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International Institute of agriculture
BUREAU OF ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL INTELLIGENCE
MONOGRAPHS ON AGRICUL-
TURAL CO-OPERATION IN VARIOUS
COUNTRIES a ■ a ' a a "a *
VOLUME looo
Germany, Belgium, Denmark,
British India, France, Great
Britain and Ireland, Norway,
Holland, Russia, Sweden o
* * * ROME, 1911 — THE PRINTERS TO THE CHAMBER OF DEPUTIES * * *
HP
149!
A3IÏTS
HS0107
-2. £ . . - iP
THE INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTE OF AGRICULTURE.
The International Institute of Agriculture was established under
the International Treaty of June 7th., 1905, which was ratified by 40
Governments. Eight other Governments have since adhered to the
Institute.
It is a Government Institution in which each Country is re-
presented by delegates. The Institute is composed of a General
Assembly and a Permanent Committee.
The Institute, confining its operations within an international
sphere, shall :
a) Collect, study and publish as promptly as possible statis-
tical, technical, or economic information concerning farming, veg-
etable and animal products, the commerce in agricultural pro-
ducts, and the prices prevailing in the various markets;
b) Communicate to parties interested, also as promptly as
possible, the above information ;
c) Indicate the wages paid for farm work ;
d) Make known the new diseases of vegetables which may
appear in any part of the world, showing the territories infected,
the progress of the diseases, and, if possible, the remedies which are
effective ;
e) Study questions concerning agricultural co-operation, in-
surance, and credit in all their aspects ; collect and publish inform-
ation which might be useful in the various countries for the or-
ganization of works connected with agricultural co-operation, insur-
ance, and credit ;
/) Submit to the approval of the Governments, if there is
occasion for it, measures for the protection of the common inter-
ests of farmers and for the improvement of their conditions, alter
having utilized all the necessary sources of information, such as
the wishes expressed by international or other agricultural con-
gresses or by congresses of sciences applied to agriculture, or agri-
cultural societies, academies, learned bodies, etc.
INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTE OF AGRICULTURE
The Institute publishes : a) a Monthly Bulletin of Agricultural
Statistics ; b) a Monthly Bulletin of Agricultural Intelligence and
Diseases of Plants ; c) a Monthly Bulletin of Economic and Social
Intelligence.
It has also published a volume on " The Organization of Agri-
cultural Statistical Services in the Several Countries ", and a volume
on " Statistics of Cultivated Areas and of Vegetable and Animal
Production in the Adhering Countries " (an Inventory drawn up
from documents published by Governments), and " Studies upon the
Present Condition of Agricultural Association in Various Countries "
(2 vols).
Officers of the Institute
and List of the Delegates to the Permanent Committee.
President: Marquess RAFFAELE CAPPELLI, Delegate of Italy.
Vice-President: M. LOUIS-DOP, Delegate of France.
General Secretary: Prof. PASOUALE JANNACCONE.
Delegates of the adhering States to the Permanent Committee. *
i
■a
Groups
in which
0
*
Adhering States
Adhering
States
Names and Rank of the Delegates
1
1
are
classified
1
I
Germanj'
I
Dr. T. MOller, Privy Councillor.
2
Argentine Rep..
I
E. Portela, Minister Plenipotentiary of the Argen-
tine Rep. to H. M. the King of Italy.
3
Austria
I
Chev. V. de Pozzi, Government Councillor.
4
Hungary
I
E. de Miklôs de Miclosvàr, Member of the House of
Magnates, Secretary of State for Agriculture.
5
Belgium
IV
O. BOLLE.
i| 6
Brazil
I
His Excell. A. Fialho, Minister Plenipotentiary of
Brazil to H. M. the King of Italy.
7
Bulgaria
III
D. Rizoff, Minister Plenipotentiary of Bulgaria to
H. M. the King of Italy.
8
Chile
I
S. Aldunate BascuSan, Minister Plenipotentiary
of Chile to H. M. the King of Italy.
9
1
I
His. Exc. Ou-Tsong-Lien, Minister Plenipotentiary
of China to H. M. the King of Italy.
* On the Ist of December.
INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTE OF AGRICULTURE
■o
Groups
in which
the
Adhering
States
are
classified
o
o
0
2;
Adhering States
Names and Rank of the Delegates
IO
Costa-Rica
V
R. MONTEALEGRE, Minister Plenipotentiary of Costa-
Rica to H. M. the King of Italy.
1 1
Cuba
V
C. M. de Cespedes y Quesada, Minister Plenipo-
tentiary of Cuba to H. M. the King of Italy.
12
Denmark
IV
H. H. Konow, Secretary to the Danish Legation to
the Italian Government.
13
Ottoman Empire
I
Dr. Mehmed Djémil Bey.
14
Egypt
II
B. Chimirri, Delegate of Eritrea and Italian So-
maliland.
15
Ecuador
V
A. Norero, Minister Plenipotentiary of Ecuador to
H. M. the King, of Laly.
16
I
Enrique R. De Celis, Agricultural Engineer.
17
United States . .
I
David Lubin.
18
Ethiopia
V
Prof. G. Cuboni, Director of the Station of Vegetable
Pathology of Rome.
19
France
I
Louis-Dop, Vice-President of the Institute.
20
Algeria
V
Louis-Dop, Delegate of France.
21
Tunis
V
Louis-Dop, Delegate of France.
22
Great Britain &
Ireland
I
H. G. Dering, Counsellor to the British Embassy
to the Italian Government.
23
Australia ....
rv
H. G. Dering, Delegate of Great Britain and Ireland.
24
Canada
11
H. G. Dering, Delegate of Great Britain and Ireland.
25
British India.
11
Sir Edward Buck, K. C. S. I.
26
New Zealand.
IV
H. G. Dering, Delegate of Great Britain and Ireland.
27
Mauritius. . . .
V
H. G. Dering, Delegate of Great Britain and Ireland.
28
29
Union of
South Africa.
Greece
IV
IV
B. Intrigila, Consul General of Greece at Rome.
30
Italy
I
Marquess R. Cappelli, Vice-President of the Cham- !
ber of Deputies. President of the Institute. '
31
Eritrea and Ita-
lian Somali-
land
IV
B. Chimirri, Member of Parliament.
INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTE OF AGRICULTURE
o
9
d
Z
Adhe ing States
Groups
in which
the
Adhering
States
are
classified
Names and Rank of the Delegates
32
Japan
I
Naotoshi Marumo, First Secretary to the Imperial
Japanese Embassy to the Italian Government.
33
Luxembourg . . .
V
O. Bolle, Delegate of Belgium.
34
Mexico
II
G. A. Esteva, Minister Plenipotentiary of Mexico
to H. M. the King of Italy.
35
Montenegro ....
V
G. Volpi, Director General of the Monopolies of
the Kingdom.
36
Nicaragua
V
V. E. Bianchi, Consul General of Nicaragua at
Rome.
37
Norway
IV
Dr. G. Fjelstad, Landowner.
3 8
Paraguay
V
39
Holland
IV
H. de Weede, Minister Plenipotentiary of Holland
to H. M. the King of Italy.
40
Peru
V
Dr. M. M. Mesones.
41
Persia
IV
A. del Gallo Marquess of Roccagiovine.
42
Portugal
IV
Luiz Filippe de Castro, Professor of the Institute of
Agriculture at Lisbon.
43
Roumania
I
G. C. Nano, Minister Plenipotentiary of Roumania
to H. M. the King of Italy.
44
Russia
I
His Exc. G. Zabiello, Consul General of Russia
in Rome.
45
Salvador
V
A. Ballo, Acting Consul General of Salvador at
Genoa.
46
San Marino. . . .
V
His Excell. L. Luzzatti, Minister of State of the
Kingdom of Italy.
47
Servia
III
B. I. Soubotitch, Secretary to the Servian Legation
to the Italian Government.
48
Sweden
IV
Baron DE Bildt, Minister Plenipotentiary of Sweden
to the Italian Government.
49
Switzerland. . . .
IV
J. B. Pioda, Minister Plenipotentiary of Switzerland
to H. M. the King of Italy.
5o
.Uruguay. .
V
Requena Bermudez, Chargé d'affaires of Uruguay
to the Italian Gouvernment.
STAFF OF THE BUREAU
OF ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL INTELLIGENCE *
Chief of the Bureau
Prof. GIOVANNI LORENZONI, LL. D.
Chief of Section
K. A. WIET-KNUDSEN, D. Pol. Sc.
Rédacteurs
i, G. Costanzo, LL. D. 6. J. K. Montgomery, B. A., B. Sc.
2. L. De Nobili, LL. D. 7. L. Paulucci, LL. D.
3. B. Griziotti, LL. D. 8. G. Pilati, LL. D.
4. C. Iarach, LL. D. 9. O. Pires, Agric. Eng.
5. A. Mac Lean, Ph. D. 10. G. Rocca, LL. D.
11. H. Kretschmar, Correspondent.
The English translation has been made by Messrs. L. A. Edwards
and W. P. Watermeyer, B. A.
* On the 14th May.
PREFACE.
In the three numbers of our Bulletin of Economic and Social
Intelligence, issued in 1910, we published Monographs upon the
organization of agriculture (economic, administrative and political)
in nineteen countries.
As we received many requests for these numbers from every
part of the world, the issue, both in the French and English text,
is now completely exhausted.
As new requests continue to reach us both from readers of
the Bulletin for 191 1, and from a wider public desirous of profiting
by our studies, the Institute has considered it its duty to respond
to these requests by collecting the Monographs that have already
appeared in these Bulletins and publishing them in two separate
volumes for easy consultation.
In publishing this second edition of the monographs, care has
been taken to bring them up to date, by the substitution of more
recent data for those formerly given. We have made some improve-
ments and additions without exceeding the limits of the original
plan. And some Monographs which could not be inserted in the
Bulletins are now published for the first time.
In this first volume we publish the Monographs which were
easiest to revise: that is, of the nine following countries; Germany,
Belgium, Denmark, British India, France, Great Britain and Ire-
land, Norway, Holland and Sweden; and a new Monograph on
x PREFACE
Russia not previously published. Monographs on twelve other
States will appear in the second volume.
We have deemed it necessary that the Monographs should be
preceded by the Demographic and Economic Statistics which in
our Bulletin served as a General Introduction to the study of each
special country.
Rome, 14-th May, 191 1.
Giovanni Lorenzoni
Chief of the Bureau
of Economic and Social Intelligence.
CONTENTS.
International Institute of Agriculture -Page Hi
Preface » ix
Germany :
I. — Some Demographic and Economic Statistics . . Page i
II. — Agricultural Co-operation.
i. Historical and Statistical Sketch of the Present State of Agricultural
Co operation in Germany 6
Authorities 6
§ I. General Development 8
§ 2. Influence of Legislation on the Development of the Co-operative Societies. 17
§ 3. The Law of 1889 concerning Co-operative Societies 21
§ 4. The Central Co-operative Bank of Prussia 24
§ 5. Co-operative Central Banks in the other Confederated States 26
§ 6. Statistical Tables 30
2. Co-operative Land Credit Societies in Germany. The « Landschaften »
and < Ritterschaften » 49
Authorities 49
A. Prussia 50
§ I. Co-operative Land-credit Societies for Large Estates 50
§ 2. Landschaften for Small Estates ... 64
B. Other States of Germany _ . 64
C. Private Institutions of the Landschaften Type 65
3. Present Conditions of Non-Co-operative Agricultural Associations . . 67
Bibliography 67
S 1. General Development — Administrative Organisation 68
§ 2. Scientific and Economic Associations 84
§ 3. Political Agricultural Associations 95
CONTENTS
Belgium :
I. — Some Demographic and Economic Statistics . . Page 103
II. — Agricultural Organisation in Belgium.
Bibliography io7
Introduction IO"
I. — Legislation IJI
§ 1. Professional Unions Iir
§ 2. Co-operative Societies H2
§ 3. Mutual Societies 113
II. — General Sketch of Agricultural Organisation 114
A. Official Organisations 114
§ 1. « Cornices » IT4
§ 2. Provincial Societies of Agriculture 114
§ 3. Superior Council of Agriculture 115
§ 4. « Polders » and « Wateringues » 116
B. — Free Organisations Il6
§ 1. Professional Unions 116
§ 2. Federation of Professional Unions in the Flemish Provinces 117
§ 3. Federation of the Professional Unions in the Walloon Lands 120
§ 4. Women's Clubs 121
III; — Technical Work of the Professional Unions 122
§ 1. Livestock Improvement Societies 122
§ 2. Poultry-breeders'. Beekeepers', Horticultural and Hop Planters' Societies. 124
IV. — Commercial Action of the Professional Unions 126
§ I. Co-operation for Purchase 126
§ 2. Co-operation for Sale. Eggs; Fruit; Beetroot 1 30
§ 3. Co operative Dairies 131
V. — Credit 133
§ 1. Local Rural Banks 134
§ 2. The Central Banks 136
§ 3. General Savings Banks 138
§ 4. Schultze-Delitzsch Banks 139
VI. — Co-operative Insurance 139
§ I. Mutual Cattle Insurance 141
§ 2. Insurance against Hail 146
§ 3. Fire Insurance 147
§ 4. Reinsurance Offices 149
CONTENTS
Denmark :
I. — Some Demographic and Economic Statistics . . Page 153
II. — Agricultural Co-operation in Denmark.
§ 1. Introduction 159
§ 2. Co-operative Dairies 161
§ 3. Co-operative Bacon-factories and Slaughter-houses 167
§ 4. Co-operative Societies for Purchase and Sale 172
§ 5. Live-stock Improvement Societies and « Central» Societies 175
British India:
I. — Some Demographic and Economic Statistics . . Page 181
II. — Agricultural Co operation in British India.
A. — Historical Sketch 187
§ I. The Initial Stages 187
S 2. The Co-operative Credit Societies Act, 1904 189
§ 3. The Woiking of the Act 191
B. — The Co-operative Movement in 1908-0Q 193
§ 1. General Progress of the Rural Credit Societies 193
£ 2. The Transaction of the Rural Credit Societies 199
§ 3. Sources of Capital 211
§ 4. Central Societies and District Banks 219
§ 5. Co-operation other than Credit 236
C. — The Popularisation of the Movement 238
D. — The Supervision of Societies 240
E. — Proposals for a Central Bank 241
F. — Suggested Amendments of the Co-operative Credit Societies Act . 244
G. — Co-operation amongst Aboriginal Tribes 245
France:
I. — Some Demographic and Economic Statistics . . Page 247
II. — The Agricultural Associations in France.
Present State of Agricultural Unions in France ■ 253
A. — Agricultural Associations 254
B. — The Agricultural Syndicates and Unions derived from them . . 256
§ 1. Agricultural Syndicates 25"
§ 2. Mutual Agricultural Credit Banks 269
a) Individual Credit 273
b) Collective Credit 275
CONTENTS
§ 3- Agricultural Co-operative Societies Page 278
a) Agricultural Co-operative Distributive Societies 279
b) Co-operative Credit Societies 280
<:) Co-operative Societies for Production and Sale 280
§ 4. Agricultural Mutual Insurance Societies 282
1) Societies for the Mutual Insurance of Live Stock 283
2) Agricultural Mutual Fire Insurance Societies 286
3) Insurance Societies agrinst Hail 2S8
4) Insurance against Accidents in Agriculture 289
C. — Syndicate Associations 290
Statistics Relative to Agricultural and Credit Co-operation 295
Great Britain and Ireland:
I. — Some Demographic and Economic Statistics . . Page 325
I. — Agricultural Organisation in Great Britain and Ireland.
Bibliography 330
I. — Legislation 33 1
§ 1. Methods of obtaining Legal Recognition 331
§ 2. The Industrial and Provident Societies Act 331
§ 3. The Friendly Soc.eties Act m 332
II. — Non Co-operative Agricultural Societies in the United Kingdom , 332
§ 1. Societies for the Encouragement of Agriculture 333
§ 2. Societies for the Protection of Farmers' Interests 335
§ 3 Live-stock Societies 335
§ 4. Statistics 337
III. — Agricultural Co-operation in Great Britain 33$
§ 1. Voluntary Propaganda 3*38
§ 2. State-aid 339
§ 3. Societies for the Supply of Requirements 341
§ 4. The Sale of Produce 341
§ 5. Co-operative Dairying 342
§ 6. Mutual Insurance 343
§ 7. Agricultural Credit 343
§ 8. SmaU Holdings and Allotments Societies 34-3
§ 9. Statistics of Agricultural Co-operation in Gçeat Britain 344
IV. — Agricultural C»-operation in Ireland 344
§ I. Voluntary Propaganda 344
§ 2. State-aid 345
§ 3. Co-operative Creameries 346
CONTENTS
§ 4. Agricultural Credit Page 348
§ 5. The Supply of Requirements 349
§ 6. The Sale of Produce 348
§ 7. Other Forms of Co-operation 349
§ 8. Statistics of Agricultural Co-operauon in Ireland 3 50
§ 9. Plunkett House 330
. — Relations between the Agricultural Co-operative Movements in
England, Scotland and Ireland 351
Norway :
Î. — Some Demographic and Economic Statistics . . Page 353
II. — Agricultural Co-operation.
Bibliography 357
Introduction 357
§ I. Credit 358
§ 2. Societies of Collective Purchase and Sale 359
§ 3. Co-operative Societies for Production 360
§ 4. Technical Co-operative Societies 361
§ 5- Agricultuial Insurance 362
§ 6. Life Insurance, etc 3^4
Holland:
I. — Some Demographic and Economic Statistics . . Page 363
II. — Agricultural Co-operation and Association.
Bibliography 370
Introduction 37 *
A. — Co-operative Legislation 372
§ 1. Naamlooae Vennootschap 372
§ 2. Associations Regulated by the Law of 1876 upon Co-operation .... 372
§ 3. Associations not possessing Civil Pœonality 372
§ 4. Associations Founded in accordance with the Law of 1855 upon the
« Zedelyke lichamen » 373
B. — Co-operative Associations 373
§ 1. Co-operative Credit Societies 373
§ 2. Societies for Purchase or for Sale 375
§ 3. Co-operative Production 377
§ 4. Co-operation in Cattle Rearing 37^
§ 5- Agricultural Insurance Societies 379
CONTENTS
Russia-
I. — Some Demographic and Economic Statistics . . Page 381
II. — Agricultural Co operation in Russia.
Bfcliography 387
§ I. General Development 388
§ 2. Co-operative Credit Societies 389
i; 3. Co-operative Societies for Production, Purchase and Sale 398
§ 4. Co-operative Butter Factories in Western Siberia 398
§ 5. Other Agricultural Co-operative Societies 405
Statistical Tables 407
Sweden:
I. — Some Demographic and Economic Statistics . . . Page 433
II. — Agricultural Co-operation in Sweden.
Bibliography 437
Introduction 4^7
§ 1. Credit Associations 43$
ci .. Societies for the Purchase of Family Properties 44 1
^ 3. Associations for Collective Purchase 441
!; 4. Associations for the Sale of Eggs 443
$ 5. Associations for Production 'of Peat Moss Litter 443
§ 6. Associations for Purchase and Maintenance of Stallions 443
£ 7. Associations for the Purchase and Use of Agricultural Machines .... 444
^ 8. Associations for the Purchase aud Maintenance of Bulls 444
§ 9. Associations for the « Control » of Cowhouses 444
§ IO. Co-operative Dairies 445
§ 11. Co-operative Slaughter-houses 446
i; 12. Agricultural Insurance Societies 447
G E R M A IV Y
SOME DEMOGRAPHIC AND ECONOMIC STATISTICS.
Sources :
Statistisches Jahrbuch fur das Deutsche Reich, herausgegeben vom Kaiserlichen Amte, 19 10.
Berlin, 1910. Puttkammer und Miihlbrecht (Statistical Yearbook for the German Em-
pire, published by the Kaiserlichen Statisiischen Amte, igio. Berlin, igio).
Berufsstatistik, Berufs- und Betriebszàhlung vom 12. Juni 1907. Statistik des Deutschen
Reichs. Berlin, 19 10 (Statistics 0/ Professions. Professions and Trades. Census of the
12th. fune, içoj. Statistics of the German Empire. Berlin, içio).
Landwirtfchaftliche Betriebsstatistik, Berufs- und Betriebszàhlung vom 12. Juni, 1907.
Berlin, 1909 (Agricultural Statistics. Professions and Trades Census of the 12th j^une,
içoj. Berlin, iQoç).
Die Ergebnisse der Viehzâhlung vom 1. Dezember 1900 im Deutschen Reiche. Berlin, 1903
(The Results of the Live-Stock Census of the 1st. December, igoo, in the German Em-
pire. Berlin, igoj).
Die Ergebnisse der Ermittelung der landwirtschaftliche Bodenbenutzung im Jahre 1900.
Berlin, 1902 (7 he Results of the Inquiry upon the Agricultural Utilisation of the Soil
in igoo. Berlin, IÇ02).
Die Forsten und Holzungen im Deutschen Reiche nach der Erhebung des Jahres 1900.
Bearbeitet in Kaiserlichen Statistischen Amte Berlin, 1903 (The Forests and Wood-
lands in tlie German Empire according to the Inquiry of the Year igoo. Compiled
in the Kaiserl. Statistischen Amt. Berlin, igoj).
A. — Territory and Population.
Area: 540,777-5 km.
Population on the 1st December, 1905: 60,641,278.
Density of the population per sq. km. on the 31st Dec, 1905: 112.1.
» » » » » in 1871: 75.9.
(i) The order of the States is the alphabetical order in the French text.
I.
GERMANY
Occupations of the population (Professions census of the i2thjune, 1907).
Agriculture, gardening, stock breeding, forestry and
fisheries 9,883,257 = 36.8%
Manufactures 11,256,254 = 41.9%
Commerce 3,477,626 = 13.0 %
Domestic service 471,695= 1.8 %
Public services (including the army and navy) . . 1,738,530 = 6.5 %
Total. . . 26,827,362 = 100.00
Birth and Death Rate per 1000:
Year Births
Average for 1871-1880. . . . 40.7
» » 1901-1908 .... 34.6
» » 1908 33.0
Illiterates per each 10,000 conscripts :
In 1880 157
» 1890 51
» 1897 12
» 1904 4
Deaths
28.8
20.2
I9.O
Over-sea emigration of Germans leaving German and Foreign ports:
In 1 891 120,089 = 2-41 °/oo of population
» 1909 24,921 = 0.39 » »
Agriculture, Forests and Fisheries.
Division of land-areas in 1900 (hundreds of hectares) :
Arable lands and gardens 262,573.1=48.6%
Vineyards 1,352.1= 0.2%
Meadow lands 59,561.6=11.0%
Pasturage and grazing lands , . 27,067.1 = 5.0 %
Forests and woods i39>958-7 = 25-9 %
Lands built on, barren lands, roads and water
surfaces 50,135-2 = 9-3 %
SOME DEMOGRAPHIC AND ECONOMIC STATISTICS
Principal Products in 1909 :
Areas Production
hectares tons
Rye 6,130,732 11,348415
Wheat 1,831,383 3,755,747
Summer barley. . . 1,646,354 3,495,616
Potatoes 3,323,733 46,706,252
Oats 4,309,967 9,125,816
Hay 5,96i,536 22,140,927
Value of Forest products in recent years 48,576,911 marks.
Occupiers of farms having arable lands in 1907 :
Number
Total areas in hect.
Less
than 1 hectare.
. .
1,962,247
869,921
From
1 to
5
hectares.
1,609,099
5,035,774
»
5 to
10
»
641,983
5,634,159
»
10 to
20
»
408,7I3
7,489,501
»
20 to
50
»
223,388
8,758,232
»
50 to
100
»
36,087
3,184,446
»
100 to
200
»
IO,493
1,989,104
»
200 to
500
»
9,297
3,946,I08
»
500 to
1000
»
3,107
2,755,55I
»
1000 or
over
»
365
677,646
4,904,779
40,341,242
Live-stock (Census of 1907)
Horses 4,345,047
Mules and donkeys 11,291
Cattle 20,630,544
Sheep 7,703,710
pigs 22,146,532
Goats 3,533,970
Poultry 77,103,045
Bee-hives 2,594,690
Sea Fisheries (North Sea and the Baltic) :
Value of productions in 1909 — 33,214,522 marks.
GERMANY
C. — Mines, Manufactures and Commerce.
Mines :
No. of Steam H. P in 1895 = 995>o69
» » » in 1907 == 2,228,476
» miners in 1907 = 860,903
Mineral output in 1908 == 249,138.5 mill, of tons
Value of mineral products. ... in 1908 = 1,970,763 mill, of marks
Manufactures :
No. of establishments on the 12th June, 1907 = 2,081,102
» » hands employed » » » » = 9,991,970
» » steam H. P. » » » » = 5,779,929
(» » » » in 1905 » » » = 2,361,469)
Home Trade in 1909:
Imports Exports
millions of marks millions of marks
Raw material for manufactures including
partially prepared products .... 4,688.9 1,701.9
Manufactured goods 1,275.8 4,216.9
Food stuffs 2,324.3 662.3
Live-stock 231. 1 11. 1
8,520.1 6,592.2
D. — Navigation and Inland Communications.
Sea-going navigation in 1908 :
Foreign »
Entered
Cleared
Number
Tonnage
Number
Tonnage
83,282
24,412
lS.77i.07i
II,662,<o6
82,983
24,457
15,410,479
11,680,933
Inland Communications at the end of 190S :
Length of ordinary gauge railways 57,125.0 km. = 105.6 km. per sq.
km. of land and 90.7 km. for each 100,000 inhabitants. (In 1898, 89.2 km.
per sq. km. of land and 88.8 km. for each 100,000 inhabitants).
SOME DEMOGRAPHIC AND ECONOMIC STATISTICS 5
Length of narrow gauge railways 2.1 16 km.
» Kleinbahnen (tramways and local light railways) 13,172.7 »
» canals and navigable rivers 2i>752 »
of which 15,269 km. are navigable for ships and 6,483 km. for rafts.
E. — Finance.
Budget voted for the year 1910:
Ordinary expenses in millions of marks. . 2,663,050.8
Special » » >> . . 190,730.3
1,853,781.1
Ordinary revenues in millions of marks. . 2,663,050.8
Special » » » . . 190,730.3
2,853,781.1
F. — Money, Weights and Measures.
Unit of value: the mark of 100 piennige; the doppelkrone piece of
20 marks in gold weighs 7.96495 gr. 9°°/IOOO pure gold. The mark =
1.25 frs.
The decimal metric system is adopted for weights and measures.
II. — AGRICULTURAL CO-OPERATION.
Historical and Statistical Sketch of the present State
of Agricultural Co-operation in Germany.
Authorities.
I. — Official:
i) The- € Preussische Centralgenossenschaftskasse » (The Genua I Bank of the Prussian
co-operative societies') publishes an annual report upon the business accomplished for
each financial year. Fourteen of these reports, the last of which was for the 15th.
financial year (from the 1st. April, 1909 to the 1st. March, 19 10), have already
appeared.
2) Other publications of the Prussian Bank, edited by Dr. Heiligenstadt in 1907, which have
appeared, are, * Die Preussische Centralgenossenschaftskasse » ( The Central Bank cf
the Prussian co-operative societies) and « Die Preussische Centralgenossenschaftskasse
von 1 S9 5-1 905 -Festschrift» {The Central Bank of the Prussian co-operative societies
from i8çj to iqoj. Commemorative publication).
3) The Prussian Bank has also edited from 1904 to 1908 the « Jahr und Adressbuch der
Erwerbs- und Wirtschaftsgenossenschaften in Deutschen Reiche » {Directory and Annual
of the co-operative societies in the German Empire). The publication of this directory
has been abandoned since 1908.
4) The Prussian Bank also published : « Das Genossenschaftskataster fiir das deut^che Reich,
enthaltend die eingetragenen Erwerbs- und Wirtschaftsgenossenschaften nach dem
Stande am 1. Januar 1903 » {The Register of Assessment of the co-operative societies
for the German Empire, containing the co-operative societies registered according to their
condition on the 1st. January, içoj).
5) The « Mitteilungen zur deutschen Genossenschaftsstati^tik » [Statistical communications
upon the German co-operative societies), edited by Prof. Dr. A. Petersilie, have been
published since 1905. Up to the present the numbers for the years 1903, 1904,
1905, 1906, 1907 and 1908 have appeared.
II. — Publications of Federations of Co-operative Societies :
A) The most numerous publications are edited by the « Reichsverband der deutschen
andwirtschaftlichen Genossenschaften » {Imperial Federation of the German agricultural
co-operative societies).
PRESENT STATE OF AGRICULTURAL CO-OPERATION 7
We shall mention the most important :
1) The i Tahrbuch des Reichsverbandes der deutschen landwirtschaftlichen Genossenschaften
( Yearbook of the Imperial Federation of the German agricultural co-operative societies).
The number for 1909, published in 1910, contains the report of the Director General
{GeneralanzuaU), the minutes of the General Meeting and statistics of the business
done by 17,192 co-operative societies during the year 1908.
2) « Die Festschrift zum 25. jâhrigen Bestehen des Reichsverbandes der deutschen landwirt-
schaftlichen Genossenschaften 1883-1908 » {Publication in commemoration of the 25th.
anniversary of the existence of the Imperial Federation of the German agricultural
co-operative societies, i88j-iço8) appeared in 1908.
3) The « Taschenbuch fur landwirtschaftliche Genossenschaften » {Pocketbook for the agri-
cultural co-operatives societies), the 4th. edition of which appeared in 19 10.
4) The official organ of the Imperial Federation, published fortnightly, is: » Die Deutsche
landwirtschaftliche Genossenschaftspresse » ( The German Agricultural Co-operative
Societies' Press) which is now in its 37th. year of existence.
5) The Imperial Federation also occupies itself specially with current questions, either by
forming conferences to study the subjects or by means of special periodical publi-
cations which form the c Deutsche landwirtschaftliche Genossenschaftsbibliothek {Li-
brary of tlu German agricultural co-operative societies).
B) The Raiffeisen Bank of Neuwied, in conjunction with the Imperial Federation,
publishes an annual report upon the activity of 13 affiliated federations besides: « Das
landwirtschaftliche Genossenschaftsblatt ■» {The Journal of the German agricultural
co-operative societies) (31st. year).
C) Also almost all the 41 federations publish their own annuals and some journals,
which would take too long to specify here.
III. — Other Publications :
Cruger, Dr. Hans : Einfiihrung in das deutsche Genossenschaftswesen [Introduction to
German Co-operation).
Dop, Louis; L'Association et la Coopération agricole en Allemagne - Annales des sciences
politiques, XIX" année, 15 mai 1904. {Agricultural Association and Co-operation in
Germany - Annals of political sciences, içth. year, the ijth. May, 1904).
Ertl and Light: Das landwirtschaftliche Genossenschaftswesen in Deutschland. Wien, 1899
(Agricultural co-operation in Germany).
Fassbender, Dr. Martin: F. W. Raiffeisen in seinern Leben, Denken und Wirken (F, W.
Raiffeisen, his Life, Thoughts and Actions). 1902.
Grabein, Dr. Max: Wirtschaftliche und sociale Bedeutung der lândlichen Genossenschaften
in Deutschland. ( The economic and social importance of the rural co-operative societies
in Germany), 1908.
Lindecke, Dr. Otto: Das Genossenschaftswesen in Deutschland. {Co-operation in Ger-
many). 1908.
Lorenzoni, Dr. Giovanni: La cooperazione agraria nella Germania moderna. {Agricultural
co-operation in modern Germany). 2 vols. Trent, 1901-02).
GERMANY
Muller, Dr. Friedrich: Die geschichtliche Entwickelung des landwirtschaftlichen Ge-
nossenschaftswesens in Deutschland von 1848 bis zur Gegenwart. (The historical de-
velopment of agricultural co-operation in Germany from 1848 to the present day). 190 1.
Parisius and CrOger, Dr. Hans : Das Reichsgesetz betr. die Ervverbs- und Wirtschafts-
genossenschaften. Kommentar zum praktischen Gebrauch fiir Juristen und Genossen-
schaften. (The law of the Empire concerning co-operative societies — Commentary for
practical use of jurists and co-operative societies). 1908.
Scholtz and Donath: Rechtsbuch fiir Genossenschaften. (Code for co-operatize societies).
1908.
§ I. — General development.
The principle of co-operative organisation is derived from the conscious-
ness that the economic resources of a single individual do not suffice for
the solution of a given problem and for the attainment of a determinate
object, but that this demands collective action capable of evolving the
necessary economic force.
If we call this principle more shortly " the idea of association " we
find its germ in the most ancient habits of the German people.
It is enough to recall the ancient village communities (Mark and Hof-
genossenschaften) with their right of common possession and utilization of
lands susceptible of cultivation, forests, pasture lands and waters.
We see another proof of it in the common utilisation of roads, springs,
bread ovens, mills and floating lumber, which shows that co-operation had
already entered into the habits of the population.
If it is true that by mere force of circumstances the greater part of
these ancient co-operative forms have disappeared, we still find traces of
them in these days, as, for example, the " Gehôferschaften " in the district
of Treves, the "Hauberggenossenschaften "(co-operative societies for clear-
ing forests) of the district of Siegen and the " Allmende " in Southern
Germany.
However, agricultural co-operation, as it exists to-day, is of quite
recent origin, both in respect of its legal forms and of the causes which
have given it birth.
These causes are far from being all of the same nature, but it is evi-
dent they were all determined by the urgent exigencies of economic life.
Thus the co-operative credit societies were formed as a necessary con-
sequence of the substitution of the monetary system for that of barter.
The constitution of co-operative societies for sale and production is due to
the need of more intensive cultivation and of profiting more and more by
the improvements offered by technical science.
It must not be forgotten how much the agricultural crisis of the ten
years 1 890-1 899 contributed to favour the co-operative movement.
PRESENT STATE OF AGRICULTURAL CO-OPERATION 9
All these causes have had the effect of spreading co-operative agricul-
tural societies, in the space of a few decades, over the whole of Germany,
where now some 24,000 of these organizations are to be numbered.
As has been seen, the co-operative idea was not new to the German
people ; all that had to be done was to give the co-operative societies a
form better corresponding to the new exigencies of economic life.
Two men, acting each quite independently, and never seeing or know-
ing each other, two men separated by a great distance, came about the
middle of the 19th. century to almost the same conclusion with regard to
the remedy for the grave economical crisis that was then being gone
through. These were Frederick William Raiifeisen, burgomaster of Weyer-
busch, and Francis Hermann Schulze, more familiarly known by the name
Schulze-Delitzscb .
The first is well known as the founder of the co-operative agricultural
banks, which we now see at work everywhere, the second as founder of
the urban co-operative banks.
The services of these two men to the nation are incalculable.
We shall only occupy ourselves here, for want of space, with the
Raiifeisen Banks.
On the initiative of Raiffeisen in the winter of 1847-48, the first as-
sociations was formed for the poorer inhabitants of the commune of We-
yerbusch. Transferred soon after as burgomaster to Flammersfeld in the
Westerwald, Raifleisen founded in this little Rhenish district an associa-
tion under the title of " Flammersfelder Hilfsverein zur Unterstutzung
unbemittelter Landwirte " (1st. December 1849).
This society began, by purchasing cattle, to combat the usury prac-
tised in that branch of rural commerce. To obtain the necessary fund-,
the members assumed joint and several liability. The cattle bought by
the society were distributed among the small farmers who had not them-
selves the means of purchasing, who repaid the cost, with interest at rea-
sonable rate, in five yearly instalments. They went on then to a service
of money loans, which gave the association the character of a loan bank.
Raiffeisen was next transferred to Heddersdorf (Neuwied) where he soon
after (1854) founded the " Heddersdorfer Wohltatigkeitsverein ". This
Society bought cattle for its members and interested itself in works of
benevolence, especially coming to the assistance of the poorer classes.
The principles of these Raiffeisen foundations differed from those adopted
later in this respect, that the people to be assisted did not form part of
the association, which was composed of the better off.
Raiffeisen himself recognized the impossibility of continuing this state
of things.
In the first chapter of a work he published in 1866, under the title
of " Die Darlehenskassenvereine als Mittel zur Abhilfe der Noth der
GERMANY
lândlichen Bevolkerung so wie auch die stàdtischen Handwerker und
Arbeiter ", he wrote : " The members wanted nothing and asked for
nothing for themselves; the unions acted quite disinterestedly, inspired
by the principle of love for their neighbours. We have gone on for
fifteen years tenaciously upon the same principle, but we must confess
that it can no longer be continued, and that unions based on this principle
have no vitality ".
Raiffeisen acted upon this conclusion, founding in 1862 the first co-
operative banks, properly so called (Darlehenskassen) at Anhausen, Rengs-
dorf and Bonefeld and a bank for the commune of Engers, and for the
upper part oi the County of Wied.
Among the members of these societies for the first time figured per-
sons desirous of borrowing money; the liability was joint and several.
Section 2 of the Rules (1) of the Anhausen Society read as follows:
" The object of the Union is to provide members with the money neces-
sary, in the form of loans at interest, so as to put them in a condition
to utilise to their own advantage the fruit of their labour and to assure
them a certain independence, so that they may dispense with aid from
third parties ".
These four first loan banks already present all the special features
which were later characteristic of the Raiffeisen banks and which marked
the great contrast existing between these establishments and the Schulze-
Delitzsch banks, that is to say : the absence of any shares, loans for pe-
riods (5-10 years) with reservation of right to call up the loans in certain
exceptional cases at four weeks' notice ; limitation of operations to a deter-
mined district, inalienability of the capital of the Society by division among
members.
Raifieisen soon found collaborators, and the loan banks were not slow
in propagating themselves in the different parts of Germany, especially
in the West. In proportion as they increased in number - about 500 banks
were already working about the middle of 1883 — the need became stronger
for these co-operative organisations to unite in one group to form an or-
ganically compact federation.
After an unsuccessful attempt to found, by the union of the three cen-
tral co-operative banks of the Rhine provinces of Hesse and of West-
phalia, a General German Agricultural Bank, Raiffeisen succeeded in 1876
in establishing at Neuwied, " the Central Agricultural Loan Bank for Ger-
many " (Landwirtschaftliche Zentraldarlehenskassse fur Deutschland) in
the form of a company with liability limited by shares, the mission of
w hich was to play the part of intermediary and regulating agency between
(1) D. Fr. Muller: Die geschichtlkhe Entwickelung der landw. Genossenschaftenvon
l8f8-4Ç bis zur Gcgenvart.
PRESENT STATE OF AGRICULTURAL CO-OPERATION n
those banks that had need of financial support, on the one hand, and the
banks in which there was a surplus of money on the other.
A year later there was formed at Neuwied a Federation of Agricul-
tural Co-operative Societies (" Anwaltschaftsverband landlicher Genossen-
schaften "). This federation was to be a central organ to defend the inter-
ests ot these rural organisations and to encourage their development.
At the date of its constitution the federation comprised thirty loan
banks. The number of affiliated co-operative societies increased rapidly as
is shown below:
Affiliated to the Federation in 1877 - 30 societies
»
»
1878 - 40
»
»
»
1879 - 53
»
»
»
1880 - 113
»
»
»
1881 - 130
»
»
»
1882 - 178
»
»
»
1883 - 212
»
Raiffeisen had hoped to unite in this federation all the agricultural
co-operative credit societies existing in Germany; but results did not confirm
his expectations; for only a fifth part of the 1,100 banks (in round num-
bers) at work in 1883, had adhered to the federation. The unfavourable
attitude of the great majority of the societies was due, it seems, to the
fact that Raiffeisen had given the federation too centralized a character,
without taking account of the special conditions presented by each region
and by the different confederated States, from the point of view of their
historical, moral and economic development.
Experience has shown that these special conditions call for a decern
tralization to which Raiffeisen's organization did not sufficiently lend itself.
Raiffeisen besides had assigned to his loan banks (Dàrlehenkassen)
the business of supplying agricultural requirements (feeding stuffs, man-
ure, coal), without taking into consideration that in certain countries,
as tor example, Hesse, Baden, the Rhine Provinces, Oldenburg, the King-
dom of Saxony, the Palatinate of the Rhine and Hanover, agricultural
co-operative societies for the purchase of requirements had been formed as
far back as about the year 1S60 and even earlier, and that these societies
also felt the need of federating themselves. For some of these co-operative
societies federation had even become an accomplished fact, as for example
those of Hesse, in 1873, thanks to the initiative of the Kreisassessor Haas-
Friedberg. By the side of the co-operative societies for collective purchase,
there had been constituted at the beginning of the decade 1870- 1879, cooper-
ative dairy societies, the notable increase of urban population demanding
an in :reased production of milk, and its derivatives (butter, cream, cheese").
The invention of the centrifugal separator (Lehfeld, 1876) had given the
GERMANY
butter industry a powerful auxiliary, permitting the substitution for the
primitive methods of production on scattered farms of the manufacture of
butter on a large scale by co-operative societies and rendering the industry
more lucrative.
The first co-operative dairy societies were formed in the zone of the low
plains of Northern Germany, where, thanks to specially favourable physical
and economic conditions, there existed many farms, of large or of medium
extent, on which there were a great number of dairy cattle. Creameries were
established a littler later in Posen, in Silesia, in Brandenburg and in Hanover.
In South Germany one only found a few isolated creameries.
In 18S4, 172 co-operative dairy societies were at work, distributed
geographically as follows :
East Prussia 8
West Prussia 14
Silesia 14
Schleswig Holstein 50
Hanover 20
Posen 6
Other regions of North Germany 38
South Germany 22
By the side of the three above mentioned groups (D arte hens kas sen,
associations for collective purchase, and dairy associations), there had been
constituted, in smaller number, other co-operative societies, as, for example,
co-operative societies for the purchase and collective use of machines, as-
sociations for the improvement of cattle breeding, co-operative societies of
viticulturists, and of horticulturists.
The viticulturists' societies, especially, are of comparatively early found-
ation. That oi Reil on the Moselle, for example, dales from 1852, that
of Asperg in Wurtemberg from 1854, that of Neckarsulm from 1855, and
that of Fellbach from 1858. These associatians had no federal organization.
At the beginning of the decade 18S0-1889, the situation was as follows : 2/s of
the Loan and Savings Banks belonged to the federation of Neuwied, whilst
the three other fifths of these societies, and nearly all the co-operative
societies for the purchase of requirements, as well as a small number of
co-operative dairy societies (East and West Prussia) had formed their own
regional and provincial federations.
This grouping certainly had its importance, constituting already, so
to speak, the foundations on which to continue the construction of the great
edifice of co-operation, but there was still need, however, of a union of
regional federations in one central organization, to represent them in their
external relations and also to provide for the internal development of agri-
cultural co-operation.
PRESENT STATE OF AGRICULTURAL CO-OPERATION 13
The necessity of having a central organisation was thus felt every-
where, and after some years of preliminary study they succeeded in found-
ing the Federation of German Agricultural Co-operative societies (6th
July, 1883), which twenty years later took the title of Imperial Federation
of the German Agricultural Co-operative Societies (Reichsverband der deut-
schen landwirtschaftlichen Genossenschaften). In this union are now com-
prised, with the exception of the Wurtemberg Federation (Wurtembergi-
schen Landsverband) and some others of less importance, all the German
agricultural federations, to which, on the 1st. June, 1910, 18,962 co-opera-
tive societies were affiliated. The prefect Haas, now privy councillor, who
had been up to that date president of the Federation of Hessian Co-ope-
rative Societies for the Purchase of Requirements was appointed president
and manager of the new federation and he is still to day its general re-
presentative.
In the constitution of the Imperial Federation of German Agricultural
Co-operative Societies 9 federations participated, comprising altogether 236
co-operative societies ; in addition 9 co-operative dairy societies had become
directly affiliated. At the start, the Imperial Federation, according to its
rules, could only admit as members, co-operative societies for purchase,
production and butter making, and their federations (Verbànde). The agri-
cultural co-operative credit societies had been provisionally excluded out
of regard for the susceptibilities of the federations of these societies under
the direction of Raiffeisen and Schulze-Delitzsch.
On the death of Raiffeisen (nth. February 1888), the 4th session of
the Congress of Co-operative Societies discussed at its meetingsof the 5th.
and 6th. April 1888, and adopted, the following important resolution:
" The sphere of action, of the Federation is extended to the business
of rural and agricultural co-operative credit societies ".
This resolution meant not only more external strength, but also, and
above all, a notable internal reinforcement of the federation, because the
co-operative credit societies, were, so to speak, the foundation of agricul-
tural co-operation. Thus the co-operative societies were able to federate
themselves systematically, by regions, in one powerful union.
At the 6th. Congress of Co-operative Societies, which met at Darmstadt
on the 20th. and 21st. August 1890, it was decided to substitute for the
name Federation of German Agricultural Co-operative Societies (Yereinigung
deutscher landwirtschaftlichen Genossenschaften) the title General Federa-
tion of German Agricultural Co-operative Societies (Allgemeiner Verband
der deutschen landwirtschaftlichen Genossenschaften^ .The Congress negatived
the proposal of President Haas, to give the union the title of Imperial Fed-
eration of German Agricultural Co-operative Societies (Reichsverband der
deutschen landwirtschaftlichen Genossenschaften), the title which was how-
ever definitely adopted fourteen years later.
l4 GERMANY
In 1889 after the promulgation of the Act of 1st. May, a new era opened
for the German co-operative societies, and a large number of new organi-
zations was formed. The troubles which the commercial treaties con-
cluded in 1893 brought upon German agriculture, did not contribute to
this in the least degree.
This surprising increase of co-operative societies appears clearly from
the table given hereafter in which the number of existing organizations is
shown separately for each year.
By the side of the General Federation of Co-operative Societies, the
Federation of Neuwied (Anwaltschaftsverband) continued its work, without
taking any steps for union with it. The number of organizations affiliated
to the Federation of Neuwied also increased very considerably, when, under
the pressure of imperious necessity, it started branches in several rural
communes. It is easy to imagine that constant friction was inevitable
between the decentralised system of action of the General Federation and
the centralised system of Neuwied, which above all was the case in the rural
communes in which the two federations contended for support.
This friction, sometimes giving rise to conflicts full of bitterness, lasted
almost uninterruptedly until the year 1905, when, after long negotiations,
often interrupted, the Raiffeisen organization at Neuwied, and the Federa.
tion at Darmstadt, which meanwhile had assumed the title of Imperial
Federation of German Agricultural Co-operative Societies, came to an un .
derstanding, by virtue of which Neuwied, including 4,300 co-operative so-
cieties, adhered to the Imperial Federation of Darmstadt.
The manifesto published in 1908 by the Imperial Federation of Ger-
man Co-operatives, on the occasion of the 15th. anniversary of its founda-
tion, devotes the following passage to this union:
" The union with the Federation of Neuwied has marked a memorable
page in the annals of the internal organization of the Imperial Federation.
The division, up to that moment, of the co-operative forces into two camps,
separated and sometimes opposed, undoubtedly caused a regrettable dis-
persion of energy.
" Certainly, the competition of these two great organizations was of
some advantage, contributing as it did to the rapid development of agri-
cultural co-operation, but it had also injurious results shown by an exces-
sive haste to form new associations, and more or less violent polemics in
the press and in public meetings, whence arose internal and external loss
of strength.
" As the advantage of healthy competition decreased with the growth
of co-operative societies the more apparent became these disadvantages
Besides, the increasing opposition met with by the co-operative societies in
the commercial world and from other adversaries, together with the fact
that in the matter of production and sale of articles of agricultural con-
PRESENT STATE OF AGRICULTURAL CO-OPERATION 15
sumption economic concentration was becoming more marked, rendered
unity of action by the co-operative societies more and more necessary ".
The very marked antagonism at the beginning of the desperate con-
tests on behalf of the opposed principles of " centralization " and " de-
centralization *', had been little by little effaced with the course of time.
The two organizations had received a lesson from the imperious force of
circumstances. The organization of Xeuwied, when instituting twelve de-
pendent organizations in different regions of Germany, had had to make
some concessions to the principle of decentralization ; the Imperial Feder-
ation, in its turn, recognized the advantages of an opportune central-
ization.
Thus since the 26th. January and the gth. February, 1905 all the German
co-operative societies, with a single exception (in Wurtemberg, where the
co-operative societies form a federation of some importance) have advanced
in serried ranks like an army on the march.
A single organisation, namely the Imperial Federation of German
Co-operative Societies fulfils the important mission of representing exter-
nally and officially the interests of more than 19,000 agricultural co-oper-
ative societies comprising about 1 3/4 millions of members.
It is needless to demonstrate how efficacious is this unified represent-
ation of interests in the solution of legislative questions, in treating with
the constituted authorities and with the public, and especially what weight
it has in the scale of economic contests.
Before passing on to examine the principles by which the legislation
upon co-operative societies has been inspired, it will not, perhaps, be inexpe-
dient to set forth here the manner of working of one of the Raiffeisen
banks, as these banks, in number 15,476 (on the Ist June, 1910) form
so to speak, the basis of the great edifice of co-operation in Germany.
The Raiffeisen Bank {Spar- und Darlehenskassë) is a registered co-
operative society with unlimited liability. Its operations extend over a
district defined in its rules, which must be more or less limited, a parish,
often even a single village. For legal constitution the society must consist
of at least seven members. The society consists exclusively of inhabitants
of the district of full age, and in enjoyment of all civil rights. The man-
agement of affairs is entrusted to an elected committee (Vorstand) com-
posed in the majority of cases, of four of five members. This committee
has a president, a vice-president, and two or three committeemen of
whom one generally has the office of treasurer or accountant. The Raif-
feisen Banks of the old type choose their accountant from persons not in-
cluded in this committee, at the sittings of which the accountant has a
right to be present but without voting. As we have just said, this com-
mittee manages all business, deciding as to the admission of new members,
upon the loans to be granted, and also upon the purchase of agricultural
1 6 GERMANY
requirements. The committee must put itself in touch with the tribunal,
in the chancery of which the society is registered ; the members of this
committee are inscribed as such in the same registry office.
The committee advises the registry office of the admission of new
members, as well as of the names of the members who withdraw from
the society; it also keeps the registry informed of any changes that take
place in the composition of the committee itself. Every year before the
expiration of 6 months from date of closing accounts, the committee
transmits to the registry the balance sheet, a statement showing the number
of members of the society and an auditor's certificate given by the aud-
itor of the federation (Verband) to which the society belongs.
Besides the committee, there is a Council of Supervision ; the number
of its members is unlimited, but at least three.
Generally this Council has 6 to 9 members, chosen from the inhabi-
tants of the different villages, which allows of the council being always
well informed as to the circumstances of the inhabitants of its district.
The Council of Supervisions controls the acts of the committee ( Vor-
stand) seeing, for example, that loans are granted in a regular manner,
that the admission of new members, as well as the purchase of feeds
and manure take place in virtue of decisions arrived at in the meetings
of the committee and duly recorded in the minutes. The Council of Su-
pervision must, as often as possible, at least once in the course of every
three months, proceed, without previous warning, to inspect the cash, to
see if the cashier fulfils his charge conscientiously. The acts of the Coun-
cil of Supervision are also recorded in minutes.
The services of the members of the committee and of the Council of
Supervision are gratuitous; the members of these bodies have only a right
to the reimbursement of their expenses.
Only the cashier or accountant is paid; his emoluments are fixed by
the committee in consultation with the Council of Supervision, taking into
account the amount of the work he has to do.
The supreme authority in the society is the general assembly of mem-
bers which meets once a year ; for the Raiffeisen societies of the old type
the general assembly meets twice a year.
The General Assembly approves the accounts and the annual balance
sheet duly passed by the Council of Supervisions, confirms the work of the
oommittee, and decides as to the division of the net profits.
The general assembly, in which each member, be he rich or poor,
be he of exalted or of humble position, be he president, member of the
Council of Supervision, or a mere private member, has only one vote,
deliberate upon every question, general or special, that concerns the
society.
The working capital of the society is composed in the first place
PRESENT STATE OF AGRICULTURAL CO-OPERATION 17
of the members' shares ; each of the members must buy one. The value
of these shares varies according to the economic condition of the dif-
ferent regions, oscillating between 10 and 500 marks. Nowadays, we
observe a general tendency not to fix the value of these shares too low.
If so provided by the rules, the society may admit payments by annual
instalments.
The principal working capital, however, consists of the savings book
deposits {Spareinlagen), which the society accepts from any one; it is enough
that these deposits come in abundantly for the Raiffeisen Bank to be in
a position to fulfil its mission efficiently. With regard to the available
surplus, first a sum is set aside for a small dividend on the members'
shares, calculated at a moderate interest (from 3 to 4 %); then a certain
amount is placed to the reserve fund; this sum, as we have said above,
according to the rules, must remain inalienable. The remaining amount
is generally assigned, by decision of the general assembly, to some work
of common utility.
With Very few exceptions, all the German agricultural co-operative
credit societies are organised in this simple way, which has permitted of
their becoming a continually increasing source of prosperity lor the farm-
ing population. The societies are to be counted by hundreds, which, with
cautious, intelligent and active men at the head of their committees and
councils of supervision, reap truly " golden harvests " in the iorm of con-
stantly increasing reserve funds, but their chief merit consists in their being
true nuclei of that spirit of solidarity which stimulates healthy support ot
whatever is most nobly philanthropic.
§ 2. — Influence of Legislation on the Development of the Co-operative Societies.
The position of the German co-operative societies, up to the year 1867,
was not regulated by any special law. The members were liable jointly and
severally and without limit towards third parties. The members of the
Mutual Aid Society of Flammersfeld had, in the first place, bound them-
selves to this joint and several liability, by a deed to that effect, and all
the Schulze-Delitzsch credit associations were governed by the same prin-
ciple. Of all the laws in lorce at that date there was not one adapted
to the co-operative societies.
The common law of Prussia, governing most of the co-operative
societies, recognized in the association only a private character, simply
assimilating them to a group of individuals who, through their repre-
sentative as intermediary, could obtain the exercise in common of certain
rights, and could incur obligations with respect to which they were equally
liable.
1 8 GERMANS
The absence of precise provisions in the law with reference to this
new form of association naturally created many difficulties, above- all
when it was a matter of rights to be decided by law.
Schuke-Delitzsch, the well-known founder of the urban co-operative
credit societies that bear his name, had presented a bill drafted by himself,
in the Prussian Chamber of Deputies on the ioth. of March 1863. He had
later to struggle hard to free the societies from the permanent control of
the State, affirming with insistence that these associations, in view of their
special character, must be considered within the domain of private law.
A long series of obstacles had to be overcome before the first Ger-
man law dealing with co-operative societies was promulgated. First passed
for Prussia only, this law was published 27th. March 1867, to come into
operation on the 1st. January 1868. On the 4th. July 1869 the Federal
Council adopted it as the law of the North German Confederation, where
it came into force on the 1st. January 1869.
From that date the co-operative societies had a civil personality.
It will perhaps be as well here to mention the steps taken from the
above date by Raiffeisen experimentally, to provide the co-operative so-
cieties with central organs that were to facilitate their business relations,
which was only effected after the promulgation, in 1889, of the second law
relating to co-operative societies, thanks to which the institution of central
co-operative banks was rendered possible.
Raiffeisen had founded in 1872 the Rhenish Agricultural Co-operative
Bank, as a registered association, the members of which were only the
Raiffeisen Banks (Darlehenskassen) that is to say, associations likewise re-
gistered.
In the same way and about the same date, a Westphalian Agri-
cultural Bank (Westfâlische landwirtschaftliche Bank eingetragene Genos-
senschaft) was founded at Iserlohn, and an Agricultural Central Bank at
Darmstadt.
As Raiffeisen could not reconcile himself to the principle enunciated
in Section 3 of the law relative to co-operative societies, according to which
these must have a capital in members' shares, the three Central Banks
above-mentioned were founded in such a way as completely to eliminate
the members' shares.
Centralisation reached its height in 1874 with the foundation of the
General Agricultural Bank at Neuwied (Landw. Generalbank), as a re-
gistered co-operative society of which the only members were the three
provincial banks mentioned above.
The registry offices having made no opposition to the registration
of these three central co-operative societies, Schulze-Delitzsch, who at this
time completely disagreed with Raiffeisen, on the 19th February 1876
Présent state of agricultural co-operation 19
asked a question in the Reichstag on the matter , and he triumphed; the
General Bank and the three provincial banks had to be dissolved.
