands  in 
3  of  the  northern  prairie  region  of  North  America.  Its 
inown  breeding  distribution,  however,  was— and  is— 
lal.  Aside  from  the  main  area  there  were  half  a  dozen 
colonies  along  the  eastern  North  Shore  of  the  Gulf 
.  Lawrence  (one  of  which  was  first  reported  by 
bon  ) ,  alleged  nesting  (  now  proved  I  at  Lake  Melville 
brador,  and  known  breeding  at  Great  Slave  Lake  in 
la's  District  of  Mackenzie.  Other  sites  also  existed. 
;  past  two  decades,  especially,  there  has  been  a  popu- 

explosion  or  shift,  or  both.  This  has  been  conspicu- 
1  the  establishment  and  rapid  growth  of  ring-billed 
olonies  in  the  eastern  Great  Lakes  and  their  vicinity, 
hawk,  or  "Gull,"  Island,  near  the  Canadian  shore  in 
eastern  Lake  Erie,  where  the  accompanying  photo- 
s  were  taken,  mirrors  this  recent  population  change, 
lodern  ornithological  history  of  the  three-acre  island 
3en  it  as  a  ternery  in  1938-41,  when  approximately 

pairs   of  common  terns    (Sterna  hirundo)    nested 

About  1943,  a  few  pairs  of  ring-billed  and  herring 
(Larus  argentatus)  also  bred.  In  several  subsequent 
ns,  storms  disrupted  the  nesting  of  the  majority  of 
irds  on  the  island.  In  1948,  ring-billed  gull  nests 
ered  125,  and  145  young  were  banded.  As  recently 
'50,  the  terns  were  the  predominant  species— some 

nests— but  in  1952,  about  2,000  ring-bills  (not  all 
:s)    were  present,  while  tern  nests  numbered  about 


Gulls,  nesting  and  in  the 
air,  are  seen  at  Mohawk 
Island  breeding  site  in 
northeastern  Lake  Erie. 


Silhouette  of  Mohawk 
Island,  at  left,  conceals 
the  grass  and  the  other 
sparse  vegetation  there. 


1^  M 


MmSBflf"~~ 


»         ^ 


49 


500.  In  addition,  there  were  some  20  herring  gull  nests. 

In  1954  there  were  about  1,200  ring-billed  gull  nests, 
some  360  of  the  common  tern,  and  perhaps  three  dozen 
breeding  pairs  of  herring  gulls.  In  1961,  five  banders  put 
1,582  bands  on  young  gulls  of  preflight  age.  Today,  gulls 
and  terns  continue  to  nest  on  Mohawk  Island  in  numbers 
that  vary  from  year  to  year. 

The  changing  population  of  Mohawk  Island  is  interest- 
ing in  comparison  with  that  of  Little  Galloo  Island  in 
eastern  Lake  Ontario.  Just  when  ring-bills  first  occupied  it 
—presumably  quite  recently— is  unreported.  On  June  7, 
1945,  this  thirty-acre  island  had  about  2,000  breeding  gulls 
in  a  ratio  of  ten  ring-bills  to  one  herring  gull.  The  popula- 
tion increase  in  the  next  decade  was  enormous.  In  May, 
1955,  for  instance,  there  were  an  estimated  45,000  ring- 
billed  gull  nests  on  a  twenty-acre  portion  of  the  island. 
Similarly,  on  a  five-acre  island  in  Lake  Champlain,  the  first 
definite  nesting  report  dates  from  1949.  In  June,  1955, 
about  2,000  adult  ring-bills  were  present,  concentrated  on 
less  than  a  single  acre. 

It  is  entirely  reasonable  that  a  gull  of  the  prairies  should 
occupy  low  islands  that  have  extensive  areas  of  grass  or 
other  short  or  sparse  vegetation.  Such  places  also  are  ideal 
for  a  bird  whose  breeding  density  sometimes  exceeds 
2,000  nests  per  acre.  Since  these  new  gulleries  are  well 
within  the  ordinary  range  of  the  ring-billed  gull,  and 
apparently  there  has  been  no  competition  for  the  islands 
with  appreciable  numbers  of  any  other  gull  species,  the 
mystery  remains  as  to  why  the  ring-bill  did  not  occupy 
Mohawk  and  the  other  islands  long  ago. 

OR  many  other  reasons,  the  ring-billed  gull  would  be 
most  interesting  for  a  thoroughgoing  study.  It  is  more 
buoyant  and  agile  in  flight  than  the  herring  gull— a  real 
advantage  in  maneuvering  to  catch  small  prey  and  enter- 
ing and  leaving  crowded  gulleries.  Apparently  its  closest 
affinities  are  with  the  common  gull  ( Larus  canus),  pri- 
marily an  Old  World  species,  for  this  gull's  immature  plum- 
age patterns  are  more  like  the  ring-bills'  than  are  those  of 
other  Larus  species,  such  as  herring  and  California  gulls. 
What  is  the  ring-billed  gull's  future?  Checks  on  its  popu- 
lation include  storms  and  prolonged  inclement  weather 
that  disrupt  nesting.  There  is  also  a  comparatively  high 
mortality  of  downies,  especially  in  colonies  subject  to  dis- 
turbance by  man  or  other  animals.  Moreover,  a  chick  thirty 
inches  from  its  own  nest  is  in  hostile  territory,  in  that  it  is 
exposed  to  often  fatal  attack  by  other  ring-bills.  A  recent 
study  showed  that  2  per  cent  of  the  birds  that  were  banded 
in  preflight  stage  on  Mohawk  Island  and  that  survived  to 
leave  the  site  were  found  dead  or  dying  in  their  first  fall 
or  winter.  This  is  a  considerable  recovery  rate  for  banded 
individuals  (a  dead  gull  is  fairly  conspicuous),  but  prob- 
ably reflects  only  the  high  first-year  mortality  generally 
characteristic  of  avian  species. 

Prior  to  their  first  fall  migration,  young  ring-billed  gulls 
disperse  widely  across  country.  From  the  prairies  east- 
ward, southerly  migration  normally  occurs  between  August 
and  early  October.  Some  of  these  gulls  go  to  the  nearest 
water  that  remains  unfrozen  through  winter,  while  others 
migrate  only  as  far  as  nearby  garbage  dumps.  The  winter- 
ing coastal  population  of  the  Atlantic  area,  however,  is 
centered  in  the  Carolina-Florida  area.  The  return  migra- 
tion occurs  in  March  and  early  April,  and  at  that  time 
Mohawk  Island  again  comes  alive  with  nesting  activity. 

50 


Common  tern  and  ring-bill  are  at  top 
of  tree;  herring  gull  is  at  lower  left. 


i»l\(,-l!il  1 '~  ^oar  on   l)hick-lij)i)('<l  wings 
over  the  Mohawk  Island  nesting  sites. 


DowNiES   are  probably  ring-bills,  but 
even  banders  have  misidentified  young. 


r- 


TWO  2^EW 

RECOMD/J\lGS 

S0NG5  OF  THE  FOREST 


>. 


S<  iHHiH sLm^mmmawmmm  i/,x 

SUNG  BY  THE  HERMIT  THRUSH,  THE 
WOOD  THRUSH,  AND  OTHER.  WOODLAND   BIRDS, 

■  THE  BROOK.  Seven  inch  hi-fi.  Moving 
water  is  a  soothing  sound  anywhere. 
On  this  record,  the  soft  rushing  of 
a  woodland  brook  is  the  sound  thread 
we  folLow.  As  we  record  the  stream 
from  its  source  to  the  sLow-moving 
swamp  where  we  are  caught  by  darkness, 
we  hear,  among  o  thers,  the  Phoebe,  the 
Fox  &  the  Great  Horned  OwL.  Comments 
on  Side  A  wiLL  make  you  feel  at  home 
on  the  downstream  trip.  Same  trip  on 
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52 


About  the  Authors 

Dr.  Syd  R,\di-\ovsky,  author  of  "Can- 
nibal of  the  Pond,"  holds  an  assistant 
professorship  at  Millersville  State  Col- 
lege in  Pennsylvania,  where  he  teaches 
entomology  and  zoology  while  continuing 
with  research  on  the  biology  and  be- 
havior of  insects  and  mites.  A  Canadian 
citizen,  he  did  undergraduate  and  gradu- 
ate work  at  the  University  of  Manitoba. 
He  received  his  doctorate  in  entomology 
at  Oregon  State  University,  then  spent 
two  years  at  the  University  of  Kansas  as 
a  research  associate  working  on  the  biol- 
ogy and  behavior  of  ectoparasitic  mites. 

"Strangler  Fig,  Native  Epiphyte,"  is 
the  work  of  Dr.  Virgil  N.  Argo,  a  fre- 
quent contributor  to  Natur.\l  History. 
Dr.  Argo.  who  prior  to  his  retirement 
was  Associate  Professor  of  Biology  at 
The  City  College  of  New  York,  has  for 
more  than  two  decades  done  extensive 
photography  in  the  field  of  biology,  con- 
centrating on  botanical  subjects.  He  has 
traveled  widely  throughout  Mexico, 
Europe,  and  North  Africa,  and  is  espe- 
cially interested  in  the  botany  and  agri- 
culture of  the  Mediterranean  region. 

Dr.  Walter  N.  Hess,  author  of  "Long 
Journey  of  the  Dogfish,"  is  a  visiting 
Professor  of  Biology  at  Converse  College 
in  South  Carolina.  He  graduated  from 
Oberlin  College,  received  his  doctorate 
from  Cornell  University,  has  taught  at 
several  universities,  and  recently  has 
been  on  the  Governing  Board  of  the 
American  Institute  of  Biological  Sci- 
ences. He  has  a  summer  home  at  Har- 
rington. Maine,  where  he  has  observed 
the  migrations  of  spiny  dogfish  for  more 
than  twenty  years. 

The  discussion  of  Swedish  rock  carv- 
ings. "Bronze  Age  Seen  in  Granite,"  is 
the  work  of  Dr.  Holger  Arbman.  of  the 
Historiska  Museum  at  the  University  of 
Lund,  Sweden.  Dr.  Arbman  studied  at 
the  universities  of  Stockholm  and  Upp- 
sala, and  in  1928  became  Keeper  of 
Antiquities  at  the  Statens  Historiska 
Museum  in  Stockholm.  Since  1945  he 
has  been  Professor  of  Medieval  and  Pre- 
historic Archeology  at  the  University  of 
Lund.  His  field  work  has  included  ex- 
cavations in  Sweden,  Germany,  France, 
and  India,  and  he  is  especially  interested 
in  the  Viking  period. 

Dr.  Ralph  S.  Palmer,  author  of 
"Lake  Erie  Niche  for  Gulls,"  is  a  zoolo- 
gist who  describes  his  major  interests  as 
"ornithology,  mammalogy,  fine  arts,  and 
trying  to  "improve'  a  piece  of  rural  real 
estate."  Among  Dr.  Palmer's  published 
works  are  The  Mammal  Guide,  which 
he  wrote  and  illustrated,  and  Volume  I 
of  The  Handbook  of  North  American 
Birds,  which  he  edited.  Dr.  Palmer 
studied  at  the  University  of  Maine  as  an 
undergraduate  and  received  his  Ph.D. 
in  ornithology  from  Cornell  University. 


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VEL I  FAR  AND  NEAR 


'Art  ofAjanta  and  Ellora 


By  Robert  S.  McCully 

iiE  TWO  HUNDRED  MILES  inland  from 
ombay.  near  Ajanta  in  west  central 
.  there  are  about  thirty  man-made 
in  a  canyon  wall.  These  caves  were 
as  dwellings  and  meeting  halls  by 
idhist  order  from  about  the  start 
e  second  century  B.C.  until  the 
th  century  A.D..  when,  because  of 
ersecution  of  Buddhists  in  India, 
ives  were  abandoned  and  were  lost 
m  for  the  next  thousand  or  more 
The  caves,  in  a  desolate  canyon 
Indhyrdri  Hills,  were  rediscovered 
itish  soldiers  in  1817. 
.nta  means  "no  man's  land."'  and 
•ea  is  indeed  remote,  set  in  a  cres- 
jf  steep  hills  studded  with  strata 
!canic  rock.  The  cave-temples  are 
ed  near  the  source  of  the  Wagura 
.  which  is  a  mere  trickle  in  spring, 
roaring  torrent  during  India's  rainy 
IS.  Over  the  years,  the  river  eroded 
inyon  in  which  the  Buddhist  caves 
eluded. 

ny  of  the  inner  walls  of  the  caves 
)vered  with  murals  that  represent 
;  of  finished  maturity  that  has  been 
■ce  of  inspiration  for  all  later  Bud- 


dhist art.  In  turn,  most  forms  of  oriental 
art  cannot  be  separated  from  the  Bud- 
dhist influence  that  was  carried  from 
India  to  other  countries  by  monks. 

The  caves  are  of  two  main  types: 
"monastery."  or  dwelling  quarters;  "ca- 
thedral." or  meeting  halls.  To  enter  the 
area  of  the  dwelling  halls  one  crosses  a 
broad  veranda,  its  roof  supported  by 
pillars.  The  veranda  gives  access  to  a 
hall,  averaging  in  size  about  thirty-five 
feet  by  twenty  feet.  Dormitories  are  ex- 
cavated so  that  they  open  onto  this  hall, 
and  a  statue  of  the  Buddha  carved  from 
volcanic  stone  usually  stands  in  a  niche 
facing  the  entrance.  In  the  larger  caves, 
pillars  support  the  roof  on  all  three  sides, 
forming  a  sort  of  cloister  around  the  hall. 
The  meeting  halls  extend  back  into  the 
rock  about  twice  as  far  as  do  the  dwelling 
halls.  Some  caves  are  carved  a  hundred 
feet  or  so  back  into  the  solid  rock,  and 
at  least  four  of  the  caves  antedate  the 
Christian  Era.  Those  that  contain  the 
finest   paintings    date    from   the    Gupta 


Mural  of  the  Bodhisattva  Avalokitesvara 
dominates  Ajanta  Cave  I.  Lotus  blossom  in 
hand  is  a  symbol  of  great  creative  powers. 


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53 


Ellora  temples  were  carved  from  single 
mass  of  volcanic  rock.  Siva  Kailasanatha 
Temple,  in  background,  represents  Siva's 
abode,  central  peak  or  axis  of  the  world. 


period,  roughly  within  the  fifth  and  sixth 
centuries  a.d. 

The  Ajanta  caves  are  approached  by 
a  steep,  serpentine  gravel  walk  from 
which  one  passes  to  a  narrow  rock  ledge 
that  runs  along  the  mid-face  of  the  cliffs. 
The  caves  that  contain  paintings  are  also 
richly  carved,  and  there  is  constant 
counterplay  between  stonework  and 
painting.  The  Ajanta  colors,  fresh  and 
magnetic,  are  very  difficult  to  capture 
with  a  camera.  The  earth  colors— red 
and  yellow  ochers— play  a  dominant  role: 
terra  verde,  lampblack,  lapis  lazuli,  rich 
pink,  orange,  and  white  are  mixed  with 
earth  colors,  all  of  which  combine  to 
create  a  marvelously  warm  luster  that 
has  survived  the  passage  of  time.  The 
almost  luminous  qualities  of  the  original 
paintings  are  missed  in  most  reproduc- 
tions. In  the  amygdaloidal  or  laval  rock 
along  the  approaches  to  the  caves  one 
can  still  see  cavities  fiUed  with  deposits 
of  pink  and  blue-green  calcite.  quartz, 
agate,  and  other  minerals  that  the  artist- 
monks  extracted,  powdered,  and  used  as 
pigment  in  mixing  their  paints. 

At  Ellora,  about  70  miles  northeast  of 
Ajanta,  there  are  other  rock-cut  temples 
dating  from  the  eighth  century  a.d.  Some 
of  the  caves  served  as  monasteries,  and 
these  shrines  and  temples  are  not  only 
of  Buddhist  origin;  even  more  strongly 
they  reflect  Hindu  and  Jain  influences. 
Only  crumbling  walls  and  a  few  black- 
ened shrines  remain  of  the  city  of  Ellora 
itself,  capital  of  the  first  Rashtrakuta 
emperors  of  the  eighth  century  a.d.  As 
at  Ajanta,  EUora"s  rock-cut  caves  and 


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54 


3s  are  set  in  a  crescent  of  hills, 
great  artistic  achievement  of  El- 
es  in  its  sculpture  and  stone  archi- 
e.  not  in  its  paintings.  Monks 
I  and  chiseled  the  Siva  Kailasan- 
"emple.  which  is  almost  a  hundred 
1  height,  from  the  top  downward 
E  a  single,  gigantic  rock.  It  was 
to  represent  the  paradise  of  Siva, 
id  the  circumference  are  carved 
int  caryatids  (supporters  of  the 
■se)  that  appear  to  bear  the  tem- 
^eight.  The  walls  of  the  temple,  and 
■ck-cut  caves  that  surround  it  like 
sive  stone  horseshoe,  are  intricately 
1  with  numerous  scenes  depicting 
roic  deeds  of  Siva. 
;  may  see  Siva  portrayed  as  the 
archer  soaring  in  an  aerial  chariot 
1  by  prancing  steeds,  and  releasing 
ow  to  destroy  the  forces  of  evil  that 
en  mankind.  In  another  instance, 
consoling  his  queen  consort,  Par- 
who  has  become  frightened  by  a 
1  with  twenty  arms.  There  is  no 
less  here,  no  feeling  that  one  has 
led  on  memorials  of  an  alien  time; 
■,  one  is  engaged  by  the  very  human 
y  of  the  sculptured  figures, 
ween  Ajanta  and  Ellora.  the  West- 
may  find  considerable  difference 
s  own  responses.  The  masterly 
y,  grace,  and  delicacy  of  the  human 
s  of  the  Ajanta  paintings  are  ap- 
t;  nevertheless,  it  is  not  as  ea.sy 
;  Westerner  to  grasp  the  profundity 
ise  murals  as  it  is  for  him  to  em- 
:e  with  the  sculpture  at  Ellora.  One 
;  basic  reasons  for  this  lies  in  a 
mental  difference  in  purpose  be- 
Buddhist  and  Western  painting, 
liist  paintings  are  not  designed 
to  elicit  an  aesthetic  response. 
;oal  of  the  artist-monk  is  to  deal 
a  particular  idea  or  question  in 
liist  thought  in  the  most  perfect 
permitted  by  his  capabilities.  In 
cases,  a  painting  may  be  set  forth 
t  were  a  story  answering  a  complex 
;on ;  the  inspiration  for  this  conven- 
3  Buddha's  own  teaching  methods, 
an  artist  strives  for  a  symbolic 
sentation  of  a  given  moral  or  reli- 
problem  that  will  be  compre- 
d  by  others.  Because  the  viewer 
ook  at  the  painting  to  attempt  to 
the  problem,  the  painter  must 
If  wrestle  with  the  problem  in  order 
rtray  it  properly  in  graphic  form, 
irtist's  goal  is  to  help  the  picture's 
r  achieve  a  fresh  insight  into  his 
sctual  processes,  beliefs,  or  experi- 
.  Thus,  it  becomes  apparent  that 
nust  know  something  about  Bud- 
thought  to  feel  at  home  with  the 
:a  paintings. 

3  Ajanta  paintings  include  scenes 
the  Buddha's  life,  from  conception 
attainment  of  nirvana.  The  Jataka 
s— parables  told  by  the  Buddha  in 
nse  to  a  question  or  problem  posed 


This  stunning  composition  is  worthy  of  John  James  Audubon.  Arrow  points  to  the  nervous  but 
unafraid  Water  Turkey,  hundreds  of  feet  from  a  standard  Questar.  Above  is  image  Questar 
reached  out  and  delivered  to  35-mm.  negative  ready  for  enlargement.   Tri-X,  1/250  second. 


We  included  the  sprocket  holes  of  this  35-mm.  negative  for 
clarity.  Beautiful  11x14  enlargements  are  practically  grain- 
less.  Questar  telescopes  are  priced  from  S795.  i  hey  make 
possible  sharp  wildlife  photographs  like  this  without  tents  or 
towers  or  stalking  blinds.  At  left  the  versatile  Standard  Wide- 
Angle  Model.  The  latest  Questar  booklet  now  has  40  pages, 
8  of  them  in  color,  and  has  a  long  essay  on  what  we  have 
learned  about  telescopic  photography  in  10  years.  One  dollar 
postpaid  in  U.S.,  Mexico  and  Canada.  By  air  to  West  Indies 
and  Central  America,  $2.30.  By  air  to  Europe,  N.  Africa  and 
S.  America,  $2.50.  By  air  to  Australia  and  elsewhere,  $3.50. 


TAR 


BOX    60    NEW    HOPE,    PENNSYLVANIA 


55 


King  Mahajanaka,  in  detail  of  Ajanta 
mural,  tells  queen  and  concubines  that  he 
is  renouncing  world.  His  hands  are  fixed 
in  symbolic  expression  of  his  spirituality. 


by  a  monk— are  represented  in  continu- 
ous narrative.  Within  each  story  told  by 
the  Buddha  resides  a  clue  to  a  solution 
of  the  problem  posed ;  the  monk  had  to 
grasp  the  clue  and  the  answer  himself. 
Within  this  context,  the  murals  depict 
a  profusion  of  scenes  of  human  love, 
compassion,  happiness,  yearning,  death, 
suffering,  and  sacrifice. 

The  artists  of  Ajanta  worked  in  the 
tradition  of  the  projection  of  a  personal, 
inner  world.  Emphasis  on  inner  qualities 
and  lofty  religious  ideals  is  perhaps 
symbolized  by  the  placement  of  the 
Ajanta  caves,  which  are  numbered  one 
to  twenty-nine.  There  is  a  sharp  con- 
trast between  the  rocky  desolation  of  the 
caves'  outer  setting  and  the  rich  life 
created  inside  by  the  paintings.  Also, 
the  lush  corporeality  of  the  figures  in  the 
murals  merely  represents  the  fascina- 
tions of  this  world,  which  are  to  be 
rejected.  Words  on  the  walls  of  Cave  II 
make  this  perfectly  clear:  "Virtues 
brought  to  perfection  are  the  proper 
ornaments  of  living  beings." 

None  of  these  religious  considerations 


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need  prohibit  the  non-Buddhist  from 
appreciating  the  beauty  of  the  paintings, 
however.  If  the  great  Bodhisattva  (a  lu- 
minous warrior  on  the  way  to  enlight- 
enment) of  Cave  I  were  still  totally 
preserved,  it  would  be  apparent  that  a 
pinnacle  in  art  had  been  achieved.  The 
women  of  Ajanta  are  rendered  with  spe- 
cial sensitivity.  Large  eyes,  seeming  ex- 
aggerated to  the  Western  viewer,  are 
intense  and  forceful.  In  one  case,  the 
compassionate  eyes  of  a  Buddha  are  all 
that  is  left  of  the  portrait. 

Every  detail  is  invested  with  import- 
ance. There  are  no  exclamation  points 
in  the  paintings:  they  are  a  blended 
unity  of  detail.  One  sees  an  ant  crawling 
on  a  tree  trunk  in  a  Jataka  scene  painted 
twelve  hundred  years  ago  and  is  tempted 
to  reach  out  and  brush  the  ant  away. 
Renderings  of  hair  are  remarkably  life- 
like (hair  was  a  symbol  of  health)  and 
the  hands,  so  often  a  vehicle  for  expres- 
sion in  Buddhist  thought,  are  unexcelled 
in  their  precise  execution. 

The  Buddhist  conception  of  ariipa 
dhatu,  or  "formless  form,"  constituted 
one  theoretical  framework  of  graphic 
representation.  For  instance,  in  Cave  I 
the  artist  makes  use  of  arupa  dhatu  in 
an  exquisite  scene  depicting  a  prince  and 
princess  in  conversation.  Surrounded  by 
court  attendants  (including  some  of  the 


loveliest  of  the  Ajanta  women),  the 
prince  has  fixed  his  hands  in  a  symbolic 
position  (mudra) ,  which  in  this  case 
communicates  the  necessity  for  prayerful 
repetition  of  the  moral  doctrines  of  Bud- 
dhist law.  The  lines  and  shadings  of  the 
hands  make  them  appear  ethereal;  this 
contrasts  sharply  with  the  clear  detail 
of  the  rest  of  the  figure.  To  see  the  hands 
in  such  a  setting  is  like  watching  the 
blur  of  a  hummingbird's  wings. 

At  Ajanta,  the  artists  have  been  as 
faithful  and  accurate  in  their  represen- 
tations of  flowers,  plants,  and  animals 
as  they  have  been  in  portraying  human 
figures.  Some  brilliant  colors  appear  on 
the  ceilings,  which  often  are  decorated 
with  fruit  and  lotus  blossoms.  The  ani- 
mals, some  in  pairs,  are  quite  vivid. 

Both  at  Ajanta  and  Ellora,  the  visitor 
cannot  help  being  aware  of  the  twofold 
significance  of  what  he  views— works  of 
art  that,  aesthetically,  are  outstanding 
examples  of  creativity,  and  that,  as  reli- 
gious teachings,  set  forth  admirable  prin- 
ciples  of  moral   and   spiritual   conduct. 


Dr.  McCully  studied  in  Asia,  and 
is  Director  of  Clinical  Psychology 
at  the  Payne  Whitney  Psychiatric 
Clinic  of  The  New  York  Hospital. 


Mammals 
of  the  World 

by  Ernest  P.  Walker  and  Associates 
with  over  1800  illustrations 


J.HIS  three-volume  work  provides  all  the 
basic  information  about  every  recent 
genera  of  mammalian  life.  No  other 
work  has  ever  brought  together  so  com- 
pletely descriptions  and  photographs  of 
the  orders,  families,  and  1044  genera  of 
mammals. 

Uniform  information  on  the  genera 
includes  the  number  of  species,  range, 
measurements  and  weights,  habits,  struc- 
tural peculiarities,  food,  gestation  period, 
number  of  young,  plus  many  more  de- 
tails. 

The  pictorial  completeness  of  Mam- 
mals of  the  World  is  particularly  remark- 


able. Of  the  1044  genera  all  but  four  are 
represented  here  in  photographs. 

Volumes  I  and  II  present  the  mammals 
in  clear,  descriptive  text,  with  more  than 
1800  illustrations.  A  twenty-four  page 
World  Distribution  Chart  makes  it  pos- 
sible to  determine  at  a  glance  the  genera 
that  are  native  to  any  major  land  mass 
or  ocean. 

Volume  III  is  a  comprehensive,  classi- 
fied bibliography. 


Volumes  I  and  II  boxed,  $25.00 


Volume  III,  $12.50 


From  bookstores,  or  from 
THE  JOHNS  HOPKINS  PRESS,   Baltimore,  Md.  21218 


57 


THE 
CUNEIFORM 


ARCHAEOLOGICAL  TOUR  OF  THE  NEAR  EAST 

Tliis  exciting  tour  into  Antiquity  starts 

on  April  6  and  returns  to  the  United  States  on 

May  3,  1965 ,  after  having  visited  Lebanon, 

Syria,  Iran,  Iraq  and  Jordan. 

A  study  of  the  Suinero-A  kkadian  civilization  and 

its  impact  on  the  origins  of  Western  cidture 
will  form  part  of  the  program.  This  unforgettable 

journey  through  time  to  the  wellsprings  of  our 

civilization  will  certainly  be  meaningful  not  only 

to  the  expert  but  also  to  the  amateur  archaeologist. 

Our  lecturer,  Dr.  Cyrus  Gordon,  has  served 

as  an  archaeologist  on  many  expeditions  in 

the  Near  East.  He  participated  in  the  unearthing 

of  the  Royal  Tombs  at  Ur,  in  discovering 

the  mines  of  King  Solomon,  and  deciphering  the 

Tell  al-Amarna  tablets  found  in  Egypt. 

Dr.  Gordon  is  the  author  of  many  books  and 

articles  on  the  ancient  countries  we  are 

visiting.  Among  the  books  are  ADVENTURES 

IN  THE  NEAREST  EAST:  THE  WORLD 

OF  THE  TESTAMENT,  and  BEFORE 

THE  BIBLE:  THE  COMMON  BACKGROUND 

OF  GREEK  AND  HEBREW  CIVILIZA  TION. 

For  many  years  he  has  taught  the  languages, 

history,  and  archaeology  of  Egypt,  Greece, 

and  the  Near  East. 

Our  tour  to  Greece  and  Egypt  last 

spring  was  a  great  success,  but  many  had  to 

be  left  behind  due  to  lack  of  space. 

Please  register  early. 


ARCHAEOLOGICAL  TOUR-r.T.L.T.  3136 


LINDBLAD  TRAVEL,  INC. 

ONE    EAST   53rd    STREET 
NEW   YORK   22,    N.  Y. 


Name   (Mr.   Mrs.   Miss). 

Address 

City 


EAST  AFRICA 


When  one  thinks  of  Africa  it  is 

usually  in  terms  of  white  hunters,  lions, 

elep/iants  and  Kilimanjaro.  Few  people 

are  aware  that  while  looking  at  rhino  they  can 

also  watch  the  fascinating  red-billed 

oxpecker,  without  whom  the  rhino's  life  would 

be  a  misery,  or  study  the  friendly  relationship 

between  the  elephant  and  the  egret. 

Nowhere  in  the  world  is  there  a  greater,  tiiore 

accessible  selection  of 

native  species  of  birds  than  in  Kenya. 

In  Kenya,  there  are  1033  full  species  ranging 

from  the  West  African  forest  birds  in  the  Kakamega 

Forest  to  the  marine  species  on  the  shores 

of  the  Indian  Ocean.  Lake  Nakuru,  whose  several 

millions  of  flamingos  may  be  seen,  has  been 

described  by  Roger  Tory  Peterson,  American 

Ornithologist,  as  the  "most  fabidous  bird 

spectacle  in  the  world." 

You  are  invited  to  join  a  special  tour  of 

"Bird  Watchers",  leaving  New  York  for 

Kenya  on  February  17,  1965. 

The  internationally  renowned  ornithologist, 

John  G.  Williams  of  the  Coryndon  Museum  in 

Nairobi,  will  act  as  advisor  to  the  expedition. 

Mr.  Williams  led  the  Queeny  Expedition  of 

the  American  Museum  of  Natural  History  in  1950, 

the  Chicago  Natural  History  Expedition  in  1 954, 

the  British- American  Expedition  to  Angola  in 

1957 ,  the  Carnegie  Expedition  in  1958,  and  the 

Los  Angeles  Museimi  Expedition  in  1963. 

The  tour  will  include  visits  to  Lake  Magadi, 

Amboseli  Game  Reserve,  the  Treetops, 

Lakes  Naivasha,  Nakuru,  Baringo  and  Hannington, 

Kakamega  Forest,  and  Sirimon  Track  on 

Mount  Kenya — among  other  places. 

This  is  an  opporturiity  for  educational  and 

meaningful  travel  offered  by  Lindblad 

Travel  of  New  York. 


ORNITHOLOGrCAL  TOUR-I.T.L.T.   3131 


LINDBLAD  TRAVEL,  INC. 

ONE    EAST    53rd    STREET 
NEW   YORK  22,   N.  Y. 


Name   (Mr.   Mrs.   Miss). 

Address 

City 


58 


NCE I  IN  ACTION 


The  Biological  Collector 


By  Jack  J.  Rudloe 


ERE  does  an  Ohio  medical  school 
staff  involved  in  cancer  research 
nomalous  fishes  with  tumors,  or  a 
ngton.  D.C.,  zoologist,  research- 
e  distribution  and  identification  of 
;les.  get  specimens  from  some  far- 
coast?  Hove  can  a  biochemist  iso- 
nzymes  from  a  shark's  live-  to 
the  trigger  mechanisms  of  nitro- 
etabolisms?  In  situations  such  as 
many  researchers  rely  on  the  serv- 
E  a  biological  collector  to  provide 
tens;  even  scientists  working  at 
3  laboratories  often  have  speci- 
brought  to  them  by  professional 
ors  in  order  to  save  time, 
earch  programs  require  a  routine 
'  of  experimental  animals  over  a 

of  months  or  even  years.  If  the 
ch  is  being  done  in  a  university, 
rofessor    conducting    the    experi- 

usually  has  a  team  of  graduate 
Its  and  laboratory  technicians, 
ssigned  a  specific  phase  of  the  re- 
1.  Each  team  may  require  a  large 
;r  of  animals.  Should  the  supply 
mals  fail  to  arrive,  months  of  ex- 
entation  could  be  disrupted. 

Locating  Specimens 

>ING  specimens  for  research  pre- 
its  varied  problems.  In  the  case  of 
ine  collector,  the  only  way  to  learn 
'here  the  organisms  can  be  found 
jecoming  thoroughly  familiar  with 
ashore,  and  learning  all  the  eco- 
1  habitats,  as  well  as  the  time  of 
lonth,  or  year  when  collecting  con- 
5  are  favorable.  The  collector  must 
icerned  not  only  with  the  general 
iphic  distributions  of  animals,  but 
locations  where  tlie  animals  are 
;oncentrated.  It  is  often  on  the  iso- 
rock  pile  that  one  will  find  clusters 
ertain  species  of  sea  anemone  or 
te,  or  discover  amphioxus  on  the 
iand  bar  within  a  hundred  miles, 
ggregations  of  marine  animals  are 
3m  understood. 

the  seashore  nothing  is  constant, 
ent  hurricane  can  alter  ecological 
its  overnight  causing  some  species 
ninish  or  resettle  elsewhere,  and 
;nt  animals  to  move  in.  And  with 
icreased  dredging  of  harbors,  the 
ng  of  rich  coral  reefs,  and  the 
ng  exploitation  of  the  sea's  re- 
;s,  the  old  collecting  places  are 
ing  drastically.  Pesticides  can  wipe 
1st  numbers  of  fiddler  crabs,  and 
!Stroy  the  amphipod  beach-hoppers 
ive  in  cast-up  seaweed  and  are  an 


important  food  source  for  other  animals. 
A  collector  must  constantly  rediscover 
the  animals  on  his  beaches. 

The  seasons  dictate  the  availability  of 
the  animals;  in  winter  the  bryozoan 
Bugula  cluster  around  wharf  pilings 
and  disappear  during  the  summer.  Then 
they  are  replaced  by  the  waving,  feath- 
ery hydroids.  Obelia.  The  collecting  de- 
pends on  how  long  the  animals  stay  in 
the  area.  Many  fishes,  including  sharks 
and  rays,  move  out  into  the  warmer 
waters,  far  too  deep  for  gill  nets. 

Tide  Changes  Important 

A  collector  carefully  studies  the  tide 
tables  to  learn  when  the  lowest 
tides  occur.  With  strong  favorable  wind 
and  a  good  low  tide  the  waters  recede 
far  out  from  shore,  and  multitudes  of 
marine  animals  are  exposed.  Walking 
along  with  buckets  under  these  condi- 
tions I  pick  up  sea  pansies.  giant  cockles, 
sand  dollars,  blood  clams,  lugworms 
and  sipunculoids,  starfish,  conchs,  scal- 
lops, crabs,  and  sea  cucumbers  often 
covered  with  parasitic  snails.  While  dig- 
ging about  through  the  eelgrass  for  bra- 
chiopods  I  find  horse  mussels,  pen  shells, 
and  burrowing  tubed  sea  anemones. 

During  high  tide  Limulus  polyphemus, 
the  "horseshoe  crab,"  comes  to  the  water's 
edge.  It  is  important  in  studies  because 
of  the  copper  pigments  in  its  blood,  its 
large  heart,  and  eyes  with  accessible  op- 
tic nerves  that  lend  themselves  in  the 
laboratory  to  demonstrations  of  light  re- 
sponse. High  tide  will  also  cast  up  sea 
hares,  whose  giant  nerve  cells  are  useful 
in  neurophysiological  studies,  as  well  as 
Scyphomedusae.  live  sponges,  clumps  of 
bryozoans.  and  tunicates  that  break  off 
from  their  holdfasts  and  are  washed  up 
on  the  beach  by  the  surging  sea.  On  pick- 
ing up  a  drab  brown  basket  sponge,  one 
may  find  commensal  anemones  living  in 
its  canals.  The  sponge  is  host  to  brittle 
stars,  snails,  polynoid  and  polyclad 
worms,  snapping  shrimps,  amphipods, 
copepods.  isopods,  and  hairy  little  crabs 
and  peculiar  sponge  barnacles. 

A  flat  that  is  most  unproductive  dur- 
ing the  day  may  become  rich  and  re- 
warding at  night.  Under  the  illumination 
of  the  moon,  sea  cucumbers  can  be  seen 
thrusting  out  their  floriated  heads  from 
the  mud  to  feed  on  plankton,  sea  anem- 
ones emerge  from  the  sand,  green-eyed 
squid  dart  through  the  waters,  shrimp 
leap  and  fall  back  with  a  splash,  swim- 
ming crabs  paddle  along  the  surface, 
and  schools  of  minnows  are  caught  in 


WOODEN 
BUDDHAS  . . . 

(from  I8th-I9th 
Cent.  Siam) 

Secured  from  abandoned  vegetation 
overgrown,  tinieworn  temples  deep 
in  the  primeval  forests  of  northern 
Siam.  Superbly  crafted  teakwood 
statuettes,  lacquered  red  &/or  black 
. .  .several  Buddhas  richly  finished  in 
Gold  leaf,  some  with  hand  inscribed 
prayers!  Stalely  display  (7"-10") 
complimenting  home  &  office  decor. 
A  distinctive  all-occasion  gift  ! 


CHRISTIAN  OIL   LAMPS  .  .  . 
FROM  ANCIENT  PALESTINE! 

GENUINE:  Excavated  terracotta  oil  lamps, 
ancient  Palestine,  4th-7th  Cent.  A.D.  FROM: 
early  Christian  necropolis.  USED:  ceremoni- 
ally; tamps  ancient  glow  rekindled  with  oil  & 
wick.  Symbolizes  knowledge,  serves  to  stimu- 
late the  intellect.  Superb  display  piece  for 
home  &  office,  on  hardwood  base. ...$10.  ppd. 


FREE  ANmunv  CfiJfiLOG 


.  .  .  Illustrating:  Crosses,  Buddhas,  Amulets 
Weapons,  Lamps,  Scarabs,  Jewelry,  Figurines, 
Masks,  Roman  glass.  Pottery,  Coins  &  more! 
Collectors,  Students,  Gift  Givers  &  the  intel- 
lectually  curious,  will  enjoy  this  stimulating 
reference  book.  Write  for  your  free  copy 
todoyl 

ALADDIN  HOUSE,  LTD. 