Raiffeisen founded after this in 1876, the Central Agricultural Loan
Bank for German}' (Landwirtschaftliche Zentraldarlehenskasse fur Deutsch-
land) at Neuwied in the form of a company with liability limited by-
shares.
This bank is still working to-day, only its headquarters are now at
Berlin. Analogous societies were instituted later for the co-operative
societies which had not become affiliated to the Neuwied organisations.
Thus we see the Co-operative Bank (Genossenschaftsbank) founded at
Darmstadt, and the Rural Central Bank (Landliche Zentralkasse at Munich.
The Baden co-operative societies grouped themselves round the Carls-
ruhe branch of the Rhenish Credit Bank at Mannheim (Rheinische Kredit-
bank in Mannheim) whilst the co-operative societies of Wurtemberg had
for their central bank the Royal Bank (Kgl. Hofbank) of Stuttgart.
We do not possess complete data as to the number of agricultural
cooperative societies in Germany till after 18S4.
Of the Neuwied Federation founded in 1877 we have the following
fieures :
30 co-operative societies
40 »
53 »
113 »
130 »
178 »
212 »
Although in the law on co-operative societies there was no clause
rendering obligatory the inspection of their affairs, Raiffeisen was the
first to recognize that the members of the co-operative societies must
be given guarantees for the regular keeping of the occounts, and that by
means of inspection. From the year 1880, there were inspectors in his
institution; in 1884 these inspectors, four in number, carried out 106 ordi-
nary and 13 special inspections.
The Congress of Co-operative Societies at Bonn, 4th. June, 1883, pro-
nounced unanimously in favour of obligatory inspection, and the supple-
mentary clause that follows was inserted in the rules of the Neuwied Feder-
ation :
« The co-operative societies belonging to the Neuwied Federation are
obliged to submit to the control of the Federation and cannot oppose the
inspections the Federation may order any time that it deems in necessary »,
The federation comprised :
At the
end
of
1877
»
»
1878
»
»
1879
»
»
1880
»
»
1881
»
»
1882 .
»
»
1883
20
GfeRMÀNV
After the year 1884, several other federations followed this example.
This, for instance, was done by the Federation of the Hessian Agricultural
Co-operative Societies for the Purchase of Requirements and the Federation
of the Hessian Agricultural Co-operative Credit Societies. The Federation
of the German Agricultural Co-operative Societies, in the second session
of its Congress, held at Berlin, laid down also the obligatory introduction
of the inspection of accounts and cash of the societies belonging to the
Federation, and this by experts appointed by the directors of the different
federations.
The number of agricultural co-operative societies has gone on in-
creasing constantly and satisfactorily. There were:
Co-operative
Raiffeisen
Banks
Societies
for
Co-operative
Other
(Savings
Purchase
Co operative
Total
and
Loan Banks)
of
Require-
creameries
Societies
At the beginning of 1884. .
ments
50O
350
172
5°
1,050
Towards the middle of 1889. .
I.200
725
613
62
2,6oO
The co-operative societies according as they belonged to the Neuwied
organization or to the federation of Darmstadt, were divided as follows :
» IS87
Neuwied
feder-
ation
General Federation of Darmstadt
Regional
Federations
Co-operative
credit
societies
Co-operative
Societies
for the
Purchase
of
Require-
ments
Dairy
Socie-
ties
Miscel-
laneous
Total
(exclud-
ing
regional
federa-
tions)
255
288
312
359
423
610
IO
IO
9
12
14
l8
I63
175
3*5
402
444
555
631
714
25
55
71
79
93
117
IO
24
24
340
457
515
644
911
I02Ô
PRESENT STATE OF AGRICULTURAL CO-OPERATION
§ 3. — The I,aw of iSSg concerning Co-operative Societies.
In consequence of the promulgation of the new law concerning co-oper-
ative societies, the year 1889 marked, as we said, a new era for agri-
cultural co-operation.
The title of the law is textually as follows :
« Law of the Empire concerning co-operative societies possessing an
economic character, of the date of 1st. May 1889, with the Amendment of
12th. August, 1896, and the changes contained in Article 10 of the Law
of 17th. May, 1897, on the putting into force of the commercial code, ac-
cording to the tenor of the order of the Chancellor of the Empire, dated
20th. May 1898, as well as the regulations of the Federal Council concerning
the application of the Law on the forms to be observed for the registra-
tion of co-operative societies, dated Ist July 1889 ».
***
Whilst the old law of 1868 only recognized unlimited liability, the new
law admits limited liability.
In the course of dizcussion in the committee, a third form of liability
was considered : Unbeschrànkte Nachschusspflicht or* the unlimited obli-
gation of members to the payment of the sums necessary to satisfy com-
pletely the creditors of the association. The difference in the three forms
of liability appears clearly from Section 2 of the law which is thus worded :
Liability.
The Associations may be constituted :
1) In such a manner that each of the members assumes both as
to the association and directly towards the creditors of this latter, a
liability affecting all his personal possessions (registered co-operative so-
cieties with unlimited liability) ;
2) In such a manner that the members are liable to the extent of all
their personal possessions but not directly to the creditors of the co-oper-
ative societies, that is to say, they are only obliged to provide the co-oper-
ative societies, if necessary, with the sums required for payment of cred-
itors (registered co-operative societies with liability to make unlimited
payments) ;
3) In such a manner that the individual liability of the members,
both towards the society and towards the creditors of this latter, is fixed
in advance at a certain sum (registered co-operative societies with limited
liability).
22 GERMANY
Central Cooperative Societies.
The authorization given by the law to the co-operative societies to
unite in federations was an act of distinct importance for the completion
of the internal organization of co-operation according to the principle put
forward by Raiffeisen in his projects for the creation of a general bank
and of central banks.
Inspection.
Section 52 of the law conferred on the federations the right to get
the affiliated co-operative societies inspected by special inspectors, and Sec-
tion 53 made inspection obligatory every two years at least.
Other important provisions were : a) obligatory constitution of an
initial capital by fixed contributions of members ; à) provisions regarding
the division of the net profits ; c) allocation of a certain dividend on mem-
bers' shares on condition that this dividend should serve first to complete
the payments due by the shareholders upon their shares ; d) constitution
of a reserve fund.
The co-operative societies of Neuwied having adopted the principle of
the inalienability of the joint capital, found the provisions of their rules
infringed: a) by Section 7, Sub-section 4, concerning the constitution of a
reserve fund ; 0) Section 19 concerning the division of the net profits; whilst
in virtue of Section 20 the question of knowing if it were necessary or not.
to divide the net profits could only, according to the rules, be decided every
ten years, and exclusively by decision of the general assembly, at the expira-
tion of each decade ; c) and above all by Section 89 as to the division of
the joint assets among the members in case of dissolution of the society.
The organization, by ingenious provisions in the rules, was able to
elude the requirements of the Law which conflicted with the Raiffeisen
principle, until an amendment to the Law concerning Co-operative Soc-
ieties, dated 12th. August, 1896, modified the situation a little in favour
of the tendencies of Neuwied. Section 98, Sub-section 3, of this amendment
admitted the insertion in the rules of the co-operative societies of a clause
providing for the inalienability of the joint assets. In terms of Section 92,
in case of dissolution of the society, « the available and inalienable residue
of assets, unless it be assigned by the rules to an individual or to a body
corporate for a fixed use, devolves upon the Commune in which the soc-
iety has its office. The revenue produced by this fund is to be applied
to works of public utility ».
A few words may be added as to the favourable effect produced by
the new legislative provisions.
PRESENT STATE OF AGRICULTURAL CO-OPERATION 23
The admission of limited liability by the side of unlimited liability,
the only kind that had been recognized previously, from the first favoured
the formation of co-operative credit societies in regions where there were
great differences in the conditions of wealth, and in which the richer classes,
having naturally greater risks to incur, were scarcely disposed to enter
into co-operative societies with unlimited liability.
The co-operative societies for purchase, sale, or production, found
themselves encouraged in their development, by the introduction of lim-
ited liability, because these societies can approximately determine in
advance the amount of working capital necessary, which eliminates all fear
of exposing themselves to more considerable risks, such as come from
unlimited liability.
The possibility of starting central banks to regulate the banking opera-
tions of the co-operative societies and to centralize the purchase of goods,
soon permitted the division in a rational manner of the various duties of the
federations, separating business problems from those of a general character
The federations acquired great liberty of action for the accomplishment
of their true mission, which also had been notably extended by the service
of inspection with which they had just been charged. In the same way,
the central banks, as well as the central co-operative societies for purchase
and sale found themselves placed in a much better position in the field
of action assigned to them.
These opportune modifications of the Law concerning Co-operative
Societies had for their first consequence a notable increase in the number
of these organizations.
During the six years 1 883-1 889, the number of co-operative societies
had increased by 1,550, that is to say by about 260 per year; in the course
of the six following years (1889-1895) their number increased by 4,570,
that is to say by 760 per year. Contributory to this increase, besides the
legal provisions, and an energetic propaganda on the part of the federa-
tions, was also the agricultural crisis, especially acute at the beginning
of the decade 1 890-1 899. Indeed the annual increase during the period
1889-1892 was only 591, whilst for the period 1892-1895 it rose to 932.
The number of co-operative credit societies rose from 1,200 to 4,782,
from which one sees how urgent was the need of their establishment. The
increase in the co-operative societies for the purchase of requirements was
slower, the number rising from 869 to 725.
Much more considerable was the development of the co-operative dairy
societies whose number has almost doubled (1,2222 against 613). It is,
however, to be observed that the societies of this class are even to-day
almost exclusively limited to North Germany. In South Germany in 1905
there were only 149 such societies.
Amongst the other co-operative societies there has been an increase
24
GERMANY
amongst those of the viticulturists, the horticulturists, and the market gar-
deners, as well as of the associations for the sale of grain and the sale
of cattle.
The following table shows the progress of the different classes of agri-
cultural co-operative societies :
189S.
1889.
1883
Total
Number of societies
Credit
Purchase
of
Require-
ments
Dairy
7,170
2,6oO
1,050
4,872
I.200
500
869
725
358
I 122
6l3
I50
Miscella-
neous
207
62
5°
? 4-
The Central Cooperative Batik of Prussia.
The central banks, soon after their constitution in the different re-
gions as provincial clearing house centres felt the need of establishing
closer relations amongst themselves. As far back as 1891, the Congress of
Kiel had expressed its aspirations as follows :
« It is desirable that business relations be established between the
different clearing-house centres now working in Germany for the agricul-
tural co-operative banks, to the end that these institutions may mutually
support each other ».
The need became more and more urgent, and the Congress of Co-
operative Societies assembled at Hanover in 1894 placed the following on
the order of the day :
« How to establish business relations (within the sphere of action of
the Federation) between the central regulating banks, so that they may
mutually facilitate each other's banking operations ».
After having studied the question in all its aspects, the Permanent
Committee of Congress in its sitting of 10th March 1895 declared that it
was absolutely necessary to institute a central co-operative bank for the
regional credit institutions, and took measures for the necessary prepara-
tory work.
However Prussia, quite unexpectedly, took up the plan, and it was
brought before the Chamber of Deputies in the form of a bill, drawn up
by the Minister of Finance, Miquel, for the institution of a central estab-
lishment to encourage the development of co-operative credit. The bill
was passed with surprising rapidity. On the 18th. June 1895 it was re-
ferred to the Budget Commission, and the second and third reading were
PRESENT STATE OF AGRICULTURAL CO-OPERATION 25
passed by the Chamber on the 2nd. and 3rd. July respectively. On the
31st of the same month the Act was promulgated, coming into force on
the 1 st. October 1895. In this way the Central Co-operative Bank of Prussia
( Preussische Zentralgenossenschaftskasse) began.
Section 1 of the Act declares the institution of an establishment at
Berlin, called •' the Central Co-operative Bank of Prussia ", with the object
of « encouraging the development of personal credit, especially co-operative
credit ».
Section 2 assigns the following functions to the Prussian Bank :
1 . Granting loans on interest :
a) to registered co-operative societies and federations, having the
right to sue in their own name ;
b) to provincial land credit banks {Ritterschajtlichen Darlelicns-
kassen) ;
c) to analogous credit institutions founded by the provinces | Pro-
zinzialhilfskasseti) ;
2. Receiving from associations specified under Section i, deposits
at interest ;
Further, for the discharge of the functions mentioned above in Sec-
tions 1 and 2, the Bank is authorized :
3. To accept other moneys as deposits or in current accounts;
4. To accept savings deposits (Spareinlagen);
5. To discount bills of exchange and bills to order, and grant loans
on the security of bills and of merchandise;
6. To get its bills in hand rediscounted;
7. To contract loans;
8. To buy or sell bills of exchange for the account both of the fe-
derations specified under Section 1, as well as of the co-operative societies
composing them, and of other classes of depositors (individuals who have
placed their savings in deposit or have opened current accounts).
The sphere of action of the bank can, by royal decree, be extended
beyond the establishments specified under Section 1 to certain specified
classes of Savings Banks.
The Bank of Prussia received first from the State a capital of 5 mil-
lions of marks in revenue bonds at 3 % at their nominal value, as a
first endowment. This capital has been increased on three occasions :
by act of 8th. July 1896 it was brought up to 20 millions, then to 50 mil-
lions (act of 20th. April 1S9S) aud finally to 75 millions of marks (act of
13 th. July 1009).
The Prussian Bank, as it is habitually called for short, at first excited
the distrust of the societies on account of the subventions received by it
from the State. And even to-day the Prussian Bank, though it will soon
have been 15 years at work, has against it the Federation of Urban Co-
26 GERMANY
operative Societies, of Schulze-Delitzsch system, with Dr. Hans Criiger at
its head.
The agricultural co-operative societies have long abandoned their hostile
attitude and, renouncing their first optimism with regard to work unas-
sisted by third parties, they now consider the question of co-operation with
calmness.
According to Dr. Muller (i), « the institution of the Prussian Bank
took place at the most propitious moment. It was a moment of agricul-
tural depression for Germany and for Prussia, and the Prussian State
considered it its duty to safeguard by effective intervention the gains
agriculture had made by its own efforts, and which ran the risk of being
compromised ».
The Prussian central banks were in their turn not slow in coming
into relations with the Bank of Prussia. In November 1895, 11 co-oper-
ative federation banks had recourse to it. The number of banks affiliadet
to the Prussian Bank continued increasing afterwards, rising from 21 in
March 1896 to 28 on the 1st. April 1899. In the course of the first six
months there was business done to the extent of 141 % million marks.
The total business, which for the period 1896-97 had been 1,117 % mil-
lions of marks was for the last financial period (ending 31st. March 19 10)
15,197,808,796.64 marks. At the close of the 15th annual period the
Bank of Prussia was composed of 52 federation banks, 19 urban and 33 rural
banks. Besides this, the Prussian Bank was in business relation with :
6 provincial land credit banks (Ritterschaftliche Darlehe?iskassen);
6 similar banks instituted for the provinces (Landeskommunalver-
bânde) ;
744 public and communal savings banks;
495 independent associations, firms and individuals;
189 different banks, public, private, guardian offices, etc. (in con-
formity with Section 76 of the Act as to the procedure to be adopted for
the Civil Code, dated 20th. September 1899 and the order of the Ministers
of Finance, Agriculture, Public Lands and Forests, and Justice, given the
17th. December 1899, concerning the application of Section 85 of the
same Act).
!< 5. — Co-operative Central Batiks in the other Confederated States.
The arrangements made by Prussia could not, naturally, remain
without their effect on the other confederated States.
In Bavaria the Central Bank (Zentraldarlehenskasse) of the Agricul-
(1) Dr. Mùller: Die geschkhtliche Entwichlung des landwirtschaftlichen Genossenschafts-
wesens (The Historical Development of Agricultural Co-operative Societies).
PRESENT STATE OF AGRICULTURAL CO-OPERATION 27
tural Co-operative Credit Societies received an endowment of capital of
100,000 marks, on which it had not to pay interest, besides an advance
of 1.9 millions, increased later to 4 millions ot marks at 3 % interest.
The Agricultural Co-operative Bank (Landesgenossenschaftskasse)
founded in 1897 in the Kingdom of Saxony, first received 2 millions of
marks to be distributed in the form of loans at 2 % % among the diff-
erent co-operative societies. In 1900 this allocation was increased to a
million. Besides, 2 millions was placed at its disposal for the encourag-
ement of trade co-operative societies; this last was increased in 1009 to
3 millions of marks.
The agricultural co-operative movement, equally encouraged in Wur-
temberg, in Baden, in Mecklenburg Schwerin, in the principality of Old-
enburg and in other States, was not slow in developing. It was especially
in the Eastern Provinces of Prussia where capital was least abundant that
the action of the Prussian Bank was most effective for the development
of co-operative banks (Spar— unci Darlehenskasseii).
The following figures are very interesting (1):
Number of B;mks
in existence
on 1st. July
1S95 1900
East Prussia 135 225
West Prussia 28 160
Brandenburg 114 343
Pomerania 35 178
Posen 48 339
Silesia 293 927
Total . . . 653 2,172
Thus in the course of the period of five years 1 895-1 900, the number
of co-operative credit societies in the 6 above-mentioned provinces had in-
creased by 233 %, whilst for the other parts of Germany the increase was
only 80 % (7621 against 4257).
For want of space, we cannot give a more detailed analysis of the
impressive progress of agricultural co-operation in Germany from every
point of view: we must limit ourselves to the reproduction of some
figures.
(1) Festschrift zuni 2j jàhrl. Jubildum des Reichsverbandes.
28 GERMANY
There remains only one fact to note, that is, that a certain develop-
ment of co-operative dairy societies . is also to be remarked in South Ger-
many. In Rhenish Prussia the number of these societies rose from 42 in
1895 to 212 in 1900, in Bavaria during the same period from 27 to 120,
in Wurtemberg from 28 to 126.
The other kinds of co-operative societies are also very notably increasing
(about 400 %); their number has grown from 207 in 1895 to 811 in 1900.
The difficulties German agriculture had to pass through from the fact that
the commercial treaties favoured industry almost exclusively undoub-
tedly contributed to stimulate the co-operative movement, and a great
number of co-operative societies for sale and production (sale of cereals,
eggs, fruit, and cattle), and societies of distillers and viticulturists, were
formed.
The manifesto, above-mentioned, of the Federation of German Agri-
cultural Co-operative Societies defines the period 1895- 1900 as the «active
phase of the early youth of German agricultural co-operation ». But the
manifesto makes it equally clear that this considerable progress of co-oper-
ation does not come entirely from the support given by the State, a sup-
port which has perhaps contributed less than other factors, such as the
popularization of the co-operative idea, the confidence in their own
strength, urgent necessity, and the internal strengthening of the co-operative
federations.
It is not to be doubted that a systematic propaganda followed up
with perseverance on the part of the federations was absolutely indis-
pensable to give agricultural co-operation such a development, for the
German peasant, - and it is his class that is especially concerned - is
extremely suspicious and rather hostile than favourable to innovations.
It required then, again to follow the text of the manifesto, " the help
of a stimulating external force to overcome his attachment to older customs,
his distrust of everything new, his indifference, his fear of undertaking
more work and increasing his responsibilities, the narrow local spirit, and
besides this his personal considerations ".
But even after 1900 and up to the present moment, this development,
vigorous both externally and internally, has continued, without however
reaching the rate of increase of the years 1890-99, for in 1895-96 alone
1,890 new co-operative societies were founded and in 1896-97 the number
was 1,683, fr°m which it appears that, in spite of all, about a thousand
co-operative societies were founded per year.
The co-operative societies have never lacked problems to solve and
never will lack them.
The progressive and centralising development going on in industry,
in commerce and above all in the great capitals, obliges the societies to
concentrate all their attention upon this movement,
PRESENT STATE OF AGRICULTURAL CO-OPERATK >\ i$
The constant increase of the population brings with it the necessity
of more and more intensive cultivation, that the soil may be made more
productive. That naturally demands a more extensive use of the latest
technical improvements, and it is the co-operative societies which can put
the farmer in a position to profit by the methods of improvement which
modern science offers.
The progress of the agricultural co-operative societies up to date is
made clear by the figures which follow and which require no further
comment.
30
(.KRMANV
§ 6. — STATISTICAL TABLES.
l.
Total Number of agricultural co-operative societies existing in the German Empire
and their distribution in categories according to their purpose.
I
Date of Statistics
First July
Loan and
Savings
Banks
Cooperative societies
for collective
Purchase
dairy others
Total
1890.
189I.
1892.
IS93.
1894.
1895.
1896.
1897.
1898.
1899.
I9OO.
I90I.
I902.
I903.
I904.
I905.
I906.
I907.
IQ08.
x909
1910 (31st. December).
1729
2134
2647
3040
3850
4872
6391
7612
8595
9208
9793
10487
11121
11750
12477
13181
13635
14096
14709
151S8
15526
537
629
708
764
854
869
925
990
989
1040
i"5
1294
1422
1601
1754
1867
1977
2052
2141
2189
2265
639
73i
869
1003
"45
1222
1397
1574
1628
1764
1917
2245
2396
2542
2713
2832
2931
3055
3Ï46
3279
3364
101
131
150
172
182
207
273
484
627
724
811
1008
1158
1269
1365
1443
1585
1770
2028
2338
2836
3006
3625
4374
4979
6031
7170
8986
10669
1 1839
12736
13636
I5034
16097
17162
18309
19323
20128
20973
22024
22964
24081
Amongst the societies in existence on the 1st. July 1908 :
17,494 or 79.43 % had taken the legal form of co-operative societies with unlimited
joint and several liability of members ;
105 or 0.50 % had taken the form of co-operative societies with unlimited obligation
for the members to make payments ;
4,425 or 20.07 % had taken the legal form of co-operative societies with limited lia-
bility of members.
PRESENT STATE OE AGRICULTURAL CO-OPËRATION
3.
Distribution of the co-operative societies in States and in relation
to the population and to area cultivated for the years 1890, 1901 and 1908.
State or Province
Co-operative societies
existing on the ist. July
iSgo iqoi
No. of inhabitant*
corresponding
to each
society
on ist. July
iSgo
1909
Number of hectares
of area cultivated
corresponding to
each society
on ist. July
1909
East Prussia
West Prussia
Brandenburg
Pomerania
Posen
Silesia
Prussian Saxony
Schleswig-Holstein . . .
Hanover
Westphalia
Hesse-Nassau
Rhenish Provinces. . . .
Hohenzollern.
Prussia.
Bavarian Provinces of the
left bank of the Rhine.
Bavarian Provinces of the
right bank of the Rhine
Bavaria
Saxony
Wurtemburg.
Baden
Hesse
Mecklemburg-Schwerin . .
Mecklemburg-Strelitz. . . .
Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach. . .
Oldenburg
Brunswick
Saxe-Meiningen
Saxe-Altenburg
Saxe-Coburg-Gotha
Anhalt
Schwarzburg- Sondershau-
sen
Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt .
Waldeck
Reuss-Greiz
Reuss-Gera
Schaumburg-Lippe
Lippe
Liibeck
Bremen
Hamburg
Alsace-Lorraine
German Empire, , ,
S S
400
40
319
34
713
42
372
40
603
53
1 123
70
578
17S
346
209
788
167
620
213
839
277
1453
4
14
8168
1420
ï
C 2230
> 370
<
J
( 688
370
2918
15
189
322
1 100
323
588
263
659
53
165
23
21
127
73
207
8
134
5
5i
1
39
25
69
4
iS
i 16
\ 23
)
( 23
61
6
10
5
25
J
{ 6
6
3
S
( 5
81
412
3006
I5°34
541
483
1039
791
794
1S1S
1088
699
1279
888
988
2100
49
12557
3594
735
4329
446
1563
1042
833
292
34
171
290
265
68
5o
86
55
37
33
63
7
15
8i
28
9
7
24
6521
22964I
22258
35842
121192
36212
43791
72836
36858
6851
1 090 1
14543
7814
17005
16521
11097
15122
233512
6325
5133
3775
. 12761
15528
4863
50472
44766
170864
8261
67991
>5555
19796
16443
375
3400
5363
4129
2502
2719
2738
2152
2158
4063
2095
3065
1394
2970
1569
1205
1507
10109
1473
1929
145 1
) 2140
I 3043
2269
1513
1834
3955
4130
2818
5964
f 2301
2934
1 939
10086
9639
5624
5199
11792
37634
36453
2783
2641
30705
43698
69416
51611
53689
45812
26038
8503
I0455
7340
4086
5906
17933
1627;
12528
68877
3874
2655
1872
•20974
1 1406
4790
29274
26728
90778
5103
39766
4024
^1546
1 1698
5017
3618
2217
2726
2709
145S
1664
2157
1679
1383
879
584
1453
IS:
1 196
449
1069
2305
796
878
, 590
*»3202
U95O
I408
1 24 1
874
1944
I784
1487
2869
M443
[ï439
) ion
^2657
J 3220
/2S00
2975
2300
2985
1258
I43I
1526
3~
GERMANE
Distribution of German agricultural cooperative societies in the different States
or Provinces according to the type to which they conformed on the 1st. July
1890, 1906 and 1908.
State or Province
East Prussia
West Prussia.
Brandenburg
Pomerania
Posen
Silesia
Prussian Saxony .
Schleswig-Holstein
Hanover
Westphalia
Hesse-Nassau ....
Rhenish Provinces
Hohenzollern . .
Loan and Saving
Hanks
existing
on 1st. July
1890 1901 1909
51
8
10
2
9
26
35
67
137
168
237
4
754
290
2
3
4
5
7
8
9
10
1 1
12
13
14
i5
16
i7
18I
19
20
21
2;
23
24
*5
26
290
6
2S8
125
140
2
16
5
I'ru^ia
Bavarian Provinces of the
left bank of the Rhine
Bavarian Provinces of th
right bank of the Rhine
Bavaria
Saxony
Wurtemburg .
Baden
Hesse
Mecklenburg-Schwerin .
Mecklenburg-Strelitz . .
Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach .
Oldenburg
Brunswick
Saxe-Meiningen
Saxe-Altenburg
Saxe-Coburg-Gotha. . . .
Anhalt
Schwarzburg - Sonders-
hause
Schwarzb.-Rudolstadt . .
Waldeck
Reuss-Greiz
Reuss-Gera
Schaumburg-Lippe ....
Lippe
Liibeck
Bremen
Hamburg
Alsace-Lorraine
German Empire, , . 1729
Co-operative
societies
for collective
purchase
existing
on 1st. July
1890 1901 1909
269
lS2
382
202
40I
IC48
316
125
323
384
665
969
5279
1916
' 481
2397
117
933
343
451
74
108
9
77
55
41
34
49
9
19
17
41
6
10
1
16
380
273
762
469
495
1506
657
321
467
476
775
1408
46
8035
2742
494
3236
251
1202
5o
510
101
129
13
106
150
52
4i
62
3i
28
!9
42
7
13
62
L
62
4
5
193
104
14
3
9
24
29
5
37
45
123
97
81
m
578
39
227
30
14
207
157
1
1294
Dairy
co-operative
societies
on 1st. July
1890 1901 1909
16
6
16
3o
82
72
4i
96
192
221
95
222
45
194
239
92
17
423
220
<>:
2189
27
30
23
39
29
26
26
139
91
28
12
7
477
639
72
88
255
104
68
44
178
163
271
93
35
226
1197
[158
160
2
139
29
80
1 1
10
4
70
5
4
5
2245
Other
co-operative
societies
in existence
on 1st. July
83
Il6
177
l85
86
in
253
228
343
99
44
229
1956
451
954
26
298
7i
38
129
28
12
59
S6
7
3
*3
6
4
35
3279
69
TOT
1901 1909
45
46
67
42
105
26
47
13
7i
46
58
147
714
117
17
134
19
14
8
22
11
6
4
36
9
4
5
4
1008
2338
PRESENT STATE OF AGRICULTURAL CO-OPERATION
33
4.
Distribution of the agricultural co-operative societies in different federations.
A. — Societies belonging to the General Federation of Agricultural
Co-operative Societies of the German Empire,
According to statistics of the 31st. December 1909 this Federation
comprises 41 local federations having their seats in the towns indicated in
the following table in which they are divided in categories:
Seat of regional
Federations
2
3
4 I 5 1 6
7
8
Co-operative societies
.C.2
■b -a
"3
.♦!
■S rt
>.
■a
Total
%£
s
H
ri
-*
>
°
sa
3
Observations
Insterburg
Wormditt
Koenigsberg
Neumark
Danzig
Berlin I
Berlin II
Stettin I
Stettin II
Posen I
Posen II
Breslau I
Breslau II (Neisse)
Breslau III
Halle un S.
Erfurt
Kiel
Hanover
Miinster in W. I
Munster in W. II .
Cassel I
Cassel II . .
1872
1889
1905
1890
I9°5
1894
1905
1892
1890
1890
1894
1890
1905
1889
1905
1884
1889
1889
i9°5
70
294
264
471
472
362
181
722
3L3
460
616
43»
324
447
18
43
6
94
180
533 200
68
382
17
36
49
40
46
122
14
24
38
L3
43
2 54
35
68
307
! 95
is
17
5
60
70
28
67
63
62
27
43
144
21
40
329
3
45
40
73
339
43
376
59°
552
490
122
420
282
826
428
547
1059
5^i
528
1266
100
780
95
418
Branch of Neu-
wied since 1894.
Branch of Neu-
wied since 1895.
Branch of Neu-
wied since 1895.
Branch of Ncu-
wied since 1899.
Branch of Xeu-
\ried since 1895.
Branch of Neu-
wied since 1S95.
Branch of Neu-
wied since 1895.
34
GERMANY
Scat of regional
Federations
2
3 1 4 1 5 1 6 1 7
3
G
_o
,*> a
O
Co-operative societies
fotal
-5
1§-
"O
o
( Observations
Wiesbaden
Frankfort on Main.
Bonn
Cologne
Coblentz
Munich
Nuremberg
Landau. .
Ludwicshafen,
Dresden
Karlsruhe. . . .
Darmstadt . . .
Rostock
Oldenburg. . . .
Brunswick . . .
Strassbnrg I. .
Strassburg II .
Strassburg III
Windhoek in the
German Colony of
S. W. Africa. .
Central co-operative
societies directly be-
longing to the Im-
perial Federation. .
Total.
i
1905
1889
1 891
I9°5
1S93
1905
1882
1 89 1
I905
1891
1882
1S7
1889
1897
ï9°5
1903
1900
1905
1907
2
126
7i
2
14
215
I
180
6
3
3i
221
2
"3
146
122
68
451
0
545
75
69
64
755:
I
395
6
14
23
439
I
2232
212
iS
2463
I
i"7
2
i6
20
516
2
138
19
425
J
246
4
1
36
291
2
236
83
21
7i
4L3
I
2
659
14
24
700
3
405
168
29
55
660
1
32
IOO
30
163
3
57
86
35
18
199
153
2
19
9
183
1
126
1
23
i/
5
150
23
2
1
450
1
6
16
10
478
8
5
5
73
12738
2167
1992
1663
18633
Branch of Xeu-
wied since 1895.
Branch of Ncu-
wied since 1899.
Branch of Neu-
wied since 1895.
Branch of Neu-
wied since 1895.
Foimerly united
with that of Er-
furt.
Branch of Neu-
wied since 1895.
PRESENT STATE OF AGRICULTURAL CO-OPERATION
35
5.
Distribution of the Agricultural Co-operative Societies
in different Federations, {continued)
Federations not belonging to the General Federation of the F,uipire
existing on the 31st. December igo8.
I
2
3 I 4 1 5 1 6
7
Title of Federations
Seat
Co-operative societies
Total
-3
V
u
0
u
t2
>
J .2
"0 "
0 3
V
0
1) Federation of the Rural
Banks of the Grand-Duchy
of Baden
Karlsruhe
401
401
2) Federation of the Agricul-
tural Co-operative Societies
of Wurtemburg
Stuttgart
1122
I
2l6
44
1383
3) Federation of Treves for the
inspection of the accounts
of the agricultural co-oper-
ative Societies existing in
the Rhenish Provinces in the
Principality ot Birkenfeld
and in Alsace-Lorraine . .
Treves
350
18
368
4) Federation for the inspec-
tion of accounts of the Con-
federation of Agriculturists
(B. d. L.)
Berlin
100
33
35
168
5) Federation for the inspection
of accounts of dairies in the
Provinces of Brandeuburg
Pomerania, Saxony and in
the Grand duchies of Meck-
Prenzlau
66
66
6) Federation of the dairies
of Western Holstein
Hohenwestadt
61
61
7) Federation of the agricul-
tural co-operative societies
of the county of Hildesheim
and the district of Burgdorf
Hildesheim
27
27
Total. . .
8) Federation of the urban and
1973
34
405
62
2474
rural agric. co-operative so-
cieties of Posen and West-
Posen
142
14
19
1/5
(1) These last figures refe
r to the year 19
35-
36
GERMANY
Business of the Co-operative Societies.
We give information in regard to the business of co-operative socie-
ties belonging to the Federation of the Empire, as well as of those which
do not belong to it.
A. — Rural Banks.
Number of Loan and Savings Banks
Number of members
Total Business done
Working capital
Net profit
Shares paid-up wholly or in part by
members
Reserve
Credits to members (Loans)
Credits to members (Current ac-
counts)
Deposits
Towards the end of the year
1892
1902
1908
463
4,343
13,675
5L55I
319.483
1,293,993
marks
marks
marks
87,748,226
746,748,419
4,198,350,741
48,486,329
337,424,136
1,889,176,293
35L733
2,093,34s
6,616,239
2,173,596
9,387,061
27,706,491
1,302,820
7,436,223
49,361,508
—
—
1,015,850,818
—
—
4I5.904,922
—
—
(1)1,398,633,590
(1) This figure should be much larger, but the data of the Federation of Treves
are entirely wanting and those of Wurtemburg are incomplete.
B. — Co-operative Societies for Collective Purchase.
Number of co-operative societies. . .
Towards the end of the year
1892 1902 1908
420
32,192
3,92I>957
161,099
360,950
3X7,943
1,112
108,329
34,583,004
15,044,387
598,970
1,160,618
L545,786
2,396,877
1,970
220,728
17,425,114
101,038,577
79>I39>I53
2,138,630
3,789,794
5,270,072
9,261,064
Quantity of produce bought, cent-
ners) (1)
Value of produce bought, in Marks.
Working capital in Marks
Profit in Marks
Registered value of goods belonging
to societies in Marks (lands, hou-
ses, machines)
(1) Centner = 50 Kg.
PRESENT STATE OF AGRICULTURAL CO-OPERATION
37
6.
Business of the Cooperative Societies, {continued)
C. — Co-operative Dairy Societies.
Number of dairy societies. . . .
Number of members
Quantity of milk produced in Kg.
Quantity of milk sold in Kg. .
Quantity of butter sold in Kg. .
Price obtained for total dairy
Price paid for milk supplied. .
Expenses of management and
Transfers
Towards the end of the year
1892 1902 1908
288
12,384
252,954,433
Marks
I-4.57I.1 13
63L057
2,482,613
954,985
11,962,635
891
81,172
1,070,203,505
71,838,075
52,548,632
Marks
107,229,448
15,478,100
40,023,327
2,575.410
4,023,199
6,487.703
30,061,580
2,138
213,297
2,224,556,452
131,921,459
80,505,464
Marks
229,443,345
186,815,202
19,689,785
3.438,675
81,260,651
4,981,463
6,873,264
14,127,810
52,881,029
Working capital
Net profit
Reserve
Registered value of goods be-
longing to the societies (lands,
houses, machines)
Development of the Central Agricultural Banks.
The total amount of business done in the years 1894, 1900, 1908
was as follows:
1894 37,447,041 Marks
1900 1,387,467,644 »
1908 5,81 1,044,140 »
1909 6,537,075,959
Business done with members either on current account or in the form
of loans granted on condition of repayment at any date, was for the
years 1893, 1900, 1908 as follows:
1893 17,504,694 Marks
1900 344,945,957
1908 1,651,333.448 »
1909 1,931,821,997 »
4.
38 GERMANY
The working capital (uninvested) was:
1893 14,369,214 Marks
1900 115,772,690 »
1908 331,842,004 »
I9°9 371,997.675 »
In these sums the working capital belonging to the central banks
(paid-up shares and reserve) amounted to:
1893 1,588,496 Marks
1900 9,060,866 »
1908 3S.343-070 »
1909 40,117,050 >
GERMANY
40
1909.
II
1 13
T4
IS
16
.1
anks
Deposits made by members
Due
u
13
U
O
to the
serves
On current
In loans
revocable upon
Prussian Bank
for
ts pritate persons
or
•H
account
notice
Co-operative
bodies corporate
£
3
a
Societies
Z
Marks
in Marks
in Marks
in Marks
in Marks
43.277
711.495
531.509
I
64,668
688.894
890,270
2
*7,957
45,2o6
286,275
3
94,356
2,245,452
2,874,728
4
141,669
9,697,876
223,450
5
30,926
5.052
974,771
514,698
6
219,854
8,920,297
7,139,400
42,271
7
168,701
4,136,817
3,290,700
829,167
499,224
8
290,042
150,457
5,495,304
9
293.801
7,723,203
8,393,341
405,793
10
90.500
5,587,769
1,356,091
1,633,760
1 1
60,337
II3,8o8
ï>593,293
12
374,641
14,003,608
6,713,588
13
14,775
8l,6l6
197,194
14
152,084
3,OI2:765
1,408,330
75:480
2,172,445
15
88,624
6,151,476
1,401,945
140,559
16
203,589
9,214,813
5,388,000
I,363,344
844
17
11,000
370,565
, .
53,851
18
68,587
129,400
46,777
850,302
19
55,921
502,825
588,000
512,856
488,464
20
[50,000
I,594,6o2
1,412,223
10,000
2 1
22
"4,374
10,533,583
4,511,000
23
18,028
542,471
24
515,867
15,131,471
16,535,800
.
809,283
25
87.143
5,744,661
1,699,800
261,331
26
2,488
I8J38
253,219
27
coo,oco
703
680,430
28
107,340
5.499» Ï36
3,775,238
29
37,130
291,285
1,794,112
3o
(.00,000
6,556,387
4,101,800
1,008,419
3i
9.500
130,646
480,765
100,000
32
38,128
1,024,488
1,069,644
, .
33
3o,476
1,384,134
1,039,028
179,401
34
10,717
107,238
1,000
35
36
37
38
116,500
121,510,466
65,364,712
7,653,738
25,622,538
8,602
12,416
5,000
3,269,991
6,652,422
••
2,699-414
1,626,770
29,948,722
219,187
(1) 124,999,644
685
251,410
(1)72,268,544
.42,518
7,653.738
osits mac
le by members) m
ust be calculate
d as fo
lions :
: : RATION
Financial position of the Central Bonks ol the fcJcrslion ol the Empire on the 3 111 December 1909.
j the Territorial Central
Bank-
tire Societies of tl
satadt (Reichsgenosseaschaftsbankj
: «en liauk of Ncuvricd (Zentral-
.' include the figures of the Hank
■ i i !-• and i ; (thai ■ Ihe den - ■ - madi
h rcnl i 14,999,644 M.
'" loan 72,368,544
...
i '7'i-',;7ls: ■ M
42
GERMANY
4
5
6
7
8
9
io
1 1
12
i;
14
15
16
17
18
19
2 :
-74
25
26
27
2l
29
3°
31
32
33
34
35
36
9. Expenses of Management and Rates
Headquarters of the Central Bank
Expenses of management for 1909
In Marks
Wormditt
Kônigsberg
Neumark
Dânzig
Berlin I
Berlin II
Stettin
Posen I
Posen II
Breslau I
Breslau 11 (^'eis^e)
Breslau 111
Halle a S
Erfurt
Kiel
Hanover
Miinster en I. . . .
Cassel I . .
Cassel II
Wiesbaden
Frankfort on M.
Bonn
Cologne I
Cologne II. . . .
Munich
1 .andau
Nuremberg. . . .
Ludwigshafen .
Dresden
Karlsruhe
Darmstadt ....
Giistrow
Oldenburg ....
Strassburg I. . .
Strassburg II. .
Windhoek
1-36 belong to the Federation of the Empire
Bank of the Co-operative Societies of the Empire at Darm-
stadt (Reichsgenossenschaftsbank)
Central Loan Bank of Neuwied (Zentraldarlehenskasse) now
at Berlin
5.691
i5.967
2.323
26,400
35,673
6,300
67,644
37,364
56,272
56,882
35,594
11,144
60,060
507
33,32i
72,469
36,626
3,650
19,086
56,869
3,68o
74»569
29,736
2,898
5,529
29,800
5,875
106,925
1,562
9,961
i7,9I5
2,000
21,337
980,960
178,127
1,436,000
%
of total
business done
(outgoings
and incomings)
o. 017 j
o. 012 I
o. 013
o. 017
o. 037 '
o. 035
o. 015 '
o. 018 j
o. 022 j
o. 027 :
o. 045 j
o. 070 J
o. 014I
o. 005]
o. 010
o. 021
O. OIO
o. 092
o. 045
o. 018
o. 024
o. 013
o. 040
0.047
o. 031
o. 02 Ï
0.031
o. 052
o. 017
0.044
o. 038
o. 107
o. 020
o. 021
o. 018
PRESENT STATE OF AGRICULTURAL CO-OPERATION
of Interest of the Central Banks.
5
6
7
8
9
xo
1 1
•a
0
Rates of I
nterest at the beginning of 1909
Rates of
interest at the en
d of 1909
Commission
Commission
■g
On deposits
On loans
(per annum)
On deposits
On loans
(per a n n u m)
S
2
3 'A-
4-4 %
4
4 7.
1 7«
1
4-4 'A
4 7-5 7;
.1
4 7.-5-5 7s
2
3
6
1 1
to
3
43A
7,o
3
4 V.
6
7x0
3 7.
4 7,
7,o
4
4
4 7,
7.0
3-6
4-2
7,o
5
43A
43A
7i.
4
5 ",-6
» 7c
6
3 'A-4 V,
4 74-5 74
! -iV«
3 74-4-4 7*
4 7*"5
7.-I
7
4-4 V*
4 7.-5 7.
7.0
4-4 'A
4 \ -5
740
8
4-4 Vi
5 7i
/10
4
4 7.-5
7x0
9
3 7.
4-4 7.
7»
3 7.-4
4-4 ' rS
7,0
10
3 V,
4-4 7i
7,o
3 74-4
4-4 7,
7,o
11
3 3A"4
4 7.-474
3 7.
4 7.
7,o
12
4 V,
5-5 7,
Vxo
3 7.
4 7.
7,o
13
4
5
3 3A
14
3 7.
5
3 7,
5
15
5 74
1
3 7.
4 7,
16
4
5
7,o
3 7.
J
7',o
17
3 7.-3 ; ,
3 7,-4%
7,0-7,
4 74
7,o
18
1 y.2 % above
State Bank
rate of discount
7,o
4
4 7*-4 '
7,o
!9
3 V*
4 7.
7,o
3 74
4 7.
7,o
20
4
6
7,o
21
3-4
4-4 3A
7,o
3 7.-3 7*
4-4' 74
7',o
22
4- 2-4. 5
43A
7.o
3 74-4 7*
A. '/
4 /4
7.0
23
3 3A-4
4 7.-5
3 7,-4
5
24
38A-4V*
4 7,
J /4 5 /.
4
25
3 V»
4
V.
3 7*"4
4 74
V.
26
4-4 7.
< 7--6
27
4-4 Vi
6 7*
7.0
4
5
7»
28
4
5
7.
3 3A
4 74
7.7oo
29
4 74-4V2
4 7.
4-4 7*
4 7.
3°
4-4 7a
5
7',o
4
5
7i6
3i
3-4
4 "
3-4
4 74
32
3-4 7.
5
7,
4-4 7.
5
7«
33
3 7*"33A
4-4 7.
7,o
0 /.-3 /4
4 7.
7,o
34
0 3/
J /4
5 74
0 3/
O M
47.
35
2-3
8
7.-7.
36
3-3 %
3 7,-4-5
Vi Voo
37
374-4 7*
4 7,-5
7,o
3 7-3 7*
474-4 711
7,o
3S
44
GERMANY
ÎO.
Comparative table of the number and financial position
of the Central Savings Banks for the years 1895-1909.
I
2
G
V tr,
'tt
°l
0
3
4
5
6
7
s
1
Year
0 ■£;
No. of
Shares
Sum total
guaranteed
by limited
liability
of
members
Total business
of
the year
(outgoings
and incomings)
Capital
belonging
to Banks
Profits
2
0
Marks
Marks
Marks
Marks
l895
10
I,2l6
6,803
7,368,000
93,901,495
728,523
17,728
1896
12
2,214
15,510
21,361,000
192,184,711
1,014,271
51,692
1S97
17
3.194
28,919
42,420,000
287,286,278
1,367,725
I 10,469
1898
20
4,927
37,832
55,176,500
599,84 5,765
1,792.942
77,Sio
!899
20
5,2iS
44,819
65,768,000
667,220,699
2,055,957
60,269
1900
21
5,743
54,378
80,148,500
859,026,461
2,865,999
211,209
1901
21
6,060
64,760
99,575>500
1,086,429,377
4,265,999
421,269
1902
23
7,544
75,522
124,656,500
1,623,490,595
7,271,000
583,106
I9°3
22
7,997
79,761
I4I,l68,000
1,782,225,299
9,443,862
623,219
1904
23
8,514
89,931
157,200,000
2,190,645,529
10,615,92e
821,090
1905
35
9,788
102,456
203,945,500
2,857,198,285
14,007,532
1,113,902
1906
35
9,633
130,445
204,578,000
3,148,842,089
17,866,160
1,118,730
1907
35
10,040
135,307
231,259,500
3,754,541,587
19,676,059
1,108,515
1908
35
10,549
149,682
251,489,500
4,343,489,123
22,873,162
1,639,035
1909
36
10,987
155,337
266,830,500
4,913,786,468
25,815,032
1,775.593
GERMANY
46
16
17
18
*9
20 21
22
RATE
DATE
of payment
QUANTITY
of produce
bought
SELLING
price received
SALE
of agricultural produce
V
•0
0
)f interest
an credits
Cereals
and
potatoes
Value
0
in centners *
in Marks
in centners *
in Marks
0 above state
i of discount
3 months
1
674,064
1,842,265
27,326
107,169
I
ip to 6%
4 7»%
2
5
Various
1,297,812
2,847,862
21,75°
168,708
3
4 7,-5
Various
j 7,218,536
12,970.213
512,016
4,790,138
4
(UCU1 HK\! CO OPERATIOIS
Central co -operative societies for collcttlve purchase bclon^ln^ to the Federation of the Empire.
(3 1 si I )ecomber 1 gog)
SEAT
oi Central GtvopetmtH
Mehlsack
Berlin, Central Fed. of Co-op. Socs..
for Sale and Purchase
Berlin, Central Coop. Soc. . . .
Stettin
Posai
Posen, German Storage Co-op. Soc.
Breslau I
Breslau II
Halle .
Kiel
Osnabrùck
Hanover
Munster, Central Co-op. Soc. . .
Wiesbaden
Bonn
Cologne
Munich (Bavaria)
Regensburg (Id.)
Nenstadt an Haardt ......
Dxeaden ...
Karlsruhe
Darmstadt
Friedberg (Hesse)
Oldenburg . . . .
btras^burg .
Federation of the Empire. . .
Central Loan Bank for Germany at
Berlin for 1908
Totals, for 1907 .
• 1905 .
*
* 1895 .
» » 1 890 .
• i entn
871
Sou
S93
roi \
„ I v .1 m v
guaranteed
in Mark*
H.11 i\.;
1,01m i, 232. 342
3S
162
228
492
269
735
256
72
481
484
85
I9O
631
2,157
796
152
290
700
140
38
65
23
10,125
9,646
9,15*
8,9'9j
0,719
1.580
364I
367.000
3,717,000
4,240,000
789,000
975,000
969,000
2,154,000
1,012,000
472,000
3,271.000
942,000
104,000
448,000
2,360,000
6,089,000
919,100
1,600,000
1,516,000
105,500
33,670,60c
8,581,000
31,489,400
26,903,000
27,845,000
B,66o,5oo
1,385,989
4,819,541
3.713.824
929,618
2,727,766
2,879.468
1,733.720
2,937,799
2,110,389
431,945
6,415,511
3,390,667
82,751
686,253
1,854.266
4,125,144
6,026,186
503,582
1,395,799
1,212,10:
238,325
273,977
553,947
1,783.02
, 11 m 1
WORKING I in'
belonging to the CCntn]
i lo'Operati .
,
50,491,100
24,934,595
2,047,304
381,596
31,5^51305
27,550,34
■ 6,772,710
7,076,091
503,068 170,023
n,88o
222,708
492,996
25,853
245,620
267,904
796,986
229,098
7.982
940,524
640,334
2,696
247,548
659,862
1.352,76
24,078
426,376
16,825
66,394
22,113
350.658
7.3' 5
2,677,046
1,289,858
9.153
34JOO
1,063,592
13.254
422.C
70,1,04
877,026
1,117,672
692,925
231,293
226,403
.323,972
19,001
122,731
68,000
592,190
7,313,827
231,068
1,863,79!
63,600
139,506
600,000
49S,ooo
189,094
323.100
99,040
46,800
654,200
9.630
5.15c
1 1,200
244,200
1,217,800
918,900
52,154
76,600
56,007
20,962
[4,800
44,000
7,4 1",3°7
8,581,000
1,37,, 5,476,61 ■
4,873,801 4,498,788
2,977.574 a,476,9I7
955,322
,,, 1
3.13
.'■ ■
282,0131
* 532,252;
99,387!
* 697,357
* 34,413
I
* 83,089
* 98,352]!
35,449;
,9l8..|
* 240,337 I
100,385
* 80,000
61,408
* 53,738
1,699
* 1,699
94.o6
* 369,64
7,504
* 5,466
55,°oo
* 70,000
69,500
* 44,500
297.545
* 318,322
223,665
♦488,104
70,1 9
J6,ioo
* 37.100
155,000
41,000
* -ISA
9,500
17,38
42,32
23,039 97i*63
♦3,490,54s
193,676
[,958,814
745.765
2,698,980
! I
I, Si, I..14.1
866,838
292,240
1,672,611
159.79
201,21
4.623,752
953,371
21,985
309,626
426,016
412,899
707,876
60,464
221,296
97,691
113,378
31.005
150,031
311,7s.,
I . I -S, |,|i,
595.107
69,145
1.821,172
42,646
74.395
1,039,688
1,878,578
273,867
1 ,016,64 ;
828,267
3M.554
10,034.512
1,626,770
15,4 I"' !s:
8,553.763
8,512,602
1,306,316
102,545
205,127
825,031
48,234
188,594
91,697
59,086
223,518
108,778
23,023
no,753
«43,536
14,459
H5,534
65.207
[59,180
22,621
8i,397
381.150
155.940
2,07s, 070
[,436,000
2,162,897
,i ...
; 1
of infarct
DATE
of payment
l(
QUANT1T.
SELLING
in Hark.
Con
aad
a Mart.
3-39
■5
I % above state
rate of discount
up to 6%
4 '/.%
5
Various
5'A
5
1 % above
Bank rate of dis.
5
5-5 ' ',
5-6
5
5-6
5
5
Various
5
4 s/.
5
Various
4 'A-4 'A
3 months
Various
Various
Varions
20 days
30 days
30 days
3 months
J4-2[ days
14 days
30 days
[4 days
30 days
I, 3, 6 months
Various
30 days
Various
30 days
4 months
30 days
3 months
(-6 months
4 weeks
4 wesks
; months
674,064
1,297,812
7,218.536
5:5 IO.427
2,026,206
2.871,168
4,474,216
2,138,620
3,528,861
1,321,876
811,570
2.2lS,742
3.353.S46
177.890
1,374,59
2,796,839
I.S72.200
610,930
1.702,7 [4
534.400
200,032
944,416
50.41 1.04S
«>'
:i'>
■,153,178
1,842.265 2- 321 107,169
2,847,862
12.970.2131
13,656,384
2,925,328
8,611,367
7,934,541
2,844,856
14.960,326
3,917,095
2,264,150
9,302,024
12,910.200
493-43s
4,669,123
5,979,000
1,670,200
c4.u-.544
,.102.,
020.040
■
21.750
2,566^36
147,230
1,243,000
63,925
124,762
I
662,526
112,991
107 400
-
-
260.000
2,760
1.554
168,708
4,790,138
23,559.594
1,253,695
10,960,240
1,109,302
3-18
-
-
2,500.000
\ ; : 5 -
. 0*1
I t2 4-t^
81,147,!
29,939.
14. 074-,
4.I04
•
7-
PRESENT STATE OF AGRICULTURAL CO-OPERATION
47
aap^o -£i
NO T)-t^O O NO tOMNO
on « no nmoN\o ^-0_
On >-T o" CO in cô " O 00
MN O " N >t ^ h
IT! CO N O
tJ- « 00 w
On O oo r-»
f^ in O in
C) O no i-i
CitOO 11
r-f t^ t-^ t-^
0\0 co O no t^-O r-»t^O
N ttOO O r^ co O cono r—
no i-i Tt-r^O « On ■**• -^
On CO On no" Tp « m"^om5"
N 00 O O On « o
■* Tj" O ■* lO lO
co Tj- in in
O "*oo to
rt- COOO r--
o so no_no
rC of CO O
-^- U-l M ON
00 00 M o
M in NO 00
CO
nOnOOONhO" cOOO
«inNO+MMOM»
h <t O h O <J>M ON>-i
ON rf CO of Off NO « no" •<*■
NO'O'-irt-'OOOl^
ON m OO CO ^ i-i M
O COOO O
m no O e»
w 01 CO CO
NO m CO CI i-i
0) N Tf r}-
N ON O
O >-o M co On
N uiO
O t~- o> O «
NO n
O 00 COOO VO
r- o
■* t-~ >-i t~- CO
ON00 O N t--
ON ^OO CO Tj"
On CO in in
00 >t « o
^ *" "t "t
oo" oo" c-Cno
•i 00 CO in
ON -si- O co
ttao nn
NO in 00 o n + N N
►-■ oo co O r^oo no m
r- oo 0_ no_ « on «
m' tô in h ^o mo
moo oo t— "
M ■* t-^ rj- co
in t-C co co
h NNO^
in On N O
^- t^X H
tF o od ef
>-l lOOO CO
inifi h in
t-'Ht--.OOOC>)t-~'Oi-ito no in in no
y; o O m r- co no co co — *- t~» O
" NO O O <N O CO « N M nO_ O^ ■*
m" m' in tô tô ■* r» oo" Ô <f N m «
co O r- co On m co hio m^
n OJ O O intox O
w" od of of w
'5 . Ï
u i;
Ph Ph
o o
ô ô .
e* g
Jo .a -5 <u
^ S
p- S -^ -
Oh kgl
.£ •" U
SHOO
o o ■*■
«Ni"
«O « O
m On On
^ 0 ■*
m M to
O On CT^
no" On •*£
t~NO O
tJ- iri 00
oo Nin
oo O oo
t^ i-i n
oo oo"no"
ONOO NO
•3- r-oo
rf M w~
-i-
o
o
N
N
00
o
■*
ON
Tf
o
r^oo
in
oo
NO
o
f» t-^oo
On O -t
in rl- co
«" Ôri
intoin
On O m
M ^\o
T! r. '■■ P
■=■ .5
rO -a
S £
i— o y «
S J
rt 5j rt rt ÙÎ
ZH
0
H - - >-.
w -g ô 5
r- c. 2 .2
~ U r. '-
ri £
—i -r- ^; /-
w M to t m-C r- OC Cn O
i; -i S
"5,-- &
-3 £
2 o
S
- Co-operative Land Credit Societies in Germany
The « Landschaften » and « Ritterschaften ».
Authorities :
Statistisches Jahrbuch f. d. Preussischen Slaat 1909. (Statistical Year Book for the State
of Prussia, içoç).
Hermes: Landschaften in the Bandvorterbuch der Staatswissenschaften, published by J.
Courad elc., vol. V.
V. d. Goltz : Landschaften in the W&rterbuch der Volksunrtschaft, published by Elster,
vol. II.