Dept.  N-11B  •   520  5th  Ave.  •   N.Y.,  N.Y.  10036 


LIMITED  RELEASE-U.S.  GOVT.  SURPLUS 

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INFRARED  SET,.., 

for  scientists,  gun  collectors,  naturalists 

Built  in  1950  and  1951  by  American  Optical  Co.  In 
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observing  enemy  in  total  darkness  without  being 
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zontal adjustments.  Canvas  carrying  case  and  shoulder 
strap  included.  Complete  unit  includes  11"  x  14"  x  16" 
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Prices  F.O.B.  Tucson,  Ariz.  No  C.O.D.'s,  please. 

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59 


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City 


the  beam  of  the  collector's  glaring  gaso- 
line lantern.  Slowly  and  gracefully  sea 
hares,  Aplysia,  undulate  their  wings, 
speckled  nudibranchs  creep  out  from 
under  rocks,  and  chitons  emerge  from 
the  crevices.  Shrimp  trawlers  pulling 
their  nets  at  night  get  a  great  assort- 
ment of  continental  shelf  fauna.  The 
winches  wind  in  an  immense  net  packed 
with  shrimp,  squid,  huge  sponges,  crabs, 
Mexican  lobsters,  and  sometimes  many 
octopuses.  Sharks,  rays,  batfish,  scorpion 
fish,  and  filefish  are  also  caught  with 
flounders,  butterfish.  and  catfish. 

I  am  kept  busy  aboard  the  trawlers 
saving  animals  or  parts  of  animals  that 
are  considered  worthless  by  fishermen, 
but  that  may  be  valuable  in  scientific 
research.  Shrimp  eyes,  for  example,  are 
important  because  they  contain  hor- 
mones that  regulate  light  adaptation.  To 
preserve  the  eyes,  one  snips  them  oS  and 
immerses  them  in  a  subfreezing  solution 
of  alcohol  and  dry  ice.  Octopus,  living 
batfish,  and  electric  rays,  studied  for 
nerve  innervations,  are  hurriedly  culled 
and  rushed  into  buckets  of  sea  water. 
Parasitologists  do  research  on  living 
tapeworms  and  trematodes  from  sharks 
and  bony  fish.  To  extract  the  parasites, 
the  hosts  are  instantly  gutted  and  the 
intestines  put  in  a  solution  of  diluted 
sea  water,  which  is  isotonic  to  the  para- 
sites. Octopus  kidney  smears  for  meso- 
zoans  are  made  aboard  the  shrimp  trawl- 
ers, and  random  samples  of  shrimp  in- 
testines and  rectums  are  carefully  placed 
in  special  fixatives  to  preserve  gregarian 
parasites.  The  identity  of  these  parasites 
is  determined  by  their  histological  struc- 
tures. Upon  finding  a  bizarre,  flame- 
streaked  box  crab,  the  collector  removes 
the  carapace  and  examines  the  gills  for 
parasitic  barnacles.  Occasionally,  the 
collector  finds  a  new  species  and  is  re- 
warded by  the  feeling  of  exultation  when 
a  specialist  informs  him  that  he  has  con- 
tributed something  new. 

I  make  a  quick  check  through  the  piles 
of  fish  for  abnormalities:  tumorous 
growths  or  malformations,  for  example, 
or  wounded  fish  with  regenerated  tissues. 
All  uncommon  and  rare  fish  are  saved; 
some  may  be  strays  from  the  Bahamas 
and  West  Indies  to  the  northern  Gulf  of 
Mexico,  enthusiastically  welcomed  by 
ichthyologists  because  the  specimens 
help  document  knowledge  of  fish  migra- 
tions and  distributions. 

Problems  of  Shipping 

ONCE  a  biological  collector  has  gath- 
ered his  specimens,  there  still  re- 
mains the  problem  of  getting  them  to 
their  destination.  A  biologist  may  want 
his  specimens  live,  frozen,  or  preserved, 
according  to  his  research  program.  If  he 
wants  live  animals,  the  collector  deter- 
mines how  well  they  will  survive  ship- 
ment. Chances  of  survival  vary  when  you 
take  an  animal  from  its  environment— the 


COMPARE! 


LEITZ  TRINOVl 
BINOCULARS 


A  TOTALLY  NEW  CONCEPT  IN  BINOCUI 

The  heart  of  these  new  glasses  is  a  special 
—  a  difficult  prism  to  manufacture  in  quantit 
to  precise  tolerances.  Leitz  has  mastere 
production. 

NO  OTHER  BINOCULARS  PERFORM  : 
THE  TRINOVIDS  All  Trinovid  models  have 
wide-field  eyepieces,  providing  a  panoramic 
which  must  be  experienced  to  be  appret 
fully.  The  superb  correction  of  the  Leitz  ( 
gives  unsurpassed  brilliance  and  clarity  of  ii 
All  air-to-glass  surfaces  are,  of  course,  anti-r 
tion  coated  to  increase  light  transmissior 
contrast.  As  a  final  plus,  each  of  the  three  ' 
vid  models -6  x  24,  8  x  32,  10  x  40-is 
enough  to  slip  into  a  jacket  pocket. 

TRINOVIDS  DON'T  -~T 1 1     ^ 

LOOK  LIKE  CON- 
VENTIONAL BIN- 
OCULARS Compare 
the  slim  silhouette  of 
the  Trinovid  with  the 
bulk  and  weight  of 
conventional  binocu- 
lars. Compare  the 
focusing,  too;  and  the  optics!  The  Leitz  Trin 
are  truly  new  binoculars,  both  optically  ai 
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and  confine  it  in  a  plastic  con- 
;  then  rush  it  to  a  specialist.  Some 
nens  will  not  survive  shipment,  so 
est  not  to  commit  oneself  and  dis- 
it  the  scientist.  The  constantly 
g  eagle  ray,  for  example,  will  die 
se  confinement,  as  will  squid,  but 
:opus  will  live  for  a  short  time. 
;hemists  often  require  frozen  spec- 
;  the  validity  of  their  research  and 
gs  may  depend  in  some  degree  on 
;areful  and  exacting  the  collector 
)een.  Researchers  working  with 
■  unstable  enzymes  require  that 
;pecimens  be  frozen  instantly.  The 
e  provides  an  example  of  why  this 
essary;  after  the  shock  of  being 
ed  from  its  holdfast,  the  sponge's 
te  chemical  structures  begin  im- 
te  deterioration  while  the  animal 
1  alive.  The  process  can  only  be 
ed  by  instant  freezing.  The  sponge 
d-packed  in  dry  ice  for  shipping, 
there  is  a  flight  delay  or  the  ship- 
is  mislaid  en  route,  the  specimens 
out  and  are  ruined, 
hysiologist  in  New  Jersey  studying 
escence  in  marine  life  wishes  to 
iment  with  ctenophores,  delicate 
Is  resembling  jellyfish;  how  does 
lip  live  ctenophores  for  any  dis- 
'  They  are  so  fragile— made  up  of 
•  cent  water— they  are  apt  to  break 
'hat  are  the  chances  of  their  sur- 
?  There  is  no  literature  to  guide 
Hector,  to  tell  him  how  or  how  not 
p  these  animals.  Careful  experi- 
tion  is  necessary  to  avoid  failure, 
icking  the  ctenophores  in  plastic 
)f  oxygenated  sea  water  and  sirau- 
conditions  of  18-hours  flight  time, 
offer  an  educated  guess  as  to  what 
condition  will  be  on  arrival.  If  the 
nens  die  in  the  laboratory,  another 
d  will  be  tried— perhaps  using  a 
y-powered  air  pump,  or  packing 
ecimens  in  ice. 

er  luminous  animals  are  no  prob- 
)  ship.  The  interesting  parchment 

that  glows  inside  of  its  tube  is 
ately  exposed  to  icy  weather  and 
ense  heat  and  dehydration  on  the 
idal  flats,  so  we  know  it  will  endure 
ing.  The  midshipman,  a  tough  little 
1  fish  with  rows  of  luminous  photo- 
s,  or  light-producing  organs,  will 
e  in  a  bucket  of  sea  water  over- 

and  can  be  transported  quite 
.  Animals'  powers  of  endurance 
considerably;  dull,  cumbersome 
shoe  crabs  can  survive  weeks  in 
lent  and  are  often  sent  to  Europe, 
le  ghost  crabs— Ocypoffe— must  be 
ed  in  individual  containers,  and 
d  air  express  even  for  short  dis- 
B.  If  six  are  requested,  I  usually 
twelve  to  allow  for  a  high  percent- 
f  fatalities.  Among  other  consider- 
i,  it  is  important  that  the  collector 

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Mr.  Rudloe,  a  biological  collector 
who  took  part  in  the  International 
Indian  Ocean  Expedition,  is  active 
on  both  the  Atlantic  and  Gulf  coasts. 


year  has  to  be  taken  into  account,  since 
precautions  must  be  taken  to  keep  the 
animals  from  freezing  or  overheating. 
The  recipient  must  be  notified  of  a  ship- 
ment well  in  advance  so  he  can  be  at 
the  airport  to  pick  it  up. 

Preserving  Is  Vital  Step 

PRESERVING  museum  specimens  prop- 
erly for  identification  is  another 
responsibility  of  the  collector.  Many 
soft-bodied  invertebrates  are  identified 
by  their  internal  structures,  and  care 
must  be  taken  to  see  that  the  specimens 
are  properly  preserved.  Unfortunately, 
this  often  is  not  the  case.  Inexperienced 
collectors  frequently  gather  sea  anem- 
ones, sea  cucumbers,  and  tunicates  and 
toss  them  indiscriminately  into  formalde- 
hyde. Immediately  the  animals  contract 
violently,  preventing  the  preserving  fluid 
from  penetrating  their  internal  cavities. 
Consequently,  when  a  scientist  carefully 
cuts  through  the  preserved  outer  walls 
of  the  animals,  a  macerated  ooze  runs 
out  and  the  specimens  prove  useless.  In 
order  to  preserve  the  viscera,  an  experi- 
enced collector  will  inject  formaldehyde 
into  the  internal  cavity.  Knowing  the 
right  preservative  is  essential.  All  too 
often  sea  cucumbers  and  soft  corals  ar- 
rive at  museums  packed  in  formalde- 
hyde, the  acid  in  which  breaks  down  the 
calcareous  spicules  that  are  a  key  to  the 
animal's  identification.  Sea  anemones 
macerate  in  alcohol,  and  gastropods 
fixed  in  formaldehyde  are  impossible  to 
dissect  because  the  tissues  will  soon 
become  too  hardened. 

Although  the  scientist  is  trained  to 
classify  museum  specimens  even  in  a 
contracted,  poorly  preserved  state,  he 
prefers  the  specimens  to  be  thoroughly 
relaxed.  Sea  anemones  suddenly  whip  in 
their  petals  when  even  slightly  irritated 
and  draw  up  into  something  that  re- 
sembles a  boiled  onion.  The  waving  frills 
and  fronds  of  the  nudibranchs— so  im- 
portant for  identification— contract,  and 
flatworms  and  comb  jellies  disintegrate 
into  a  slimy  mass  if  carelessly  preserved. 
The  collector  must  know  how  to  deal 
with  such  problems;  certain  marine  in- 
vertebrates are  narcotized  if  epsom  salts 
or  menthol  crystals  are  slowly  added  to 
their  dish  of  sea  water  until  the  animals 
are  immobilized.  Others,  such  as  poly- 
chaete  worms,  become  slowly  relaxed 
when  alcohol  is  added  to  the  water  until 
they  succumb. 

The  preparation  of  museum  specimens 
does  not  end  with  preservation.  Unfor- 
tunately, color  pigments  of  most  fish  and 
invertebrates  cannot  be  maintained  after 
death.  In  a  short  while  all  the  beautiful 


colors  fade.  The  collector  takes  cai 
notes  and  draws  the  animals  to  dei 
strate  the  color  pattern.  Equally  in: 
tant  to  a  scientist  is  the  collec 
ecological  field  data,  a  great  hel] 
learning  the  zoogeography  of  the  se 
One  of  the  biological  collector's  i 
important  contributions  can  be  in 
field  of  behavior.  A  preserved  speci 
floating  in  a  jar  of  alcohol  gives  no  c 
to  how  it  escaped  predators,  what  dei 
it  used  to  capture  food,  how  it  re 
duced.  But  among  the  rocky  tidepoo 
the  Pacific  and  the  coral  reefs  of 
South  Atlantic,  as  the  collector  ge 
removes  a  cluster  of  delicate  pink 
droids  from  a  rock,  he  observes  how 
animals  behave,  and  he  keeps  recorc 
that  behavior.  Perhaps  the  most  rew 
ing  aspect  of  being  a  professional 
logical  collector  is  the  awareness  thai 
is  making  a  contribution  to  man's  kn 
edge  of  his  environment  and  the  b 
ficial  applications  that  eventually 
result   from   this   increased   knowle 


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Additional  Reading 

CANNIBAL  OF  THE  POND 

Aquatic  Insects  of  California.  Edited 
by  Robert  L.  Usinger.  University  of 
California  Press.  Berkeley.  1956. 

Fresh-Water  Invertebrates  of  the 
United  States.  Robert  W.  Pennak. 
The  Ronald  Press  Company,  N.Y.. 
1953. 

An  Introduction  to  the  Study  of  In- 
sects. Donald  J.  Borror  and  Dwight 
M.  DeLong.  Holt.  Rinehart  and  Win- 
ston, N.Y.,  1964. 

STRANGLER  FIG, 
NATIVE  EPIPHYTE 

The  Native  Trees  of  Florida.  Erdman 
West  and  Lillian  E.  Arnold.  Univer- 
sity of  Florida  Press,  Gainesville.  1956. 

Guide  to  Southern  Trees.  Ellwood  S. 
Harrar  and  J.  George  Harrar.  Whit- 
tlesey House,  N.Y..  1946. 

Manual  of  Cultivated  Plants.  L.  H. 
Bailey.  The  Macmillan  Co.,  N.Y.,  1949. 

LONG  JOURNEY 
OF  THE  DOGFISH 

Fishes  of  the  Western  North  Atlan- 
tic: Part  1.  Henry  B.  Bigelow.  Sears 
Foundation  for  Marine  Research,  Yale 
University.  New  Haven.   1948. 

Sharks  and  Survival.  Edited  by  Perry 
W.  Gilbert.  D.  C.  Heath  &  Co..  Boston, 
1963. 

Shadows  in  the  Sea.  Harold  W.  McCor- 
mick  and  Tom  Allen,  with  William  E. 
Young.  Chilton  Books.  Phila.,  1963. 

BRONZE  AGE  SEEN  IN  GRANITE 

Monumental  Art  of  Nokihern 
Europe  from  the  Stone  Age.  Gustaf 
Hallstriim.  I.  The  Norwegian  Lo- 
calities, 1938.  II.  Northern  Sweden. 
Bokforiags  Aktiebolaget  Thule.  Stock- 
hohn,  1960. 

Scandinavian  Rock-Engravings.  Gra- 
hame  Clark.  Antiquity,  Vol.  XL  No. 
41.  London,  1937. 

LAKE  ERIE  NICHE  FOR  GULLS 

Sea-Birds.  James  Fisher  and  R.  M.  Lock- 
ley.  Collins.  London.  1954. 

The  Herring  Gull's  World.  N.  Tin- 
bergen.  Collins,  London.  1953. 

ART  OF  AJANTA  AND  ELLORA 

AjANTA.  Ghulam  Yazdani.  Oxford  Uni- 
versity Press,  London.  4  vols.  1930- 
1955. 

India:  Paintings  from  Ajanta  Caves. 
Madanjeet  Singh.  N.Y.  Graphic  So- 
ciety. Greenwich,  1954. 

Myths  and  Symbols  in  Indian  Art. 
Heinrich  Zimmer.  Pantheon  Books, 
N.Y.,  1953. 

The  Ajanta  Caves.  Benjamin  Rowland. 
Mentor-Unesco  Art  Books,  N.Y.,  1963. 
(Paperback.) 


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3   DIALS-COMPLETELY   ILLUMINATED 

FOR   HOME,   OFFICE,   CLUB,   CLASSROOM,  MUSEUJ 

Startling  scientific  achievement,  yet  comple 
practical  and  functional.  Designed  for  the  sf 
age  by  world  renowned  scientist,  Dr,  Athels 
Spilhaus,  Dean  of  Technology,  University 
Minnesota. 

A  handsome  conversation  piece  and  constai 

up-to-date  encyclopedia  of  the  sky.  The  Spilh 

Space  Clock  has  a  beautiful  fruitwood  case  and  three  illuminated  sky-blue  di 

Blends  with  the  decor  of  any  home,  office,  club  room,  classroom,  museum,  disj 

window,  hotel,  etc. 

Large  center  dial  shows  sun  position,  daily  sun  rise  and  set,  moon  position,  m 
rise  and  set,  phase  of  moon,  low  and  high  tide  time,  current  stage  of  tide,  day 
month  of  year,  current  position  of  stars  in  sky,  time  of  star  rise  and  star 
relationships  of  sun,  moon  and  stars,  and  sidereal  or  star  time. 
Small  dial  at  lower  left  shows  local  time.  Small  dial  at  lower  right  shows  wi 
time  including  major  U.S.  cities  and  Universal  (Greenwich)  time. 
Operates  on  house  current — requires  only  one  simple  setting  in  any  geogra] 
location.  Measures  16"  high  x  11  ¥2"  wide  x  4V2"  deep.  Presentation  plac 
available.  Complete  satisfaction  guaranteed  or  money  refunded. 

Stock  No.  1202-E— Shp.  Wt.  12  lbs $195  F.O.B.  (+  $5  F.E 

SAME  AS  ABOVE — non-illuminated  dials 

SPECIAL  220-V.,  50-cycle  motor — illuminated  dials 

Stock  No.  1203-E— (Foreign  orders  deduct  tax) $21.5  F.O.B.  (-f  $5  F.E 


«ii  THE    WORLD   OF    DINOSAURS 

A^^'^X— 3*_  ONE  HUNDRED  MILLION 

=^^^A£''B^y^^  YEARS  AGO 

In  this  set  of  monsters — the  dinosaurs  that  ruled  the  earth 
100.000.000  years  ago— you  get  43  realistic  models  molded 
from   unbreakable  plastic.   Collection  includes  the  brontho- 


etrodon. 


the   tyr 


nd   others    from 
nd   many 
rule.    Fascinati 
ofT-beat   decorati 


mately  4"  high.  Kit  includes  fern 
areas  of  terrain  plus  ;  ■■■    -^--i 

Stocli  No.  70.473- E 


the   final   eons   ol 

tudy   for  young   and   old 

erage   size   approxi. 


ting  booklet  Prehistor 


HOME  WEATHER  STATION 

New   "Weatlier   Station"   is   highly 
sensitive  to  weather  changes.   Con- 
sistently   accurate    thermometer    to 
zt   2%:    barometer   accurate   to   ± 
.25"  and  liygrometer  to  it  5%.    Forelc 
from  12  to  24  hours  in  advance.  Hygro 
percent  relative   humidity.    Excellent  fui 
phenomena     and     meterological     hobby 
mounted   on    handsome   wood-grained    wall   panel    loH"    s 
5%".  Jleter  cases  heavily  metalized — combines  beauty  and 
protection.   Dials 


:id  plastic  parts   easily 

P  b\   step  assembly  diagr; 
tnng   operation,    comp 


KNOW   WIND   SPEED   ANYWHEf 
ANYTIME   WITH   POCKET   WIND  M 

Useful    ti 

Wind   Meter   accurate   to   withii 

-low    and    high    velocity.    One 


1    MPH. 


MPH  graduated  in  %  MPH 
from  10-eC  MPH  in  2  MPH  increments.  1 
read  even  in  inclement  weather.  6%"  li 
IV2"  wide  X  %"  thick.  Wt.  approx.  2  ozs. 
pocket  carrying  case,  instructions  inc 
__    .$4.95  Po: 


Stock    No-  60.349-E 


SOLVE    PROBLEMS!    TELL    FORTUNES!    PLAY    G/ 

NEW   WORKING   MODEL 

DIGITAL   COMPUTER 

ACTUAL  MINIATURE  VERSION  OF 

GIANT    ELECTRONIC    BRAINS 


Fast 

saches 
jbtracts, 


■tually 


3del 


teaches  computer  fundamentals.  Adds, 

iltlplies.    shifts,    complements, 
compares,    sequel 


embled,  12"  x  3%"  x 
IS,  32-page  instr 
language    (binarj 


AGES-OLD    FOSSIL   COLLECTIONS 

:  3  full 


nil   1  M  1  lit  ^   ^FT     Brachipod 
11,      u       I  ^11   three   ■ 

Stock   No     50  344  E 


tubes,     petrified 


CAHUOOTFKIIOUS 

worm   hurl,   crinoid 

snail    and    clam. 


$3.75   Postpaid 


SHIMMERING   RAINBOWS 
GEM-LIKE   COLOR 
DAZZLING  DIFFRACTION 
JEWELRY  FOR  MEN  AND  WO 
NOW    AVAILABLE    IN    GO 


rR\LTI()N  GRATI^G  REPLICA  to  break  up  111 
all  the  nth  deep  colors  of  nature's  grandest  pheui 
Incorporated    into   beautiful    jewelry,    these    exquis 


lilable.  Write  for  complet 


ITEM 
EARRINGS 
CUFF   LINKS 
PENDANT 
'.'.,'■  Tie  Clasp 
&  Cuff  Link  Set 


GOLD 

io.  I814.E 
1827- E 
I8I8-E 


I7I4-E 
1729-E 

1743-E 

1735-E 


OROIR  BY   STOCK   NUMBfR   .  Sf  NO  CHICK   OR   MONtY    ORDfR  .   SATISf  ACTION    GUAKANTUD! 

EDMUND  SCIENTIFIC  CC.barrington,  new  jersey 


ir  CHRISTMAS  GIFTS!  C^i 


NEW!   STATIC 
ELECTRICITY   GENERATOR 

ed    Mode 


1 

111-  Lliiik  aiMilav  as  jou  set  oft 

"' '    '       111 

t    boll   of    llKlitiung.    SlurJijl- 

"iV  ,'■',' i", 

lnop,K.riu.  directions.  Metal 
iislies  pick  up  llie  static  elcc- 

1  II  Icll-l'l 

iilil  JiscliarscJ  li.v  tlie  juinpnis 

hi  u  lU'il 

ooklet  iiicluiled- 

70.070- E 

$12.95   Postpaid 

ck  No 

N  BINOCULAR  TO  CAMERA  HOLDER 

„„,    Te,e":,."p.r\      Jj_- 


ruii  J" 

70  223— 


Just-Free'  Transparent'   Low  Cost' 
iLLECTORS    DISPLAY   CASE 


BE   READY   FOR  THE  MOON   SHOTS 

Itaii-er  Surveyor.  Lunar  Orbiter  Ulliiuuiiifil  space  prijbi 
"il  siVeil  evcitius  new  liglu  ou  the  mystery  of  the  muo 
aiKl  outer  space.  See  the  results  close-up.  Eilinund  lo^v-c.l^ 
lop-iiuality  equipuient  an>l  »<^f«iiOF'«,,l'"'  >;°","C„  yo 
— proviile  valuable   and  cimiplete   lufonuation   to   keep   ju 


See  Ihe  Stars,  Moon.  Plonets  Close  UbI 

3"  ASTRONOMICAL  REFLECTING  TELESCOPE 


,1,1  le    and    bri. 

for   lal  ing   telepliotos   inclu  i 
$11  50  Postp. 


approx.   10',4'"s7".  Mounted 


ally  for  pernia- 


IP  M 

0 


*»-    n^:;    1 

^  i,;;''„;Mk 

0.   70.342-E 
Treasure  Chest  Di 

iliilS  addillulial  i 
ncluiliiis  iTvslal  ; 
set.  tirsl- surface  1 
0.  70,343-E  


SCIENCE  TREASURE  CHESTS 


►alomarTypelAn  Unusual  Buy! 
-Lt   the  UinBS  of   Saturn,   the 
cinating  Planet  Mars,  huge 
rater    on  the  iloon.  Phases  ol 
c    nus    Eauaiorial  mount  with 
iLk  on  both  axes.  Alumtnized 
,nd    oter-coated    3"    diaineter 
.,gh  speed  f/10  mirror-  Tele- 
tope   comes    equipped   with   a 
iiV    eyepiece   and    a    mounted 
1   irlow    Lens.    Optical    Finder 
lele^cope  included.  Hardwood, 
nrlable    tripod.     FREE    with 
.lOpe    Valuable  STAR  CH-\KT 
i,K  or  HE.AVENS-  plus  -Hon 
(  OFL      DOOK- 
S29-9J   Po 

Intriguing  Low-Cost  Moon  Model 


70.336-E 


CRYSTAL  GROWING  KIT 
110  a  Crvstalloeraphr  project  illus- 
I  rated  with  large  beautiful  crystals 
\ou  "row  yourself-  Kit  includes  the 
hook  "Crystals  and  Crystal  Growing 
.ind  a  generous  supply  of  the  chemicals 
vou  need  to  grow  large  display  crystals 
■„f  potassium  aluminum  sulfate  (clear  I . 
purple),  potassium  sodium  tartrate 
e  hesabydratc  (blue  grecnl  or  hepta- 
issium  ferricyanide   (redl.  and  copper 

S9.50   Postpaid 


BIRDWATCHERS   SEE  WITHOUT 
BEING  SEEN 

>  "one-way"  mirrors  described  above 


spa 


displa 


Exact  replica!  30.000  formations 
—peaks,  craters.  Ocean  of  Storms,  etc.— 
all  in  relief.  Scaled  to  size.  Accurate  disl- 
ance  relationships.  Proper  lighting  snows 
moon  phase,  "black  light"  produces  start 
ling  effects.  Tough,  washable  plastic.  Tliree 
colors.  Far  side  blank— can  he  iised  for 
space   data.    Excellent   gift  item.   12     dia.. 


A  SLIDE  TRIP  TO   THE 
MOON  — MOON   TOPOG- 
RAPHY  STUDY  AID 

r?i  ill  astronomy  inc 
'L'his  luglily  informative 
iif  2!)  black  and  white 
features  such  topography 


■ffii'i 


Stock   No. 


i   for  the  

useful.  For  example:  you  can  buuu  a 
on  the  sunny  side  of  your  house  next 
a  piece  of  this  film  to  the  window  and 
tch  the  birds  from  a  few  inches  away. 


sheet  21" 


36" 


S3.00  Postpaid 


IDENTIFY  430  BIRDS  WITH 
FULL  COLOR  AUDUBON  BIRD  CHARTS 


.  "  430  small  birds  (over  200  spe- 
of  Eastern  and  Central  X.  America 
ed  by  plumage  for  fast  identification. 
r  coated  stock  especially  suited  for 
mounting  or  framing.  Includes  24- 
lok  containing  color  key  and  valuable 


70.G75-E  (The  Pair) 


..S3.50  Ppd. 


BIG  DETAILED  35"  x  46"  MOON  MAP 

llKack  and  white  pliolo  reproduction   of    ti 

named    lunar    formations   clearly   marked, 
■  other  valuable  informaf 


TINY  LAMP  GIVES  SUN-LIKE  BRILLIANCE 
FOR    WORK,     INSPECTION,     EXAMINATION 

\\\v  lou-rost.  miniature,  high-intensity  lamp 
■•ivcs  concciuraU',1  daylight.  Tses  low-cost  12- 
u,u  auto  bulb  IGE  1133)  yet  gives  light  equiva- 
lent to  150-walt  bulb,  full  33  candlepower. 
Excellent  all-purpose  lamp  for  bench  inspection 
of  parts  and  asscmbiies.  soldering,  or  as' micro- 
scope light.  T'sed  as  examination  lamp  by  physi- 


arlKt"" 

1  denli.sls. 

as  work  lamp  by  Jewelers.  techni''ians, 
ractive  in  any  office  or  room,  on  desk. 

Ic.    V"   lir, 

clamps  or  stands  needed.  Durable  black 

■hite.   Base  4"  dla.   x  2%"  high,   has 

vitch.    5'    c 

rd.    Reflector   2?i"   dia.   x  0V2"   long. 

amelcd  inn 

er  surface. 

Stock  N 

.  70,694-E 

S7.98  Ppd. 

Terrific    Buy!    American    Made! 
OPAQUE   PROJECTOR 

^y^^ 

Pill, eel*  illuslratiuns  up  to  3"  x  3-/2 
aiU    ci.iar-es    them    to    35"    X    30"    if 

^ 

screen     is     CV-     ft.     from     projector; 
1      .er    oil  lures    it    screen    is    further 
iw'^av     .So    tilui   or    negatives   needed. 

C.  current-   1 

.  1 'lb'..  2  07. 
0.  70.199-E 

iiiniii.  '    Icucring     in    full    color    or 
i.i  ..l^.iiavviiile.      Operates     on      Uo 
ft     cMeiiii""  '"■■>'  •'"■'  "'""  i™'"'!?''- 
PHstic  'case  with  built-in  handle. 

S7.95  Postpaiil 

j,i,^kaUddo.opcpa,terns. 3,„,„„,„,. 


BUILD     A     SOLAR     ENERGY     f"RNACE 

^    Furnace     tor   ,^;-;;l'":''"':''','"V-'se    ""rapwond!    \Ve 


^tnck    No     1544-E  '"'y  S74.80   pstpd 

7   X   35    AMERICAN    MADE    BINOCULARS 
Stock   No.  964-E  _  ^    S60  50^  pstpd_^^  (Tax^  uitl^ , 

ltock°N^!^"     '^■""""''""'"'sW  00  pstpd     (Tax  incl 

WOODEN   SOLID  PUZZLES 

12  Different  P"",'",  "'■"  ."''i  ^'""Vl  ' 
vour  abllltv  to  think  and  rea  on  11 
"is  a  fascinating  assortment  of  woo  1  I  ' 
/.les  that  will  pro\ide  hours  of  pli  1  '" 
Twelve  different  pu/zles  anniiil 
forms  to  take    ,[■  ,1 

I  ibink  and  feason  while  ham 
Stock  No    70  205  E 


7  X   50   MONOCULAR 

MAKES  INEXPENSIVE, 

'.GHTWEIGHT  TELEPHOTO  SYSTEM 

FOR  ANY  CAMERA 

optical      performa 


Out 


3T6 


l-reid'of    view    at    1000    yards 
li-hl    efflciencT    Is   To.    Exit    Pupil   measures 
ike'  to  attach  to  photographic  tripod.   Pi 
^  nvidc     \nnrux    lO-oz.   Includes  case,  sti  - . 
made.   Apprux.   10    ^^^  .^   Postpaid 

,ecup,    accepts    series    V 


T  Combination!  Pocket-Size 

50   POWER    MICROSCOPE 

and    10   POWER    TELESCOPE 

I  seful  Tel 


nes  .io  Times,  Sharp  focus  at  any  rar 
TTandy  for  sports,  looking  at  small  obje 
Tnlvr   Slock    Nc,   30-059-t  S4  50   n 


'FISH'  WITH  A  WAR  SURPLUS 

GIANT   MAGNET 
Bring  Up  Under-Waler  Treasures 
cal  tun!  Prolilable.  too!  Simply  trail  this 


erful 


tklc 


the 
netal 


fishin 
ble: 


has  terrific  lifting 
liiiwer— 2000  Gauss  rating— lifts  over  150  lbs.  on  land- 
more  under  water.  Many  Industrial  uses,  too:  recover  tools 
and  parts  from  Inaccessible  spots,  hold  work  in  place,  rid 
^iiop  floors  of  metal  fragments,  pins.   etc. 

Stock   No.  70,571-E  5-lb.     Magnet        SI2.50   Pstpd. 

Stock   No.   70.570-E  3'/2-lb.    Lifts  40   lb.   S  8.75   Pstpd. 

Stock    No.  70.572-E  7'/2-lb.    Lilts    175  lb.    ,     SI8-75   Pstpd. 
Stock   No.  83.152-E    15a4-lb.    Magnet 

Lifts  350  lbs.       ,,   ,S33.60   FOB 


icklight.  which 


1  fluor- 
plelely 


England. 

Stock"  No.    70.256- E 


SI  1.95    Postpaid 


ddm^Jifiio  CUi^m  uwi 


Four  original  works  of  art  In  the  collections  of  The  American 
Museum  of  Natural  History  have  been  handsomely  reproduced 
to  make  these  strikmg  greeting  cards,  each  with  an  identifying 
notation.  Whether  you  choose  a  gay  blaze  of  color  or  the 
sophisticated  serenity  of  monochrome,  these  cards  will  convey 
your  Christmas  wishes  with  dignity  and  distinction. 
^KMade  expressly  for  and  available  only  at  The  Museum  Shop. 
A...  Red  Crossbills — From  a  water  color  by  the  renowned  artist- 
naturalist  Louis  Agassiz  Fuertes,  these  cheery  red  birds 
perched  on  green  boughs  are  brightly  festive  in  the  traditional 
holiday  colors.  Printed  message  inside  "Merry  Christmas." 
Box  of  25 . . .  $4.00  ppd. — Box  of  100 .. .  $14.00  ppd. 


B...Snow  Bunting — The  subtle  delicacy  of  line  and  shad 
suffuses  this  Louis  Agassiz  Fuertes  drawing  with  a  feeling 
snow  hushed  softness  masking  the  winter  scene.  Printed  m 
sage  inside  "Merry  Christmas  and  Happy  New  Year."  Box  of 
.     $2.75  ppd. — Box  of  100...  $10. 00  ppd. 

C... Butterfly  Notes— Vibrant  and  exotic,  this  pair  of  paintii 
from  Maria  Menan's  rare  1719  Surinam  Portfolio  glows  w 
radiant  tropical  beauty.  These  cards  are  doubly  useful- 
Christmas  with  your  own  handwritten  message  or  for  y 
round  stationery.  Order  some  extras  too,  for  stocking  stuff 
and  other  "little  gifts."  Containing  the  two  subjects  illustra 
above.  Box  of  12,  ..$1.25  ppd.  5  boxes. ..  $5,00  ppd. 


Members  of  the  Museum  are 
entitled  to  a  10%  discount. 
Please  send  your  check  or  mon- 
ey order  to  ,  ,  , 


uecemDer  iyb4  •  sui5 


icorporating  Nature  Magazi 


'om 


Mere  are  beautifully  made,  technically  ad- 
vanced optical  and  weather  instruments  that 
you  can  give  with  pride.  Yet  they  are  mod- 
erately priced.  In  performance,  in  workman- 
ship and  materials,  and  in  design,  these 
products  have  won  the  critical  approval  of 
experts. 


Custom  designed  for  nature  study, 
Swift's  AUDUBON  Mk  II  has  the  extra 
power  (8.5X)  and  brilliance  (RtE  44)  to 
reveal  details  at  dawn  or  dusk  or  when 
subject  is  in  deep  shadow.  Wide  field 
(420  ft.)  facilitates  tracking  of  fast- 
moving  subjects.  Extra-close  focusing 
to  12  ft.  challenges  the  keen  stalker. 
Gift  boxed.  $130.00  plus  tax. 


The  ultimate  "night  glass,"  The  COM- 
MODORE 7X,  50  brings  in  details  in 
dawn,  dusk  and  moonlight  conditions. 
Prisms  of  Barium  Crown  glass  give  a 
fantastic  RLE  of  84,9.  Retractable  eye- 
cups  for  eyeglass  wearers,  tripod 
adapter,  magnesium  body,  are  just  a 
few  of  the  pluses.  With  case  and 
straps.  Gift  boxed.  $99.50  plus  fax. 


Compact  lightweight.  One  of  the  finest 
and  lightest  (21.5  oz)  full-size  binocu- 
lars made,  Swift's  NEPTUNE  gives  you 
a  very  wide  field  (425  ft)  and  a  bril- 
liance of  image  equalled  only  by  far 
more    expensive    instruments. 

$97.50  plus  tax. 


Beautifully  Made        Technically  Advanced 


ZOOM  TO  50  DIAMETERS! 

Swift's  remarkable  9-lens,  2-prism  zoom  optical  sys- 
tem gives  you  variable  power  from  20X  to  50X,  pre- 
cision focusing  from  40  ft  to  infinity.  Magnificent 
for  serious  nature  study,  fascinating  for  limited  astro- 
nomical use,  too.  A  truly  wonderful  gift,  complete 
with  rigid  tripod  and  built-in  sunshade.  $115.  Luggage 
quality  case  available,  $13.95, 


DESKTOP  WEATHER  STATION 
Swift's   GLOUCESTER    stands   out   among   barometer- 
thermometerhumidimeter  combinations  available  at  a 
moderate   price.   Spun   dials,   polished   brass-finished 
cases,  solid,  hand-rubbed  mahogany  base.  Gift  boxed. 

$22.50 


—^t  itofei  ei/eriftvliei-e,  or  ienci 

for  free  iiluitratea  brocliu 


SWIFT 

INSTRUMENTS,  Inc. 


Dept.    NH-12 

BOSTON  25,  MASS. 

SAN  JOSE  12,  CAL. 


Impressively  complete,  incredibly  beautiful: 

The  most  extraordinary 
itural  history  of  birds  ever 
published  in  one  volume 


i  fisher 


his  big,  color-filled  book  at  any  page 
;e  one  of  the  8,580  full  species  of 
birds  move  before  your  eyes— flying, 
;,  courting,  singing,  mating,  fighting 
riking  photographs  and  in  stunning 
lor  paintings  by  the  world's  leading 
ainter,  Roger  Tory  Peterson. 

before  have  bird-lovers  and  bird- 
;rs  been  able  to  enjoy  a  volume  like 
HE  World  of  Birds  is  an  unprece- 
I,    international    "publishing    first"! 

y^  Geographically,  The  World 
OF  Birds  ranges  over  196  mil- 
te,  lion  square  miles  of  land  and 
follows  all  200  known  families  of 
IS  far  as  flight  takes  them. 

rically,  the  world  of 

spans  140  million  years 
jlution  —  reviewing   doz- 
rare  and  bizarre  birds, 
ing  many  that  are  now  extinct. 