A. Meitzen und F. Grossm \NN : Der Boden u. die landwirtschaftlichen Verhàltnisse d.
Preussischen Staates. Bd. VI. (Land and Agricultural conditions of Pruvsia).
Dr. Felix Hecht : Die Landschaften und landschaftlichen Kreditinstitute in Deutschland
1 90S. (The Landschaften and kindred Lnstitutions in Germany).
M. Weyermann : Zur Geschichte des Immobiliarkreditwesens in Preussen, 1910. (Contribution
to the History of Credit on Security of Real Estate in Prussia).
Reports of the Central Landschaft and of the different Landschaften.
MENTZEL und V. Lengerke's Landwirtschaftlicher Hilts und Schreibkalender, 1910, vol. II.
(Farmers' Kalendcr and Account Book).
Bernhard Brockhage : Einiges zur Statistik der landschaftlichen Pfandbriefe in Jahr-
buch fur Gesetzgebung, Venvaltung und Volkswirtschaft im D. Reich, 1910. (Some
Statistics of the Bonds of the Landschaften).
Besides the numerous co-operative societies of which the preceding article
gives a summary, there is another very characteristic form of co-operation
in Germany, that of the Landschaften and Ritterschaften, co-operative in-
stitutions, organized generally for a province or some other administrative
unit. Their object is to obtain for their members the credit they require
on their land, by means of bonds guaranteed by the landowners of the
province collectively. The foundation of the first of these German insti-
tutions goes back to the end of the eighteenth century. There are now 25.
It is in Prussia and above all in the five Eastern provinces, the ancient
nucleus of the Monarchy, that they have always flourished best.
Even to-day, 18 are in Prussia (10 being in the five Eastern provinces),
with in 1908-909 bonds issued to the total amount of 1,633,135,940 marks (1).
(i) Not counling the new Ins'.itule of Credit for Brandenburg which only issues
bonds of the Central Landschaft,
§6 GERMAN \
This is an evident proof of the usefulness and of the vitality of this
class of co-operation. The reader will have an idea of the general impor-
tance of these Landschaften and Ritterschaften, when he learns that the
total of these bonds in circulation, issued by 15 Landschaften in Prussia,
already amounted to 2,507,164,675 marks towards the end of 1906 (1).
On the other hand, the total amount of these bonds issued by other German
institutions, more or less of the same type, was 101,998,100 marks at the
same date
In other terms, this form of co-operation furnished German agricul
ture, in 1906, with a total of loans on mortgage of more than 3,147,161,977
marks. This is evidently a considerable sum, which it would not have been
easy to obtain from the private and purely capitalist banks, and above all
at so iow a rate of interest, for these societies are satisfied with an interest
which does not generally exceed 3 % to 4 %.
What distinguishes the majority of these societies from the other credit
organisations mentioned, and what obliges us to treat them separately, is
the form they assume in law. With the exception of the National Society
of Credit on Mortage, of Berlin, and the Bavarian Agricultural Bank of
Munich, they are not subject to the provisions of the law relating to co-
operative societies, but are governed by special laws ot the State in which
they carry on their business. Nor are they in point of law, although there
may be some doubt in a few cases, corporate bodies, but public.
A. — Prussia.
§ 1. — Co-operatiive hand-credit Societies for Large Estates.
In Germany, the first of these societies was founded in Prussian Si-
lesia. After the Seven Years' War (4756-63), the great military king
and administrator, Frederick II of Prussia, saw that this province, for-
merly rich and flourishing, was now in a deplorable condition. The con-
tinual wars, the successive alterations of the currency, and the high price
of land, followed by an alarming fall in its price, had almost ruined the
landowners and it is well known that at that date, the majority of them
belonged tu the nobility.
The king and his ministers tried to find remedies for this economic
situation, but the effects of these were too limited, seeing the extent of
the evil.
(1) We do not include, in this number of 15, the three co-operative land-credit societies
in Hanover, for they do not issue bonds, but borrow collectively and directly the funds
they need.
CO-OPERATIVE LAND CREDIT SOCIETIES 51
At this moment (1767) a Berlin tradesman, Biiring, presented to the
King a scheme for an adminstrative and financial innovation, from which he
hoped the best resnlts. It was based upon the fact that it is the soil
itself which represents the greatest part of the nation's wealth. He showed
that the land is an asset, and that to obtain for the farmer the credit he
required, it was enough to give this asset currency, according to the
expression of the day. It was, in fact, an anticipation of the fundamental
principle underlying the " assignats " which he wished to put in practice
in favour of the proprietors of the " noble " estates. To surround these
new mortgage-bonds with sufficient guarantees and also to gain the con-
fidence of the capitalists, he depended on the principle of co-operation,
and proposed to the King to combine the noble proprietors of Silesia in
a compulsory co-operative society in which, in exchange for the duties they
would have to fulfil, they should be granted the enjoyment of certain
privileges.
This scheme of Buring's, at first rejected by the minister von Hagen
was accepted in its entirety in the Royal Decree of 29th. August, 1769.
The regulation of 9th. July, 1770 combined in compulsory co-operative so-
cieties the noble landowners of each principality of Silesia. The union of
these societies formed the Generallandschaft of Silesia.
The success obtained by this system was more than satisfactory. The
Generallandschaft of Silesia has now been in existence for 140 years, and
during that time its energy has permitted it to overcome and almost to
avoid the difficulties which generally arise in enterprises of this nature
where the interests of the Stale and those of individuals have to be recon-
ciled. It has been able also to obtain for its members sufficient credit, and
that always at a rate of interest far lower than that paid in countries and
districts where this system of co-operation does not yet exist.
Encouraged by these results, several other provinces soon followed the
example of Silesia.
On the 15th. June, 1777, the " Kur-und Neumarkische Landschaft "
for the nobility of the province of Brandenburg was created by royal
charter.
Other charters established one in each ol the following provinces : in
Pomerania, on the 13th. March 1781: in West Prussia, on the 19th. April
1787 and in East Prussia on the 16th. February 1788.
In 1 82 1 the Landschaft of Posen was founded. It was, however, dis-
solved in 1877 and the " New Association of Credit " (founded in 1857)
took its place.
These Landschaften to which the title of " old-established " is given to
distinguish them from the others, have all a semi-official character. On
the one hand, the inspection of their business is conducted by the State,
which generally entrusts it, in the first instance, to the president or prefect
52 GERMANY
of the province, and secondly to the Prussian Minister of Agriculture. On
the other hand, they possess certain prerogatives, reserved to the State, as
for example in case of non-payment, they have the right to proceed to
the administration of the estate, or to compulsory sale by auction, without
recourse to the Law courts.
The employees of the Landschaften are indirect employees of the
State and generally they have authority to sign certain public documents.
These Landschaften have constitutions varying considerably from each
other, being adapted to the special needs of their province or to those of
the moment of their foundation. They have, however, this in common,
that each has a Committee of Management ( Generallandschafts oder
Hauptritterschaftsdirektion) and General Assembly (Repràsentantenkol-
legium) of landowners. The syndics, that is to say, the members of
the Committee of Management having legal knowledge, receive pay. The
other members of the Committee and of the General Assembly are land-
owners who receive only an annual indemnity corresponding to their
travelling and incidental expenses.
Four of the five old-established Landschaften, those of Silesia, of Bran-
denburg, of Pomerania, and of West Prussia, are decentralized. In other
words, they are composed each of several co-operative societies (as in Si-
lesia the Furstentumslandschaften^ or of several very independent admi-
nistrative sections. In Silesia each of these co-operative societies disposes
of a separate fund and the engagements undertaken by them are for this
season covered by a double guarantee, first by the society of the principa-
lity and then Landschaft of the province.
The foundation of these 5 institutes is thus a direct emanation of Go-
vernmental authority. The other Prussian societies for credit on land of
great estates must be studied separately.
First of all, it is well to have before one a chronological list of the
institutes created by the provinces and the administrative districts, in
order to have a general idea of them.
Afterwards we shall give some account of the "Bavarian Agricultural
Bank ", and of the " National Society of Credit on Mortgage " of Berlin,
the only Prussian institution of this kind which owes its origin exclusively
to private initiative.
The hrst and oldest of the societies of which we have to speak here,
are the three institutes of Hanover, which were founded before the union
of Hanover with Prussia. They differ very much from the other types of
Prussian societies. However they are, in the same way, based upon the
co-operative principle and must consequently be numbered with the other
Landschaften :
1) The Credit Institute for the Landed Gentry of Celle (for the
principality of Luneburg) founded 16th February 1790;
CO-OPERATIVE LAND CREDIT SOCIETIES 53
2) The Credit Association for the Landed Gentry of Hanover (for
the principalities of Kalenburg, of Gôttingen, of Grubenlagen and of Hil-
desheim) founded the 5th. August 1825;
3) The Credit Association for the Landed Gentry of Bremen, at Stade
(for the principalities of Bremen, of Verden, and of the district of Hadeln)
founded on the 17th. January 1826.
After these there come:
4) The New Credit Association (since the 28th. June 1877, Land-
schaft for Posen) founded on the 13th. May 1857;
5) The Landschaftlicher Kreditverband (Credit Association) (Land-
schaft since 4th. April 1887) for the province of Saxony, founded 30th.
May 1864;
6) Credit Institution for Prussian Upper and Lower Lausitz at Gorlitz,
founded 30th. October 1865;
7) Landschaft of Westphalia, founded 15th. July 1877;
8) The Landsehaflliche Kreditverband (Credit Association) for
Schlesvvig-Holstein, founded nlh. January 1882;
9) Landschaft for Schleswig-Holstein, founded 13th May 1895.
Since these nine last-mentioned societies were creations not of the
State, but only of the provinces, they did not enjoy the legal advantages
enjoyed by the old-established Landschaften. Xot till the Prussian law of
3rd. August 1897 were their legal rights extended. This law also con-
ceded to all the Landschaften that should be founded before the 1st. January
1900, the privileges of forced administration of estates, of forced sales, and
even of the seizure of the moveable property of the debtor in case of an
estate already mortgaged having deteriorated. These privileges had, how-
ever, to be conceded by Royal Decree in each new case.
The same law recognized the bonds of the Landschaften as a trustee
investment.
When we consider the whole class of Landschaften we see that they
have in their organisation and in the management of their affairs certain
features in common. The total number of landlords of a district collectively
grant a loan to the proprietor applying for it, the object of the loan being
stated in detail in the application. He cannot be refused this demand.
His land serves as security to the Landschaft.
To be quite safe, and not to risk losses, the body of proprietors do not
grant loans exceeding a certain percentage of the value of the land, varying
with the provinces and according to the method of fixing the rate of in-
terest. As the body of landlords possess real estate of enormous value,
but have seldom large sums of money at their disposal, they have to get
from third parties the sums needed for loans to the landowner borrowing.
For that they have recourse indirectly to the capitalists, offering them,
as investments for their money, bonds issued by the collective group. In
54
GERMANY
order to render the negotiation of this paper easier for the lenders, spe-
cial banks have been instituted, in connection with the Landschaften, deal-
ing with this business, under the control of the society itself and without
any intention of making a profit. The profits go to the Landschaft as such.
Formerly it was the mortgaged land that served as security under a se-
condary security of the Landschaft. To-day it is not so any longer. The
capitalist who has bought the bond and is the real creditor of the borrowing
landowner has nothing to do with him. He receives^his interest from the
Landschaft and the whole of the estates of the province lorms his security.
This general security of the « Kreditverbundenen » (Credit Leagues)
did not suffice, however, for the Frederickian legislation. To protect
the legitimate interests of the creditors as well as those of the other gua-
rantors, a system, as perfect as it is complicated, was elaborated. Certainly
the precarious position of the agriculturists at that time justified it. We
summarise here its fundamental principles.
First, the value of each property in need of a loan had to be estimated
by competent employees of the Landschaft. Generally they contented
themselves with the valuation of the revenue made for the land tax and
they granted loans to the extent of 15 times this net revenue. Only in
exceptional cases, for example, when the proprietor wants to burden his
land beyond a certain degree, he must, even to-day, at his own expense,
get a special valuation made of the present worth of his land.
At first most of the Landschaften only gave mortgages for one half
of the estimated value. Now they generally go as far as to give them
for V3 of the value.
Land already burdened with other mortgages cannot receive any loan
from the society. The Landschaften however help proprietors when in order
to obtain a loan, they desire to pay off previous mortgages.
Except in the case of the three institutions of Hanover, the loans, as
already shown, are not granted in money, but in bonds.
The interest the debtor must pay the Landschaft is generally from
y2 to 1 % higher than what the Landschaft itself pays its creditors.
This difference serves to cover the expenses of administration, to con-
stitute special funds created in the interest of all the members of the society,
as well as for the creation of reserve funds and for the gradual extinction of
the debt.
The Landschaft generally renounces its right of calling up the money
it lends, but the debtor can always repay the money borrowed. Generally
this repayment takes place by gradual extinction, which is often even
obligatory for a certain proportion of the debt. The sums so repaid must
be considered as reserves in case of possible losses to be incurred.
Xow-a-days the tendency is to decrease these various securities. Per-
haps they are no longer necessary, The new Landschaften no longer have
CO-OPERATIVE LAND CREDIT SOCIETIES 55
the general guarantee. In the Mark and in Neuvorpommern, the secu-
rity is limited to the whole of the lands really mortgaged. In other
provinces there are special reserve funds or rather the obligation for the
proprietors to pay in case of need a certain fraction, generally from 5 to
10 %, of the sum borrowed. (We find also in these Landschaften the
principles of the co-operative society with unlimited guarantee and of the
co-operative society with limited guarantee). Modern institutions do not
seem partial to the unlimited guarantee and the economic and social
conditions of our days perhaps justify this aversion. But it was formerly
the only form that permitted the realization of the end proposed.
As to the public, the difference in these guarantees could not affect it.
It accepts the bonds of all these institutes with equal readiness, for the
form taken by the security offered does not affect their credit.
We here give some statistical data, borrowed from the voluminous
work of Doctor Hecht. They give a very good idea of the progress of
these Prussian institutions, and show at what a low rate of interest their
loans have been kept, in spite of all the wars that have taken place and all
the economic crises passed through during the long years of their activity.
56
GERMANY
I. — Total Circulatio?i oj Bonds issued\
I
;
3
4
5
6
7
8
'
Institute
Landschaft
of credit
for
the noble
Landschaft
Landschaft
Landschaft
Landschaft
New
Landschaf
of
estates
of
of
of
of
of
of the Kur
Silesia
und
l'omcrania
West Prussia
East Prussia
Posen
West Pruss
%i
Neumark
marks
marks
marks
marks
marks
marks
marks
1776
29,291.745
1786
46,184,865
I 1,050,650
1796
10,832,850
1806
76,899,817
11,490,750
28,198*425
1816
95-075-I55
14,245,200
25,648,425
30.330.300
30,041,700
1826
I 14,802,830
25,503,600
^0^48, 550
32,910,825
33,224,400
IS36
I22,6l7,620
35.952.78o
44,637,075
30.933.249
33,984,600
1846
10^,464,595
38,814,150
44,906,025
31,501,029
33,135,000
1856
1.52.509,565
39,814,180
48,037,425
lo,tl6,534
37- 572,900
1866
172,820,610
53,842,720
77,334-075
65.705,8l5
60,695,475
56,997,900
7.350,5>
1876
240,730,905
93.121,030
149,330,525
127,973,245
133.637,175
169,041,000
33.209,i:
1886
331,421,055
I59.939.090
212,671,500
155526,030
224,684,525
241,083,500
88,006,4] :
1896
473.389.430
197,404,160
231,814,275
144,781,565
314,988,925
261,450,400
108,536,6c ,
1906
586,385,475
191,463,060
255.378,550
127,618,295
412,637,275
307,140,900
172,412,9 5 ,
(»)
la the followin
g tables I-III.
the institutes c
f Hanover, the
credit associati
ii f( r the noble
estates of Po ii
CO-OPERATIVE LAND CREDIT SOCIETIES
57
Prussian (i) Landschaften 1776-IÇ06.
andschaft
:he province
»f Saxony
marks
Xew
Institute
of credit
of Brandenburg
marks
New
Landschaft
of
Pomerania
for small
estates
Landschaft
of
Westphalia
marks
*3
Landschaftli-
cher Kredit-
verband
(credit
association)
for
Schleswig-
Holstein
marks
Landschaft
of
Holstein
marks
Total
16
> « v es -w •-
3 o-o "O S
marks
1,660,425
7,902,450
37,131,675
89,616,575
150,577.700
786,650' 215,925
40,064.200! 1,029, 150J21, 370,900
114,496,000 6,295,15046,075,300
141,848,900 26,144.000:74,424,100
5,893,100
10,952,200
40,417,300
20,716,150
195,340,780
246,890,205
268,125,324
256,820,799
298,050,604
496,407,530
956,038,075
1,515,821,135
26,962,300
172,606,900
2,001,800,670 316,006,700
2,507,164,675 418,429,750
d the credit institution for Upper and Lower Lausitz are not taken into consi leration.
58
GERMANY
Amongst other things to be learnt from this table is the astonishing
increase of the debts on mortgage registered in the Landschaften books.
It is difficult for us to know whether before availing themselves of the
credit offered on such easy terms by the Landschaften, these properties
were already burdened with other debts, perhaps on less advantageous
conditions, and whether they have simply changed their creditors, or whether
their debt is of more recent origin. In any case we must not forget that
in the co-operative land-credit societies have in a certain measure encou-
II. — Amortisa-t
Land >i hafi
Silesia
3
Credil
Institut
for
tlie
Noble
Estates
of
the
Kur und Neumark I
Landschaft Landschaft
of of
Pomerania West Prussia
Landschaft
of
East Prussia
Landschaft
of
Posen
New
Landscha
of
West Prus
1846
1856
1866
1876
1886
1896
I906
2,072,244
4,120,065
8,878,462
17,138,845
26,025,314
16,520,359
37,640,980
6,132,842. 71
10,300.076. 75
12,588,822. 64
19,930,151. 32
18,232,638. 67
1,208,841
1,31 5,000
1,8^0,967
2,517,408
3,905,499
4,756,972
2,700,000. OO
6,410,853.85
10,023,696. 79
7,288,365.85
6,726,621. 84
1,443,930
2,603,15015,521.220
4,171,90029,640,170
5>749-575i9.i98, 5!°
10,733.72523,965,600
23,285
507,639
2,363,117
3,494,511.
5,921,288,
It will be seen from these tables (I and II) that the figures repre-
senting the debt, and those representing its extinction, have both specially
increased during the forty years from 1816 to 1906, but whilst the increase
of the debt has been in the proportion of 1 to 5, the funds for its extinction
now stand at more than 8 times the amount of 1866. This is assuredly
a good sign. This mode of extinction, besides, was unknown to the old-
CO-OPERATIVE LAND CREDIT SOCIETIES
59
rayed debt, it is not less true that there is also something much better
to be said for them. Thanks to their provisions for the obligatory extinc-
tion of debts, their effect upon the debtor is that of a good education.
While granting him in fact a perpetual credit they accustom him to
the idea of his moral duty to pay off the debt before leaving the land to
his children. To permit us to form a just idea of the efficaciousness of
this mode of estinguishing the debt we present here a comparative table
of the funds of the various Landschaften for this purpose :
ids
schaft
the
vince
axony
New-
Credit
Institute
of
Brandenbourg
New
Landschaft
of
Puraerania
for
small
estates
Landschaft
of
Westphalia
Landschaft-
licher
Kreditverein
for
Schleswig-
Holstein
Landschaft
of
Holstein
Zentral
Landschaft
Total
19.425
78.725
78,325
OI,379
65,175
27.445.07
531,421.32
7,955.60
4,701,942-511100,913.03
9,856,025. 3i;6o2, 876.44
576
2 221
721.12
606.83
4,663,370.69
20,512,945.01
339,809.8855,088,731.09
79,887.75 5>448,523-8i 9S.653.263.36
506,020.14 .. 21,993,279.87109,112,112.85
1, 31 1, i48.32l5o6,955.37J3H 16,257.89 169,091,635.42
established Landschaften and was only introduced in the last century. We
may then hope that this progress will always go on increasing.
In the Table III, which follows, we give details as to the rate of in-
terest the Landschaften offer their creditors, always a little ower than
that paid them by their own debtors:
6o
GERMANY
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CO-OPERATIVE LAND CREDIT SOCIETIES
6l
IV. — Quotations of German and Prussian Stock and of the Zentrallandschaft
Bonds for the Years içoj-çoç. *
Days
1903.
2 January.
I Apsil . .
i July . . .
1 October
190J.
2 January.
I April . .
1 July . . .
I i October
1905.
2 January.
I April . .
1 July . . .
2 October
1906.
2 January.
2 April . .
2 July . . .
I October
1907.
2 January.
2 April
i July . . .
1 October
1908.
2 January.
I April . .
i July . . .
1 October
1909.
2 January.
I April . .
I July • • •
I October
Imperial Loans
Prussian
Consolidated Loans
3 li2 % 3 %
Bonds
of the Zentral-Landschaft
I02. 25
I02. 70
I02. IO
IOI. 60
I02. 40
101. 90
102. »
101. 70
IOI. 80
101. 80
101. 25
IOI. »
IOI. IO
IOO. 90
99. 80
98.70
98. 20
96. 20
94. »
94. 10
94. »
91.90
9*-25
92. 50
94.70
95.90
95- 10
94- 10
91- 75
92- 75
91. 60
90. 10
91.70
90.50
90. 25
89. 90
90. »
91. »
90. 10
«9- 75
89. 20
89. 40
88.25
86.60
87.30
85.50
84. 10
84. 90
82.90
82. 10
82. 50
84. 20
85.70
87. 10
85.50
85.10
102. 20
102. 75
102. »
101. 70
102. 20
102. 25
102. )'
101. 75
101. 80
101. 80
101. 20
IOI. 10
101. 20
100. 90
99. 80
98.70
98.25
96. 30
94. 30
94. 30
94. 50
92. »
91.30
92. 50
94. 7C
95.90
95- 10
94. 60
91.75
92.75
91. 50
90. 20
91. 70
90.75
90.25
89. 90
90. )>
91. »
90. IO
89.70
89. 20
89. 40
88. 30
86. 50
87.30
85.50
84. IO
84. 80
82. 80
82. IO
82. 30
84. IO
85. 60
87. »
85.40
85. »
99. 80
100. 50
100. 30
99- 5o
100. 20
99. 60
99.90
99- 25
ICO. »
IOO. »
IOO. IO
99.30
99- 7o
98. 90
97.8o
96. IO
97. »
94. 10
93.60
92.25
92. 90
90.25
90. 50
90. 20
93.25
94-75
93.30
92. 70
3 %
88. 70
90. 40
89. 60
87.40
89. 30
88. 90
88.40
88. 10
88.70
88.60
88.40
87. 60
87. 60
87.30
86.80
84. 90
86.40
84. 5o
84. 10
83.50
82. 50
80. 60
81. 50
80. 30
84. »
84.75
84. 50
83.40
From the Report of the Zentrallandschaft.
02 GERMAN V
It will be seen that the rate of interest has always been very moderate.
Issues at the rate of 5 % were only made from 1868 to 1878, a period of
trouble and unrest, in spite of abundance of capital. Generally, there has
been a very marked tendency to follow the conditions of the market, and as
soon as possible to reduce the interest on the bonds. In 1901 we no
longer find bonds at 4 y2 %■ Those at 3 %, 3 lfe and 3 % increase already
in 1896 in proportion as those at 4 % decrease, though the latter show a
further increase in 1901.
The bonds have always been well received on the national market.
To open the International Market to them, in 1873, certain Landschaften,
with the authorisation of the government, founded a Zentrallandschaft for
the Prussian provinces, with its headquarters at Berlin. The Landschaften
that now form part of it, are allowed to issue provincial bonds and also
bonds of the Zentrallandschaft (see Table II). In issuing these last, how-
ever, they are bound to observe certain rules as to the method of valuing
the lands.
Some of the societies that assisted in the foundation of the Zentral-
landschaft have since left it while others have joined it later, so that in
1909, it was composed of the following Landschaften and Ritterschaften :
1. The Credit Institute for the Noble Estates of the Kur and Neumark.
2. New Credit Institute of Brandenburg.
3. Landschaft of West Prussia.
4. Landschaft of Pomerania.
5. New Landschaft of Pomeriana for Small Properties.
6. Credit Institute for Upper and Lower Sausitz.
7. Landschaft of the Province of Saxony.
8. Landschaft of Schleswig-Holstein.
The bonds of the Zentrallandschaft were well received on the Exchanges,
where they had almost the same standing as the Imperial and Prussian Bonds
(see Table IV), but generally speaking, the Zentrallandschaft had not
the success that was expected. That was due, no doubt, to the fact that
the societies already had a sufficiently large clientèle, or that they did
not wish to have their liberty of action interfered with. Its issue of bonds
in 1909, amounting to 433,255,000 marks was little greater than that of the
Landschaft of East Prussia alone which reached the figure of 428,678,650
marks.
Tho these considerations we shall here add an interesting comparative
table of the rates of interest of the different Landschaften and of the bonds
issued by them, in 1908, data which are taken from the Statistical Year
Book for 1909 of the State of Prussia.
CO-OPERATIVE LAND CREDIT SOCIETIES
63
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64 GERMANY
§ 2. — Itandschaften for Small Estates.
Although these Landschaften and Ritterschaften were at first exclu-
sively intended for supplying the needs of the Noble Estates, which were
generally of considerable size, some of them have extended their credit
facilities to small proprietors and peasants. This was the case with the
Landschaften of East Prussia and of Silesia. This latter issues special
bonds for peasants' lands.
Others founded separately, with special funds, new Landschaften and
new Institutes. Thus there were founded :
i. On the 3rd. August 1869, the new Credit Institution of Bran-
denburg ;
2. On the 3rd. May 1861, the new Landschaft of West Prussia;
3. On the 9th. August 1871, the new Landschaft of Pomerania.
Most of the new societies, such as those of Westphalia and Posen, were,
moreover, from the start meant to represent both classes.
Since these new institutions only wish to serve the farmer, there is
always a limit to the minimum value of land that can be mortgaged.
This limit corresponds to that amount of land on the produce of which
the owner can live. Generally it is required that it produce a net income
calculable for the land tax at a minimum from 75 to 150 marks. In Si-
lesia they go below this limit, and are content that the land be reckoned
as bringing in from 15 to 30 marks.
To make it easier and less complicated for the peasants, instead of
their having to go to the central office, the Landschaft of East Prussia
periodically sends employees of its own into the villages, previously noti-
fying their advent. These employees give all necessary information gra-
tuitously and receive applications for loans. The Landschaften have, gen-
erally speaking, also had good results in their work on behalf of the pea-
sants (see tables I and III), but there still remains much more to be done
in the future.
B. — Other States of Germany.
The example set by Prussia has been followed in some other states.
Thus a credit association for the Noble Lands of the two Mecklenburgs was
founded in 1818, at Rostock on the model of the old established Lands-
chaften. On the 13th. December, 1825, the credit association for Wur-
temberg was founded at Stuttgard. It is the only semi-official institution
of the kind to be found in South Germany.
CO-OPERATIVE LAND CREDIT SOCIETIES 65
The Credit Association for the Noble Lands of the Kingdom of Sax-
ony was formed on the 13th. May 1844, and the Landschaftliche Kredit-
verein, for the same Kingdom, on the 27th. April 1866. Lastly, there is
also at Wolfenbiittel a Credit Association for the Noble Lands of the
Duchy of Brunswick, founded in 1862. These institutions, of which only
a few possess great importance, all conform more or less to the model of
the Landschaften already described. We reserve statistics dealing with
them for another volume of the Bulletin.
C. — Private Institutions of the Landschaften Typb.
In the course of the last century an attempt was also made to apply
this system of co-operation to private institutions. There are two of these :
1. The National Society of Mortgage Credit, formerly at Stettin
and now in Berlin, founded under rules dated 3rd. March 1870 and 11th. Au-
gust 187 1 ;
2. The Bavarian Agricultural Bank at Munich, founded on the
2nd. December 1896.
Both are, in the eyes of the law, private co-operative societies. The
first is a co-operative society of unlimited, the second of limited liability
for members.
The Berlin Association also grants loans upon town lands. The total
number of loans of every kind to the credit of this Society in 1907 were
651, for a total sum of 20,367,673.88 marks, which gives an average of
31,268 marks per loan.
The Bavarian Bank grants loans to communes and to country land-
owners. At the date of its foundation it received from the Bavarian State
the grant of a loan on favourable conditions of one million marks. It is
also in enjoyment of another loan at reduced interest, and a subsidy for
the expenses of its management. The total number of loans of every kind
to the credit of this Society at the end of 1907 was 14,675 for a total sum
of 9I.397.89343 marks.
These two institutions are most important, particularly in presenting
a new method, which permits the farmers and especially the small farmers
to obtain a large share of the advantages given by the Landschaften.
The Bavarian Agricultural Bank, particularly, has had excellent results
and under circumstances of some difficulty, if we consider how the ground
is parcelled out in South Germany and especially in Bavaria. We here
give a table from which it will be seen how far, in ten years, it has been
able to adapt itself to the needs of agriculturists of different classes.
66
GERMANY
Classification of the loans on mortgage granted by the Bank to proprietors
between i8çy and içoy.
Classification
roprie-
brew-
s, res-
nr saw
Total
Total
of the
o
«•55 =
Area
of loans
moitgaged holdings
according
o
d
0 — ' e
cultivated
Forests
Area
granted
to the different
to size
"A
olding
tors
eries,
taura
mills.
of Land
classes
m
ha.
ha.
ha.
M.
I. Lands of less
than I hectare.
287
I
188,942
88,654
277,596
361,718
IT. Lands from i
to 10 hectares.
8,653
392
43.758,676
9.947,287
53,705,963
31,238,297
III. Lands from 10
to ioo hectares
5.605
663
116,878,561
37.474,652
154,353,213
67,306,235
IV. Lands of more
than ioo hectares
Total. . .
38
25
6,184,741
3,769,3ïO
9,954,051
4,461,000
14)583
1,081
167,010,920
51,279,903
218,290,823
103,367,250
III. — PRESENT CONDITION
OF THE NON-COOPERATIVE AGRICULTURAL ASSOCIATION
Bibliography.
V. D. Goltz : Landesôkonomiekollegium, and V. D. Goltz und Wygodzinski : Land-
wirtschaftsrat (The Board of agriculture) in the Wôrterbuch der Volkswlrtschaft.
V. d. Goltz and W. Wygodzinski: Landwirtschaftliches Vereinswesen uni Lahdwirt-
schaftskammern [Agricultural Associations and Chambers of Agriculture) in th" Wôrter-
buch der Volkswirtschaft, pub1, by L. Elster. Tome II.
G. Lorenzoni : Linee fondamentali della Organizzazione Agraria, nella Germania moderna,
in L'Iniziativa del Re d'ltalia a ITstituto Internazionale d'Agricoltura, Studi e Docu-
menti. Roma, 1905 {Genjral F.atures of Agricultural Organization in Germany^ in
The Initiative of the King of Italy and the International Institute of Agriculture,
Studies and Documents').
Mentzel and v. Lengerke's: Landwirtschaftlicher Hiilfs- und Schreibkalender, 1910,
Tome II.
H. Thiel: Landwirtschaftskammern and V. Mendel Steinfels: Landwirtschaftliches Ve-
reinswesen, in Conrad's Elandworterbuch d. Staatswissenschaften. Tome V.
Zehn Jahre wirtschaftspolitischen Kampfes. Historische Darstellung der Griindung, des
Werdeganges und des bisherigen Wirkens des Bundes der Landwirte. Im Auftrage
der Bunde bearbeitet von v. Kiesenwetter. Berlin, 1903 {Ten years of Economic
struggle. The History of the Foundation, Development and Work of the Farmers'
Federation, by v. Kiesenwetter).
Die Landwirtschaft in Bayern {Agriculture in Bavaria), 1890.
Die Landwirtschaft in Wiirttemberg (Agriculture in Wurtemberg), 1902.
Reports of the Bavarian Board of Agriculture, of the Saxon Landeskulturrat, and of the
various Chambers of Agriculture.
Statistical Annual for the Grand Duchy of Baden, Alsace-Lorraine, etc.
Landwirtschaftliche Jahrbiicher 19 10. Vol. I.
Werden und Wirken der Deutschen Landwirtschaftsgesellschaft (Origin and Work of the
German Farmers Association). Berlin, 19 10.
Reports of the different Shows, and Guides to same.
Tageblatt der XXIV Wanderausstellung (Daily Bulletin of the 24th Itinerant Show).
Mitteilungen der Deutschen Landwirtschaftsgesellschaft {Communications of the German
Farmers' Association^, Nos. 25 and 27.
68 GERMANY
The united action of the German farmers manifests itself under two
forms, clearly distinct one from the other: one of a more strictly eco-
nomic character, that is co-operation, the other of a more general character,
that is association. They are also regulated by quite different laws. In
the first number of the Bulletin we have dealt with the first of these forms.
No.w it is with association we must occupy ourselves.
§ i. General Development. - Administrative Organization»
Agricultural association is not so new a phenomenon for Germany as
co-operation. A certain number of associations already existed there in
the eighteenth century. We shall here confine ourselves to the mention
of the most important. The majority had a scientific intention. We find
amongst the earliest: the Thuringian Agricultural Association of Weissensee
(founded in 1762), the Agricultural Association of Celle (1764), the Leipzig
Economic Association (1764) und the Kurbayrische Landesôkonomie-
Gesellschaft or the Electoral Bavarian Moral and Agricultural Academy
at Altôtting (1765). Some of them remain even to the present day, as,
for instance, the Celle association, but they have, however, changed their
designations, and also in some degree, their character. Others have ceased
to exist.
The end of the eighteenth century and the beginning of the nine-
teenth were not very favourable to the Associations. Wars and political
agitations retarded their formation.
Some agricultural societies, founded between 1800 and 1820, owed
their origin in great measure to State encouragement, and several of them,
later on, became semi-official centres for all the agricultural associations of
their districts. This is the case of the Munich agricultural association
(1810), the Pomeranian economic association at Stettin (1810) and the
Stuttgard agricultural association (18 17).
Prussia was the first country, in this official way, to encourage the foun-
dation of these associations. In the famous Landeskulturedikt of 14th Sep-
tember 181 1, with which that country initiated her long and happy labor of
innovation and re-organkation in the domain of agricultural legislation,
the farmers were invited to unite in associations and the Government even
announced its intention to create an institution to serve as intermediary be-
tween the State and the agricultural associations.
This intention remained a dead letter at first. The need of an interme-
diary institution or association of this character was not yet sufficiently felt
Besides, as yet there were too few associations.
It was after 1820 that their number increased considerably.
In 1820 there were not more than 15 of them in Prussia. This figure
rose to 45 in 1830, to 145 in 1840, to 313 in 1850, to 541 in i860, to 865
PRESENT CONDITION OF AGRICULTURAL ASSOCIATION 69
in 1870, to 1,322 in 1881, to 1,817 in 1887, and in 1894 to 2,384 with a
total of 200,000 members.
Besides, after 1820, and especially from 1820 to 1840, the new foun-
dations were no longer limited to isolated associations, but already a be-
ginning was made with numerous central associations or institutions of the
same character. The ultimate object proposed for these was to serve as
centres for all the associations of a province or of a State. It was to give
regulated and uniform direction to the work of these associations, and
thus to avoid useless waste of money and of effort.
These foundations once laid for the constitution of a system of agri-
cultural associations which, like a net, was to hold all classes of the agri-
cultural population in its meshes and unite them for useful collaboration
in the scientific, economic and administrative field, it appeared to the
Prussian Government, in 1842, that the favourable moment was come for
the creation of the central institution already promised by the edict of 181 1.
A royal decree, of the 16th January, established in the Landesôko?wmie-
kollegium, a board to favour the progress of agriculture, and at the same
time to serve as intermediary between the State and the associations. The
regulation of the 25th March, 1842, lays down, in the following terms, the
end that this Board must propose to attain.
1st. It shall serve the Ministry:
a) as a technical deputation in agricultural questions;
b) as agent for the execution of certain tasks entrusted to it.
2nd It shall facilitate the work of the agricultural associations, put
them in communication with each other and with the Government offices,
and so help them in their action in behalf of the community.
At the beginning, this board was only a State institution, the special pur-
pose of which was to give advice in technical matters and to keep the farmers
and the State in relation with each other. In time, however, it acquired
a certain liberty of action. The quality of the members composing it would
be enough to prove this, if there were not the following to confirm it still
more, namely, that by its most recent rules of the 10th December, 189S,
it is authorized to make propositions directly to the Minister of Agriculture.
In the members at present composing it, we must distinguish the repre-
sentatives of the central associations from the representatives of the Ministry.
The former are elected by the chambers of agriculture and the latter are
nominated by the Minister, but for all the mandate is for three years. Be-
tween 1905 and 1907, they were 33 in number, 25 elected and 8 nominated
They meet periodically. An office under the direction of a permanent
general secretary deals with current business.
The organ of the Landesokoyiomiekollegium, at first was called Die
Annalen der Landwirtschaft, but the title was afterwards changed to
Landwirtschaftliche Jah bûcher.
7o GERMANY
The other German States created institutions of the same kind, which
had also a more or less official character. Thus Bavaria established its
handwirtschaftsrat (Board of agriculture), the Kingdom of Saxony, its
Landeskulturrat (Board for the cultivation of the country), Wurtemberg,
its Zentralstelle fur die Landwirtschaft (Central Agricultural Office), the
States of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, Saxe-Coburg, Saxe-Meiningen and Alsace
Lorraine, their Landwirtschaftsràte (Boards of Agriculture).
In certain countries, as in Bavaria and Saxony, they have, lur this
puipose, transformed the already existing central association by adding to
it a certain number of members nominated by the Government; elsewhere,
as in Wurtemberg, the central association was allowed to remain as it was,
but all its members were granted the right of sitting and voting in the
new Zentralstelle fur Landwirtschaft. Finally, in other states, it was simply
on the central association, or on the Chamber of Agriculture, that the new
attributions were conferred.
In this way all the attempts made by the farmers collectively for the
impiovement of their moral and economic position, and for rhe study of agri-
cultural questions meet, and are multiplied, in this network of associations.
The most varied associations that, in any district or province, con-
cern themselves with general agriculture, agricultural instruction, cattle
rearing, improvements in sowing, agricultural shows, fisheries, game,
forests, etc,, etc., send delegates to a central association (in Bavaria to a
Kreisaussehuss [District committee]) to arrange and discuss all matters of
common interest. For the same reason, in their turn, the central associa-
tions send their delegates to the Central institutions such as the Landes-
dkonomiekollegium, the Landwirtschaftsrat, etc., which are authorized to
treat directly with the various Governments of the German Confederation.
Thus, through the medium of these central associations and institutions,
every society, even the smallest, found itself in a position to place its own
desiderata before the authorities. The Governments themselves could so
get to know of all the new inventions and all the innovations in agricul-
tural science, and then give them all desirable diffusion amongst the po-
pulation.
But what was still wanting, to crown the edifice of German agricul-
tural association, was a central institution for the whole Empire, with right
of approaching the imperial administrations on its own initiative.
The foundation of a Deutscher Landwirtschajtsrat (German Board of
Agriculture) on the 8th April, 1882, filled this gap. The members of this
Board aie recruited from the central Associations in the different States.
Each of them delegates a certain number, varying in a proportion,
fixed for the last time in 1893, according to the number ol members sent
to the Bundesrat by the particular state and according to the agricultural
importance of the country.
PRESENT CONDITION OF AGRICULTURAL ASSOCIATION 71
The Prussian associations send 25 delegates, and the other States of
the Empire 49 in all. This last figure is made up of 9 delegates for Ba-
varia, 5 for Saxony, 5 for Wurtemberg, 2 for the Grand-duchy of Baden,
3 for Hesse, 3 for Alsace Lorraine, 2 for Mecklenburg Schwerin, 2 for
Brunswick and 1 for each of the other States.
At the head of the Landzvirtschajtsrat is a committee consisting of a
president and 2 vice-presidents. Nine other members are elected to form
with them a Permanent Committee. The management of current affairs is
entrusted to a general secretary.
The Organs of the Board are the Archiv des Deuischen Landwirt-
schaftsrats and the Zeitschriftfur Agrarpolitik, which, formeerly, was called
the Nachrichten des deutschen Landwirtschoftsrats.
What we have said above explains the object of the Landwirtschaftsrai,
but the first article of its regulations defines this more precisely, as follows :
« The object of the German Board of Agriculture is to occupy itself
with the interests of the farmers. It must also, wherever these interests
may be favoured or injured by the imperial legislation or administrative
measures, not only give opinion on request, but also put the objections
and the grounds for them before the Chancellor, or present motions in
the Imperial Parliament ».
For some years the Board of Agriculture has been devoting a great
part of its attention to the collection of information and especially of
information in regard to the price of grain and to the cultivation of grain.
For the accomplishment of its new task it has founded a special division :
the Preisberichtstelle des Deutschen Landzvirtschaftsrats.
The office for information as to prices receives subventions from all
the agricultural associations of Germany, such as the Farmers' Federation,
the German Farmers' Association, the Confederation of the German Agri-
cultural Co-operative Societies, the Federation of the German Peasants,
Christian Associations. The Office for Prices publishes daily and weekly
reports on the situation of the corn market in Germany and abroad and
sends copies to the farmers, the agricultural associations and co-operative
societies. It has also to print every week a short notice of the corn masket,
for reproduction in the papers and reviews. This report is sent regularly
to nearly 1,200 German papers. The annual income and expenditure of
the Office comes to about 75,000 Marks.
In the work accomplished by these associations, both among their,
own adherents, and in relation to the Governments, we see that their
systématisation has been productive of happy results.
Yet in the accomplishment of their purpose they have met with two
great difficulties. The first was the consequence of the way in which these
associations had been composed. Being at first associations of private cha-
acter they had left their doors open to all comers. A great number o
72 GERMANY
pastors, curés, and schoolmasters were members, not merely of the asso-
ciations of inferior class, but even of the central associations. From the
moment the States wished to bestow on these associations the same pri-
vileges as on the Chambers of Commerce, considering them as represent-
atives of the farming class, it was naturally necessary for them to be
really composed of farmers. The other difficulty came from these associa-
tions not having sufficiently large incomes. The annual subscriptions of
their members were but very small, and although large State subsidies
were added to these, yet they had not enough for the great end they pro-
posed to themselves, of immense importance for the whole class of farmers.
To remedy these two ills, the Prussian State, in 1894, decided to
create (by law of the 13th June) Chambers of Agriculture, analogous to
the already existing Chambers of Commerce. This law, the draft of which
met with great resistance in the Prussian Parliament, was based upon this
fundamental principle that the farmers have the right and the duty to
provide for their collective interest according to their own desires, but
with the means at their own disposal, as these interests are not at the same
time the interests of the entire population.
To render it easier for them to accomplish this duty, the State gave
their representative body certain public rights, as, for example, that of
imposing a certain assessment upon all the farmers of the district.
The institution of the Chambers of Agriculture, however, was not obliga-
tory, but depended on the will of the Provincial Parliaments. Those of East
Prussia, West Prussia, Pomerania, Brandenburg, Posen, Silesia, the pro-
vince of Saxony, Schleswig-Holstein and the districts of Cassel and Wies-
baden, immediately voted the creation of Chambers of this class.
Their rules were ratified by royal decree of the 3rd August, 1895.
Other provinces, which at first were hardly favourable to this institution,
followed the example of the preceding, a few years later. The rules of
the Chamber of Agriculture for Westphalia were confirmed by royal decree
on the 28th April, 1898.
Hanover and the Rhenish provinces had theirs confirmed on the
15th March, 1899. In this way, every Prussian province, with the excep-
tion of the district of Hohenzollern, possesses a Chamber of Agriculture.
The province of Hesse has two : one for the district of Cassel, and another
for that of Wiesbaden.
This gives a total of 13. In the majority of these provinces, the
Chambers of Agriculture havv- replaced the former Zentralvereine, which
were then 22 in number. These last have only been preserved in East
Prussia, in Nassau and the Rhenish Provinces. The action and the com-
position of the associations of inferior rank were not affected by the crea-
tion of these new chambers, which differed, besides, from the institutions
that had preceded them, in that they were corporations in public law.
PRESENT CONDITION OF AGRICULTURAL ASSOCIATION 73
The law on the Chambers of Agriculture, besides, only provides a
kind of general scheme. These have their own rules for matters of detail,
according to the requirements of the provinces.
Paragraph 2 of the law lays down, as follows, the object these chambers
must keep before them: « to protect the collective interests of agriculture and
forestry; to this end, to second all institutions formed for the improvement of
the condition of the landowners; and in the first degree, in future, also to
favour the corporative organization of the professional class of farmers ».
The Chambers of Agriculture are meant for independent farmers :
landowners or tenant farmers whose land is able to support a family. This
is a minimum that the rules of the different provinces calculate, according
as is done for the valuation for the tand-tax, at a sum of from 60 to
150 marks nett revenue.
All these farmers are bound to pay to the Chamber of Agriculture (see
Table III, column 6) a tax which, generally speaking, must not exceed % %
of the nett revenue as calculated for the State land-tax.
They have the right to be elected; as are also eligible, besides them,
the retired farmers living in the district, the former directors and employees
of agricultural associations, co-operative societies and banks who have had
at least ten years' service, as well as such persons as have acquired special
distinction in agriculture. The electors at first were limited to the repre-
sentatives of the farmers on the district council {Kreistag). The Chambers
of Agriculture have, however, received authority to find a new system of
election, provided it be based on the system of the 3 classes, like that in
use for the elections for the Kreistag.
The administration of the Chamber of Agriculture is entrusted to a
committee of at least 5 members. Really, the number is variable. There
may be 7 and even 14, according to the province. This committee has
power to form other special committees, to which it entrusts duties of detail,
as for example, all that concerns agricultural shows, agricultural schools,
experimental farms, etc.
The members of the committee are elected for three years, those of
the Chamber of Agriculture itself for six years, but half of the chamber is
renewed by election every three years.
A general secretary has charge of the current business.
To deal with the questions common to all these chambers, a Zentralstelle
(central office) of the chambers of agriculture has been founded, with its
headquarters in Berlin.
There the delegates and the secretaries of the chambers of agriculture
meet twice a year. The organ of this office is the « Mitteilungen der Zen-
tralstelle der Preussischen Landwirtschaftskammern ».
It has been thought of founding, as indeed would be more logical, a
central chamber. But for the present the idea has been abandoned, in
74 GERMANY
order not to abolish the « Landesôkonomiekollegium », an institution which
has for a long time fulfilled its mission and which would then lose its
raison d'être.
Other States of the Empire, as, for example, Oldenburg, Anhalt,
Saxe-Altenburg, Schwarzburg-Sondershausen, Baden (1907), Hesse, Bruns-
wick, Waldeck, and Lubeck, have imitated the example of Prussia in
founding chambers of agriculture. Some others, as Wurtemberg, after
serious discussion, have expressed opinions favourable to them.
As to the work accomplished by the whole number of these associa-
tions and chambers of agriculture, it must be said that it has been of
very great utility. It is difficult to give comparative figures for the whole
Empire. We must content ourselves with the data relative to Prussia that
the Ministry of Agriculture has carefully collected.
Tables I and II, following, give the revenue and expenditure of the
Prussian Chambers of Agriculture, with indication of the purposes for
which the different sums were reserved.
76
GERMANY
I. — Revenue of the Prussian Chambt
A) Ordina
Chamber of the Province or District
I.
To encourage
science
and education
II.
For
veterinary
service
To encourage
Livestock
improvement
IV.
To
encourage
pisciculture
To
encourage
forestry
A) Ordinary Revenm.
1. East Prussia
2. West Prussia
3. Brandenburg
4. Pomerania
5. Posen
6. Silesia
7. Province of Saxony
8. Schle~wig-Holstein
9. Hanover
10. Westphalia
11. District of Cassel
1 2. District of Wiesbaden
13. Rhenish Provinces
Total A
Marks
232,353-29
150,298.11
324,856.00
255,55S-06
243,359-75
438,794.83
4^0,054.44
154,275.90
359,260.14
161,013.81
149.0S3.34
20,690.00
247,559-27
3,177,153-94
Marks
80,032.39
47,221.97
250,625.57
47,921.39
24,692.40
28,338-I3
86,577-92
69,484.25
20,820.70
4,675-37
4,245.80
35,712.00
700,347.
Marks
355.738.74
175,512.26
168,612.13
262.337.4i
152,030.52
178,677.92
212,964.51
263,787.97
i97.3il.07
200,391.99
56,487.69
84,108.65
198,894.10
2,506,854.96
Marks
4,774- 65
700. OO
2,500. OO
5,229. 99
4,000. OO
35.700. 77
5,600. OO
58,505-41
Marks
1,325-5
32,421.5
24.l60.4t
32,356.I'
3,395-1!
13.795-7'
2,000.0c
7.371.65
3,818.2c
4ft
120,644.33
PRESENT CONDITION OF AGRICULTURAL ASSOCIATION
77
i 'agriculture in ipo8.
ivenue.
VI.
o encourage
cultivation
of orchards,
vineyards
and
kitchen
gardens
VII.
For
subventions
to agricultural
association-;
and the
encouragement
of agriculture
generally
VIII.
For the
administration
of the
Chamber
of agriculture
Total
revenue
Source of revenue
State
subventions
Subventions :
a) from the pro-
vince
b) from the dis-
tricts
c) other subven-
tions
Revenue
of the chamber
of agriculture
itself
Marks
17.433. 99
7,600. 00
42.907- 47
37.323- 09
43,610. 60
24i478.
12,764. 22
15,550. 00
7-544- 05
16,522. 00
28,395. 08
5,600. 00
22,393. 40
282,127. 38
Marks
287,641.3
35,472.20
166,724.05
353.955-35
205,499.53
344,348.22
321,826.07
69,720.58
195,283.74
127,786.29
17,601.60
12,527.58
17,782.92
2,156,169.48
Marks
146,274.29
121,416.42
338,500.80
I73.803.97
i59.8°7.3i
309,031.82
398,785.27
229,217.37
421,720.42
165,248.35
93.23I-47
83,140.03
279>°57-4i
2,919,234.93
i, "9.479-
538,846.
1,329422.
1. 155756.
863,856.
1.332,294.
1,486,768.
808,036.
1,245,012.
685,056.
349,044.
206,066.
801,399.
Mirks
433.2S4.I9
22r, 534.71
289,146.46
277 640.00
275.587-4
U)
.40} 6)
288,448.16^/')
262,547.68
202,200.00
11,921,038.
367,689.67^)
180,286.65)
119,997.00
110,512.00
235,851.11
Marks
34. : 50.00
9 : 60. 00
8 07. So
29,502. 20
3,130. 00
7.149- 65
70,550.00
13-781-38:
10,813. 18|
88,250. 00:
6,450. 00
5,220. 00
49.979- 85!
8,100. 00
2,400. ooj
56,750. oo|
2S,297. 07,
23.554.761
60,702. 50
8,300. 001
30,996. 751
57,850.00
1,800. 00
61,000. oo|
1.853.95
19,932. 12
80,817.39
7.304. 51
26,860. 00
23,225. 00
1,744. 79
9,000. 00
1,800. 00
2,820. 00
152,985.95
54,55o. 00
1,725. 00
Marks
633.7I7- 06
277,529.90
945.I3I- 20
778,196. 67
527,789.00
935,244- 55
1,124,221. 24
546,186. 07
794,536. 80
416,647. 46
177,218. 19
81,934. 26
356,287.04
V") 779,097- 89)
3,264,725.03^, I58,647- 4o|>7,594.639. 44
V") I23.928- 56)
78
GERMANY
B) Extraordln
Chamber of the Province or District
To encoirage
science and
education
II.
For
veterinary
service
III.
To encourage
Livestock
improvement
__5
IV.
To
encourage
pisciculture
To
encourag
forestry
B) Extraordinary Revenue.
i . East Prussia
2. West Prussia
3. Brandenburg
4. Pomerania
5. Posen
6. Silesia
7. Province of Saxony
8. Schleswig-IIolstein
9. Westphalia
10. District of Cassel
11. District of Wiesbaden
12. Rhenish Provinces
Total of A and B together. . .
M.irks Marks Marks M:irks Marks
1.937-5°
1,110.00
6,878.30
6,368.82
104,901.98
4,400.00
575-co
16,300.00
165.00
3.3I9.790-54
43,800.0c
2,000.00
746,147.89
68.10
4,068.49
4,550.00
23,256.67
7, i85.oo
500.00
9,760.00
3.377.50
2,559.621.72
•58,505. 41
120,644.3
PRESENNT CONDITION OF AGRICULTURAL ASSOCIATION 79
Revenue.
7
8
9
10
|
'3
VI.
To encourage
the
cultivation
of orchards,
vineyards
and kitchen
gardens
VII.
For
subventions
to the
agricultural
a-> :. <tions
and to
encourage
agriculture
generally
VIII.
For the
administration
of the
Chamber
of agriculture
Total
revenue
Source of revenue
State
subventions
subventions :
a) from the pro-
\ iuce
l>) from the dis-
tricts
c) other subven-
tions
!
Rev-nue
of the Chamb-i
of agriculture
itself
Marks
Marks
Marks
Marks
Marks
Maiks
Marks
••
384,010.93
••
384,010. 93
2,005. 60
1,110. OO
384,000.00
L937-50
c) 1,000. OO
IO.93
68. 10
no. 00
••
7,250.00
61,996. 79
20,273.49
a) 40,000. 00
L723- 30
i,ooo. oo
1,500.00
6.00
13,424. 82
9,050.00
c) 2,500. OO
1,874. 82
••
14,967.00
••
143. I25- 65
11,586. 00
10,900.00
i.575-ooj
a) 18,500. 00
l>) 1,820.00
c) 686. 00
u) 1,000. OO
} 122,805.65
20.00
3,095.00
r) 500. 00
/ 20. OO
3,000. 00
333 33
10,095.26
3-M88. 59
28,093.33
a) 1,300.00
10,095. 26
200. 00
333-33
902.07
4.977-9°
4,875-90
••
102. OO
••
638.06
656.20
1,294. 26
656.20
a) 638.06
••
V
«) 840,535.95
)
286,327. 38
2,565,202,13
2,930,914.46
12,587,1^3.86
3,726,086.45 h) 160,467.40
>7,73i.449- 5o
f c) 128,614. 56
So
GERMANY
II. — Expenditure of the Prussia
Chamber of the pr vince 01 district
Î.
For the
ag-'ment
of science
and educaiion
For
veterinary
service
III.
To
encourage
Livestock
improvement
A) Ordinary expenditure.
1. East Prussia
2. West Prussia
3. BrancL-Luiiug
4. Pomeraoia
5 Posen
6. Silesia
7. Province of Saxony
8. Schleswig-Holsteiu
9. Hanover
10. Westphalia
11. District of Cassel
12. District of Wiesbaaen . . . .
13. Rhenish Provinces
Total A.
B) Extraordinary expenditure.
1. East Prussia
2. West Prussia
3. Brandenburg
4. Pomerania
5. Posen
6. Silesia
7. Province of Saxony
8. Schleswig-Holstein
9. Westphalia
10. District of Cassel
11. District of Wiesbaden
12. Rhenish Provinces
"L
Total ©f A and B together.
Marks
248,767. 29
155-516. 15
351.345- 81
282,785. 92
256,779- 41"'
448,273. 9c
471,656. 75
160,521. 88
367,687. 69
171,403. 80
141,440. 83
28,468. 14
259,996. 20
5,344,643- 84
2,836. 00
29.523- 92
23,615. 12
22,488. 92
103,714. 15
4,400. 00
575- 00
2,438. 65
165. 00
77,865. 59
44,778. 94
196,330. 62
50,874. 24
26,136. 06
29,064. 1 1
107,833- 5 7
67,353. 27
20,025. 13
5,820. 64
3,500. 60
35.9I9- 95
665,502. 7:
149
193- 25
997. 99
Marks
353,591- »o
191,296. 31
211,266. 32
279,584. 52
145,542. 32
181,021. 97
231,616. 17
308,464. 49
248,032. 18
208,896. 18
57,844. 64
86,719. 12
219,046. 14
2.722,921. 46
44- 46
70. 00
3,34S. 24
4,827. 40
23.256. 67
7,500. 00
500. 00
10,855. 20
3.363. 50
3,534,400. 60 817,693. 96! 2,776,686. 93
PRESENT CONDITION OF-'AGRICULTURAL ASSOCIATION
Si
Kambers oj agriculture in içoS.
VI.
For
encouragement
of the
cultivation
of orchards,
vineyards
and kitchen
gardens
VII.
For
subventions
to the
agricultural
associations
and for
encouragement
ol agriculture
generally
VIII.
For the
administration
of the
Chamber
of agriculture
Total
expenditure
Comparison of columns No. 10
in the tables I and II
gives as result
Surplus
Deficit
Marks
16,938. 78
I0.202. 75
52,417. 72
39.3l8.o;
42,119. 2o
29.647. 3?
16,927. 7b
19,550. 80
10,441. 18
19,022. 00
22,678. 27
7.749- 79
36,052. 25
323,065. 94
882. 89
3,000. 00
200. 00
284,546. 9S
39.873- 17
208,153.51
366,907. 28
205,184. 3[
379.991- 39
306.156. 81
89,376. 72
281,122. 65
133,209. 21
43,009. 90
15.925.54
35.665. iS
2,389,122. 65
378,712.99
10,677. 97
1,824. 70
25,000. 00
550. 00
300. 00
640. 29
I33.859- 58
91,027. 11
229,587.41
107,011. 02
115,480. 99
202,592. 64
316,577.07
166,630. 64
289,893. 25
112,842. 54
57,546. 39
72,701. 61
143,681.42
2,039,431. 67
1,500. 00
4.707. 16
184,160. 62
832. 01
15,864. 62
1,294. 40
1,904. 08
1,104. 57
40,656. 20
328,148. 83 2,806,828. 60 2,291,455. 33
1,115,569. 32
534465.23
1,298,100. 97
1,155,301.99
830,314. 74
1,280,607. 03
1,468,781. 66
820,897. So
1.263,953.03
669,440. 35
326,020. 63
21 1,564. 20
730,361. 14
11,705,378.09
378,712.99
2,880. 46
31,093.92
191,541. 74
184,160. 62
32,333- 52
151,970. 12
27,764. 62
5-367-39
i8,747- 93
5.Ï33- 07
41,296. 49
12,776,381. 66
Marks
3.909-
73
4,38l.
23
3L32I.
25
454-
68
33.541.
5i
5L687.
51
17,986.
51
I5.6I5.
66
23,024.
35
71-037.
96
252,960
39
Marks
I2,86l.
18,940.
49
5,497- 94
37,300. 16
215,660. 23
5,-97- 94
20,740. 66
874.
29.9S3-
129,544.
184,160.
18,908.
8,845-
16,178.
2,272.
155-
40,002.
So
92
95
62
70
17
62
39
17
241,698. 83 430,926. 63
189,227. 80
g2 GERMANY
As we see, it is under the heads of education and of livestock im-
provement that the largest sums are entered. Agricultural instruction,
which is to a large extent in the hands of the Associations, is at a very
high level, and, of the 24 experimental farms of Prussia, 21 have been
founded by the Associations. The amounts devoted to the encouragement
of livestock improvement come only second to those devoted to education,
and only after them again come the sums bestowed in subsidies to the Asso-
ciations, etc. These are the two or three principal fields in which the Cham-
bers of Agriculture exert their action. They have obtained really re-
markable results both in Prussia and in the other States.
In these other States, especially in Bavaria, they have also been of con-
siderable importance in favouring the development of the agricultural as-
sociations.
An important matter for which figures are given in the columns 11,
12 and 13 of Table I, is that of the subventions the Chamber received
from the State, the Provinces, the Districts, etc.
Table III shows, on the one hand, the funds the State had disposable
for the different provinces, and the amounts it placed at the disposition
of the Chambers of Agriculture. On the other hand, it shows the sums
paid in by the farmers themselves, and the percentage of their nett re-
venue, as calculated for the Land-Tax, they had to pay to the Chamber
of Agriculture.
PRESENT CONDITION OF AGRICULTURAL ASSOCIATION
83
III. — Amounts received deriving from sums paid in by the farmers of
the district of the Chambers, and subventions granted by the State
out of its disposable funds, iço8.
Pro vine»
Area of
cultivated land
and
forest land
Funds a i- tke disposal oi
the State in 1908, and ex-
penditure incurred in ec-
couragtnent of Science,
horse and cattle breeding,
the rearing of birds and
orchard cultivation.
For
the whole
Province
For
the Chamber
of
agriculture
Farmers' assessment
money received
by the Chambers
of agriculture
ÏH3Z
c o 2 ra x
* e »! t.
Total
Marks
13
East Prussia
West Prussia
Brandenburg
Pomerania
Posen
Silesia
Saxony
Schle?\\-ig-IIo'.stein. .
Hanover
Westphalia
Hesse-Nassau :
a) Cassel
b) Wiesbaden . . .
Rhenish Provinces. .
Total of the Cham-
bers of agriculture
Hohenzollern (Cen-
tral Association) .
3,359.»37-2
2.302,579.8
3.668,785 9
2,775.77i-o
2,724,347.1
3,813,411.0
2,345.907-4
1,634,326.6
2,808,811.5
i,795,247-i
963,202.8
528,238.2
2,461,156.4
956,704.20
254,192.48
303J57-53
256,445.29
305,856.77
271,381.47
261,506.82
242,195.10
435,801.95
246,614.03
156,627.43
142.6G1.73
402,897.79
31,18.0,922.0
I 110,198.8
4,236,642.59
45.7i8.35
423,711.29
7*
231.397.56
j/2
253,401.71
•7/20
226,582.42
V2
256,920.71
V«
236,534-50
5/I2
237,392-32
*/a
215,769.67
»/»
332,166.71
Va
195,142.27
'f.
148,857.93
v3
"3, 735-9°
3/4
241,493.41
3/4
3,113,106.40
28,878.25
111,418.32
86,433.12
290,293.84
I36I73Ï-99
97,474-5o
198,805.84
261,412.48
180,670.46
22-J £24.88
130,855.07
75,640.12
5L765.33
253,745-I5
2,103,071.10
S,976.6o
In spite of the obstacles encountered at the moment of their creation,
we may say that the success achieved by the Prussian Chambers of Agri-
culture has been very great. They have been able, as has been the case in
lew countries, to attract large classes of the population to work collectively
84 GERMANY
in behalf of agriculture. This work has been effected in virtue of the
semi-official character of the Chamber, under direct Government control.
There is continual contact between it and the farmers, intimate enough to
guarantee them sufficient protection of their interests. On the other hand,
the State is freed from a great part of its task, by thus entrusting it to the
persons most interested. These persons, as we have seen, have no hesitation
i l paying a special tax for the end they pursue in common. The State
continues to give its subventions (besides other expenditure on behalf of
Agriculture in other domains, with which the chambers have no concern),
and thus agriculture benefits by sums it would not otherwise have certainly
at its disposal.
The majority of the agricultural associations are connected, as we have
seen, with this network of administrative associations. There are, however,
others, even a sufficiently large number of them, that, for one reason or
another, do not form part of it.
In studying these other associations, we must distinguish between (i),
those having a scientific or economic purpose, and (2) those more or less
openly serving for political struggle and propaganda.
§ 2. Scientific and Economic Associations,
The most important of these associations is the Deutsche Landwirt-
schaftsgesellschaft (German Farmers' Association).
Already in the first half of the last century there was a tendency to
form an association of scientific scope to occupy itself with the economic
interests of all the German farmers. The Wanderversammlung deutscher
Land- u?id Forstwirte (Itinerant Association of German Farmers and Fores-
ters) was founded in 1837. This Association specially occupied itself with
Agricultural Shows and discussions of the various scientific and practical
questions interesting the farmers.
In 1867 the Kongress norddeutscher Landwirte (North German Farm-
ers' Congress) was established, which, as its action extended to the whole
of Germany, in 1872, changed its name to " German Farmers' Congress ".
It absorbed a great number of the members of the Wanderversammlung,
so that this latter soon ceased to exist. This German Farmers' Congress
itself continued its work until 1894, at which date, the Bundder Landzvirte
(Farmers' Federation) was constituted (see hereafter p. 28).
After the Wanderversammlung had disappeared, there was no orga-
nisation occupying itself with Agricultural shows. To fill this gap, and
form an association which, with the largest views, but independent of Gov-
ernment and of politics, might devote itself to the welfare of the fanners,
the famous engineer and author, Max de Eyth, in 1S84, united the most
PRESENT CONDITION OF AGRICULTURAL ASSOCIATION 85
important scientific and agricultural notabilities in an association which
took the name of Deutsche Landivirischaftsgescllschaft.
The object of this association was chiefly " to utilise for practical agri-
culture the last results of science and the modern methods of communi-
cation, and to assemble all the farmers together lor the solution of this
great problem: to fmd a system of management and of cultivation of the
land corresponding to the requirements of the day ".
Although the subscriptions were fairly high (20 marks) the number
oi members rapidly increased. There were on the
1st January 1884 250 members
1 st October 1884 858 »
1st » 1889 5,119 »
1st » 1894 Io>543 »
1st » 1899 12,788 »
1st » 1904 14,765 »
1st » 1909 17,271 »
The majority of them belonged to the provinces of the right bank of
the Elbe, where large estates prevail. These 17,271 members were divided
as follows:
7,852 or 45.5 % of the right bank of the Elbe
6,264 » 36-2 % » left »
2,308 » 13.3 % in South Germany
43 « 0.2 % in the German Colonies
804 » 4.8 % outside the Empire.
Besides the subscriptions the association annually receives from its
members, it has already amassed a capital of 3 millions of marks, of which
a large part has been spent in the construction of a palace, in which it
is installed.
It has managed its affairs very wisely. Its financial statement for 1908
shows a total of 1,662,180.06 marks for revenue and 1,400,791.84 marks for
expenditure. Amongst the expenses, in the first line, appear the salaries of
employees, of which the total sum for 195 persons at the beginning of 1909
amounted to 441,550.97 marks. Then come the general expenses, 247,700.32
marks, expenses of publication, 124,523.57 marks, for experiments, 90,949.96
marks, and for shows, 38,509.02 marks.
As to the constitution of the Layidzvirtschaftsgesellschaft, it is as fol-
lows: at the head of it there is a president sharing the administrative
duties with an administrative board and a permanent committee. The
president, the members of the adminstratîve board and of the perma-
nent committee, are elected by the general assembly which meets twice
a year.
86 GERMANY
It has to elect officers, to see that the regulations are observed, and
to pass the years' accounts.
For the accomplishment of the various tasks the association has pro-
posed to itself, groups of members have been formed to work under the
direction of special committees. There are at present 8 divisions of this
character and 47 special committees.
In the number of the publications issued by the Deutsche Landwirt-
schaftsgesellschaft we must mention: 1) the weekly Mitteilungcn, which give,
with other information, the reports of the official agricultural reporters
attached to the German consulates: 2) the Jahrbuch (Annual) of which the
24th volume has just appeared; 3) the Arbeiten, irregular publications of
which 161 pamphlets have been published, and lastly; 4) 13 volumes of
Anleitungen fur den praktisclien Landwirt (Guides or instructions for the
practical farmer).
Besides its work of propagandism, and the scientific and technical in-
structions it diffuses, this association occupies itself with agricultural shows,
and even does some work in the field of co-operation.
Its scientific instruction and propagandism is in the first place carried
on by means of the above-mentioned publications. There are, in addition,
3 series of assemblies each year for the purpose, and several offices im-
part instruction relative to farm buildings, book-keeping, agricultural ma-
chines, seed production and chemical manures. Finally, there are special
courses for itineraut agricultural professors. The last of these com ses was
held at Eisenach, in April, 1910. More than 300 professors took part.
With regard to agricultural shows, the Deutsche Landwirtschaftsge-
sellschaft follows the principle of organizing one every year in a different
part of the Empire. For this purpose, it has divided Germany into twelve
districts.
The towns in which these shows are held are also varied as far as
possible.
This years' show was the twenty fourth.
The Wanderausstellungen comprise the show itself, and also certain
assemblies of the members of the association. Numerous lectures are
delivered, and there have just been added to the programme, didactic
excursions.
We shall more easily obtain an idea of the importance of these shows
for the German farmer from a brief account of the last one held at Ham-
burg between the 2nd and the 7th June. The number of members present
at this show was 5,069 as compared with 4,457 at the preceding one at
Leipzig, and the total number of visitors to the show was 437,776 as
compared with 326,345 at Leipzig.
r RESENT CONDITION OF AGRICULTURAL ASSOCIATION 87
To the 3 usual departments, that is to say, the show of animals, that
of agricultural produce, and that of agricultural machinery and implements,
at Hamburg another department was added, serving to show the point
of development that agriculture has arrived at in the German colonies.
The management had received advice of the arrival of 670 horses,
1,332 cows and bulls, 822 sheep, 825 pigs and 22S goats. As to agricul-
tural machines and implements, 425 firms had announced despatch of
nearly 8,000.
There was, as always, a special commission charged to examine the
articles sent, to investigate their claims to novelty, and decide whether they
deserved to be recommended to the farmers or not. 25 objects were pre-
sented to this commission for its judgment.
At Hamburg there were given as ordinary prizes, 148,873 marks in
gold, 89 artistic objects, 355 medals and, in addition, certificates.
The distribution took place after the manner laid down in the show
regulations. For the animals, judgment was based upon the valuation of
their qualities according to points assigned.
The level of the competition was very high, especially for the horses.
The show of cows gave a good idea of the different kinds bred in Ger-
many, and of the tendencies of the breeders' associations. As to the sheep
a diminution in number was observable, but an improvement of the race.
Among the pigs, there were those of native stock crossed with superior
thoroughbreds, a system of breeding especially encouraged by the live-stock
improvement co-operative societies and associations.
Of special interest was the collection of sheep-dogs. There were spe-
cial competitions for these to prove their skill in protecting sheep, and
their competency to serve as police dogs.
There were also other special competitions of great interest, as, for
example, for cow-milking', ploughing with oxen, and sheep-shearing. The
advantage of all these special examinations is evident, as they habituate
the farmer, and above all the j udge, to see very clearly and also to decide
on the ideal types for different animals. The association thus contributes
to the creation of certain types, and helps the formation or development
of races specially adapted to particular districts.
What the Landwirtschaftsgesellschaft has succeeded in doing for the
systematic improvement of breeds of animals by means of its shows, it
has tried to effect also in the case of plants. It cannot be denied that
seme results have been already attained, as was evidenced at the Ham-
burg show.
The Association possesses an office for the sale of guaranteed seeds. It
arranges for this office to « control » the fields of those of its members
who wish to sell their seeds. It is the ambition of every seed-producer
to be recognized by the Association. This is the easier to understand, as
GERMANY
the seeds of the Landwirtschaftsgesellscîiaft are very much in demand,
offering as they do, a good guarantee to the buyer. At Hamburg, 390 types
of seed were exhibited. There was, besides, a collection of 119 kinds of
summer barley, 3 kinds of winter barley and 6 kinds of brewers' wheat,
which had already received certificates at the barley and hop show at Berlin.
Besides animals and rau produce, there were also exhibits of manu-
factured agricultural produce on view.
One room was devoted to the dairy and butter exhibits. There the
different kinds of butter and cheese might be examined and tasted, as in
another division the different kinds of grapes.
There were also special competitions for the preserving of agricul-
tural produce, which the Association sends out as far as to Australia. At
the beginning of the exhibition the recipients were opened to see if the
produce were well preserved and keeping as it ought.
Amongst the auxiliaries of agriculture there figured: collections exhib-
ited by the Kalisyndicate (syndicate, for the preparation of potassium
salts), and by other manufacturers of chemical manures, who had also pro-
vided exhibition of certain plants sown in pots, the better to show the
difference in quality between those that had been manured, and those that
had not.
Other rooms contained tables, illustrating by comparison, certain scien-
tific systems, and the progress made in different banches of agriculture.
First in importance, appeared a table in relation to rural labour, based on
the data arrived at by the East Prussia Chamber of Agriculture, and
proving that there is a diminution in the number of conscripts returning
to the country after their military service. Then there was a comparative
table showing the considerable increase of savings deposited in the rural
banks, not only by the small farmers but also by the farm labourers. The
Hanover Chamber of Agriculture had sent Statistics relative to the foun-
dation of co-operative societies ol insurance against cattle disease, and re-
lative to their number. As to the work of peat-bog draining, the Ge-
neral Royal Commission for Hanover and Schleswig-Holstein had fur-
nished interesting particulars of it.
^The third and last part of the show was that of the agricultural
machines and implements. In this part of the show also foreign firms might
take part. Amongst the machines, the best were, steam ploughs, motor ploughs,
a motor train of the Daimler Co., and threshing machines. The show
of the Distillers' Syndicate was also not without a certain interest. With
the assistance of various machines exhibited by this Syndicate, it was
shown how important the utilisation of alcohol might become for agri-
culture.
In the rooms devoted to inventions that the authors desired the
Landwirtschaftsgesellschaft to recognize as « new and remarkable » for the
PRESENT CONDITION OF AGRICULTURAL ASSOCIATION Sg
farmer, there were no less than 32 ploughs for breaking up the subsoil
(Untergrundlockerer), 5 implements for the removal of acquatic plants,
and 16 spirit lamps (Invertspirituslampen). In the room for inventions
for preliminary examination, there where 8 different machines for dessica-
tion of potatoes and 2 for making string from straw.
As usual, the agricultural week served also this time as a means o<
progagandism for the Association. This is proved by the 266 applications
for admission for membership made during the course of the show.
The town of Cassel has been chosen for the next show, which will
take place about the same time of year, in 191 2. Strasburg has been
fixed on for that of 1913.
When we consider the figures given for previous shows, we find that,
on an average, to each of the 23 shows that had been held up to 1909
there had been sent: 388 horses, 943 head of cattle, 546 sheep, 464 pigs,
114 goats, 979 head of poultry, 89 rabbits, 128 fish, 1900 exhibits of agri-
cultural produce and 4,710 agricultural machines and implements.
On an average, as prizes there have been awarded 275 artistic objects
and medals, and 93,322 marks in money.
But the following table will give fuller information on the financial
results of these shows:
9o
GERMANY
Attendance of visitors at> and financial results of the various Shows.
Visitors
Place and Year
of
Show
No.
of
Tickets
taken
Amount
Received
for
Tickets
Receipts and Expenditure
Total
Receipts
Total
Expenses
Surplus
or deficit
Frankfort on Main
(South Germany) ... 1887
Breslau (Region East
of the Elbe) 1887
Magdeburg (Region
West of the Elbe). . 1888
Slrasburg (South Ger-
many) l88y
Bremen (Region West
of the Elbe) 189 1
Konigsberg (Region
East of the Elbe) . . 1 892
Munich (South Germa-
ny) l893
Berlin (Region East of
the Elbe) 1S9:
Cologne on the Rhine
(Region West of the
Elbe) 1895
Stuttgard Cannstadt
(South Germany) ... 1896
Hamburg (Region East
of the Elbe) 1897
Dresden (Region West
of the Elbe) 1898
Frankfort en Main
(South Germany) . . . 1899
Posen (Region East of
the Elbe) 1900
Halle on Saale (Region
West of the Elbe). . 1901
Mannheim (South Ger-
many) 1902
49.936
49- 3o 1
75>287
101,964
72,711
44.287
106,654
156,046
56,146
1 14 64S
i6S,5I5
1 1 1, 60S
146,487
/5,oo6
167,385
129 987
64,604.21
70,538.80
98,685.—
95.536.6o
97,655.20
56694.75
127,306.60
169120.S0
83.325.20
131,507.94
217,498.90
129,133.90
157,485.80
82,612.55
185,005.60
116,805.50
134,002.55
*96-357-3o
203,673.10
205548.13
150622.93
252,634.21
316,657.12
191,950.50
260,454.95
375.328.27
132,655.18
187,025.71
186,214.99
238,i39-47
276,525.88
224,596.43
254.532
368,757.68
261,808.77
353.36o.88
371,788,67
263,455.90 379-960
331,000.58
249.375-41
362.443.18
298,272.58
388,531.69
335,022.58
381,241.51
389,655-98
+ 1,347-37
— 49,034.06
+ 10,142.31
— 34,466.37
— 70.977-75
— 73,973-5o
— 1,898.68
— 52,100.56
— 69,858.27
— 92,905.93
+ 3,539-6o
— 116,505.08
— 57,531-n
85,647.17
— 18,798-33
— 9 it 383-40,
PRESENT CONDITION OF AGRICULTURAL ASSOCIATION
91
Visitors
Receipts and Expenditure
Place and Year
of
Show
No.
of Tickets
taken
Amount
Received
for
Tickets
Total
Receipts
Total
Expenses
Surplus
or deficit
Hanover (Region West
Danzig (Region East of
the Elbe) 1904
Munich (South Germa-
Berlin (Region East of
the Elbe) 1906
Dusseldorf (Region
West of the Elbe). . 1907
Stuttgart (South Ger-
Leipzig (Region West
of the Elbe) 1909
227,192
92.°53
217083
325,906
235.870
237,499
326,345
269,977,9°
103,528.35
200,6l6.IO
356,060.40
253,"3-25
215,063.23
323,561.68
475,801.85
275.380.94
380,365.21
609,580,71
468,340.93
398,299.29
547,148.91
440,349.14
4I9>474-92
397,985.21
583,011.57
443,821.31
441,675.48
509JI4.60
+ 35,452-7I
— 144,093.98
— 26,435.21
4- 26,569.14
4- 24,519.62
— 43,376.19
4- 37,434-31
The co-operative action of the Deutsche Landwirtschaftsgesellschafi is
manifested in collective purchase of chemical manure and fodder.
This Society sold 435 millions of Kilogrammes of chemical manure to
its members in 1909.
And as regards seeds :
2,984,341 Kg. of cereal and leguminous seeds
385,300 » of clover and grass seeds
1,466,070 » of potatoes
233,124 » various kinds
5,068,835 Kg.
While it always keeps its technical or economical character, as we have
seen, the work of this society is multiform and very various. It is always
tending to extend its field, without, for that, abandoning the well organized
plan of action it has traced for itself.
Since the start, the reception it has met with has been most favourable
and many members have freely granted their collaboration.
The number of persons that every year take part in the ÏV&ndei
sammlungen (Itinerant Assemblies), in the shows, the itinerant courses,
and in the tours of instruction, show the general interest it has been able
to awake, and, consequently , the success it has obtained.
92 GERMANY
Besides this agricultural association of universal character, there are
others of more limited scope, but yet of a certain importance. We must
mention first of all :
2) Klub der Landwirte (Farmers' Club).
It was founded in 1866; its headquarters are in Berlin, and its object
is to serve as a centre and meeting place for farmers, as well as to permit
of the easier establishment of direct relations between them and honour-
able men of business. A great merit of this club is its having largely-
contributed to the foundation of the Kongress deutscher Landwirte, of the
Deutsche Landwirtschaftsgesellschaft, and a number of other associations.
It continually gives subventions to some of these, and in the month of May
of each year it organizes a show of fattened cattle. In winter, it arranges
for weekly lectures, of which reports are published in the Nachrichten aus
dem Klub der Landwirte (Agricultural Club News).
3) Deutscher Verein fur làndliche Wohlfahrts und Heimatspflege
(German association for fostering agricultural wellbeing and for the home).
This association has its headquarters in Berlin. It interests itself in the
wellbeing and in the education of the rural population and publishes the
following reviews and newspapers: a) Das Land (The Country); 6) Die
Kreis— ?cnd Gemeindeverwaltung (District and Communal administration);
c) Die Dorfkirche (The Village Church) ; d) Deutsche Dorfzeitung (Village
Newspaper) and e) Deutsche Dorfbote (Village Courier).
4) Gesellschaft fur Geschichte und Litter atur der Landwirtschaft
(Association for Agricultural History and Literature).
Founded in 1904, at Eisenach, it has for its organ the Landwirtsehajt-
lich-historische Blatter (Agricultural Historical Review).
The following associations have a more economic character.
5) Deutscher Milchwirtschajtlicher Verein (German Dairy Associa-
tion), founded in Bremen, in 1847.
6) Verein der Spiritusfabrikanten in Deutschland (German Distil-
lers' Association).
Founded in 1857, lis headquarters are in Berlin. It has 4,600 mem-
bers in all regions of the Empire, and it publishes the Zeitschrift fur
Spiritus- Indus trie (Distillers' Review).
7) Verein der deutschen Zuckerindustrie (German Sugar Industry
Association).
Its headquarters are in Berlin. The members are divided into two
classes : one for the manufacture of raw sugar, the other for refining. It is
a kind of Federation and consists of eleven departmental associations, and,
besides, acts as an insurance co-operative society for the German Sugar
Manufacturers against losses they may have through accidents to their
workmen in their labour, for which they are made responsible by the
PRESENT CONDITION OF AGRICULTURAL ASSOCIATION 93
German Haftpflicht Gesetz (Law on accidents in labour). This associa-
tion has for its organ the Zeitschrift der Vereins des deutschen Zuckerin-
dustrie.
8) Verein zur Hebttng des Zuckerverbrauchs (Association for the
increase of sugar consumption).
Founded in 1909, its headquarters are in Berlin.
9) Verein ztir Forderung der Moorkultur im Deutschen Reiche
(Association for the encouragement of the cultivation of marshy lands).
Founded in 1883, it has its headquarters in Berlin.
***
The agricultural employees or workmen have the following Associa-
tions.
10) Berliner Verein deutscher Landwirtschaftsbeamten (Berlin Asso-
ciation of German Agricultural Employees).
Founded in 1866. Its organ is the newspaper Der Landwirtschafts .
beamte (The Agricultural Employee).
1 1) Fiirsorge- Verein fiir dentsche Riickwandrer (Association to pro-
vide for the needs of returning emigrants).
This Association was established at Berlin, on the Ist October, 1908.
It had at first an office for emigrants returning home. Its special object
was to bring these emigrants back to the country and back to agriculture-
In the first year of its activity this association succeeded in regaining for
Germany 1,200 families, for the members of which it obtained situations
as agricultural and forestry workmen. Sometimes even it got them sent
out as metayers, especially in the Eastern provinces.
Finally, we cannot pass without mention some independent associations
occupied in the rearing and protection of domestic animals, in pisciculture,
and in garden produce.
1 2) Deutsche Gesellschaftfilr Zuchtungskunde (German livestock im-
provement association).
It was founded in 1906. Its headquarters are in Berlin. Its object is
to encourage the science and practice of livestock improvement. Agricul-
tural Associations and representative bodies may be members of it, equally
with individuals.
1 3) Vereinigung der Zuchter eines schweren Arbeitspferdes in Deutsch-
land (Association for breeders of strong draught horses in Germany).
This Association was founded in 1903. It interests itself in every race
of draught horse (Belgian, Shires, Schleswig, etc.). Its President is Herr
v. Natzmer, Trebendorf, district of Sorau.
94
GERMANY
il
14) Vereinigung deutscher Schweinezûchter (Pig-breeder's Associa-
tion).
Its headquarters are in Berlin. It has two divisions.
A general division occupies itself with the rearing of the pigs, their
fattening etc., and publishes a paper Mitteilungen der Vereinigung deutscher
Schweinezûchter (Communications of the Pig-breeder's Association). The
other division, the bacteriological, studies the diseases of pigs and their
remedies.
15) Klub deutscher Geflugelzuchter (Poulterers' Club).
It has its headquarters in Berlin, and serves as a federation for 40 local
associations, with nearly 4,500 members in all.
16) Deutscher Imkerbund (German Bee-keepers' League).
This is a federation of 40 associations, numbering 90,002 members an
has for its President, the Pastor Sydow, atKlanin, in the district of Koslin.
17) Deutscher Fischerei-Verein (German Pisciculture Association),
Founded in 1870, this association was re-organized in 1906. Its head-
quarters are in Berlin. Its object is to favour pisciculture, and river and lake
fishing. Among its members are included 84 honourary or correspondent
members, 480 ordinary members, 280 forestry offices (Forsterei) and
21 schools.
The organ of the German pisciculture association is the Allgemeine
Fischer ei-Zeitung (General Fishing Journal). For its scientific publications
it uses the Zeitschrift fur Fischerei (Fishing Review).
In the month of November, 1893, a large number of associations ol
pisciculture from all parts of Germany united to found the Deutsche Fische-
reirat. This German Board of Pisciculture was affiliated to the Deutscher
Fischer eivereine. The total number of members of this federation is now
about 33,000.
18) Deutscher Pomologen- Verein in Eisenach (German Fruitgrowers'
Association in Eisenach).
It was founded in i860. Its object is to favour scientific researches
with regard to the cultivation of fruit trees, and to give its members the
education the subject demands.
It publishes the Deutsche Obstbauzeitung (German Journal of Fruit-
culture) and the Grosshandels-Obstmarktberichte (Wholesale Fruit Market
Intelligence), which give lists of the prices asked and offered for fruit.
19) Volkswirtschajtlicher Verein zur Fôrderung der Obst- u. Gemusc-
verwertung in Deutschland (Economic Association for the encouragement
of the use of fruit and vegetables in Germany).
Its object is to promote propagandism in every class of society in fa-
vour of the consumption of fruit and vegetables, and the manufacture of
preserves.
PRESENT CONDITION OE AGRICULTURAL ASSOCIATION 95
§ 3. Political Agricultural Associations.
This is a form of agricultural association formerly almost unknown,
but which in the last twenty years has made rapid progress. The struggle
between the classes, which has made itself more and more felt ever since
the foundation of the German Empire, has forced the farmers also to
follow the example of the capitalists, the commercial classes, and, above
all, the workmen, and to unite in a league for the legitimate defence of their
economic, and. consequently, also political, interests. The first Agricultural
Association of Germany, which was founded with the evident intention
of exerting an influence upon legislation, in favour of the rural classes,
wns the:
1) Vereinigung der Steuer-uni I Virisehaftsrefor mer (Association for
the reform of economic taxes and principles).
This association, the members of which were called, for short, « agra-
rians », was founder! in the winter of 1875-1876. It had its headquarters
in Berlin. According to its regulations it desired « to spread among the
people economic ideas and principles useful for everyone », ideas and
principles based upon the Christian Religion, and which it would strive
to get understood by the legislative bodies. In the spring of 1894, the
German Farmers' Congress united with it.
The management of its affairs is entrusted to a board of directors
(engeres Komitse) and to a Committee (Aussclivsi), the number of whose
members is not limited. This association, which, even to day, enjoys
a certain influence, contended energetically in favor of the establishment
of the protectionist system as to imports.
The object this association had proposed to itself was, in great part,
realized when, in 1879, the German Parliament accepted the proposal of
a tax of 1 Y2 mark per ton on imported corn. This tax, increased to
3 marks in 18S5, and even to 6 marks in 1887, allowed the farmers to
devote a great part of their efforts to the cultivation of corn. It guaran-
teed them, in spite of the high price of land and of labour, incomes with
which it was possible for them to live in a certain comfort. When, on
the other hand, under the Ministry of the second Chancellor of the Empire,
Caprivi, free trade ideas prevailed, the farmers believed their most vital
interests were threatened. To hinder a customs policy that might have
ruined them by thousands in a moment, they associated together, imitat-
ing in this the example of the best organized political party, that of the
socialists. The count of Limburg-Stirum was one of the first to oppose
the new bill. Others followed. * A Committee was formed on the initiative
of Herr Ruprecht Ransern, Herr von Ploetz and Doctor Roesicke-Gôrsdorf.
A planot action was prepared, and at once presented to the small as-
96 GERMAN
sembly of 120 delegates, sent by the farmers of the different regions of
Germany. There was then a large assembly called together on the 18 th
February, 1893, at the Tivoli beer establishment. There, about 15,000
German farmers voted, unanimously, that agriculture must be represented
in Parliament in a manner corresponding to its importance in the country,
and that, to attain this end, a federation must be founded, to take account
of its interests, without occupying itself with the political opinions of the
deputies. This Federation should take the name of
2. Bund der Landwirie (Farmers' Confederation).
The new confederation was registered as an association on the 22nd
February.
Soon after it commenced action. This was in 1S94. It contended
against the conclusions of a commercial treaty. The compaign this time
undertaken by it ended in a defeat. But it was no less true that the farmers
saw, for the first time, how formidable a weapon they possessed in this
political Association. A great number of new adhesions was the indirect
consequence. The number of members, which at date of foundation was
already 178,000, had risen in May, 1894, to 201,000.
To day there are 312,000 of all classes, but especially of owners of
small or average-sized properties. The majority live in the northern and
eastern regions of Germany.
In organization the Bund der Landwirte is very centralized.
All Christian farmers, who are of age, may be members, provided they
accept the rules of the confederation, and pay the required subscription. The
subscriptions are in proportion to the area of land occupied by the farmers.
They generally pay 4.5 % of the nett revenue of the land, as calculated
for the land tax, or 15 pfennig per hectare. A reduction may be allowed
in case of sums exceeding 100 marks. Persons who are not farmers may
also enter into this association. For that they pay what subscription they
wish, but the minimum has been fixed at 3 marks.
The association is managed by a presidential board and a permanent
committee. The first is composed of two presidents and a vice-president
( Vorsitzendé), a director, 2 vice-directors (Direktore?i) and 1 1 other per-
sons. The permanent committee (Ausschnss) is composed of the presi-
dential board and 51 representatives for the different States. All the
members of the confederation meet once a year in general assembly.
The permanent office is in Berlin, in a building belonging to the Bund.
With the above mentioned directors at its head, it has also a considerable
staff of employees. Some are. occupied with politics; the work of others
is concerned with economy and especially with co-operation. Besides the
central office, there are 14 other offices in the provinces. The political
propagandism is carried on by numerous lecturers who have first followed
a course of instruction in Berlin. After that, they go through the country
PRESENT CONDITION OF AGRICULTURAL ASSOCIATION 97
districts. Their tours take place especially in winter, but some are made
also in summer. There was in 1909 a total of 89 lecturers of this cha-
racter. The number of lectures prepared in 1909, of which 610 served for
the elections, was 9,285.
In order to have more effect on the public in election times the con-
federation has divided Germany into a certain number of divisions, accord-
ing to the states and the provinces. Each of these divisions is first sub-
divided into districts corresponding to the constituencies for election to the
Reichstag. A second, third and fourth subdivision, are made for district
groups and other fractions, to which the names of principal groups and
local groups are given.
A certain number of reviews and newspapers, more or less directly
dependent on the Bund, collaborate in this political work. The most im-
portant of these papers, the Deutsche Tages Zeitung, was founded, if not
by the Bund itself, at least by some of its most important members. Be-
sides the Deutsche Tageszeitung, there are: the Berliner Blatt, the Deutsche
Agrarkorrcspondenz, the Korrespondenz des Blindes der Landwirte, the
Bund der Landwirte, the Illuslrierte Landwirtschaftliche Zeitung, the
Deutsche Agrarzeiiung, etc. These are papers, which, as we have just
said, are more or less directly dependent upon the confederation and have
altogether an issue of 300,000 copies. But it must be added that, in the
whole Empire, there are quite 234 papers, inspired by the tendencies of this
association.
As we have already indicated, the Bund is not a political party pro-
perly so-called, but if its electors support a candidate, it is on the condition
of his engaging to vote in favour of certain desiderata of the federation.
Its candidates belong to different political parties. They are, for the most
part, conservatives, liberal conservatives, and national liberals.
For assurance that these candidates duly maintain their promises,
there are confidential agents to keep a check on them, and extensive
secret archives, where are files of papers referring to each of them per-
sonally.
In its political action the Bund is in accord with the Bauernvereine
(Peasants' Associations) of which we shall speak presently. These are,
however, distinguished from the Bund by their generally decidedly Catholic
tendencies.
The political action of the Bund has had very great success. Every
bill in favour of agriculture, as also the famous Kanitz proposal to place
the grain trade in the hands of the State, has had the support of the Con-
federation.
But far from limiting itself to a purely political action, it has rather
striven to contribute in every possible way to the well being of its mem-
bers and of the agricultural class.
9g GERMANY
It has created for them a great library, an office of legal information,
an insurance office to assist them in making collective contracts with the
great offices of insurance and a book-keeping department which, for
a small charge, undertakes to keep their books for the members (in 1909
for 725 landowners). The Bund has besides founded other institutions
of a co-operative character, for example, for the insurance of pigs against
trichina. Members, who have been compelled, by the State Supervision
Office, to kill and destroy their pigs, if attacked by the trichina, receive
an indemnity from the Bund, representing the entire value of the animals
lost, without their having to pay any insurance premium for this. There
is also a co-operative department for the collective purchase of articles
of every character, one for collective purchase of manures, of pure seeds,
and of machines of guaranteed quality. In 1901, this last supplied ma-
chines to the value of a million marks, and founded 24 co-operative socie-
ties for the collective use of the machines. The department for supplying
seeds obtained 200,000 marks worth of them. The confederation for the
work of these various institutions has founded a limited liability society at
Berlin, the Verkàufstelle des Bandes der Landwirte, which next year will
have its own building.
Since there are agricultural co-operative societies that, for one reason
or another, do not desire to enter the great federations of co-operative so-
cieties, as, for example, the Federation of the Empire, the Bund has founded
for them a confederation for the examination of their books, and, in 1909
there belonged to it 416 co-operative societies, and a central Bank which
renders it possible for them to obtain credit from the Prussian co-opera-
tive credit bank, which is not allowed to independent co-operative so-
cieties.
If, finally, to all this is added the fact that the Bund took the initia-
tive in founding and subsidising the Internationale Vereinigung fur Stand
vnd Bildung der Gctreidepreise (International Association for fixing and
maintaining the price of corn) we must allow that it has merited well of
its members, of Germany, and even of the world at large. It was in 1900,
at the International Congress for the sale of corn, that Dr. Roesicke, pre-
sident of the Bund, and also one of its founders, proposed the foundation
of an international committee to occupy itself with the study of the mea-
sures to be taken for the better organization of the international corn market.
The proposal was accepted.
Two years later, in 1902, the committee, with some changes, became
the international association which we have just mentioned, to which France,
Austria and Germany, at once gave their adhesion.
It was also the Bund which, advancing a large proportion of the funds
necessary, encouraged the foundation of the newspaper Getreidemarkt (Com-
market), constituted as a company with liability limited by shares, and serv-
PRESENT CONDITION OF AGRICULTURAL ASSOCIATION 99
ing as the organ of the International Association. Tnis paper, the edi-
torship of which was entrusted to Prof. Ruhland, an economist very well
known in agricultural circles, published, twice a month, very important in-
formation as to the conditions of the grain markets throughout the world.
But, for various reasons, i'43 undertaking, which had begun with a capital
of 120,000 marks, di. n . prosper, and was compelled to limit its field of
action. The paper, tliv.s transformed, appeared under the title of Marktzci-
tnng (Market newspaper), as a supplement to the Illustricrte landwirtschaft-
liche Zeitung.
The Vereinigung der christlichen dcutsclicn Bauernvereine (Federation
of the Peasants' Christian Associations) is for the South of the Empire what
the Farmers' Federation is for the North and the East.
The first of these associations was founded in 1862, at Alst in West-
phalia.
The idea was due to Baron Schorlemer-Alst.
This man enjoyed such popularity among the peasants as to be some
times called, " the Peasants' King ". The association was founded pre-
cisely at the same time as Schulze-Delitzsch and Raiffeisen «-ere founding
their first co-operative societies. When Schorlemer, after service in the
army, retired to his estates, he found the small proprietors in the greatest
poverty, the result of bad seasons, usury and incapacity to adapt them-
selves to the great changes that had taken place in economy generally,
and no longer permitted them to maintain the old patriarchal system, but
forced them more and more to become commercial and enterprising.
Schorlemer felt great compassion for their poverty, and, seeking what re-
medies might be applied to their ills, he came to results similar to those
Raiffeisen and Schulze-Delitzsch had come to.
" Self help " was the only means to apply, but until the peasants
were capable of helping themselves, they must be guided a little and hab-
ituaded to the idea of collective production. The form of these associa-
tions only aims at this. Several of them have a somewhat clerical caracter,
but their aim is not so expressly political as that of the Bund der Landwirte.
Their object is rather co-operation and education.
The earliest associations of this character were suppressed by the Pruss-
ian Government during the famous Kultiu kampf, on account of their too
pronounced clericalism. Schorlemer-Alst submitted. He decided to dis-
solve the various local associations, but created in their place a single as-
sociation for the whole of Westphalia, the Westphalischen Bauernvcvr^i
(Westphalian Peasants' Association).
In course of time, the Government itself came to recognize, and
that more and more^ the value of the work accomplished by Schorle-
mer-Alst.
GERMANY
Other associations on the model of the Westphalian Bauernverein have
been founded.
Thus, after it, there were formed:
2) the Schlesischer Bauernverein (Silesian Peasants' Association)
in 1881. This Association has its headquarters at Breslau. The number
of members is at present 15.000;
3) the Badischer Bauernverein (Association of the Peasants of the
Grand Duchy of Baden), founded in 1885. Its headquarters are at Frei-
burg. Its members are 71,000;
4) Bayrischer Bauernverein (Bavarian Peasants' Association), founded
in 1893. This association numbers 152,000 members;
5) Elsass-Lothringer Bauemwerein (Association of the Peasants of
Alsace-Lorraine), founded in 1896. The total number of its members is
about 1,000;
6) Hessischer Bauernverein (Associations of the Peasants of the Grand
Duchy of Hesse), founded in 1883. It has 4,500 members;
7) Erm land Use her Bauernverein (Association of theErmland Peasants),
founded in 1882. Number of members, 7,500;
8) Nassauischer Bauernverein (Association of the Peasants of Hesse-
Nassau), founded in 1881. Number of members, 3,700;
9) Rheinischer Bauernverein (Association of the Peasants of the Rhen-
ish Provinces), founded in 1882. Number of members, 58,000;
10) Trierischer Bauernvereiyi (Association of the Peasants of the
Treves district), founded in 1884. Number of members, 28,000.
Each of these associations possesses its organ. Since they are created
rather for the small land holders they do not confine themselves to poli-
tical and economic work, but they do all they can also to raise the level
of the intellectual culture of their members.
Although the total number of their members, 373,000, is superior to
that of the Bund der Landwirte (312,000), generally speaking, they have
had much less influence. The reason of this is, partly, the private and
almost local work they accomplish, but this inferiority is also to be expla-
ined by their want of a central organization.
To remedy this last defect, the 10 associations united on the 24th No-
vember, 1 910, in the:
Dculscher Bauernverein (German Peasants' Association).
The Deutscher Bauernverein is a rather loose confederation. The
direction or " presidency" is alternately entrusted to one or other of the
associations. At present it is the turn of the Bavarian association. The
President just now is Dr. G. Heim and the general secretary, Herr I. Sigl.
From the point of view of co-operation, these associations have been of
great importance. Several of them have offices for collective purchase.
PRESENT CONDITION OF AGRICULTURAL ASSOCIATION 101
It is also intended later on to found an office of this character for the
confederation.
To sum up, the associations of this type, like all the other German
associations, have known how to adapt themselves to the needs of farmers
in the most different regions, and of widely different social classe. It cannot
be denied thant the associations have greatly contributed to the develop-
ment of German griculture, and it is above all thanks to them that the
discontent and the isolation of the farmers is not as pronounceu as it might
be, considering the ever growing preponderance of industry and com-
merce.
BELGIUM
GENERAL INTRODUCTION.
Some Demographic and Economic Statistics.
Sources:
Belgian Statistical Annual, 1909 (Ministry of !he Interior and of Agriculture'). Brus-
sels, 19 10.
General Census for 1905, published by the Miuistry of Agriculture and of Public Works,
Brussels, 1900.
Agricultural Census for 1908, published by the Ministry of Agriculture. Brussels, 1909.
General table of Foreign Commerce for the year 190P. Brussels, 1909.
A. — Territory a<:d Papulation.
Area: 29,455 sq. km.
Population on the 31st December, 1900: 6,693,548.
Density of population per sq. km. on the 31st December, 1900: 227.25.
Estimated Population for the 31st December, 1908: 7,386,444.
Density of Estimated Population for the 31st December, 1908, per
sq. km.: 251.
Distribution of the population according to professions, 1900:
1
!
1
! . ... S Independent
Agnculluie ç „ \ ,
1 & J Employed . .
1 Industry
1 Commerce
Men
: icn Total
341,653 : ioS,249
192,012 ! 55.45s
1,049,528 j 322,723
248,336 j 136,900
485,234 j 36o>°55
449.902
247,470
1,372,251
385.236
845,289
13-6 /
> 21. I
7-5 \
41.6
II. 7
25. 6
| Other Occuoaiious
:
Total. . .
1
2,316,763 983,385
3,300,14s
100. 00
Movement of Population in 1908:
Birth rate per 1,000 inhabitants
Dort t h » » »
24.89
16.51
BSi (;:um
Illiterates :
19.12 % of the population of more than 8 years of age, according
to the census 01 19
8.46 % of the young men called upon to draw iota tor military ser-
vice in 1908.
Emigration in 1908: 32,294.
Immigration in 1908: 38,155.
B. — Agricultnre, Forests and Fisheries.
Distribution of the agricultural land in 1895:
Area of ordinary cultivation . . . 1,916,690 hectares
Woods 521,495 »
Uncultivated lands 169,329 »
Total
2,607,514 hectares
Principal products in 1908 on farms of an area of at least one
aectare :
Area Protliction
Hectares Quintals
Wheat 152,803 3,644,904
Winte Barley 30,659 846,816
Oats 254,978 6,249,976
Rye 258,135 5.638,947
Potaoes 141,340 22,547,030
Sugar Beets 51,640 1 5.599,38?
Beetroot for fodder 65,155 37,990,040
Distribution of farms according to size, in T895:
Less than
1 hectare .
From 1
to 5 hectares
» 5
» 10 »
» 10
» 20 »
» 20
» 30 »
» 30
» 40 ■ »
» 40
» 50 »
50 hectares and over.
•
544,041
191.833
49,065
28,151
8,163
3.187
1,601
3.584
829,625
•SOME DEMOGRAPHIC AND ECONOMIC STATISTICS
Value of Forest Produce, according to the average revenue for the
years 1877, 1878, 1879: 21,653,482 frs.
Live-stock on the 31st December, 190S:
Horses employed for agriculture 253,431
Horned cattle 1,861,412
Pigs 1,161,761
Sea Fishing:
Product of the cod fishery in 1907 . . . 2,145 kg.
» » great herring fishery in 1908 241,000 »
Value of the products of the small herring fishery in 1908. 317,051 frs.
» ;> » » tidal fisheries in 1908 . . . 6,242,603 »
C. — Mines, Manufactures and Commerce.
Mines:
Number of quarries in 1908. . . . 1,680
Value of products of quarries in 1908 62,874,600 frs.
Number of workmen occupied in the
quarries in 1908 36,877
Value of the produce of mines of me-
tallic ore in 1908 1,300,100 frs.
Number of coal mines worked in 1908. 130
Quantity of produce from coal mines
in 1908 23,557,900 tonnes (1,000 kgs).
Total value of the produce of coal
mines in 190S 380,578,000 francs.
Motors employed in mines, factories, manufacturing and agricultural
industry in 1908: 27,485.
Horsepower of said motors: 2,347,186.
Steam boilers employed in the mines, factories, manufacturing and agri-
cultural industr)' in 1908: 25,556.
Special trade in 1908, in millions of francs:
Imports 3,327.4
Exports 2,506.4
io6
BEI.GTUM
D, — Navigation and Inland Communication.
Shipping movement in 1908:
Belgian Ships
Foreign Ships
Total. . .
Entered
Cleared
Number Tonnage
Number T image
1,871
S.3S5
1.467,495
11,941,836
1,872
8,396
1,474,296
11,966,797
10,256
13.409.331
10,268
13.441,093
Length of railways worked at the end of 1908: 4,663,455 metres.
Length of navigable waterways on 31st December, 1908: 2,171,469
metres.
E. — State Finances.
Revenue in 1907 .
Expenditure in 1907
708,258,897 frs.
767,772,763 »
Money, Weights and Measures.
Unit of value: the franc of 100 centimes. Belgium belongs to the Latin
coinage league.
Weights and measures of the decimal metrical system.
IL — MONOGRAPHS.
Agricultural Organization in Belgium.
Bibliography.
I. — Official Publications :
i) Ministry of Agriculture : Statistical Statement of the Situation of the Associations
concerned with Agriculture for the Year 1900.
2 Ministry of Agriculture: List of the Societies concerned with Agriculture on the 31st
December, 190T.
3 Ministry of Agriculture : Agricultural Monographs for the différents Region of Belgium.
4) Ministry of Industry : Bulletin of the Agricultural Administration.
5) Ministry of Agriculture and Labour: Labour Review.
6) Le Moniteur Belge [Belgian Monitor) (Official Newspaper).
7) Legislation.
a) Law of the 18th May, 1873, amended by law of the 22nd May, 18S6 (upon So-
cieties).
b\ Law of the 31st March, 1S98 (upon Professional Unions)
<) Law of the 23rd June, 1894, completed by law of the 19th March, 1S98 (upon the
Mutual Societies).
</)Law of the 18th July, i860, amended by law of the 4th April, 1890 (upon Agricul-
tural Education).
e) Law of the 16th May, 1901 (upon Credit Unions).
II. — Publications of the Co-operative Associations:
1 1 The organs of the Landbouwersbond, of the Bocrenbond, of the Federation of the
Provinces of Liège, Hainaut, Luxemburg, West Flanders, the Province of Namur
and the Brabant Social Work Office.
2) Journal of the Central Belgian Agricultural Society.
III. — Other Publications :
BERTRAND L. : Histoire de la coopération en Belgique. Bruxelles, Dechenne, 1902 {His-
tory of Co-operation in Belgium. Brussels, Dechenne, IÇ02).
Malherbe G. : Les syndicats agricoles. Bruxelles, Schepens, 1900 (Agricultural Syndi-
cales. Brussels, Schepens, tqoo).
MALHERBE et Schreïeer : [/assurance et la réassurance du bétail. Bruxelles, Schepens, 1900
[Cattle Insurance and Reinsurance. Brus te Is, Schepens, /çoo).
to* BEI l
MELLAÈRTS Y. (Rev.): Les caisses rurales d'épargne et le credit d'après le système Raif-
feisen {Rural Savings and Credit Banks on the Raiffeisen System). Louvain, Istas, 1S93.
THÉATE Th. Les Unions professionnelles. Commentaire de la loi du 31 mars 189S
(Professional Unions. Commentary on the Law of the Jist March, iSçS) Louvain,
Van Linthout, 1907, 4thEdition.
TOBBACK, Manuel sur les associations mutualistes. Bruxelles [Manual of the Mutual As-
sociations. Brussels).
Trigaut J. : Les caisses rurales en Belgique et à l'étranger. Bruxelles, Schepens, 1903
{Rural Banks in Belgium and Abroad. Brussels, Schepens, iqoj).
Turmann M.: Les associations rurales en Belgique (Rural Associations in Belgium). Paris,
Lecoffre, 1909.
Yanukkvei.de E.: La coopération rurale en Belgique. Revue d'économie politique, jan-
vier 1902 {Rural Co-operation in Belgium. Political Economy Review. January, IÇ02).
Vermeersch A.: Manuel social. La législation et les œuvres en Belgique {Co-operative
Manual. Legislation and Works in Belgium). 1 vol. Louvain, A. Uystpruyst, 1909. 3rd edition.
Want of space prevents us from giving a more extended list of the sources to which
we have had recourse in the preparation of our article. We have limited ourselves to
noting the most important publications, whether officiai or private, or issued by the Fed-
erations.
Introduction.
Before Î890, there were only a small number of rural associations in
Belgium; the movement in favour of these associations really only began
to assume importance in 1S95. But, although this movement is only of
recent origin, yet we see that to-day the Belgian agricultural associations
are already flourishing and that every day they gain in vigor.
The causes occasioning this movement were, first of all, those met
with everywhere. The scientific and industrial evolution of modern agri-
culture, recommending the employment of chemical manure and the sub-
stitution of machines for hand labour, brought about a transformation
requiring a capital exceeding the financial resources of any individual
farmer. It seemed urgent also to suppress the intermediary in the trade
in produce, because the gains he reahsed were so much loss to the farm-
ers. Association, instead, facilitates the accumulation of the capital nec-
essary for immediate collective purchase of machines and power. In this
way the farmers not only gain what before constituted the profits of the
intermediaries, but also, thanks to purchase made collectively, manage
to buy at much more reasonable prices, and by collective sale get excel-
lent terms for their produce.
Such was the first step in the era of reforms. In the second place,
the just appreciation of the profits to be derived from a scientific system
of cattle breeding bas?d upon biological laws and upon the marve'lous
results of heredity urged those concerned to enter the breeding syndicates,
AGRICULTURAL ORGANIZATION îoq
the precise object of which is to extend the necessary scientific ideas and
to encourage breeders whose cattle is of good stock and fine appearance.
This is how this new type of agricultural association, especially widespread
in Belgium, originated in the substitution of scientific instruction for prac-
tical routine.
The co-operative dairy also owes its existence to the progress of
science. The centrifugal cream separators allowed of a greater yield of cream,
and consequently of butter, from the milk; now, the farmers, who could
not individually get these machines for themselves, can, by means of the
co-operative societies, set up real dairy establishments provided with every
improvement of modern industry. It has besides always been the need
of applying agricultural technique and machinery which has taught every
country the utility of rural associations.
Besides these causes of a general character, others must be mentioned
of a more special kind. Amongst these last the action of the authorities
has gready contributed to the flourishing condition of the Agricultural
Associations.
The Government action, exerted especially through the medium of
the Ministry of Agriculture, founded in 1884, is felt everywhere, but it is
more especially displayed under the three following forms: 1st, Agricul-
tural education organized in its different forms and in its different degrees;
2nd, propaganda in view of the creation of rural associations; 3nd, direct
assistance, by means of subsidies to the associations.
Agricultural education was regulated by the law of the i8thjuly, i860,
which founded an Institute of Higher Agricultural Education, a secondary
school of agriculture and two practical schools of horticulture and agricul-
ture, at the expense of the State. It further granted subsidies to the
courses of agricultural education established by the communes, the so-
cieties and even private persons.
This first attempt having given excellent results, a reform of the
existing law was contemplated to enlarge the limits of its programme,
and give it a more extended range. This was .done by the law of the
4th April, 1890, which definitely established the organization of agricul-
tural education.
This organization includes: two institutes 'or higher education (a State
Agricultural Institute at Genebloux and a l>ec Agronomic Institute at-
tached to the Catholic'University of Louvain)- for secondary education, three
agricultural schools (at Carlsbourg, at Louvière and at Huy); 15 agricul-
tural divisions (distributed uniformly over the country); six schools of pro-
fessional instruction in horticulture (at Ghent, Vilvorde, Mons, Tournai,
Liège and Carlsbourg)- 4 primary horticultural divisions for young girls,
at Remagne, Heverlé, Helmet and Overyssche; 10 primary horticultural
divisions for your.^ people a' Louvain, Lokeren, Knesselaere, Antwerp,
, ; ■ BELGIUM
Wetteren, Hœylaert Charleroi, WaSseiger, Horibn-Hozémont and Opwyck;
besides, extended courses of horticulture (itinerant divisions) at Roulers,
Malines, Vorst, Alost, Boistfort, Lacken, Looz, Lahamaide and Haecht; and
courses of agronomy, in the royal athenaeums and free establishments, to the
number of about seventy each year.
For instruction i 1 household management there is a higher institute
(at Héverlé), a dozen schools and professorships of agricultural household
management in various localities and itinerant (volant) schools.
For popular education there have been instituted 17 agricultural and
9 horticultural divisions, courses of agronomy, of market garden cultivation,
tree cultivation, agriculture, poultry-breeding and the State Agronomic
Service (1). Several of these Institutions have been established by the
State, others are subsidised by it. There are, in addition, institutions
connected with agricultural education, notably the Government Botanical
Gardens, the State Chemical and Bacteriological Institute and Laboratories
of Analyses.