^Scientifically,  the  world 

M  OF  Birds  is  impeccably,  pain- 
^a  stakingly  accurate— the  crown- 
H^  ing  achievement  of  two  of  the 
world's  most  distinguished  or- 
ogists.  Roger  Tory  Peterson  has  con- 
id  more  than  700  true-color  paint- 
each  one  correct  down  to  the  last 
r.  And  the  authors  collaborate  on 
iprehensive  text  which  has  taken 
20  years  to  write  and  research! 

more  intriguing  than  folklore 

first  examination  of  The  World  of 
will  take  you  into  an  almost  un- 
able, exotic  world.  You  see  the 
can  pygmy  owl  with  "eyes"  at  the 
of  its  head;  the  Australian  bird 
builds  a  bower  during  courtship;  the 
lied  oxpecker  which  relieves  African 
of  ticks;  the  baya  weaver  bird  which 
;  taught  to  string  beads  on  a  thread; 
ack  grouse  with  its  crouching  dance 
You  see  hundreds  of  birds  in  typical 
ioral  actnities.  much  as  you  would 


see  them  in  the  field  on  a  round-    J^ 
the-world  bird-watching  tour.  s. 

And  that's  not  all!  This  amazing  text    N 
brings  you:  V 

•  natural  history,  \ 
biology,  distribu-  v, 
tion  •  S 

•  the  fossil  past  ^^ 
and  evolutionary  ^ 
present  of  birds  %^ 

•  techniques  of  J^ 
bird-watching  t 

•  full    details    on      .W 
field  guides;  por-     ./  i 
table  blinds;  band- 
ing; photographs, 
etc. 

•  unique  atlas  of  bird  life,- 
with  190  family  and  subfam- 
ily maps 

•  "black  list"  of  extinct  spe- 
cies and  "red  list"  of  en- 
dangered birds 

•  easy-to-use,  multi-purpose 
index 

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Natural  History 


Incorporating  Nature  Magazine 


J 


THE  JOURNAL  OF  THE  AMERICAN  MUSEUM  OF  NATURAL  HISTO 


Vol.  LXXHI 


DECEMBER  1964 


No. 


ARTICLES 

FIRE  ECOLOGY  OF  THE  GIANT  SEQUOIAS     Richard  J.  Hartesveldt 
ANATOMY  OF  DECAY  AS  PRESERVED  IN  SHALE         Leij  St0rmer 

FULTON  FISH  MARKET  Photographs  by  Lou  Bernstein 

POMPEII  Wilhelmina  Jashemski 

INTRODUCED  MENACE  Monica  Shorten 

ANOMALIES  IN  AFRICA  Photographs  by  L.  D.  Vesey-Fitzgerald 


DEPARTMENTS 

BOOKS  IN  REVIEW 

SKY  REPORTER 

ABOUT  THE  AUTHORS 

SCIENCE  IN  ACTION: 

LISTENING  UNDER  WATER 

WASHINGTON  NEWSLETTER 

SUGGESTED  ADDITIONAL  READING 


Joseph  A.  Davis,  Jr. 
Thomas  D.  Nicholson 


William  A.  Watkins 
Paul  Mason  Tilden 


COVER:  When  Mt.  Vesuvius  erupted  and  dropped  ten  to  twenty  feet  of  cind 
pumice,  and  ashes  on  Pompeii,  an  estimated  10  per  cent  of  the  population  of 
city  perished.  But  the  same  ashes  preserved  the  remarkable  art  that  existed  w 
the  tragedy  struck  in  a.d.  79.  For  example,  the  dolphin-driving  cupid  was 
the  wall  of  the  Casa  dei  Vettii,  and  is  strikingly  modern  in  its  use  of  v 
colors.  For  further  information  about  the  flora  and  fauna  of  Pompeii  and 
neighbor,  Herculaneum.  please  turn  to  page  30,  where  Dr.  Wilhelmina  Jashen 
gives  a  detailed  discussion  of  the  many  animal  paintings  found  on  ancient  w; 

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,t,   New 


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merican  Museum   of   Natural   History,   Central    Park  West  at  79th   Stre 

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No   part   of   this    periodica 

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You  will  find  Natukal  Hi 

TORY  magazine  indexed   in  Reader's  Guide  to  Periodical  Literature  in 

SILENCER 


His  business  is  quiet.  He's  a  General  Motors  development  engineer  and  his  job  is  to 
help  see  to  it  that  every  GM  car  operates  as  smoothly  and  quietly  as  advanced 
technology  and  human  skill  can  reasonably  achieve.  His  work  takes  him  into  an 
anechoic  chamber  at  the  Milford  Proving  Ground  where  walls  made  of  glass-fiber- 
wedges  up  to  a  yard  deep  absorb  99  percent  of  the  sound  made  by  a  car  in  operation. 

In  this  room  GM  cars  are  "road  proved"  on  a  chassis  dynamometer  under  many 
driving  conditions  and  at  varying  speeds.  Every  significant  noise,  no  matter  how 
slight,  is  studied,  charted,  evaluated.  Object:  quiet.  This  man  and  others  like  him 
never  stop  striving  to  reach  that  goal. 

Highly  refined  laboratory  setups  like  the  Milford  anechoic  rooms  contribute  vitally 
to  the  constant  improvement  of  General  Motors  cars.  But  they  would  be  valueless 
without  the  knowledge  and  experience  of  the  men  who  use  them.  People,  after  all, 
are  the  key  to  the  continuing  excellence  of  GM  products.  General  Motors  owes  its 
position  in  industry  to  the  dedication  and  ability  of  a  great  many  exceptional  people. 

GENERAL  MOTORS  IS  PEOPLE ... 


Making  Better  Things  For  You 


A  hook  of 

soaring  beauty 

-the  life  story  of 

a  remarkable 

bird  of  the  sea 


DURING  long,  lonelv  vig- 
ils on  the  clifftop  gull- 
cries  and  icv  dunes  of  New- 
foundland, Franklin  Russell 
gained  an  extraordinary 
knowledge  of  that  marvelous 
amalgam  of  all  seabirds  —  the 
herring  gull. 

Now,  with  dramatic  inten- 
sity', he  records  the  long  and 
violent  saga  of  a  magnificent 
male  of  the  species  (lanis 
argentatus). 

Lean  and  aggressive,  yet 
generally  peaceful  among  his 
fellows,  Argen  was  a  dar- 
ing, imaginative  hunter  with 
a  superior  sensitivirs'  to  dan- 
ger. And  so  he  survived  for 
21  years  —  wheeling  in  splen- 
did arcs  across  the  Northern 
sky,  fighting  and  foraging, 
mating  and  breeding. 

This  is  his  biography,  from 
the  moment  that  "he  blindly 
gathered  his  resources  to  be 
born  and  pushed  with  a  tinv 
egg-tooth  against  his  shell", 
until,  84  seasons  later,  his 
fierce  energv  failed  him,  and 
he  pitched  for\\ard  through 
swirling  mist  into  the  sea. 

AKGEN 

THE  GULL 

By  FRANKLIN  RUSSELL 

author  of 

Watchers  at  the  Pond 

With  9  photographs 

by  the  author.  S4.95 

Now  at  better  bookstores 

ALFRED 'A- KNOPF,  Publisher 


BOOKS  I  IN  REVIEW 


Wildlife  under  siege 


'By  Joseph  A.  Davis,  Jr. 

Africa's  Wildlife,  by  Eric  Robins.  Tap- 
linger  Publishing,  S5.95;  224  pp.,  illus. 
Vanishing  Wildlife,  by  Roy  Pinney. 
Dodd,  Mead  &  Co.,  $5.00;  193  pp.,  illus. 
I  Walk  With  Lions,  by  Mervyn  Cowie. 
The  Macmillan  Co.,  S4.95:  245  pp.,  illus. 
Between  the  Sunlight  and  the  Thun- 
der, by  Noel  Simon.  Houghton  Mifflin 
Co.,  $6.00;  384  pp.,  illus. 

A  single  species,  in  a  geological  twink- 
ling, has  wrested  dominion  over  its 
fellows.  Although  natural  forces  con- 
tinue to  act  upon  the  fauna  and  flora  of 
the  world  and  must  inevitably  doom 
some  species  to  extinction,  the  technol- 
ogy and  sheer  number  of  humans,  in- 
creasing by  a  geometrical  rate  that  needs 
no  longer  be  measured  in  millenniums 
or  centuries,  but  by  the  year,  has  in 
many  ways  precluded  nature's  long-term 
effects.  Man  (a  wonderfully  impersonal 
word  for  avoiding  the  incriminating 
"we"")  has  in  the  past  extirpated  species 
in  isolated  instances— one  here,  another 
there,  in  widely  scattered  places  and 
times  throughout  his  history.  Each  loss 
has  been  a  tragedy  in  itself,  but  the  over- 
all number  of  species  lost  forever  has 
remained  small  enough  to  be  listed  con- 
veniently. In  the  past  few  years,  however, 
it  has  become  clear  that  the  foreseeable 
future  holds  the  awful  promise  of  certain 
doom  on  a  wholesale  scale  for  the  plants 
and  animals  of  entire  regions.  Worse, 
region  after  region  will  be  added  to  the 
list,  like  pieces  of  a  vast  planet-wide  jig- 
saw puzzle,  and  when  at  last  the  picture 
emerges  it  will  be  one  of  desolation,  not 
alone  for  the  plants  and  animals  of  the 
world,  but  for  ourselves  as  well,  for  only 
recently  have  we  begun  to  suspect  the 
extent  to  which  all  living  things  are  in- 
terdependent. 

Public  awareness  appears  to  be  the 
only  hope  today  for  averting  the  other- 
wise irreversible  process.  A  few  species 
of  animals  have  been  hauled  from  the 
brink  of  man-made  extinction  in  the  last 
century— it  can  be  done.  In  large  measure, 
these  species  were  saved  by  the  process 
of  breeding  captive  animals,  however, 
and  the  preservation  of  wild-living  popu- 
lations is  still  a  precarious  undertaking 
whose  success  only  a  future  generation 
can  judge.  The  task  that  lies  ahead  is 
staggering,  and  although  scarcely  any- 
one who  reads  newspapers  and  maga- 
zines today  can  be  unaware  that  the 
natural  world  is  under  siege  by  human- 
ity, a  true  understanding  of  the  crisis 
that  is  upon  us  has  yet  to  impress  itself 


upon  more  than  the  few  ecologists  i 
are  working  in  the  field.  Fortunately 
past  few  years  have  seen  an  increas 
amount  of  publicity  given  to  the  sub; 
from  various  avenues  of  approach, 
four  books  reviewed  here  are  represe; 
live  of  the  growing  number  of  popi 
appeals  for  animal  preservation. 

Eric  Robins'  approach  is  a  subtle  c 
In  Africa's  W'ildlije  he  uses  a  series 
vignettes  to  recount  visits  with  pec 
involved  in  one  way  or  another  with 
wildlife  of  a  large  area  of  southern 
eastern  Africa.  Slowly  he  assemble 
disquieting  mosaic  relieved  by  sr 
patches  of  heroism  and  hope  that  st 
out  the  more  by  contrast  to  the  b; 
ground.  The  occasional  statistics  in 
narrative  are  unobtrusive,  but  telling 

Vanishing  Wildlife  is  another  mat 
We  may  grant  that  Roy  Pinney's  g 
intentions  are  above  question,  but, 
bluntly,  he  is  not  qualified  to  discoi 
on  the  subject  and  has  done  a  slove 
job.  Some  passages  are  accurate  . 
forcefully  written,  but  the  instances 
misstatement  and  carelessness  are 
too  frequent  to  be  forgiven.  Pinney  : 
photographer,  and  he  has  illustrated 
book  liberally  with  photos,  many  ta 
by  himself.  This  makes  even  more  i 
prising  the  use  of  his  pictures  of 
gemsbok  and  white  rhino  in  hab 
groups  in  the  Akeley  African  Hall 
The  American  Museum  of  Natural  I 
tory  over  captions  describing  Arai 
oryx  and  Indian  rhino. 

Carelessness  in  the  text,  too,  is  r, 
pant.  For  example,  the  following  occ 
on  a  single  page  in  the  discussion  of 
Javan  rhino:  the  animal,  he  says  is  " 
lieved  to  exist  now  only  in  Sumatra,"  ; 
then  below,  "The  only  place  where  1 
species  now  survives  is  in  Java."  ' 
status  of  the  whooping  crane  is  lost  i 
series  of  confusing  data  that  will  fj 
trate  the  attentive  reader. 

To  dwell  further  on  the  shortcomi 
of  this  book  would  serve  no  useful  f 
pose.  Suffice  it  to  say  that  it  is  to 
recommended  only  to  the  zoologist  ^ 
enjoys  underlining  other  people's  err 
and  has  a  serviceable  pencil  sharpe 
close  at  hand. 

In  /  Walk  ivith  Lions,  Mervyn  Co 
has  chosen  to  thread  the  story  of 
conservation  problem  in  Kenya  throi 
an  autobiography.  His  account  cov 
the  diminishing  of  wildlife  in  the  ye 
since  his  childhood,  but  is  devoted  pi 
cipally  to  his  efforts  in  connection  n 
the  establishment  of  Kenya's  Royal  1 


wims 


"The  most  exciting  of  all  the  Audubon  books. 

With  a  refreshing  ingenuity,  it  displays  details  of  the  birds  and  animals 

in  the  full  size  of  the  elephant  folios.  If  you  feel,  as  I  did,  that  popular  books 

of  Audubon's  work  have  been  overdone,  you  had  better  take  a 

look  at  this  new  approach."— Roland  c.  clement,  Audubon  Magazine 

by  Edwin  Way  Teale 

with  his  selection  of  John  James  Audubon's  own  best  writings 
on  frontier  life  in  the  nineteenth  century. 

40  dramatic  plates  in  full  color  and  96  large  black-and-white  illustrations,  superbly 
reproduced  direct  from  the  engravings;  size  8%"x  11";  $15.00  (a  Studio  Book) 

The  VikinS:  Press  625  Madison  Avenue,  New  York,  N.Y.  10022 


to 


Archeological  detective  work  in  a 
fascinating  lost  world . . . 

IN  SEARCH  OF 
ANCIENT  ITALY 


By  Pierre  Grimal.  The  author  of  The  Civilization 
oj  Rome  tells  the  remarkable  story  of  ancient  Italy — 
m  Rome,  in  the  land  of  the  Etruscans,  in  the  Greek 
colonies  of  the  south.  He  explains  how  war,  pilfering, 
and  construction  have  caused  us  to  lose  many  traces 
of  the  ancient  Italian  peoples,  and  shows  how  arche- 
ologists  have  unearthed  the  past  from  fragments  of 
temples,  monuments,  arches,  baths,  aqueducts,  and 
scrolls.  With  more  than  45  pages  of  photographs,  $6.50 


to 


A  completely  revised,  lavishly  illustrated 

^Second  Edition  of  J.  R.  NORMAN'S 

A  HISTORY  OF 

r  IoIiJcjO    Revised  by  R  H.  Greenwood; 

illustrate*]  by  W.  R  C.  Tenison.  Are  fish  good  par- 
ents? How  and  where  do  they  migrate?  How  does 
their  perception  compare  with  ours?  How  do  fish 
move,  feed,  breathe,  and  reproduce?  These  and  hun- 
dreds of  other  fascinating  piscatorial  questions  are 
answered  in  this  updated  edition  of  the  most  authori- 
tative one-volume  work  in  the  field.  Every  aspect  of 
the  life  of  fish  is  covered  in  twenty  fact-packed  chap- 
ters and  in  a  section  (new  in  this  edition)  on  the 
classification  of  fish.  With  150  illustrations,  $6.95 


to 


Another  remarkable  word-and-picture  "first"  by  the 
author  of  Kalahari  and  The  Last  Cannibals . . . 

SAVAGE 
NEW  GUINEA 

By  Jens  Bjerre.  Once  again  anthropologist- 
photographer  Jens  Bjerre  becomes  the  first  "outsider" 
to  witness  and  record  some  of  the  tribal  rites  and 
primitive  peoples  of  Asia.  This  record  of  his  recent, 
dangerous  ethnographic  e.xpedition  into  the  highlands 
of  New  Guinea  offers  remarkable  insight  into  several 
very  different  tribes — from  the  war-loving  Kukukukus 
to  the  Kutubus  with  their  strange  sexual  code  —  all 
documented  by  32  pages  of  the  author's  superb  color 
photographs,  15.00 

I  At  your  bookstore 

iSD  HILL  &  WANG 

141  Fifth  Avenue,  New  York,  New  York  10010 


tional  Parks.  The  narrative  is  peppe] 
with  amusing  anecdotes,  but  the  he; 
emphasis  upon  individual  animals  ter 
at  times  to  obscure  the  author's  conc( 
for  the  species,  and  Cowie's  frequent  i 
of  the  expression  "my  animal  frienc 
becomes  a  bit  cloying.  Like  Robi 
book,  /  Walk  with  Lions  is  not  ba 
reading  on  the  wildlife  problem,  but 
interesting  correlative  material. 

The  reader  who  wants  an  excelli 
presentation  of  the  over-all  picture 
conservation  as  it  is  to  be  found  in  Ker 
will  find  Noel  Simon's  Betiveen  the  Si 
light  and  the  Thunder  just  what  he 
looking  for.  To  begin  with  a  seeminj 
trivial  matter,  he  is  the  only  one  of  I 
African  writers  who  does  not  overei 
mate  the  reader's  familiarity  with  Afri 
He  provides  maps  (Robins  does  too,  1 
not  such  meaningful  ones)  and  explai 
tions  that  the  non-Kenyan  reader  v 
find  invaluable  if  he  is  not  to  be  bogg 
down  among  the  details  necessary  to 
exposition  of  the  problems  there.  Sim 
has  organized  his  presentation  adrr 
ably,  covering  the  historical  setting 
some  detail,  providing  an  incisive 
count  of  the  present  situation,  and,  p 
haps  more  important,  offering  propos 
for  action.  A  glossary  of  the  scienti 
names  of  the  species  treated  in  the  ti 
is  a  happy  addition,  and  the  tables  a 
appendixes  further  enhance  an  alrea 
fine,  carefully  executed  book. 

Mr.  Davis  is  Curator  of  Mammals  at  t 
New  York  Zoological  Park  (Bronx  Zo- 
One  of  his  duties  is  the  development 
breeding  herds  of  endangered  mammc 


DowNSTREAii,  by  John  Bardach.  Hari 
&  Row,  $5.95;  278  pp.,  illus. 

]N  this  well-written  and  enlighteni 
volume.  Dr.  Bardach  embraces  wa 
in  its  many  forms— fog,  clouds,  rain,  ht 
snow,  and  ice— and  discusses  the  vari 
phenomena  that  affect  water,  such 
topography  and  aquifers.  Man  and  1 
effects  on  waters  are  also  included. 

Beginning  with  the  premise  that  p 
cipitation  in  some  form  gives  rise  to 
streams  and  that  their  ultimate  destii 
tion  is  the  ocean,  the  author  discus; 
brooks  that  originate  from  melting  g 
ciers,  bogs,  marshes,  lakes,  springs,  ; 
tesian  wells,  surface  drainages,  and 
on.  He  follows  the  brooks  as  they  becoi 
streams,  join  one  another  to  becoi 
large  rivers,  finally  form  deltas,  and  e 
ter  either  the  sea  or  an  estuary,  whe 
their  waters  become  brackish. 

Most  fresh  waters  are  in  motion  as  a 
waves  in  lakes  and  currents  in  strean 
and  the  book  includes  much  informati 
concerning  such  water  dynamics.  Raf 
erosive  effects  by  high-gradient  streai 
are  compared  with  the  silting  effects 
static  waters,  and  water  as  a  modifi 


s   landscape   is    also    interestingly 
dequately  treated. 
Bardach  gives  us  a  huge  and  varied 
It    of    excellent    natural    history. 
are  concise  life  histories  of  many 

and  animals,  including  such  di- 
aquatic    and    dry-land    forms    as 

mosses,  buttercups,  dragonfiies, 
beetles,  mollusks,  oysters,  annelid 
5,  many  fishes,  amphibians,  rep- 
birds,  and  mammals.  Even  the  mi- 
n  of  musk  ox  along  river  courses  is 
sed.  The  author  points  out  a  num- 
f  instances  of  highly  specialized 
itions  to  extreme  conditions,  such 
rential  currents,  which  result  in 
e  species  with  marked  morphologi- 
milarities  inhabiting  widely  sepa- 
waters  of  the  world. 

last  three  of  the  nine  chapters 
argely  with  man's  use  and  misuse 
aters.  These  thought-provoking 
;rs  are  written  in  an  objective 
;r  in  which  the  increasing  shortage 
er  in  the  face  of  a  rapidly  expand- 
luman  population  is  evaluated, 
laws,  detergents,  insecticides,  and 
;  energy  wastes  are  discussed, 
is  a  bibliography  and  index. 
b  the  average  reader  and  specialist 
rofit  by  reading  this  book. 

Milton  B.  Tr.\utman 
The  Ohio  State  Museum 

^lEW  OF  Life,  by  George  Gaylord 
on.    Harcourt,    Brace    &    World, 
308  pp. 

iRGE   GAYLORD   SIMPSON    is   UOt   Only 

e  of  the  most  outstanding  investi- 
of  organic  evolution;  he  is  also  a 
who  has  often  gone  before  a  wider 
;  to  present  the  results  of  modern 
ts  into  the  historical  phenomena 
logy.  In  This  View  of  Life,  he  has 
bled  a  number  of  his  previously 
hed  essays— edited  to  avoid  repe- 
and  to  embrace  a  larger  concept— 
as  added  a  few  new  articles.  The 
is  a  volume  that  can  be  read  as  a 
or  from  which  isolated  chapters 
2  selected. 

re  are  four  principal  divisions: 
■oaches  to  Evolution";  "Evolution 
g  the  Sciences";  "The  Problem  of 
se";  and  "Evolution  in  the  Uni- 
"  Each  part  consists  of  three  or 
;hapters.  The  scope  of  the  book 
le  outlined  by  mentioning  a  few  of 
chapters. 

;  title  of  Chapter  2,  "One  Hundred 
Without  Darwin  Are  Enough,"  is 
ived  from  H.  J.  Muller's  angry  ex- 
tion  on  the  centenary  of  the  publi- 
of  Darwin's  The  Origin  of  Species. 
son  shows  that  there  is  justification 
ling  indignant  about  the  treatment 
jffered  by  the  teaching  of  evolution 
too-many  high  school  curriculums. 
textbooks  omit  evolution  com- 
y,  and  others  discuss  it  late  in  the 


This  is  the  New  Field  Model  Questar  Telescope. 

It  weighs  less  than  3  pounds  and  costs  only 
S795.  Included  in  the  price  are  this  4-lb.  case, 
one  eyepiece,  and  an  improved  basic  camera 
coupling  set.  There  is  room  for  cameras  and 
other  accessories. 

Twenty-one  major  changes  in  this  barrel  and 
control-box  assembly  permit  a  much  wider 
photographic  field  of  view,  which  now  covers 
all  but  the  very  corners  of  the  24x36  mm.  film 
frame  at  f/16  without  extension  tubes.  Expo- 
sures are  two  f-numbers  faster. 

The  New  Field  Model  is  optically  identical  in 
quality  to  all  Questars.  Since  only  an  average  of 
one  out  of  three  perfect  optical  systems  sur- 
passes theory  by  enough  to  satisfy  us,  we  can 
continue  to  state  that  no  amount  of  money, 
time  or  human  effort  can  noticeably  improve 
Qiicstar's  power  of  resolution.  For  whereas 
Lord  Rayleigh's  criteria  sets  1.4  seconds  of  arc 
as  Questar's  limit  of  resolution,  a  Questar  has 
resolved  two  stars  but  0.6  second  apart. 

Because  our  function  is  to  make  the  world's 
finest  small  telescopes  in  limited  number,  in- 
stead of  many  of  ordinary  quality,  this  New 
Field  Model  offers  a  new  experience  to  the 
photographer.  We  oflTer  him  the  world's  sharp- 
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with  a  low-power  wide-field  finder  view,  lil<e 
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objects  rapidly.  With  fliclc  of  finger  he  can  bring 
to  bear  a  high-power  view  of  40-80x  or  80-1 60x 
to  study  the  object  minutely  through  this  super- 
fine telescope.  Another  finger  flick  and  slight 
refocusing  brings  the  object  to  the  clear  bright 
center  of  his  cameras'  groundglass. 


At  this  point  he  is  challenged  to  capture  on 
the  sensitive  emulsion  what  this  superb  tele- 
scope of  56  inches  focal  length  is  projecting  to 
his  film.  He  has  seen  it  in  Questar's  eyepiece 
and  in  his  reflex  camera's  groundglass.  AH  that 
remains  is  to  place  the  image  in  exact  focus  on 
the  film  and  expose  correctly  with  no  vibration 
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able  to  do  this,  the  Questar-modifled  Nikon  F. 

For  the  first  time,  then,  Questar  has  a  true 
photographic  model,  and  a  camera  without 
mirror  slap,  shutter  vibration,  or  too-dim  focus- 
ing. Moreover,  from  now  on  we  can  measure 
the  actual  picture-taking  light  at  the  ground- 
glass,  and  abandon  inexact  exposure  calculations 
entirely,  using  the  new  cadmium  sulfide  meters. 

The  New  Field  Model,  in  case  as  shown,  with 
basic  couplings  and  40-80x  eyepiece,  is  priced 
at  $795.  Extra  eyepiece  80-lbOx,  $35.  Quesiar- 
modified  Nikon  F  bodies,  $234.60.  Complete 
outfit  above  with  Nikon  camera  body  and  Lin- 
hof  tripod,  $1332,  postpaid  in  U.S. 

All  Questar  models  are  described  in  our  latest 
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tography. $1.00  postpaid  in  U.S.,  Mexico  and 
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where, $3.50. 

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text  where  it  may  never  be  used  as  a 
term  hastens  to  its  close.  Some  teachers 
who  do  refer  to  evolution  do  not  include 
human  origins.  Other  books  and  teachers 
circumvent  the  term  evolution  by  using 
"development'"  instead.  And  there  are 
still  other  ways  to  avoid  trouble  from 
often  ill-informed  but  powerful  com- 
munity opinion.  Simpson  minces  no 
words  in  referring  to  "the  higher  super- 
stitions celebrated  weekly  in  every  ham- 
let of  the  United  States."  This  phrase  is 
not  applied  to  religious  attitudes  as  such. 
On  the  contrary,  the  author  is  well  aware 
of  the  separateness  of  the  religious 
sphere,  which  lies  beyond  the  rational 
considerations  of  the  scientist.  But  be- 
cause he  recognizes  and  respects  the 
borderline  between  science  and  religion, 
he  justly  demands  that  the  same  respect 
be  shown  by  those  on  the  other  side.  It 
seems  strange  that  one  of  the  central 
facts  of  nature  and  one  that  has  the 
greatest  impact  on  man"s  evaluation  of 
his  status  in  the  material  universe  still 
divides  our  society  into  two  cultures— one 
rational  and  one  deliberately  ignorant. 
"The  Historical  Factor  in  Science"  is 
the  theme  of  another  chapter.  Here  the 
distinction  is  made  between  the  non- 
historical,  immanent,  unchanging  prop- 
erties of  matter  and  the  historical, 
constantly  changing  specific  situations 
in  the  world,  which  represent  a  configu- 
rational  conditioning  of  future  changes. 
Evolution,  while  necessarily  based  on 
immanent  processes,  is  unique  because 
of  its  configurational  dependence.  Im- 
manent properties  imply  what  is 
possible;  configurational  limitations  de- 
termine what  actually  happens.  The  his- 
torical factor  excludes  the  possibility  of 
evolution  reversing  itself,  because  his- 
tory is  inherently  irreversible.  Configura- 
tional limitations  are  responsible  for  the 
fact,  stressed  often  in  the  book,  that 
evolutionary  lines  usually  do  not  lead  to 
a  continuous  future.  Most  species  die  out 
without  evolving  into  new  ones. 

A  searching  section  of  Simpson's  book 
concerns  the  problem  of  purpose.  There 
is  no  denial  that  adaptation  is  an  all- 
pervading  phenomenon  in  organisms- 
how  could  it  be  otherwise?  There  is, 
however,  a  great  difference  between  the 
fact  of  adaptation  and  such  supposedly 
causal  concepts  as  teleology,  finalism. 
and  elan  vital.  The  origin  of  adaptation 
is  seen  in  natural  selection  in  a  refined 
sense  that  not  only  eliminates  the  less  fit 
but  also  leads  creatively  to  the  occur- 
rence as  a  usual  phenomenon  of  what,  a 
priori,  is  extremely  improbable.  Here 
one  may  have  wished  for  a  more  exten- 
sive treatment  of  the  genetic  basis  of 
evolution  than  Simpson,  the  paleontolo- 
gist and  taxonomist,  offers  the  reader. 
Instead,  there  is  a  special  chapter.  "Evo- 
lutionary Theology."  that  critically  ana- 
lyzes the  views  of  Lecomte  du  Noiiy, 
E.  W.  Sinnot,  and  Teilhard  de  Chardin 


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plumage  differentiated  by  age, 
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ship, nesting  habits  —  and  sup- 
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identification.  Though  the 
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are  common  on  this  side  of 
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BYR  MEYER  DE  SCHAUENSE 
The  Academy  of  Natun 
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the  heading  "The  New  Mysticism." 
;he  chapter  "The  Nonprevalence  of 
moids."  Simpson  applies  some  of 
olutionary  thinking  to  the  question 
ether  it  is  likely  that  we  can  obtain 
edge  concerning  the  existence  out- 
ur  own  planet  of  organisms  with  an 
gence  comparable  to  man's.  The 
r's  answer  is  a  nearly  absolute 
His  reasoning  is  plausible,  but  its 
ssion  is  colored,  unfortunately,  by 
Imitted  bias  as  an  organismal.  in 
ist  to  a  molecular,  biologist.  As  is 
ent,  This  View  of  Life  gives  its 
rs  a  many-faceted  insight  into 
aspects  of  life. 

Curt  Stern 
University  of  California 

J^ILE,  by  Eliot  Elisofon.  The  Viking 
$17.50;  292  pp.,  illus. 

:  photographs  are  the  raison  d'etre 
this  volume.  There  are  290  of 
-many  magnificent— taken  by  Mr. 
on  on  five  separate  visits  to  Africa, 
trace  the  course  of  the  Nile  from 
uatorial  sources  until  it  flows  into 
[editerranean,  4,160  miles  away. 
;e  the  glaciers,  plants  and  jungles, 
and  swamps,  birds,  animals,  and 
3  of  its  headwaters  and  of  the  far 
.    Continuing   downstream— the 


scenery  constantly  changing— we  are 
shown  more  settled  village  life;  we  meet 
our  first  antiquities  at  Meroe,  reminders 
of  the  Nubian  dynasty  that  governed 
Egypt  for  a  hundred  years.  Next  we  see 
Abu  Simbel  and  Philae  (the  latter 
scarcely  visible  above  the  waters  of  the 
inundation).  Elephantine  and  Aswan, 
and  enter  the  Egypt  of  the  dynastic 
period.  From  here  on,  as  is  to  be  ex- 
pected, there  are  many  views  of  ancient 
buildings,  wall  reliefs,  paintings,  statues, 
and  scenes  of  modern  life. 

The  plates  are  arranged  in  groups  of 
fifteen,  separated  from  each  other  by 
about  three  pages  of  text  and  a  page  of 
detailed  captions  written  by  Mr.  Eliso- 
fon; at  the  head  of  each  of  these  chap- 
ters is  the  appropriate  section  of  the 
useful  map  with  which  the  volume  starts. 

There  are  some  other  publications  with 
more  detailed  accounts— both  literary 
and  pictorial— of,  for  instance,  the  Ru- 
wenzories,  the  customs  of  the  tribes  of 
the  Congo,  or  the  history  of  the  Sudan. 
The  Egyptian  antiquities  pictured  are 
all  well  known  to  the  archeologist;  and 
for  his  resume  of  ancient  Egyptian  his- 
tory and  chronology  Mr.  Elisofon  has  un- 
fortunately taken  as  his  authority  a  book 
written  sixty  years  ago.  The  beauty  of 
the  photographs  is  often  obscured  by 
the    confusion    caused    by    binding    to- 


gether two  unrelated  scenes  with  no  mar- 
gins to  separate  them;  the  color  plates 
are  poor;  and  one  suspects  that  some 
shadow  detail  was  lost  in  reproduction. 
Nevertheless,  this  would  be  a  very 
pleasant  book  to  give  or  to  receive:  it 
falls  into  the  category  of  "gift"  or  "art" 
books.  With  the  photographs  themselves 
Mr.  Elisofon  has  achieved  his  aim— to 
capture  for  us.  arrestingly,  the  Nile  and 
the  lands  through  which  it  flows. 

Nora  Scott 
The  Metropolitan  Museum  of  Art 

The  Senses  of  Animals,  by  L.  Harrison 
Matthews  and  Maxwell  Knight.  Philo- 
sophical Library,  $7.50;  240  pp.,  illus. 

THIS  volume  is  actually  two  books 
in  one.  The  first  half,  by  Maxwell 
Knight,  is  entitled  "Animals  in  the 
Field."  and  the  second  half,  by  L.  Harri- 
son Matthews,  is  "How  Senses  Work." 
The  section  by  Knight  begins  with 
some  general  remarks  on  sensory  equip- 
ment. Unfortunately,  no  general  defini- 
tions or  classification  of  the  senses  is 
given,  other  than  the  classic  concept  of 
the  five  senses.  The  writing  is  simple 
and,  for  the  most  part,  on  an  elementary 
level.  Each  "sense"  has  its  separate 
chapters  on  general  aspects  and  on 
"field  work  and  experiments."  The  treat- 


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LEITZ  TRINOVID 
BINOCULARS 


A  TOTALLY  NEW  CONCEPT  IN  BINOCULARS 

The  heart  of  these  new  glasses  is  a  special  prism 
—  a  difficult  prism  to  manufacture  in  quantity  and 
to  precise  tolerances.  Leitz  has  mastered  its 
production. 

NO  OTHER  BINOCULARS  PERFORM  LIKE 
THE  TRINOVIDSAII  Trinovid  models  have  ultra- 
wide-field  eyepieces,  providing  a  panoramic  view 
which  must  be  experienced  to  be  appreciated 
fully.  The  superb  correction  of  the  Leitz  optics 
gives  unsurpassed  brilliance  and  clarity  of  image. 
All  air-to-glass  surfaces  are,  of  course,  anti-reflec- 
tion coated  to  increase  light  transmission  and 
contrast.  As  a  final  plus,  each  of  the  three  Trino- 
vid models-6  x  24,  8  x  32,  10  x  40-is  small 
enough  to  slip  Into  a  jacket  pocket. 

TRINOVIDS  DON'T 
LOOK  LIKE  CON- 
VENTIONAL BIN- 
OCULARS Compare 
the  slim  silhouette  of 
the  Trinovid  with  the 
bulk  and  weight  of 
conventional  binocu- 
lars. Compare  the 
focusing,  too;  and  the  optics!  The  Leitz  Tr 
are  truly  new  binoculars,  both  optically 
housing  design. 

Which  of  the  Trinovid  models  is  best  for  you  will 
depend  largely  upon  your  personal  needs. The  best 
way  to  make  a  choice  is  to  visit  a  Leitz  Binocular 
Dealer  and  examine  all  three  models,  or  write 
directly  for  descriptive  literature. 


TRINOVID       USUAL  GLAS'.S 

inovids 
and  In 


ment  of  the  latter  consists  in  the  main  of 
anecdotes— often  related  in  the  first  per- 
son—and shows  little  understanding  of 
experimental  techniques. 

Matthews  begins  his  section  by  describ- 
ing the  sensory  apparatus  and  function 
of  some  of  the  most  primitive  animals, 
such  as  flatworms  and  sea  anemones.  He 
states  that  the  difference  between  these 
primitive  types  and  the  higher  animals 
is  one  of  degree,  not  of  kind.  Such  a 
statement  ignores  the  qualitative  mor- 
phological, physiological,  and  psycho- 
logical evolutionary  advances  that  have 
taken  place  at  the  various  phyletic  levels. 
The  difference  between  a  simple  flat- 
worm  eye  and  the  eye  of  an  insect  is  not 
simply  the  latter's  additional  sensory 
units  and  more  complex  organization.  At 
each  phyletic  level  there  is  the  addition 
of  new  structures  that  operate  on  differ- 
ent physiological  principles.  The  concept 
of  levels  is  of  fundamental  importance 
in  animal  behavior,  as  well  as  in  other 
biological  fields,  and  this  could  have 
been  clearly  demonstrated  in  the  study 
of  sensory  modalities. 

It  is  difficult  for  me  to  recommend  this 
book  to  any  particular  circle  of  readers, 
as  it  is  not  evident  for  whom  the  book 
was  intended.  Since  experimental  evi- 
dence and  documentation  are  given  little 
attention,  it  is  not  a  good  general  refer- 
ence on  animal  senses,  nor  would  it  be 
useful  to  the  serious  student.  The  style 
and  coverage  vary  from  juvenile  to  pe- 
dantic, so  it  is  neither  a  children's  nor  a 
college  level  book.  It  is  too  technical  and 
yet  too  narrow  in  its  approach  to  be  valu- 
able to  the  person  outside  the  ken  of 
natural  history.  Perhaps  its  main  value 
might  be  to  stimulate  some  thought  about 
the  sensory  aspects  of  animal  behavior. 
William  N.  Tavolga 
The  American  Museum 


Familiar  Reptiles  and  Amphibians  of 
America,  by  Will  Barker.  Harper  & 
Row,  $5.95;  220  pp.,  illus. 

THE  illustrations  by  John  C.  Yrizarry 
make  up  the  best  part  of  this  book. 
Showing  some  appreciation  of  typical 
positions  and  attitudes  as  well  as  meticu- 
lous attention  to  morphology,  Mr.  Yri- 
zarry provides  some  excellent  renditions 
of  native  amphibians  and  reptiles. 

The  text,  mainly  compiled  from  pre- 
vious compilers,  is  made  up  of  a  repeti- 
tious and  naively  conceived  series  of 
accounts  that  is  unrelieved  by  either 
knowledge  or  clarity.  While  easily 
checkable  items  such  as  scientific  names 
and  geographic  ranges  are  relatively 
accurate,  a  lack  of  basic  understanding 
of  the  subject  is  visible  throughout. 
Neither  field  guide  nor  handbook,  and 
without  any  unifying  conceptual  design 
to  tie  it  together,  the  book  rambles  over 
body  sizes,  geographic  ranges,  and  indi- 
vidual life  histories  without  illuminating 


SIGNS 

AND 

WONDERS 

UPON 
PHARAOH 

by  JOHN  A. 
WILSON 

One   of   the    great 
Egyptologists   of   our 
day  describes  Ameri- 
ca's substantial  share 
in  the  exploration  of  an- 
cient  Egypt  —  from 
Thomas   Jefferson's 
hopes  to  the  outstand- 
ing contributions   of 
Reisner,   Breasted,   and 
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of  them.  Both  herptiles  (explained 
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3  a  better  reporter. 