In this way we see how the Belgian Government, in the last twenty
years, has been able to organize agricultural education on the most ample
and solid basis.
The Belgian Goverment has also encouraged the foundation and the
development of Agricultural Associations, on the one hand, by commis-
sionino- the State Professors of Theoretical Agriculture to give numerous
lectures on the subject, on the other hand, by distributing a large number
of practical manuals and model regulations.
Further, the State encourages association among the farmers, grant-
in ; subsidies to the different kinds of association.
These subventions are far from small: thus the State furnishes a fifth
part of the expenses of purchase of agricultural machines when these ma-
chines are bought by a recognised professional union.
Subsidies are granted the agricultural professional unions, agricul-
tural, horticultural, poultry breeding and bee-keeping societies, recognised
or not, to aid them in defraying the cost of their prize competitions and
vs. They are also supplied free of charge, with the Agricultural
Bulletin and with two hundred books for registry of the names of mem-
bers and the rules of the union.
The recognised Provincial Federations, in addition to the subsidies
of which we Have just spoken, have a right also to subventions to meet
the expenses of inspection of the local unions and of lectures.
The Raiffeisen Banks receive a subsidy of 100 francs on their first
establishment and have a right to books for registration of members. The
(1) The country has been divided into 27 agronomic divisions, and in each there
- . theoretical agriculturist at the service of the public
AGRICULTURAL ORGANIZATION iti
central agricultural credit banks receive subsidies for their expenses in
inspecting the Raiffeisen Banks.
The recognised Mutual Cattle Insurance Societies and also those for
Insurance of Horses used in Agriculture, on their first establishment, re-
ceive a subsidy, fixed at a minimum of ioo francs and a maximum of
600 francs. They receive a further annual premium of 25 francs, on con-
dition of communicating the report of their previous year's operations be-
fore the 1st of March. The registers lor their members are also supplied
to them free of charge.
The Reinsurance Federations receive an annual subsidy equal to the
amount of the premiums paid into the federal office by the local societies :
yet these subsidies may not exceed 15,000 francs, per province. This gen-
erous financial assistance accorded by the Government to the free asso-
ciation gives a wonderful incentive to their formation and their progress.
Before dealing with their organization we think it desirable to give some
information with regard to the legislation.
Î. — Legislation.
The Agricultural Organization of Belgium may be divided fairly
well into two principal classes: Associations for the defence of profess-
ional interest and associations more strictly economical. This state of
things has its counterpart in the legislation. In fact the former class of
associations are regulated by the law of the 31st March, 1898; while the
co-operative associations are regulated by the laws of the 18th May, 1873
and 22nd May, 1886; the mutual societies by the laws of the 23rd June,
1S94 and the 19th March, 1898.
§ 1. Professional ^Unions.
According to the law of the 31st March, 1898, one of the forms that
an association may take, and most often does take, is that of the profess-
ional union. The Belgian professional union is an association formed
" exclusively, for the study, the protection and the advancement of their
professional interests by persons exercising for gain either the same or
similar professions, or the same trade or trades conducing to the pro-
duction of the same produce, in commerce, agriculture or the liberal pro-
fessions " (art. 2).
The Union must comprise at least seven full members.
Besides the full members the law of 1898 admits a second class of
members, the honorary members. They may be completely extraneous
to the profession; but their number may not exceed the fourth part of
lis BELGIUM
the number of the full members. In the same proportion they may also
form part of the management of the Union, but this management may
only be entrusted to Belgians or to foreigners authorized to establish
their domicile in the Kingdom and actually resident in it.
The rules and the list of members who, under any title whatever,
participate in the management or in the administration of the property,
must be deposited with the registrar of the Board of Mines, who is charged
to see if the conditions prescribed by the law have been observed in
the drafting of the rules. If this is the case, he ratifies them and orders
their publication in the Moniteur.
The Union enjoys civil personality from the tenth day after regis-
tration. Acts amending the rules, changes in the members of the board
of management or of the administration, or even voluntary dissolution of
the union are subject to the same formalities.
Finally, every year, before the ist of March, the Union sends the rat-
ifying commission an account of its receipts and its expenditure up to
the 31st December of the previous year, and, if necessary, an account
of the selling and buying operations performed under certain conditions
established by the law.
These operations may not be a source of gain for the Union and in
no case are they considered as commercial. The accounts dealing with
them are kept distinct from the other accounts of the Union.
The Professional Union may sue in the courts, and may intervene
" whether as plaintiff or defendant, for the^defence of the individual rights
of its members in their quality as such ". The Union may only possess
the real estate necessary " for the establishment of the rooms for its
assemblies, its offices, professional schools, libraries, collections, laboratories,
experimental fields, cattle shelters, machines and instruments, labour offices,
and exchanges, workshops for apprentices, homes and hospitals ".
The right of the Professional Unions to receive donations gratuitously
is subject to previous administrative authorization. The law has estab-
lished heavy fines for contraventions of these provisions. In certain special
cases of violation of the law, the dissolution of the Union may be pro-
nounced by the courts.
§ 2. Co-operative Societies.
The Belgian co-operative societies are regulated by the law of the
1 8th May, 1873, amended, in many of its details, by the law of the
22nd May, 1886.
In terms of these laws a co-operative society " is a society composed
of members the number or the contributions of which may vary, and shares
in which cannot be ceded to third parties " (Art. 1).
AGRICULTURAL ORGANIZATION
It must be composed of seven persons at least : it cannot exist without
a collective title, but it must have also a special denomination. It is ad-
ministered by one or more officers, members or not members, who are
only responsible for the charge they are entrusted with. The members
may bind themselves jointly or severally, indefinitely or for a certain fixed
amount.
The society is constituted, under pain of nullity, by spacial act, public
or in duplicate with private signature. The rules, signed by the founding
members, must be registered. Within a fortnight, a copy, with exact dupli-
cate, is deposited with the registrar of the tribunal of commerce. The reg-
istrar gives receipt and must at once send the text to the Moniteur for
publication. This publication must be made within ten days from date of
deposit. The publication only takes effect from the fifth day after insertion
in the Moniteur.
The admission of members is effected by their affixing their signatures,
preceded by the date. Resignations can only be accepted within the first
six months of the financial year. The member resigning or expelled re-
mains personally bound, within the limits of his engagements and for five
years, dating from his resignation or expulsion, to all the engagements
contracted before the end of the year in which his abandonment of the
society is published: he can not occasion the liquidation of the society.
In the interest of third parties, the law prescribes certain publications,
such as the deposit of the annual statement and the list of members and
administrators with the registrar of the tribunal of commerce of the district
in which the society has its headquarters.
In order to encourage the co-operative societies, the Belgian legislation
has exempted them from the payment of a certain number of taxes. The
law of the 2nd July, 1875, contains the list of these numerous exemptions.
§ 3. Mutual Societies.
These societies are regulated by the law of the 23rd June, 1894, com-
pleted by the law of the 19th March, 1898, and by several royal decrees.
The functions of the mutual societies are to ensure to their members
and their families temporary assistance in case of sickness or other cir-
cumstances; to facilitate affiliation to the Savings Banks, old age pension
funds, and insurance societies; to pay compensation in case of death or
disease of cattle, and in case of damage to crops from accidental causes;
to facilitate the purchase of useful articles, implements of labour, domestic
animals, manure and seeds; and finally to give loans not exceeding the sum
of 300 francs.
The law of 1894 distinguishes two types of mutual societies; the so-
cieties " with right to recognition " and those " that may be recognised ".
i 14 BELGIUM
The societies that have a right to recognition are those the objecUof which
is one of those we have already enumerated ; the others are such as have
several of these objects at one and the same time. The societies of the
second type are obliged to keep different accounts for each of the different
purposes they work for.
II. — General Sketch of Agricultural Organization.
These are then the laws regulating agricultural organization in Belgium.
We shall now show the organization itself, as we find it to-day.
We shall divide our investigation in the following manner: we shall
first speak of the official organization and we shall then describe the free
organization. This last comprises societies with one general purpose, such
as the professional unions in the strict sense of the word, and the societies
having one special object, such as the livestock improvement societies,
and the co-operative societies for purchase, sale and production.
A. — Official Organization.
§ 1. " Cornices ".
The Official Associations are instituted by decree and their organization
is invariable. In the first degree we find Agricultural Cornices, instituted
by decree of the 22nd January, 1848, organized by a new decree of the
20th October, 1849, finally regulated again by the decrees of the 18th
October, 1889 and the 21st February, 1898.
These Cornices are composed of at least 50 full members and some
honorary members. To be a full member it is necessary to be domiciled
or to reside in the district, or to possess a farm there; to be presented
by two full members and pay the minimum annual contribution fixed by
the Provincial Committee.
The Cornice has to watch over the agricultural interests within a cir-
cumscription the boundaries of which are determined by the Minister of
Agriculture and it bears the name of the locality it has itself chosen as the
place for its meetings.
§ 2. Provincial Societies of Agriculture.
The Cornices of a province form a Federation, which takes the name
of Provincial Society of Agriculture. This society is composed of delegates
from the Cornices assembling together and consists of the president of each
Cornice and. a member delegated by each of these bodies for two years.
As a rule, it meets only once a year to deal with the agricultural interests
ol its territory, to grant subsidies to the Cornices out of its central fund, etc-
AGRICULTURAL ORGANIZATION
US
The same assembly appoints a committee, charged with the general ad-
ministration of the society, under the title of Provincial Committee of
Agriculture.
§ 3. Superior Council of Agriculture.
The Superior Council of Agriculture is an advising body, composed
of two delegates, elected for six years by each of the Provincial Societies
of Agriculture, say 18 in all, and 18 members appointed by the king,
of whom 9 represent the free agricultural associations.
These 9 representatives also receive a mandate for six years, whilst
the nine other members nominated by the king are appointed annually.
The regulations for internal administration are issued by the Minister.
This superior Council has sometimes languished, but some time ago
it began a new life, and commenced the study of the most vital questions
such as the re-organization of the agricultural Cornices, agricultural insur-
ance societies and livestock improvement societies.
As to the activity of these organizations, let us remember that, in the
course of 1908, the cornices organized 6 arrondissement {district) and 90
cantonal shows.
From the Bulletin of the Agricultural Administration we learn that a
sum of 151,510 francs was set apart for these shows.
The following statistical table showing the Comices in 1908 was pre-
pared by the Department of Agriculture.
Agricultural Cornices.
Provinces
Antwerp
Brabant
West Flanders
East Flanders
Hainaut
Liège
Limbourg ,
Luxembourg
Namur ,
Total. . .
Number
Number
of
of
Cornices
Members
19
2,794
20
4,094
13
2,930
28
5.364
14
3-447
14
4,872
13
1,452
20
7,669
17
2,666
158
35,288
Amount
of Revenue
(including the
subsidies and all
balance from the
preceding year)
Amount
of
Expenditure
35.823
59,968
44.334
48,492
42,871
67,80s
14,906
54,633
41,953
410,788
29.936
43,941
42,745
55,542
33,255
54,048
14,169
53,S48
29,623
357,io7
Il6 BELGIUM
£ 4. Polders and Water in gues.
With these official associations which are established in every province
of Belgium, we must mention others, more especially of the Flemish re-
gions ; these are the polders and the wateringues. These terms have grad-
ually become specialised and the name polder has been applied to the
sea coast where dikes are built, and wateringues to the inland districts
protected from the streams and rivers. The same name has been applied
to associations occupying themselves with dike construction, irrigation and
draining.
Some of these associations are real public administrations ; they can
expropriate and levy taxes ; but they are under the control of the perman-
ent deputies. A royal decree of the 9th December, 1847, regulates the
organization and the functions of these special associations. West-Flanders
has 30 wateringues covering an area of 100,000 hectares; East Flanders
has 117 associations of polders and wateringues representing 41,000 hectares.
Brabant and Limbourg have each only two wateringues, representing a few
hundreds of hectares.
B. — Free Organizations.
Free Agricultural Organization appears under the form of professional
unions or co-operative societies. The professional unions, as a rule, have
a general object, remaining free to specialise in particular cases : they then
become societies of well denned aim. The free organizations take the legal
form of professional unions or of co-operative societies. We shall speak
first of the Professional Unions and oi their Federations in general, to
study their work later on.
§ 1. Professional Unions.
The Professional Unions, called also agricultural leagues or syndicates,
we have already said in the paragraph on legislation, are free associations
of farmers, formed for the study, the defence and the advancement ol
their professional interests. These professional unions then, in theory, em-
brace all the interests of the agricultural world ; however, in practice, and
especially at the start, they must set before themselves a more restricted
and a more definite end, which is generally of an economic character.
Thus, very often, their object is co-operation for purchase and sale,
for the establishment of dairies and cheese-dairies, for the improvement of
livestock, as also for savings and for agricultural credit. They also busy
themselves with the conclusion, under circumstances advantageous for
AGRICULTURAL ORGANIZATION
117
their members, of insurance contracts, and all other contracts in which the
agriculturists may be interested.
These operations of an economic order may be undertaken Dy the
associations, provided they derive no profit from them, and they keep
the accounts dealing with them separate from their other accounts. We
have seen, in fact, that the law of 1898 declares that the union is
established exclusively with a view to the professional interests, and
that the unions themselves can exercise neither a profession nor a trade.
Amongst the strictly professional works that the Belgian syndicates
of civil personality may found, we shall mention, schools, students' clubs,
experimental fields, lectures, meetings and shows.
On the 31st December, 1908, there were in Belgium 677 leagues recog-
nised as Professional Unions, and 337 leagues not recognised. This
number is distributed in the following manner, per province :
Provinces
Leagues recognised
as
Professional Unions
Number
of Leagues
Number
of Members
Leagues not recognised
Number
of Leagues
Number
of Members
Antwerp
Brabant
West Flanders ,
East Flanders ,
Hainaut
Liège
Limbourg
Luxembourg
Namur
Total.
5
44
1 10
45
3i
49
16
265
112
677
385
1,720
7,693
1,782
1,690
1,274
1,229
6,874
3,218
25,865
102
27
5
41
12
2
143
5
S37
",34o
i,572
250
3,324
919
5i
11,163
285
28,904
Besides these unions we must mention other associations having a par-
ticular object. These are the livestock improvement syndicates, the agri-
cultural, horticultural and poultry breeders' societies, and the syndicates
for seed improvement and for hop cultivation, of which we shall speak
later on.
§ 2. Federation of Professional Unions in the Flemish Provinces.
The Unions very often associate in Provincial or Regional Federations
for the defence of their common interests.
We may divide these organisations geographically into Federations of
the Flemish, and Federations of the Walloon. Provinces.
"8 BELGIUM
The first group is composed of the Federations of the two Flanders,
that of the arrondissement of Bruges, and the Boerenbond of Louvain,
which has a national character and has affiliated associations in every region.
The Walloon group is composed of the Federations of Hainaut, Liège,
Luxembourg and Namur,
a) The Louvain Boerenbond.
Our first attention is due by right to the oldest, the most numerous
and the best known : the Boerenbond.
The Boerenbond, the headquarters of which are at Louvain, was
founded on the 20th July, 1890, as a federation of the Boerengilden, that
is to say, of the local Farmers' Unions. It might well, as we have said,
claim the title of a national federation, for, at the end of 1909, it had 520
affiliated guilds representing 43,169 members.
These guilds are found in every part of the country, except in Hai-
naut, but the action of the Boerenbond extends principally throughout
Brabant, the provinces of Antwerp, Limburg, West Flanders and some
parts of East Flanders.
One of the distinctive characters of the Boerenbond js that it does not
limit its action to any determinate object ; it interests itself in everything
that concerns the agricultural profession and seeks out every method tending
towards its encouragement ; juridical consultations and other informa-
tion concerning the various agricultural and social works ; publication of
reviews (De Boer and Le Paysan), lectures, meetings of engineers and
theoretical agriculturists, periodical gatherings of the local guilds, general
assemblies ; these are the various ways in which the Boerenbond contin-
ually assists its members.
A division for collective purchase, uniting the orders of the local
guilds and concluding bargains for them, with every guarantee as to the
quality of the goods, the inspection of dairies, and a laboratory of analysis,
are the means by which the Boerenbond directly assists the farmers in the
exercise of their economic activity. The purchase counting house is an
incorporated company. At Antwerp, it has a warehouse and mill and it
has established a branch at Hasselt. A sub— division is concerned in the
purchase of agricultural machines and the equipment of dairies.
One of the principal works of the Boerenbond has been the estab-
lishment of agricultural credit in Belgium, but we shall deal with this
when we speak of credit in particular.
We shall give, later on, some information upon the important rôle
the Boerenbond plays as intermediary in obtaining favourable conditions
for the farmers when insuring against fire.
Since 1905, the Boerenbond has, every vear, organized holiday courses,
open to all, the principal object being the, instruction of the managers,
AGRICULTURAL ORGANIZATION
secretaries and treasurers of agricultural concerns, and the initiation of
aspirants to these various employments in the functions that they will be
called upon to discharge.
Finally, the directors of this powerful Federation have contributed m
large measure to the adoption of laws favourable to agricultural interests;
they have, in a remarkable degree, increased the compensations granted
for cattle killed, have got import duties voted in the case of hay and
butter, and occasioned the intervention of the General Savings Bank and
Superannuation Fund in the organization of agricultural credit. At pre-
sent, the Boerenbond is calling for a larger conception of the work of the
Professional Unions, and would wish at least that a bond should attach
the economic institutions to the Professional Union,
b) The Agricultural Federalio?i oj East Flanders.
The Agricultural Federation of East Flanders was founded on the
20th November, 1891, under the name of Landbouwersbond van Oost-Vlan-
deren. By 1908, it had managed to associate more than 275 societies,
counting more than 30,000 members. It is a mixed league, occupying itsell
with every agricultural interest, with those of the landowners as well as
with those of the cultivators and the tenant farmers.
The office, Landbomvershuis, is the headquarters of every agricultural
co-operative work of the province. The affiliated societies are represented
in the Central Committee by a number of delegates in proportion to that
of their adherents. v
An office of 18 members, more than half of whom are farmers , admin-
isters the league, itself divided into six divisions, one for each admin-
istrative arrondissement. The Catholic character of the league is shown
by the ecclesiastical authority deputing a delegate, and by its political
action in concert with the Catholic Association of Ghent.
The league exercises an active propaganda by means of the journal
De Landbouzv and other special pamphlets, and above all by frequent
lectures.
c) The Agricultural League of West Flanders.
The Agricultural League of West Flanders called, Provinciale Boerenbond
van West Vlaanderen, was founded on the 8th December, 1901 and counted,
in 1908, 72 guilds with 7,103 members. It possesses an office oi gratui-
tous consultation, a weekly organ, De West- Vlaamsche Boerengilden; it
organizes about a hundred lectures annually; it has instituted an inspection
service for the affiliated guilds: it informs its members, in a weekly bul-
letin, of the price of manure and cattle foods; finally it collects orders
T2o BELGIUM
so as only to make large purchases. In its students' club for the dairy
managers, questions of great importance are discussed, such as the law
and the conditions of farm rent, the treaties of commerce, the customs
tariffs, etc.
The league has also instituted Raiffeisen Banks, insurance and reinsur-
ance societies, livestock improvement syndicates, dairies, the use of agri-
cultural machinery, etc. The league meets once or twice a year in general
assembly, and its board of administration holds four meetings yearly.
We shall say a few words, by the way, about the Federation Arro?i-
dissementsbond which limits its action to the arrondissement of Bruges.
In 1908, its recognised associations were seventeen. It specially concerns
itself with agricultural questions and with professional education.
In the province of Brabant there exist up to the present only three
cantonal federations : at Aerschot, at Diest and at Glabbeek. There are
two other cantonal federations in the province of Antwerp, that of Turnhout
and that of Antwerp itself. Limburg possesses a provincial league and
cantonal groups affiliated to the Boerenbond.
At Brussels is the Office of the Secretary of Social Works, which at
the end of 1908 united the following federations, of which the branches
extend over 83 communes:
1 st. The Federations of the syndicates of breeders of cattle, goats
and pigs;
2nd. The Federation of Poulterers', Hop-Planters', Strawberry, Chi-
cory and Pea Planters' Societies;
3rd. The Belgian Fruitgrowers' League.
This Office has for its weekly organ the Stad en Dorp.
§ 3. Federations of the Professional Unions in the Walloon Lands.
The Federations of the Professional Unions in the Walloon Lands have
no less importance than those existing in the Flemish Lands although they
are less widely extended. We shall say a few words with regard to the
principal ones.
a) Haincut. — The Agricultural Federation of Hainaut was founded
in 1897. The characteristic feature of this Federation is that the institutions
are independent in each parish and specialised in their objects. The recognised
Professional Unions are organs of defence and study, which do not even
undertake the operations of credit or of purchase permitted by the law.
But above the Unions there is the Provincial Federation which has not
yet been recognised, the office of which concerns itself with propaganda,
information and inspection.
AGRH ULTURAL ORGANIZATION
There is a special division devoted to the livestock improvement syn-
dicates. The Federation also arranges advantageous conditions of insur-
ance against accidents in labour, and against hail and fire.
It publishes two periodicals: " La Croix des Syndicats " {The Syndicates'
Cross) and the " Bulletin des Œuvres Sociales " (Bulletin of Social
Work).
b) Liège. — The Agricultural Federation of the Province of Liège asso-
ciates together 32 Recognised Union, and a large number of thrift and in-
surance institutions.
It includes a Recognised Federation, with a permanent office; then,
in connection with it, the Liège Agricultural Syndicate and another Re-
cognised Professional Union which provides for accident insurance.
The Federation centralises the cattle reinsurance societies. A central
credit bank unites 31 local banks.
The principal economic work is always that of purchase and sale.
The information office and the paper " Le Syndicat agricole " {Agri-
cultural Syndicate) exercise the happiest influence on the vitality and pro-
gress of the institutions.
c) Luxembourg. — The Luxembourg Agricultural League was estab-
ished at Arlon in 1S96.
The societies forming this federation have distinct boards of admin-
istration, but all have the same president and the same accountant. At
the end of the financial year, 1908, there were 246 federated Professional
Unions, numbering 6,940 members. In the league itself there is a service
of gratuitous information and of propaganda, which, in 1903, arranged for
the delivery of 216 lectures.
At the beginning of 1909, the Luxembourg League established, in
connection with its Reinsurance Office, a special office for the rein-
surance of cattle. The Luxembourg Central Agricultural Credit [Bank
in 1908 had 107 affiliated societies. The weekly Organ of the League is
the Union. se
d) Namur. — The Agricultural League of the Province of Namur, in
1909, had succeeded in uniting 130 associations with 5,000 members. The
plan of action of the League is to encourage the agricultural unions, to
direct them and inspect them, publish the paper, (l La Defense Agricole ,,
{Agricultural Defence) and organize lectures, competitions and shows.
§ 4. Womciis' Clubs.
These Associations aim at initiating women in the country districts
in matters of importance for them as mothers of families, housekeepers
and farm women.
The earliest societies of this kind were founded in 1906,
BELGIUM
The majority of the Farming women's Clubs have founded libraries
composed of books on domestic economy, dairy work, hygiene, agricul-
ture, cattle and poultry rearing.
Lectures on these subjects are delivered on occasion of the general
assemblies, and flower seeds and seeds of the best varieties of vegetables
are distributed at them. Sometimes, to increase the attraction of these
meetings, the committee of the Club organizes lotteries of household
utensils or farming implements.
In the course of 1908, several clubs organized agricultural shows and
collective visits to model farms, conducted by competent men.
Competitions among farming women in culinary preparations were
organized in the same year; a cookery competition was held and had the
greatest success.
A paper, « La Fermière » ( The Farmwoman) has been edited by the
cantonal Club of Leuze. A Flemish edition " De Boerin " also appeared
in 1908 :
Years
Number
of Clubs
Number
of Members
Number
of lectures
delivered
Number
of auditors
1906
I907
I908
2
41
"5
1,961
4,466
4
60
129
90
3-323
8,632
III. — Technical Work of the Professional Unions.
The Professional Union does not limit its action to the defence of
the general interests of the farmers, but intervenes directly, whether in
the institution of co-operative distributive societies and co-operative so-
cieties for sale, or in itself assuming special functions.
As to the co-operative societies, we shall speak of them later on. We
intend now to consider some specific forms of the action of the Unions,
especially in relation to livestock improvement, poultry breeding and
horticulture.
§ 1. Livestock Improvement Societies.
The object of the Livestock Improvement Syndicates is to favour the
improvement of the native breeds by the selection of the parents. The
syndicates that have made most progress are those that specially occupy
themselves with horned cattle.
AGRICULTURAL ORGANIZATION
Ï23
a) Bulls. — Two systems are practised for the attainment of this im-
provements. According to the first system, the local societies possess one
or two selected bulls that they put at the service of their members.
These must write in a register a list of all the head of cattle they possess,
At an annual show the classification is arranged and a prize is accorded
to the member who has presented the best animals.
The group of local syndicates composes the Provincial Federation for
improvement of local breeds, which is administered by a committee com-
posed half of delegates of the syndicates and half of delegates of the Pro-
vincial Committee of Agriculture.
In the second system the syndicates are organized in two divisions:
a general division, as it were, the basis of the syndicate, and a second
breeding division. Every farmer, who posseses at least one animal
may belong to the general division. One of the employees of this divis-
ion is specially charged twice a month to " control " the quantity of
the milk of each cow and the amount of butter fat it contains, as also the
quantity and pecuniary value of the food cousumed by the dairy cows.
The results of this enquiry are writen up in a register, and, every
year, a jury composed of three members makes the tour of the cow-
houses and gives the farmer suitable advice with regard to the choice of his
cattle, based upon the observations of the " controlling " employee. The
object of the breeding section is to favour the reproductions of animals
giving the best yield.
The following table gives statistics of the livestock improvement so-
cieties for the year 1908 :
Livestock Improvement Societies.
Provinces
Number
of
Societies
Number
of
Members
Number
of
registered
Cattle
Amount
of Revenue
(including sub-
sidies and
balance from
preceding year)
Amount
of
expenditure
Antwerp
Brabant
West Flanders
East Flanders
Hainaut
Liège
Limbourg
Luxembourg
Namur
Total
19
96
74
150
12
9
17
24
424
710
2,711
5,101
5.927
4,418
8,160
2,984
5,9*9
4 So
1,896
i,o47
T2,IlS
996
4.318
1,219
3>234
874
7,170
7,829
51.453
9.407
45,461
19.551
53,570
9.970
18,910
9,596
44,901
46,800
258,166
8,980
45,010
19.516
48,861
9.990
19,015
9,600
44,921
41,100
246,993
b) Horses. — In Belgium there are no syndicates concerning themselves
with horse breeding, but, in 1890, a National Draught-Horse Society was
124
Ml l <.1UM
founded. This Society keeps a register, the stud book in which all the
stallions and all the mares are entered. In 1908, the register recorded
26,067 stallions and about 65,000 mares. The Belgian horses are esteemed
the best race of draught horses; and every year a great number is expor-
ted from the country, especially to Germany.
c) Goats. — For some years they have been founding in Belgium
important syndicates for the improvement of the breed of goats. Pro-
fessional Unions have been officially recognised, the object of which has
been to procure for their members goats giving milk of the best quality,
by placing at their service selected males.
These syndicates have almost the same organization as those for
horned cattle.
The number ot goat-breeding syndicates on the 31st of December,
1908, amounted to 244, distributed as follows:
Syndicates for Improvement of the Breed of Goats.
Antwerp
Brabant
West Flanders
East Flanders
Limbourg
Luxembourg
Total. .
Societies Members
15
17
182
162
382
525
5 So
19,520
16,710
I IO
50
37,495
Number
of goats
590
/ ° j
23,400
20.OIO
60
44,906
The societies for improvement of the breed of goats in West Flanders
are affiliated to four regional federations ; those of East Flanders are uni-
ted in five federations; those of the arrondissement of Brussels are at-
tached to the Social Work Offhce.
It is important also to note the existence in East and West Flanders of
40 syndicates of rabbit breeders, with 1,210 members, and, in the arrondisse-
ment of Brussels of 9 syndicates of pig breeders with 170 members.
§ 2. Poultry-breeders', Beekeepers', Horticultural
aud Hop Planters' Societies.
The poultry breeders' societies aim at the improvement of poultry
from the point of view of delicacy of the flesh, or number of eggs. They
possess an incubator, which the members may have the use of in turn for
a small sum, and they also possess choice hens, the eggs of which are
AGRICULTURAL ORGANIZATION
125
distributed to members to be hatched. The following was, according to
the Statistical Return, the position of these Societies in the year, 1908,
Poultry Breeders' Societies.
Provinces
Number
of
Societies
Number
of
Members
5
35
12
16
19
7
3
29
5
184
1,096
470
1,697
670
Ï.597
no
688
124
Total. . .
131
6,630
All these societies are united in four Federations, established at
Brussels.
The beekeepers' societies are united in ten Federations, the delegates
of which compose the Syndicate Chamber of Beekeeping, a Recognised
Professional Union, with its headquarters at Brussels, aiming at the de-
fence and advancement of the interests of beekeepers. These Federations
publish periodical journals and organize shows and lectures. The following
are the statistics for the year 1908 :
Beekeepers'
Societies.
1
Province;
Number
of
Societies
Number
of
Members
Amount
of Revenue
(including sub-
sidies and
balance from
preceding year)
Amount
of
Expenditure
22
46
18
9
3i
27
9
25
32
790
2,104
414
302
94 8
582
158
462
675
1,853
2,007
862
520
4,364
3,334
662
1,907
1,678
1,792
2,OII
793
473
2,642
3,060
662
i,75i
1,384
Total. . .
219
6,435
17,187
14.56S
t-20
BELGTUAÎ
Numerous societies apply themselves to urging the advance of horticul-
ture ; they institute lectures, organize collective visits to the principal hor-
ticultural establishments of the country, and distribute selected seeds and
implements for gardening.
The distribution of the horticultural societies in 1907 was as follows :
Horticultural Societies.
Province*
Number
of
Societies
Number
of
Members
Amount
of Revenue
(Including sub-
sidies and
balance from
preceding year)
Amount
of
Kxpenditure
Antwerp
Brabant
West Flanders
East Flanders
Hainaut
Liège
Limbourg
Luxembourg
Namur
Total
14
26
16
25
45
36
3
185
1,105
4.334
1.329
4,520
7.470
7,S2o
270
2,157
29,005
10,610
30,107
5,210
26,100
30,410
56,008
1,176
8.880
168,495
10,517
31,408
6,444
26,775
28,416
56,119
1,040
8,970
169,689
They are grouped in S regional federations, the delegates of which
constitute the National Committee for the progress of horticulture.
We must mention, lastly, the hop planters' syndicates, the foundation
of which goes back to the year 1903. There are 39 syndicates number-
ing 2,935 members, of which 21 have formed a federation, attached to
the Social Work Office of the arrondissement of Brussels.
IV. — Commercial Action of the Professional Unions.
§ 1. Co-operation for Purchase.
The activity of the Professional Unions is not limited to the services
of which we have already spoken. The Professional Unions render another
and far more important service, in organizing the collective purchase of
materials, implements and everything necessary for agricultural productid.
A division of the Professional Union called " the purchase division "
deals with this business. These purchase divisions are not always formed
within the Professional Unions; very often they are a special association
AGRICULTURAL ORGANIZATION
regulated by the law of 1S73 upon co-operative societies; in other cases
they are simply de facto associations.
The provincial federations also organize purchase divisions, but these
societies do not remain dependencies of the Federation. They are formed
as co-operative societies and are called " Central Purchase Counting-hous-
es ". These countinghouses are in the same relation to the purchase
divisions as the Provincial Federations are to the Professional Unions.
We must distinguish then three kinds of purchase societies:
1 st central societies or purchase counting-houses;
2nd local societies or purchase divisions.
3rd independent societies.
It is almost needless to say that these distinctions, so precise in theory,
are not equally so in practice, because collective purchase may be effected
in so many different ways that it is almost impossible to classify them
in any manner whatever. But we have to exhibit the system in its gener-
al iines. Let us commence with the local societies.
a) Local Societies.
We have already expl lined what a local society or purchase division
is: we must now say how the purchase is effected. It may be effected in
two different ways, either directly by the the local society or through the
medium of the central purchase society. In the first case, sometimes the
s ciety, when it has collected the members' orders, puts up the contract
for the whole supply to public auction, at other times, it merely puts up
tz> auction the general contract for supply. In this case the contractor
engages to execute at the price agreed on all orders the syndicated mem-
bers give him, whether individually or collectively. When a syndicate is
firmly established it may follow with interest the rise and fall of market
prices and itself make important purchases, on a favourable opportunity
presenting itself; but for this purpose the syndicate must have a ware-
house.
b) Central Societies.
When the local societies prefer purchasing through the central societies,
they unite the total orders of their members and forward them to the
central societies. The central societies then undertake to find suppliers
who will deliver superior goods on favourable conditions, and to provide
means for seeing that the quality of the produce delivered is good.
This is the general system, but the Central Counting House of the
purchase divisions of the agricultural leagues affiliated to the Belgian
Boerenbond has been formed into an incorporated society with a capital
of 217,000 francs.
«3-
iaê BELGIUM
This Counting hou:;e only sells to the purchase divisions of the
leagues affiliated to it, and its capital and interest are so invested that
the leagues have every advantage.
The purchase society with which the members of the Eigenaars en
Landbourver sbond van Brugge deal is called Landbouwsyndakaat van
Brugge and is a shareholders' association. All the others are constituted
as co-operative societies, they are:
The Syndakaat van den Landbou'versbond at Ghent;
The Syndicate of the Hainaut Farmers at Enghien;
The Liège Agriculhiral Syndicate at Liège;
The Syndicate of the Luxembourg Farmers at Arlon;
The Co-operative Society of Ermeton-sur-Biert.
In order to buy still cheaper, the society of Hainaut Farmers toge-
ther with the majority of the other co-operative societies of the Walloon
region, has founded a new society for the common advantage of the united
.federations.
We give here a statistical table, published by the Department of
Agriculture, giving the number of Purchase Divisions and showing the
p/incipal work done by them in 1908.
AGRICULTURAL ORGANIZATION
129
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6-
130 BELGIUM
To the purchase counting houses ol the Belgian Boerenbond, the
Agricultural Federation of Hainaut and the Luxembourg League, have
been annexed divisions for the purchase of agricultural machines.
But the list of purchase societies does not end here, because, as we
have already said, it often happens that societies based on mutual trust
completely neglect to constitute themselves in legal form and remain mere
de facto associations absolutely independent of any other society.
It is not possible to follow the progress of co-operative activity in
this form, because the Agricultural Administration gives no statistics.
§ 2. Co-operation for Sale. Eggs; fruit; beetroot.
Amongst the Belgian syndicates having for their object the sale of
agricultural produce, it is only the dairy syndicates that have really pro-
gressed and attained a considerable development. Those that do not engage
in purchase of agricultural material are far from flourishing. This is a
problem not yet solved; we shall enquire into its causes in this essay.
We shall also say a few words about the manner in which Belgium has
organized collective sale, speaking of the dairies a little later on.
The object that the agricultural division for sale desires to attain is
clearly defined: it is a question of selling under profitable conditions, and
making up for the bad sale of certain produce through over supply by
seeking out new markets. For collective sale there are several systems
practised. Thus, some syndicates collect all the agricultural produce of their
adherents and try to sell it directly through the medium of brokers. Some
arrange for sale on the markets of the large towns ; others make offers
to the manufacturers or the wholesale dealers. Some syndicates pay their
different members in proportion to the merchandise supplied, and, when
all the bargains are concluded, they distribute the dividends and the sup-
plementary profits. Some sell the produce in small lots in public sales,
or try to become the recognised suppliers for great public or private estab-
lishments; others, at last, simply, create a service ol special agents. ' -
; Collective sale has been quite specially organized in Belgium, although
not with great success, in the case of eggs, fruit and beetroot. The
beetroot planters' associations are rather leagues of defence against the
sugar manufacturers. Thanks to their syndicates, the beetroot planters
have been able to overcome the manufacturers and succeed in selling
their produce, no longer by weight, but according to yield. The beetroot
syndicates, besides, have no other object than that of checking the consign-
ments to the manufacturers, the weights, the calculations of loss and the
results of analysis. The Statistical Return, for 1908, records 73 syndicates,
distributed in seven provinces and selling beetroot to the amount ol
3>454>697 francs.
AGRICULTURAL ORGANIZATION 131
§ 3. Co-operative Dairies.
The dairy industry is without dispute one of the most important
branches of the Belgian agricultural associations. Under the influence of
co-operation, it has so greatly developed in these last years that the whole
Belgian territory is covered with co-operative dairies.
The true type of co-operative dairy treats the milk brought in by its
associates and divides the profit from the sale of the butter in proportion
to the quantity of milk supplied. But we find frequently enough in Bel-
gium, co-operative dairies which Vermersch styles semi-industrial, because
they treat not only the milk from the cow-houses of their members, but
also what they buy from other farmers.
With regard to equipment and working, we must distinguish three types
of dairies : dairies worked by hand, very widely spread in the Campine, are
adapted for small co-operative societies, the expense of equipment varying
from 1,500 to 4,000 francs; dairies with steam power, suitable for the
large co-operative societies, which have at their service enormous appliances
and can deal every day with three or four thousand litres of milk. Some
regional dairies with steam power have this speciality, distinguishing them
from the preceding, that they only make butter from cream supplied them
by small local dairies, provided with a separator worked by hand. This
form of dairy has been specially in use in Belgian Luxembourg since 1894.
We reproduce here the statistical table for 1908, which shows the number
of dairies and also the number of cows possessed by the members.
132
BELGIUM
Provinces
Antwerp.
Brabant
West Flanders.
East Flanders
Hainaut
Liège
Limhours
Luxembourg
Namur
Total.
o .t; o
fe SO
o a
•° 13
5 S
6 I
Amount of sales in 1907
Cheese
Other
Produce
(•)
Francs
66
62
4,448
14,282
329i630
72
1 1
7,235
19,866
94,449
3i
27
5,S65
21,608
38,878
7S
63
5,660
l3A°5
12,936
26
23
2,041
9.109
25-030
5i
3s
1,814
6,250
825
157
L37
20,813
9>25o
1 11
11,831
28,673
451,920
17
9
1,003
2,797
'
609
506
47,185
136,803
962,938
4,576,557
3,969. I23
7,293,66b
4,029,905
2,123,737
1,9.-0,403
3.885,226
3,706,468
352,775
31,917,852
68,364
2.639
4,37o
;6i
2,344
3.5"
81,789
Francs
53,231
'43.7C6
68,780
50,064
9,38o
10,360
"3,759
45.004
2,160
496,374
(*) This produce generally consists of separated milk.
For the dairies the most important problem is that of the regular sale
of their produce at remunerative prices. From this came the idea of fed-
eration. The Limburg organizations first occupied themselves in the
matter. They organized the Limburgsche Zuivelbond which has formed a
co-operative minque together with the National Dairy Society, the Fede-
ration of the Hainaut Dairies, the Belgian Dairy Union, the Professional
AGRICULTURAL ORGANIZATK >N
Union of Dairy Managers, tint Dairy Syndicate -of the Two Flanders, and
lastly the Fermière (Farming Woman).
The object of this Federation is the defence of the interests of its
affiliated co-operative societies and it occupies itself with everything re-
lating to the making and sale of butter. To attain the first of these two
ends, it uses the ordinary systems of every Federation, organizing meet-
ings, lectures, inspections, etc. As regards sale, the Federation of Limburg
dairies conceived the idea of creating a syndicate market for butter, called
" butter minque ". This invention had such success that the other Fede-
rations also soon had their minques. At the present moment there are
eight, three of them at Brussels, two in the Campine, one at Charleroi,
one at Hasselt and one at Liège.
The organization of the minques is very simple: the staff is made
up of a manager, a commercial agent, a hawker and workmen. The
board of management is composed of the president and secretary of the
dairy federation and as many examiners of accounts as there are divisions
in the Federation.
The affiliated dairies are bound every week to supply the minque
with a minimum quantity of butter, a quantity that has varied consider-
ably since the foundation of the society. They have each their trade
mark : the counterfeiting of it entails exclusion from the federation. The
butter is sold in minimum lots of 5 kilos, paid for in cash.
The federations, further, organize the inspection of the accounts and
working of the affiliated dairies. The federation of the Boerenbond asso-
ciates more than 100 dairies, the inspection of which is entrusted to an
agricultural engineer and expert chemist.
If the co-operative dairies are making daily progress, the same is not
the case with the co-operatiwe cheese-dairies. The cheese production of
Belgium is far from sufficing for the needs of the consumers. For this
reason, the Belgian Government endeavours to encourage cheesemaking
and to help efforts made to promote it.
V. — Credit.
The agricultural credit institutions in Belgium are also of very re-
cent creation; but this has not prevented their making considerable progress,
The law has exerted itself in favour of agricultural credit, granting it
certain fiscal relief and authorizing the General Savings Bank to grant
loans to farmers through the medium of the local societies. We shall rap-
idly examine this organization, beginning with the local rural banks.
,34 BELGIUM
§ I. Itocal Rural Banks.
In the present state of Belgian legislation, the only legal form ad-
mitted for the constitution of rural banks is the co-operative form, of
which the general lines are well known. We shall only observe that the
Belgian Co-operative Credit Society may form a capital, pay out dividends,
and divide the reserve fund.
However, not to depart altogether from the Raiffeisen Type, the orga-
nizers of the rural banks have adopted the plan of fixing the amount of the
shares as low as possible ; the dividend never exceds the normal rate of
interest, and, by special provision in the rules, the inalienability of the
reserve fund is maintained as far as is possible. These banks having
adopted the rules prepared by the Louvain Boerenbond are organized
and work almost all in the same way.
They are composed:
à) of a board of administration, elected by the General Assembly
and partially renewed every two years ;
b) of a cashier elected by the General Assembly, who is the re-
sponsible manager of the Society;
c) ol a Council of Supervision, composed of at least six committee
men, elected for three years by the General Assembly, but of whom one
third is subject to re-election every year;
d) of the General Assembly, the supreme body of the Society, which
exercises its right of intervention either personally or by legal represen-
tatives. There is at least one General Assembly a year.
The local Banks divide their work into three principal branches:
i) the deposit service for the benefit of members to whom they
grant the interest fixed by the General Assembly;
2) the loan service to members, regulated by the General Assembly,
which fixes in anticipation the maximum total amount of loans which can
be allowed to a single customer. The loans are granted on security of real
or personal estate, and for agricultural purposes, which the borrower must
prove by stating the destination of the funds he asks for. The points
taken into consideration before granting the loans are not only the bor-
rower's solvency, but also his moral character and his work. Repayment
may be made at long date and in instalments ;
3) the current account service in favour of members.
The assets of a Rural Bank comprise the entrance fees, the total
number of shares, the shares the Society possesses in a Central Credit
Bank, and, finally, the Reserve Fund.
The Rural Bank in general can only possess personal property. In
exceptional cases it can acquire real estate, for example, the real estate of
its debtors sold by auction.
AGRICULTURAL ORGANIZATION 135
The Rural Bank uses the profits deriving from its services of loan
and deposit either for the payment of a dividend on capital or for the
increase of the reserve fund.
The object of the reserve fund is to provide against eventualities and
also to constitute a capital the Rural Bank may use for its service of
loans.
There are two reserve funds, distinguished from each other: the abso-
lute reserve fund, increased by the profits the society makes on all depos-
its and loans, belongs definitely to the Bank, and in case of dissolution
is divided among the members; the conditional reserve fund, which is in-
creased by part of the profits the Rural Bank realises upon loans made
with capital advanced by the Central Credit Bank, and does not belong
to the Rural Bank as full and entire property; it only has the use of this
fund. In case ot dissolution or essential modification of the rules, this
reserve fund goes back in full possession to the Central Credit Bank,
which, generally, uses it for the encouragement of the extension of Rural
Banks.
We give here the statistical table of the Raiffeisen Banks with the
operations effected by them in the year 1908:
136
TîELOTUM
Province:
v. g
£-2
Number of members
on the jist Dcce.nl.er, igo'
F.'.crcisii-g
the
profession
of
farmer
Exercising
any other
profession
j 6 I y |
Loans Granted in 190!
1st
to Agriculturist
Members
1) Number i) Amount
2nd
to Members exercising
any
other profession
t) Number
b) Amount
Antwerp.
liiabaut
West Flanders. . . .
East Flanders
Hainaut
l'iège
Limbourg . . . .
Luxenibuiug
Namur
Total
57
106
S3
26
72
45
54
145
10
56S
2:729
4,759
3.2SS
1,030
1,463
981
3.204
2,508
244
5'"'1
693
1,369
246
946
23^
579
172
81
20,206
4.9S4
393
667
454
169
218
1S3
426
335
66
2,911
413,600
559.624
560,922
I77.2S8
149.497
298,999
320,569
246,601
63.347
2.79°.447
97
64
208
26
112
33
66
10
25
641
203,438
9M93
975.243
56,520
100,124
36,510
54.500
34,557
11,119
1,563,204
§ 2. The Central Banks.
The rural banks do not work independently, but almost always they
are affiliated to a regional group or an Agricultural Central Credit Bank.
The Central Credit Bank is a federative organ subject to the same
regime as the co-operative societies, but of limited liability. Only the
local banks and the persons nominated to the offices of administrator or
commissary by the General Assembly, can be members of it. The'members
subscribe for a ioo francs share; their liability does not exceed 1,000 francs
per share subscribed. The dividend is fixed at 3 % and the remainder
is paid into the reserve fund.
The Central Bank organizes four different services :
1st. It receives the surplus deposits of the local banks ; but these
are also at liberty to place their moneys with the General Savings Bank
and Superannuation Fund.
AGRICULTURAL ORGANIZATION
'37
- ! 9
1
1 1
12
13
m
I5
Amounts deposited in 1908
Amount
of capital
borrowed
by
the Societies,
in 1908
Amount of loans
in course
on the
31st December,
1908
Amount
of deposits
and borrowed
capital
on the
31st December,
1908
Reserve fund
on the
31st Pe ember,
1908
Amount
of
Shares
paid up
by
members
on the 31st
December,
1308
1st by
agriculturists
2nd by
other persons
780, 0S4
219,330
297,814
1.554,389
2,746,558
63,213
34,320
1,227.993
294,030
295,160
1,673,007
2,621,748
102,031
16,583
2,274,636
836,522
338.729
2,720,270
6,418,05s
I 10,063
12,402
355.306
106,756
25-4CO
355-5-3
867,620
I9'763
3,183
388,5So
I I5.964
09.796
479,201
967,814
3L483
9,340
326,378
98,103
89,072
489,539
S5i,ii2
I/,075
3J03
732.99i
202,672
257,747
1,921,832
2,947,655
79.256
II,Il6
125,026
4,868
70,682
296,493
381,816
15,482
2,766
74,014
6,899
865
41,312
79.582
I,l62
847
6,285,00s
1,885,150
1,445,265
9,509,566
17,881,963
439,52S
94,260
2nd. It ad
trances the money required by the affiliated societies when
thes(
5 have too li
ttle to satisfy
the deir
lands for credit made
by their
men
bers.
3rd. It ge
is the books
and the
whole management of the local
bant
.s inspected
by its dele;
rate
:s, régula
rly, at least
once a yeai
4th. It supplies the Raiffeisen Banks affiliated to it with all explan-
ations and especially with legal information.
These central banks are now seven in number, with their headquar-
ters at Louvain (i), Liège, Enghien, Arlon, Bruges, Ermeton-sur-Biert,
and Thuin.
in On the 1st April, 1904, the Boereuboad founded a new division of its Central
Credit Bank. This division deals with credit on land, otherwise styled rural credit on
mortgage.
138
BELGIUM
The following table shows the position of these banks on the 31st
December, 1908:
Head Quarters of
the Societies
S 3 « S
"— c
•J «
O Q
c h
~ u •-> « V
z
lia"-
'jo -5 —
••a I
: " 2 5
; o i 11
; v v
jijrj -
Louvain
Liège
Enghien
Arlon
Bruges
Ermeton-s/B:ert
Thuiri
Total.
286
65
21 1,900
251
32
44
169,900
6
67
4i
209,156
3
106
88
235,600
1
25
5
10
10
32,100
10
536
8
31.196
256
889,832
266
1,831,100
29,200
8,000
3.000
71,400
1,942,700
7,378,852
34,630
27,000
3,000
161,260
430
207,113
7,812,285
23,700
1,051
1,282
3,973
30,028
§ 3. General Savings Bunk.
We have said that the rural banks have been placed by law in busi-
ness relations with the General Savings Bank.
This Bank gives credit up to the amount of a million francs, to those
local banks approved by it and affiliated to a Central Bank, at the rate
of 3 1U %, on condition that the Central Bank stands guarantee. The
Savings Bank gives 3 % interest on its members' deposits and therefore
only accepts individual deposits of more than 1,000 francs.
The General Savings Bank not only lends to farmers through the
medium of the rural banks, but also through that of other institutions,
founded shortly after the passing of the law of 1884 on agricultural loans,
and called " agricultural counting-houses. " These are free associations
of land holders, under the form of a society of collective title, and com-
posed principally of great land holders. The members are jointly and
severally responsible for the loans granted by the General Bank through
the medium of the Counting house.
AGRICULTURAL ORGANIZATION 139
The eleven agricultural counting houses in existence in 1908 at Ge-
nappe, Gembloux, Namur, Lens, Florennes, I^a Hulpe, Louvain, Ghent,
Liège, Bruges and Dinant, intervened for the granting of 728 loans for a
total amount of 3,028,455 francs, in the course of that year. The agricul-
tural counting houses have not had a great success. The very composi-
tion of these associations, to which as we have said, principally large
proprietors belong, has obliged them to extend themselves over a consid-
erable area in order to form a society with a sufficient number of members.
This has weakened the efficacy of the function of control and guarantee
which the counting houses were called on to exercise. Thus it was the
Raiffeisen Banks that profited most by the law of 1884 and the action
of the General Savings Bank.
§ 4. Schultze-Delitzsch Banks.
Side by side with the Raiffeisen Banks, there are also in Belgium
Schulze-Delitzsch Banks. But the system of the Schulze-Delitzsch Banks
is not much used in the Belgian rural circles. We can, in fact, only cite
two banks of this class of an agricultural character ; the Goé-Limbourg
Bank and that of Argenteau; during the year 1908, they granted altoge-
ther 44 loans for an amount of 56,600.44.
VI. — Co-operative Insurance.
There have been long discussions in Belgium as to whether it is
better to give the insurance societies a Iree character, or the obligatory
form organized by the State or by the provinces. Still in the practical
dominion of agricultural insurance it is the free form that prevails.
In fact, it is only West Flanders that, since 1837, has possessed an
agricultural fund, with which the principle of general and obligatory
insurance of horses, cattle, asses and sheep is bound up.
A similar experiment was tried, in 1892, in the province of Antwerp,
where an obligatory cattle insurance fund was instituted. But the oblig-
atory character of this fund was abolished on the 1st January, 1896.
In all the other provinces the field of agricultural insurance is largely
held by the mutual associations. Even in West Flanders and in the pro-
vince of Antwerp they form a valuable complement to the insurance funds.
Although it is not our purpose to deal here with agricultural insurance
in all its forms, but to limit ourselves to mutual insurance, yet we think
we ought to give some data with respect to the obligatory insurance of
West Flanders, and the insurance fund of the Province ot Antwerp.
i4o
Belgium
According to the regulations in force, obligatory insurance in We. t
Flanders has for its object the compensation of all loss from slaughter by
order of the authorities and the rejection of the meat as unfit for con-
sumption.
This is how the West Flanders obligatory Cattle Insurance F"und was
employed, in 1908:
Number of animals insuied:
1st. Horses of one year old and over , , . , 38,011
2nd. Cattle of 3 months and over 286,552
3rd. Mules and liinnies of one year old and over 2,238
4th. Asses of one year old and over 482
5th. Sheep of 3 months and over 17,000
Total. . . 344,283
Amount of premiums:
1st. For horses . . 19,005. 50 at the rate of 50 c. per animal of 1 year old or more
2nd. * cattle . . 71,638.00 » 25 c. * 3 months »
3rd. » mules . , 671.40 » 30 c. » 1 year »
4th. » asses . . 72.30 » 15 c. » 1 year »
5th. » sheep . . 690.33 » 3 c. » 3 months or more
with minimum of
Total. . . 92,077. 58 15 c. per article
insured.
Amount of compensations for the year 1908:
1st. For 440 ho'.ses (maximum compensation 60 francs). . fr. 25,859.50
2nd. » 15 mules ( » 20 » ) . . » 300. »
3rd. » 10 asses ( » 20 » ) . . » 196. »
4th. » 1,056 cattle (ordinary cases) » 107. 121. 68
5th. » 130 » (tuberculous, giving right to additional com-
pensation) » 1,975 . 18
6th. » 56 » (suffering from anthrax, giving right to ad-
ditional compensation). ...... » *>999- 55
7th. » 164 sheep . » 2,067. 10
Say 1,871 cases Total. . . fr. 139,519.01
The assets of tie fund on the 1st January, 1909, were . . fr. 1,552,429. 28
The insurance fund of the Province ot Antwerp grants compensation
in almost every case of the death of cattle; cattle dealers cannot insure
Agricultural < >rgaxization
the animals in their possession. The following table gives the most im-
portant figures relative to the work of the fund in 1908:
Number of farmers affiliated to the fund 6,438. »
Number of animals insured (cattle having at least two teethe . . 19,119. »
Value of animals insured fr. 7,415,500. »
Amount of compensation granted :
1st. for losses resulting from tuberculosis and anthrax (213 cases),
including the compensation paid by the State » 38,401. »
2nd. For losses due to other maladies (422 cases) .... » 76,504. »
Total. . . fr. 114,995. »
Expenses of administration ... » 5.408. »
Total. . . fr. 120,403. »
Amount of premiums . fr. 82,500.94
Provincial subsidy » 25,000 »
Government subsidy » 8,000. »
Compensations paid by Government for losses through tuberculosis
and anthrax fr. 25,311. »
Interest on Investments » 1,684. 84
Total. . . fr. 142,495.78
§ 1. Mutual Cattle Insurance.
Generally the object of the local mutual insurance associations is to
insure their members compensation in case of loss of cattle and in certain
cases to pay the fees of the veterinary surgeon. The majority ot the so-
cieties only admit farmers as members: they exclude cattle dealers, cattle
fatteners and distillers, on account of the constant changes to which their
stock is subject.
Usually the society does not compensate for losses occasioned by
revolts, war, fire, lightning and other similar accidents, nor by negligence,
violence, or any other cause due to the fault of the member and those
for whom he is legally responsible. The society grants no compensation
in case of fraud, in the case in which, according to the law on the defects
rendering sales invalid, the member is no longer responsible for the animal
sold, or exchanged or, when the member may claim compensation from
other persons. In the case of epidemics of contagious disease, the general
assembly, called together specially for the purpose, may decide that the com-
pensations be only paid for losses not caused by the reigning malady.
The managers of the divisions are generally members of the board
of administration. They are commissioned to supervise the stables and
i42 BELGIUM
the animals insured and to get the necessary measures taken for the pro-
tection of the society's interests in case the animals insured suffer from
ill treatment or are ill cared for. The cattle belonging to the managers
of the divisions are subject to the control of their colleagues of other di-
visions or of the president.
Members, who are such from the foundation of the society, must pay
a fee per animal insured. Those admitted later on must pay for each
animal insured a contribution equal to the quotient obtained by dividing
the society's assets by the number of animals insured. This payment,
however, may not be less than the fee the original members pay.
As to the contributions to be paid to meet the obligation of the so-
ciety to the insured, different methods are employed.
In a very large number of the societies, the members bind themselves
to pay, in advance, a contribution fixed in proportion to the value per
ioo francs of the animals insured.
Instead of a proportional premium, some societies receive a fixed
subscription per animal insured. Some other societies, in fixing the pre-
miums, admit an intermediate system in which the animals are divided
into two or three classes according to their value.