H.  G.  Bowling 
New  York  Zoological  Park 

IN  THE  Sea,  by  Gosta  Jagersten  and 
lart  Nilsson.  Basic  Books,  Inc., 
W;  184  pp.,  illus. 

.THOUGH  many  popular  books  pic- 
turing the  creatures  of  the  sea  have 
;ared  in  recent  years.  Life  in  the  Sea 
book  with  particular  appeal  for 
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ke  most  books  on  the  subject,  this 
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John  J.  Lee 
The  American  Museum 


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bert   L.   Little,   Jr.,   and   Frank   H. 

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ERS  OF  Australia,  by  Barbara  York 
ain.  The  Jacaranda  Press  (Bris- 
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:VE  FRESHVfATER  FiSHES  OF  AuSTRA- 

i,  by  Gilbert  P.  Whitley.  The  Jac- 

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s.  Minerals,  Crystals,  and  Ores, 

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You  may  never  have  to  shoot  an  Alosa  pseudoharengus  being 
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Nikon   Inc. Ill  Fifth  Ave.,  N.Y.3.  SubsidiaryofEhrenreichPnoto-Optical  industries,  inc. 


II 


Fire  Ecology  of  the 
Giant  Sequoias 

Controlled  fires  may  be  one  solution  to  survival  of  the  species 


Richard  J.  Hartesveldt 

FIVE-YEAR  STUDY  of  the  effects  of 
heavy  human  impact  upon  the 
■ra  Nevada's  giant  sequoias  has 
;aled  a  fascinating  story  of  this 
;ies'  virtual  dependence  upon  re- 
rent  fire  for  survival.  The  siory  is 
no  means  singular,  nor  is  it  new. 
:re  are  many  plant  species  through- 

the  world  for  which  fire  plays  an 
lortant  role  in  preparing  suitable 
Ibed  conditions  and  in  eliminating 

more  shade-tolerant  plants  that 
ipete  with  them  and  impair  their 


Thick  bark  of  sequoia  trunk  usually 
protects  it  from  serious   fire   damage. 


early  growth.  Parts  of  the  story  of 
Sequoia  gigantea  have  already  been 
told  by  John  Muir,  George  Sudworth, 
Willis  Jepson,  Woody  Metcalf,  Harold 
Biswell,  and  others.  It  is  being  supple- 
mented annually  through  a  research 
program  encouraged  and  financed  by 
the  National  Park  Service. 

The  story  concerns  a  process  known 
as  plant  succession,  the  continual 
change  of  the  plant  communities.  As 
groups  of  plants  change  the  soil's 
nature  by  the  addition  of  their  re- 
mains, other  species  respond  to  the 
new  conditions,  invade  the  area,  and 
gradually  crowd  out  the  earlier  plants. 
Each  invading  species  of  plant  is 
usually  better  adapted  for  growth  in 
reduced  sunlight  and  soil  moisture 
than  were  the  plants  of  each  previous 
group.  In  turn,  as  these  plants  change 
the  environment,  still  others  invade 
and  crowd  them  out.  Changes  continue 
until  a  long-enduring  community  of 
shade-tolerant  plant  species  is  estab- 
lished that  can  reseed  successfully  in 
full  competition  with  itself.  This  stage, 
in  which  the  soil  depth  becomes  static, 
is  known  as  the  climax  stage  of  plant 
succession.  Soil  depth  increases  very 
little  at  this  point  because  additions 
of  organic  material  at  the  surface  are 
balanced  by  decay  at  the  bottom.  The 
climax  is  reached  only  through  the  ab- 
sence of  disturbance  factors,  such  as 
fire,  blowdowns,  insect  and  fungus 
epidemics,  logging,  or  other  interfer- 
ence by  man.  The  presence  of  any  one 
of  these  factors  arrests  normal  pro- 
gression and  usually  returns  plant 
communities  to  an  earlier  stage.  Then 
plant  invasion  begins  again  and  pro- 
ceeds once  more  toward  the  climax. 
In  temperate  climates,  where  soil  mois- 
ture is  adequate  throughout  the  grow- 
ing season,  later  stages  of  succession 
are  generally  typified  by  trees.  The 
sequoia  story  is  one  of  repeated  dis- 
turbances that  have  set  back  the  suc- 
cession of  other  plants  and  have  fav- 
ored the  reproduction  of  the  sequoia, 
a  tree  of  intermediate  position  in  plant 
succession.  Fire  is  the  most  important 
disturbance  factor  in  this  story. 

In  light  of  our  long-ingrained  ab- 
horrence of  fire  in  the  forest,  it  may 
seem  incongruous  that  our  highly 
successful  and  costly  programs  of  fire 
prevention  and  suppression  have  pro- 
duced, however  inadvertently,  condi- 


tions that  have  led  to  the  decline  of 
populations  of  certain  desirable  plants. 
To  offset  such  trends,  man  has  em- 
ployed prescription  burning  rather 
widely  in  the  United  States  on  both 
range  and  forest  lands.  If  it  seems 
contrary  to  current  feelings  that  fire 
should  be  used  as  a  management  tool 
in  our  renowned  sequoia  groves,  let 
the  reader  first  consider  that  the  giant 
sequoia  is  well  equipped  for  fire  sur- 
vival, and  that  wildfire  has  been  a 
natural  environmental  factor  through- 
out the  evolution  of  the  species.  In  fact, 
it  could  not  have  evolved  or  survived 
as  it  has  without  frequent  fires. 

FOSSIL  sequoias  from  Nevada  date 
back  to  the  Miocene  and  Pliocene 
Epochs  (from  about  12  to  25  million 
years  ago).  These  remains  are  of 
Sequoia  chaneyi,  a  predecessor  similar 
to  S.  gigantea.  One  theory  is  that  the 
earlier  form  migrated  over  the  Sierra 
Nevada  before  that  range  rose  to  its 
present  height  of  12,000  to  14,000  feet. 
Abundant  evidence  reveals  that  fires 
were  frequent  in  the  sequoia  groves 
before  the  advent  of  Western  civiliza- 
tion. Sequoias  five  feet  or  more  in 
diameter  without  large  fire  scars  on 
the  trunks  are  scarce,  if  not  non- 
existent, so  it  is  inferred  that  the 
species  indeed  developed  with  fire  as 
an  accomplice.  This  inference  is  valid, 
I  believe,  because  the  wood  chars  so 
slowly  that  many  fires  are  required  to 
produce  a  large  scar.  Many  of  the  trees 
bear  multiple  fire  scars,  probably  the 
result  of  repeated  fires  against  the 
bases  of  the  trees.  Some  are  cavernous 
or  extend  high  up  the  trunk.  When 
total  scars  represent  severance  of  as 
little  as  15  per  cent  of  effective  con- 
nections between  the  roots  and  the 
crown,  the  crown's  topmost  part  often 
dies  for  lack  of  moisture  and  produces 
the  familiar  snagtop  sequoia.  Yet,  85 
to  95  per  cent  of  the  tree  can  be  burned 
without  resulting  in  the  tree's  death. 
When  one  does  die  through  total  de- 
struction of  the  crown,  the  wood  rots 
very  slowly.  One  burned  remnant  of 
a  stump,  tested  by  radiocarbon  dating 
methods,  was  found  to  be  2.100  years 
old  on  its  outer  edge,  and  it  had  only 
begun  to  decay !  It  is  also  significant 
that  while  fire  scars  are  universal, 
there  is  scant  evidence  that  there  were 
many  intense  crown  fires. 

To  gain  some  knowledge  of  prehis- 
toric fire  frequency,  I  made  growth 
patterns  from  increment  borings  of 
approximately  100  sequoias  in  Yosem- 

13 


Snagtop  results  when  fire  severs  the 
connection  between  roots  and  crown. 


ite's  Mariposa  Grove  and  analyzed 
them  for  growth  variations.  A  few 
sequoias  have  grown  consistently 
within  15  to  25  per  cent  of  their  aver- 
age growth  rates  during  the  past  two 
centuries,  while  the  growth  of  others 
has  fluctuated,  showing  sudden  in- 
creases of  as  much  as  200  to  400  per 
cent.  Climatic  changes  were  quickly 
dismissed  as  the  cause  of  the  increases 
because  the  years  were  not  consistent 
for  all  the  sequoias  cored  {graph, 
below ) .  And  then  there  were  trees 
that  showed  few,  if  any,  striking  de- 
partures from  the  average  growth  rate 
for  as  much  as  two  centuries.  It  may  be 
that  the  topographic  location  of  these 
trees  was  not  favorable  to  fires. 

RECORDS  show  that  the  last  major 
forest  fire  in  the  Mariposa  Grove 
occurred  in  1862,  and  that  another 
fire  burned  into  the  perimeter  of  the 
grove  in  1889.  More  than  one-half  of 
the  cored  trees  showed  a  marked 
growth  increase  in  the  middle  lo60"s, 
and  several  showed  an  increase  im- 
mediately after  the  fire  of  1889.  In 
addition,  the  ages  of  some  of  the 
younger  sequoias  indicate  that  they 
germinated  shortly  after  these  fires. 
The  stimulus  to  growth  is  explained 
simply— fires  provided  a  release  from 
competition.  The  fire-resistant  se- 
quoia, with  its  thick,  fibrous  bark,  may 
only  have  been  injured,  while  its  less 
resistant  associates  were  either  killed 
or  greatly  impaired.  This  left  more  soil 
moisture  for  the  remaining  sequoias. 
The  slowing  of  the  sequoias'  annual 
growth  rates  after  their  increases 
probably   represents  the  re-establish- 


Seqloias  killed  by  crown  fire  are 
rarely  found  in  groups  of  more  than 


H 


or   three.    Scarcity   of   clusters 
icates  few  fires  of  any  intensity. 


ment  of  competing  plants.  The  only 
striking  departures  of  growth  after 
1889  are  generally  correlated  with  ac- 
tivities of  man,  such  as  vista  clearing 
and  the  removal  of  shrubs. 

CLIFFORD  Presnall,  a  National 
Park  Service  naturalist  in  the 
1930's,  made  a  study  of  forest  fires 
based  on  fire  scars  and  ring  counts, 
and  in  conjunction  with  his  studies  it 
has  been  found  that  between  1760  and 
1900  there  were  at  least  18  fairly  ex- 
tensive fires  within  the  250  acres  of  the 
Mariposa  Grove.  This  is  an  average  of 
one  fire  every  seven  or  eight  years.  In 
an  area  of  similar  elevation  in  Stanis- 
laus County,  Harold  Biswell  of  the 
L'niversity  of  California  found  an  even 
greater  fire  frequency.  It  is  likely  that 
more  fires  burned  during  this  140- 
year  period,  but  were  of  such  small 
areal  extent  as  to  be  recorded  on  only 
one  or  two  trees.  This  number  is  too 
small  for  any  assurance  that  fire  was 
truly  the  cause  for  the  release  of 
growth.  There  is  evidence  that  light- 
ning ignited  the  tops  of  some  sequoia 
trees  early  in  the  spring  when  debris 
on  the  ground  was  too  wet  for  burning. 
Firebrands  from  the  treetops  dropped 
to  the  ground,  burning  the  area  im- 
mediately around  the  trees,  but  not 
spreading  farther. 

The  period  since  1889  represents, 
in  all  likelihood,  the  most  prolonged 
fire-free  period  in  the  history  of  the 
Mariposa  Grove,  or  perhaps  in  any 
sequoia  community.  Although  since 
1864  and  1889  both  lightning  and  man 
have  ignited  many  fires  in  the  Mari- 
posa Grove,  fire-suppression  activities 


LiCHTNiNC-STRLCK   sequoia   lost  its 
top,  and  lateral  limb  became  crown. 


Embryo  is  in  center  of  sequoia  seed. 
Winglike  outer  part  aids  in  dispersal. 


have  held  each  to  minimal  areas.  The 
absence  of  fire  has  permitted  uninter- 
rupted plant  succession  and  has  altered 
the  species  composition  of  the  groves 
in  favor  of  sugar  pine  and  white  fir. 
Of  the  two,  fir  is  more  tolerant  of  shade 
and  root  competition  and  becomes 
the  dominant  vegetation  under  climax 
conditions  at  these  elevations.  In  some 
places,  stands  of  fir  are  so  dense  that 
their  deep  shade  renders  conditions 
intolerable  for  young  sequoia  seed- 
lings, which  thrive  best  in  sunlight  and 
eventually  die  in  shade.  These  dense 
growths  and  the  unprecedented  ac- 
cumulations of  dead,  combustible  de- 
bris in  the  absence  of  fires  occasion 
the  highest  degree  of  fire  hazard  ever 
observed  in  sequoia  communities. 

The  conditions  under  which  these 
successional  changes  have  occurred 
are  not  uncommon  to  those  plants 
whose  ecological  position  is  intermedi- 
ate, like  that  of  the  sequoia.  Sequoias 
respond  well  to  disturbed  conditions 
and  do  not  reproduce  significantly  as 
the  climax  stage  approaches.  This  is 
contrary  to  earlier  published  works  in 
which  the  giant  sequoia  was,  by  virtue 
of  its  great  size  and  longevity,  re- 
garded by  some  as  a  climax  species. 

The  tiny  seeds  of  the  giant  sequoia 
(91,000  per  pound)    can  bridge  the 

i6      ' 


gap  of  life  only  where  there  exists  a 
rather  exacting  set  of  conditions.  In 
seeds  so  small,  the  amount  of  stored 
food  material  is  also  small  and  permits 
but  a  short  growth  of  the  seed  roots. 
As  a  result,  the  chance  of  germination 
is  slight  in  places  where  even  a  mini- 
mum of  leaf  litter  accumulations  have 
built  up.  Dr.  Nellie  Stark  recently 
showed  that  even  though  moisture 
conditions  may  appear  adequate  in 
the  spring  or  early  summer,  the  se- 
quoia litter  layer  is  especially  resistant 
to  wetting,  and  that  sequoia  seeds 
rarely  germinate  there.  Even  if  they 
could  germinate,  it  is  doubtful  whether 
the  short,  emerging  seed  roots  could 
reach  down  into  mineral  soil.  Litter 
removal,  then,  is  requisite  to  success- 
ful regeneration. 

THE  means  of  litter  disturbance  for 
this  purpose  appears  immaterial. 
Sequoias  have  seeded  in  burned  areas, 
on  flood  plains  or  stream  banks  from 
which  water  has  carried  away  the  lit- 
ter, in  avalanche  chutes,  in  root  pits 
and  skid  trails  of  fallen  sequoias,  and 
in  areas  disturbed  by  man— logging 
sites,  road  and  trail  sides,  and  building 
sites.  Although  the  scouring  and 
transporting  action  of  flowing  water 
has  been   important   locally,   wildfire 


probably  has  been  the  major  infli 
encing  factor.  John  Muir  was  irr 
pressed  with  the  potentialities  o 
species  survival  on  the  basis  of  seec 
lings  growing  in  the  root  pits  of  falle: 
trees.  Recent  examination  of  twenty 
five  groves  of  sequoias  has  shown  thi 
means  of  regeneration  to  be  meagei 
at  best,  and  avalanche  chutes  are  nc 
common  in  the  groves. 

Once  germination  has  occurred,  th 
young  sequoia  requires  much  sunligh 
and  continuous  soil  moisture  through 
out  the  growing  season.  In  the  uppe 
section  of  the  Mariposa  Grove,  th 
mortality  of  young  sequoias  during  ; 
twenty-five-year  period  was  86  pe 
cent  because  of  competition  for  ligh 
and  moisture.  Numbers  of  dead  se 
quoia  seedlings  beneath  the  densi 
canopies  of  white  fir  attest  to  this  in 
tolerance.  Dr.  Stark's  recent  field  in 
vestigations  also  show  that  seedlin; 
sequoias  grow  best  in  full  sunlight  i 
the  stems  are  protected  against  sun 
scald,  such  as  by  low  shrubs.  Of  th( 
natural  disturbance  factors,  fire  anc 
snow  avalanches  are  the  only  commoi 
ones  capable  of  producing  both  requi 
sites  for  sequoia  regeneration.  0; 
these  two,  avalanches  are  of  minoi 
importance  at  most  altitudes  amen 
able  to  sequoia  growth. 


Soil  compaction  by  visitors  is  shown 
at  left  by  top  tape,  the  1862  soil  level. 


Increased  tourism  to  sequoia  groves 
led  to  study  of  human  impact  on  trees. 


rHOUGH  older  sequoias  are  rela- 
tively resistant  to  fire  because  of 
thick,  fibrous  bark  of  low  flam- 
lity,  young  trees  lack  this  pro- 
•n.  Of  those  few  surviving  over 
enturies,  many  have  undergone 
ted  burnings.  In  areas  of  re- 
d  fires,  there  has  been  little  op- 
nity  for  great  accumulations  of 
,  so  that  most  fires  were  probably 
atively  low  intensity.  As  a  result, 

succession  was  more  or  less 
ted,  and  sequoia  communities 
ined  relatively  free  of  the  dense 
!  fir  growths  that  are  so  common- 
now.  Other  species  of  trees,  such 
e  incense  cedar,  ponderosa  pine, 
black  oak,  were  also  more  pre- 
it  then,  for  the  recurrent  fires 
aced    favorable    conditions    for 

early-to-intermediate-stage  spe- 
Occasional  fires  of  high  intensity 
inly  destroyed  many  or  most  of 
ounger  sequoias  in  given  areas, 
b  may  well  explain  the  noticeable 
;roup  gaps  in  many  sequoia 
3s  today.  A  new  gap  is  now  de- 
)ing  because  of  the  reduced  re- 
rative  success  of  sequoias  in  the 

of  advancing  plant  succession, 
le  upper  Mariposa  Grove,  for  in- 
;e,  not  more  than  thirty  sequoias 
survived  germination  since  1934. 


Each  of  these  is  in  an  area  disturbed 
by  man,  and  most  of  them  are  so 
densely  packed  in  small  groups  that 
only  a  few  will  survive  to  become  ma- 
ture giants.  Recent  National  Park 
Service-financed  examinations  of 
thirty-one  groves  in  Sequoia  and  Kings 
Canyon  National  Parks  show  that 
seedling  and  sapling  sequoias  are 
scarce  in  all  but  a  few  groves.  White 
fir,  on  the  other  hand,  is  abundant. 

The  unintentional  results  of  suc- 
cessful fire  prevention  and  suppres- 
sion have  thus  brought  about  problems 
that  must  be  solved  if  the  sequoia 
is  to  replace  itself.  Because  plant  suc- 
cession creates  excessive  fire  hazards, 
the  situation  requires  immediate  at- 
tention. On  the  other  hand,  the  estab- 
lishment of  conditions  for  sequoia 
regeneration  must  be  approached 
with  careful  deliberation.  Assuming 
that  protection  from  uncontrolled 
wildfire  will  continue  as  an  absolute 
necessity,  it  must  further  be  assumed 
that  the  problems  of  thick  litter  and 
heavy  shade  will  become  more  severe 
unless  a  program  of  sequoia  manage- 
ment is  implemented.  The  National 
Park  Service,  committed  by  law  to 
maintain  sequoia  groves  in  a  natural 
condition  for  all  generations,  is  faced 
with  a  precedent-breaking  decision  in 


order  to  attain  this  goal.  The  act  that 
created  the  National  Park  Service  in 
1916  implies  a  continuum  of  the  se- 
quoia community  in  national  park 
groves.  Yet  the  present  sequoia  situa- 
tion suggests  a  trend  toward  the  elimi- 
nation of  certain  sequoia  popula- 
tions. As  older  sequoias  die  and  are 
replaced  by  other  species,  the  percent- 
age of  sequoias  in  the  community  is 
reduced.  While  this  is  a  long-term 
malignancy,  it  must  be  faced  sooner 
or  later  by  a  management  program. 

A  big  problem  that  must  be  solved 
by  interpretations  of  the  legal 
mandate  is  how  to  achieve  desired 
goals  without  impairing  other  park 
values.  The  National  Park  Service 
has  held  its  active  forest  management 
to  a  minimum  in  the  past,  so  that 
either  prescription  burning  or  physi- 
cal removal  of  plants  and  litter  will 
very  likely  be  repugnant  to  some  citi- 
zens. Yet,  without  employing  either 
method  or  a  combination,  the  situa- 
tion will  become  more  serious. 

Fire  by  prescription  is  widely  used 
in  the  United  States  today  in  vegeta- 
tion control,  and  its  effects  are 
generally  far  more  desirable  than 
detrimental.  Because  of  differences 
in  fuel  concentrations,  there  is  a  great 

17 


Seed  from  which  this  lone  tree  grew 
may  have  been  transported  by  floods. 


difference  in  the  heat  intensity  of 
prescribed  fires  under  control  and 
wildfires.  Prescription  burning  more 
nearly  duplicates  the  effects  of  re- 
peated wildfires  of  the  past,  even 
though  it  does  not  generate  as  in- 
tensely hot  flames.  Further,  man  pre- 
scribes the  conditions  under  which 
burning  is  done  and  chooses  the 
weather  conditions  best  suited  to  his 
needs.  He  thus  reduces  the  danger  of 
fire  escaping  and  damaging  the  plants 
he  is  attempting  to  manage.  In  the 
parks  where  non-commercial  aesthetic 
and  scientific  values  are  primary,  ex- 
treme care  will  have  to  be  e.xercised 
to  minimize  charred  remains  by  re- 
ducing fuel  concentrations— primarily 
tangles  of  fallen  dead  limbs  and  thick 
growths  of  young  trees,  such  as  white 
firs,  which  have  a  high  content  of 
pitch.  Of  course,  growth  and  leaf  fall 
obliterate  lightly  charred  areas  in  a 
comparatively  short  time. 

THE  physical  removal  of  competing 
trees  and  shrubs  and  the  raking 
and  removal  of  thick  layers  of  leaf 
litter  would  possibly  prove  as  success- 
ful as  fire  in  aiding  sequoia  regenera- 
tion. Although  many  persons  have 
expressed  a  strong  preference  for  this 
method  of  management,  the  implied 
frequency  of  natural  wildfires  before 
the  advent  of  man  suggests  that  fire 


creates  conditions  more  natural  than 
cutting.  Perhaps  cost  is  the  most  seri- 
ous objection  to  raking  and  removal. 
To  prevent  exposing  unsightly  stumps, 
all  woody  vegetation  would  have  to  be 
cut  at  or  below  the  soil  surface  and  the 
remains  hauled  away,  or  they  would 
create  an  even  more  serious  fire  haz- 
ard. The  magnitude  of  raking  and 
disposing  of  hundreds  of  acres  of  leaf 
litter  is  nearly  beyond  comprehension. 
Each  acre  of  litter  two  inches  thick, 
if  packed  firmly,  would  fill  a  28-foot 
cube-shaped  box.  In  many  areas  of 
advanced  plant  succession,  the  litter 
exceeds  three  inches  in  depth.  Trans- 
portation of  the  raked  material  from 
areas  not  adjacent  to  roads  would  be 
grossly  impractical,  and  it  could  not 
be  piled  and  left  without  being  burned. 

One  additional  possibility  is  the 
scarification  of  the  soil  surface  by 
power  machinery.  Great  care  would 
have  to  be  exercised  in  the  use  of 
this  method  because  of  the  shallow 
roots  of  the  sequoias— both  the  small 
feeder  roots  and  the  main  laterals, 
which  occasionally  extend  150  to  200 
feet  from  the  trunks  base.  Also,  re- 
mote parts  of  the  park,  where  roads 
would  detract  from  aesthetic  values, 
are  virtually  inaccessible  to  machinery. 

In  the  face  of  extreme  fire  hazards 
that  exist  in  many  of  the  groves,  it 
is  evident  that  widespread  burning 
alone  would  prove  as  impractical  as 
physical  removal  of  materials,  de- 
spite the  beneficial  long-term  value  to 
the  sequoias.  Small  local  fires,  which 
I  hope  will  succeed  in  establishing 
sequoia  regeneration,  will  be  of  little 
benefit  in  the  reduction  of  grove-wide 
fire  hazards.  All  in  all,  under  present 
conditions,  there  does  not  appear  to 
be  a  simple  solution. 

There  is  understandable  apprehen- 
sion at  this  time  about  the  use  of 
fire  as  a  silvicultural  tool  in  our  na- 
tional parks.  However,  the  precedent 
has  been  set.  In  Everglades  National 
Park.  Florida,  burning  has  been  used 
for  several  years  under  the  direction 
of  Park  Biologist  William  Robertson 
to  prevent  the  further  disappearance 
of  the  pine  forests  and  prairie  marsh 
communities  resulting  from  advanced 
plant  succession.  Just  recently  the  Na- 
tional Park  Service  granted  its  ap- 
proval to  the  burning  of  four  small 
plots  and  physical  removal  of  plants 
and  litter  from  other  plots  to  determine 
the  feasibility  of  securing  sequoia 
regeneration.  Although  details  of  the 
experiment  are  not  yet  complete,  the 


area  tentatively  selected  is  the  Red 
wood  Mountain  Grove  in  Kings  Can 
yon  National  Park.  It  presents  i 
variety  of  soil  moisture  and  plan 
density  conditions,  and  is  accessible  b- 
a  park  fire  road. 

THE  areas  to  be  burned,  seldor 
visited  by  the  public,  will  be  plot 
of  approximately  two  acres  each  am 
will  be  mapped  and  studied  intensive! 
before  and  after  burning.  Actual  burn 
ing  will  be  under  the  direction  of  fir 
control  personnel  of  Sequoia  an 
Kings  Canyon  National  Parks.  Othe 
plots  nearby  will  be  treated  by  physi 
cal  removal  of  the  litter,  dead  fuel 
and  competing  trees,  and  by  mechar 
ical  scarification  of  the  soil.  A  corr 
parison  of  the  results  may  well  suppi 
some  much-needed  answers. 

The  preceding  story  was  the  unar 
ticipated  result  of  a  study  designe 
to  identify  and  measure  the  effect 
of  heavy  human  impact  upon  the  giar 
sequoias.  Curiously,  the  problem 
described  here  emerged  as  mor 
serious  than  the  expected  ones  of  so: 
compaction  and  foot  erosion  abou 
the  bases  of  certain  large  trees.  Al 
though  both  have  occurred,  there  i 
nothing  apparent  in  the  growth  pal 
terns  of  these  sequoias  to  indicate  tha 
intensely  compacted  or  eroded  soil 
have  impaired  them.  Shrubs  and  herb 
aceous  vegetation  have  been  literal! 
trampled  out  of  existence  in  a  fe^ 
areas,  but  fears  of  workers  in  1926-2 
that  such  traffic  spelled  doom  to  the  se 
quoias  now  seem  exaggerated.  Man' 
tenure  in  the  sequoia  groves,  howevei 
has  been  comparatively  short,  and  it  i 
possible  that  cumulative  effects  no 
now  evident  may  occur  in  the  future 
This  eventuality  is  recognized  and  wil 
be  watched  for.  Moreover,  mucl 
physical  damage  to  the  environmen 
can  be  prevented  by  rather  simpl 
techniques  and  an  increasing  compre 
hension  of  the  physiology  and  ecolog; 
of  the  giant  sequoia.  The  species  is  no 
now  seriously  threatened  with  extinc 
tion,  nor  is  it  apt  to  be,  especially  witl 
the  implementation  of  sequoia  man 
agement.  And  there  is  little  doubt  tha 
careful  use  of  fire  and  cutting  consti 
tute  a  much  more  realistic  approacl 
than  does  a  policy  of  "hands  off."  Ai 
someone  once  said,  "Conservation  i: 
intelligent  co-operation  with  Nature.' 


Density  of  white  fir  under  sequoii 
indicates  advanced  plant  succession 


-f-^.": 


% 

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i 

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J 

. 

K 

V 

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*■  ^jij*  •*-  ^  '^•^ 


"^'  „■■  ¥^p  ■■■'  > 


Anatomy  of  Decay 
as  Preserved  in  Shale 


Fossil,  SCORPION  remains, 
incomplete  and  distorted, 
were  found  in  shale  in 
Scotland.  The  numerals 
refer   to   six   appendages. 


Reconstruction      shoi 
two  views :  dorsal  ( black 
ventral    (white).  Rest 
probable  form  of  the  bo( 
is  seen  in  the  dotted  lint 


Analysis  shows  biochemical  degradation  in  fossilized  scorpioi 


THE  PRINCIPAL  TASK  of  paleontolo- 
gists is  to  discover  and  describe 
fossil  forms  and  to  find  out  where  they 
belong  in  the  natural  system  of  plants 
and  animals.  The  relations  between  the 
fossil  form  and  the  environment  in 
which  it  existed  also  must  be  deter- 
mined to  find  out  how  the  organism 
lived  and  in  what  medium  it  could  sur- 
vive. Such  studies  have  been  based 
chiefly  only  on  the  hard  parts  that  were 
fossilized— those  portions  that  were  left 
after  the  soft  parts  had  rotted  away. 

Little  has  been  known  of  what  hap- 
pened to  a  now-fossilized  animal  im- 
mediately after  it  died  and  became 
buried  in  sediment  of  one  kind  or  an- 
other. A  single  find  of  one  fossil  scor- 
pion from  the  Lower  Carboniferous  of 
Scotland— about  300  to  350  million 
years  ago— has,  in  a  unique  way,  been 
able  to  shed  light  on  this  problem. 

In  the  rich  fossil  collection  of  the 
British  Museum  (Natural  History) 
are  two  pieces  of  a  large  arthropod. 
These  fossil  remains  were  found  in  a 
dark  shale,  the  so-called  oil  shales,  in 
southern  Scotland.  In  1959  the  fossil 

20 


By  Leif  St^rmer 

was  examined  by  Dr.  L.  J.  Wills,  Pro- 
fessor Emeritus  of  the  University  of 
Birmingham,  England.  He  concluded 
that  the  remains  were  those  of  a  true 
scorpion  of  an  unusual  size.  In  the 
same  year,  the  fossil  specimen  was  sent 
to  me  for  further  study— a  study  that 
extended  to  about  three  years  instead 
of  the  few  weeks  I  had  expected. 

AT  first  sight,  the  two  pieces  did  not 
look  very  promising.  The  crushed 
body  was  distorted  and  flattened  to 
such  a  degree  that  the  skins,  or  exo- 
cuticles,  of  the  upper  and  lower  sur- 
faces were  pressed  tightly  against  each 
other,  leaving  no  space  that  could  have 
defined  the  internal  organs  that  once 
were  present.  However,  after  minute 
preparation  and  study  of  the  remains, 
it  eventually  became  possible  to  disen- 
tangle the  broken  bits  and  to  make  a 
reconstruction  of  the  main  part  of  the 
body.  The  tail  and  hind  part  of  the  pre- 
abdomen  ("thorax")  are  missing,  but 
were  probably  similar  to  those  of  other 
Carboniferous  and  Recent  forms.  The 
scorpion  has  proved  to  belong  to  a  new 


genus,  and  I  have  called  it  Gigant 
scorpiiis  willsi  because  of  its  extrac 
dinary  size.  The  scorpion  measun 
about  30-35  cm.  in  length,  and  th 
was  considerably  larger  than  ai 
known  fossil  or  Recent  species  (tl 
largest  one  known  is  18-20  cm.  long 

Of  particular  interest  is  the  uniqi 
preservation  of  the  exocuticle,  whi( 
has  remained  virtually  unaltered  sini 
Lower  Carboniferous  time.  This  sk 
consists  of  dark  amber-colored  chiti 
and  it  is  so  well  preserved  that  even  tl 
minute  tactile  setae,  or  hairs,  are  pre 
ent.  The  chitin  is  still  so  tough  that  tl 
thin  setae  did  not  break  off  when  tl 
surface  of  the  skin  was  cleaned  of  tl 
embedding  matrix. 

For  microscopic  study,  pieces  of  tl 
exocuticle  were  peeled  off  and  embei 
ded  in  Canada  balsam.  In  transmitte 
light,  the  basal  portion  of  a  tactile  se 
was  seen  to  be  pushed  into  its  sock 
in  the  exocuticle.  A  string,  preserve 
in  the  internal  cavity  of  the  seta,  ev 
dently  represents  the  nerve  (or  ce 
lular  extension  of  a  trichogen  cell  ( 
group  of  cells) .  Such  a  preservation 


21 


Tactile  seta,  above,  magnifieil  X660, 
is  partly  pushed  into  its  socket  in  the 
exocuticle.  In  lumen  at  center  there 
is  apparently  a  nerve  or  extension  of 
trichogen  cell.  Reconstruction  of  the 
cuticle  is  below.  Original  layers  are 
at  top;  bottom  sketch  shows  how  the 
two  surfaces  became  pressed  together. 


EXOCUTICLE 

(•EPICUTICLE?) 


probably  unique  in  Paleozoic  arthro- 
pods. Other  ornamental  structures, 
such  as  scales,  tubercles,  and  pustules, 
also  are  present  in  all  details. 

However,  some  of  the  sculptural  fea- 
tures are  evidently  secondary,  and 
were  formed  after  the  carcass  was 
buried  in  the  sediment.  Typical  of  such 
secondarv  structures  are  the  semi- 
spheric  "bubbles"  on  the  surface  of  the 
exocuticle.  The  drawing  below  left  pre- 
sents a  reconstruction  of  the  cuticle 
compared  with  its  fossil  condition. 

A  peculiar,  striated  ornamentation 
occurs  on  the  femur  and  tibia  of 
the  last  pair  of  legs.  It  consists  of  small, 
narrow  ridges  not  unlike  the  charac- 
teristic striae,  or  terrace  lines,  on  the 
shells  of  trilobites.  However,  mounted 
pieces  showed  that  the  ridges  actually 
are  caused  by  enclosed,  rodlike  bodies. 
Microtome  sections  were  prepared 
from  the  exocuticle  to  detennine 
whether  the  rods  originally  occurred 
as  canals  within  the  exocuticles  that 
are  now  pressed  against  each  other. 

In  transmitted  light  the  pale,  rod- 
shaped  bodies  were  seen  to  be  beauti- 
fully preserved  between  the  two  amber- 
colored  exocuticles.  In  several  cases, 
these  bodies  showed  a  distinct  parallel 
orientation  (photograph,  bottom  riffht), 
and  it  was  apparent  that  they  were  not 
part  of  the  scorpion's  structure.  Under 
stronger  magnification,  it  could  be 
seen  that  they  were  actually  wormlike, 
and  thev  revealed  morphological  struc- 
tures that  are  characteristic  of  certain 
worms  of  the  phylum  Nemathelminthes 
( :=  Aschelminthes  I .  For  instance,  the 
cvlindrical  bodies,  about  250  microns 
long,  terminate  in  a  blunt  head  ending 
in  a  slight  constriction,  or  neck.  The 
rest  of  the  body  is  nearly  straight  and 
has  a  blunt  distal  end,  which,  however, 
is  not  well  preserved  in  most  cases.  The 
head  has  a  frontal  opening— apparently 
a  mouth— from  which  a  dark-colored 
tube,  some  three  microns  wide,  leads 
backward  into  the  body.  The  tube 
probably  represents  a  chitinized  buccal 
capsule  between  the  mouth  and  phar- 
vnx.  A  verv  similar  structure  is  found 
among  the  Gastrotricha  and  Nematoda 
of  the  Nemathelminthes.  The  Nema- 
toda have  cylindrical  bodies  without 
lateral  lines  of  setae,  so  it  is  probable 
that  the  fossil  worms  are  nematodes. 

Dr.  H.  E.  Welch,  of  the  Research 
Institute.  Belleville,  Ontario,  Canada, 
agrees  that  the  observed  structures 
(with  the  exception  of  the  septa-like 
structures)  suggest  nematode-like  ani- 


mals. He  also  suggests  that  if  the 
mals  are  nematodes,  their  simil; 
in  size  indicates  they  might  be  in 
tures  belonging  to  the  same  broc 
have  given  the  new  Carbonife 
nematodes  the  name  Scorpioph. 
baculijormis.  to  indicate  that 
were  scavengers  that  fed  on  the 
body  of  the  scorpion. 

In  Recent  faunas,  nematodes 
very  abundant.  They  occur  in  salt 
fresh  water  and  in  soil,  and  ar( 
pable  of  enduring  considerable  v 
tion  in  the  acidity  and  alkalinity  o 
environment  ( the  pH ) .  Micros( 
nematodes  take  part  in  the  decay  ] 
esses  of  all  plants  and  animals,  in 
ing  insects.  But  until  now.  fossil  n 
todes  have  been  known  only  from  r 
younger  Tertiary  and  Quaternar; 
posits— up  to  60  million  years  ok 
The  nematodes  of  Gigantosco 
willsi  are  plastically  preserved  bet 
the  two  exocuticles.  This  is  puzz 
one  would  expect  the  presumably 
woi"ms  to  have  been  squeezed  flj 
tween  the  chitinous  and  normally 
exocuticles.  The  explanation  mu 
that  the  two  exocuticles  were  sof 
flexible  when  the  worms  were  enc 
between  them,  and  soft  chitin  sus 
an  alkaline,  rather  than  an  acic 
vironment.  This  agrees  with  the 
ion  of  Professor  L.  R.  Moore,  Ui 
sity  of  Sheffield,  England,  accordi 
whom  the  sediments  were  accumi: 
under  anaerobic  ( without  ox) 
conditions.  When  the  nematodes 
trapped  and  died  between  the  e 
tides  they  were,  so  to  speak,  wrt 
up  between  softened  chitinous 
kets.  Afterward,  the  worms  be 
more  or  less  hermetically  sealed 
the  exocuticles  again  hardened  it 
nection  with  the  change  to  a  n( 
pH.  The  preservation  is  not  dissi 
to  that  of  insects  in  amber  or  ol 
embedded  by  man  in  plastics. 

BUT  the  nematode  bodies  are  r 
tact  in  their  chitinous  ench 
The  photomicrographs  on  pas 
show  how  the  worms  are  themi 
penetrated  and  partly  destroye 
smaller  microorganisms.  The  : 
branching  rods,  sometimes  be 
probably  are  hyphae  of  fungi.  Be 
the  fungal  remains  occur  coccoii 
bacilliform  bodies  with  a  dianie 
about  one  micron.  Some  of  these 
ute  bodies  closely  resemble  Recen 
teria.  However,  at  least  some  c 
bacteria-like  forms  appear  to 
from  the  disintegration  of  larger 


22 


BUCCAL 
CAPSULE    "^-iL" 


Buccal  capsules  of  fossil  and  Recent 
nematodes,  above,  show  chitinization. 
Below  is  a  photomicrograph  (X310  I  of 
fossil  nematodes  trapped  in  scorpion. 
In  the  microtome  sections,  left,  what 
appear  to  be  holes  are  cross  sections 
of  nematodes  that  have  been  enclosed 
between  the  two  skins  of  the  animal. 


23 


a  feature  that  has  led  Professor  Moore 
to  the  assumption  that  these  microor- 
ganisms belong  to  the  actinomycetes. 
The  new  form  has  been  named  Poly- 
morphyces  major  Moore  (photographs 
E  and  F  bottom  right). 

Obviously,  one  must  be  sure  that  the 
supposed  fossil  forms  are  not  Recent 
bacteria  introduced  at  a  much  later 
date  than  that  of  the  scorpion's  fossili- 
zation.  However,  Dr.  Moore  has  found 
forms  identical  to  those  in  the  scorpion 
in  many  thin  sections  of  rocks  from 
contemporaneous  beds  of  the  same 
area,  and  is  convinced  that  at  least  most 
of  the  scorpion's  microorganisms  were 
indigenous  and  took  part  in  the  actual 
degradation  of  the  scorpion  in  Carbon- 
iferous times.  Another  factor  support- 
ing the  thesis  of  the  indigenous  origin 
of  the  organisms  is  that  they  occur 
within  the  cavity  of  the  setae  and  on  the 
nerve  at  the  base  of  one  seta.  To  be  sure 
that  the  microorganisms  are  not  of  Re- 
cent contamination,  a  piece  of  the  exo- 
cuticle  was  cultured.  Recent  bacteria 
are  present,  among  them  the  common 
soil  bacteria  Bacillus  subtilis,  which  is 
able  to  form  long-living  spores:  it  devi- 
ates, however,  bv  being  considerably 
smaller  than  those  present  in  the  fossil. 

In  several  places  the  inside  of  the 
exocuticle  is  corroded,  probably  by  the 
activity  of  bacteria  or  bacteria-like  or- 
ganisms. The  inner  surface  may  occa- 
sionally bear  impressions  of  small  (25 
microns  wide)  tetrahedric  (orpseudo- 
tetrahedric )  crystals.  Tetrahedric  crys- 
tals are  not  common;  the  impressions 
might  possibly  belong  to  the  organic 
compound  barium  calcium  propionate, 
which  has  tetrahedric  and  octahedric 
crystals.  X-ray  analysis  of  the  matrix 
between    the    exocuticles    has    shown 


traces  of  barium.  The  possible  pres- 
ence of  barium  calcium  propionate  is 
interesting,  because  propionic  acid  is 
an  end  product  in  bacterial  activity. 

The  biochemical  activity  in  connec- 
tion with  the  degradation  of  the  scor- 
pion evidently  resulted  in  the  release 
of  various  gases  ( NHo,  COo,  and  CH4 ) . 
The  bubbles  (globules)  and  pustules 
visible  on  the  surface  of  the  cuticles 
now  filled  with  calcite  were  probably 
formed  by  such  gases.  A  secondary 
character  of  the  bubbles  is  evident  for 
the  following  reason:  a  semicircular 
pustule  on  the  upper  exocuticle  is  ac- 
companied by  a  similar  one  covering 
the  same  area  on  the  lower  exocuticle. 
This  would  not  have  been  the  case  if 
the  two  exocuticles  had  not  first  been 
pressed  together.  In  two  cases,  im- 
prints of  nematodes  were  found  on  the 
inside  of  the  exocuticles  of  the  bubbles. 
As  mentioned  above,  however,  such 
imprints  were  formed  when  the  two 
cuticles  were  pressed  together.  When 
they  occur  on  the  inside  of  the  inflated 
bubbles,  it  is  evident  that  the  bubbles 
were  formed  at  a  later  stage. 

THE  observed  structures  permit  us 
to  draw  certain  conclusions  as  to 
what  happened  to  the  scorpion  after  it 
died.  Its  body,  subject  to  waves  and 
currents  and  the  attacks  of  scavengers, 
became  distorted  and  was  gradually 
covered  by  muddy  sediment.  Putrefac- 
tion began  and  the  soft  parts  inside 
the  exoskeleton  disintegrated.  Various 
scavengers  took  part  in  that  degrada- 
tion and  in  the  removal  of  the  products 
of  decay.  The  weight  of  the  accumulat- 
ing sediment  above  and  the  removal  of 
the  soft  part  inside  the  body  caused  the 
scorpion  to  become  more  and  more 


flattened.  At  last  the  chitinous  exoci 
tide  of  the  upper  side  of  the  body  me 
and  was  pressed  against  the  exocuticl 
of  the  lower  surface,  as  suggested  i 
the  diagram  below. 

At  this  stage  of  the  degradatio 
some  of  the  scavenging  nematode 
were  trapped  and  enclosed  betwee 
the  two  now  soft  and  flexible  exoci 
tides.  In  one  case,  perforations  of 
thin  part  of  the  exocuticle,  corresponc 
ing  in  width  to  the  diameter  of  th 
nematodes,  suggest  that  some  of  th 
worms  may  have  succeeded  in  escapin 
before  being  trapped. 

The  dead  nematodes,  in  turn,  wei 
attacked  by  microscopic  fungi,  actinc 
mycetes,  and  various  bacteria.  Grac 
ually  the  scorpion's  body  was  fille 
with  minute  hyphae  and  bacteria-lik 
organisms.  To  some  extent,  the  latte 
also  attacked  the  chitinous  skin.  Prol 
ably  various  organic  compounds  pre 
duced  by  bacterial  activity  crystallize 
on  the  inside  of  the  exocuticles. 

At  a  late  stage  in  the  degradatioi 
putrefying  gases  caused  the  formt 
tion  of  bubbles  between  the  cuticle: 
The  skin,  or  exocuticle,  of  the  sem 
spheric  pustules  formed  by  the  bubble 
is  often  ruptured,  suggesting  that  < 
this  stage  it  was  not  so  soft  and  flexibl 
as  when  the  nematodes  were  enclose 
—a  feature  that  suggests  a  change  t( 
ward  a  more  normal  pH. 

The  unusually  well-preserved  Cai 
boniferous  scorpion  has  thus  throw 
some  light  on  the  little-known  firi 
phase  whereby  a  dead  animal  is  trans 
formed  into  a  fossil.  Observations  suj 
gest  that  the  incidents  and  processes  c 
millions  of  years  ago  were  more  or  le« 
the  same  as  those  that  take  place  toda 
in    an    environment   that   is    similaj 


COMPRESSION 
IN  SEDIMENT 


FINAL  COMPRESSION  OF  SCLERITE 


ENDOCUTICLE 

EPICUTICLE 


EXOCUTICLE  -^  WORM 

ENDOCUTICLE  (FRAGM.) 


WORM  IN  SOFT  CHITIN 


Block  diagrams  illustrate  the  preservation   of  nematodes 
between'  exocuticles.  The  soft  parts  gradually  decomposed, 


and  eventually  the  weight  of  overlying  sediments  caused  th 
two  skins  to  compress,  trapping  the  nematodes  between  them 


24 


ADUAL  DEGRADATION  of  nematodes  is  seen  altove   (\r)25). 
left,  very  few  hyphae  are  present.  Large  portions  of  the 


CNIFICATION  of  1100  shows:  A,  nematodes  with  hyphae  of 
Lgi;  B,  beaded  filaments  of  the  same  fungi;  C,  base  of  seta 


bodies  are  decomposed,  center,  by  hyphae  and  bacteria-like 
microorganisms.  Only  shadows  of  nematodes  remain  at  right. 


with  bacteria-like  forms;  D,  organisms  of  exocuticle;  E  and 
F,  colony  of  microorganism  Polymorphyces  major  Moore. 


^"^ 


^O'- 


'a»  ^ 


w 


25 


EHSV  RUniinBIIITV  OF  FOOD 
DRnUIS  GUIIS  TO  THE  f  u||g„    f  jgh    |lIpr|;EJ 


phDtngraphs  by  lOU  BERnSTEl 


I 


' ' '  -^^t  r 


"•  ~^t 


THE  WELL-KNOWN  Fulton  Fish  Market, 
at  Fulton  Street  and  the  East  River  in 
lower  Manhattan,  is  the  Atlantic  coast's 
argest  wholesale  commercial  fish  ex- 
change and  a  favorite  visiting  place  for 
the  gulls  of  New  York  Harbor.  The  pic- 
tures on  this  and  following  pages  were 
made  after  the  hurried  early  morning  ac- 
tivity of  the  market  place  had  subsided 
and  the  gulls  were  doing  battle  among 
themselves  for  the  scraps  that  lay  about 
on  wharves,  barrels,  streets,  and  in  the 
water.  In  the  course  of  any  one  day,  some 
120  different  varieties  of  sea  food  are  re- 
ceived and  sent  from  the  Fulton  Fish 
Market,  so  the  gulls  can  find  in  the  waste 
a  diversified  fare  that  no  natural  feeding 
ground  offers.  Today,  boats  still  dock  at 
the  piers,  but  the  majority  of  the  fish  ar- 
rive in  refrigerated  trucks  with  catches 
from  ports  up  and  down  the  eastern  coast. 


27 


SEA  GULLS  seem  at  least  as  commo 
in  lower  Manhattan  as  pigeons,  an 
they  are  the  aggressive  conquerors,  s 
far  as  the  avian  world  is  concerned,  c 
the  Fulton  Fish  Market  area.  Moi 
business  is  ended  by  9:00  or  9:3 
A.M.,  and  as  the  men  and  trucks  dii 
appear  from  the  streets,  and  the  boat 
slip  out  from  quays,  sea  gulls  arriv 
in  increasing  numbers.  On  these  tw 
pages,  the  squabbling  contest  for  wast 
and  leavings  is  in  progress.  At  lef 
beak-to-beak  combat  is  under  wai 
while  at  the  right  a  struggle  in  th 
East  River  involves  five  gulls.  Below 
victor  makes  off  with  the  spoils. 


-T 


VA 


r^iKT'^ 


'^W^^03fl\ 


i  ^ 


^Sf: 


Prosperous  or  humble,  a  ma 


I 


testing  bear  is  aetaii  on  garaen  wai 
in  the  House  of  Lucretius  Fronto. 


Painting  in  House  of  Romulus  and  Remus 
survived  World  War  H  bombings. 


<,%    '    -"^ 


,•  f  ,■«,>,.,  Mv;m 


_V  ••»>•>'}> -j*!? 


uld  enjoy  his  own  paradeisos 


J.  ompeii,  because  of  its  sud- 
den and  tragic  destruction  by  Vesuvius,  is  a 
unique  archeological  site;  only  at  Pompeii  can 
the  visitor  wallc  up  and  down  miles  of  streets 
and  see  the  homes,  temples,  and  places  of  busi- 
ness of  thousands  of  former  inhabitants.  For  this 
reason  Pompeii  is  still  an  unexhausted  source  of 
information  for  students  who  would  know  more 
about  how  people  lived,  worked,  worshiped, 
and  played  in  the  Roman  Empire.  Household 
shrines  reveal  the  owner's  religion.  Shops  at- 
tached to  his  home  indicate  his  business  inter- 
ests. Election  notices  painted  on  the  outside  of 
his  house  record  his  participation  in  politics  and 
the  candidates  he  endorsed.  The  pictures  on  his 
walls  tell  something  of  his  taste.  Among  these 
pictures  are  almost  life-size  paintings  of  wild 
animals,  startling  if  come  upon  unaware. 

But  wild  animals  were  not  unfamiliar  to  the 
ancient  Pompeians,  for  animal  hunts,  or  vena- 
tiones,  as  they  were  called,  were  often  a  part  of 
the  entertainment  of  the  amphitheater.  The 
huge  signs  painted  on  the  walls  at  Pompeii, 
which  announce  the  shows  (munera),  fre- 
quently mention  a  venatio  as  one  of  the  attrac- 
tions. Paintings  found  on  the  amphitheater 
furnish  evidence  regarding  the  nature  of  those 
entertainments.  At  the  time  of  excavation,  a 
six-and-one-half-foot  wall  enclosing  the  arena 
was  discovered.  It  was  decorated  with  pictures 


by  WILHELMINA  JASHEMSKI 


of  animal  hunts,  as  well  as  of  gladiators.  It  is 
not  surprising  that  the  oldest  Roman  amphi- 
theater yet  found  is  in  Pompeii,  for  the  Cam- 
panians  had  been  fond  of  gladiatorial  combats 
long  before  Pompeii  was  besieged  by  the  Roman 
general  Sulla  in  89  B.C.  and  made  a  Roman 
colony  in  80  B.C.  The  amphitheater  at  Pompeii 
had  a  seating  capacity  of  about  20.000— enough 
to  seat  ever>'  man.  woman,  and  child  in  Pompeii 
itself,  with  room  left  for  visitors  from  the  neigh- 
boring towns  of  Nuceria,  Nola,  Abella,  Stabiae, 
Surrentum,  Herculaneum,  and  Neapolis  who 
thronged  into  the  city  for  entertainments. 

J_he  question  naturally  arises 
as  to  what  animals  were  used  in  the  venationes 
at  Pompeii,  but  there  is  little  written  evidence. 
Specific  animals  are  mentioned  in  a  graffito 
found  on  the  interior  wall  of  a  house  near  the 
Forum.  Here  some  unknown  Pompeian  had 
scribbled  the  reminder:  "there  will  be  a  venatio 
on  August  28,  and  Felix  will  fight  the  bears." 
Animals  are  also  mentioned  on  the  tombstone 
of  A.  Clodius  Flaccus,  duovir  (or  magistrate) 
for  the  third  time  in  a.d.  3.  His  epitaph  records 
the  various  spectacles  that  he  gave  during  his 
three  magistracies.  Among  these  was  a  venatio, 
with  bulls,  bullfighters,  wild  boars,  and  bears. 
We  know  from  the  ancient  writers  that  these 
animals  were  all  available  in  Italy. 

Pictorial  evidence  should  be  considered 
alongside  the  epigraphical  evidence.  Detailed 
representations  of  both  venationes  and  gladia- 
torial combats  were  depicted  in  the  stucco  re- 
liefs that  decorated  the  tomb  of  A.  Umbricius 
Scaurus,  son  of  A.  Umbricius  Scaurus.  This 
family  had  made  a  fortune  manufacturing  the 
fish  sauce  for  which  Pompeii  was  famous.  The 
tomb  was  excavated  in  the  days  before  photog- 
raphy, and  today  the  reliefs  are  mostly  gone,  but 
fortunately  drawings  were  published  by  the 
French  scholar  M.  Mazois  between  1824  and 
1838.  In  some  cases  the  animals  are  difficult  to 
identify  from  these  drawings,  so  we  have  only 
Mazois'  description.  In  the  largest  panel  dogs 
pursue  a  wild  boar;  a  bestiariiis—a.  man  trained 
to  fight  with  wild  animals— runs  a  lance  through 
a  bear:  another  bestiariiis  boasts  of  the  bull  that 
he  has  transfixed  with  a  lance;  in  the  back- 
ground are  rabbits,  dogs,  and  a  deer.  In  the 
other  panels  the  animals  identified  by  Mazois 
include  a  lion,  a  tiger,  and  a  leopard.  If  the 
tombstone  of  Umbricius  Scaurus  pictures  a 
venatio  at  Pompeii  it  would  indicate  that  expen- 
sive imported  animals  were  sometimes  exhibited 
at  Pompeii  alongside  the  wild  animals  available 
in  Italy.  A  wealthy  manufacturer  with  an  im- 


portant export  business  might  well  have  im- 
ported, for  a  venatio  in  his  home  town,  a  few 
animals  such  as  those  he  had  seen  in  the  great 
shows  in  Rome.  Paintings  of  lions  and  tigers 
found  on  the  podium  of  the  amphitheater  like- 
wise indicate  that  at  times  the  more  exotic  ani- 
mals were  seen  at  Pompeii. 

The  word  venatio  occurs  at  least  thirty  times 
in  inscriptions  and  graffiti  found  at  Pompeii,  but 
in  spite  of  the  popularity  of  the  animal  hunts, 
they  provided  only  a  secondary  attraction;  the 
gladiators  were  the  chief  feature  in  the  munera. 
It  is  the  gladiators  who  are  featured  in  the  signs 
announcing  the  shows.  The  venatio  is  men- 
tioned briefly  at  the  end,  along  with  other  extras 
such  as  athletae,  the  prizefighters  or  wrestlers 
who  performed  between  more  spectaculai 
events;  vela,  the  awnings  stretched  to  protect 
the  spectators  from  the  sun;  and  sparsiones,  the 
sprinklings  of  perfume,  which  may  have  helped 
to  dissipate  the  stench  caused  by  sweat  and 
carnage.  (Pliny,  in  his  Natural  History,  says 
that  the  fragrance  of  powdered  saffron  mixed 
with  sweet  wine  is  most  efficacious  for  such  a 
purpose.)  The  amphitheater  at  Pompeii  had 
no  provisions  for  elaborate  animal  hunts,  and 
it  had  no  underground  chambers  from  which 
wild  beasts  could  be  lifted  up  to  the  arena  to 
replace  those  that  had  been  killed. 


P 

JLor 


.ompeians  witnessed  noth- 
ing comparable  to  the  spectacle  put  on  by  Titus 
in  A.D.  80,  when  the  Emperor  celebrated  the 
opening  of  the  great  Flavian  Amphitheatei 
(later  known  as  the  Colosseum)  with  games 
lasting  one  hundred  days,  and  on  a  single  daj 
delighted  the  populace  with  five  thousand  wild 
animals.  The  historian  Ludwig  Friediandei 
comments  that  "the  animals  consumed  at  Rome 
for  one  great  festival,  would  amply  stock  all  the 
Zoological  Gardens  of  modern  Europe."  A 
Pompeian  visiting  in  the  capital  might  have 
seen  hippopotamuses  and  crocodiles  from  the 
Nile,  lions  from  Thessaly  or  Mesopotamia, 
tigers  from  Hyrcania  or  India,  elephants  from 
North  Africa  or  India,  rhinoceroses  from  Egypt, 
ostriches  from  the  African  deserts,  or  even 
camels  and  giraffes.  The  insistent  letters  from 
M.  Caelius,  aedile  in  5 1  B.C.,  begging  Cicero  to 
send  him  leopards  from  Cilicia.  are  indicative  of 
the  kind  of  pressure  that  was  put  on  provincial 
governors  to  supply  animals  for  the  hunts  at 
Rome.  During  the  empire,  exotic  animals  were 
welcome  gifts  from  heads  of  foreign  states.  The 
feverish  activity  of  rounding  up  quantities  of 
wild  animals  for  the  venationes  at  home  was  not 
whhout    some    peripherally    positive    aspects. 


32 


Strabo,  a  contemporary  of  the  Emperor  Augus- 
tus, remarked  that  great  areas  of  Nubia  had 
been  rendered  suitable  for  agriculture  because 
the  wild  animals  had  been  trapped  and  shipped 
to  Rome  for  the  spectacles. 

A  careful  examination  of  the  large  animal 
paintings  at  Pompeii  shows  that  most  of  them 
are  unlike  those  of  animal  hunts  found  in  the 
amphitheater,  or  the  stucco  reliefs  of  a  venatio 
on  the  tomb  of  Umbricius  Scaurus.  They  are 
found  on  the  walls  of  private  homes,  and  usu- 


ally on  an  outdoor  garden  wall.  The  ancient 
Porapeians  frequently  decorated  the  walls  of 
their  enclosed  gardens  with  paintings  designed 
to  make  the  area  appear  larger.  In  these  paint- 
ings, behind  a  low  fence,  trees  and  taller  flower- 
ing shrubs  appeared  to  grow  in  profusion. 
Statuary  and  fountains,  frequently  too  large  to 
be  used  in  the  actual  garden,  could  be  enjoyed 
in  the  painted  version.  One  might  ask  what 


Best  preserved  of  Ponipeian  animal  paintings 

is  on  garden  nail  in  House  of  L.  Ceiiis  Secundiis. 


33 


<        SPi", 


<•> 


:A 


Courtyard  "garden"  in  Herculaneum  displays  mosaics  of  garlands, 
peacocks,  and  hunt  scenes  (left),  and  Neptune  and  Amphitrite  (right). 


.^' 


-/-"■■"- 


prompted  some  owners  to  include  huge  animal 
pictures  in  their  gardens.  To  answer  this  ques- 
tion we  shall  examine  some  of  these  paintings 
and  study  the  way  in  which  they  are  used. 

The  best-preserved  animal  painting  in  Pom- 
peii is  on  the  back  wall  of  the  garden  in  the 
house  of  L.  Ceius  Secundus.  On  either  side  of 
the  picture  is  a  painted  fountain.  At  the  bottom 
of  the  wall  a  realistic,  painted  border  of  plants, 
amid  which  birds  fly,  continues  the  actual  plant- 
ings of  the  true  garden.  Above  the  plant  border 
is  a  grandiose  mountain  scene  filled  with  wild 
animals.  In  the  lower  foreground  on  the  rocky 
edge  of  a  lake,  a  lion  pursues  a  bull.  On  the 
opposite  shore,  in  the  middle  of  the  picture,  are 
wolves  and  wild  boars.  To  the  right  a  leopard 
is  gaining  on  two  mountain  rams;  to  the  left 
are  a  graceful  stag  and  a  gazelle.  The  mountain- 
ous terrain,  with  its  trees  and  other  vegetation, 
and  the  body  of  water  in  the  foreground  shows 
that  the  artist  was  not  picturing  a  venatio,  even 
though  such  hunts  were  sometimes  made  more 
realistic  by  the  addition  of  greenery.  On  the 
west  wall  of  a  little  storeroom  is  a  garden  scene 
in  which  a  nymph  holds  a  fountain  surrounded 
by  plants,  flowers,  and  birds.  Everything  sug- 
gests that  the  ancient  owner  felt  that  his  animal 
painting  was  a  perfectly  appropriate  decoration. 

The  House  of  Romulus  and  Remus,  near  the 
Porta  Marina,  contained  a  beautiful  painting 
on  the  garden's  west  wall.  Beyond  a  low  wall  is 
a  scene  of  trees  and  shrubs.  An  umbrella  pine 
dominates  the  garden  and  shades  a  reclining 
silenus.  Ivy  and  other  plants  grow  in  front  of 
the  wall.  In  the  center  a  bird  sits  on  the  rim  of  a 
crater  fountain,  on  each  side  of  the  crater  a 
nymph  holds  a  fountain,  and  a  peacock  struts 
in  the  foreground.  The  adjoining  peristyle  wall 
is  decorated  with  an  animal  picture.  A  snake  is 
coiled  around  a  tree,  and  an  elephant,  bull, 
mule,  chamois,  lion,  fox,  and  bear  appear  to 
live  peacefully  together. 


0. 


ther  interesting  animal  pic- 
tures are  found  in  the  modest  but  elegant  home 
of  Lucretius  Pronto.  The  garden  opens  off  a 
peristyle  on  the  south.  The  animal  paintings 
cover  part  of  the  west  wall,  all  of  the  long  north 
wall,  and  the  east  wall  of  the  garden.  On  the 
west  wall  a  tiger  pursues  a  deer.  On  the  adjacent 
north  wall  is  a  peaceful  scene  in  which  a  resting 
lion  appears  to  be  watching  a  graceful  deer  as 
it  quenches  its  thirst  in  a  rocky  stream  or  lake. 


ted  fountain  and  low  fence  with  birds  are 

of  Herculaneum.  "garden"  in  preceding  picture. 


Garden  sculpture  of  hounds  attacking  deer 

was  also  discovered  in  the  ruins  of  Herculaneum. 


In  the  foreground  a  bear  calmly  rests  in  the 
shade  of  a  tree  and  devours  fallen  fruit.  In  the 
next  picture  a  lion  pursues  a  bull,  which  is  con- 
fronted by  a  tiger.  A  stag  and  a  fleeing  deer  can 
be  seen  between  the  huge  trees  in  the  back- 
ground. There  is  again  water  in  the  foreground. 
In  the  third  scene  a  huge  deer  looks  back  as  a 
tiger  hurls  itself  at  a  horse,  which  nips  the  tiger's 
hind  paws.  A  lion  runs  from  the  background 
toward  the  unfortunate  horse.  At  the  right  a 
wild  boar  prowls  through  a  thicket  of  plants. 
Again  the  rocky  shore  of  a  lake  (or  mountain 
stream)  appears  in  the  foreground.  Painted 
statues  of  nymphs  holding  fountains  separate 
these  pictures,  and  underneath,  the  border  is 
decorated  with  exotic  plants. 

The  paintings  in  houses  that  were  excavated 
many  years  ago  have  almost  completely  disap- 
peared, but  a  few  should  be  mentioned.  The 
House  of  the  Hunt  takes  its  name  from  the  im- 
pressive animal  picture  on  the  south  wall  of  the 
garden.  Although  this  house  was  excavated  in 
1834,  before  the  days  of  photography,  a  draw- 
ing made  at  the  time  gives  a  good  idea  of  the 
painting.  Small  pictures  of  cupids  hunting  wild 
animals  also  decorate  one  room.  It  is  not  un- 
usual at  Pompeii  to  find  such  charming  scenes, 
in  which  cupids  are  pictured  engaged  in  the  oc- 
cupations and  pastimes  of  men. 

Another  large  animal  painting,  now  com- 
pletely disappeared,  was  found  in  1875  when 


37 


Painting  of  birds  and  flowers  is  in 

garden  of  a  recently  excavated  house  at  Pompeii. 


the  luxurious  home  of  the  banker,  L.  Caecilius 
Jucundus,  was  uncovered.  This  wealthy  busi- 
nessman, whose  father  apparently  had  been  a 
freedman,  had  amassed  a  fortune  that  enabled 
him  to  own  a  home  as  elegant  as  those  of  the 
local  aristocrats.  The  preservation  of  his  busi- 
ness documents  on  153  wax  tablets  found  in  his 
home,  and  his  realistic  bronze  portrait  bust, 
dedicated  to  him  by  one  of  his  devoted  freed- 
men,  make  Jucundus  today  one  of  the  best- 
known  citizens  of  Pompeii.  According  to  the 
excavation  reports  there  were  a  lion,  a  stag,  and 
a  tiger  in  his  garden  painting.  On  each  side  of 
that  painting  was  a  garden  scene  that  featured 
a  nymph  fountain. 


Animal  paintings  have  also  been  found  at 
nearby  Herculaneum,  which  was  also  destroyed 
by  Vesuvius.  At  this  site  the  volcanic  debris 
poured  down,  swept  along  by  heavy  rains  that 
made  it  into  a  torrent  of  mud  that  penetrated 
into  every  crevice  of  the  ancient  town.  Through 
the  centuries  this  material  has  hardened  into  a 
rocklike  substance  that  is  exceedingly  difficult 
to  excavate.  For  this  reason,  only  a  small  part 
of  Herculaneum  has  been  uncovered,  but  the 
buildings  are  better  preserved  than  are  those  at 
Pompeii.  The  house  of  one  prosperous  mer- 
chant is  especially  interesting.  It  has  a  food  and 
wine  shop— the  most  complete  shop  of  any  kind 
yet  found  in  the  ancient  world— and  the  beauti- 
fully decorated  home  shows  an  owner  of  un- 
usual taste.  The  house  was  too  small  to  have  a 


garden,  but  the  walls  of  the  little  courtyard  in 
the  back  were  painted  to  suggest  one.  The  best- 
preserved  portion,  on  the  right  of  the  back  wall, 
shows  a  delightful  garden  scene.  Oleanders  and 
trees  grow  behind  a  low  fence.  Birds  fly  through 
the  trees,  two  perch  on  the  edge  of  the  fountain, 
and  two  are  on  top  of  the  fence  itself.  Traces  of 
similar  paintings  are  preserved  elsewhere  on 
the  walls.  In  the  center  of  the  back  wall,  visible 
from  the  entrance  of  his  house,  this  prosperous 
merchant  had  placed  an  elegant  mosaic  of 
Neptune  and  Amphitrite. 

It  is  quite  possible  that  his  considerable 
wealth  was  derived  from  trade  by  sea,  and  that 
he  had  good  reason  to  worship  Neptune,  the  sea 
god.  The  nymphaeum  on  the  end  wall  is  richly 
decorated  with  two  exquisite  mosaic  garlands, 
on  which  peacocks  are  resting.  Gardens,  homes, 
altars,  and  temples  were  frequently  decorated 
with  actual  garlands;  wealthy  owners  took  pride 
in  the  peacocks  that  strutted  in  their  gardens. 
Here  in  this  tiny  courtyard  there  was  no  space 
for  large  birds,  but  the  owner  could  enjoy  mo- 
saic birds  and  flowers  that  did  not  fade.  Beneath 
the  peacocks  are  scenes  in  which  dogs  pursue 
fleeing  deer.  One  of  the  merchant's  neighbors 
had  placed  in  his  garden  two  beautiful  sculp- 
tures of  dogs  attacking  a  deer. 

T 

JLhe  dignified  dwelling  of  a 
middle-class  family  in  Herculaneum  is  illumi- 
nating. There  was  no  room  for  a  garden,  but  at 
the  rear  was  a  small  courtyard  that  served  as  a 
lightwell  and  also  carried  rain  water  to  the  cis- 
tern. There  was,  in  addition,  room  for  a  few 
plants.  The  plaster  on  the  back  wall  is  for  the 
most  part  missing,  but  above  and  to  the  right  of 
the  temple-shaped  household  shrine  I  found 
fragments  of  a  wall  painting  of  graceful  wild 
animals  in  flight;  adjacent  are  remnants  of  a 
garden  painting.  As  the  owner  looked  out  from 
his  large  window,  the  trees  and  shrubs  in  his 
courtyard  might  become  a  great  landscaped 
garden,  and  the  wild  animals  in  the  background 
might  remind  him  of  those  that  roamed  on  great 
estates,  such  as  the  one  which  the  Emperor 
Nero  had  built  within  the  walls  of  Rome. 

The  Swedish  scholar  Axel  Boethius  has 
pointed  out  that  the  remarkable  thing  about 
Nero's  famous  Golden  House  in  Rome  was  not 
the  luxury  of  the  palace  and  the  other  buildings, 
but  the  way  in  which  the  Emperor  had  built  a 
huge  villa,  with  landscaped  gardens,  groves, 
pastures,  even  wild  animals,  within  the  city— a 
rus  in  urbe.  Great  estates  with  large  enclosures 
filled  with  wild  animals  were  owned  by  many 
wealthy  Romans  both  in  Italy  and  in  the  prov- 


inces at  the  time  of  the  eruption  of  Vesuvius. 
Such  estates  were  first  introduced  to  the  West- 
ern world  by  the  Greek  writer  Xenophon,  who 
described  the  great  parks  of  the  Persian  kings 
and  nobles  that  he  had  seen  on  his  march.  Xeno- 
phon uses  the  Greek  word  of  Persian  origin, 
paradeisos,  to  describe  these  royal  gardens, 
which  were  vast  enclosures  that  included  fruit 
and  ornamental  trees,  flowers,  birds,  and  mam- 
mals. In  much  the  same  way  the  Latin  para- 
disiis  is  the  word  used  in  the  Vulgate  (Genesis 
2:8)  to  describe  the  Garden  of  Eden,  and  the 
word  "paradise"  has  come  to  mean  a  place  of 
bliss  or  happiness— even  the  heavenly  paradise 
of  the  New  Testament. 

The  hunting  ground  was  an  essential  part  of 
the    oriental    paradeisos.    Xenophon,    in    his 


Cupid  hunts  a  lion  on  wall  of  House  of  the  Hunt. 
Cupids  were  often  shown  in  human  pastimes. 


description  of  the  education  of  Cyrus,  describes 
the  animals  that  the  young  prince  was  taught 
to  hunt:  bears,  boars,  lions,  leopards,  deer, 
gazelles,  wild  sheep,  and  wild  asses.  According 
to  Quintus  Curtius,  writing  in  his  life  of  Alex- 
ander, "There  are  no  greater  indications  of  the 
wealth  of  the  barbarians  in  those  regions  than 
their  herds  of  noble  wild  beasts,  confined  in 
great  woods  and  parks."  When  Alexander  the 
Great  conquered  the  Persians,  he  took  posses- 
sion of  their  paradeisoi.  His  successors  also 
acquired  such  parks.  When  the  Romans  con- 
quered the  Hellenistic  world  they,  in  turn,  ac- 
quired a  taste  for  paradeisoi. 

In  Varro's  handbook.  On  Agriculture,  writ- 
ten during  the  last  years  of  the  Republic,  he 
describes  the  large  hunting  preserves  found  on 
great  estates  in  Italy.  He  says  that  "nowadays 
people  enclose  many  acres  within  walls,  so  as  to 
keep  numbers  of  wild  boars  and  roes"  for  hunt- 
ing. He  also  describes  the  hare  warren,  and  the 


39 


\  'r-^ 


aviaries,  where  thrushes  and  peacocks  are 
raised,  and,  of  course,  the  fishpond.  Varro  re- 
ports a  conversation,  in  which  his  friend  Appius 
describes  how  wild  boars  frequently  become 
tame.  On  one  of  Varro's  country  estates  "wild 
boars  and  roes  gathered  for  food  at  the  blowing 
of  a  horn  at  a  regular  time.  .  .  .  'Why.'  said 
Appius,  'I  saw  it  carried  out  more  in  the  Thra- 
cian  fashion  at  Quintus  Hortensius'  place  near 
Laurentum  when  I  was  there.  .  .  .  We  were  din- 
ing at  a  table  spread  out  in  the  game  preserve, 
to  which  he  bade  Orpheus  be  called.  When 
Orpheus  appeared  with  his  robe  and  harp,  and 
was  bidden  to  sing,  he  blew  a  horn;  whereupon 
there  poured  around  us  such  a  crowd  of  stags, 
boars,  and  other  animals  that  it  seemed  to  me  to 
be  no  less  attractive  a  sight  than  when  the  hunts 
of  the  aediles  take  place  in  the  Circus  Maximus 
without  the  African  beasts  (panthers).'  " 

This  description  calls  to  mind  an  unusual 
animal  painting  in  the  house  of  the  well-to-do 
aristocrat  M.  Vesonius  Primus,  who  owned  a 
large  fuUery  (a  shop  to  treat  cloth)  at  Pompeii. 
The  painting  takes  as  its  theme  the  Thracian 
Orpheus,  who  is  described  by  both  the  Greek 
and  Latin  poets  as  being  able  to  charm  the  wild 
beasts  with  his  music.  A  huge  painting  of  Or- 
pheus playing  his  cithara  to  the  wild  animals 
dominates  the  back  wall  of  the  garden,  and  is 
visible  even  from  the  street.  On  either  side  of  the 
huge,  T-shaped  Orpheus  painting  is  a  typical 
garden  painting.  The  garden  of  Vesonius 
Primus  was  too  small  to  re-enact  the  Orpheus 
tableau  that  took  place  in  the  garden  of  Varro's 
friend,  but  the  picture  of  Orpheus  in  a  garden 
setting  could  suggest  a  great  hunting  preserve. 

What  the  resources  of  empire  permitted  an 
emperor  to  create  in  reality  in  Rome,  or  vast 
personal  wealth  made  possible  for  a  citizen  in 


Imported  and  local  animals  both  are 

seen  in  this  detail  from  House  of  Lucretius  Fronto. 


the  Italian  countryside  or  in  the  provinces,  the 
modest  inhabitant  of  a  town  such  as  Pompeii  or 
Herculaneum  could  suggest  through  the  illusion 
of  the  painter's  brush.  It  seems  very  natural  and 
charming  to  see  the  apparent  size  of  a  modest 
garden  extended  through  a  garden  painting.  But 
if  the  owner  had  greater  aspirations,  he  might 
suggest  that  the  painter  include  in  his  garden 
decorations  not  only  fountains,  trees,  birds,  and 
flowers,  but  lakes  or  streams,  set  in  a  mountain- 
ous landscape,  through  which  wild  animals 
roamed  in  profusion.  An  examination  of  the 
animal  paintings  at  Pompeii  shows  that  some  of 
the  fauna  are  in  almost  identical  poses.  For  ex- 
ample, the  picture  of  a  leopard  attacking  a  bull 
in  the  House  of  the  Hunt  is  almost  a  mirror 
image  of  a  similar  leopard  and  bull  in  the  animal 
painting  in  the  House  of  T.  D.  Panthera  at 
Pompeii.  The  stag  in  the  latter  painting  is  the 
same  as  the  stag  in  the  House  of  Lucretius 
Fronto.  Other  duplicates  could  be  pointed  out. 
Painters  at  Pompeii  apparently  had  samples, 
and  painted  pictures  to  order.  A  modest  inhabi- 
tant of  a  small  town  could  order  as  elaborate  a 
painting  as  he  desired.  He  might  include  all  the 
animals  of  a  king's  preserve,  such  as  the  young 
Prince  Cyrus  was  taught  to  hunt.  He  might  even 
include  an  elephant,  which  no  man  save  the 
emperor  could  own.  The  noiivean  riche  banker, 
L.  Caecilius  Jucundus,  the  prosperous  aristo- 
crat-fuller, M.  Vesonius  Primus,  or  a  humble 
freedman  could  recline  in  his  garden  adorned 
with  paintings  and  enjoy  his  own  paradeisos. 


Impressive  animal  painting,  no  longer  in  existen 
is  said  to  be  from  House  of  T.  D.  Panthera. 


40 


41 


%^ 


Gray  squirrel,  after  introduction  to  the  British  Isles, 
moved  rapidly  along  timbered  network  formed  of  hedge- 


rows and  woods  of  oak,  ash,  and  hazel.  Typical  of  such 
routes  is  that  provided  by  Herefordshire  country,  below. 