In the compensations, as in the subscriptions, there are great variations
according to the regimes. Compensation to the amount of 2/s of the
value of the animals is accorded by the majority of the societies. The
payment of the compensation is arranged according to one of the three
following systems:
i. The total compensation due to the owner of the animal lost is
deducted in every case from the capital formed by means of the member's
periodical payment.
2. Losses entailing the sequestration of the meat are only paid for
out of the society's capital ; when the meat maybe delivered for consumption,
it is debited against the members, at a fixed price, and in quantity pro-
portional to the number of animals insured by each;
3. The Societies are without capital.
In case of a loss, the meat fit for food is taken by the members at
a price agreed upon; in case of rejection of the meat, the members pay
the owner of the animal lost the contribution they would have had to
make towards purchase of the meat if it had been declared utilisable.
The first method is in use in the provinces of Brabant, of Liège, Lux-
embourg and Limbourg; the second in the provinces of Antwerp, East
Flanders, Hainaut and Namur; the third is adopted by the majority of
the unrecognised societies of the provinces of Antwerp and East Flanders.
Besides the full members' subscriptions, other methods for increasing
the society's funds are the donations and subscriptions of honorary mem-
bers and subsidies granted by the authorities. These are granted to the
AGRICULTURAL ORGANIZATION 143
recognised federations. The independent societies only receive from the
Ministry a subsidy upon their first establishment and an annual gratuity
lor sending in regular accounts.
A lew words on the different kinds of insurance.
a) Insurance of Horned Cattle.
Tn<; number of local mutual cattle insurance societies has rapidly de-
veloped since 1895. ^ tnat c'ate there were in Belgium four cattle in-
surance societies; now, on the 31st December, 19 o, there were 641 societies,
538 recoguised and 103 not recognised. They had together 61,843 ordi-
nary members, and insured 179,807 head of cattle. In 190S the societies
were 1,073 (1,035 recognised, 38 not recognised) and the animals insured
282,282.
The following table contains the most important statistical data, for
the year i^oJ in relation to these societies:
14
1-14
BELGIUM
Mutual Catt;
PROVINCES
Number of Members
full
honorary
£ .1
Total
Recognised Societies.
Unrecognised Societies
General Total
1st, Recognisi
Antwerp
Brabant
West Flanders
East Flanders
Hainaut
Liège
Limbourg
Luxembourg
Namur (i)
Total
Antwerp , .
Brabant . . .
West Flanders
East Flanders
Hainaut . . .
Liège ....
Limbourg . .
Luxembourg .
Namur . . .
92
193
29
243
53
107
167
75
75
1,035
9.383
186
20,946
45»
1.765
36
27,715
«48
3.764
213
6,771
191
16,499
127
1,926
20
5.381
116
94,096
1,988
31.733
45,062
10,769
81,772
H.390
27,808
47,753
3.551
12,297
!72,i35
11,828,82
15,491,28
3,644,23'
20,242,55
4,252,76
11,596,88
16,149,32
1,222,07'
5,i33,73
98,561,68.
2nd, Unrecognise
3^
i,o3 5
38
1,542
706
49
608
2
120
66
123
3-225
5'
5,355
1,482
2,351
531
252
234
1,073
94,096
3.225
97, 321
5i
2,039
10,147
272,135
10,147
1,914,24;
496,14*
907,80*
187,60*
75.2CK
93,6o«
3,674,58.'
Reca
98,561,68»
3,674,58:
102,236,26,1
(1) The figures for the Recognised Societies of the Province of Namur include those referring to the Cat!
established in 83 communes.
surance Societies.
AGRICULTURAL ORGANIZATION
145
-oca
V » o
a i
w-o-3
-= " s
> « H
1,104
427
220
112,363
4,08c
75,285
94,74i
25,267
74,291
1,215
26j
93
209,263
4,887
182,871
11,647
1 1,008
275,274
14 +
46
15
11.739
754
7,098
7,160
2,604
20,980
2,026
458
234
141,171
8,5"
109,251
302,640
32,078
169,765
204
115
21
47, 502
3,314
48,717
1 2, 6 1 9
2,589
63,53o
7^4
336
116
131,236
3,648
127,054
43
14,630
132,686
i,o 8
541
177
159,953
7,265
173,326
11,888
24,862
199,891
So
44
7
1 1,260
671
12,790
3>3o3
532
23,796
34k
148
38
56,832
i,735
57,623
4,539
28,377
7,011
2,380
921
881,319
34>5
794,025
443,861
1 18,109
988,590
2;3*0
75
2,45 5
96
3<J
42
16
29
9
6,904
5,4io
174
84
2,57i
5,263
12,640
1,680
2,909
2,411
16,267
'46
7
6
2,308
69
2,810
3,493
850
6,371
7
1
1
1
1,600
245
26
48
248
563
i,547
•'
I56
546
H
"8
2,377
156
557
1,178
152
200
75
43
18,844
12,633
19,360
4,325
25,993
921
43
964
881,319
18,844
900,163
34,865
557
35,422
794,02"
12,633
443.861
19,360
806,658 463,221
118,109
4>325
122,434
988,590
25,903
1,014,493
vtrance Society of the Arrondissement 0/ Din.int, which is counted as a single Societ/, though it has divisions
i46 BELGIUM
b) Insurance of Horses.
The insurance of horses is very important and saems destined to de-
velop considerably.
It must be observed however that only horses employed in agriculture
may be insured by a recognised mutual society. Only they, in fact, can be
understood in the larger sense of the word cattle, the insurance of which
is favoured by the law. In 1908, 51,030 mares, geldings and foals were
insured by 303 local or regional mutual societies, the majority established
in the Flemish part of the country. The subscriptions of their 25,985 full
members had provided them with 708,260 frs and they had paid out
750,962 fr. compensation for 1449 losses.
c) Insurance of Pigs.
This insurance is not largely practised.
The frequency of losses complicating an insurance necessary in equal
degree, renders the constitution of local societies difficult and rather neces-
sitates reinsurance. In 1 90S, the Statistical Return showed 75 mutual so-
cieties insuring 13,054 animals, valued at 1,123,210 frs.
d) Goats, Sheep, Asses.
Goats, sheep and asses complete the list of animals to which insur-
ance is applicable.
At the end of December, 1908, the goat insurance societies were 389,
insuring goats of the provinces of Anwerp, Limburg and the two Flanders;
the estimated value of the animals was 965,479 frs.
§ 2. Insurance against hail.
The Belgian law has considered insurance against damage to harvests
from accidental causes as an object of agricultural mutual societies. This
insurance especially includes that against hail and against fire.
Special difficulties make the application of the mutual system troub-
lesome for insurance against hail. The periodical return of hail storms
in certain regions occasions great losses to the farmers every year, who
have every interest to defend themselves against it by mutual insurance
The individual societies also have to seek from valid reinsurance the
reinforcements sufficient to escape disasters, because the accumulation of
losses might bring about the ruin of the society.
In 1846, the Provincial Council of West Flanders founded an insur-
ance society against haii: it only lived two years.
AGRICULTURAL ORGANIZATION 147
Ten years later, a society of mutual assistance called " The United
Farmers ,, was founded at Brussels ; it gives total or partial compensations
according to circumstances and according to its means ; it has been able
to give, most frequently, total compensations. Its operations extend through
all the provinces, with the exception of the two Flanders, which, alarmed
at the high rate of premium, have not up to the present wished to parti-
cipate.
In 1874, the town of Liège founded « La Belgique Agricole » {Agri-
cultural Belgium) a mutual insurance society, which, at the end of 1902, in-
cluded 897 insured members for 11,276 hectares.
In 1892, there was established for West Flanders alone, a Mutual Aid
Society: De Westvlaamsche landbouwcrs which contents itself with a pre-
mium of 1 fr. per hectare of arable land. The losses are estimated at their
real value, but assistance may not exceed 450 fr. per hectare. The full mem-
bers number 232.
Another Cantonal Mutual Society was founded at Rumbeke (West
Fl.) in 1899. It had then some twenty members and insured about 200
hectares. In 1907, it was composed of only ten members, and had only
96 hectares insured.
The Belgian Government encourages the movement : it has published
model rules, and recommends the formation oi communal societies with
provincial reinsurance : it grants subsidies equal in amount to half the rest
of the resources, and, besides, a subvention for the expense of initial
establishments.
§ 3. Fire Insurance.
The risks of fire are much more frequent than that of hail : the law has
not considered that mutual societies can, with prudence, assume the re-
sponsibility of this class of insurance.
Therefore they have refused such societies legal recognition and the
benefits under the law of 1894.
For this reason the majority of these societies have been constituted
as co-operative societies.
We must mention the incorporated society of Esschen (Antwerp) Pru-
dentia, founded in 1868, limiting its operations to the canton of Brecht;
and also the co-operative society, De Vereenigde Molaiaars (United Millers),
founded in 18S1, for mutual insurance of mills; and then X Assurantie van
Iseghem, a mutual insurance society, founded in 1890, the co-operative
society of Roulers, founded in 1897, etc. etc.
The fundamental principles governing these societies are, in their gen-
eral lines, nearly as follows :
a) Limited circumscription ;
U) Liability not joint but unlimited on the part of members ;
f4& BELGIUM
c) Long term of engagements ;
d) Premiums fixed according 10 the ordi: ar/ rates of the companies
e) Maximum value insured : 50,000 or 100,000 francs.
The very characteristic idea, common to the mutual insurance socie-
ties, is that the premiums, deduction made for share in expenses, return
to those who have paid them. Every year they proceed to a division among
the members, of the profits and loss, in proportion to the premiums paid
by each. The result is placed to the debit or the credit of the members.
When a member is authorised to withdraw from the association, his
account is settled by repayment to him of his share in the credits, or a
demand from him of the proportion due by him to the debits. The great
advantage of these societies is their reduction to a minimum ot the expenses
and the risks, but they require to be organized with much wisdom and
prudence and must have recourse to reinsurance to protect themselves from
the danger of an accumulation of losses.
Independently of these mutual insurance societies, the farmers, and in
their name, the great Agricultural Federations, try to obtain from the
financial societies, the cheapest insurance against risks. By constituting the
agricultural syndicate as an official intermediary between its members and
the financial societies of fixed premium, cheap conditions are in the first
place obtained, and the expense of the policies and the intermediaries is eco-
nomized, it being reserved to the society' s agents ; without taking into
account that the Federations, collecting all the policies, may form for them-
selves a sufficient clientele, to be able, themselves, should opportunity pre-
sent itself, to organize an insurance society on a mutai basis, under con
ditions most favourable for success.
In fact, the Belgian Boerenbond, thanks to contracts concluded w:*li
the English company, " Norwich Union ,, , accords to its affiliated socie-
ties a diminution of from 30 to 40 °/0 on the ordinary rate of premiums»,
The policies can be cancelled every year.
AGRICULTURAL ORGANIZATION
149
The Belgian Boerenbond Fire Insurance Society.
Year
Policies Value Ii.sured Nett Premiums Losses
1893.
1894.
I89S.
1896.
1897.
1898.
1899.
I9OO.
I9OI.
I902.
I903.
I904.
I905-
I906.
I907.
I908.
153
472
654
1,308
2,074
3.45S
5,182
6,003
8,066
9,691
10,577
".913
13.517
14-844
16,118
17,504
726,562
1,307,835
3-312,157
7,390,922
13,543,885
20,991,617
28,974,807
35,227,763
43,429,783
53-723,575
62,957,703
72,023,824
81,490,304
93,384,847
104,463,440
1 19,179,050
415
1,817
4,550
9>!43
15,922
24,999
33,490
40,549
48,728
56,276
60,618
64,676
72,642
84,453
88,558
97,243
o
250
3,560
16,913
4,277
18,200
17,893
18,911
37,445
13,869
34,664
39-747
46,323
61,361
43,642
The total nett premiums paid since 1893 amount to 714,185 francs
and the total losses to 357,065 francs, corresponding to a little more than 50 %
of the premiums.
§ 4. Reinsurance Offices.
The local insurance societies, if they remained independent of each other,
would have the defect of not being able to assume a sufficiently large
number of risks for the average of these to be favourable enough for the
insurer. But this danger is avoided by an institution very widely spread in
Belgium: the Reinsurance Offices. These are federal societies grouping
together a certain number of local insurance societies and undertaking a
more or less important part of the risks already insured by these societies,
in return for payment of the proportional contribution for the risks thus
reinsured.
The following table, from the Statistical R rn, sho " the reinsurance
operations of these boHies during the financial year 1908:
KO
BELGIUM
go6i '?5Q 3Sl£
sq] uo
SUOIlRJSpS | Sqj JO
' snjda'ns
JU3U1'.U3A'"J
3qî IUOJJ
ssipisqng
aDuiAojjj sij) uaojj
ssipisqng
33UBjnsui3j] aqj
oj satjapog
sq} Xq piud
suiniuisjd jo
junouiy
suopiîjspaj
sqj jo
uonBJjsmiuipi: jo
ssuadx^j
SnoiqiuapSjJ aq;
Xq pajuwi.T
U'i^BSuadiuo^ jo
junouiy
sans t oog
asaqj Xq
pajnsui apju? jo
jaqiun^i
SI! nvjapaj sqj O]
pajBtj .jb
saqa.aos [CDO[
jo jaquiny;
N
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co
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y a rT1 "^ c 'fi
s. •— * --' S kl>
e4 u ?
AGRICULTURAL ORGANIZATION 151
We then see that the great majority (858 out of 1,073) °f Mutual Cattle
Insurance Societies are affiliated to the Reinsurance Societies. The same
is the case with the societies for insurance of horses employed in agriculture
(186 out of 203); the insurance sociétés for goats (313 out of 389) and the
insurance societies for pigs (72 out of 75).
The reinsurance societies have business relations only with the local
banks and their object is to contribute to the stability of the federated socie-
ties by assisting in the compensations they have to pay their members.
All the recognised mutual insurance societies established in the pro-
vince may participate in the Federation, on condition of accepting its rules
and regulations. The federated societies do not give up their independence
and reserve the right of withdrawal any year on the 31st December at three
months' notice.
The resources of the Reinsurance Society are, in the first place, the
subscriptions of the federated societies, but in the financial statements of
these Banks, the subsidies are an important factor, because the Department
of Agriculture, by its circular of 28th January, 1903, grants annual subsidies
equal in amount to the premiums paid by the local societies. These funds
serve to compensate the societies for the losses sustained by their mem-
bers in the proportion of 30 %. However the Council of Administration
has always the right to diminish this compensation and to proportion it
to the resources of the Federation. In no case may this compensation
exceed two fifths of the nett loss.
The Reinsurance Society, by means \~>f a deduction of 10 %, forms for
itself a reserve fund for the case of extraordinary disasters.
The Reinsurance Societies, as we see in the statistical table, are a dozen
in all; each province has its own, except East Flanders; the Provinces of
Brabant, Liège and Antwerp, even possess a second federation.
From the preceding study it will be seen that insurance against agri-
cultural risks in Belgium is of great interest, on account of the remarkable
development attained there by the mutual societies with their complement-
ary reinsurance societies, and on account of the efforts made by the agri-
cultural class to obtain the most favourable conditions from the financial
societies, and finally on account of some very characteristic forms of the
internal organization of the mutual societies.
13 K IV M A. R K
I. — SOME DEMOGRAPHIC AND ECONOMIC STATISTICS.
Sources :
Statistik Aarbog, 1 909 (udgivet af Statens Statistiske Bureau) ; Kjobenhavn. 1909 (Sla-
tistical Year Book, 1909, published by the States Bureau of Statistics: Copenhagen,
içoq).
Précis de Statistique, 1907. Publié par le Bureau Statistique de l'Etat, {Outline of Statis-
tics, /çoy. Published by the States Bureau of Statistics ; Copenhagen, içoy).
Danmarks Vareomsaetning med Udlandet i 1908. Danmarks Statistik. (Foreign Commerce
of Denmark in içoS. Copenhagen, içoç).
Arealets Benyttelse i Danmark den 15 Juli 1907. Danmarks Statistik. (Utilisation of the
soil in Denmark on the ijth fitly, 1907. Statistics of Denmark; Copenhagen, içoç).
Kreaturholdet i Danmark den 15 Juli 1903. Danmarks Statistik. (Live-stock in Denmark
on the ijth fitly 190 j. Statistics of Denmark. Copenhagen, 1904).
Statistiske Meddelelser, fjerde Rœkke, 34 Bind, Hefte III; Hôsten i Danmark i Aaret 1909.
(Statistics of Communications, 4th series, vol. 34, part III. The Harvest* in Denmark
in the year 1909).
Statistiske Efterretninger 1911: Hefte 1-4, Kjobenhavn, 191 1. (Statistical Bulletin, 191 1.
Nos 1-4. January-April, Copenhagen, 1911).
It has been thought advisable to reproduce textually in the tables the
terms employed by the official publications cited as sources.
A — Territory and population.
Area: 38,969.4 Sq. Km.
Population 1906: 2,588,919.
Density of the population per sq. km. in 1906: 66.44.
Approximate population on the 1st February, 1911: 2,757,076 (1).
Density ot approximate population per sq. km. on the 1st July
1909: 69.1.
(1) Statistiske Efterretninger, April, 1911, p. 17.
154 DENMARK
6.5
/o
30.5
/o
0.7
/o
1.2
/o
32.1
/o
9.8
/o
4-5
/o
7-i
/o
5-6
0/
/o
2.0
/n
1 00.0 %
Occupations of the population in 1906:
« Immaterial production » 62,144
Agriculture and forestry 289,116
Dairies 6,215
Fisheries 11,292
Trades and manufactures 304,941
Commerce, hotels, etc 93.234
Railways, post, telegraph, telephone, over-land
transport and shipping 42,620
Private individuals, peasants and pensioners . 67,548
Paupers 53>229
Other occupations or not known .... 18,860
Totals . . . 949,199
Birth and death rate per thousand :
Birth rate Death rate
Average for 1895- 1905 .... 29.3 15.6
Oversea emigration:
in 1905 8,051
» 1906 8,516
» 1907 7,890
» 1908 4,558
B. — Agriculture, Forests and Fisheries.
Division of, land in 1907:
Cereals 1,122,762 hects. 28.8 %
Root crops 308,362 » 7.9 %
Other products 27,249 » 0.7 %
Fallow land 230,413 » 5.9 %
Meadows and pastures . . 1,229,589 » 31.7 %
Other surfaces (lakes, wa-
ters, gardens, woods, parks,
roads, foot paths, railways,
public lands, etc..) . . . 978,498 » 25.0 %
Total . . . 3,896,870 hects. 100.0 %
Area of woods in 1907: 324,228 hectares = 8.3 % of total area.
SOME DEMOGRAPHIC AND ECONOMIC STATISTICS
Principal products in 1909 :
Area
(Hectares)
Wheat 40,788
Rye 276,011
Barley (two rowed) 191,638
» (six rowed) 42,068
White oats 323,481
Black oats 79,567
Mixed seeds 169,523
Potatoes 54,076
Mangolds 83,95s
Kohlrabi and turnips .... 144,798
Sugar beet 16,010
Division of farms according to areas, in 1901
Production
(Quintals)
1,026,190
4,836,026
4,270,983
799,628
6,270,055
1,026,879
(Hectolitres)
6,183,940
8,572,334
67>767,550
103,445,363
(Qu'ntals)
4,501.921
Less than 1 tonde land (0.551623 hect.) .
From 1 to 9 tonde land (0.55 1 623 to
4.96 hect.)
From 9 to 27 tonde land (4.96 to 14. S9
hect.)
From 27 to 108 tonde land (14.89 to
59.57 hect.)
From 108 to 432 tonde land (59.57 to
238.30 hect.)
Above 432 tonde land (238.30 hect.). . .
Total
Number
Total area
in
hectares
Percen-
tage
of total
number
Percen-
tage
of total
68.380
65,222
46,615
60,872
8,072
822
249>983
9,513.
29
27.4
166,757.
28
26. 1
428,307.
12
18.6
1,808,625.
08
24.4
769,814.
16
3.2
425,555.
63
0.3
3,608,572.
58
100. 0
0.3
4.6
11. 9
50. 1
11. 8
100. o
Live-stock
Horses 486,935 534,68o
Cattle 1,840,466 2,243,889
Pigs 1,456,699 1,466,932
Sheep 876,830 726,067
Goats 38,984 42,000 (1)
(1) Statlstiske Efterretningcr, No. February, p. 12.
156
DENMARK
Total value of sea fishery products :
in i9°5 11,422,273 Danish crowns
in 1906 12,414,498 » »
in 1907 13,587,472 » »
in 1908 13,179,854 » »
C. Manufactures and Commerce.
Principal groups of manufactures on the 12th June 1906
Manufacture of food stuffs and other products for
consumption
Textiles
Clothes etc.
Earthworks, buildings and manufacture of furniture
Wooden objects
Leather
Stone, ceramics and glass
Metals and metal objects
Engineering and chemicals
Paper
Printing, etc
Number
of
enterprises
Total.
12,096
3.009
28,862
22,490
4,452
179
1-754
9,878
737
108
1,677
Workmen
55,445
19,006
63,314
76,416
13-361
1,224
17,388
49,232
9,327
2, Soi
9,572
85,242 317,086 125,377
H. P. in use
(except wind
and
water mills)
35,422
II,006
1,166
9,798
9-097
848
13,509
12,795
25,968
4,000
1,768
Foreign trade:
Imports
for consumption
in 1 -00 crowns
Exports of home
produce
in 1000 crowns
1908
Food stuffs 141,464
Clothes. . 103,573
Firing material . 44,494
Fodder, cake, seed ..... 113,246
Raw materials, agricultural and
industrial implements, etc. . 147,962
1009
148,499
104,589
45,135
115.566
1908
382,695
4,761
28
2,042
1909
384,346
5-489
26
2,753
1 52,993 49,992 51,208
Total
550,739 566,782 439,518 443,822
SOME DEMOGRAPHIC AND ECONOMIC STATISTICS
157
D. Navigation and Inland Communications.
Vessels and steamers engaged in foreign trade in 1909:
!
Danish sailing vessels
Danish steamers
Foreign sailing vessels
Foreign steamers .
Entered
Cleared
Number
Tonnage
Number
Tonnage
4,489
11,852
7,654
9,409
I5S.84I
1,858,976
418,999
1,350,670
4.353
12,411
7,828
9,640
53,640
742,897
92,797
364,639
Length of Railways in operation on the 31st December, 1909: 3,402.7 Km.
E. Finance.
Revenues in 1908-1909
Expenditure »
1905-909 1909 910
Danish crowns
93,359,l3l 81,948,924
103,790,446 113,120,921
F. Money, Weights and Measures.
Unit of value — the Danisk crown of 100 ore. The 20 crown gold piece
weighs 8.870 grammes, -^ of pure gold. 1,000 crowns equal 1,388.89 frs.
Measure of Weight :
1 pund = 0.5 kgr.
Measure of capacity :
1 pot = 0.966120 litres;
1 korntoude = 1.391212 hectolitres;
1 kubikfod = 0.030916 cubic metre.
Long measure:
1 fod = 0.313853 metres;
1 mil = 7,532484 km.
Square measure:
1 sq. mil. = 56.738314 sq. km.;
1 tonde land = 0.551623 hect.
II. — AGRICULTURAL CO-OPERATION IN DENMARK.
Report prepared by the State Statistical Office.
The Bureau which the Danish Government has organized at Copenhagen
to correspond officially with the Institute has communicated to the latter
a report on the present position of agricultural co-operation in Denmark,
prepared by the Statistical Office of that country and written in French,
of which we give below a close translation.
The report was preceded by the following preface, signed by the Di-
rector of the Danish State Statistical Office, Mr. Michael Hoefold:
" The following summary of agricultural co-operation in Denmark was
published for the ist. International Congress of Agricultural and Rural
Demographic Associations (Brussels, September 1910).
" The material is taken either from the Agricultural Statistics recentty
published by this office, or from various unofficial publications. The more
recent figures regarding- the classification of different kinds of co-operation
are, however, derived from information gathered at the time of the cattle
census of 1909, which information is now for the first time made public.
The office has also received a quantity of special supplementary informa-
tion from all the co-operative bacon-factories and the great majority of
the co-operative dairies.
" Our article aims at giving a short sketch of the development and
actual condition of the different classes of agricultural co-operative societies;
we have paid special attention to those details ot the co-operative movement
that could be illustrated by figures.
" After a few short observations, with the object of guiding the reader,
we shall deal, in the greatest detail, with the co-operative dairies - the most
characteristic form of co-operation in Denmark; then with the bacon-fac-
tories, with the co-operative societies for sale and purchase (including
the business of the co-operative sale of eggs), and finally with the live-stock
improvement and " control " societies. In the part dealing with societies
for purchase only those organizations are treated, of which the special object
is the co-operative purchase of feeding-stuffs and manure, and not the con-
sumers' societies, properly so called, of which the objects are not agricul-
tural in the technical sense of the word, although they are found more
particularly in the country, and their operations concern the farmers. "
AGRICULTURAL CO-OPERATION
159
g I, — Introduction.
Co-operation is of the first importance economically for Danish agri-
culture. It is co-operation which has enabled small and average farmers
to avail themselves of the advantages offered by large cultivation in spheres
in which it is specially profitable; its importance has been specially felt
in the course of the progress made by Danish agriculture in the last
30 years.
The general tendency characteristic of agriculture in the European
states during this period, to abandon the cultivation of grain in favour of
higher priced agricultural produce, such as meat, bacon, butter, eggs, etc.,
has been specially observable in Denmark, a country in which no attempt
has been made to make up for the fall in price of grain by means of
duties and other measures of protection for agriculture. Whilst about 1880
Denmark still had a considerable export of grain, since 1882 the importation
has been in excess, even in some years more than 70 millions of crowns
in excess (1). And to this must be added about 60 millions of crowns
for different kinds of feeding-stuffs, especially bran and oilcake. At the
same time the export of the higher priced agricultural produce increases
very considerably. It is true that the excess of export of live cattle has
fallen from 50 millions of crowns a year, about 1880, to 30 millions of
crowns in the twentieth century, but in the same period, the excess of
exports of butter, bacon, meat, eggs, etc., has risen from 30 to about 300
millions of crowns, as shown in the following table :
Excess of Exports in millions of crowns
Egg»
Total
18S1-S5 .
1886-90 .
189I-95 .
1896-9OO
I9OI-905
I906-909
22. 7
43-4
7o. 3
98.0
135.8
167.4
7.2
19. 8
3*-3
50. 6
71. 7
2
5
4-
7
6
9
13
1
21
9
24
5
1. S
7.4
n. 6
9-5
.,-• 4
67.9
no. 3
169. 1
241. o
297.4
Thus, little by little, Danish agriculture has assumed a purely indus-
trial and commercial character, and it is in this domain that the advan-
tages of cultivation on a large scale are most evident.
(1) 1 crown = fr. 1.39
1^.
i6o DENMARK
Compared with the co-operative movements of other countries, Danish
co-operation is of an eminently economic stamp. It began, as the work of
peasant proprietors, and has ended by receiving the adhesion also of the
great proprietors: yet the movement is only of very small importance for
the working class, properly so called. This remark applies essentially to
the Danish co-operative societies, of which the offices are almost always
in the country, where they have developed simultaneously with co-opera-
tion properly so called.
The co-operative associations, which have satisfied the desire of Danish
agriculture to bring extensive cultivation into the domain of industry and
commerce, are due to private initiative. The State has not intervened,
and the importance assumed by the movement must be attributed essen-
tially to co-operation itself. It is only to the " control " societies and live-
stock improvement societies that the State has given any assistance,
granting them very considerable subsidies: more than a million of crowns
in 1909.
The following table shows the most important agricultural associa-
tions as they were in 1909:
Number
Number of members
Dairies 1,157 157,000
Bacon-curing societies 34 95,000
Societies for purchase of requirements (1). . . 15 60 to 70,000
» » export of rattle ....... 8,400
» » » » eggs — 52,000
» » horse breeding 270 21,500
» » cattle breeding 1,260 31,300
» » pig breeding 253 6,430
» » sheep breeding 102 850
" Control " Societies 519 12,000
Amongst the co-operative societies properly so called, the co-operative
dairies are the oldest; the first was formed in 1882. The first co-opera-
tive bacon-curing factory was founded in 1SS7. Let us mention among
the other productive societies a co-operative sugar factory (founded in
1S85) and a certain number of fruit-preserving establishments, of which the
largest was started in 1903. If we except the consumers' societies, the
foundation of which dates back to 1866, the commercial co-operative so-
cieties were created between 18S0 and 1890, but they attained their greatest
importance after 1900. The same may be said of the control societies,
the first of which was established in 1895.
(1) Not including consumers' co-operative societies.
AGRICULTURAL CO-OPERATION ïôi
§2. — Co-operative Dairies.
Butter has come to be the most important article of Danish export.
About 1880 the excess of exports was a little over 10 millions of kilos
per year ; it reached about 1890 from 35 to 40 millions of kilos ; since
then it has been about 90 millions of kilos. Almost all the butter pro-
duced is exported to England. This important increase is due to many
concomitant causes. Thus, the number of cows has considerably increased,
especially since 1880. There were in 18S1, in the whole country about
900,000 milch cows ; in 1909 the figure reached 1,282,000. At the same
time, the annual yield of milk per cow has increased in even greater pro-
portion, as shown by the following figures :
Annual yield of milk
per cow
Year Kilos
189S 2,041
I9OI . 2,220
I904 2425
I907 2,586
1908 2,66 r
The considerable increase in the consumption of margarine (from
barely two millions of kilos in 1888 to 29 millions of kilos in 1908) has also
contributed to increase the export of butter. The consumption of Danish
butter in the country may be now calculated at 25 millions of kilos; the
total production will then be 115 millions of kilos, of which about 100 mil-
lion's of kilos are produced by the co-operative dairies.
As we have just said, the first co-operative dairies were founded towards
1880. A certain number of dairies were established, about 1875, after the
introduction into Denmark of the centrifugal cream separator. These
dairies made butter from the milk bought on the neighbouring farms. It
is the co-operative dairies, however, to which the progress in the produc-
tion of buttej is due. These spread themselves over the whole country,
especially about 1890.
If we classify, according to date of foundation, the 1,070 co-operative
dairies existing in Denmark in 1906, we get the following results:
Number of co operatives dairies
Year of foundation total percentage
Before 1886 86 8
1S86-1890 628 58
1891-1895 169 16
1896-1900 119 11
1901-1905 68 7
Total . . . 1,070 100
IÔ2
DENMARK
Thus, about three fifths of the co-operative dairies existing- in 1906
had been established during the five years 1886-1890 (no less than a quarter
in 1888); from 1S90 to 1900 the number of dairies increased in rather
less proportion, and in this century a relatively still smaller number have
been established. However, the movement still goes on: but, little by
little, as the number of the co-operative dairies increases, the number of
other dairies diminishes. In 1900 and 1909 the total number of Danish
dairies was 1,559 and 1,455 respectively. The following are the figures
for the different classes of dairies:
Year i 900
Co-operative dairies 1029
Dairies worked in common. . . . 266
Estate dairies 264
Year 1909
I 157
238
90
Total
1559
1485
The number of dairies worked in common, using the milk bought from
the neighbouring hums, and, more particularly, the number of the estate
dairies has diminished by about 200 for the two classes. On the other
hand, during the last 10 years, the co-operative dairies have shown an
increase of 128.
There were in 1909 in Denmark 182,300 holdings on which there
were dairy cows; the total number of cows was 1,282,300. Dividing these,
according as the milk was treated in a co-operative dairy, in a dairy worked
in common, or in neither of the two kinds of dairy, we get the following
m ures :
Total numb
Number Number
of holdings of cows
Proportional numbers
Number Number
of holdings of cows
In the co-operative dairies . .
In dairies worked in common .
In neither co-operative dairies,
nor those worked in com-
I54'568
12,529
mon .
Not stated
Total
1.059,956 86.1 83.3
113,719 6.9 8.9
98,758 7.0 7.8
9,821 — —
182,313 1,282,254 100.0 100. o
Thus 86 per cent of the holdings on which there were cows and 83
per cent of the total number of cows in the country were in relation
with co-operative societies. Seven per cent of the holdings with 9 per cent
of the cows supplied milk to the dairies worked in common, and an equal
AGRICULTURAL CO-OPERATION
i6-
number of holdings with somewhat fewer cows, had either a special dairw
or if we except what was consumed by the household, they sold their milk,
especially in the towns, for direct consumption. The holdings connected
with the co-operative dairies had a relatively smaller number of animals,
which seems to show that, generally speaking, the large farms hold aloof
from co-operation. The co-operative dairies are found almost everywhere
in the country. Only in the north of Jutland and in Lolland— Falster,
where the dairies worked in common plav a preponderant part, and espe-
cially round about Copenhagen, where the milk is sent to the capital, is
there a relatively large number of cows of which the milk is not supplied
to co-operative dairies.
In 1903, 82.3 per cent of the holdings that had cows furnished milk to
the co-operative dairies; in 1909 the number was, as we have just shown,
86 per cent with 83 % of the cows.
What is most important is to see how far the movement of the co-
operative dairies has won over to itself the small farmers. This will appear
from the table that follows, where the holdings are classified according
to size; it also includes a classification of the cows according as the milk
was dealt with in the co-operative dairies, in those worked in common, or
otherwise utilized.
Area of holdings
No.
of
holdings
No. of cows on the holdings of which the milk is sent to
6 "--o
0 cj<
*£•?§
£
■J 3 " =
'" 0 ?
3
o*.a
pis
0—5 hect
5-15 »
!5-3° »
30-60 »
60-120 »
120-240 »
Over 240 »
Not stated
Total.
56,999
49<623
35-942
24,116
5,717
1,296
58i
8,139
182,413
114,057
210,380
290,252
8,385
17,008
19,496
280,099. 22,781
1,059,956
84,397
12,659
31,638
10,095
24,552
17,969
24,581
5,326
1 13.7 10
10,367
9,369
10,222
15,441
7,615
10,579
20,743
14,422
98.758
2,179
1,940
1,668
1,776
521
491
406
S40
9,821
134.9SS
238,697
321,638
320,097
105,192
52,803
63,670
45,169
1,282,254
1 64
DENMARK
Upon this basis the proportions given below are calculated
Area
Co-operat
of Holdings
dairies
0-5
hect. . .
85.9
5-15
» . .
88.9
15-30
» . .
9O.7
30-60
»
87.9
60—120
» . .
80.6
120-240
» . .
60.5
Over 240
hect. . .
38.8
Total Holdings . .
83.3
Percentage of cows on the holdings of which
the milk was sent to
ive Dairies worked Neither co-op., nor dairy
in common worked in common
7-8
3-9
3-2
4-9
7-3
20.2
32.8
6.3
7.2
6.1
7.2
12. 1
19-3
28.4
8.9
The great farms especially remain aloof from co-operation. Thus, in
the holdings of from 120 to 240 hectares, the milk of two fifths of the
cows was either sold to dairies worked in common, treated in the dairy of
the holding, or sold for direct consumption. In the holdings of more
than 240 hectares we find this the case for three fifths. In all the other
groups the milk of at least four fifths of the cows was dealt with in the
co-operative dairies. Thus not only the average sized farms but also the
small ones are in co-operation. Yet, as far as concerns the very small farms,
the proportion was a little less; thus in the holdings of 0.5 hectares, at most,
two thirds of the cows only were connected with the co-operative dairies.
In 1903 the percentage of co-operative dairies was lower in every group,
as shown by the figures below :
Area of holding
Percentage of cows on the holdings
of which the milk was sent to co-operative dairies
Year 1909 Year 1903
0-5 hect S5.9
5-15 » 88.9
15-30 » 90.7
30-60 » 87.9
60-240 » 73.9
Over 240 hect 38.8
Total holdings . . . S3. 3
82.2
84.9
88.4
86.3
72.2
37-i
80.9
The total quantity of milk, estimated in 1903 at 2,800 millions of
kilos, may be estimated in 1909 at 3,700 millions of kilos, of which 2,420
millions, or more than three quarters, have been treated in the co-opera-
tive dairies. The quantity is a little less than the proportional figure for
AGRICULTURAL CO-OPERATION 165
the cows on the holdings connected with co-operative dairies (83 per
cent); it is true a certain quantity of milk is consumed by the farmers'
own households ; besides some co-operative dairies are rented out, and
the milk treated by them is not included in this report.
Only a very small part (10 millions of kilos) was bought from non-
members.
The suppliers received the total sum of 227 millions of crowns for
the milk supplied in 1909.
As to payment, let us point out that some members have received
the skimmed milk and buttermilk free of charge (these were valued in
1909 at 16 millions of crowns); generally, however, they calculate so that,
deduction being made for the working expenses, members are paid the
full price of the unskimmed milk supplied, whilst they take back the
skimmed milk and the buttermilk at fixed prices, often a little lower than
their real value. The price of the milk returned is deducted, therefore,
before the members are paid the money due to them. This reckoning is
made weekly, or fortnightly, or monthly. As, generally speaking, the sums
deducted for working expenses are very considerable, at the end of the
year an important sum has been put by, to be paid out, when the accounts
have been balanced, as members' dividend and to be divided proportion-
ally to the unskimmed milk supplied. In 1909 this sum amounted to
about 34 millions of crowns, say 15 per cent of the entire payment made
to members.
If to the 227 millions of crowus received by the members, we add
the working expenses, which may be valued at 8.50 crowns per 1,000 kilos
of unskimmed milk, we shall get, as the total receipts, about 250 millions
of crowns for the co-operative dairies in 1909.
In 1905 we have more detailed information as to co-operative dairies.
We give it here:
Production:
Thousand kilos
Per 1000 kilos
of unskimmed milk:
Kilos
Butter 84,311 38.0
Cheese 10,639 4-8
Cream , . . 4,744 i-7
Unskimmed milk. . , . . I3>538 3.0
Skimmed milk and buttermilk . 1,896,937 855.6
Whey 16S.759 76.1
Total . . . 2,178,92s 979-2
The quantity of milk treated in the co-operative dairies in 1905 was
2,217 millions of kilos. The leakage was therefore a little more than 2 per
1 66 DENMARK
Total number
of dairies
Percentage
of Total number
134
13
39«
38
340
32
141
13
37
3
8
1
cent. In the same year, the average quantity of milk of a dairy was 2,094,000
kilos. Dividing the 1,059 co-operative dairies of 1905 according to the
quantity of unskimmed milk dealt with, we get the following:
Less than a million kilos
1 to 2 million »
2 to 3 » »
3 to 4 » »
4 to 5 » »
More than 5 » »
Total . . . 1058 100
The size of the more ordinary co-operative dairy was sufficient for
the treatment of from one to three million kilos of unskimmed milk. Seven
tenths of the dairies come within this limit, while 13 per cent were smaller,
and 17 per cent larger. From 1905 to 1909 the average quantity of milk
supplied to these dairies rose from 2.09 to 2.32 millions of kilos.
In 1909 the gross total property of the co-operative dairies was valued
at 34.5 millions of crowns; of this, 31.8 millions of crowns, or say 28,200
crowns per dairy, was value of building, machines and furniture; while
the animals, the goods in stock, etc., were calculated at 2.7 million crowns.
The total debts with which they were burdened amounted to 17 millions
of crowns, or 15,100 crowns per dairy.
The unskimmed milk supplied to the dairies is generally measured
first and then the proportion of fat or cream (value in butter). This
system was applied for the first time in 1886, and it is that adopted by
the great majority of dairies. Yet even in 1903 a third part of the
dairies measured the milk by weight, but in 1909 this was not the case
with one tenth.
The co-operative dairies are founded upon an eminently democratic
basis. In the majority, each associate has one vote, however many cows
he may possess ; only in 6 per cent of the dairies is the influence of im-
portant members greater.
The dairies are united in a series of central federations for different
objects.
The dairies form unions for the development of the milk industry by
means of the organization of exhibitions, the institution of lectures, the
collection of various materials to make the economy of the dairies better
known. In 1909 there existed 21 unions comprising 880 dairies, chiefly
AGRICULTURAL CO-OPERATION 167
co-operative dairies. The progress since 1900 appears from the following
figures :
T- . , Xr c Including x- , No. of dairies
Total No. ; .• -*o. 0: unions , ,
co-operat.ve belong
dairies dairies of dairies unions of dai.ies
1900. . . . 1.559 1-029 15 535
1909. . . . 1.485 1,157 21 880
Twenty of the twenty-one unions comprising 736 dairies have united
in two federations, and these have appointed, in agreement with the union
of dairies not belonging to either federation, a committee to watch over
their common interests. Connected with several dairv unions are " juries "
entrusted with the testing of the quality of the milk, who try to get purer
and better milk supplied to the dairies. In 1909, there existed, in all.
15 confederations of this kind comprising 259 dairies; 9 of these confed-
erations composed of 144 dairies are connected with the dairy unions.
The Association for the Butter Trademark of the Danish Dairies (estab-
lished in 1900) controls the employment of the Horn Trademark, obli-
gatory for Danish butter. About 1.300 dairies were included in this asso-
ciation in 1909.
The Collective Purchase Society of the Danish Dairies (established
in 1901) has for its end to obtain for the dairies articles of consumption,
machines, etc., upon as favourable conditions as possible. This society has
a factory. In 1909, the federation comprised 840 dairies: the business
done was 1.9 millions of crowns.
The societies for the export of butter are federations of dairies which,
dispensing with the assistance of the merchants, devote themselves to the
sale of their butter. There were, in 1909, 6 large societies for the export of
butter, comprising 225 dairies: the amount of business done by them was
about 32 millions; in 1900 it had been about 23 millions of crowns.
§ 3* — Co-operative Bacon- factories and Slaughter-honses.
The evolution which has made Denmark a dairy country coincides
with a considerable increase in the number of pigs, as shown by the
following figures:
Number of pigs
l88l 527.4OO
I888 770,800
1893 S29,IOO
1S9S 1.108,500
I903 1.456,700
I9O9 1,466,800
1 68 DENMARK
In 1909, the number of pigs was more than 2 3/4 times that of 1881.
If we divide the period in two, we shall find the increase was more con-
siderable in the first half. Towards 1900 the number of pigs was double
that of 188 1 ; in 1909 it was further increased by a half.
Bacon has become, next to butter, the most important article of Danish
export, as indicated by the following Table, showing the excess of export-
ation of live pigs and of bacon for the last 30 years:
i if exports of
Pigs Bai '>n
Head Millions of kilos Millions of kilos
1879-82 235,100 1 4. 1 2.8
1883—86 260,800 I5.3 12.4
I887-9O 98,600 5.9 26.8
1891-95 133,600 8.0 4I.O
1S96-I90O .... 1,800 64.O
I9OI-O5 — 500 72.3
I906-O9 — 225 — 94.3
Up to about 1885 the greater number of Danish pigs were exported
alive to Germany, where they were killed, principally at Hamburg, to be
exported later, as bacon, to England. On the other hand, the direct export-
ation of bacon to England was only of minor importance. Up to 1887 slaugh-
ter for the English market only took place in factories owned by pri-
vate individuals ; it was in that year the first co-operative factory was founded
and when, in 1888, Germany prohibited the importation of live Danish
pigs, eight new co-operative bacon-factories were established for export
to England. When in iSgothe German prohibition was removed, the export
of live pigs again increased, but after a new prohibition, promulgated in
1895, the export of pigs ceased completely, and at the present moment
bacon is only exported to England. Under these conditions the number
of co-operative bacon -factories had considerably increased, and that in spite
of the implacable competition of private factories ; there are now 34 co-op-
erative bacon-factories.
The increase will be seen from the following figures:
Number
of Co-operativ: Bacon-factories Number Number
and Slaughter-houses of Pigs slaughtered of Cattle slaughtered
l888 I 23,400
1890 ro 147,500
1895 17 528,800
I9OO 26 675,200 l8,700
I905 32 I,03I,600 27,000
i9^Q 34 1,362,500 25,700
AGEICULTURAL CO-OPERATION
169
in 1900 the number o members was aDout 62,000 ; n 1902 aoout
68,000, and in 1909 about 95,000. Besides the co-operative bacon-factories
and slaughter-houses there are twenty large private ones, working for
exportation; in 1905 they slaughtered about half a million of pigs, against
a million slaughtered in the 26 co-operative establishments; the situation
appears to have become still more favourable for the co-operative under-
takings, since we cannot suppose that the slaughtering done in the private
factories has considerably increased.
There were in 1909 about 188,000 holdings on which pigs were being
reared; the total number of pigs was 1,466,800. Classifying these as they
supplied the co-operative factories or not, we get the following result :
Supplying Co-operative Bacon-factories. .
Not supplying Co-operative Bacon-factories
Not stated
Total. . .
Total figures
Percentages
No.
of
holdings
No.
of pigs
No.
of
holdings
No.
of pigs
86,484
95.209
6,583
926,220
522,899
17,695
47-6
52-4
63.9
36.1
188,276
1,466,814
100. 0
IOO. O
Thus about half the total holdings on which pigs were being reared,
with two thirds of the total number of pigs, were connected with the co-
operative bacon-factories (1).
(1) This would only give the co-operative-bacon-factories and slaughter-houses 90,000
associates, whereas we have just shown they have a total of 95,000. This last figure includes
a certain proportion which only supply cattle.
i7o
DENMARK
The proportion of large and small holdings will appear from the
following table. We have added proportional figures for 1903 :
Area of holdings
Number
of
holdings
with
pi; s
Nu
mb^r of Pig
s
On
holdings
connected
with co-
operative
bacon-
factories
On
holdings
not
connected
with co-
operative
bacon-
factories
Not
stated
Number
of pigs
on holdings
connected
with
co-operative
bacon-
factories
ns percentage
of total pigs
1909
t9°3
0-0.5 hect.
0.5- 5 ■'
5-15 »
15-30 "
30- 60 »
60-120
120-240 » ......
over 240 licet.
No!
Tut;1l.
18,210
2.867
22,374
7,065
48.085
76,8l6
82,014
2.973
46.082
170,204
107,820
1,990
2 7 2 20I
109.950
1,71 1
274.587
98,554
1-539
5*464
69,817
34.008
391
1,22(1
21.273
18,389
406
556
17-795
21,388
96
IO.IOO
20,66o
28,402
1,524
(88,276
926.220
522,899
i7>695
32.3o6
1 1.4
161,803
48.4
280,014
61.2
3S3.862
71.2
374,680
73-6
104,216
67.2
40,068
53-6
39.279
45-4
50,586
42.1
1,466,814
63 9
7-9
35-5
47.2
58. S
62.2
^49-4'
40. s
2S.2
50.71
The members of the co-operative bacon-factories are recruited from the
ranks of the occupiers of medium-sized holdings, more than was the case
with the co-operative dairies; on the other hand (contrary to what has
happened in the co-operative milk industry) the participation of the large
holders in the bacon-factories is almost as important as that of the small;
as to the very small holdings of less than 0.5 hectares, only a tenth of
the number of their pigs are supplied to the co-operative factories. From
1903 the participation of all the groups has increased, especially in the
case of the small holdings. The increase has been much more consider-
able than it was for the co-operative dairies, which in 1900 already had
about three quarters of the total number of cows.
Leaving out of consideration the two slaughter-houses where only
cattle are slaughtered, and dividing the 1.36 millions of pigs (in 1909) among
the 33 bacon-factories, we obtain an average of 42,500 pigs per society.
Agricultural co-operation 171
We give here a classification of these factories according to the number
of pigs slaughtered :
of factories
10 — 20,000 pigs TO
20 — 40,000 » 6
40 — 60,000 » 7
60 — 80,000 » 6
So — 100,000 » I
Over 100,000 » 2
Total ... 32
The greater number of pigs slaughtered were supplied by the members.
Only seven factories bought pigs from non-members. Of the 1.36 millions
of pigs only 25,000 had been bought from non-members; of the 26,000 head
of cattle, about 4,000, etc.
The sum total of 83.3 millions of crowns was paid in 1906 for pigs
and cattle supplied, a sum to which we must add a supplementary sur-
plus amount of 8.6 million crowns, paid to members at the end of the
year. Thus the producers have received from the co-operative factories
the total sum of 92 millions of crowns. If we count 89 millions of crowns
as having been paid for pigs supplied, the average price per head would
be 65 crowns, of which six were paid out as dividend.
The gross total property (buildings, fittings, goods in stock, etc.) was
1 2. 1 millions of crowns, for the 34 factories. The debt with which they
were burdened (debts on mortgage and loans obtained for working expenses)
was 6.3 millions of crowns. Leaving out of the calculation a co-operative
baron-factory which goes in for very large and very varied enterprises
the figures are no more, respectively, than 10.5 and 5.4 millions of crowns,
say an average per factory of 318,000 and 150,000 crowns. One factory
had no debt ; in 5 others the debts were less than 50,000 crowns.
In 26 factories the members are jointly and severally liable: however
the joint and several liability is generally limited to a fixed amount for
each society as a whole. In one special case the joint and several liability
only affects the original members, whilst new ones are exempt from all
financial responsibility. In the other factories, each member generally
guarantees a fixed amount for every pig he registers.
Ï72 DENMARK
j? 4- — Co-operative Societies for Purchase ami Sale.
In proportion as Danish agriculture has developed in the intensive
rearing of live-stock, the production of grain has proved insufficient for the
country itself. It has been necessary more and more to supplement the
feeding-stuffs grown in Denmark by importation from abroad, so that the
importation of grain and of chemical manure has greatly increased. In
1909, the value of this importation was about 128 millions of crowns, as
shown by the figures below:
Millions of crowns
Grain for feeding 46.1
Bran, etc 7.1
Oilcake 57.2
Seeds 8.4
Chemical manure 9.7
Total . . . 128.5
It is easy to observe also in this department the results of co-oper-
ation. Thus in 1909 there were besides the consumers' societies about 15
co-operative societies, larger or smaller, for the purchase of grain, feeding-
stuffs, seeds and manure. The amount of business done by them was about
32 millions of crowns.
The progress they have made since 1900 will appear from the data
below :
Business done
No. of Societies in millions of crowns
I9°o 15 5.4
1902 19 12.5
1904 19 15-5
1906 20 23.8
i9°8 17 304
i9°9 15 3i-6
At the same time the number of their members had increased from
about 20,000 in 1900 to from 60 to 70,000 in 1909: the same persons
may, however, belong to several ' societies. Of the 15 co-operative socie-
ties for purchase existing in 1909, two or three only dated from before
1880, and of the 4 larger ones which had done business to the extent of
27 millions of crowns in 1909, the oldest had been founded in 1898, the
other three in 1901. Little by little the number of societies has some-
what diminished, the smaller ones becoming branches of the larger.
AGRICULTURAL CO-OPERATIOX
173
Here we give the number of members and the amount of business
done from 1902 to 1909 in the case of the three largest co-operative soci-
eties for the purchase of grain and feeding stuffs :
1902
1904
1906
1908
1909
Of an amount 01*32 mil
Number of members
I-.7OO
22,200
32,IOO
344°°
37,000
Business operations
in millions of crowns
8.4
II.O
17-5
23-9
24.9
lions of crowns representing business done in 1909,
from 27 to 28 millions represented grain and feeding stuffs, the rest seeds
and chemical manure.
Let us also mention besides the co-operative societies we have already
referred to, a certain number of agricultural societies that buy in common
for members, especially seeds and chemical manure ; further the whole-
sale store of the Danish consumers' societies bought seeds for sowing in
1909 to the value of 1,751,000 crowns.
We must mention amongst the co-operative societies for sale, besides
the co-operative societies for exporting butter, with which we dealt when
speaking of the co-operative dairies, also the societies of the export of
cattle and of eggs.
Of 184,000 holdings on which there were horned cattle, about 84,000,
say 4.6 per cent, were in 1909 connected with a society for the export of
cattle. Here are the proportional figures for the different groups of
holdings :
Of 100 holdings on which there
. were horned cattle the percen-
tage connected uith a society
for export of cattle.
0— 5
hect
5— U5
»
15— 30
»
30 — 60
»
60 — 120
»
1 20 — 240
»
Over 2_|o
>>
I.I
3-6
7-3
94
1 1.3
8.2
10.7
Total Holdings . . . 4.6
The participation in the societies for the export of animals increased,
in fairly uniform proportions, according to the size of the holdings ; but,
after all, this kind of co-operation is relatively of small importance. The
value of cattle sold in 1909 by the societies for the export of cattle may be
valued at from 4 to 5 million crowns, say about a sixth of the entire export
of cattle, of which the value was in 1909 27 millions of crowns.
'74
DENMARK
The importance of the societies for the export of eggs is much greater.
Eggs have become in the last twenty years an important article of export
for Denmark. Even from 1891 to 1895 the annual average of excess
of exportation was hardly 7 millions of crowns, but from 1906 to 1909 it
reached 25 millions of crowns, or almost four times as much. During
this period the number of hens has increased in considerable proportions,
from 5.9 millions in 1893 to 11.6 millions in 1903: just now there is a
stagnation, and in 1909 there were 11.8 millions of hens.
Of the 288,000 holdings with hens in 1909 about 52,000, say 18 per
cent, with 3.15 millions of hens, say 27 % of the total number of hens,
had become connected with an egg-collecting centre, and thereby with a
federation for export. Here are the figures per cent for the large and
small holdings :
Percentage of holdings Percentage of hens, possessed
with hens, by the holdings belonging
connected with an to an
egg-collecting centre egg-collecting centre
Area
of holding
O
5— 'o
15— 30
30 — 60
60 — 120
1 20 — 240
over 240
5 hect.
15 »
»
Total holdings
18.7
21. 1
22.5
23.8
19.6
17.2
18. 1
18.2
26.3
28.2
29-5
31.0
26.1
23-7
20.9
26.7
The participation for the different groups of holdings is fairly uniform
though less important in the case of small holdings, and very large ones.
The membership of the co-operative societies, the greatest advance in which
coincided with the increase in the number of hens, seems to have been
stationary since 1903.
The largest federation in the Danish Co-operative Society for the Export
of Eggs established in 1895. We may add to this the Esbjerg Butter
Packing Company which commenced to export eggs in 1899, as well as
seven co-operative bacon-curing factories in all, also exporting eggs. The
total figure of business done in 1909 was 9.2 millions of crowns, as shown
by the figures below :
No. of
collecting centre-;
Danish Co-operative Society for the
Export of Eggs 550
Esbjerg Packing Company . . . 300
Seven co-operative bacon - curing
factories —
Business done
Millions of crowns
4.6
1.8
2.8
Total
9.2
AGRICL L'l "URAL CO-OPERATION
175
As in 1909 the value of eggs exported was 26 millions of crowns, the co-
operative exportation makes up a little more than a third of this.
The progress of the Danish Co-operative Society for the Export of
Eggs from its foundation will be seen from the figures we now give:
Year
Number of
collecting centres
Number of
members
Amount of business done in
millions of crown:
I895 . .
. . 6
2,000
O.OS
1897 . .
• • 320
l6,000
I.3O
I9OO . .
. . 400
23,000
2-54
I9O3 . .
• • 475
33,000
4.O7
I906 . .
• • 500
40,000
4-39
I909 . .
• • 550
43,000
4.60
§ 5. - Live-stock Improvement Societies and " Control " Societies.
Whilst the other co-operative societies have prospered thanks to their
own exertions, the case of the live-stock improvement societies and control
societies has been different. They have received considerable subsidies from
the State. The earliest live-stock improvement societies were certain cattle-
breeding societies which, as early as 1885, proposed to obtain for them-
selves, by means of money voluntarily subscribed, the best breeding stock,
especially female; yet the special progress of these societies, as well as of
the horse breeding sociétés, dates from the law of April 1st, 1887, which
granted them a State subvention. The laws of April 14th, 1893 and
23rd May, 1902 have increased their number and have permitted them to
include in their ranks societies for the breeding of sheep and of pigs.
The pig-breeding societies were founded about 1909 and those for sheep
a few years later.
Classifying the 1,884 live-stock improvement societies benefiting by
State subventions in 1909, according to the date of their foundation, we have
the followine results :
Vear of establishment
No. of Live-stock Improvement Societies
Horse
breed ing
Societies
Cattle
breed i ng
Societies
Pig
breeding
Societies
Sheep
breedi ng
Societies
Total
Before 1890.
1890-94. . . .
1895-99. • • •
1900-04. . . .
I905-09- • • ■
in
21
33
45
59
112
66
98
157
3S5
553
1.259
2
26
S7
135
:53
1
36
65
90
133
229
567
865
1,884
176
DENMARK
Of these 1,884 societies, more than three quarters were founded
before igoo. Before 1890 there only existed 5 %. Yet the movement
seems to have reached its culminating point. For some years, the number
founded annually has been sensibly lower than before.
The progress since 1900 will appear from the following table of the
live-stock improvement societies subsidized by the State :
No. of
societies
No. of
members
No. of male
animals
State
subventions
in crowns
Horse breeding Societies
1900
203
16,800
254
5 c, coo
»
. . . 1905
233
20,300
273
Il6,000
»
• • • *9°9
270
21,500
312
159,000
Cattle breeding Societies
1900
634
15,500
7IO
70,000
»
. . . 1905
I.O95
26,200
1,369
iSl.OOO
»
... 1909
I,26o
31,300
1,464
220,000
Pig breeding Societies
1900
66
1,230
75
4,000
»
• • • 1905
163
3,740
180
10,000
»
. . . 1909
253
6,430
328
l6,000
Sheep breeding Societies
1900
»
• • • i9°5
67
450
70
3,300
"
• • • 1909
102
S50
109
4,400
Of the 312 stallions owned in 190g by the horse breeding societie,
289 were of Danish race (247 of the Jutland stock, and 42 of the Frede-
riksborg) and 23 were of foreign stock. In igog, 23,300 mares had been
served by stallions. Of the 1,464 bulls owned by the cattle rearing so-
ciety, 1,270 were of Danish race (584 of the Jutland stock, and 6g2 of the
red Danish breed) and 188 were foreign (especially of English breed) ; gg,ooo
cows had been noted as specially suited for breeding purposes. In the pig
and sheep breeding societies the corresponding figures were 9,500 sows and
2,700 ewes.
Here are the totals of holdings connected with the live-stock improve-
ment societies ^the societies not subsidised by the State are included),
horse breeding societies, about 23,700 holdings with 14,900 horses ; cattle
breeding societies, about 30,300 holdings with 536,000 head of cattle ;
AGRICULTURAL CO-OPERATION
177
pig breeding societies, about 7,150 holdings with 95,000 pigs; sheep
breeding societies, about 900 holdings with 8,000 sheep.
Total
Number of
holdings
Connected with live-stock
improvement societies
Total
Number of
animals
Belonging to holdings
connected with live-stock
improvement societies
Total
Percentage
Total
Percentage
Horses
Cattle ....
Pigs
Sheep
Ï63.559
183,562
188,276
95o78
23JOO
30,300
7.I50
900
14.5
16.5
3-8
0.9
534.680
2,243,889
1.466,814
762,027
149,000
536,000
95,000
8,000
27.9
23.9
6.5
I. I
Connected with the horse breeding and cattle breeding societies are
between a sixth and a seventh of the total number of holdings with horses
or cattle on them : 28 and 24 per cent of the number of animals respectively,
are found on these holdings. On the other hand the importance of the pig
and sheep breeding societies is only secondary. Only 4 % of 188,000 holdings
breeding pigs were connected with a society, and only 1 % of the 95,000
sheep-breeding holdings were connected with the societies.
The proportion between the different groups of holdings will appear
from the figures driven below :
Area of holdings
Of 100 holdings where the animals in question
Were being bred and which were connected
with a live-stock improvement society
Horse
breeding
societies
Cattle
breeding
societies
0-5 hect
5-15 *
I5-30 » . ■
30-60 »
6o-I20 »
120-240 »
More than 240 hect
Total holdings.
I. o
39
21. 4
39-4
48. 6
42. o
,S. 1
14.5
14.8
26. 9
3°- 4
29. o
18.7
7-4
16.5
Pig
b r e e d in j
societies
0.9
3- 2
6-5
8. 1
7- 7
4-8
1. 3
Sheep
breeding
societies
o. 8
0.6
0.9
13
1.4
o. S
0.3
0.9
Î7*
DENMARK
The participation was greatest amongst the middle-sized holdings.
On the small holdings, there are relatively few breeders of live-stock,
and on the larger ones, the herds generally suffice for the males. However
this is not so true in the case of horses ; and the connection with the
horse breeding societies is hardly less in the case of large holdings than
in that of the middle-sized.
The " Control " Societies try to keep account, by means of careful
registration, of the milk-yield of each cow, of the amount of butter-fat in
the milk, and the relation between the yield and the fodder consumed.
In this way, the cows specially suited for breeding are noted, as well
as the unprofitable ones which should be got rid of.
The first " control " society was established in 1895; in 1899 there
existed altogether 519 societies receiving subventions from the State. Here
they are classified according to the year of foundation:
Year of foundation Number of " control " societies
1895-99 I28
I9OO-O4 207
I905-O9 184
Total
519
According to the figures given, in a few years at least 40 " control "
societies were established per year ; but really the number was much larger,
since a certain number of societies previously founded have been dis-
solved later.
The figures following will show the advance since 1900:
1900.
1905.
1909.
Number
of societies
180
415
519
Number
of
members
Number
of cows
3.S80
10,300
12,000
State
subventions,
crowns
76.IOO
I59,6oO
206,800
31,500
Il8,8oO
120,000
The annual yield of milk per cow was much greater for cows belong-
ing a to "control" society than for the cows taken generally (3,080 kilos
against 2,660 kilos).
In 1909 the total number of holdings connected with a " control "
society was 12,800, with about 226,000 cows. Comparing these figures
AGRICULTURAL CO-OPERÀTIOX 179
with the total number of holdings on which cows were kept and the
total number of the cows themselves we get the following:
Connected with a " control " society.
Total Total Percentage
Number of holdings . . . 182,313 12,800 7.0
— of cows .... 1,282,254 226,000 17.7
In 1903, 13.9 per cent of the total number of cows were to be found
upon the holdings connected with a " control " society; in 1909 the per-
centage was 17.7.
The importance of the " control " societies relative to large and small
holdings appears below:
Area of Holding Connected with a " control " society.
Percentage of holdings Percentage of cows
0-5 hect 1.1 1 .4
5-15 » 3-3 47
15-30 » 1 1.2 14.8
30-60 » 18.9 24.4
60-120 » 19.7 30.9
120-240 » 27.0 41.3
over 240 » 38.8 46.3
Total of holdings ... 7.0 17.7
Whilst for other kinds of co-operation the average-sized holdings
are more or less the most important, in the case of the " control " soci-
eties the part taken in the movement increases with the size of the hold-
ing. That the percentage of cows is invariably higher than the corres-
ponding percentage for holdings, results from the fact that is especially
the holdings occupied with the rearing of cows that become connected
with " control " societies.
The live-stock improvement societies, as well as the " control " so-
cieties, are united in federations, the obiect of which is to get the work
of the societies done according to an established plan, and according to
uniform principles; they occupy themselves with the common interests of
the societies in their relations with the public and the authorities. Of 270
horse-breeding societies 40 societies, and of 1,259 cattle-breeding societies,
an equal number, remained aloof from the common management. On the
other hand, only the half of the sheep-breeding societies, and not even
half of those for pig-breeding, belonged to any general central federation.
Amongst the " control " societies, about half were subject to the common
management of the cattle-breeding societies, and about 200 to independent
federations: of 519 " control " societies only 100 did not belong to any
central federation.
British i;rcr>iÀ
I. — SOME DEMOGRAPHIC AND ECONOMIC STATISTICS
Authorities (Official) :
Census of India, igoi. Vol. I, Part I: Report; Part II: Tables. Calcutta. 1903.
Statistical Abstract relating to British India. Parliamentary Paper. Annual.
Statistics of British India. Annual.
Finance and Revenue Accounts of the Government of India. Annual.
East India Financial Statement. Parliamentary Paper. Annual.
Agricultural Statistics of India. Annual. Vol. I: British India; Vol. II: Native States.
Annual Statement of Trade and Navigation, Foreign and Coasting.
Review of the Trade of India. Parliamentary Paper. Annual.
Tabla of the Trade of India. Parliamentary Paper. Annual.
A. — Territory and Population.
Area of British Provinces (not including Native
States under the control of the Local- Governments) ; 1,020,013 scl- m-
Area of Native States under the control of the Go-
vernment of India 493,109 » »
Area of the Shan States in Burma 57.9 x 5 » »
Area of Native States under the control of the Local
Governments 204,665 » »
Total area. . . 1,775,702 sq. m.
l82
BRITISH INDIA
Population on March ist, 1901: 294,361,056.
Density of population per sq. m. on March ist, 1901: 166.2.
Occupation or Means of Livelihood in 1901 :
Pasture and agriculture.
Preparation and supply
of Material Substan-
ces
Number
Percentages
of Total Population
Actual
Workers
Dependents
Total
supported
*2 ^
<•>
c
u
-c
a
c
O
■0
if
0 a
I
90,893,575
21,760,491
3,164,938
22,937,178
104,774,787
23,959,43I
4,56l,I02
22,136,544
I95,66S,362
45,7I9,922
7,726,040
45,073.722
30.8
7-4
1. 0
7-8
35-6
8. 1
i. 5
7- 5
66. 5
15.6
2.6
15.3
Commerce , Transport ,
Storage . .
Other occupations
Total. . .
138,756,182
155,431,864
294,188,046
47.0
53- 0
100. 0
Birth Rate per 1000 of the Population in 1908: 37.78.
Death Rate per 1000 of the Population in 1908: 38.21.
Illiterates (1901): 94.65 % of the Population.
B. — Agriculture, Forests.
Classification of Area:
British Provinces Native States
1Ç07-0S 1907-08
Forests 82,282,579 acres 4,722,572 acres
Net area available for cultivation . 153,526,625 » 15,241,224 »
Culturable waste other than fallow. 113,288,334 » 13,943,631 »
Current fallows. ....... 55,351,706 » 5.921,805 »
Net area cropped 210,883.511 » 20,029,610 »
Total. . . ^15,332.755 acres 59,858,842 acres
SOME DEMOGRAPHIC AND ECONOMIC STATISTICS
Principal products (1907-08):
British Provinces Native States
Arres. Acres.
Rice. 75,980,682 95i>85o
Wheat 18,424,191 i,787-554
Barley .... .■»-..-. 7,629,550 803,945
Jawar (millet) 21,963,751 3,613,314
Bajra (millet) 15,133,229 2,104,963
Ragi 4,539,472 2,312,937
Maize 6,296,375 49°>561
Gram (pulse) 6,816,816 1,771,517
Other grains and pulse . . . 29,585,726 2,639,827
Total food-grains. . . 186,369,792 16,476,468
Sugar 2,876,965 460,506
Coffee , . . . 99.51! I04,37°
Tea 513437
Other foods-crops (including gar-
dens and orchards, spices and / ^4 '-77
condiments) 7,493,186 ]
Linseed 1,401,220 66,716
Sesamum 4,287,728 626,830
Rape and mustard 3>297>455 47-544
Other oilseeds 3>499»57° 3°5»949
Total oilseeds. . . 12,485,973 1,047,039
Cotton 13,909,269 1,117,911
Jute 3,942,675
Other fibres 746,696 S
Indigo 405,905 4457
Opium 538,042 77, 421
Tobacco 974,458 25,699
Fodder crops 4,914,090 662,300
Live-stock in 1907-08:
British Provinces Native States
Bulls and bullocks 30,363,619 3,071,422
Cows 22,279,391 3,008,370
Buffaloes' Bull 3.534.73° 150,834
>> Cow ...... 9,661,752 1,172,726
l84 BRITISH INDIA
British Provinces Native Sûtes
Young stock (calves and buf-
falo calves) 26,199,036 2,737,894
SheeP 18,033,035 >
Goats 25,220,566 S 6,818,727
Horses and ponies 1,311,709 109,286
Mules 54.895 )
Donkeys 1,194,162 \ l^6'^
Camels 393,285 51,809
C. — Mines, Manufactures, and Commerce.
No. of workmen employed in mines in 1908: 164,301.
Total value of mineral output in 1908: £7,824,000.
Principal Industries (1908):
- . Average no.
of operatives
No. of works employed daily
Cotton presses 1,090 75,722
Cotton mills 242 236,709
Jute presses 128 27,460
Jute mills 57 195,276
Silk filatures 44 5,666
Rice mills 200 21,253
Flour mills 35 2,821
Sugar factories 23 5,625
Saw mills 105 8,477
Iron and brass foundries . . 83 24,592
Indigo factories 31 18,925
Tile factories 42 6,547
Oil mills 30 2,724
Printing presses 82 16,542
Dockyards 1$ 11,788
Foreign Trade in 1908-09: £
Imports: Merchandise 85,852,119
Treasure 15,162,778
Total 101,014,897
Exports: Merchandise. .... 102,073,253
Treasure 4,213,498
Total ....... 106,286,751
SOME DEMOGRAPHIC AND ECONOMIC STATISTICS
Principal Imports (1908-09): £
Cotton manufactures 22,911,000
Cotton yarn 2,433,000
Metals 8,699,000
Sugar 7,271,000
Railway material 4,947,000
Machinery and millwork .... 4,411,000
Principal Exports (Indian Merchandise) (1908-09):
£
Jute, raw . , 13,223,000
Cotton, raw 13,179,000
Rice 10,592,000
Jute manufactures 10,491,000
Hides and skins 8,312,000
Seeds 7,785,000
Tea 6,929,000
Cotton yarn 6,454,000
Opium 6,233,000
D. — Navigation and Inland Communications.
Number of vessels engaged in foreign commerce which entered and
cleared in the ports of India in 1908-09:
British vessels 4)238
Foreign vessels 3.763
Total. . . 8,001
Total tonnage ot these vessels: 12,910,823 tons.
Length ot railways in operation of the end of 1909: 31,485 miles.
E. — Finance.
Revenue in 1908-09 £69,761,535
Expenditure in 1908-90 .... £73,499,245
1 86 BRITISH INDIA
F. — Money, Weights and Measures.
Unit of value: The Rupee (i) = i s. 4 d. = 1 fr. 66.
The weights adopted in Government transactions and by the railway
companies are as follows :
1 tola =180 grains = 11.66 grams;
1 chittak = 5 tolas;
1 ser =16 chittaks;
1 maund = 40 sers.
The British weights are also employed. The long measure and liquid
measure are the British measures, viz. :
Long measure : The Yard = 0.9144 metre;
Liquid measure: The Gallon = 4.543453 litres.
(1) 100,000 Rupees == 1 Lakh or Lac. In stating a number of rupees above
100. ooo, the figures are usually punctuated so as to indicate the number of lakhs.
IL __ AGRICULTURAL CO-OPERATION
IN BRITISH INDIA.
Authorities,
I. — Official
i) Re fort of the Committee on the Establishment of Co-operative Credit Societies in India,
igoi. Published by the India Office. London, 1903.
2) The Co-operative Credit Societies Act, IÇ04. Published in India.
3) Statement exhibiting the Moral and Material Progress of India. Published annually by
the India Office. London.
4) Annual Reports on the Working of the Co-operative Credit Societies in: (a) Madras^
(b) Bombay, (c) Bengal, (d) the United Provinces of Agra and Oudh, (e) Punjab,
(f) Burma, (g) Eastern Bengal and Assam, (h) Central Provinces and Berar, i) Coorg,
(]) Ajmer, and (k) Mysore. Published in India.
5) Proceedings of the Annual Conferences of Registrars of Co-operative Credit Societies.
Published in India.
II. — Unofficial:
1) II. W. WOLFF: People's Banks. 3rd Edition. Published by P. S. King and Son. LondoD.
2) II. W. Wolff: First Fruits of Co-operation in India, in the " Economic Review."
London, April 1908.
A. — Historical Sketch.
§ I. The Initial Stages.
The only form of agricultural co-operation which has been largely
developed in British India is co-operative credit. There are, however, few
more interesting chapters in the history of co-operative credit than the
story of its rapid extension in that enormous country, with a population
of about 300,000,000, belonging to many races of varying degrees of civ-
ilisation and speaking many languages. So remarkable has been the de-
BRrîîSH INDIA
velopment that Mr. H. W. Wolff, in the 3rd Edition of his book on
" People's Banks " has said of the legislation by which it was initiated
that it has borne fruit in such abundance as has never before been wit-
nessed in the co-operative credit movement.
As yet the movement in India in an illustration of State-aid effect-
ively administered, rather than of organised self-help. The impulse has
come from the Government, which, it may be well to point out, is not
a representative Government as in European countries where the State
has endeavoured to foster co-operative credit. India is an Asiatic depend-
ency of a European power and its Government is a bureaucracy, ap-
pointed by the dominant race. It is this bureaucratic Government which
has set itself the task of teaching the population of India the principles
of co-operative credit and, while exercising no compulsion, of promoting
the formation of credit societies and of guiding them in their work. But
the Government has recognised that its task is something more than this.
It is its policy to create a popular movement and gradually to convert
the initiative of the State into active propaganda conducted by the people
of India themselves, and even, as far as possible, to place the work of
financing and supervising the societies in the hands of popular organis-
ations.
Already progress has been made towards the realisation of this policy,
especially in the matter of providing working capital, but it will, doubt-
less, be many years before the State is able to withdraw entirely from
the work of promoting and supervising credit societies.
India is a country in which the economic conditions vary so greatly
that it is always dangerous to generalise, but it may, perhaps, be safe to
say that, on the whole, the population of India is extremely poor and
that to a very large extent the peasants are heavily indebted to money-
lenders who charge exorbitant rates of interest. On the other hand, it
is known that there is in India a large amount of hoarded wealth esti-
mated roughly at about £300,000,000, which is entirely withdrawn from
productive uses. The problem of the Government is, therefore, the twofold
problem of taking the peasants out of the hands of the usurers and of
making the hoarded wealth available as productive capital.
The introduction of the European systems of co-operative credit for
these purposes has been mooted in India since about 1883. Some years
later Lord Wenlock, when Governor of Madras, instructed Mr. (now Sir
Frederick) Nicholson to prepare a report on the theory and practice of
co-operative credit. Mr. Nicholson devoted two years to a study of the
subject and presented a voluminous and valuable report.
Some pioneer work was also done in the United Provinces and in the
Punjab, where experiments were made in the formation of rural credit
societies.
AGRICULTURAL CO -OPERATION t§9
In 1901, the question was taken up by the Government of India, and
a Committee was appointed to enquire into the subject of co-operative
credit. It was as a result of the Report of this Committee that an Act called
the Co-operative Credit Societies Act was passed by the Governor-General
in Council.
In presenting its Report, the Committee acknowledged its special
indebtedness to Mr. H. W. Wolff, " whose extensive knowledge of the
principles and practice of co-operative village banking", says the Report,
" are well known and whose valuable suggestions communicated through
the Secretary of State have received our most careful consideration".
§ 2. The Co-operative Credit Societies Act, 1904
British India being divided into Provinces, each with its own Loca!
Government, the Co-operative Credit Societies Act, 1904, merely lays
down the broad outlines of the system of co-operative credit to be pro-
moted, empowering the Local Government to make rules suitable to their
respective provinces. For Baroda, a progressive Native State under the
protectorate of the British Government, a special Act was passed.
The Co-operative Credit Societies Act provides for the registration
of co-operative societies consisting of ten or more persons above the age
of eighteen years. The members must either reside in the same town,
village or group of villages or (subject to the special sanction of the Re-
gistrar for the Province) be persons belonging to the same tribe, class or
caste.
Societies are divided into two classes, "rural" and "urban". A
" rural " society is defined as a society in which not less than four-fifths
of -the members are-agriculturists, while an " urban " society is one in
which not less than four- fifths of the members are non-agriculturists.
T In the ca^e of a "rural" society, the Act provides that the liability
of the members shall be unlimited, save with the special sanction of the
Local Government. It is left to each Local Government to provide by the
rules made under the Act whether in the particular Province the liability
of the members of an " urban " society shall be limited or unlimited. If
the rules made by the Local Government do not make any provision on
this subject, it is open to an " urban " society to adopt by its by-laws
either limited or unlimited liability.
} Where the liability of the members is limited by shares, no member
may hold shares of a nominal value of more than Rs. 1,000, nor more
than a certain proportion of the total capital of the society to be decided
by the Local Government, subject to the provision that the proportion
must not exceed one-fifth.
4.
19° BRITISH INDIA
In a society with unlimited liability each member has only one vote
at the general meetings of the society. A society in which the liability
is limited by shares is, however, free to provide by its by-laws what num-
ber of votes the members shall have.
All the profits of a " rural " society must at first be carried to the
reserve fund. A bonus may, howerer, be paid to the members as soon
as the reserve fund has reached a certain proportion of the total liabilities,
to be fixed by the Society's by-laws or by the rules made under the Act,
and when the rates of interest on the loans have been reduced below a
certain percentage, also stated in the by-laws or the rules.
In an " urban " society, at least one-fourth of the profits mus?" be al-
ocated to the reserve fund, but the remainder may be distributed as bonusl
or dividend.
Loans can only be made to members, except that, with the consent
of the Registrar, an " urban " society may lend money to a " rural "
society, or one " rural " society may lend to another.
A " rural" society is prohibited from making loans on the security
of moveable property save with the permission of the Registrar to be given
by general order in the case of each society. The Local Governments
are empowered to prohibit or restrict, by general or special order, the
lending of money on mortgage of immoveable property, or of any parti-
cular kind of such property, by any society or class of societies.
Each Local Government is empowered to appoint a " Registrar of
Co-operative Credit Societies " either for the whole Province or for any
portion of it. The powers of a Registrar are very wide, especially in the
matter of inspection and inquiry, and the duty is imposed upon him of
making a complete audit of the accounts of every registered society at least
once a year.
Subject to any prior claim of the Government in respect of land-re-
venue or of a landlord in respect of rent, a society registered under the
Act is given priority over other creditors to enforce its claim upon the
crops or other agricultural produce of a member to whom its has advanced
seed or manure (or money wherewith to purchase seed or manure), and
upon any cattle, implements, or raw material supplied by the society or
purchased in part or in whole with money lent by the society.
The Governor-General in Council was empowered, by notification in
the Gazette of India, to exempt societies from (i) income-tax, (2) stamp-
duty and (3) registration fees, and in each case the exemption has been
made.
The Act was primarily intended for the registration of co-operative
credit societies, but it contains a section providing for the registration of
other kinds of societies. This, however, can only be done by special
order of the Local Government.
AGRICULTURAL CO-0 IE RATION
J 3. The Working of the Act.
For nearly all the Provinces a Registrar was appointed soon after the
passing of the Co-operative Credit Societies Act. The official title is, how-
ever, a little misleading, for the registration of societies is but a small
part of the duties of the Registrar. He is not only the organiser of new
societies, but the adviser, inspector, auditor, and even, to some extent,
the banker of existing societies.
In India, where the accommodation for travellers is somewhat scanty,
the tours undertaken by the Registrars are necessarily extremely arduous
and involve no small degree of discomfort. As an illustration of what
such touring may involve, we may mention that in his Report for 1908-09,
the Registrar for Burma remarked that the small increase in the number
of societies in the Delta of the Irrawaddy was due to the fact that until
a launch and a houseboat could be provided for the Registrar, supervision
and instructions to general meetings could not be properly carried out.
The Registrars at first had to contend not only against the physical
difficulties of the country, but, in many cases, against the indifference and
conservatism of the peasantry. The need for cheap capital, however, was
great and the peasantry soon began to welcome the Registrars' proposals
as a means of freeing themselves from the burden of usury by which they
were oppressed. The progress became rapid and, in the course of a few
years a large number of credit societies was formed. On June 31st, 1909,
there were in India no fewer than 2,008 societies registered under the Act,
with a total membership of 184,889 persons.
Of the total number of societies, 1,766 societies, with 117,151 members
were " rural " societies, and though the classification of societies as " rural "
and " urban " has been criticised as being artificial and based upon no
logical distinction, it will be convenient for us to adopt it and to regard
the "urban" societies as being outside the purview of the present sketch.
We may remark, however, that some of the business of the "urban"
societies is agricultural, while the business of the " rural " societies is not
entirely so.
The Co-operative Credit Societies Act allowed considerable liberty in
the choice of system adopted. It was felt that no one system could pos-
sibly be suitable for the whole of India and that it should be left to the
Local Governments and to the Registrars to promote the systems best
adapted to the needs of the peasantry in their respective Provinces. Ac-
cordingly we find considerable diversity of system, even amongst the " rural "
societies, in which the choice is restricted by the fact that the liability
must be unlimited. The most usual type appers to be the Raiffeisen, ge-
nerally without shares, but sometimes with shares. The Sehulze-Deli.zsch
BRITISH INDIA
and the Luzzatti types are also found, but as yet no form of society has
been evolved differing materially from the recognized European types.
The reasons which may determine the choice of a particular type of
society naturally vary considerably. In Burma, to take an example, the
Luzzatti type is favoured because the peasantry of that Province are better
oil than the Indian peasantry generally, but are improvident and require
to be taught the virtue of thrift. In the opinion of the Registrar, the Luz-
zatti type of society appeals more directly to human nature than the Raif-
feisen society. " A bank account", he remarks in one of his reports, " is a
greater stimulus to thrift than a valuable house ", and he points out that
though, after a period of years, the members of a Raiffeisen society will hold
more property outside their society, the mem! ersofa Luzzatti society will
hold more money in their society.
In the work of organising societies the Registrars have generally received
material, m the administrative officials of the various districts
and from i ,'luential persons, some of whom are officially recognised
as " honora r}T organisers ". Even with such assistance, however, the
work is growing beyond the power of the Registrars to cope with it
and the need iarising the movement is strongly felt. The efforts
and the suggesti- i made with this object form the subject of a special
section.
We shall also deal separately with the question of cupervision, which
has greatly exercise:! the minds of the Registrars. It has become apparent
that with the growth in the number of societies the work of supervising them
is increasingly arduous and likely to prove costly to the state if it continues
to be done by the Registrars and their staffs.
For the initial financing of the societies the Government placed moneys
at the disposal of the Registrars, but limited the amount which might be lent
to any society to a sum equal to the amount actually deposited by the mem-
bers. Working capital had to be sought from other sources and, in our ac-
count of the Co-operative Movement during the year 1908-09, it will be
seen how (largely by the formation of central societies or district banks)
the necessarv funds have been procured. In another section we give an
outline of son: . jals put forward for the establishment of a Central
Bank for India.
To assist in co-ordinating the work of the Registrars an Annual Con-
ference of Registrars is held. At the 1909 Conference, the chief subject of
discussion was the amendment of the Co-operative Credit Societies Act. The
principal amendments proposed are set forch in a special section.
Before passing on to a review of the co-operative credit movement in
the year 1908-09, we may remark that in India, as elsewhere, the educational
results have been scarcely less marked than the economic. " Post offices
and schools (or their improvement) are demanded ", wrote the Registrar
AGRICULTURAL CO-OPERATION 193
for Bombay in 1909, " and the cause of education seems likely to be for-
warded in no small degree by our existence ".
In Bengal the Registrar noted, as an indication of the influence of the
societies, a growing demand for vernacular schools and stated that in se-
veral of the villages night schools had been formed where many of the mem-
bers were learning to read an write. The Registrar for Punjab even observed
moral as well as educational results. "I am assured", he wrote, " that
there are instances of villagers of sinister character, unable to raise funds
except by joining a society and yet unable to obtain election while their
characters are still under a cloud, being driven against their will into the
paths of virtue ".
B. — The Co operative Movement in Î90S-09.
§ I. General Progress of the Rural Credit Societies.
The admirable Reports furnished by the Registrars of Co-operative
Credit Societies enable us to present an almost complete survey of the Co-
operative Movement in India during the year ended June 30th, 1909. In
doing so, we shall endeavour to indicate the different lines of development
followed in the various provinces, which, it should be remembered, differ as
greatly in their economic conditions and the character of their inhabitants
as one European country differs from another.
The year 1908-09 was a year of consolidation rather than of active pro-
pagandist work. In most of the Provinces the Registrars concentrated their
attention upon strengthening the existing societies rather than forming new
ones. The movement had, however, acquired a momentum which could
not be stayed and, as will be seen from the following table, rapid progress
was made, not only in the number of societies, but in their membership
and working capital.
ic)4
BRITISH INDIA
Table I. — Rural Societies :
Number, Membership and Working Capital, 1908-09.
Province
Number
of Societies
July ist.
July ist.,
1909
Number of Members
July ist.
190 i
July ist.,
1909
Working Capital
July ist.,
1908
July ist.
1909
Madras
Bombay
Bengal
United Provinces
Punjab
Burma
Eastern Bengal and As-
sam
Central Provinces and
Berar
Coorg .
Ajmer.
Mysore
India.
77
!53
100
124
331
364
166
317
253
3"
72
ISS
114
204
69
87
12
15
8
8
17
28
1,219
1,766
4.719
5.245
10,909
38,304
21,565
2,662
5>2i3
2,881 !
I
1,081 I
238 J
1,157 '
9,400
7,163
12,193
43,952
22.976
4,275
8,442
3,942
1,284
260
2,542
Rs.
3,30,265
IJ8,23S
183, 197
6,33,577
Rs.
7,84,72S
2,83,360
2,60,224 j
10,65,487;
4-72,367; 7,83.666
4,06 005
1. 59>445
1,62,72s
79,299
26,224
406
13,37-'
93,972 j 117, I51 22,39,123
3,53,573
90,017 j|
35,52;
673
24,488
40,86,754
The increase in the number of societies was most rapid in Madras
the United Provinces, Burma and Eastern Bengal and Assam. The pro-
gress was particularly remarkable in Burma, where the desire to form
co-operative societies had become so great that the Registrar and his
staff were unable to cope with it. The number of applications which could
not be dealt with greatly exceeded the number of societies actually regi-
stered and the Registrar expressed a fear lest unregistered societies should
be formed if the Government did not take measures to deal with the ap-
plications. " The failure of such unregistered associations ", he wrote,
" would not only be a serious matter to the areas affected, but would
discredit good societies. It will be a misfortune if Government is unable
to ally itself with the strong feeling towards union spreading amongst
the Burmans and to guide the growing national spirit into channels in
which its energies will only add to the prosperity and security of the
Province ".
AGRICULTURAL CO-OPERATION
195
The Registrar for Bo?nbay reported that any deficiency in figures
might be considered amply compensated for by an intensifying of the real
spirit of the movement. In Punjab 76 new societies were started, but 34
societies were ordered to be wound up; the Registrar's efforts having
been directed principally to weeding out the weak societies and strengthen-
ing the good ones. In the Central Provinces the Registrar preferred
not to start new societies except where he could see his way to financ-
ing them in accordance with a scheme which he was developing.
The number of societies on July 1st, 1909, was 44.8 per cent higher
than on July isi., 1908; the number of members 24.6 per cent higher, and
the working capital 82.5 per cent higher.
Thus, while the membership has not increased as rapidly as the num-
ber of societies, the working capital had increased in a very much higher
proportion than either the number or the membership of societies.
The increase or decrease of the average membership and the average
working capital in the various provinces may be seen from the following
table.
Table II. — Rural Societies :
Average Membership and Average Working Capital in 1903-1909.
Province
Average Membership
Average Working Capital
July ist., 1908
July ist., 1909
July ist., 1908
July ist., 1909
Punjab
Eastern Bengal and Assam
Central Provinces and
Berar
Ajmer
6l
S2
33
231
85
37
46
42
90
27
68
6l
58
35
139
74
28
41
45
85
32
91
Rs.
4,289
Ij82
553
3,817
1,867
2,214
1,428
1,149
2,185
51
7S7
Rs.
5,129
2,285
7X5
3,361
2,520
2,620
1.733
1,035
2,302
84
875
India. . .
77
66
1,837
2,314
tç)6
BRITISH INDIA
It may be worth while to show what percentage of the agricultural pop-
lnation of each province belongs to rural credit societies. This is dene
in the following table. The percentages are, of course, still extremely
small, and their chief interest is that they indicate the enormous possible
extension of the co-operative credit movement in India.
Table III. — Rural Societies :
Percentage of Agricultural Population belonging to the Societies.
Province
Persons engaged
in pastoral
or agricultural
pursuits
(actual workers)
on
March ist., iqoi
Madras. . . .
Bombay . . .
Bengal (i).
.053
■173
548
969
Eastern Bengal and As-
sam
Uuited Provinces
Punjab
Burma
('entrai Provinces and
Bsrar
,968,664
L Coorg .
Ajmer. .
Mysore .
.455.
,022,
,948,
,440
105,
164,
,165,
5M
468
715
80S
315
120
089
Number of members
of rural societies
July ist.,
LÇOS
July tst.
Percentage of persons
engaged
in pastoral or agricultural
pursuits belonging
to rural societies
July ist.
1908
4JI7
5.245
10,909
5.2I3
38,304
21,565
2,662
2,88l
I,o8:
238
1,157
9,400
7,165
12,913
8,442
43,913
22,976
4,275
3,942
1,284
260
2.542
o. 03
0.08
o. 07
o. 24
o. 53
o. 09
0. 04
1. 02
o. 14
o. 09
July ist.
l/OO
O. 06 ,
O. II i
I
O. 09 !
1
O. 28 j
o. 56 j
o. 14 I
I
0. oC
1. 21
o. 16
O. 21
( 1) As the partition of Bengal took place subsequent to the Census of 1901, separate fig-
ures are not available for the present Province of Bengal and the Province of Eastern
Bengal.
The three following tables contain the aggregate statements of ac-
counts and the aggregate balance— sheets of the rural societies in the whole
of India for the years 1907-08 and 1908-09. It will be seen how rap-
idly the business of the societies was increasing.
AGRICULTURAL CO-OPERATI 3N
T..BLE IV. — Rural Societies : Aggregate Receipts and Disbursements
1907-908 and 1908-909.
Rece i>ts :
1907— oS 190:— 09
Rs. Rs.
Share payments 2,11,691 2,38,621
Entrance fees 18,165 16,112
Deposits by members 2,08,340 3,06,941
Loans from other sources:
Government 2,47,529 1,84,639
Other societies 5,97,437 15,68,049
Non-members. ... - 2,22,658 4,55,639
Loans repaid by members 11,22,179 20,72,182
Loans repaid by other societies 440 6,978
Interest received 1,24,681 2,70,456
Sale proceeds of stock 236 25>357
Other income 13,911 34,212
Total income of year .... 27,67,270 51,79,252
Opening balance 1,32,358 2,07,792
28,99,629 53,86,994
Disbursements'.
Share capital withdrawn • . . 32,400 ^7,127
Deposits withdrawn 60,584 92,337
Loans repaid to:
Government 25488 61,577
Other societies 2,27,697 7,12,470
Non-members 23,388 79,853
Loans to members 22,02,032 37,56,048
Loans to other societies 6,811 15,894
Interest paid on loans and deposits .... 48,196 1,24,957
Dividend and bonus paid 6,432 11,208
Stock bought ... 37,78o
Establishment and contingencies 12,959 24,287
Other items 16,151 43-495
Carried to reserve 18,525 24,861
Total expenditure 26,80,668 50,31,973
Closing balance 2,18,952 3,55,021
28,99,620 53-86,994
i g8 BRITISH INDIA
Table V. — Rural Societies: Aggregate Profit and Loss Account
1901-08 and 1908-09.
Profit'.
Interest earned
Gross profit on sales of stock .
Other items
Loss :
1907-08
1908—09
Rs.
Rs.
1,48,424
3ô6,75l
235
1,059
22,6l5
26,214
Total. . . 1,71,275 3>84,°28
12,220
24,152
43
15
5
67
7,847
9,486
88,599
2,00,726
82,676
1,83,302
Interest paid and due 68,482 1,67,003
Establishment and contingent charges paid and
due
Debts written oft
Depreciation of stock
Other items
Total. .
Net Profit. .
1,71,275 3>84,028
Table VI. — Pural Societies - Aggregate Balance Sheets
Ju. 30th., 1908 and June 30th., 1909.
June 30th., 1908 June 30th., 1909
Assets z Rs* K*-
Cash in hand and bank , . 2,32,278 3, 55,961
Value of investments ... 26,408
Loans due by other members 20,14,406 36,65,633
» » » other societies 7,252 ^.S20
Interest due by members and by other societies. 75,484 1,40,879
Value of stock in hand . 1,276 12,461
Other items 8,848 28,927
Total assets. . . 23,39,547 42,45,791
AGRICULTURAL CO-OPERATION
199
June 3«th., 1908 June 30th., 1909
Liabilities'. Rs- Rs-
Loans from non-members 3,65,296 7,12,109
» » other societies 5,41,363 14,14,616
Interest due on loans from non-members and
from other societies 19,182 45,814
Loans from Government 4,23,186 5,42,008
Interest due to Government 3>77o 7.501
Total loans and interest due. . . 13,52,798 27,22,050
Share capital 3,87,556 5.59,634
Deposits by members 3,98,322 6,10,313
Interest due on members' deposits 12,916 18,519
Dividends due to members 1,018 1,388
Total due to members. . . 7,99,812 11,89,856
Establishment and contingent charges. . . . !>534 2,179
Other items 1,579 8,785
Reserve fund 5o,396 1,03,933
Total liabilities. . . 22,06,121 40,26,804
Balance: Profit. . . 1,33,425 2,18,986
23,39,547 42,45,791
§ 2. The Transactions of the Rural Credit Societies.
(a) Amount of Loans Issued.
To compare the amount of loans granted during the same year
by two agricultural credit societies is not a very strict method of com-
paring the relative magnitude of their transactions, owing to differences
in the duration of the loans. The strict comparison would be between
the average amounts of the loans outstanding during the year, but these
are figures very difficult to calculate. A comparison between the actual
amounts of loans outstanding at a particular date may be somewhat vit-
iated by differences in the times of the year when capital is chiefly re-
quired.
With these reservations as to the value of the comparisons offered,
we give two tables showing respectively the amounts of loans granted by
the rural credit societies in the years 1907-08 and 1908-09 and the
amounts of loans outstanding on July 1st., 1908 and July 1st, 1909. Both
tables indicate substantial increases for India as a whole.
BRITISH INDIA
Table VII. — Rural Societies : Total Amount of Loans Granted
with Average Amount per Society in 1907-08 and 1908-09.
Province
1907-08
Number
of
Societies
Total
amount of
Loans
Granted
Average
amount
per Society
of Loans
Granted
Number
of
Societies
Madras
Bombay
Bengal
United Provinces
Punjab
Burma
Eastern Bengal andAssam
Central Provinces and
Berar
Coorg
Ajmer
Mysore
India. . .
Rs.
77
2.95.059
100
1,77,005
33*
1,45,468
166
7,70,827
253
3,89,050
72
1,74,661
114
1,55,182
69
75-843
12
18,638
8
295
17
1,219
22,02,032
Rs.
3.832
1,770
439
4,644
1.538
2,426
1,36!
1,099
1.553
37
!53
124
364
317
3"
155
204
87
15
S
28
Total
amount of
Loans
Gi anted
6,94,462
2,65,939
1,25,076"
1 3. '2 8.494
5.59.572
4,01,894
2,48,071
68,628
29,190
673
34.044
i,So6 I 1,766 137,56,048
Average
amount
per Society
of Loans
Granted
* For nine months ended March, 31st, 1909.
Rs,
4.539
2,145
344'
4,191
ï.799
2.593
1,216
789
1,946
85
1,216
2,127
Table VIII. — Rural Societies : Amount of Loans outstanding on July 31st., 1908
and July 31st., 1909, with Average Amounts outstanding per Society.
July ist., 190S
Number
of
Societies
Total
amount of
Loans
outstanding
Average
amount
per Society
of Loans
out-
standing
July ist., 1009
Number
of
Societies
Total
amount of
Loans
outstanding
Average
amount
per Society
of Loans
out-
standing
Madras
Bombay
Bengal
United Provinces
Punjab
Burma
Eastern Bengal and Assam
Central Provinces and
Berar
Coorg
Ajmer
Mysore
India. . .
71
100
331
166
253
72
114
69
12
8
17
3.13.540
i,57.o65
1,66,642
5,46,838
4,35,446
i,53,3oi
1,52,727
69,498
I9.037
303
1,219 20,14,406
Rs.
4,4i6
i,57i
503
3,294
1,721
2,219
i,34o
1,007
1,586
38
153
124
364
317
3"
155
204
87
iî
8
2S
Rs.
,63,362
,71,121
,36,111
,70,424
,59,237
,98,867
,36,520
Si, 141
27,740
565
14,540
Rs.
4,989
2,l86
649
2,704
2.I20
2,573
1,650
932
1,849
7i
519
1,652 J 1,766 j36.65.633 J 2,076
AGRICULTURAL CO-OPERATION
(b) Duration and Repayment of Louis.
As might have been expected the average amounts of loans outstand-
ing correspond fairly closely with the average working capital on the same
dates. It will also be noticed that they do not differ greatly from the aver-
age amounts of the loans granted during the year. This suggests that
the average duration of the loans is probably about one year. On this
point no general figures are available, but some particulars are furnished
by the Reports of the different Registrars for the year 1908-09.
For Madras we have the following statement :
Number Amount
Loans not exceeding one year 8,816 8,91,957
Loans exceeding one year, but not exceeding
two years 222 29.654
Loans exceeding two years 275 42,610
Total loans. . . 9,313 9,64,221
The Registrar for Bombay wrote: "The periods for which loans are
given are not satisfactory yet, which is but natural. There is a tendency
to make them all alike for everybody (and the amounts of loan equal too).
The lazy Secretary of a dull Society will collect and pay out again (to
the same persons) by a book transaction. The idea of proportion to pur-
pose needs some education in economics, which will come in time. The
worst of the present system is, perhaps, that money goes in a lump one
day and comes back in a lump on another (future) day ; in the interval a
guest comes, a cow dies, a child is born, school fees fall due; but the so-
ciety is found unable to accommodate even the smallest demands at the
moment. The savkâr can, and does. The sàvkàr has also an advantage
in having endless (as will as timely) money at his back, while societies
are still much handicapped by want of funds. "
In Bengal there was an attempt to introduce a better system of repay-
ment. " Hitherto, " wrote the Registrar, " the rule has been to limit
all loans, irrespective of purpose, to one year. At the beginning this rule,
though opposed to the Raiffeisen principle of repayment from profits or
savings effected, was necessary to the education in thrift and punctuality
of an improvident people. But with the increase in size and variety of
loans it is impossible to maintain it. Hereafter loans for the cultivation of
BRTTISH INDIA
a particular crop will be repayable when that crop is harvested; loans for
annually recurring expenses will ordinarily be recovered within a year;
those for objects the profits of which accrue more slowly will ordinarily
be realised in kists within two or three years, while the terms of loans
for repayment of debts vviil be decided according to amount and circum-
stances, subject to a general limit of four years .... Under the old
rule realizations were necessarily somewhat unsatisfactory. It was fre-
quently quite impossible for members to repay within a year and the effect
of the inevitable and frequent relaxation of the rule was not good. Under
the new system there ought to be an improvement. "
In Punjab, similar difficulties have arisen. " There is still much to
be done, " the Registrar reported, " in the way of fixing proper instalments
for repayments and of insisting on punctuality. The Punjabi peasant has,
however, for generations been encouraged to defer repaying borrowed mon-
ey and it will take some little time for him to understand the benefit
both for himself and others of repaying his loans punctually. " In many
cases, it appears, the loans were made repayable at harvest time, no date
being named, but the Registrar hoped to be able to induce the societies
to fix definite dates for repayment.
In Burma, too, the peasants have been accustomed in the past to make
payments, not on a given date, but during a given season. In view ol
this fact, the Registrar considered that the payment of interest had, on
the whole, been made with marvellous punctuality. " It is probably true ",
he wrote, " that more interest is paid before due date than after it ".
The Registrar for Coorg wrote: " Loans are ordinarily granted for
a term of one year only; renewals for further periods, each not exceeding
twelve months, may, however, be granted, provided that at least one-fifth
of the original advance, together with the interest due, has been repaid
at maturity. I am afraid that this year the committee made too free use
of their privilege, though it must be admitted that the crops were poor ".
(c) Size of Loans.
We are unable to state, for India as a whole, the average size of the
loans granted by rural societies, but the following figures show how greatly
the average varied in the different provinces :
AGRICULTURAL CO-OPERATION
"03
Table IX. — Rural Societies : Size of Loans,
Total number Total amount Average
*f Loans Granted of Loans Granted sire of Loans
Province 190S-09 içoS-^p ic^-09
P.s
Madras 6,951 6,94,462 100
Bengal 6,6S4 1,25,076 19
Coorg 779 29,190 57
For Madras we have the following additional particulars:
Table X. — Rural Societies in Madras : Size of Loans.
Size of Loans Number Amount
Not exceeding Rs. 50 3.417 ï.27.593
Exceeding Rs 50, but not exceeding Rs. 100 . . . 1,930 1,77,840
» » ico » » » » 250 . . . 1,181 2,20,344
» » 250 423 1,68,683
Total . . . 6,951 6,94,462
In Coorg, out of 779 loans, 704 loans were under Rs. 50 and the re-
maining 75 loans were between Rs. 51 and Rs 100.
(d) Purposes of Loans.
No general statement can be presented showing the purposes for
which loans were granted by the rural societies of India, but in a few
instances there are detailed statements relating to separate provinces and
many interesting particulars may be obtained from the Reports of the
Registrars.
For Madras the following table shows the amount of loans granted
for different purposes in 1908-09, with percentages of the total amount of
loans :
204 RRITISEI INDIA
Table XI. Rural Societies in Madras : Purposes of Loans.
Amount of Percentage
Loans of Total
— Amount
Rs. _
Productive^ P ur poses :
Cultivation Expenses (Purchase of seed-grain,
manure, -implements of husbandry) . . . 78,766 11.3
Purchase of cattle 73i6i3 10.6
Payment ol sirkar kist or rent to zamindar . 47,380 6.8
Permanent improvement to land such as by
digging wells 38,294 5.5
Purchases of raw materials of industry and art- '
isans' appliances, tools, etc 1,805 °-2
Purposes of trade 1,04,347 15.0
Building, buying or repair of houses .... 25,183 3.6
Purchase of land 23,457 3-3
Purchase of food and necessaries of life . . . 33>i73 4-7
Total loans for productive purposes .... 4,26,019 61.3
Paying off prior debts 2,57,918 37.1
Non-Productive Purpo es:
Marriages 1.4
Other Ceremonies 655 o. 1
Litigation 200 0.02
Other non-productive purposes 70 0.0 1
Total for non-productive purposes 10,524 1.5
Total . . . 6,94,462 100.0
The figures indicate that in Madras (as will be seen to be the case
in other provinces) a large proportion of the loans have been granted for
the repayment of prior debts. " This function of the societies ", wrote the
Registrar, " is much appreciated ; for eve i if the average rate per cent
on the old bonds be 15 (by no means too high an estimate) the saving
per annum to our members, so far as the loans disbursed for this pur-
pose in one year (1908-09) is concerned, amount to nearly Rs. 19,000 ".
AGRICULTURAL CO-Ol'EKATION 205
The lending of money for " marriage expenses " and " other cen»
monies " might seem to be scarcely part of the functions of an agricul-
tural bank, but the explanation is simple. " Less than 3 per cent of the
total loans ", wrote the Registrar, " was ostensibly spent for non-productive
purposes, chiefly on marriages; we have to permit this as otherwise, so-
cial pressure being exerted for cercain kinds of expenditure, the members
will have to raise money elsewhere at a high rate of interest, higher be-
cause ;:he society declines to lend money lor the purpose. Indirectly, ad-
vantage is taken to educate the members to restrict expenditure on mar-
riages by limiting the money borrowed for such purposes below the
maximum ava [or other purposes ".
In Bombay the amount lent for the purpose of redeeming old debts
was comparatively small (Rs. 20,561 out of a total of Rs. 2,65,939), but
the Registrar looked forward to a very steady, if not sudden, increase in
the loans granted for this purpose.
For Hengal we are able to give a similar statement to that which we
have given for Madras :
Taule X. — Rural Societies in Bengal : Purposes of Loans.
Purposes
Cultivation expenses.
Purchase of cattle .
Payment of rent .
Improvement of land
Trade
House repairs . . .
Purchase of land. ,
Maintenance . . .
Payment of debts .
Redemption of land.
Marriage expenses .
Other ceremonies. .
Litigation ....
Raw ma erials.
Other purposes . .
Amount of
Leans
Ks.
Percentage
of Total
Amount
3I«755
25-3S8
12,976
10.372
6,30-!-
5.040
936
0.748
6,831
5.461
1,501
1.200
1,470
I.I75
1 1 ,630
9.299
43.841
35-05I
1,874
1.497
1,780
1.423
932
0-745
99
0.071
563
c.450
2,580
2.062
Total . , - 1,25,076 100.000
2c6 BRITISH INDIA
" In the advanced districts ", wrote the Registrar, " the purposes of
loans grow more varied every year ".
The Registrar for the United Provinces reported as follows : " In a
targe number of societies loans for payment of old debts have been given,
and in new societies the first loans are often taken for this purpose. Many
tenants owe the rede iption of their holdings from mortgage, others the
avoidance of ejectment or attachment to timely advances from their soc
ieties. So far as possible in such cases the production of documentary
evidence is demanded in proof of the proper expenditure of the loan. Li-
quidation of old debts, however, can only be gradual, as many members
are heavily indebted. Wholesale advances to such persons would be un-
safe, even it" societies possessed sufficient capital for the purpose. .Most
loans are taken for agricultural purposes, but advances for necessary though
unproductive objects, such as marriage expenses, are not disallowed ".
Unlike the Registrars of most provinces, the Registrar of the United
Provinces had to report that misapplications of the loans sometimes oc-
curred. " Loans for bullocks ", he wrote, " are generally repayable in
instalments, while advances for seed or irrigation have to be refunded from
the profits of the crop for which they are received. Anxiety to secure an
advance repayable in instalments occasionally tempts a member to record
the purchase ot bullocks as the object of his loan and yet to expend the
amount received on seed or irrigation. Not much harm, it is true, is
done from the material point of view, as both advances are for necessary
objects, but the practice is to be discouraged on co-operative grounds as
weakening the authority of the panchayat and avoiding that publicity which
is the basis of co-operation ".
The Registrar for Burma reported that in Mandalay, Pyinmana,
Tharrawaddy and Kyanksè large sums had been devoted to the cancelling
of old indebtedness. Generally speaking, the members had adhered strictly
to the purposes for which the loans had been granted, but in three cases
where it was found out on inspection that loans had been misapplied, the
members were required to refund the full amount, mainly as a lesson to
the Committees that it was their business to have discovered what had
occurred and to have taken action.
For Coorg the Registrar gives figures showing the purposes of the
loans repayable in 1910, to which we have added percentages of total
amount :
AGRICULTURAL CO-OPÏÏRATION
?o7
Table XIII. — Rural Societies in Coorg: Purposes of Loans.
Number
Agriculture 647
Liquidation of debts 20
Other purposes 24
691
Amount
Rs.
23,303
1,005
945
25,253
Percentage
of
total amount
92.1
3-9
3-7
100.0
(e) Raies of Interest on Loans.
The following table of the rates of interest on loans and the rates
charged by village money-lenders in taken from the " Statement Exhibit-
ing the Moral and Material Progress and Condition of India 1908-1909":
Table XIV. — Rates of Interest on Loans: Money-lenders and Rural Societies
Trovince
Madra:;
Village Money-lenders
Rates per cent
per annum charged
Co-operative Credit
Societies :
Rate per cent
charged on loans
to members
Bombay i
Central Provinces and Berar
Bengal !
Eastern Bengal and Assam ;
Punjab J
United Provinces: Oudh and Meerut. . .
United Provinces : Other districts
Burma
\ 9 to 1 S
j 9 on large loans
15 to 55
18 to 25
12 tO 75
24 to 75
18 to 24
12 to I S
37 Va
^6 to 60
6V4 to 12 \>2
9 3A
9 3/8 to I 2
I5 3/4 to l8 3/4
9 to 183/4
9 to 12 I/3
12 Va
15
In reference to this table, the "Statement" quoted remarks: "Too
much reliance must not be placed on the figures given, but they will serve
for the purpose of a rough comparison. The rates attributed to village
18.
2o? BRITISH INDIA
money lenders are those charged on agricultural loans to ordinary culti-
vators ".
To those accustomed to the low rates of interest charged by credit soc-
ieties in Europe, the rates in India may, perhaps, appear surprisingly
high, but it must be remembered that the economic condition of India is
very different from that of most European countries. Capital does not flow-
readily in India to the places where it is required. This is indicated by the
figures showing the money-lenders' rates of interest which, even in the
same province, vary extraordinarily.
In Madras, the Registrar attributes the variation in the rate of inter-
est charged by societies to local circumstances and the nature of the secu-
rity offered. " Barring exceptional circumstances ", he writes, " it is a mis-
take to cut down the interest to below 9 per cent ".
For this province we are able to give a table showing for certain dis-
tricts the rates of interest charged by money-lenders in the villages where soc-
ieties have been started before the establishment of the societies and after.
The Registrar instructed his inspectors to inquire into this matter and we
have thrown into tabular form the facts which he records in his Report.
AGRICULTURAL CO-OPERATION
209
Table XV.
Money-lenders' Interest in Madras.
District
Anantapur Cukkapatnam. .
Dharmavaram .
Vajrakarur. . . .
Haresamudram.
North Arcot I Salavedu
I Anakavur
1 Sholingur
Chandragiri
i Talangai
' Valluvambakum
South Arcot Melmalayanur . ,
Mudiyanur
Bellary. . . ,
Chingleput
Cuddapah.
Kurnool ,
Madura.
Tanjore .
Trichinopoly
(Three societies)
(All societies) . . ,
Nandaluru
Madanapalle
Tatiguntapalle . .
Pyapalli
Tirumangalam . . ,
Manargudi
Melatur ,
Lalgudy ,
Tirumlavadi
Name of Society
Money-lenders' Interest
Before
the Formation
of the Society
After
the Formation
of the Society
IS to 24
18
30
24
12
12
•8
65
36
30
l8
l8
36
12
75
36
36
36
24 to 36
12 to 18
12 tO l8
l8
I6
12
l8
l8
9
7 Va <o 9
7 'A to 9
24
15
18
12
12
24
9
18
18
18
28
18 to 24
9 to 12
9 tO 12
12
12
" Where the societies are new ", writes the Registrar, " the village
rates continue unaffected ; where the governing bodies are timid or indif-
BRITISH INDIA
ferent, the result is likewise ; otherwise, there is a very appreciable reduc-
tion in the rates of interest ". " In my opinion ", he adds, " the results
already achieved are marvellous ".
The Registrar for Bombay draws attention to the fact that the rate
of interest charged by a credit society is a matter, to some extent,
of what class of people it is dealing with. " In Degam Society, for
instance, in the Surat District ", he writes, " the members (of high caste)
at once required a higher rate of interest to be fixed for low castes, ii
admitted ".
In the Punjab, a number of societies which charged 9 per cent on
loans to members to start with, continue to do so, but experience seems
to have suggested that this was too low a rate, as practically all new
societies charged 12 J/2 per cent. " This rate is not high ", writes the
Registrar, " compared with what the borrower has been accustomed
to pay ".
The Registrar mentions cases of " under-cutting " by the money-lend-
ers. " Instances occur ", he reports, " especially in the case of new soc-
ieties, of sahukars offering loans at 12 per cent or less with a view to
tempting their clients not to join the Society. It is usually not difficult
to persuade people that those promised reductions will be only temporary ;
but should money-lenders begin to make a permanent reduction in then-
rate of interest the village societies may have to adjust their rates ac-
cordingly ".
The Registrar for Burma makes the following suggestive remarkst
the general trend of which is probably applicable to other provinces as
well: " It is impossible to fix a uniform rate of interest for the Province.
Lower Burma cultivators would show little gratitude for a rate which is a
revelation to Pakôkku and Mandalay and yet there are places in Burma
where capital in so devoid of reasonable opening that 9 per cent will
attract deposits. It is not money that the Province wants so much as
organisation. There is plenty of capital, but it is less fluid than labour ".