■:%6^fei* 


ntroduced  Menace 

nerican  gray  squirrel  poses  threat  to  British  woodlands 


loNiCA  Shorten 


RAY  SQUIRRELS  are  popular  small 
game  animals  in  the  eastern 
;s  of  North  America.  Management 
tices  aimed  at  conservation  of  the 
ies  include  deliberate  sparing  of 
rees  in  which  squirrels  have  dens, 
iding  artificial  den  boxes,  and  at- 
)ting  to  increase  supplies  of  foods 
inter.  The  squirrels  are  protected 
nst  overhunting  by  restricted  open 
ms  and  by  limits  on  the  number 
a  hunter  may  kill:  in  1949  a 
ler  in  Virginia  was  fined  twenty- 
dollars  for  shooting  two  gray 
;rels  during  the  closed  season, 
ich  protective  legislation  can  be 
id  to  the  late  nineteenth  century  in 
Jnited  States.  Before  that,  in  the 
of  the  early  settlements,  squirrels 
Jed  the  farming  pioneers.  We  read 
bite  settlers  in  Ohio  required  to 
;nt  a  hundred  squirrel  scalps  a 
or  to  pav  a  three-dollar  fine.  The 
s  of  Massachusetts  and  Pennsyl- 
1  offered  bounties  for  squirrel 
uction  in  1740  and  in  1749,  hop- 
to  reduce  damage  to  crops.  It  is 
urprising  that  some  protests  were 


raised  when  the  squirrel  became  a  pro- 
tected game  animal,  or  that  fears  were 
expressed  that  the  crops  would  be  rav- 
aged, birds  destroyed,  and  forest  trees 
damaged.  The  main  reason  protests 
\vent  unheeded  was  that  clearing  of  the 
old  hardwood  forests  had  sent  squirrel 
populations  tumbling  to  a  point  where 
hunting  pressures  might  have  begun  to 
have  a  real  effect  on  numbers. 

Perhaps  it  was  anxiety  about  the 
future  of  the  gray  squirrel  in  some  east- 
ern states  that  led  enthusiasts  to  seek 
a  new  refuge  for  it  in  Britain  between 
1876  and  1910.  At  that  time,  it  was 
apparently  still  possible  to  look  upon 
the  countryside  as  a  painted  backdrop 
to  be  enlivened  by  the  gambols  of  ex- 
otic actors  placed  before  it.  Few  man- 
agements knew  that  it  might  prove  im- 
possible to  clear  the  stage  or  to  repair 
the  scenery  when  the  performance  had 
lost  its  charm.  From  the  mammalian 
troupe.  Europe  was  dispatching  hares, 
rabbits,  and  wild  boar  to  plav  their 
roles  in  North  America:  red  and  fallow 
deer  were  contributed  to  the  South 
American  scene:  the  relatively  bare 
stage  in  New  Zealand  was  fast  filling 
up  with  foreign  acts  —  the  English 
weasel,  stoat,  and  ferret  joining  in 
about  this  time  to  play  alongside  an 
earlier  star  performer,  the  rabbit.  Per- 
haps there  the  scenery  w"as  just  begin- 
ning to  show  signs  of  wear!  Having 
received  most  of  their  immigrant 
squirrels  by  1910,  the  British  contin- 
ued for  another  twenty  years  to  trans- 
plant the  newcomers  from  one  district 
to  another  within  their  country.  Of 
thirtv-three  known  introductions,  onlv 
three  failed.  After  a  time,  t\\entieth- 
century  Britain  was  viewing  the  gray 
squirrel  with  the  same  dismay  that  had 
been  exhibited  by  eighteenth-century 
America:  bounty  payments  were  made, 
free  cartridges  were  offered  to  hunters, 
squirrel  destruction  was  urged  at  all 
seasons,  and  another  lesson  had  been 
learned  about  the  folly  of  introducing 
foreign  species.  Since  1937  the  impor- 
tation of  gray  squirrels  has  been  pro- 
hibited, as  has  also  the  keeping  of  one 
as  a  pet,  a  zoological  exhibit,  or  an  ob- 


ject of  scientific  study,  unless  a  spe- 
cial license  has  been  secured. 

In  his  book.  The  Ecolos^y  of  Inva- 
sions by  Animals  and  Plants,  Charles 
Elton  writes  about  ecological  explo- 
sions—the enormous  increase  in  num- 
bers of  some  kinds  of  living  organisms 
that  burst  out  of  control  when  freed 
from  a  previous  restraint.  He  consid- 
ers that  of  all  Nearctic  mammals  in- 
troduced to  other  countries,  the  gray 
squirrel  and  the  muskrat  have  been, 
perhaps,  the  most  explosive.  The  early 
stages  of  the  squirrel  invasion  have 
been  well  mapped  and  documented  in 
the  published  work  of  A.  D.  Middle- 
ton,  and  its  progress  between  19-37  and 
1957  was  surveyed  at  intervals  and  re- 
ported on  by  the  present  author.  The 
latest  account  by  H.  G.  Lloyd  describes 
the  distribution  in  1959,  and  shows  it 
to  be  still  increasing.  From  these  ac- 
counts we  can  examine  the  speed  and 
extent  of  the  "explosion."  We  can  now 
recognize  some  factors  that  encour- 
aged the  gray  squirrel's  spread  in  Brit- 
ain, and  some  of  the  difficulties  it  met 
and  overcame.  During  adaptation  to 
new  conditions.  Sciurus  carolinensis 
earned  itself  the  status  of  forest  pest. 

THE  whole  lamentable  exercise 
could  not  have  been  timed  and 
planned  better  had  the  intention  really 
been  to  insure  a  permanent,  thriving 
addition  to  the  fauna  of  England, 
Wales,  Scotland,  and  Ireland.  A  glance 
at  the  map  on  page  44  will  show  the 
scatter  of  introduction  points,  at  each 
of  which  two  or  more  gray  squirrels 
\vere  liberated.  However,  it  does  not 
show  the  wooded  country  estates  with 
their  mature  oaks,  sweet  chestnuts,  and 
beech  trees,  which  were  often  the  ac- 
tual sites  chosen,  nor  does  it  show 
the  pheasant-feeders  so  conveniently 
placed  in  the  winter  woods.  On  such  a 
map  there  is  no  indication  that  certain 
woods  are  closed  to  public  hunting,  of 
the  scarcity  of  winged  or  arboreal 
predators  capable  of  harassing  the 
gray  squirrel,  nor  of  the  fat  and  vacant 
living  waiting  for  it  once  the  only  na- 
tive squirrel  had  been  struck  low  by 

43 


INTRODUCTION  OF 
GRAY  SQUIRREL 


B  FROM    ONTARIO 

O  FROM    UNITED   STATES 

9  FROM   WOBURN      0CENTER 

•  SOURCE    UNKNOWN 


American  gray  squirrels  were  introduced  to  Britain  from 
1876  on.  Later,  they  were  transplanted  inside  the  country. 


Expansion  was  rapid  despite  bounties  and  free  cartric 
offered   to   encourage  year-round   control   of  the   squirrel 


disease.  In  this  land  there  was  no  in- 
terest in  squirrels  as  game  or  as  food. 

The  most  important  of  the  immi- 
grants appear  to  have  been  squirrels 
brought  to  Britain  by  a  Mr.  G.  S.  Page 
of  New  Jersey.  In  1890  the  Duke  of 
Bedford  accepted  ten  for  his  estate  at 
Woburn.  This  colony  later  provided 
animals  for  at  least  eight  new  centers, 
quite  apart  from  those  overflowing 
into  neighboring  counties  and  popu- 
lating some  1,350  square  miles  around 
Woburn  within  thirty  years.  This  was 
a  more  rapid  spread  than  that  from  the 
three  Scottish  centers:  three  squirrels 
were  released  in  1892  near  Loch  Long, 
and  gave  rise  to  a  population  that  in 
forty  years  had  spread  over  300  square 
miles.  Mountain  and  moorland  in  Scot- 
land enclosed  the  squirrels,  confining 
their  spread  along  the  hardwood  areas 
on  lower  ground.  In  such  northern 
English  counties  as  Yorkshire,  gray 
squirrels  also  first  advanced  along 
river  valleys  and  lower  wooded  levels, 
and  in  parts  of  southern  England  they 
at  first  bypassed  the  hill  country,  even 
where   it   was   wooded   with   beeches. 

It  now  became  clear  that  individual 
squirrels  or  small  groups  were  advanc- 
ing briskly  from  established  centers  in 
which  numbers  were  still  low.  The  ini- 
tial spread  would  often  leave  pock- 
ets of  promising  habitat  uncolonized, 

44 


while  five  to  ten  miles  farther  on  the 
pioneers  were  settling  in.  The  appear- 
ance of  the  first  squirrel,  perhaps  miles 
beyond  the  known  distribution  fron- 
tier, would  be  a  warning  that  some  fa- 
vorable route  existed  and  would  be 
used  again,  even  though  the  first  com- 
ers had  been  killed.  There  were  places 
where  a  different  pattern  developed; 
colonies  remained  largely  confined  to 
one  area  and  built  up  densities  of  about 
three  squirrels  per  acre. 

WRITING  of  this  in  1930,  Middle- 
ton  commented:  '"Extensive  mi- 
grations of  grey  squirrels  in  vast 
hordes  have  frequently  been  witnessed 
in  America,  but  no  mass  migrations 
have  so  far  been  recorded  in  this  coun- 
try. There  does,  however,  appear  to  be 
a  strong  migratory  instinct  among  in- 
dividuals rather  than  masses,  as  evi- 
denced by  the  rapid  extension  of  range 
carried  out  in  thinly  populated  areas 
such  as  Wharfedale.  It  is  possible  that 
in  this  country  the  migratory  instinct 
may  be  stronger  in  some  individuals  or 
families  than  in  others,  in  which  case 
the  ones  less  inclined  for  migration 
would,  by  breeding,  establish  concen- 
trated colonies,  while  the  migratory 
ones  were  engaged  in  extending  the 
range  of  the  species.  In  the  circum- 
stances under  which  the  spread  of  the 


grey  squirrel  has  occurred  in  this  coui 
try,  where  the  population  of  large  are; 
must  in  many  cases  have  resulted  froi 
the  progeny  of  isolated  pairs,  tl 
genetical  character  of  the  ancestral  ii 
dividuals  must  have  a  pronounced  ii 
fluence  on  the  character  of  the  desceni 
ants,  so  that  there  is  a  much  great( 
chance  of  certain  variant  characte: 
becoming  established  in  these  circur 
stances  than  in  the  normal  conditioi 
of  a  constant  popuFation."  This  wi 
be  returned  to  in  another  context. 
By  1930,  populations  arising  froi 
many  centers  were  already  overlaj 
ping.  The  total  range  in  Englam 
Wales,  and  Scotland  was  then  judge 
to  cover  some  13,000  square  miles.  I 
five  years  this  increased  to  19,00 
square  miles,  and  in  the  following  tw 
years  to  21.000.  At  this  late  stage,  th 
Grey  Squirrels,  Prohibition  of  Impoi 
tation  and  Keeping  Order.  1937.  W£ 
published:  but  soon  the  war  yeai 
brought  a  neglect  of  gamekeeping,  an 
the  squirrels'  range  was  over  29.00 
square  miles  at  the  next  survey  mad 
in  1945.  Ten  vears  later  distributio 
had  spread  to  almost  39.000— roughl 
44  per  cent  of  the  total  land  surface  c 
England,  Scotland,  and  Wales.  Gra 
squirrels  had  also  been  introduced  t 
Ireland  at  one  place  in  County  Lonj 
ford,  from  whence  they  are  reported  1 


:  spread  to  five  counties  in  Eire  and 
our  in  Northern  Ireland;  but  no 
iled  survey  has  been  made  there, 
be  Ordnance  Survey  maps  of  Brit- 
ire  overprinted  with  National  Grid 
ires,  the  smallest  being  those  that 
sure  one  kilometer  across;  these 
:ar  on  maps  scaled  at  one  inch  to 
nile.  Localities  can  be  defined  by 
National  Grid  map  reference,  and 
of  this  system  allows  transfer  of 
ibution  records  to  maps  of  smaller 
;  with  speed  and  precision. 

HE  most  recent  survey  results,  pub- 
lished by  H.  G.  Lloyd  in  1962, 
r  only  England  and  Wales.  They 
!  that  in  1959  gray  squirrels  could 
)und  in  1,072  of  the  1,638  10-kilo- 
r  grid  squares  of  this  area.  There 
been  little  dramatic  advance  since 
i,  but  rather  a  number  of  small  ex- 
ons  and  some  filling-in  of  small 
les  of  unoccupied  territory.  If  the 
of  spread  shown  over  the  past  ten 
5  were  to  be  maintained,  the  squir- 
[ight  celebrate  the  centenary  of  its 
al  by  colonizing  the  entire  land 
ice  of  England  and  Wales, 
is  scarcely  necessary  to  caution 
:he  total  ranges  calculated  by  such 
;ys  give  an  inflated  area.  Records 
rst  mapped  on  a  parish  basis,  and 
hen  transferred  to  the  small-scale 
using  a  grid  system.  In  Britain,  a 
ish"  in  this  sense  is  an  adminis- 
'e  subdivision  of  a  county,  often 
:rritory  served  by  a  church.  There 
L2,780  parishes  in  England  and 
s.  Until  1945,  the  grid  squares 
covered  64  square  miles:  if  one 
h  in  such  a  square  had  gray  squir- 
the  whole  square  was  counted  as 
ive.  From  1945  onward,  the  10- 
leter  National  Grid  was  used,  and 
ange  comparisons,  all  earlier  rec- 
were  also  replotted  on  this  sys- 
One  wood  containing  squirrels 
t  still  add  100  square  kilometers 
;  total  range,  however.  A  transient 
rel  might  have  the  same  effect, 
rally,  squirrels  can  only  be  resi- 
wheie  there  is  suitable  habitat  for 
,  which  means  food  and  cover  at 
asons  of  the  year, 
•art  from  more  obvious  obstacles 
read,  such  as  treeless  moors,  fen- 
heavily  industrialized  areas,  and 
I  rivers  with  few  bridges  (squir- 
wim  well,  but  tend  to  follow  the 
e  of  a  river  rather  than  to  strike 
s),  a  rather  mysterious  barrier 
i  to  inhibit  the  eastward  expan- 
jf  range  in  England.  The  eastern 


Bark  stripping  by  the  American  gray 
squirrel  is  abundantly  evident  on  the 


sycamore  tree,  above.  This  particular 
tree  once  grew  at  Betchworth,  Surrey. 


Cambium  at  base  of  this  beech  tree 
has  been  gnawed  by  the  gray  squirrel. 


Such  hardwood  damage  is  particularly 
noticeable  from  late  April  until  July. 


45 


British  red  squirrels  have  been  twice         agricultural   expansion,  and  in  the 
threatened— in  the   18th  century  from         20th  century  from  virulent  disease. 


DISEASE  OUTBREAKS 
AMONG  RED  SQUIRRELS 


WITH  DATE  OF  FIRST  RECOR 
[-1   RED  SQUIRRELS  DISEASED 
'-'   BEFORE    1920 

(-]  RED  SQUIRRELS  DECREASING 
^  BEFORE    1920 


Epidemic  disease  among  red  squirrels         occurred   throughout   British   Isles, 
was  suspected  in  1862.  Then  outbreaks         and  animal  was  nearly  exterminated. 


frontier  has  moved  very  slowly,  an 
sometimes  the  ground  gained  one  yea 
has  been  lost  subsequently.  Fenian 
blocks  part  of  the  front,  but  no  appai 
ent  obstacle  prevents  the  gray  squii 
rel  from  skirting  this  and  reaching  th 
wooded  country  beyond.  In  man 
cases,  the  records  show  that  movemer 
from  the  original  centers  was  more  t 
the  west  than  to  the  east. 

COMPARED  with  the  eastern  states  c 
America.  Britain  is  relatively  tin 
berless;  the  total  extent  of  woodlanc 
larger  than  five  acres  accounts  fc 
about  7  per  cent  of  the  total  land  su 
face— about  four  million  acres.  Th 
includes  very  young  and  coniferot 
woodland  ( newly  planted  areas  i 
which  trees  are  under  25  years  old)  i 
addition  to  any  suitable  for  gray  squi 
rels  to  live  in.  Oak  is  the  most  impo 
tant  tree  for  gray  squirrels,  and  thei 
are  only  two  species  (both  of  which  b 
long  to  the  white  oak  group)  cor 
monly  found  in  Britain,  in  contrast 
the  36  species  of  white  oaks  and  bla( 
oaks  that  grow  in  the  squirrel's  nati 
range.  Although  the  acorns  from  whi 
oak  are  preferred  by  squirrels  becau 
they  contain  more  sugar  and  mo 
water,  the  trees  are  not  reliable  cro 
pers,  and  may  fail  to  produce  abo 
once  in  five  years.  It  is  hard  to  imagii 
that  such  a  limitation  in  the  variety 
acorn-producing  trees  in  Britain  is  n 
a  disadvantage  for  squirrels,  partic 
larly  as  there  are  no  hickory  tre( 
either,  and  the  remainder  of  the  woo 
land  nut  crops— beech,  sweet  chestni 
and  hazel— crop  irregularly  and,  mo 
often  than  not,  poorly.  A  saving  fact' 
for  the  squirrel  may  be  the  pattern 
land-use  in  Britain— the  presence 
smaller,  scattered  woods  and  plenty 
"edge"  habitat,  which  places  a  varie 
of  food  within  cruising  range.  High* 
densities  of  squirrels  have  been  foui 
in  40-  to  80-acre  woods  with  a  mixtu 
of  coniferous  and  hardwood  specii 
including  well-grown  oaks.  Here  up 
five  squirrels  per  acre  can  be  found 
favorable  years. 

Today,  as  in  their  early  years,  t 
introduced  squirrels  wander;  isolat 
woods  in  which  all  squirrels  are  kill 
soon  become  reinvaded.  The  timber 
hedgerows,  which  link  wood  to  thick 
and  the  tree-lined  watercourses  encoi 
age  mobility,  and  mobility  makes  sen 
if  food  supplies  are  unstable.  By  tl 
means,  when  bumper  mast  crops  le 
to  crowded  populations  the  squirri 
disperse  to  explore  fresh  woods  a 


46 


escape  the  stress  syndrome.  When 
is  scarce  because  the  acorn  crop 
ailed,  widespread  foraging  may 
rer  alternative  supplies.  It  is  no- 
)le  that  in  Britain  gray  squirrels 
af  nests  rather  than  dens  for  shel- 
id  for  rearing  their  young:  this, 
lust  aid  mobility.  The  prevalence 
f  nests  may  be  a  reflection  of  the 
il  absence  of  airborne  and  arbo- 
)redators  that  attack  squirrels  in 
nests.  On  the  ground,  man  is  the 

predator,  but  for  a  number  of 
ns  he  is  less  effective  than  he 
:  be.  The  highest  estimate  of  the 
d  kill  of  squirrels  in  England  and 
i  was  less  than  400,000  at  a  time 

fourteen  cents  was  offered  for 

gray  squirrel's  tail  handed  in. 
tate  of  North  Carolina,  which  is 

square  miles  smaller,  claims  up 
)00,000  squirrels  a  year.  There 
)e  more  woodland  in  North  Caro- 
but  there  are  ten  times  fewer 
2  to  hunt  squirrels.  In  other 
i,  presumably  a  much  greater 
rtion  of  North  Carolinians  hunt, 
ley  kill  a  greater  number  of  squir- 
er  gun.  However,  the  American 

probably  less  damaging  to  the 
el  population,  thousand  for  thou- 
than  is  the  British  kill.  American 
rs  take  squirrels  when  numbers 

the  annual  peak  and  breeding  is 
or  the  year,  while  the  British  aim 
lucing  the  population,  and  con- 


centrate most  shooting,  trapping,  and 
nest  destruction  to  coincide  with  the 
spring  breeding  season.  The  gray 
squirrel  is  classified  as  vermin;  there 
is  no  tradition  of  squirrel  hunting  for 
sport  or  for  the  pot.  Before  a  licensed 
hunter  can  fire  a  shot  outside  land  he 
owns  or  occupies,  he  must  secure  ver- 
bal or  written  authorization  from  the 
owner  or  authorized  tenant,  and  if 
there  is  game  in  the  area,  a  stranger 
may  find  such  permission  refused.  Dif- 
ferences in  customs  like  these  have 
helped  the  squirrel  to  prosper. 

The  success  of  an  introduced  species 
will  depend  upon  the  competition  it 
encounters  in  its  chosen  ecological 
niche.  There  is  only  one  squirrel  of  any 
kind  native  to  Britain.  Sciurus  vulgaris 
leucourus  Kerr  is  also  a  diurnal  tree 
squirrel,  a  subspecies  of  the  Eurasian 
red  squirrel  developed  from  ancestors 
adapted  for  life  in  dense  coniferous 
forest.  In  the  British  Isles,  largely 
deciduous  forests  covered  the  country 
before  the  onslaughts  of  agriculture 
and  industry  destroyed  them  and  re- 
duced the  wildlife  they  sheltered.  The 
red  squirrel  suffered  the  expected  fate 
of  a  species  whose  habitat  was  reduced 
in  extent  and  altered  in  nature  long  be- 
fore the  first  gray  squirrel  appeared. 
It  came  to  the  verge  of  extinction  in 
Scotland  at  the  end  of  the  eighteenth 
century,  when  replanting  and  the  in- 
troduction   of    conifer    species    from 


overseas  were  only  beginning  to  have 
an  effect.  A  series  of  reintroductions 
between  1772  and  1872  were  success- 
ful, however.  It  is  probable  that  all  red 
squirrels  in  Eire  and  Northern  Ireland 
are  descended  from  introductions  there 
between  181.5  and  1880.  Newly  formed 
plantations  of  conifers  and  the  growth 
of  hardwood  areas  allowed  a  rapid  in- 
crease in  red  squirrel  populations, 
until  at  the  end  of  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury they  were  abundant.  Epidemic 
disease  was  first  suspected  in  Scotland 
in  1862 ;  then  scattered  outbreaks  in  all 
parts  of  the  British  Isles  caused  a  vio- 
lent reduction  in  numbers,  amounting 
to  disaster  for  the  red  squirrel  in  some 
areas.  Gray  squirrels,  however,  con- 
tinued to  spread,  themselves  unaffected 
by  the  disease— which,  indeed,  must 
have  made  their  conquest  easier. 

AT  first  sight,  the  arrivals  of  im- 
ported gray  squirrels  between 
1876  and  1929  and  the  main  outbreaks 
of  disease  among  red  squirrels  from 
1900  to  1925  suggest  a  direct  connec- 
tion. It  is  tempting  to  conclude  that  the 
American  squirrels  were  immune  car- 
riers of  some  agent  that  proved  lethal 
when  transmitted  to  the  British  red 
squirrels.  The  detailed  pattern  and 
timing  of  the  gray  squirrel  invasion 
does  not,  however,  fit  the  pattern  and 
timing  of  the  epidemic  outbreaks.  Even 
if  highly  mobile  carriers,  such  as  birds, 


RAY  SQUIRREL  1930 
3RAY  SQUIRREL  1945 
^ED   SQUIRREL    1945 


ES  of  native  and  introduced  squirrels  in  England  and 
3  are  seen  above.  In  1945,  red  squirrels  were  absent 


from  66  per  cent  of  areas  occupied  by  grays  since  1930;  in 
1959  they  were  absent  from  81  per  cent  of  the  gray's  area. 


47 


are  imagined  and  full  allowance  is 
made  for  temporary,  unrecorded  intro- 
ductions of  gray  squirrels,  there  is  no 
positive  evidence  to  prove  that  the  dis- 
ease agent  came  in  with  them.  Had  it 
done  so,  one  would  expect  to  find  that 
sickness  among  the  red  population 
radiated  first  from  some  of  the  major 
centers  where  grays  had  been  intro- 
duced. No  such  picture  emerges  from 
the  data  collected  by  Middleton.  to 
whom  we  owe  virtually  all  our  knowl- 
edge of  this  period. 

THE  squirrel  that  might  have  been 
a  competitor  of  the  gray  in  the 
deciduous  and  mixed  woodlands  of 
Britain  was  thus  struggling  for  sur- 
vival on  another  count  during  vital 
years.  When  the  distribution  of  each 
species  was  compared  in  1945,  the  red 
squirrel  was  found  to  be  absent  from 
66  per  cent  of  those  grid  squares  in 
which  gray  squirrels  had  been  pres- 
ent for  at  least  15  years.  This  looked 
like  replacement,  but  no  previous  sur- 
vey had  been  made  of  red  squirrel  dis- 
tribution in  the  area,  and  it  might  al- 
ways have  been  thinly  populated  by 
them.  Of  the  total  area  positive  for 
gray  squirrels,  only  43  per  cent  of  the 
squares  were  without  red  squirrels  in 
1945.  There  were  more  reports  of  red 
squirrels  where  grays  had  only  recently 
appeared.  Fourteen  years  later,  81  per 
cent  of  the  same  area  was  without  red 
squirrels.  While  grays  had  spread  from 
708  to  1,072  squares,  reds  had  re- 
treated from  1.011  to  571  squares  out 
of  a  total  of  1.6.38  squares  available. 

This  replacement  of  the  native  by 
the  introduced  squirrel  cannot  be  ex- 
plained by  the  popular  idea  that  there 
was  mass  slaughter  of  one  by  the  other. 
It  is  easy  to  see  how  the  idea  arose,  for 
the  European  red  squirrel,  unlike  the 
American  red  squirrel,  would  be  no 
match  for  the  gray  in  direct  combat. 
It  is  smaller,  half  as  heavy  as  the  gray, 
and  very  unlike  the  American  red 
squirrel  in  character.  It  lacks  the  chick- 
aree's noisy,  pugnacious  nature,  and 
is  not  a  close  relative.  Red  squirrel  pop- 
ulations, struggling  to  recover  from  the 
disastrous  decline  of  1900  to  1925, 
have  done  best  in  districts  where  gray 
squirrels  have  never  penetrated  and 
where  coniferous  habitat  is  plentiful. 
Since  grays  largely  avoid  purely  conif- 
erous forest,  this  may  prove  a  final 
refuge  for  the  red.  We  do  not  know 
which  factors  are  proving  decisive  in 
affecting  the  change-over— "superior 
adaptability"  is  a  useful  blanket  term 

48 


— but,however  unjustly, the  gray  squir- 
rel is  commonly  blamed  for  the  scar- 
city of  the  British  red  squirrel. 

The  main  outcry  against  Sciurus 
carolinensis  is  for  another  reason.  It 
has  developed  into  a  pest  of  broad- 
leaved  forests,  stripping  bark  and 
gnawing  cambium  from  living  stems  of 
young  hardwood  trees.  The  habit  was 
noticed  soon  after  the  squirrel's  ar- 
rival, but  became  serious  as  young 
stands  of  the  slow-growing,  valuable 
trees  developed  in  acreage.  It  was  the 
chief  reason  for  the  five-year  bounty 
scheme  to  encourage  gray  squirrel  de- 
struction. The  damage  is  confined  to 
a  definite  season  from  late  April  to 
early  July,  and  the  trees  most  usually 
attacked  are  the  European  sycamore 
(which  is  a  maple,  Acer  pseudoplata- 
nus) ,  and  a  beech,  Fagus  sylvatica.  At 
least  a  dozen  other  species  are  less  fre- 
quently damaged,  but  very  rarely  do 
gray  squirrels  strip  conifer  stems. 
Beech  trees  may  be  attacked  on  ex- 
posed roots,  the  main  stem,  or  the 
branches,  but  the  most  typical  damage 
is  stripping  at  the  base  of  the  main 
stem  or  where  a  branch  leaves  it.  Butts 
are  often  completely  girdled,  killing 
the  tree.  In  sycamores,  damage  often 
occurs  in  the  crown  of  the  tree,  but  the 
lower  main  stem  is  also  attacked. 
Outer  bark  is  torn  upward  in  strips, 
and  the  cambium  layer  is  damaged. 
Attacks  can  be  distinguished  from 
those  of  rabbits  when  near  ground 
level,  as  the  outer  bark  is  uneaten. 

The  two  trees  most  often  damaged 
are  not  native  to  North  America,  but 
it  is  interesting  that  fox  squirrels  in 
Michigan  have  been  known  to  girdle 
and  kill  maples  and  beech  in  June  and 
July.  Winter  damage  to  hard  maples, 
involving  the  stripping  of  living  bark 
from  stems  and  branches  in  January 
and  February,  is  also  recorded  for 
both  fox  and  gray  squirrels.  In  1958 
Longley  reported  that  gray  squirrels 
near  Lake  Minnetonka  in  Minnesota 
had  been  stripping  bark  from  sugar 
maples  during  summer  months,  al- 
though winter  damage  was  more  usual. 
J.  M.  Allen  recorded  damage  to  soft 
maple  by  squirrels  in  June.  It  can  be 
seen  that  this  habit  was  not  learned  by 
the  gray  squirrel  for  the  first  time  after 
its  arrival  in  Britain,  but  three  new  fac- 
tors have  arisen :  new  species  of  trees 
have  been  encountered,  damage  is 
more  regular  and  extensive,  and  more 
attention  is  paid  to  such  damage  in  a 
country  where  home-grown  timber  is 
scarce    (90  per  cent  of  the  nation's 


timber  requirements  are  imported 
Some  foresters  believe  that  ba: 
stripping  is  more  frequent  in  dry  sui 
mers.  and  that  thirsty  squirrels  li( 
sap,  but  damage  is  often  found  i 
trees  that  border  streams  and  laki 
Others  believe  that  the  cambium  laye 
with  its  sugary  sap,  is  a  valuable  foi 
for  squirrels  in  the  lean  period  betwe 
April  and  July,  when  one  mast  crop 
exhausted  and  the  next  is  not  } 
formed.  There  is  a  possibility  that  su 
behavior  is  confined  to  young  of  t 
spring  litters,  their  family  ties  brok 
by  the  imminent  arrival  of  summer  1 
ters,  or  that  it  is  a  release  for  soi 
sociological  stress.  Not  enough  dire 
observations  have  been  made  of  squ 
rels  actually  stripping  bark,  and  we 
not  know  the  sex  or  age  of  animi 
responsible,  but  not  all  individuals  c 
indulge  in  this  activity,  or  mattf 
would  be  much  worse.  The  British  r 
squirrel  behaves  in  the  same  way  at  t 
same  time  of  year,  but  restricts  its 
tack  to  young  Piniis  sylvestris  (t 
Scotch  pine)  and  a  few  other  conife 
There  have  been  similar  attacks 
conifers  by  other  races  of  red  squ 
rels  in  central  Europe,  and  forest( 
in  Finland  have  described  recent  0 
breaks  of  damage  to  pine  that  nea 
parallel  the  British  experience.  Th( 
is  some  evidence  that  red  squirrels 
Alaska  damage  conifers,  and  the  Abi 
squirrel  may  also  do  so.  Probably, 
we  knew  enough,  we  should  find  tl 
all  tree  squirrels  have  this  habit,  1 
when  even-age  stands  of  young  tr( 
are  grown  as  a  crop,  the  habit  becon 
more  obvious  and  more  annoying. 

EARLIER,  a  suggestion  by  Middlet 
was  quoted  that  referred  to  gei 
tic  differences  developing  in  gr 
squirrel  populations  arising  fr( 
progeny  of  isolated  pairs.  The  Finn: 
authors  Pulliainen  and  Salonen  si 
gest  that  bark  stripping  is  behav: 
governed  by  a  recessive  gene,  whi 
becomes  obvious  when  isolated  po] 
lations  inbreed  to  produce  individu 
homozygous  in  this  character.  Diffic 
as  this  may  be  to  prove  or  disprove 
does  raise  a  disquieting  thought— we 
those  gray  squirrels  shipped  to  Briti 
nuisance  squirrels,  trapped  and 
moved  from  areas  where  the  map 
and  the  beeches  had  been  stripped 


Photogenic  qualities  notwithstandii 
Sciurus  carolinensis  poses  real  hazE 
to  deciduous  trees  in  the  British  Is] 


".^p^ 


Crab  Nebula  photographed  from  Mount  Wilson  Observator 


SKY  REPORTER 

The  remarkable  Crab  Nebula  evolved  from  an  exploding  sta 


By  Thomas  D.  Nicholson 


IN  LAST  month's  "Sky  Reporter,"  we  saw  that  the  constel- 
lation Orion  is  a  region  from  which  much  has  been 
learned  about  the  birth  of  stars.  This  month  we  describe 
the  Fourth  Wonder  of  the  Universe,  the  Crab  Nebula, 
which  has  resulted  from  the  death  of  a  star. 

The  Crab  Nebula  is  a  compact,  bright  region,  roughly 
oval  in  shape,  which  measures  about  six  minutes  of  arc  by 
four  minutes  of  arc  on  the  sky.  It  is  located  in  the  constella- 
tion Taurus,  the  Bull,  and  is  prominent  in  December  skies. 
It  is  about  one  degree  to  the  north  and  slightly  west  of 
the  third-magnitude  star  Zeta  Tauri,  often  represented  as 
the  tip  of  the  Bull's  left  horn.  Although  too  faint  to  be 
visible  with  the  unaided  eye,  the  nebula  can  be  seen  easily 
in  a  small  telescope  and  looks  pearly-white  in  color.  The 
striking  appearance  of  the  Crab  Nebula  is  most  apparent, 
however,  in  photographs  taken  with  large  telescopes.  There 
is  no  object  similar  to  it  in  the  entire  heavens.  The  photo- 
graphs reveal  a  complex  system  of  bright  filaments  sur- 
rounding a  diffuse,  almost  featureless  central  brightness. 

In  1844  the  Irish  astronomer  Lord  Rosse  discovered 
these  tentacle-like  streamers  of  brightness  woven  through 
the  nebula,  and  it  was  he  who  contributed  its  name.  The 
earliest  records  of  the  appearance  of  the  nebula  are  the 

50 


sketches  left  by  Lord  Rosse.  Interest  in  the  Crab  Nebula  ; 
something  other  than  a  curiously  shaped  cloud  of  glowii 
gas  arose  during  the  1920's.  The  astronomer  K.  Lundmar 
of  the  Mount  Wilson  Observatory,  noted  that  it  was  locati 
in  the  approximate  position  of  a  star  that  had  first  be( 
reported  by  Chinese  and  Japanese  astronomers  in  A. 
1054.  According  to  their  account,  this  new  "guest  stai 
appeared  suddenly  near  the  star  Zeta  Tauri,  becan 
brighter  than  the  planet  Jupiter,  and  remained  visible  fi 
approximately  two  years. 

Such  a  star  is  recognized  today  as  an  exploding  sta 
either  a  nova  or  a  supernova,  depending  on  the  magnituc 
and  characteristics  of  the  explosion.  Ordinary  novae  ar 
supernovae  may  be  distinguished  by,  among  other  thing 
the  maximum  brightness  they  achieve  during  their  ou 
burst.  A  nova  may  attain  an  absolute  magnitude  of  aboi 
—  7  or  — 8,  some  50,000  times  the  luminosity  of  the  su: 
A  supernova  may  attain  an  absolute  magnitude  of  — 1 
or  — 16,  about  350  million  times  more  luminous  than  tl 
sun.  Novae  and  supernovae  represent  very  different  event 
although  both  may  be  described  as  stellar  explosions, 
nova  is  a  relatively  minor  outburst,  involving  only  supe 
flcial  changes  in  the  characteristics  of  the  star  that  remain 


supernova  probably  involves  the  basic  structure  of 
ar.  The  outburst  of  a  supernova  results  in  the  loss 
ire  than  one-tenth  of  the  star's  material,  a  inass  loss 
1  some  stars  may  equal  or  exceed  the  mass  of  the  sun. 
vae  and  supernovae  also  differ  a  great  deal  in  the 
3ncy  with  which  they  are  observed.  Novae  are  rela- 
common;  probably  25  to  30  occur  annually,  although 
remain  undetected.  Supernovae,  on  the  other  hand, 
ire  in  our  stellar  system;  only  three  are  definitely 
1  to  have  occurred  in  the  Milky  Way  in  the  past 
ind  years.  Perhaps  a  dozen  other  supernovae  are  ob- 
1  annually  in  other  galaxies,  all  at  great  distances 
earth,  of  course.  Supernovae  probably  occur  at  a  rate 
mt  one  each  three  hundred  years  per  galaxy, 
lay,  astronomers  are  of  the  opinion  that  nova-type 
rsts  represent  a  stage  in  the  evolution  of  certain  types 
rs  toward  what  is  known  as  the  white  dwarf  or  de- 
ate  state.  The  few  white  dwarf  stars  that  are  known 
r  to  be  of  low  mass,  and  it  may  be  that  many  stars 
somehow  lose  a  good  deal  of  their  mass  in  order  to 

this  last  stage  in  their  evolution.  Nova-type  bursts 
je  one  way  in  which  the  loss  occurs.  The  outburst 
probably  results  from  an  instability  that  develops  in 
ir  as  it  approaches  white  dwarf  stage.  Little  is  known 

the  causes  or  eifects  of  a  supernova,  since  so  few  are 
/ed.  None  has  been  observed  in  our  Galaxy  since  the 
:ion  of  the  telescope.  The  great  amount  of  energy 
ed  and  the  mass  lost  to  the  star  are  so  great,  however, 
t  must  be  quite  a  different  kind  of  event  from  that 

is  observed  in  an  ordinary  nova. 


That  the  new  star  witnessed  in  a.d.  1054  was  a  supernova 
is  clear  from  what  we  now  know  of  its  apparent  brightness 
and  the  distance  from  earth  of  the  cloud  it  produced.  The 
absolute  magnitude  of  the  star  at  the  peak  of  the  outburst 
has  been  estimated  at  about  — 16.5,  indicating  that  it  was 
one  of  the  most  brilliant  supernovae  known  in  relation  to 
ones  observed  in  other  galaxies.  The  agreement  of  its  posi- 
tion with  that  of  the  guest  star  and  the  observed  expan- 
sion of  its  gaseous  clouds  leave  little  doubt  that  the  Crab 
Nebula  is  the  visible  remains  of  the  supernova  of  1054. 
Two  faint  white  stars  near  the  center  of  the  cloud  have 
been  investigated  from  time  to  time  on  the  possibility  that 
one  or  the  other  may  have  produced  the  outburst,  but  this 
is  unlikely.  They  are  probably  background  stars,  moving— 
but  not  in  the  same  direction — as  the  nebula. 

THE  source  of  the  light  coming  from  the  Crab  Nebula 
was  not  established  until  about  ten  years  ago.  The 
spectrum  of  the  cloud  showed  strong,  bright  emission  lines 
superimposed  over  a  very  bright  continuum.  The  bright 
lines  suggested  that  it  was  an  emission  nebula— that  its 
light  was  produced  by  emission  of  its  tenuous  gases,  stimu- 
lated by  radiation  from  a  nearby  hot  star.  But  there  was 
no  type  of  star  in  or  near  the  cloud  that  could  supply  the 
required  radiation.  The  bright  continuum  in  the  back- 
ground of  the  spectrum  suggested  that  it  was  a  reflection 
nebula— that  is,  its  light  was  starlight  scattered  and  re- 
flected by  dust  particles  in  the  cloud.  But  the  strength  of 
the  continuum  was  far  greater  than  could  be  produced 
by  reflected  light  from  any  of  the  nearby  stars. 


ENTARY  STRUCTURE  appears  relatively  weak  in  the  top 
,  taken  in  the  blue  area  of  nebula's  spectrum.  In  lower 
e,  taken  in  infrared  area,  filaments  cannot  be  seen. 


Photographs  of  nebula's  polarized  light,  above,  were  taken 
through  200-inch  telescope  at  Mount  Palomar.  Polarization 
plane  is  turned  ninety  degrees  from  top  to  bottom  picture. 


51 


%^''2^BKBHKKKtK^Kl 

• 

• 

"     ■                           .           • 

Distant  galaxy  in  Coma  Berenices  is  viewed  during  the 
occurrence  of  a  supernova,  arroiv  lower  right.  The  brighter 
region  in  center  of  the  galaxy  is  the  large  stellar  nucleus. 


Galaxy  after  the  supernova  has  faded.  Each  year  about 
dozen  are  observed  in  galaxies  other  than  our  own,  and  th 
probably  occur  at  a  rate  of  one  each  300  years  per  galax 


A  remarkable  series  of  photographs,  published  in  1942 
by  W.  Baade  of  the  Mount  Wilson  Observatory,  showed 
that  the  Crab  Nebula  actually  consists  of  two  distinct  parts, 
and  that  each  part  is  responsible  for  a  different  feature 
of  the  nebula's  spectrum.  Baade  used  a  combination  of 
filters  and  photographic  plates  to  take  pictures  of  the 
nebula  in  selected  regions  of  the  spectrum.  Photographs  in 
the  area  of  the  spectrum  that  included  bright  emission 
lines  showed  a  considerable  enhancement  of  the  fila- 
mentary structure  of  the  nebula.  Other  photographs,  taken 
in  wavelengths  that  were  free  from  strong  emission  lines- 
such  as  the  infrared— showed  no  filamentary  structure,  but 
only  a  bright  S-shaped  cloud  (photographs,  page  51). 

These  photographs  by  Baade  showed  that  the  strong 
continuous  spectrum,  accounting  for  about  80  per  cent  of 
the  total  brightness  of  the  nebula,  was  produced  by  the 
nebula's  relatively  featureless  inner  region.  The  striking 
bright  filaments,  on  the  other  hand,  were  responsible  for 
the  emission  features.  There  was  still  no  satisfactory  ex- 
planation, however,  as  to  what  might  be  the  source  of  the 
strong,  continuous  radiation. 

IN  1948  and  1949,  several  Australian  radio  astronomers 
discovered  and  investigated  a  strong  source  of  cosmic 
radio  waves  in  the  constellation  Taurus.  The  source  was 
quickly  identified  with  the  position  of  the  Crab  Nebula, 
which  then  gained  the  distinction  of  being  the  first  optical 
object  definitely  identified  with  a  cosmic  radio  source. 
The  radio  radiation  coming  from  the  nebula  was  peculiar 
in  many  ways;  it  strongly  covered  a  broad  range  of  radio 
frequencies,  and  was  also  strong  in  relation  to  the  optical 
radiation  produced  by  the  nebula. 

The  Russian  astronomer  I.  S.  Shklovsky  suggested  in 
1953  that  radio  waves  from  the  Crab  Nebula  were  pro- 
duced by  electrons  moving  at  near  the  speed  of  light  in  a 
strong  magnetic  field.  This  is  known  as  synchrotron  radia- 
tion. Shklovsky  further  theorized  that  the  optical  radiation 

52  ' 


from  the  inner  mass  of  the  nebula  could  also  be  explaim 
in  the  same  way.  This  suggestion,  connecting  radiation 
a  peculiar  nature  in  two  widely  separated  regions  of  t 
spectrum,  was  bold  and  imaginative. 

Two  other  Russian  astronomers,  V.  L.  Ginsburg  ai 
I.  M.  Gordon,  pointed  out  that  if  the  theory  were  correi 
the  light  from  the  Crab  Nebula  should  be  strongly  pok 
ized.  Evidence  of  the  polarization  was  found  by  Russi; 
astronomers  in  1954  and  was  clearly  confirmed  by  a  seri 
of  pictures  taken  in  polarized  light  by  Baade  with  the  20 
inch  telescope  at  Mount  Palomar  in  1956  [see  photograp 
page  51,  right).  In  that  same  year,  1956,  J.  H.  Oort  ai 
Th.  Walraven,  of  the  Observatory  at  Leiden,  The  Netht 
lands,  published  a  paper  that  confirmed  Shklovsky's  the; 
that  the  nature  and  strength  of  the  radiation  from  tl 
Crab  Nebula  is  attributable  to  synchrotron  radiation.  Thi 
also  suggested  that  the  strong  and  complex  magnetic  fie 
present  in  the  nebula  is  probably  connected  with  the  e 
panding  shell  of  bright  filaments.  They  suggested  furth 
that  the  conditions  within  the  Crab  Nebula  could  make  il 
source  of  cosmic  rays— mysterious,  high-energy  particl 
emanating  from  space— and  that  supernovae  might  be  i 
important  source  of  these  particles. 

Thus  the  Fourth  Wonder— the  Crab  Nebula— has  prov 
to  be  a  remarkable  object  in  many  ways.  It  shows  us  the  i 
suit,  after  nine  centuries,  of  the  death  of  a  star,  and  m; 
yet  help  to  explain  the  processes  that  produce  or  resi 
from  supernova  events.  More  than  that,  the  investigatii 
of  this  peculiar  object  has  led  to  a  new  understanding 
the  sources  of  the  optical  and  radio  radiation  we  obser' 
in  the  universe,  an  understanding  that  should  have  an  app 
cation  in  the  interpretation  of  other  celestial  phenomen 


Dr.  Nicholson,  the  regular  author  of  this  column,  is  also 
Chairman  of  The  American  Museum-Hayden  Planetarium 


MAGNITUDE  SCALE 

■^—0.1  and  brighter 
*      0.0  to  +0.9 


*  +2.0  to +2.9 
-f  +3.0  to +3.9 

•  +4.0  and  fainter 


ion  December    3,  8:18  P.M.,  EST 

jarter  December  12,  1:01  a.m.,  EST 

on  December  18,  9:41  p.m.,  EST 

larter  December  25,  2:27  p.m.,  EST 


TIMETABLE 

December     1   11:00  P.M. 

December  15  10:00  p.m. 

December  31     9:00  p.m. 

(Local  IWean  Time) 


jmber  3:  A  partial  eclipse  of  the  sun  occurs  over  the 
■n  Pacific  Ocean.  It  will  be  visible  from  Hawaii  and 
astern  Alaska  just  before  sunset, 
jmber  5:  Mercury  may  be  seen  close  to  the  two-day- 
scent  moon  just  after  sunset  in  the  southwestern  sky. 
y  (magnitude  -fO.l)  is  slightly  south  (below  and  to  the 
the  moon. 

jmber  5:  Mars  and  Uranus  are  in  conjunction  at  3:00 
3T.  Mars  is  a  reddish  object  (magnitude  +1.0)  in  Leo, 
1  between  Regulus  and  Denebola,  toward  the  southeast 
midnight.  Uranus  is  a  6th-magnitude  object  located 
11/^  degrees  south  of  Mars. 

;mber  10:  Saturn  and  the  nearly  first-quarter  moon  are 
unction  at  7:00  a.m.,  EST.  Saturn  is  to  the  east  (left) 
moon  in  the  evening  sky  of  the  9th;  to  the  west  (right) 
moon  on  the  evening  of  the  10th. 
;mber  11-15:  Meteors  from  the  Geminid  shower  radiate 
he  proximity  of  Castor,  in  Gemini.  The  moon  will  not 
'e  with  observations  after  midnight.  Expected  hourly 
sar  maximum  on  the  13th,  Is  about  50. 


December  16:  Jupiter  is  in  conjunction  with  the  moon  at 
4:00  A.M.,  EST.  On  the  evening  of  the  15th,  Jupiter  Is  east 
(left)  of  the  nearly  full  moon. 

December  18:  A  total  lunar  eclipse  is  visible  throughout 
North  America.  The  moon  enters  the  umbra  (dark  shadow  of 
earth)  at  7:59  p.m.,  EST;  total  eclipse  begins  at  9:07  p.m.,  EST; 
total  eclipse  ends  at  10:07  p.m.,  EST;  and  the  moon  leaves  the 
umbra  at  11:15  p.m.,  EST.  For  times  in  other  parts  of  the 
United  States,  subtract  one  hour  for  each  time  zone  west  of 
Eastern  Standard  Time. 

December  21:  The  sun  arrives  at  the  winter  solstice  at  2:50 
p.m.,  EST.  Winter  then  commences  in  the  Northern  Hemi- 
sphere; summer  in  the  Southern  Hemisphere. 

December  31:  Venus,  rapidly  disappearing  from  the  morn- 
ing sky,  may  be  seen  very  close  to  the  thin  crescent  moon,  low 
in  the  southeastern  sky  about  dawn. 

Venus,  Mercury,  and  Mars  are  morning  stars  this  month, 
but  only  Mars  is  well  placed  for  observing.  It  rises  before 
midnight  and  is  in  the  southwest  about  dawn.  Jupiter  and 
Saturn  are  both  easily  seen  as  evening  stars  all  month  long. 


Anomalies 
in  Africa 


Photographs  by  L.  D.  Vesey-Fitzgerald 

The  Rukwa  Valley,  in  southwestern  Tanganyika,  is  one  of  the 
world's  greatest  natural  animal  reserves,  although  it  is  not  officially 
designated  as  a  national  park.  Some  four  hundred  species  of  birds 
have  been  identified,  in  addition  to  the  thousands  of  mammals  that 
roam  the  area.  But  among  them  all,  the  most  extraordinary  animals 
may  be  the  tv\'o  seen  in  these  aerial  photographs,  taken  from  a  plane 
flown  by  an  International  Red  Locust  Control  pilot.  There  have  been 
reports  of  albino  giraffe  over  the  years,  but  this  record  of  a  spotted 
zebra  may  be  a  first.  Since  these  pictures  were  taken,  a  game  officer 
reported   the  zebra   had   foaled,   and  the   colt,  too,   was   spotted. 


5      .\'   . 


,^ 


*#    ^    #T 


»,     t- 


2£ ..  ^hi*^?  ♦'^i^^  ,:ai. 


SpiiUciJ  /.cljia  run.-  vvilli  the 
normally  marked  members 
of  the  herd.  Color  variation 
in  single  animals  is  not  too 
unusual;  recurrence  in  the 
offspring  is  rather  striking. 


Sightings  of  albino  giraffes 
have  taken  place  in  many- 
parts  of  East  Africa,  but  so 
far  this  Rukwa  specimen, 
like  spotted  zebra,  has  been 
viewed  solely  from  a  plane. 


55 


Rosaceae 
...  or  Homo  sapiens 

...get 
them  all 

with  the  versatile  new 


®ICI 


Miranda'F 

35mm  single-lens  reflex 


Everything  nature  offers  is  fair  game 
when  you  'hunt'  with  the  Miranda  E 
No  subject  too  far,  too  close,  too  big  or 
too  small.  Over  136  inter-changeable 
lenses  and  accessories  help  you  master 
every  photographic  challenge. 

You  get  a  brighter-than-ever  viewing 
image,  always  visible  through  auto- 
diaphragm  and  mirror  action.  And  .  .  . 
Miranda  F  is  so  quiet  only  you  know 
the  picture  is  being  taken.  Pentaprism 
interchanges  for  waist-level  or  critical 
focusing  (5x-15x).  A  newly  designed 
splitprism  rangefinder  simplifies  fast, 
accurate  focusing.  Speeds  to  1/1000 
second  help  you  capture  the  fastest 
action. 

Miranda  F,  with  super-sharp  Miranda- 
Soligor  fl.9  lens,  less  than  $190*.  Your 
dealer  is  ready  to  demonstrate  now,  or 
write  for  free  booklet. 


nil 


56 


ALLIED   IMPEX  CORPORATION 


About  the  Authors 

Dr.  RicH.-^RD  J.  Hartesveldt,  author 
of  "Fire  Ecology  of  the  Giant  Se- 
quoias," is  Associate  Professor  of  Con- 
servation at  San  Jose  State  College  in 
San  Jose.  California.  He  attended  Grand 
Rapids  Junior  College  and  received  his 
bachelor's  degree,  master's  degree,  and 
doctorate  in  conservation  from  the  Uni- 
versity of  Michigan.  Dr.  Hartesveldt  has 
worked  for  the  National  Park  Service 
as  a  ranger  in  Hawaii  National  Park,  as 
a  naturalist  in  Yosemite  National  Park, 
Death  Valley  National  Monument,  and 
Devils  Postpile  National  Monument,  and 
as  a  research  scientist  in  Sequoia  and 
Kings  Canyon  National  Parks.  He  began 
teaching  at  San  Jose  State  in  1953. 

"Anatomy  of  Decay  as  Preserved  in 
Shale,"  the  article  on  fossil  nematodes, 
was  written  by  Dr.  Leif  St0rmer  of  the 
Department  of  Paleontology-Stratigra- 
phy at  the  Institute  of  Geology,  Univer- 
sity of  Oslo,  Norway.  Dr.  St0rmer 
received  his  doctorate  from  that  Uni- 
versity, and  since  1945  he  has  been 
Curator  of  the  University's  Paleontologi- 
cal  Museum  and  Professor  of  Historical 
Geology.  His  special  fields  of  research 
are  fossil  trilobites,  mesotomes,  arach- 
nids, and  Ordovician  stratigraphy.  He  is 
president  of  the  International  Commis- 
sion on  Stratigraphy. 

Dr.  Wilhelmina  Jashemski,  author 
of  the  article  on  Pompeii,  is  Asso- 
ciate Professor  of  Ancient  History  at 
the  University  of  Maryland.  She  is 
author  of  The  Origins  and  History  of  the 
Proconsular  and  the  Propraetorian  Im- 
periuni  to  27  B.C.,  and  is  currently  en- 
gaged in  research  for  a  book  on  the 
gardens  of  Pompeii  and  Herculaneum. 
Her  studies  have  been  supported  by 
grants  from  the  General  Research  Board 
of  the  University  of  Maryland  and  the 
American  Philosophical  Society,  and 
were  carried  on  in  Pompeii  with  the 
help  of  Professor  Alfonso  De  Franciscis, 
Superintendent  of  the  Antiquities  of 
Campania.  Dr.  Jashemski  received  her 
Ph.D.  from  the  University  of  Chicago. 
"Introduced  Menace,"  concerning  the 
gray  squirrel,  was  written  by  Monica 
Shorten,  who  lives  and  works  in  Eng- 
land. She  was  an  Oxford  honors  graduate 
in  zoology,  did  five  years  of  postgradu- 
ate research  at  the  Bureau  of  Animal 
Population  there,  and  then  made  further 
studies  on  the  gray  squirrel  for  the 
Ministry  of  Agriculture.  Two  visits  to 
the  eastern  United  States  have  enabled 
her  to  see  the  gray  squirrel  in  its  native 
environment.  Miss  Shorten  is  currently 
interested  in  virus  diseases  of  squirrels, 
and  acts  as  field  assistant  to  her  hus- 
band, Dr.  A.  D.  Vizoso,  who  is  with  the 
Research  Council's  Virus  Research  Unit 
located  at  Carshalton,  Surrey,  England. 


<s^t24tJi<n— 


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even  with  miniature  cameras.  Linhof 
Precision  Tripods  protect  your  best 
photographic  efforts . . .  keep  you  on 
solid  footing.  That's  because  Linhof 
builds  rock-solid,  lifetime  steadiness 
into  every  tripod— the  positive  stead- 
iness that  fine  pictures  demand. 


XaXBTG-  PHOTO  CORPORATION 

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light, the  Gossen  LUNASIX  gives  you  the 
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There's  nothing  like  a  LUNASIX. ..the  most 
sensitive,  most  accurate,  widest-range  ex- 
posure meter  ever  made! 

SPECIFICATIONS:  Smooth  one-hand  opera- 
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flected and  incident  light  •  Narrow  30° 
measuring  angle  •  Automatic  needle  lock  • 
Built-in  battery  tester  •  Computer  Range: 
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A  Suhsid'tar'/  ol  BERKEY  PHOTO  Inc. 


CE I  IN  ACTION 


'Listening  under  water 


By  William  A.  Watkins 


CNOWLEDGE  that  there  are  myriad 
mds  under  water  came  with  the 
of  wartime  listening  for  subma- 
iiologists  have  learned  that  most 
3  sounds  are  made  by  creatures 
e  in  the  water:  porpoises,  fishes, 
nd  even  shrimps.  All  of  the  sea 

was    discovered,    do    not   make 

but  those  that  do  appear  to  have 
ly  different  "voices."  The  sound 
rimp  can  readily  be  recognized 
at  of  a  toadfish;  whales  "say"  dif- 
things  than  do  seals.  In  fact, 
made  by  one  species  of  porpoise 
fish  differ  slightly  from  those  of 
lecies.  Thus  it  often  becomes  pos- 
distinguish  one  from  another  sim- 
istening  to  their  underwater  calls, 
itists  have  been  excitedly  and  con- 
ly  discovering  new  animals  or 
hat  use  underwater  sounds,  and 
iteresting  experiments  have  been 
ed  to  try  to  discover  what  use  the 
makes  of  these  sounds.  The  dick- 
ies of  some  porpoises,  it  has  been 

are  used  for  echolocation,  and 
i  their  squeals  are  for  communi- 
Ihe  "boat-whistle"  of  the  toadfish 
I  to  be  related  to  the  establish- 
nd  defense  of  its  territory.  The 
1  quality  of  some  fish  sounds  ap- 
f  coincides  with  mating  behavior. 

seem  to  snap  noisily  no  matter 
ey  are  doing! 

est  in  underwater  sounds— by  sci- 
and  amateurs— has  been  increas- 
d  with  this  interest  has  come  a 
in  the  development  of  underwater 
g  gear.  For  the  most  part,  how- 
ich  gear  has  been  too  expensive 

complicated  for  the  general  use 
ents  and  amateurs.  In  addition, 

few  authors  have  discussed  the 
ues    of   listening   to    underwater 

in  a  way  that  can  prove  to  be 

to  the  interested  amateur. 
minimum   listening   system    (for 
ater    sound)    is   composed   of   a 
hone,  an  amplifier,  and  a  set  of 


earphones  or  a  loud-speaker.  The  hydro- 
phone picks  up  the  water-borne  sounds 
and  translates  them  into  electrical  im- 
pulses. These  are  fed  to  an  amplifier.  The 
amplifier  raises  the  level  of  these  minute 
signals  so  that  they  may  be  converted  to 
audible  sounds  by  the  earphones  or  by  a 
loud-speaker.  The  hydrophone  is  the  only 
distinctive  component  of  a  simple  listen- 
ing system.  The  type  most  generally  used 
by  scientists  today  is  the  piezoelectric 
hydrophone,  utilizing  crystals  and  ceram- 
ics as  their  active  elements.  They  re- 
spond well  to  high  frequencies  and 
below  their  resonant  frequency  they  give 
good  uniform  response.  Hydrophones  for 
amateur  use  have  also  been  designed. 
The  crystal  unit  from  a  microphone  may 
be  adapted  to  underwater  listening  by 
first  immersing  it  in  vegetable  oil  held  in 
a  suitable  container  (such  as  a  plastic 
bag)  so  that  good  coupling  to  the  water 
is  achieved.  For  low-frequency  listening 
a  crystal  hydrophone  may  be  a  disap- 
pointment, however,  because  with  de- 
creasing frequency  its  impedance  rises, 
and  consequently  very  high-impedance 
input  circuits  must  be  used  in  accom- 
panying amplifiers. 

The  variable  reluctance  hydrophone 
fits  most  of  the  requirements  of  an  ideal 
hydrophone  for  use  by  amateurs.  The 
principle  is  that  of  inducing  a  changing 
electrical  current-flow  in  a  coil  of  wire 
by  varying  the  reluctance  of  the  magnetic 
circuit  that  intersects  this  coil.  It  utilizes 
a  fixed  magnet  and  a  fixed  coil  with  a 
separate  moving  ferrous  diaphragm  or 
plate  within  the  magnetic  field,  and  it  has 
been  used  in  many  types  of  vibration 
pickups  (magnetic  phonograph  cart- 
ridges, velocity-ribbon  microphones,  gui- 
tar pickups,  etc.).  Five  factors  make  this 
a  particularly  good  piece  of  amateur 
equipment: 

1.  Sensitivity— easily  available  ampli- 
fiers may  be  used  for  listening,  i.e., 
ordinary  phonograph  or  tape  re- 
corder amplifiers. 


)  for  assembling  hydrophone  shows, 
it:   fish  paper  flange,   flange  with 


magnet  added,  coiling  of  wire,  iron  plates 
attached,  and  the  whole  incased  in  balloon. 


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2.  Good  low-frequency  response— most 
amateurs  are  interested  in  marine 
life  sounds  and  these  are  nearly  all 
relatively  low  in  frequency,  that  is, 
below  500  c.p.s. 

3.  Easy  construction— there  is  no  need 
for  special  tools  or  close  tolerances. 

4.  Simple  parts— the  bits  and  pieces 
are  those  than  can  easily  be  ob- 
tained, perhaps  even  from  hobby  or 
junk  boxes. 

5.  Cost— the  total  cost  of  parts  is  less 
than  one  dollar. 

Principle  of  Low  Impedance 

A  permanent  magnet  with  a  coil  of  in- 
sulated wire  wound  on  it  is  placed 
between  two  iron  plates  (diaphragms). 
Magnetic  attraction  holds  these  in  place 
and  the  entire  unit  is  slipped  into  a  rub- 
ber balloon.  A  two-conductor  cable  leads 
out  of  the  neck  of  the  balloon,  and  plastic 
tape  provides  a  watertight  seal. 

Sound  waves  traveling  through  the 
water  strike  the  iron  plates  and  move 
them  a  tiny  amount.  This  motion,  al- 
though very  small,  is  sufficient  to  change 
the  position  of  the  plates  relative  to  the 
magnet,  and  therefore  to  change  the  re- 
luctance of  the  magnetic  circuit.  This 
varies  the  flux  lines  that  cut  the  turns  in 
the  coil.  A  potential  that  changes  with  the 
sound  variations  is  thus  generated  across 
the  coil  and  may  be  fed  to  any  appropri- 
ate amplifier. 

This  is  a  low-impedance  hydrophone 
and  requires  a  low-impedance  input  to 
the  amplifier— a  50-ohms  microphone  in- 
put is  best.  A  50-ohms  to  100,000-ohms 
transformer  will  adequately  match  the 
hydrophone  to  most  of  the  high-imped- 
ance amplifiers. 

A  low-impedance  hydrophone  has  ad- 
vantages in  underwater  listening  in  that 

S8 


the  cable  does  not  pick  up  electrical  in- 
terference and  power  line  hum;  also, 
minor  motion  of  either  the  cable  or  the 
hydrophone  is  not  transmitted  as  noise. 
This  means  that  long  hydrophone  cables 
become  practical,  and  it  is  unnecessary 
to  use  elaborate  suspension  systems  to 
avoid  the  effects  of  shock  and  motion  on 
the  hydrophone  and  its  cable. 

The  sensitivity  of  the  hydrophone,  us- 
ing a  given  magnet,  depends  both  on  the 
size  of  the  plates  and  the  number  of  turns 
in  the  coil.  The  amplification  necessary 
(which  depends  on  the  unit's  sensitivity) 
will  probably  range  from  40  to  65  deci- 
bels. The  amplifiers  of  most  tape  record- 
ers and  phonographs  should  be  adequate. 

The  output  from  this  hydrophone  will 
be  greatest  at  10  to  20  c.p.s..  and  will  fall 
off  increasingly  until  at  500  c.p.s.  its  re- 
sponse is  down  10  to  12  decibels.  By  using 
thin  plates  and  by  separating  the  magnet 
from  the  plates  with  a  small  air  space, 
the  high-frequency  response  may  be  in- 
creased to  a  maximum  of  about  5.000 
c.p.s.  (but  only  with  the  loss  of  over-all 
sensitivity) . 

Materials  Needed 

Magnet— short,  round  bar-type  is  prefer- 
able for  more  ease  in  winding  and  po- 
sitioning; 

Fish  paper— or  other  durable,  stiff  sheet- 
ing that  can  be  cut  and  folded  to  make 
coil  flanges; 

Cement— rubber  is  recommended,  quick 
drying  and  contact  setting; 

Magnet  wire— either  No.  36  or  No.  38, 
enameled; 

Cable— two-wire,  round  insulation; 

Iron  plates— covers  for  electrical  junction 
boxes  used  in  house  wiring,  or  tops 
from  tin  cans ; 

Balloon— natural  rubber,  large  enough  to 


hold  plates  up  to  4  inches  in  diamete: 
and  tough  enough  so  that  the  nee 
opening  can  be  stretched  by  thi 
amount  (and  to  keep  water  out  wit 
normal  use).  The  thick  "Jumbo"-typ 
available  at  most  10-cent  stores  for 
dime  will  serve  the  purpose; 
Plastic  tape— Scotch  No.  88  works  bes 
but  any  good,  waterproof,  pressui 
sensitive  tape  will  do. 

Hydrophone  Construction 

FLANGES  of  heavy  paper  should  be  cf 
mented  onto  the  magnet  flush  wit 
the  pole  faces.  (The  permanent  magne 
usually  found  in  a  castoff  loud-speake 
is  the  right  type,  and  ranges  in  size  fror 
%"  by  %"  in  a  small  speaker  to  %"  b 
1"  in  a  larger  one.  Usually  they  are  onl 
cemented  in  place,  and  can  be  remove 
easily  with  a  sharp  rap  of  a  hammer. 
These  flanges  serve  to  hold  the  coil  c 
wire  in  place  around  the  magnet.  The 
should  be  disks  cut  about  one  inch  large 
in  diameter  than  the  diameter  of  th 
magnet.  If  the  center  of  these  disks  i 
then  cut  with  4  or  5  crisscrossing  inc 
sions,  the  tabs  formed  can  be  folded  bac 
and  the  magnet  pushed  through  the  re 
sultant  hole.  The  tabs  may  then  be  ce 
mented  onto  the  sides  of  the  magnet.  On 
flange  should  be  cemented  in  place  a 
each  end  of  the  magnet  (see  photograp 
on  page  57 ). 

The  coil,  of  enameled  magnet  wir( 
may  now  be  wound  directly  onto  th 
magnet.  No.  36  or  No.  38  wire  will  b 
fine  enough  to  put  many  turns  in  a  sma. 
space,  yet  is  strong  enough  to  be  handle 
without  breakage.  The  number  of  turn 
will  vary  according  to  the  sensitivit 
needed,  and  may  be  anywhere  froi 
1,000  to  5.000  turns.  A  coil  %"  by  1/2"  i 
cross  section  made  of  No.  36  wire  wi. 


about  3,000  turns.  So  many  turns 
be  wound  more  conveniently  by  a 
binder  or  lathe  or  drill.  If  this 
od  is  used,  a  spindle  may  tempor- 
be  cemented  (with  rubber  cement) 
e  magnet  face  so  that  it  can  be  held 
:urned  by  one  of  these  machines, 
e  cable  from  the  hydrophone  serves 
as  signal  conductor  and  handle.  It 
Id  be  soldered  to  coil  ends  and  then 
1  and  tied  around  the  coil  so  that 
^feight  of  the  unit  is  supported  by 
able  and  not  by  the  coil  wires.  The 
I  should  have  two  (No.  16  or  No. 
wires  between  15  and  25  feet  long 
ed  with  round  insulation.  A  water- 
seal  can  be  made  more  easily  with 
on  a  round  cable.  This  cable  need 
e  shielded,  since  it  is  a  low-imped- 
device;  most  noise  pickup  will  oc- 
t  the  hydrophone,  not  in  the  cable, 
e  diaphragm  plates  2  to  4  inches  in 
eter  can  be  made  of  any  ferrous 
rial  such  as  3-inch  electrical  junc- 
)ox  covers  or  even  tin  can  tops.  The 
;  must  either  be  rounded  off  or 
ed  with  tape  to  avoid  cutting  the 
an.  They  should  be  allowed  to  be 
in  (or  nearly  in)  contact  with  the 
of  the  magnet.  The  magnetic  at- 
on  will  normally  be  strong  enough 
ep  the  plates  firmly  in  place.  For 
:ivity,  these  plates  should  be  as 
as  the  balloon  will  hold.  A  rigid. 


Mr.  Watkins,  Research  Associate  at 
Woods  Hole  Oceanographic  Institution, 
is  currently  in  Antarctica,  where  he 
is  studying  calls  of  the  Weddell  seal. 

thick  plate  is  more  sensitive,  but  a  thin 
diaphragm  will  respond  better  to  higher 
frequencies.  The  high-frequency  re- 
sponse may  also  be  helped  (at  the  ex- 
pense of  sensitivity)  by  keeping  a  small 
(1/64  inch  or  less)  air  gap  between  the 
faces  of  the  magnet  and  the  plates.  (In 
air  the  device  will  appear  to  be  much 
more  sensitive  with  a  thin  diaphragm 
held  a  little  away  from  the  end  of  the 
magnet,  but  for  underwater  sound  recep- 
tion a  rigid  diaphragm  in  contact  with 
the  magnet  is  most  sensitive. ) 

A  good  grade  of  natural  rubber  bal- 
loon makes  an  easy  waterproof  housing 
for  the  hydrophone.  It  is  thin  enough  to 
allow  close  contact  between  the  water 
and  the  surface  of  the  plates,  which  re- 
sults in  good  acoustic  coupling.  It  also 
permits  a  certain  amount  of  pressure 
equalization— maintenance  of  a  pressure 
inside  the  unit  that  is  equal  to  the  out- 
side pressure.  This  prevents  physical  dis- 
tortion of  the  hydrophone  components 
as  its  depth  is  varied.  The  balloon  pushes 
up  between  the  plates  and  confines  the 
bubble  of  air  to  a  smaller  and  smaller 
space  with  depth. 

Insertion  of  the  unit  into  the  balloon 


can  most  easily  be  accomplished  by  first 
stretching  the  neck  of  the  balloon  with  a 
finger  of  each  hand.  The  two  plates 
may  then  be  slipped  in  first  and  the 
coil  assembly  can  be  put  between  the 
plates.  The  coil  and  magnet  should  be 
placed  toward  the  bottom  of  the  plates 
(as  it  is  held  by  the  cable)  so  that  the 
pressure  differential,  as  the  hydrophone 
is  introduced  into  the  water,  will  not 
squeeze  the  plates  together  and  partially 
pull  them  away  from  the  magnet  faces. 

Exhaust  enough  air  from  the  balloon 
to  prevent  it  from  floating  and  seal  the 
neck  to  the  cable  with  plastic  tape. 
Starting  at  the  base  of  the  balloon  neck. 
wrap  the  tape  tightly  around  the  neck 
and  then  up  three  or  four  inches  beyond 
the  end  of  the  balloon  (to  keep  water 
from  seeping  between  tape  and  cable). 

Unless  the  listening  system  is  entirely 
battery-powered,  careful  grounding  of 
the  amplifier  to  the  water  will  be  neces- 
sary to  reduce  power  line  noise.  A  bare 
wire  fastened  to  the  amplifier  case  and 
trailing  a  few  inches  under  the  water 
will  probably  be  adequate. 

The  variable-reluctance  hydrophone 
is  a  departure  from  the  traditional  types. 
but  because  of  its  simplicity,  frequency 
range,  and  ease  of  construction  it  lends 
itself  to  a  variety  of  projects  in  record- 
ing, listening,  and  learning  about  a  great 
many  water-borne  biological  sounds. 


mE  AND  EGYPT 

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SOURCES! AND  LEGISLATION 


Washington  newsletter 


I  By  Paul  Mason  Tilden 


'HE  88th  Congress,  widely  heralded 
in  some  circles  as  the  "conservation 
igress."  passed  into  American  history 
•ing  the  early  days  of  October.  Slo- 
is,  of  course,  seldom  tell  whole  truths ; 
s  the  sobriquet  allows  a  minimum  of 
dit  to  previous  Congresses  that  had 
ested  weeks  and  months  of  arduous 
committee  and  full-committee  spade- 
-k  in  the  foundations  of  the  conserva- 
1  legislation  eventually  passed  by  the 
h.  The  above  is  not  written  in  deroga- 
1  of  the  accomplishments  of  the  88th 
igress,  which  did.  in  truth,  pass  a 
nber  of  measures  of  intense  interest 
he  conservation  world.  It  would  seem 
iropriate  at  this  time  to  canvass  sev- 
l  of  the  most  important.  In  doing  this, 
attempt  will  be  made  to  link  prece- 
ce  with  importance. 

The  Wilderness  Act 

ROBABLY  there  are  few  readers  of 
Natural  History  who  are  not  aware 
he  passage,  late  in  the  second  session 
;he  88th  Congress,  of  a  Wilderness 
,  which,  with  the  signature  of  the 
sident  in   early  September,  became 

Wilderness  Act  of  1964.  Formally 
wn  as  Public  Law  88-577,  the  act  sets 
a  National  Wilderness  Preservation 
;em  under  which  statutory  protection 
fforded  qualified  lands  of  the  Forest 
/ice.  Park  Service,  and  Fish  and 
dlife  Service;  that  is,  lands  in  the 
onal  forests,  national  parks  and  mon- 
:nts,    and   national   wildlife   refuges 

game  ranges.  The  act  itself  defines 
lerness  in  rather  graceful  language: 
wilderness,  in  contrast  to  those  areas 
re  man  and  his  own  works  dominate 
landscape,  is  hereby  recognized  as  an 
,  where  the  earth  and  its  community 
ife  are  untrammeled  by  man,  and 
re  man  himself  is  a  visitor  who  does 
remain." 

requirement  that  a  wilderness  area, 
the  purposes  of  the  act,  contain  at 
t  5.000  acres  of  land  unimpaired  by 
nanent  roads  or  other  of  man's  works 

qualified  at  the  last  moment  before 
age  by  addition  of  the  words  "or  is 
ufficient  size  as  to  make  practical 
reservation.  .  .  ."  This  language  was 
rted  so  that  worthy  areas— roadless 
ids  of  less  than  5.000  acres,  for  ex- 
le— might  qualify  for  inclusion  in  the 
erness  system. 

le  mechanisms  for  establishing  wil- 
esses  on  lands  administered  by  the 
artment  of  Agriculture  (Forest  Serv- 
ands)   and  those  under  jurisdiction 


of  the  Interior  Department  (parks, 
monuments,  wildlife  refuges,  and  game 
ranges)  differed  somewhat.  All  national 
forest  tracts  presently  classified  as  wil- 
derness, wild,  or  canoe  (the  Boundary 
Waters  Canoe  Area  in  northern  Minne- 
sota's Superior  National  Forest  is  pres- 
ently the  only  unit  in  the  third  category) 
were  incorporated  into  the  wilderness 
system  on  passage  of  the  act.  All  Forest 
Service  areas  presently  classified  as 
"primitive"  will  be  reviewed  by  the  Sec- 
retary of  Agriculture  within  ten  years 
for  their  suitability  as  a  wilderness  area; 
it  is  safe  to  assume  that  these  reviews 
actually  will  be  the  responsibility  of  the 
Chief  of  the  Forest  Service,  rather  than 
of  the  Secretary.  It  might  be  added  here 
that  the  Forest  Service  has,  over  the  past 
few  years,  been  making  boundary  ad- 
justments and  reclassifjang  primitive 
areas  under  a  program  of  its  own.  The 
somewhat  nebulous  category  of  "primi- 
tive area"  had  been  marked  for  elimina- 
tion and  reclassification  as  either  "wil- 
derness" or  "wild."  After  review  of  the 
primitive  areas— an  operation  that  must 
be  fully  accomplished  by  1974— the  Sec- 
retary of  Agriculture  must  make  his 
recommendations  to  the  President  for  or 
against  wilderness  classification.  The 
President  will  then  advise  ivith  Congress, 
and  the  Congress  will  pass  or  reject 
acts  for  each  proposed  wilderness. 

With  respect  to  lands  administered  by 
the  Department  of  the  Interior,  the  Wil- 
derness Act  calls  for  the  Interior  Secre- 
tary to  review  park  and  monument  lands, 
wildlife  refuges,  and  game  ranges  within 
ten  years;  in  practice,  this  will  mean  that 
the  Directors  of  the  National  Park  and 
the  Fish  and  Wildlife  Services  will  do 
the  basic  studies.  Each  roadless  area  of 
more  than  5,000  acres  in  the  parks  and 
monuments,  and  each  similar  area  (plus 
roadless  islands  of  any  size)  in  the 
refuges  and  game  ranges  will  be  scruti- 
nized for  wilderness  criteria;  as  with 
Forest  Service  lands,  final  classification 
will  depend  on  acts  of  Congress. 

Conservationists  were  well  pleased 
with  the  Wilderness  Act  insofar  as  it 
touched  on  Forest  Service  lands;  it  af- 
forded statutory  protection  to  wilderness 
areas  already  existing,  the  size  of  which 
hitherto  could  be  adjusted  by  mere  de- 
partmental decision.  Indeed,  prior  to 
passage  of  the  act,  wilderness  areas  of 
national  forests  theoretically  could  be 
wholly  declassified  to  ordinary,  multiple- 
use  national  forestland  by  executive  de- 
cision. In  regard  to  the  effect  of  the  act 


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on  lands  in  the  national  parks  and  mon- 
uments, however,  there  were  those  in  the 
preservation  facet  of  conservation  who 
were  not  unreservedly  enthusiastic. 

The  great  national  parks  and  monu- 
ments, as  all  units  of  the  park  sy.*tem. 
are  administered  under  the  National 
Parks  Act  of  1916,  which  provides,  as 
far  as  possible,  for  the  continuance  of 
existing  wilderness  qualities.  If  the  parks 
and  monuments  were  "zoned."  so  to 
speak,  on  the  basis  of  wilderness  tracts 
of  5.000  acres  or  more,  would  they  not 
be  opened  to  pressures  for  development 
of  sections  that  were  not  legally  wil- 
derness? Preservationist  apprehensions 
were  not  lessened  by  the  Park  Service's 
immediately  announced  plans  for  just 
such  zoning  in  two  of  the  great  national 
parks— Yellowstone,  in  Wyoming,  and 
Great  Smoky  Mountains,  in  North  Caro- 
lina and  Tennessee.  Further,  some  pres- 
ervationists felt  that  mandatory  new 
legislation  for  each  of  the  great  parks 
and  monuments  might  bring  to  life  the 
many  predatory  interests  that  are  ever 
on  the  alert  for  cracks  in  the  protective 
armor  of  the  wilderness  parks. 

A  New  Conservation  Fund 

ONE  of  the  recommendations  sub- 
mitted to  the  President  by  the  Out- 
door Recreation  Resources  Review  Com- 
mission in  January,  1962,  called  for 
prompt  establishment  of  a  federal  pro- 
gram of  grants-in-aid  to  the  states,  on  a 
matching  basis,  "to  stimulate  recreation 
planning  and  to  assist  in  acquiring  lands 
and  developing  facilities  for  public  out- 
door recreation."  Less  than  three  years 
later  the  suggestion  had  been  translated 
by  the  Congress  into  one  of  the  basic 
purposes  of  the  significant  Land  and 
Water  Conservation  Fund  Act  of  1965. 
The  other  purposes  of  the  act  are  to 
provide  money  for  federal  acquisition  of 
inholdings.  or  parcels,  of  private  land 
lying  within  the  boundaries  of  national 
park  and  forest  system  lands,  and  to 
acquire  land  and  water  refuges  for 
threatened  species  of  native  animals. 

The  fund,  which  most  conservationists 
believe  will  lead  to  greatly  expanded 
state  and  federal  outdoor  recreation  and 
preservation  programs,  will  be  financed 
by  money  from  three  sources.  First,  the 
act  provides  for  a  system  of  admission 
and  user  fees  in  the  national  parks, 
forests,  wildlife  refuges,  land  manage- 
ment areas,  and  other  federal  property 
administered  primarily  for  outdoor  rec- 
reational, historical,  or  scientific  pur- 
poses. Then,  the  fund  will  receive  pro- 
ceeds from  sale  of  the  surplus  federal 
real  and  personal  property.  Finally, 
money  will  be  derived  from  the  existing 
tax  on  motorboat— and  other  special- 
fuels.  Since  the  fund  will  commence 
operations  in  a  relatively  fundless  con- 
dition, the  statute  provides  for  advances 
from  the  U.S.  Treasury  of  not  more  than 


/f  RECOJ^D/2^GS  : 

SONGS  OF  THE  FORES 


.  ,  SUNG  BY  THE  HERMIT  THRUSH  THE 
WCDD  THRUSH,  AND  OTHER.  WODDLAND  BIR. 

■  THE  BROOK.  Seven  inch  hi-fi.  Hovi 
water  is  a  soothing  sound  anywher 
On  this  record,  the  soft  rushing 
a  woodland  brook  is  the  sound  thre 
we  foLLow.  As  we  record  the  stre 
from  its  source  to  the  slow-movi 
swamp  where  we  are  caught  by  darknes 
we  hear,  among  others,  the  Phoebe,  t 
Fox  &  the  Great  Horned  OwL.  Common 
on  Side  A  wiLL  make  you  feet  at  ho 
on  the  downstream  trip.  Same  trip 
your  own  on  Side  B.    $  1,25  postpai 

■  SONGS  OF  THE  FOREST.  12"  mono  L 
To  the  human  ear,  certainty  the  mo 
musical Ly  talented  of  North  Americ 
birds  are  the  Thrushes.  On  th 
recording,  you  will  hear  the  endle 
variations  on  the  individual  them 
available  to  the  Wood  Thrush  and  t 
Hermit  Thrush.  Interspersed  is  t 
etherial  flute-scale  of  the  Vee 
plusother  forest  bird  calls  and  woo 
land  sounds.  One  side  has  commen 
and  Just  enough  identification, 
the  other  side  are  the  uninterrupt 
sounds  of  a  cool  Spring  woodla 
transported  into  your  home.        $   5.i 

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is  for  those  who  are  perfectly  sati 
fied  to  hear  the  surf  with  no  commei 
other  than  the  Gull's  cry,  and  t 
lighthouse  bell.  On  Side  B  is  a  tr 
up  the  Hudson  on  the  Side  -Vlheeli 
ALEXANDER  HAMILTON.  Beautiful  ste< 
whistles  wail   and  sigh.  $  5,t 

Prices,    including  postage:  r 

I  I  THE  BROOK,  7  inch  hi-fi,  $  1.. 
I  I  SONGS  OF  THE  FOREST,  12"  $  5.( 
r~l  THE  SEA  AT  CASTLE  HILL  $  5.( 
I   I  All   three  of  the  above    $  10.1 

DROLL  ^?:z\NKEES  INC 

PROVIDENCE,    R,I.     0290I 

Please  send  to: 

Home 

address. 

Please  send  the  records  as  my  gift   ii 

Name 

,. addrea 


62 


)00.000  yearly  for  eight  years,  the 
nces  to  be  repaid  to  the  Treasury 
out  interest  after  the  fund  has  been 
)eration  ten  years.  As  recommended 
•62,  60  per  cent  of  the  fund's  annual 
opriations  will  be  available  to  the 
s   as   grants-in-aid,   to   be   matched 

equal  amounts  by  the  states.  Forty 
:ent  will  go  to  federal  agencies  for 

and  water  purchases. 

New  Preservations 

EN  before  passage,  the  land  and 
water  fund  bill  had  an  effect  on 
r  pending  conservation  legislation, 
oon  as  passage  seemed  reasonably 
in.  Congress  took  a  more  generous 
ide  toward  addition  of  two  new 
;  to  the  national  park  system— the 
k  National  Scenic  Riverways  and 
ce  Age  National  Scientific  Reserve 
ce  acquisition  costs  could  be  de- 
;d  from  future  state  shares  of  con- 
ition  fund  revenues. 
le  Ozark  National  Scenic  Riverways, 
,000-acre  preserve  stretching  some 
miles  along  both  banks  of  the  Cur- 

and  Jacks  Fork  rivers  in  south- 
al  Missouri,  was  authorized  by  Con- 
i  in  late  August.  Through  agreement 
Missouri,  the  riverways  could  also 
de  four  state  parks:  Montauk, 
id  Spring,  and  Big  Spring  on  the 
ent,  and  Alley  Spring  on  the  Jacks 
;  were  all  four  parks  added  by  state 
tion.  the  area  would  be  increased  by 

22,000  acres.  Before  passage  of 
nabling  act,  some  congressmen  ex- 
ied  doubts  about  committing  the 
mal  Park  Service  to  the  protection 
administration  of  a  strip  of  land 
niles  long  and  in  many  places  little 

than  a  mile  wide.  This  was  an  issue 
iome  conservationists  had  pondered. 
Congress  also  wondered  about  the 
:ant  proliferation  of  park  system 
jories.  In  any  event,  a  brand-new 
;ory  of  preservation  had  been  cre- 
to  save  portions  of  the  two  rivers  in 

free-flowing  condition,  and  most 
srvationists  felt  that  the  beautiful 
s  and  their  valleys,  which  support 
nusually  rich  assortment  of  plants 
animals  and  exhibit  many  interest 
;eological  features,  were  worth  sav 
or  public  enjoyment  and  education 
It  long  after  Congress  had  ques 
d  the  wisdom  of  adding  more  cate 
IS  of  lands  to  the  park  system,  i 
prized  yet  another— an  Ice  Age  Na^ 
1  Scientific  Reserve  in  Wisconsin— 
jlp  preserve  and  interpret  for  the 
ic  some  of  the  best  of  that  state's 
anding  relics  of  continental  glacia- 

Scattered  over  the  northern  third 
le  nation  there  are  many  superb 
iples  of  glacial  sculpture  and  ice- 
ed  topographic  features,  but  prob- 

nowhere  are  so  many  of  these 
ped  together  in  such  a  relatively 
1  and  accessible  area  as  in  the  au- 


IF  you  live  in  New  York  City  or  a  nearby  suburb  you  are  in  an  enviable 
position.  You  can  take  personal  advantage  of  the  special  benefits 
that  are  yours  if  you  become  one  of  the  higher  category  members  of 
The  American  Museum  of  Natural  History— and  at  the  same  time  you 
can  help  support  one  of  the  world's  great  cultural  and  research  institu- 
tions. For  instance  .  .  . 

As  an  ANNUAL  MEMBER,  you  receive: 


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and    a    guest 

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mbers'  Room 

for  yourself   and    a   guest 

•    Membership    Card 

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over  SI  at  the 
look  Corner 

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ograms  offered  by 
Education 

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at  the  evening  adult  lectures. 

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In  any  category  you  receive  the  satisfaction  of  knowing  that  your  membership  is  helping 
scientists  add  to  the  knowledge  of  mankind.  Will  you  join  us? 

Write  today,  enclosing  dues  for  the  category  you  prefer.  Address  the  Membership 
Secretary,  The  American  Museum  of  Natural  History,  Central  Park  West  at  79th  Street, 
New  York,  N.  Y.  10024. 


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MUSEUM  SHOP  GIFT  CERTIFICATES 

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tiples of  5),  witii  your  name  inscribed  as  donor.  Accompanying  each  Gift  Certifi- 
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THE  AMERICAN  MUSEUM  OF  NATURAL  HISTORY        tke  AUiSeiJ*^kcp 
NEW  YORK,  NEW  YORK  10024        ,-^_J^i^  ({ti 

63 


THE 

CUNEIFORM 

WORLD 

ARCHAEOLOGICAL  TOUR 
OF  THE  NEAR  EAST 

This  exciting  tour  into  Antiquity  starts 

on  April  6  and  returns  to  the 

United  States  on  May  3,  1965,  after 

having  visited  Lebanon,  Syria, 

Iran,  Iraq  and  Jordan. 

A   study  of  the  Siimero-Akkadian 

civilization  and  its  impact  on  the 

origins  of   Western   culture   will  form 

part  of  the  program.  This  unfor- 
gettable journey  through  time  to  the 
wellsprings  of  our  civilization 
will  certainly  be  meaningful  not 
only  to  the  expert  but  also  to 
the  amateur  archaeologist. 

Our  lecturer,  Dr.  Cyrus  Gordon, 

has  served  as  an  archaeologist  on 

many   expeditions   in    the   Near  East. 

He  participated  in  the  unearthing 

of  the  Royal  Tombs  at   Ur, 

in  discovering  the  mines  of  King 

Solomon,  and  deciphering  the 

Tell  al-Armarna  tablets  found 

in  Egypt. 

Dr.  Gordon  is  the  author  of  many 

books  and  articles  on  the  ancient 

countries  we  are  visiting.  Among  the 

books  are  ADVENTURES 

IN  THE  NEAREST  EAST:  THE 

WORLD  OF  THE  TESTAMENT. 

and  BEFORE  THE  BIBLE:  THE 

COMMON  BACKGROUND 

OF   GREEK   AND   HEBREW 

CIVILIZ.4TION.  For  many  years  he 

has  taught  the  languages, 

history,  and  archaeology  of  Egypt, 

Greece,  and  the  Near  East. 

Our  tour  to  Greece  and  Egypt  last 

spring  was  a  great  success, 

but  many  had  to  be  left  behind 

due  to  lack  of  space.  Please 

register  early. 


ARCHAEOLOGICAL  TOUR-I.T.L.T.  3136 


LINDBLAD  TRAVEL,  INC. 

ONE   EAST   53rd   STREET 
NEW   YORK   22,    N.  Y. 


Name  (Mr.   Mrs.   Miss) 


ORNITHOLOGICAL 

SAFARI 

THROUGH 

EAST  AFRICA 


When  one  thinks  of  Africa  it  is 

usually  in  terms  of  white  hunters,  lions, 

elephants  and  Kilimanjaro.  Few  people 

are  aware  that  while  looking  at  rhino 

they  can  also  watch  the  fascinating 

red-billed  oxpecker,  without  whom 

the  rhino's  life  would  be  a  misery, 

or  study  the  friendly  relationship 

between  the  elephant  and  the  egret. 

Nowhere  in  the  world  is  there  a 
greater,  more  accessible  selection  of 
native  species  of  birds  than  in  Kenya. 
In  Kenya,  there  are  1033  full  species 
ranging  from  the  West  African  forest 
birds  in  the  Kakamega  Forest  to  the 
marine  species  on  the  shores  of 
the  Indian  Ocean.  Lake  Nakuru,  whose 

several  millions  of  flamingos  may  be 

seen,  has  been  described  by  Roger  Tory 

Peterson,  American  Ornithologist, 

as  the  "most  fabulous  bird  spectacle 

in  the  world." 

You  are  invited  to  join  a  special  tour 

of  "Bird  Watchers",  leaving  New  York 

for  Kenya  on  February  17,  1965. 

The  internationally  renowned 

ornithologist,  John  G.  Williams  of  the 

Coryndon  Museum  in  Nairobi,   will 

act  as  advisor  to  the  expedition.  Mr. 

Williams  led  the  Queeny  Expedition  of 

the  American  Museum  of  Natural 
History  in  1950,  the  Chicago  Natural 

History  Expedition  in  1954,  the 

British-American  Expedition  to  Angola 

in  1957,  the  Carnegie  Expedition  in 

1958,  and  the  Los  Angeles  Museum 

Expedition  in  1963. 

The  tour  will  include  visits  to  Lake 

Magadi,  Amboseli  Game  Reserve, 

the  Treetops,  Lakes  Naivashi,  Nakuru, 

Baringo  and  Hanninglon,  Kakamega 

Forest,  and  Sirimon   Track  on 
Mount  Kenya— among  other  places. 

This  is  an  opportunity  for  educational 
and  meaningful  travel  offered  by 
Lindblad  Travel  of  New  York. 


ORNITHOLOGICAL  TOUR-I.T.L.T.   3131 


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ONE    EAST    53rd    STREET 
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ical  research,  crime  detection.  Rare  item  for  gun  c( 
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fled.  Limited  supply.  Ong.  Govt,  cost,  $800.  Shippi 
wt.,  approx.  30  lbs.  Prjce  $249.! 

SNIPERSCOPE  BATTER 

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for  sniperscope.  Excellent  fi 
many  other  6V  applications. 
Approx.  shipping  wt.,  15  lbs. 

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rized  Wisconsin  preserve.  Within 
r  or  perhaps  five  nucleus  areas  al- 
ly partly  in  state  ownership,  the 
lie  will  be  able  to  see  and  study  such 
nomena  as  drumlins.  kames,  kettle 
aines,  eskers,  glacial  bogs  and  ponds, 
Ider  trains,  and  the  high-and-dry 
ids  of  former  Glacial  Lake  Wiscon- 

Most  of  these  features  are  scattered 
ig  the  terminal  moraine  and  the 
en  Bay-Lake  Michigan  interlobate 
aine  of  the  most  recent,  or  Wiscon- 

ice  sheet.  The  act  creating  the  re- 
e  authorizes  additions  to  the  state 
sts  and  parks  that  contain  the  relics, 
rell  as  acquisition  of  several  other 
s  now  in  private  ownership.  The  leg- 
ion also  provides  a  150.000  federal 
ropriation  for  a  comprehensive  plan 

the  reserve,  but  land  acquisition 
ey  (some  $750,000)  will  be  deducted 
I  Wisconsin's  future  share  of  land 

water  conservation  fund  revenues. 

Pacific  Botanical  Garden 

)TH  scientists  and  conservationists 
were  pleased  by  passage  during  the 
mer  of  1964  of  an  act  providing  con- 
sional  charter  for  a  Pacific  Tropical 
nical   Garden— perhaps   more   than 

eventually.  Business  of  the  garden 
be  conducted  by  a  corporation  ini- 
f  consisting  of  five  prominent  con- 
itionists:  Henry  F.  duPont,  Deane 
lo  Malott,  Horace  M.  Albright, 
;rt  Allerton,  and  Paul  B.  Sears, 
le  the  enabling  act  mentioned  no 
ific  site  for  the  botanical  garden  or 
ens,  it  is  known  that  the  first  will 
icated  on  the  island  of  Oahu  in  the 

of  Hawaii.  Prime  purposes  of  the 
en,  which,  it  is  believed,  will  be 
;ly  if  not  wholly  financed  by  private 
tion,  are:  basic  research  into 
cal  botany;  dissemination  of  the 
ired  knowledge;  preservation  of 
itened  species  of  tropical  plant  life; 

more  generally,  the  education,  in- 
tion,  and  recreation  of  Americans. 

Fire  Island 

ME  ten  years  ago  the  National  Park 
Service  identified  and  studied  those 
ining  strips  of  shoreline  on  the  na- 
;  East  and  Gulf  coasts  which,  from 
tandpoint  of  scenic,  scientific,  and 
ational  values,  might  qualify  as 
nal  seashores.  From  this  study  came 
lort:  of  the  3,700-odd  miles  of  gen- 
shoreline  stretching  from  Maine  to 
s,  there  appeared  to  be  but  54  such 
ents.  (Two  of  these  have  become 
nal  seashores  since  the  survey- 
Cod,  in  Massachusetts,  and  Padre 
d,  in  Texas.)  Fire  Island,  off  the 
,  coast  of  New  York's  Long  Island, 
ne  of  the  remaining  52.  The  prosaic, 
;raphed  pages  of  the  report  noted 
"ire  Island,  relatively  unspoiled  and 
ly  roadless,  was  "of  extreme  im- 
nce  because  of  its  natural  features 


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modern  Jewelry  .  .  .  combining  the  artistry  of 
^000  years  ago  ivith  Jewelry  fashions  of  today! 
Superb  all-occasion  gift  in  Streling  silver  of  14K 
GOLD  .  .  .  (displayed  in  rich  Jewelry  case)  f.t.i. 
Charm  Pendant         Earrings 

Silver    $17.89  $19.89  $27.79 

Gold   $19.89  S24.89  $37.79 


CLEOPATRA   AGE  JEWELRY 

Ancient  Egyptian  faience  beads  {3rd  Cent.  B.C.— 
4th  Cent.  A.D.,  CLEOPATRA  AGE),  from  ex- 
cavated caches.  Entombed  for  centuries,  these 
exotic,  colorful  beads  in  concert  form  a  necklace 
treasure;  a  tasteful  complement  lo  casual  or 
formal  attire. 
24  inch  Necklace  of  ancient  beads     .  S15.50  f 

Sterling  Silver  drop  bead  earrings S  5.75  f 

Complete  Set:  Necklace  &  Earrings  .  $19.75  f, 
FREE:    Elegant   display   cases   with   Necklaces   & 
Earrings. 


BRONZE   AGE 
ARROWHEADS  ...  * 

Excavated  from  famous  archaeological 
sites  in  "AMLASH"  (near  the  mts.  of 
LURISTAN!)  Bronze  Arrows  date  from 
15th-8th  Cent.  B.  C.  &  exhibit  rich 
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SELECT  Arrowhead  3"-5"  S6.50 

Average  Arrowhead  2"-3"  §4.50 

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=^^=SEE-'-The  Illustrated  London  News", 
May  5,  1962,  P.  699-701 

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Secured  from  abandoned  vegeta- 
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northern  Siam.  Superbly  crafted 
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&/or  black  .  .  .  several  Buddhas 
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Buddha,   rich   Gold   leaf   finish   & 

inscribed  prayers  $35. 

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Miniature  OPIUM  WEIGHTS 

The  sale  of  opium  in  17th-19lh  Cent.  Siam  & 
Burma  was  state  controlled.  Used  to  weigh 
opium,  these  stylized  bronze  lions,  handsomely 
mounted  on  walnut  bases,  are  approx.  l/2"-3/4" 
high,  weighing  2/5-1/2  02.  Useful  &  unique  as 
paperweights,  they  make  an  exotic  addition  to  all 
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The  heavy  silver  coins  of  the 
Shah  Jahan  Empire  (1632-1653) 
have  been  transformed  into  mag- 
nificent handcrafted  jewelry.  This 
famed  Indian  ruler  built  the  Taj 
Mahal,  the  worlds  most  sump- 
tuous memorial  to  a  beloved 
wife.  Coins  of  Shah  Jahan, 
historically  symbolizing  his 
"^  immortal  love  for  the  Em- 
press Mahal,  are  now  avail- 
able as  regal  charms,  pend- 
ants &  cufllinks.  A  gift  truly 
expressing  eternal  love! 
Silver  coin  pendant  ,.-$23. 50 

Silver  coin  charm  $19.50 

Silver  coin  cufflinks  ....$28.50 


ANCIENT  OIL   LAMPS 

over  1364  Years  Old.., 
liable  for  display 


Now  av2 

Actually 

from  4th-7th  C' 

ancient  glow  v 

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our  home  or  office ! 
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thenticity $10 


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FASCINATING   GUIDE 
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Please  send  your  free  Telescope  Guide. 


Address- 
City 

66 


Mr.  Tilden,  a  writer  and  editor  in 
the  nation's  capital,  often  contributes 
columns  pertaining  to  government 
activities    and    the    natural    sciences. 


and  its  close  proximity  to  large  centers 
of  population."  However,  said  the  report. 
Fire  Island  "would  be  very  difficult  and 
expensive  to  acquire."  But  as  it  has 
turned  out,  Fire  Island  was  acquired  by 
the  Park  Service  during  the  second  ses- 
sion of  the  88th  Congress,  and  its  ac- 
quisition will  long  stand  as  a  monument 
to  the  persistence  of  the  island's  inhabi- 
tants and  to  the  numerous  scientists  and 
conservationists  who  stood  shoulder-to- 
shoulder  with  them.  Ironically,  Fire  Is- 
land's salvation  as  a  seashore  came  about 
largely  through  a  threat  that  would  have 
meant  total  obliteration. 

For  a  number  of  years  after  the  Park 
Service's  study  report  had  been  in  print, 
the  Fire  Island  Seashore  idea  generally 
had  lain  dormant.  Then,  in  1962,  it  was 
proposed  that  a  four-lane  "ocean  boule- 
vard" be  run  the  length  of  the  island, 
with  a  right-of-way  of  some  300  feet. 
(Over  long  stretches  the  barrier  beach 
that  constitutes  the  island  is  no  more 
than  500  to  700  feet  wide.)  According 
to  its  proponents,  the  superhighway 
would  have  made  the  island  more  acces- 
sible. That  threat  was  enough  to  stir  up 
the  island's  inhabitants  and  many  con- 
servationists and  scientists.  The  scenic 
shore  environment  and  the  rather  ex- 
traordinary flora  and  fauna  of  Fire  Island 
were  too  precious  to  be  immersed  in 
concrete.  Largely  through  the  efforts  of 
this  group.  Congress  authorized  the 
4.300-acre  Fire  Island  National  Sea- 
shore, to  be  set  up  under  the  provisions 
of  Public  Law  88-587.  The  authorization 
came  on  September  11,  1964— a  little 
more  than  two  years  after  the  highway 
proposal.  Two  of  the  stipulations  of  the 
new  law  are  that  the  seashore  should  be 
administered  by  the  National  Park  Serv- 
ice "with  the  primary  aim  of  conserving 
the  natural  resources  located  there,"  and 
that  it  should  remain  roadless.  Despite 
the  Service's  gloomy  prediction  of  earlier 
days.  Congress  appropriated  316.000,000 
for  acquisition  of  seashore  lands. 


This  list  details  the  photographer,  artist, 
or  other  source  of  illustrations,  by  page. 


COVER-Art  Reference 

Bureau 

12-19-Richard  J.  Hartes- 

veldt  except  14-15- 

bottom,  AMNH  after 

Hartesveldt,  16-left, 

Shirley  Fischer 

20-25-Leif  Stormer  except 

25-bottom  (A.B.E.F.)  L.  R. 

Moore 

26-29-Lou  Bernstein, 

Aesthetic  Realism 

Photographers 

30-41— S.Jashemski  except 

30-31-bottom,  Art 

Reference  Bureau 


42-top,  Hubert  C. 
Birnbaum 

42-43-bottom,  C.S.Elton 
44-47- Monica  Shorten 
except  maps,  AMNH 
after  Shorten 
49-Hubert  C.  Birnbaum 
50-52-Mount  Wilson  and 
Palomar  Observatories 
53-AMNH 
54-55-L.  D.  Vesey- 
Fitzgerald,  Birnback 
Publishing  Service 
57-William  A.  Watkins 


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Flight  Deck  — Family  Giff 

Recommended  by  National  Audubon  S( 
ciety  as  far  back  as  1953.  Feeder  excels  i 
Action  Packed  Bird  Activity  .  .  .  just  inchi 
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9-7  4  yeors 


A  program  of  NATURAL  SCIENCE  designee) 
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enjoying  ond  understanding  our  environ- 
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emphasized.   Write  to: 

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623  South  Street  Barre,  Mass.  01005 


4 


Overseas  Nature  Tours— 1965 

Three  tours  following  Spring  nortli  across  Europe. 
THE  COXTINE.NT.  4  wks. .  starting  May  1: 
BRITAIN,   3  wks.,   June  7    ($375   all  expense  from 


5IEXIC0.    2   wks..   Apr.    19:   SOUTH  AMERICA.  4 

wks..  July  4.  BIRDS  OF  AFRICA.  4  wks.  round  the 

continent.  Aug  1:  E.^ST  AFRICA.  4  wks.,  Aug  22. 

SOUTH    ASIA,    5    wks..    Sep.    12:    AUSTRALIA,    4 

wks.,   Oct.    17;  NEW  ZEALAND.   3  wks.,  Nov.   14. 

with  optional  2  week  extension  in  South  Sea  Islands. 

DOMESTIC  TOURS 

TEXAS,  2  wks.   from  Corpus  Ctaisti.  Mar.  28; 

ARIZONA,  2  wks.  from  Tucson.  May  15. 

Emphasis  on  birds,  but  strong  secondarj-  atten- 
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also  be  hung  or  fit  it  atop  standard 
(I,D.)  water  pipe.  Gift  boxed  with 
Money  back  guarantee.  $7.95  ppd. 
raft,  Dept.  12-ND,  Penacook,  N,  H. 

HALE TEETH 

MO,  GREENLANDIC,  LAPP  CRAFTS 
:TIC  books     •  SCRIMSHAW    •  SOAPSTONE 

Whale  Teeth:  Sm.  $2.50;  Med.  S3. 95;  Lg.  $6.50; 

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ne  Knitting  Needle  Case   (8")  $8.00.  Lapp   Gift 

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Suggested 
Additional  Reading 

FIRE  ECOLOGY 
OF  THE  GIANT  SEQUOIAS 

The  Redwoods  of  Co.4st  and  Sierra. 
J.  C.  Shirley.  University  of  California 
Press,  Berkeley,  1937. 

The  GiAiNTS  of  Sequoia  and  Kings 
Canyon.  H.  R.  Stagner.  The  Sequoia 
Natural  History  Association,  Three 
Rivers.  Calif.,  1952. 

Big  Trees  and  Fire.  H.  H.  Bis  well.  Na- 
tional Parks  Magazine,  Vol.  35,  pages 
11-14,  1961. 

A  Guide  to  the  Giant  Sequoias  of 
YosEMiTE  National  Park.  J.  W.  Mc- 
Farland,  Yosemite  Nature  Notes,  Vol, 
28,  No.  6,  pages  43-91,  1949. 

ANATOMY  OF  DECAY 
AS  PRESERVED  IN  SHALE 

GiGANTOSCORPIO  WiLLSI,  A  NeW  ScOR- 
PION  FROM  THE  LoWER  CARBONIFER- 
OUS OF  Scotland,  and  Its  Associated 
Preying  Microorganisms.  Leif 
St0rmer.  Skrifter  Utgitt  av  Det 
Nor  she  Videnskaps  Akudemi  i  Oslo, 
Ny  Serie,  No.  8,  University  of  Oslo, 
Oslo,  1963. 

On  Some  Microorganisms  Associated 
WITH  the  Scorpion  Gigantoscorpio 
WlLLSi  St0rmer.  L.  R.  Moore.  Skrif- 
ter Utgitt  av  Det  Norske  Videnskaps 
Akademi  i  Oslo,  Ny  Serie,  No.  9,  Uni- 
versity of  Oslo,  Oslo,  1963. 

POMPEII 

Pompeii.  Its  Life  and  Art.  August  Mau, 
The  Macmillan  Co,.  N.Y.,  1899, 

ESSAI    SUR    LES     CHASSES    ROMAINES    DES 

origines  a  la  fin  du  siecle  DES  Anto- 
nins.  Jacques  Aymard.  E.  De  Boccard, 
Paris,  1951. 
Animals  for  Shovf  and  Pleasure  in 
Ancient  Rome.  George  Jennison. 
Manchester  University  Press,  Man- 
chester, 1937, 

INTRODUCED  MENACE 

Squirrels.  Monica  Shorten,  Collins, 
London.   1954, 

The  Ecology  of  Invasions  by  Animals 
AND  Plants.  C.  S.  Elton,  Methuen  & 
Co..  Ltd.,  London,  1958. 

The  Ecology  of  the  American  Grey 
Squirrel  in  the  British  Isles.  A.  D. 
Middleton.  Proceedings  of  the  Zoolo- 
gical Society  of  London,  pages  809- 
843.  1930. 

The  Distribution  of  Squirrels  in  Eng- 
land AND  Wales.  1959.  H.  G.  Lloyd. 
Journal  of  Animal  Ecology,  Vol.  31, 
No.  1,  pages  157-165,  1962, 

Introduced  Mammals  and  Their  In- 
fluence on  Native  Biota.  A.  deVos, 
R.  H.  Manville,  and  R.  G.  Van  Gelder, 
Zoologica,  Scientific  Contributions  of 
the  New  York  Zoological  Society,  Vol, 
41,  Part  4,  1956. 


PRE-COLUMBIAN  HEADS 

Authentic  clay  castings,  each  one  1,000 
to  1,500  years  old,  from  the  Teotihuacan 
culture  of  Central  Mexico. 
AH  handsomely  mounted.  An  authentic 
treasure  from  Central  Mexican  Antiquity. 
No  two  alike.  Quantity  limited.  Makes  an 
ideal  gift.  Place  your  order  now  to  insure 
Christmas  delivery. 

Sorry,  no  C.O.D's.  Send  check 
or  tnoney  order. 

Se„d  for  Free  List.       only  6'°   f^u.S.A. 

OLDE  CHELSEA,  150  9th  Ave.,  N.  Y.  10011 


U^IIcL  £AjOjth£A. 


plete  life  story  of  a  black  bear  raised  like  a  child 
in  a  human  family.  V/ritten  for  adults,  this  delight- 
ful story  will  enthrall  all  ages.  47  photographs 
$2.50  per  copy  fMaine  residents  add  10<f  sales  lax, 


TO:  SEBAGO  PUBLICATIONS,  Gorham,  Maine 

Please  send copies  of  WILD  BROTHER 

$ enclosed  in  check  or  money  order. 

Name 

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67 


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reflector  and  the  ci-ater  Clavius  through  the  200-inch. 

Stock   No.  60.348-E  S5.00  ppd. 

BIG  DETAILED  35"  x  46"  MOON  MAP 

Black  and  white  photo  reproduction  of  full  moon  with  all 
named    lunar    formations    clearly    marked.    Complete    index 
to   locations   ami  other   valuable  information. 
Stock  No.  9207-E      95«Ppd. 


V  AR  SURPIUS!  Amencan-Madel 

7x50   BINOCULARS 

avius:     Brand    new;    Crystal 


Stock   No.    1544-E  only  S74.80  pstpd. 

7   X   35    AMERICAN    MADE    BINOCULARS 
Stock   No    904   E  $00  50   pstpd     (Tax  mcl  ) 


Slock  No    963  E 


S33  00  pstpd     (Tax  incl  ) 


Stock  No    70  205  E 


53  00  Postpaid 


New!  2  in  J  Combination,'  Pocltet-Size 
50    POWER    MICROSCOPE 
and    10    POWER    TELESCOPE 


^ 


poned'    No    la 


CRYSTAL  GROWING  KIT 

Do    a    Crj  stallography   project   illus- 
trated   v.ith    large    beautiful   crystals 
^ou    grow  >ourself.    Kit    includes    the 
hook  "Crjstals  and  Crystal  Growing" 
111  I  a  generous  supply  of  the  eherai- 
il     \ou  need  to  grow  large  display 
•  :\   lals  of  potassium  aluminum  sul- 
iiii  ^ulfate  (purple),  potassium  sodium 
:el  sulfate  hcxahydrate  (blue  green)  or 
I,    potassium    fenicyanide    (red),    and 
green). 

S9.50    Postpaid 


BIRDWATCHERS   SEE   WITHOUT 
BEING  SEEN 


ilways  bci 


rinating,  but  their  t 
,•  Eu 


Id  Sci 


ated  in  a  sturdy  plastic  film 
a  fraction  of  their  cost.  Actually,  as  thi 
tllins  cut  down  light  transmission  70% 
compared  to  50%  or  less  for  the  mirrors, 
they  are  much  more  useful.  For  example  you  can  build  a 
bird  feeding  station  on  the  sunny  side  of  vour  house  next 
to  a  window.  Fasten  a  piece  of  this  film  to  the  window  and 
you'll  be  able  to  watch  the  birds  from  a  few  inches  away. 
Stock  No.  70.326-E  a  sheet  21"  x  36" S3. 00  Postpaid 


IDENTIFY  430  BIRDS  WITH 
FULL  COLOR  AUDUBON  BIRD  CHARTS 

Two  25"  X  38"  beautifully  printed  charts 
containing  48  separate  color  plates  by  nat- 
uralist-artist Don  Eckelberry.  Excerpted 
from  the  famous  "Audubon  Land  Bird 
Guide."  430  small  birds  (over  200  spe- 
cies) of  Eastern  and  Central  N.  America 
grouped  by  plumage  for  fast  identification. 
Heavy  coated  stock  especially  suited  for 
wall  mounting  or  framing.  Includes  24- 
pg.  book  containing  color  key  and  valuable 


Stock  No    70  675  E   (The  Pair) S3.50  Ppd. 


TINY    LAMP    GIVES    SUN-LIKE    BRILLIANCE     ^P9 
FOR    WORK,     INSPECTION,     EXAMINATION     ^^j 

I'l"    li-lji     I       I,,    I  \.iMiination  lamp  by  pbysi- 
''•111-   ,11.1    iiiid  :.     .1     Mi,ik  lamp  by  jewelers,  technicians, 

II I  i  I-,   .  h     A!  '1.1  II -.c  in  any  ottice  or  room,  on  desk. 

Hi  ImM-1  [-■  l_"'  hr;i..  iiiii.-lied  gooseneck  bends  and  holds 
to  any  position.  .No  clamps  or  stands  needed.  Durable  black 
white.  Base  4"  dia.  x  2Vi"  high,  has 
a.  X  5^,^"  long. 


off-on   switch,   5'   cord.    Reflector 
white  enameled  inner  surface. 
Stock  No.  70.694-E  


$7.98  Ppd. 


WAR  SURPLUS  ELECTRIC  GENERATOR 


pedance    relays.    Charge 

and     bring     up     night 

tor    bait    or    study.    2 

1    price.    Wt.    2    lbs. 

Stock    No     50  225  E  S6.95    Postpaid 

sime   iMie  ^gcniraior     mounted,    with   light,    as   electricity 

Stock   No.   50.365-E    SII.95   PostpaiiJ 

'FISH'   WITH   A   WAR  SURPLUS 
GIANT  MAGNET 
Bring  Up  UncJer-Woter  Treasures         •^ 

all  thi 


rful 


lb.    Ma 


ulhoi 


etal 


fishi 


of 


littlns 
power— 2000    Gauss    rating— lifts    over    150    lbs, 
more  under  water.  Many  Indus 
and  parts  from    inaccessible  sp. 
shop    hiinrs  of  nu-lal   IragiiK-iits.   pins,   etc. 

Stock   No.  70.571 -E  5-lb.     Magnet      SI2.50   Pstpd. 

Stock    No.   70,570-E  S'.i-lb.    Lifts  40  lb S  8.75   Pstpd. 

Stock    No.  70.572-E  7ii-lh.    Lilts    175  lb SI8.75   Pstpd. 

Stock   No.  85.152-E    I5ij-lb.    Magnet 

Lifts  350  lbs S33.60  FOB 

BLACK    LIGHT   MAGIC-GLOW    KIT 

**^F|        •««  "nie  secret  message. 'lea'rn'"invis?bi; 

5  '  union  methods,  even  make  a  fluor- 

■^         -  .     mt  Christmas  tree!  Kit  uses  long- 

u  I  e  lilarkliglit.  which  is  comiiletely 

I  1  iiikss  to  eyes,  hut  causes  fluores- 

3,1100 


-r* 


.    Ml 
visibli 


Glow   Lamp, 

water    paints 

pen.  3  hrusiies. 


England    willenute  from   USA    Plus  book  of  40  experl- 
Stnck°No.    70.256-E    SII.95    Postpaid 


ORDfR   BY   STOCK  NUMitR  .UNO  CHICK   OR   MONIY    OKDIK  .   SAriSfACllON    GUAKANTltD! 

EDMUND  SCIENTIFIC  CO..BARRINGTON,  new  jersey 


Naturally, 
you  can't 
beat  the 
system... 


Problem:  howto  get  close  up  to  a  man-shy  lion  in  its  natural  habitat 
without  putting  your  life  on  the  line.  For  the  Hasselblad  photogra- 
pher, no  problem;  he  merelyslips  an  f/8  500mm  ZeissTele-Tessar 
on  his  500C  and  gets  full-frame,  razor-sharp  shots  from  a  safe, 
comfortable  distance.  No  matter  what  in  the  world  you  need  to 
photograph,  you're  better  able  to  do  it  when  you're  loaded  for 
bear,  with  the  incomparable  Hasselblad  system.  Your  dealer  is 
ready  to  show  you  the  king  of  cameras  and  its  dozens  and  doz- 
ens of  matched,  precision  accessories.  If  you  need  his  name  and 
address, write:  Paillard  Incorporated,  1900  LowerRd,,  Linden,  N.J. 


Photo  by 
Jon  Abbot  with 
Hasselblad  5000 
500mm  lens. 


HASS£LBLAD