In reference to money-lenders' rates of interest, the following case re-
corded by the Registrar for Burma is interesting: " The deposit of Rs. 4,331
held from a member by the Thamindwin Society (Mandalay District) de-
serves special mention. The member, a money-lender, Maung Chau Tha,
who is the creditor of all the others, has made over his claims to the
society and now accepts 15 per cent per annum. His former rates were
50 to 60 per cent, per annum. By combining their credit, the members have
saved themselves over Rs. 1,500 a year in interest alone. It is hoped that
a similar procedure will be widely adopted in the Mandalay District ".
AGRICULTURAL CO-OPERATIOIN
j 3. Sources of Capital,
i) General figures.
The returns turnished by the Registrars indicate the sources of ^capital
for each province under the following divisions :
1. Loans from non-members;
2. Loans from other societies;
3. Loans from Government;
4. Share capital ;
5. Deposits by member? ;
6. Reserve funds.
It will, however, be more convenient to follow a somewhat different
order in dealing with the various sources of capital. We give first two
tables showing for two years the actual amounts of capital derived from
each of the different sources and the percentages of total amount.
BRITISH INDIA
Table XVI. — Rural Socle
PROVINCES
Number
of Societies
I July ist. July is:.,
1909
Loans
from non-member?
July 1st., July 1st
190S
Loans
from other societies
July 1st.,
1908
July 1st., July i
1909 190
Madras .
Bombay
Bengal
United Province;. . .
Punjab
Burma
166
253
72
Eastern Bengal and
Assam 114
Central Provinces and
Berar I 69
I Coor
12
Rs.
Rs.
Rs.
Rs.
153
40,999 ; 63,170 I 1,44,950 5,18,023
26,520
124 1 7,091 9,401 ; i4iOI5
;64 1,21,795 : 1,87,76s
317 I 97,541 i i,»4,'
3" ; 6,059
155 80,150
204 : 7,9 ! 3
560
3-32,869
35.635
55,
530 21,
0,70,115
83.650
81,
93
2,78,300 1,350 I l6K3IC ! 20
8?
3,6;
Ajiner.
Mysore
17 2S
16,504
'
24,027
70,110 86
23-391 I 29,334
II
990
Ind:
1,219 I 1,766 I 3,65,294 7,12. r 5,41,362
14,14.614
4,23
•■;:
(*) The figures in these columns do not agree, in most cases, with the figures in ti
in stating the total working capital. One Registrar, for example, gives the total assets
1
, urces ol
AGRICULTURAL CO-OPERATION
213
Capital (Amounts).
111
Share
Capital
Deposits
by members
Reserve Fund
!
Total ( ')
-^
July ist.,
I909
July ist.,
1908
July ist.,
tooq
July ist.,
1908
July ist.,
1909
Ju'.y 1st.,
T90S
Ju'y ist.,
1009
J :ly ist.,
1908
July ist.,
1909
Rs.
, Rs.
Rs.
Rs.
Rs.
,,.
Rs.
Rs.
Rs.
47.8IO
55.343
97,744
40,067
57,978
171
13
3.30,430
7,84,740
1
89,769
j 25-539
2,310
830
89,848
■A 3.030
5.613
13,289
£,74,638
2,82,839
2,3*5
2,545
21,246
21.926
IO,68o
20,034
1,78,510
2,58,362
I
55.453
1,904
14,427
65,667
i,oS 047
13.382
40,911
5-92,497
10,03,098
i,o3.959
2,50,211
3.27.956
1.22,747
1,78,518
"
4,72,367
7,29,718,!
23.380
35.157
49.8S4
675
9,786
11,217
10,178
1,49,209
3.87,838
1.83,312
••
••
43.931
72,772
1.999
10,899
1,64,705
3,53,597
6,841
27,110
31.047
9.693
11,291
3,286
4,316
77,123
88,722
5,293
■
13.205
17,773
4,140
5,020
4,044
-i 044
26,223
32,130
••
306
373
406
673
650
17,426
••
1,568
50,392
,45
20,879'
5,42,006
3,87,555
5.59.632
3>93,320
6,10,309
1,03,929! 2I,66,I08
39,42,596;
wo columns
!otal workin
of Table I,
g capital.
owing app;
irently to s
ight diffère
aces of practice amongst the K
— !
egistrars
214
BRITISH INDIA
a. -j
» 2
.^sr
_>>»
■o - -
O r-
vu «'
M M W> M M
«
« o
■a —
4) «^ g U £
K w u o
AGRICULTURAL CO-OPERATION
215
(b) Loans from Government.
It will be seen from the Tables just given that the Loans from Go-
vernment, though not actually a diminishing amount, are very markedly
a diminishing proportion of the total amount of working capital. This
fact was commented upon with satisfaction by some of the Registrars.
" With the existence of central banks ", wrote the Registrar for
Madras, " Government assistance is unnecessary and by its favourable
t.rms obscures the real business position of the societies ".
The Registrar for Burma wrote: " Societies are now happily inde-
pendent of financial assistance from Government... While the societies were
so far experimental that their establishment might be regarded as educa-
tional, the advances of Government money were advantageous and at the
outset perhaps essential. This stage has now been passed through ".
It may, indeed, fairly be anticipated that the need for the Government
to finance the societies will rapidly diminish in most of the provinces. In
some, owing to special circumstances, the need may continue longer than
i 1 others and it is possible that Government advances may, in all provinces,
be required by new societies.
(c) Loans from Other Societies and from Non-members.
The amounts under the heading " Loans from other societies " are
principally loans from the central societies and district banks. With these
institutions we shall deal in a separate section.
The loans from non-members are either of a semi-philanthropic cha-
racter (as for example, loans from a fund provided by Sir Daniel Hamilton)
or genuine investments of capital. The steady increase of the loans of
the latter kind is an indication that the societies are building up a reput-
ation for financial stability.
The Reports of the Registrars contain passages of some interest on
this matter, notably that of the Registrar for Burma, who wrote: " The
most marked advance this year is that the Bank of Rangoon has under-
taken to finance societies and is now the sole agent for Lower Burma.
The Bank has consented to accept repayment of deposits at any time and
the difficulty 01 preventing money lying idle with societies, unless the
period was very carefully calculated and the time at which crops could
be marketed normal, has thereby disappeared ".
In another passage the same Registrar wrote : " I was offered a lakh
of money by Burmans in Sagu to finance societies if I would iorm them
in the Minbu District. I also received a promise of one lakh from a
BRITISH INDIA
wealthy Burman whom I knew in Sagu and Yenangyaung and this offer
has now been raised to two lakhs, but it is not at present possible to
find an outlet for the money. A few Sagu landowners have definitely
guaranteed Rs. 23,000 capital for a bank ".
In dealing with central societies and district banks, we shall have
occasion to mention an arrangement made, in Madras, by the Indian
Bank, Limited, for making advances to two district banks which, in turn,
advance it to local societies. It may here be noted that the money is
advanced on the security of a promissory note from the district bank,
supported by the promissory note of a local society. Referring to this
arrangement, the Registrar for Madras wrote: " The contract is an il-
lustration of the regard in which the movement is held, is a good testi-
monial to the security of the lines on which we proceed, and is a good
augury of future progress. We have secured access to the general money
market of the Presidency town ".
The Registrar for Bombay shows another side of the picture. " Loans
from outsiders ", he wrote, " amount to only Rs. 34,204 or 6 per cent.,
but we have made a beginning and seem likely to go ahead, slowly but
surely. One or two applications have arrived for permission to borrow
from some local capitalist. But in some cases the Committee are (natu-
rally) averse to outside capital, because they are the men of substance in
the society. Reserve funds are small and certainty of recovery is not yet
assured to us; certainty of liability is! "
The Registrar for Bengal expressed the hope that the societies would
become their own financing agents and draw their funds from the locality.
" At present local capital represents some Rs. 68,000 ", he wrote, " but
the greater part of this is supplied by large Zamindars, like the Maharajas
of Dharbhanga and Cossimbazar. This has been most useful but to be
completely successful, the societies must attract the capital of the smaller
men, of which there is abundance in the district. When the societies gain
the confidence of their neighbourhood, this source ought to flow freely
and the interest taken by the investor in the disposal of his money will
increase the efficiency of the work ".
In Punjab the Registrar notes that several societies have taken loans
from money-lenders on favourable terms.
The Registrar for Coorg reported that there had been no difficulty
in raising outside capital. Two wealthy Indian gentleman had lent Rs. 1,500
to assist in financing societies in North Coorg. " This is gratifying ", he
wrote, " as it indicates that confidence in the security of the business appears
to have been established ".
A 'rRICVLTURAL CO-OPERATION
217
(d) Share Capital and Deposits:
Share capital is a source of working capital of which the importance
varies greatly in the different Provinces. This is due in the main to the
difference in the types of society most favoured. Thus, in Punjab, where
the type of rural society almost universally adopted is the society with
shares but with unlimited liability, the share capital amounted to 44.9
per cent of the total working capital. Generally speaking, it is not likely
that there will be any great expansion in the share capital, though in
some provinces it will steadily increase.
The deposits by members are becoming more important and though
as yet they do not form a high percentage of the total working capital,
it is anticipated that they will eventually become one of the principal
sources. The following are the rates of interest paid on members' deposits
in the different provinces :
Table XVIII, — i-.ural Societies: Rates of Interest on Deposits.
Province Average Rate per cent,
paid oa Member's Deposits
Madras 5 to 7 ' _>
Bomba) 6 %
Bengal 8 to 10
United Provinces 6/4
Punjab . , 5
Burma 9
Eastern Bengal and Assam ... 6 1/1
Central Provinces and Berar . . 7
On the subject of deposits the Registrar for Madras reported : " The
members themselves feel a desire to increase their stakes in the society
and as the share capital is limited some societies have developed a system
of provident savings. Each member is compelled to save a small sum,
e. g., one rupee per annum, and is allowed to save more subject to a
certain maximum ; he gets business interest and is not allowed to withdraw
except under certain conditions. The saving is compulsory, but the
adoption of the system is voluntary".
In Bombay the deposits are considerable, but they do not appear to
be altogether genuine savings deposits.
" The great incentive to deposits ", wrote the Registrar, " has been
the prospect of a Government loan on exceptionally easy terms in amount
2Ig BRITISH INDIA
(up to Rs. 2,000) equal to fixed deposits. The object of this qualification
was to secure an earnest of the people's keenness, while giving them a
first lesson in the art of saving and banking... Where a society was needed,
but money was not to hand, borrowing has been done to get the coveted
grant: where such borrowing has been impossible owing to greater need,
despair of all help from the movement has arisen ".
The process of development is clearly indicated in the Report of the
Registrar for Bengal: " Deposits are the rule only in Midnapore and Khulna,
elsewhere the exception. And Midnapore is the one district where there
is any approach to a correct conception of the idea of deposits. T ere
members do not deposit with the sole object of borrowing large sums
There is a growing tendency to regard the placing of any surplus funds
with the society as the safest and most remunerative method of investment...
Some societies have experimented with a rule making periodic deposits
compulsory, but without great success. Either the rule is honoured in
the breach, or, if it is successfully enforced, the members are apt to regard
their contributions as a form of taxation... The importance of deposits
has been continually impressed on societies ".
Deposits in Burma are still comparatively small, but it may be expected
that they will increase as the educational effects of the co-operative move-
ment become apparent. In forwarding the Registrar's Report to the Re-
venue Secretary of the Government of Burma, the Assistant Secretary to
the Financial Commissioner wrote : " Compared with the people of India
proper, the Burman is a man of wealth, but he needs to be taught to
husband it, to live within his inc me, which is generally sufficient, and to
borrow for productive purposes only ".
In the United Provinces the deposits greatly increased in the year
1908-09. " In several districts ", wrote the Registrar, " the proportion
of deposits to the total working capital amounts to one-fourth or even
more. The provincial proportion is one-tenth ".
Another passage in this Registrar's Report is interesting as showing
both that the societies are not wanting in initiative and, on the other hand,
that they require guidance: " I have everywhere discouraged the system
in vogue with many societies of realising deposits by making deductions
from loans at the time of their advance to members. It was an easy
method of collecting deposits, but failed to teach thrift to members..
Besides, deposits, if they are to be compulsory, must obviously be realised
after the harvest, when a member is in possession of funds, rather than
at a time when he comes to borrow ".
The Registrar for Coorg pointed out that the shares taken by the
members were really of the nature of savings, and added that it was
intended not to distribute profits in cash, but to allow them to accumu-
late towards the purchase of additional shares.
AG RICULT U K A I . CO-OPERAT ION
210
§ 4. Central Societies and District Banks.
(a) General Figures.
In the official returns furnished by the Registrars, separate tables are
given for " Central Societies (lending to other societies only) ", but in pre-
senting some figures drawn from these tables, it is necessary to point out
that there are various societies, not included in these returns, of which the
principal business is to lend money to other societies. Of these we shall
give some particulars when dealing with the separate provinces.
The following table shows the increase in the number, membership
and working capital of the central societies during the year 190S-09:
Table XIX. — Central Societies: Number, Membership and Working Capital
in 1908 and 1909.
Province
No.
of Societies
No.
of members
Working Capitnl
July ist.,!July ist., July ist., July ist., July ist., July :st.
1908 I 1909 1908 I 1909 1908 I9°9
Madras
Bombay
Bengal
United Provinces
Punjab
Burma
Eastern Bengal and Assam .
Central Provinces and Berar.
Coorg
Ajmer. .
Mysore.
India.
I
3
45
157
2
45
2
3
102
271
1
48
1
45
4
5
94
628
7
■5
241
1,194
1
Rs.
28,599
32,916
Rs.
6,61,515 !
4.323
2,00,318
74,580
13,960
52,409
10,07,106
BRITISH INDIA
All the Central Societies, with the exception of one in the Central
Provinces, are on a basis of limited liability.
We next show the amounts of loans granted and of loans outstand-
ing, with averages:
AGRICULTURAL CO-OPERATION
221
I £
oc eu
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222
BRITISH LXD1
The two following tables show the sources of capital of the central societ
Table XXT. — Central Societie
Province
No.
of Societies
July ist., 'July i st.,
1908 j 1909
Loans
from non-members
Loans
from other Societies
Loa
Gov
July ist.
1^08
July ist., I July ist..
1 909 1 90S
July ist., 1 July ist
1909 1908
Madras
Bengai
United Provinces
Punjab
Burma
Central Provinces and
Berar
India. . .
1
3
2
3
1
!
3
4
<
I; !
Rs.
53.740
5,666
2,800
2»33»33°
1,220
83,302
3.75°
10,000
8,928 ! :,ooo
Ks.
90,800
9.647
1,000
1,01,447
9,61
IO, I!
AGRICULTURAL CO-OPERATION
223
i- stly as
total amounts and
secondly as percentages:
s ources o
-J—
f Capital (Amounts).
1
im
tnt
:| July ist.,
1909
Share
Capital
Deposits
by members
Reserve Fund
Total
July ist.,
1908
July ist.,
1909
July ist,,
1908
July ist.,
1909
July ist.,
1908
July ist.,
1909
July ist.,
1908
July ist.,
1909
Rs.
Rs.
Rs.
Rs.
Rs.
Rs.
Rs.
Rs.
Us.
7,500
25,000
1,835
I,I2,8oo
3,12,385
1,236
1,74,04c,
6,61,515
4,291
55-157
10,000
32,895
20,520
3,960
2,o8g
[0,644
40,390
I, IOO
102
27,373
1,83,098
74,409
13,960
1,500
16,854
24,425
8,847
16,555
400
i,353
30,401
53,76l
56,657
1
34,354
1,08,635
1,23,736
3, Si, 210
400
2,555
231,814
9,9I>°34
19.
224
BRITISH INDIA
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AGRICULTURAL CO-OPERATION
225
As we have already done for the rural societies, so for the central
societies we give tables showing the aggregate statements of accounts and
the aggregate balance sheets for 1907-08 and 1908-09:
Table XXIII. — Central Societies : Aggregate Receipts
and Disbursements, 1907-08 and 1908-09.
190708 1908-09
Receipts : Rs- Rs-
Share Payments 18,194 72,625
Entrance Fees 106 1,306
Deposits by members 1,26,016 3.77.356
Loans from Government 7,900 53,000
» Other Societies ... 1,14,499
» Non-members 54466 3,33,3 I2
Loan repaid by Members 6,503 19,003
» Other societies 50,832 2,84,885
Interest received 10,689 31,958
Other income 258 1,25,881
Total rece:pts . . . 2,74,946 14,13,828
Opening balance . . 4,327 12,108
2,79,274 14-25,937
Disbursements :
Share capital withdrawn 600 1,300
Deposits withdrawn 70,610 1,19,881
Loans repaid to Government 2,785 6,461
» Other societies ... 14,052
» Non-members 3,045 54,998
Loans to Members 10,488 3I,3I5
» Other societies 1,71,249 10,10,637
Interest paid on loans and deposits ....." 5.4S3 12,201
Dividend and bonus paid 928 2,268
Establishment and contingencies 498 2,887
Other items 334 i,i7>732
Carried to reserve .. 711 1,690
Total expenditure , . . 2,66,732 i3,75-425
Closing balance . . . 12,541 50.5I1
2,79.274 i4»25,937
lib BRITISH 1JNU1A
Table XXVI. — Central Societies : Aggregate Profit
and Loss Account, 1907-08 and 1908-09.
1907—08 1908—09
Profit : Rs. Rs.
Interest earned 12,539 44,208
Other items 447 1.647
Total . . . 12,987 45.855
Loss :
Interest paid and due 7,771 28,035
Establishment and Contingent Charges paid and
due 519 3.135
Debts written off
Other items 71 268
Total . . . 8,362 31.439
Net profit. . 4.625 14,416
12,987 45,855
Table XXV. — Central Societies : Aggregate Balance
Sheets, July 1st., 1908 and July 1st., 1909.
July ist., 1903 July 1st., 1909
Assets : rs. rs.
Cash in hand and in bank 12,940 50.970
Value of investment . . 1,561
Loans due by Members 8,650 21,002
» Other societies 2,14,963 9,43,069
Interest due from non-members and other so-
cieties , 3-931 16,077
Other items 398 i>5H
Total assets . . . 2,40,883 10,34,196
Liabilities :
Loans from Non-members 62,206 3.40.531
» Other societies 1,000 1,01,447
Interest due to non-members and other societies. 1,090 4-932
Loans from Government 10,118 56,657
Interest due to Government . . 2,798
Total loans and interest clue. . . 74,4 14 5,06,366
AGRICULTURAL CO-OPERATION 225
July 1st., 1908 July ist., 1909
Rs. Rs.
Share capital 34,354 1.08.635
Deposits by members 1,23,736 3,81,210
Interest due on members' deposits 3.37° I2>553
Dividends due to members 752 911
Total due to members . . . 1,62,313 5,03,309
Establishment and contingent charges .... 38 335
Other items . , .. 8,826
Reserve fund 400 2,555
Total liabilities . . . 2,37,066 10,21,392
Profit 3,817 12,804
2,40,883 10,34,196
(b) Madras.
Although three central societies had been formed in Madras before
luly 1 st, 1909, only two were actually at work. These were the Madras
Central Urban Bank, Ltd, and the Salem District Urban Bank, Ltd.
" The former society ", reported the Registrar, " has been working
for over three years and is the main source of supply of funds to co-
operative societies throughout the Presidency. During the year under
Report, the Bank has marvellously developed and nearly trebled its vol-
ume of transactions. Its capital has been doubled and it is very popular
with the public. It is well managed by a strong Board of Directors and
by its able and energetic secretary, Sir V. C. Desikachariyar, Kt.
" The Salem District Urban Bank, Ltd., has been constituted on ident-
ical lines; though it commenced to work as late as the 26th. January,
1909, all its shares were taken up in the period of five months; and it
showed in this short period receipts amounting to Rs. 3,26,735 and dis-
bursements amounting to Rs. 3,26,715 ".
In a subsequent passage the Registrar wrote: " The Indian Bank,
Limited, has entered into a special contract with the Salem District Urban
Bank, Limited, agreeing to lend money 61/2 per cent, and to receive
part payments at the pleasure of the Salem District Urban Bank, Limited,
charging interest on daily balances . . . The contract is advantageous to
the Salem District Urban Bank, Limited, as it enables it to meet loan
applications promptly and as it can repay whenever its secures local de-
posits. The high rate of interest (6 1/2) as opposed to 6 and 5 1/4, the
rates allowed on local deposits, guards the Salem District Urban Bank,
Limited, from preferring the inglorious ease of drawing from the Indian
228 BRITISH INDIA
Bank to the trouble of hunting for local deposits. During the year under
report the Salem District Urban Bank, Limited, drew Rs. 80,000 under
these conditions. The Madras Central Urban Bank, Limited, has also
entered into a similar contract, but on account of its higher prestige had
not to borrow more than Rs. 19,000, of which Rs. 9,000 was repaid ".
The Registrar looked forward to forming other district banks from
time to time on the occurrence of suitable conditions.
(c) Bombay.
The Registrar for Bombay stated that, in his province, the term
"central society" might be taken as implying both or one of two things,
viz : (1) the financing and (2) the supervision of one or more societies.
" A federation or union of societies for mutual help ", he added, " may
be left out of the question for the moment ".
The following particulars are taken from his Report :
" The Bombay Urban has lent some Rs. 14,000 in all to eight societies,
and given way now to new (more businesslike) ideas in the form of a
large central bank scheme; the experiment still awaits the Government
Guarantee.
" The Broach District Society has now extended from Broach district
by itself to Gujarat as a whole. It has lent to three societies already an
amount of about Rs. 4,000.
" The Dhulia Society of Klandish has only just begun its course of
usefulness, but it has great prospects.
" The Nardi Society I class as Central because it has done nothing
but hand over its capital (about Rs. 610) at interest (6 1/4 per cent) to a
deserving neighbour, the Sukhesh Society ".
The Registrar mentions that the Southern Marâtha Society, which is
not classed as a Central Society, has started investing some of its capital
in loans to rural societies, and had advanced, on the average, Rs. 1,500 to
about half-a-dozen societies.
(d) Bengal.
In Bengal the central societies are genuine federations. " The general
type of Central society which the Government has approved for expe-
riment ", reported the Registrar, " is on these lines. The sound societies
of a particular neighbourhood combine to forma Union, the aims of which
are fourfold - (1) to develop co-operative societies within its area; (2) to
carry on banking business with such societies, particularly with the object
of balancing excess and deficiency of funds; (3) to control its affiliated
societies by careful and regular inspection; (4) to settle all matters of joint
importance and to further the interests of its societies in every way.
AGRICULTURAL CO-OPERATION 229
" The Union has a share basis and only affiliated societies can be
shareholders. These societies, while retaining a free hand in the acceptance
of deposits from members, can borrow only through the Union, which
forms the link with the money market. Credit can be allowed to an
affiliated society up to ten times the value of its shares.
" Liability is both limited and unlimited. The first line of security
is the joint and several responsibility of the members of a society for its
loans from the Union. In addition, the society is liable up to five times
the value of its shares for the debts of the Union. Thus a doubly sure
investment is offered to local capitalists. The principal financial object
of the Union is to attract this local capital. In every district there is
enough money to finance numberless societies. Until the Unions concil-
iate the confidence of their neighbourhood, it will be necessary to provide
funds from outside. But they will not be a real success until the greater
part of their capital is drawn from local deposits ".
The two Unions that had been formed en these lines were the Raruli
Union in the district of Khulna and the Khelar-Balarampore Union in
Midnapore.
The Registrar gives the following particulars of the two Unions:
" The Raruli Union. — There are 30 affiliated societies. The progress
which co-operation has made in Raruli has been in spite of strong oppos-
ition from the mahajans; so there is little prospect in the immediate
future of the Union attracting local money. At the same time many of
the societies require extra capital. There is, therefore, great scope for a
central banking institution and the work of financing its affiliated societies
will supply a useful training to the infant Union. It was very recently
registered and is still feeling its way through the preliminary stages. But
the prospect is quite encouraging . . . An effort will be made to raise local
deposits. The balance I can supply at 8 per cent and as the Union charges
12 per cent for loans, it will make a fair margin of profit.
" The Khelar-Balarampore Union. — Here we have a similar type
working under wholly different conditions. In Raruli the societies are
poor and have to fight against the opposition of wealthy money-lenders ;
in many of the societies around Khelar the mahajan has ceased to be a
rival of any importance. A number have no difficulty in attracting local
deposits ; and, generally, the societies are pecuniarily more self-sufficient
and independent than elsewhere. The purely financial function of the
Union will, therefore, bulk less largely ".
A Supplementary Report stated that the Khelar-Balarampore Union
had become financially independent of the Registrar's help and could
raise its funds locally without any difficulty. The Raruli Union lent to
its societies at 12 per cent, and the Khelar-Balarampore Union at 9 3/s per
cent.
230
BRITISH INDIA
(e) United Provinces.
In the United Provinces, besides the three societies classed as " cen-
tral societies ", there were sixteen district banks classed as " urban so-
cieties ". The Registrar divided these district banks as follows :
(i) Three District Banks dealing with shareholders and independ-
ent societies only;
(2) Six District Banks dealing with shareholders and affiliated soc-
ieties only;
(3) Seven District Banks dealing with shareholders and affiliated and
independent societies.
The " affiliated " societies appear to be of the nature of branches,
rather than separate societies. The members of the " affiliated " societies
seem to receive loans direct from the district bank and to make re-
payments direct to it. They also make deposits in the district bank.
This system does not appear to have worked very satisfactorily and
in 1907-08 the Registrar discontinued the formation of affiliated societies
aad advocated their gradual conversion into sell-contained independent
banks. The process of conversion had already commenced in the year
1908-og, and in the case of some district banks was taking place rapidly.
We give some figures relating to the working of the central societies
and district banks.
AGRICULTURAL CO-OPERATION
231
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2?" BRITISH INDIA
" The progress of these banks -, reported the Registrar, " has been
most marked. Working capital has increased from Rs. 14,91,232 to
Rs. 21,48,418, share capital from Rs. 2,30,043 to Rs. 3,17,175 and annual
profits from Rs. 56,618 to Rs. 62,262. Under outstanding loans from
Government there has been a falling-off from Rs. 1,83,113 to Rs. 84,953.
On the other hand, loans from non-members and deposits of members
show respective increases from Rs. 6,69,148 to Rs. 12,60,430 and Rs. 1,84,320
to Rs. 2,91,798. The usual rate of interest allowed on deposits repayable
at one year's notice is 5 or 6 per cent. ".
We take from the Registrar's Report the following remarks on the
working of some of the principal central societies and district banks:
" The three central societies at Budaun, Mainpuri and Fatehpur are
in excellent condition, and the Budaun District Bank, which is registered
as a rural society, is perhaps the best co-operative institution in the Pro-
vinces. It has a working capital of Rs. 1,61,734 and finances 78 registered
societies in the district, most of which are new, and all of which are
shareholders in the Bank. Repayments have been excellent, arrears con-
stitute only 2 per cent of the outstandings and a dividend of 8 per cent
has been declared on its first year's working. Some difficulty has been felt
in raising sufficient capital locally, but loans of Rs. 25,000 and Rs. 10,000
from Rai Bahadur Nathi Mai, C. I. E., of Khurja and the Alliance Bank
of Simla respectively have been of great assistance and efforts are being
made to negotiate fresh loans. The Bank's success is due to the consti-
tution of its borrowing societies with their small membership and demo-
cratic management and to the energetic supervision of its manager, Munshi
Manmohan Dayal ".
" In the Mainpuri Bank there has been a marked improvement. Its
borrowing societies had previously suffered from lack of funds. In the
year under report, the working capital of the Bank was increased from
Rs. 12,966 to Rs. 23,771. The financed societies, though somewhat isol-
ated and inaccessible made excellent repayments and the Bank after
paying a dividend of 6 3/4 per cent was able to treble the amount of its
reserve ".
" The operations of the Unao Town Bank continue to expand. It is
by far the largest co-operative institution in these provinces. Its working
capital rose during the year from Rs. 3,82,452 to Rs. 5,24,514 and an
increased sale of debentures shows that public confidence is being rapidly
acquired. After paying a dividend of 10 per cent, the Bank has credited
Rs- 3»574 to its reserve fund, which now amounts to Rs. 8,084. It nas
also succeeded in retaining financial connection with the Allahabad Bank,
which raised its grant from 1 Y2 to almost 3 lakhs with interest at 7 Y2 per
cent. The Allahabad Bank has hitherto insisted on repayment of its loans
after six months, a period which is somewhat too short for a co-operative
AGRICULTURAL C0-0rERATIO\T 233
bank, which has to make advances tor such purposes as purchase of bul-
locks, payment of former debts, etc., which can only be repaid in one or
more years. This has not prevented the Town Bank from making full
and punctual repayments to the Allahabad Bank, but, in order to keep
its assets liquid, it has naturally had some difficulty in meeting in full the
demands of its borrowing societies. It is hoped that the Allahabad Bank
will shortly see its way to removing this restriction ".
" The Kashi Co-operative Society had not flourished in previous years...
During the year under report the Bank has gained fresh vitality... It has
made an excellent arrangement with the local Benares Joint-stock Bank, by
which the latter supplies the society with funds and charges 7 per cent
on the daily balance at the society's debit ". '
" The Jalaun Bank has also extended its business. Savings bank
deposits are a speciality of this society and appear to be popular, there
being no less than 70 such accounts in existence. Every person who opens
an account is obliged to make monthly investments, defaults being met
by a fine of 4 annas. The rate of interest is 7 per cent on deposits of
Rs. 100 and multiples of Rs. 100 and 5 per cent on sums under Rs. 100 ".
" Jaunpur is perhaps the best Bank working on the affiliated system.
This is due to the accessibility of its affiliated societies, all of which are
within six miles of headquarters. The Bank possesses a salaried manager
and assistant, supervision of societies is frequent, and conversion should
be rapid. Generally speaking, conversion of affiliated societies is not
unaccompanied with difficulties. Members of affiliated societies make di-
rect repayments to the District Bank and pay interest at 12 % per cent.
After conversion, the District Bank finances the independent society and
charges rates of interest varying from 9 to 12 per cent on its advances,
the society loaning the funds to its members with interest at 15 percent.
Many members object to conversion on the score of the higher rate oi
interest demanded ".
(f) Punjab.
The one central society in actual operation in Punjab was the Ju'lundur
District Bank, which was established in February, 1909, with a paid-up
capital of Rs. 20,000 and up to the end of June, 1909, had lent out over
Rs. 75,000.
" The foundation of a District Bank at Jullundur ", wrote the Re-
gistrar, " has given a great impetus to the formation of new societies.
It is noticeable that, principally owing to it, the loan capital of the Jullun-
dur Societies has risen from Rs. 2,000 last year to Rs. 84,750 this year;
loans issued to members from Rs. 86,341 to Rs. 1,92,279; while Rs. 9,677
has been received as interest in place of Rs. 5,691 ".
BRITISH INDIA
234
The Registrar looked forward to the formation of other district banks
or unions on the Bengal model. In the District of Jullundur he mentioned
five societies which, by their good management, had attracted local capital
and might form the centres of useful unions. In the Gurdaspur District
several societie-3 were marked out as probable heads of unions ; the Bham
Society had for some time played the part of a central bank on a small
scale, while the foundations of a district bank had been laid at Batala.
In the Lyallpur District the Registrar reported that the villagers were
generally so well-to-do that the immediate benefits of the village bank
did not appeal to them. It was thoght, however, that the district offered
a hopeful field for the collection of money for loans to the poorer societies
elsewhere, and the establishment of village societies and of a district bank
for this purpose would be proceeded with.
The District of Gujrat being poor, and most of the 25 societies in
the district suffering from want of capital, it had been decided to start a
District Bank. A scheme for organising a District Bank was also under
consideration in the Jhelum District.
(g) Burma.
The only central society in Burma was the Pakôkku Society which
was formed to finance rural societies in May, 1909.
" The Bank was started ", reported the Registrar, " with a share
capital of Rs. 19,600, of which Rs. 3,920 was paid up and the remainder
secured by the pledge of immoveable property. On this the Bank has
been permitted to borrow Rs. 10,1 So at 9 per cent, and has lent out its
entire funds to seventeen rural societies in the Pakôkku and Myaing
Townships at 15 per cent. . . Its fu ids are only used to finance societies.
The shares were made very large (Rs. 200 each) in order to form only
a small and well-educated body of shareholders. It will not be advisable
always to keep shares at that value, but it was necessary to have only
a small number to begin with in instruction in this novel line of work "
" It is particularly noteworthy ", the Registrar adds, " that the whole
of the capital has been subscribed by Burmans and that the fixed deposit
of Rs. 10,180 has also been obtained from Burmans. Sums of Rs. 5,000
and Rs. 4,000 were invested by the people of Sagu (Minbu District) and
Yenangyaung respectively, on my visiting these places and explaining the
methods and principles of the Bank, and I am indebted to Mr. Morrison,
Deputy Commissioner, Minbu, for the balance, Rs. 1,180, which resulted
from a meeting of Salin land owners held by him and received after the
30th June *>* Rs. 10,000 had been received and issued by that date ".
The Registrar gave an account of some interesting experiments in
combination between societies in the Pakôkku District.
AGRICULTURAL CO-OPERATION
" In one case", he reported, " the two parts of one large village (Sod win),
which wished to form separate societies, were found willing to form one
society as far as joint liability to outside societies was concerned, provided
they were allowed to retain separate books and committees for internal
management. Secondly, two adjacent villages were formed into one soc-
iety with unlimited liability and with only one set of registers, but with
separate committees to settle the allocation of each village's share of funds
among the individual members. These two devices may probably be
regarded as of a temporary nature ; with further experience the two parts
will probably coalesce. The plan, however, brings into play a very im-
portant factor in assuring public confidence in the society. It shows that
a neighbouring body, admitting a certain separateness of interests which
prevents complete amalgamation, has yet sufficient confidence in its neighbour
to go surety for it as a borrower from the public ".
" These experiments ", the Registrar continued, " can hardly be said
to be the basis of Unions, but a real Union was actually begun with three
villages in the Myaing Township. This was brought about by the neces-
sity of selecting from among the numerous applicants for formation, as
I was limited in the number of societies I could form. Myaing, Tabondaw
and Seingan signed a Mutual Security Bond guaranteeing each other's
liabilities up to a certain specified sum... The rest of the Myaing societies
volunteered later to join in this agreement and, on my next visit, it seems
probable that the first Union will be formed ".
(h) Central Provinces and Berar.
The most interesting of the Central Societies in the Central Provinces
is the Kirnapur Society, the members of which are rural societies which
have accepted unlimited liability. The Registrar was, however, doubtful
whether an organisation of this type would ever establish its credit fully
or obtain favourable terms from any financier or bank that has no local
knowledge. " The organization ", he wrote, " is too ideal; the responsi-
bility of a rural society for the loans of other rural societies is almost too
good to be believed ". In a subsequent passage in his Report, the Re-
gistrar expressed the fear that, in a federation of this type, the default
of one society would result in dissatisfaction and an application from some
member-societies to amend the articles of association. He thought that,
if such a case occurred, the societies would probably complain that they
never intended to go bail for other societies, though they subscribed the
rules which required that guarantee.
Nevertheless, the Kirnapur Society had, so far, worked satisfactorily
and had made steady progress. It had had no difficulty in obtaining funds
23ê BRITISH INDIA
locally, and ils working capital was nearly Rs. 13,400 at the close of the
year under report.
The remaining central societies are on a basis of unlimited liability.
" The work of the Sehora Bank ", the Registrar reported, " increased
with great rapidity as the year progressed. The working capital rose
from Rs. 6,979 to Rs. 13,876 and the bank declared a dividend of 5 per
cent at the close of the year At the end of the year that bank was
financing 10 new societies that came into existence during the year, in
addition to societies of prior date The difficulty of surplus funds
at a slack time of year has not yet arisen, and it is doubtful if it will
ever arise, for by getting in touch with other banks, the Bhargarva and
Allahabad, since the close of the year, it has practically insured its own
position ".
The Betul Bank had to contend against an unfavourable season, but
it made a profit of Rs. 1,033 and paid a dividend of 7 z/2 per cent. Its
capital was slightly reduced, from Rs. 17,865 to Rs. 17,370, owing to the
withdrawal of one or two official members.
The new central society at Akola had done little business before the
close of the year. " Its first business ", wrote the Registrar, " is to in-
vestigate existing societies and decide the credit of each; this matter will
take time, for some of the Akola societies have not worked really well
and possibly some re-organisation will be necessary before the Central
Bank can admit them as debtor members ".
§ 5. — Co-operation other than Credit.
Up to the end of the administrative year 1908-09, there was very
little agricultural co-operation in India other than co-operative credit.
There were, however, the beginnings of a movement for the co-operative
purchase of requirements. The practice of making advances in kind fol-
lowed by some of the credit societies is akin to this form of co-operation;
it seems likely, however, that the so-called " grain banks " will tend to
develop into cash credit societies rather than into agricultural trading soc-
ieties.
Sometimes the functions of the credit societies become rather wider
than those of receiving deposits and making advances. Thus the Regi-
strar for Burma wrote: " In the Mandalay District, Tadaingshe Society
was assisted to hold up its crop till the market price rose in May and
made considerable profit thereby, besides equipping itself with a granary
for future use. Several other societies did the same, though on a smaller
seal-? ".
Again, the Registrar for Punjab mentioned a society which had bought
a reaping machine.
AGRICULTURAL CO-OPERATION 23?
In the Report of the Registrar for Bengal an interesting account is
given of a society called the Bengal Young Men's Zemindari Co-operative
Society, the object of which is to provide land for young Bengalis. " The
idea ", we are told, " originated with Sir D. M. Hamilton, whose interest
in co-operation has always taken a very practical shape. His scheme, as
propounded at a public meeting held in December last [1908], is intended
to help young Bengalis of the middle class to become zemindars by means
of co-operative credit. The society will begin with a share capital of
Rs. 1,000,000. A large tract of jungle land in the Sunderbunds will be
leased from Government. The Society will provide funds for the embank-
ments, etc., necessary to make the land cultivable. A portion of the tract
it will manage itself; a portion will be settled with tenants ; but the grea-
ter part will be allotted to different members, who will be given loans for
the expenses of reclaiming their holdings. When this tract has been fully
reclaimed, the intention is to take up others, until the whole of the Sun-
derbunds has been brought under cultivation and is covered with small
zemindars, all working on the co-operative system. If this primary branch
of the work succeeds, the society proposes to go on to build mills and
workshops, to take up co-operative production and sale, to form village
banks, etc. ".
The question of developing forms of co-operation other than credit was
discussed at the Conference of Registrars in November, 1909. A sub-com-
mittee to which the matter was referred, reported that, in their opinion,
much might be done in every province in the matter of agricultural co-
operation. It was thought, in particular, that in Eastern Bengal and As-
sam there was scope for the co-operative supply of agricultural machinery.
Recognising, however, the intricate and varied nature of the subject, the
Sub-committee recommended that in each province, with the help of the
Agricultural Departments, a survey should be made of the principal crops
and products, the methods of cultivation, production and distribution and
the conditions of the market for each, with a view to applying co-oper-
ative methods where the inquiry showed that they could be employed to
advantage.
The Conference, however, considered that such an inquiry could only
be taken up gradually and suggested that a beginning might be made, in
consultation (if necessary) with the Agricultural Departments, in areas
where co-operative credit societies already existed.
23S BRITISH INDIA
C. — The Popularisation of the Movement.
As we have already noted, it is the policy of the British Government
in India gradually to popularise the Co-operative Credit Movement. The
unexpectedly rapid progress made quickly rendered the carrying out o
this policy a matter of some urgency, and, in their Reports for 1908-09,
the Registrars were almost unanimous in urging that steps should at once
be taken with this object.
At the Conference of Registrars in November, 1909, the subject came
up for discussion and was introduced by Mr. W. H. Buchan, the Registrar
for Bengal. Mr. Buchan, in a Note presented to the Conference, remarked
that there was no more important or more difficult question before the
Conference than the organisation of the future development of co-opera-
tion. They had come to the stage when they must choose between further
officialising or more completely popularising the work. Personally he con-
sidered it vital to the movement that the propelling power of popular
interest and enthusiasm should be applied to it as soon as possible, and
that their principal efforts should be directed to enlisting and systematising
the co-operation of the people in the work of organisation.
Mr. Buchan suggested, as a first step in this direction, the creation
of District Co-operative Committees, each to consist of a few members
really interested in co-operation and representative of different areas. They
would thus have a number of honorary organisers in every district, not
acting independently, but taking counsel together periodically and working
out a common scheme. Besides propagandism, such Committees would
undertake the initial supervision and control of the young societies, but
this minute supervision would only be temporary, for they would always
work with an eye to the formation of Unions and to the speediest possible
autonomy of the groups. To begin with the Registrar and the District
Officer would guide and control these Committees, but within definite
limits they should be given a free hand.
He also thought that the Government should give some financial
assistance to these District Committees. They ought, of course, to be
composed of voluntary workers, but there were bound to be expenses of
management which Government might, at least in part, defray. This
assistance would probably best be given in the form of a small yearly
grant to each district. The grants should not be permanent, but be con-
tinued until the movement in each area became self-supporting.
In the discussion which followed, the Registrar for the United Pro-
vinces stated that the Boards of Directors of Central and District Banks
AGRICULTURAL CO-OPERATIOX 239
in the United Provinces exercised somewhat similar functions to those
suggested for the proposed District Committees. The Registrar for Bengal
had more faith in individual men working in small areas than in Committees
and suggested that such individuals should be officially recognised as
Assistant Registrars.
The Conference felt that no cut and dried scheme could be laid
down and that it must be left to the Registrar and his staff to decide,
with reference to local conditions and the degree of development attained,
how the assistance of non-officials could best be encouraged.
In Madras, the Registrar reported in 1909 that a propagandist society
had been formed in the Chingleput district, under the name of the Chin-
gleput Co-operators' Society. The functions of the society were " to preach
rural credit by leaflet and by word of mouth and to hold conferences "
The members of the society were " gentlemen who, themselves taking
part in the management of co-operative societies and impressed with the
manifold benefits of co-operative credit, undertook the missionary duty
of spreading the gospel of co-operation in numerous villages ".
In other districts of Madras voluntary organisers were at work indi-
vidually. " It is clear ", reported the Registrar, " that for the rapid progress
of co-operation what we want is the existence of a number of co-operative
teachers working in a field where the people have been rendered familiar
with the working of credit societies by the institution of a model society
or two. And it is futile to expect any such progress with the unaided
labours of the Registrar with any reasonable establishment. Nor is it
necessary that it should tap new or unwilling areas, for I have on my
hand over 300 voluntary applications for inquiry ".
In the Rohika (Darbhanga) district of Bengal, where a number of
societies had been established by the efforts of a voluntary worker, a Joint
Committee, roughly representing the local distribution of the societies, was
appointed to assist him. " Their first duty ", reported the Registrar, " was
to be consultation regarding the grant of further loans to societies to tide
over the period of scarcity. The intention was that they should take up
the formation of new societies ".
In July 1908, the first Conference for the Province of Bengal was
held in Calcutta. It was attended by the " honorary organisers " and a
few officials and other persons interested in co-operation. One of the prin-
cipal objects of this conference was to arrange a course of action for the
future which would secure uniformity and co-ordination.
The Resolution of the Government of Burma on the Report of the
Registrar for that Province stated that it was abundantly clear that, if it
were unrestrained, the co-operative movement would grow in Burma. " If
it is to progress sufficently to have a real influence on the life of the cul-
tivating population" , the Resolution added, " a system must now be
240 BRITISH INDIA
devised which will allow it to expand at a more rapid rate than hitherto.
To effect this the Lieutenant-Governor must look to agencies outside the
staff of the Registrar and his assistants ". The Registrar in his Report
noted that the number of " honorary organisers " was increasing.
In other Provinces, the Registrars stated that they were receiving
more and more voluntary assistance, and the problem seems to be that
of organising the voluntary efforts rather than of finding the workers.
D. — The Supervision of Societies.
Closely connected, on the one hand, with the problem of organising
new societies and, on the other hand, with the financing of societies, is
the question of providing for the adequate supervision of societies. We
have seen that in many cases the formation ot new societies has been
delayed because the Registrars felt that they could not be properly su-
pervised, and, again, that where financing agencies were established they
have assisted the Registrars in the work of supervision.
It is, indeed, to the " Central Societies " and the " District Banks "
that the Registrars chiefly look for relieving them from the growing bur-
den of supervision. The propagandist societies, if such are formed, would
doubtless remain the advisers of the societies they had established, but
the financing agencies would be directly interested in seeing that the busi-
ness of the societies was conducted on sound lines.
On this subject the following opinions were formally expressed by
the Conference of Registrars held in 1909 :
(1) That the responsibility of the Registrar for audit must be main-
tained ;
(2) That the inspection of rural banks may be made over by de-
grees, as found possible, to District Banks or Unions; the official staff
confining itself to pure audit.
We shall endeavour to indicate how far, in the various Provinces, the
work of supervision had been undertaken by Central Societies and Dis-
tricts Banks up to the end of the administrative year 1908-09.
In Madras, the Directors and Secretary of the Salem District Bank
inspected the rural societies in the Salem District, instructed the Com-
mittees on sound lines of co-operation and advised the Registrar. The
Registrar pointed out in his Report that if the societies were widely
scattered it would be impossible to create any non-official organisation to
supervise their work. He recommended that the formation of societies
should be confined to concentrated areas and that a system of supervision
by federal bodies should be developed.
AGRICULTURAL CO-OPERATION 241
We have already quoted the description given by the Registrar for
Bengal of the " Unions " which were being formed in that Province. The
Registrar regarded as even more important than their financial functions
the work of inspection and control which they were to undertake. " This
will be carried out, " he wrote, " through the agency of clerks trained in
the work of audit. They carefully inspect every society at least once a
year and report on each to the Union panchayei, which will insist on a
society remedying any grave defects on pain of suspension or expulsion. "
The Registrar for the United Provinces reported that the District
Banks had undertaken the supervision of their borrowing societies. " Perhaps
the most important advance during the year was the appointment of a
whole-time supervising staff, there being now paid managers or assistant
managers, or inspectors in every bank of any size except Bara Banki. They
are usually local men, their selection rests with the Directors subject to
the general control of the Department, and their monthly salaries range
from Rs. 25 in the case of inspectors, to Rs. 75 in the case of managers.
Their chief duties are to conduct frequent and local inspections of bor-
rowing societies and generally to exercise that supervision over them
which is a sine qua non of their success in their early stages. "
In Pmijab little had apparently been done by the Central Societies
in the way of supervision, but the Registrar anticipated that the " Unions "
which he proposed to form would prove useful in this direction.
In Burma the Government proposed to delegate certain duties in re-
gard to inspection to the subdivisional officers (administrative officials),
but it was hoped that the lormation of " Unions " would do something
towards economising the time of inspecting officers.
The degree of supervision required naturally varies considerably ac-
cording to the racial characteristics of the people in the different provinces.
Even in the same province, there may be many different races, some of
which show considerable aptitude for the management of credit societies,
while others require a far greater amount of guidance and control.
E. — Proposals for a Central Bank.
At the Second Conference of Registrars, held in 1907, the question ot
financing credit societies was discussed and the project of forming one or
more large Central Banks was mooted. It was agreed that if possible the
best method would be to build up a Central Bank from below, but it was
recognised that this would take many years. It was also decided that the
subject should be brought up for special consideration at the next Con-
ference.
242 BRITISH INDIA
In the same year an Indian Industrial Conference, held at Surat, passed
the following resolution :
" That this Conference begs to call the attention of Government to
the urgent need oi promoting the establishment of Agricultural Banks to
help co-operative credit societies and to advance loans directly to agricul-
turists at reasonable rates of interest, and further begs to suggest that the
advice and co-operation of representative members of the Indian commun-
ity may be enlisted in devising a suitable scheme to secure this object ".
The question of forming a Central Bank and the resolution of the In-
dustrial Conference were considered at the Third Conference of Registrars,
held at Simla in October, 1908. The subjects were referred to a Committee,
the Report of which was adopted by the Conference.
The Committee were of opinion that a Central Bank should not be
founded until there was the prospect of sufficient local unions to offer such
an amount of business as would make the Central Bank a commercial
success. There was considerable diversity of opinion amongst the members
of the Committee as to whether it was desirable that the Government
should grant any concession to an individual company to enable it to
establish such a Central Bank.
As to the form which a Central Bank shouid take, the Committee
agreed unanimously that it should be a joint— stock concern registered
either under the Companies Act or the Co-operative Credit Societies Act
and that its constitution should provide for the rate of interest on loans
to societies being decreased as the profits of the Bank increased. They
were also of opinion that the Bank should ordinarily deal only with Unions
or with District Banks and not with individual societies which were mem-
bers of Unions.
The conclusions of the Committee were summed up as follows :
" (1) The Committee agree that the best method to finance societies
is by means of share capital subscribed by the members, or by the depos-
its of members and others;
" (2) In any case (and particularly where such funds are insufficient)
societies should federate and so form local unions which should be on a
joint stock basis, the shares being held only by societies and the unions
dealing only with shareholders ;
" (3) When such unions are established, a Central Bank dealing with
a Province or larger area would be valuable, if not essential ;
" (4) Such a Central Bank should be as co-operative as possible, and
its constitution should be such that the affiliated societies can obtain as large
a share as possible in the profits and Reserve Fund of the Central Bank:
" (5) The majority of the Committee are of opinion that it is pre-
mature to establish a large Central Bank by the offer of concessions by
Government to any individual Joint Stock Company ".
AGRICULTURAL CO-OPERATION 243
A scheme was submitted to the Committee by Mr. Lalubhai Samaldas,
of Bombay Province, of which the following is an outline:
" (1) The Bank to be a joint stock company to be registered under
the Companies Act, the share capital to be raised in open market.
" (2) The share capital of the Bank to be Rs. 25,000,000 with power
to increase, the same to be divided into 25,000 shares of Rs. 100 each.
" (3) The Bank to be authorised to issue four per cent debentures
(Government guaranteeing the interest), to the extent of four times its
nominal share capital :
" (a) The debentures to be repayable at the end ot 28 years ;
" (<£) The debenture capital to be used only for making advances
to co-operative credit societies or the Unions and to individual agri-
culturists ;
" (c) Three-quarters of the debenture capital to be reserved for
the former and one quarter for the latter object;
" (d) The advances to individual agriculturists to be made only:
(i)in canal irrigated areas, (2) in selected areas to assist the agriculturists
to liquidate their existing debts ;
" (e) The advances to co-operative credit societies as well as to
individual agriculturists to be for not more than ten years liable to renewal
at the option of the parties ;
" CO The maximum advance to an individual agriculturist to be
Rs. 5,000.
" (g) The advances to co-operative credit societies or to their
Unions to be made only at the recommendation of the Registrars ;
" (h) The rate of interest to be charged to be 8 per cent (4 per
cent debentures interest + 1 per cent management expenses -f- 1 per
cent bad debts account -f- 2 per cent sinking fund) in the case of co-
operative credit societies or their Unions and 10 per cent in the case of
individual agriculturists.
" (4) The bank to be at liberty to utilize its share capital as well
as its fixed and current account deposit money for ordinary banking pur-
poses. The sinking fund and reserve funds of the co-operative credit soc-
ieties to be utilized under the Presidency Bank Act.
" (5) In view of guaranteeing the interest on debentures Govern-
ment to be given the right to inspect the books of the Bank ".
The Committee did not, however, think that such a scheme should
be supported for the present.
As we have seen, great progress was made during the year 1908-09
in the formation of district banks and central societies and at the Confer-
ence of Registrars held in November, 1909, it was agreed that " at pre-
sent no one special financing agency for the whole of India is necessary ".
It seems not improbable, however, that some such institution may event-
ually be established.
244 BRITISH INDIA
F. — Suggested Amendments of the Co-operative Credit Societies Act.
The subject which chiefly engaged the attention of the Conference of
Registrars held in November 1909 was the amendment of the Co-opera-
tive Credit Societies Act. A draft of a revised Act was prepared for sub-
mission to the Government, together with explanatory notes. We shall indi-
cate the principal amendments proposed, following the order of the sections.
The Preamble of the Act states that it is expedient " to provide for
the constitution and control of co-operative credit societies ", and the use
of this expression makes it doubtful if other kinds of society can legally
be registered under the Act. To clear up this doubt, it was proposed to
amend the expression so as to read " to provide for the constitution and
control of co-operative societies, which have as their object the encourage-
ment and development of the economic interests of the members by
means of operations in common ' '.
For the distinction between "rural" and "urban" societies it was
proposed to substitute a distinction between societies with limited liability
and societies with unlimited liability. The amended sub-sections of sec-
tion 3 relating to this matter would read as follows :
" 3 (2) The liability of members of societies shall be either limited or
unlimited.
" (3) In case of a credit society the majority of the members of which
are agriculturists the liability shall, except with the special sanction of the
Local Government, be unlimited.
" (4) In the case of a society the majority of the members of which are
not agriculturists the liability shall be limited or unlimited as may be pro-
vided by the by-laws or any rules made under the Act ".
To make it clear that societies registered under the Act are eligible
in their corporate capacity as members of other societies, it was proposed
to add a new sub-section to section 3.
It was proposed to change the title of the Registrars from " Registrar
of Co-operative Credit Societies " to " Registrar of Co-operative Societies ".
This also, like the amendment of the preamble, was suggested with a
view to facilitating the development of other forms of co-operation besides
co-operative credit.
To facilitate societies in giving evidence of their incorporation it was
proposed to add a clause making the certificate of registration conclusive
proof that the society had been duly registered.
While applying to societies with limited liability the restrictions on
the division of profits now imposed upon " urban " societies, it was pro-
AGRICULTURAL CO-OPERATION 245
posed to apply to societies with unlimited liability the restrictions which
the Act imposes on " rural " societies with the modification that " in the
case of such societies with share capital dividends may be paid to the
members to such extent and under such conditions as may be provided
by the rules or by-laws made under the Act, but that, in any case, one-
fourth of the annual profits must be credited to reserve ".
It was further proposed to add a provision allowing any society,
with the sanction of the Registrar, to contribute an amount not exceed-
ing 10 per cent of its profits to local charity or local objects of public
utility.
To allow the Registrar to delegate the auditing of societies to mem-
bers of his staff, an amendment was proposed to the section which states
that " the Registrar shall audit the accounts of each society once at least
in every year ".
A new section was proposed to empower the Local Government to
exempt societies or classes of societies from any of the provisions of the Act.
Many other amendments were suggested, but they were of minor im-
portance or were consequential on the amendments which we have indicated.
G. — Cooperation amongst Aboriginal Tribes.
The Report for 1908-09 of the Registrar for Bengal contains some
interesting remarks on experiments which have been made in the formation
of credit societies amongst the aboriginal tribes of India. These tribes arf
in a very backward state of civilisation and, as might be expected, the soc-
ieties formed amongst them require much supervision. In the Native
State of Baroda, a number of societies have been formed in the backward
parts of the state and at least one aboriginal society is said to be successful,
but in Bengal the existence of such societies seems to depend upon the
presence of some person of education in the locality to direct their work.
Speaking of the Ikti (Ranchi) District, the Registrar for Bengal re-
ported : " The ten societies, most of them founded by the Reverend
H. R. Lonsdale, of Ikti, are in the nature of an experiment, and not an
unpromising one. Except Bargari and Kachabari, which are fairly large
societies with considerable possibilities, the societies are very small instit-
utions, composed of the simplest aboriginal cultivators. Lelt to themselves
they would probably perish. They are made possible by the presence in
each village of a Procharak or other mission agent, usually a member,
through whom Mr. Lonsdale can control the work. They have been
carefully instructed, and if with patience and supervision they can be made
really effective institutions it is possible that each may become a nucleus
246 BRITISH INDIA
for developing its immediate neighbourhood. But the movement should
not be extended this year, partly because the existing societies will re-
quire all the care that Mr. Lonsdale can give them, partly because I doubt
whether our present line of work is quite suitable for these simple Oraons ".
In another passage, the Registrar for Bengal discusses the general
question of co-operation amongst aboriginal tribes. " Co-operation itself",
he says, M apart from particular manifestations, demands conditions — a mod-
icum of education and a certain degree of social and economic develop-
ment. These exist in Behar, Bengal proper and parts of Orissa, and there
is, therefore, no inherent reason why the movement should not spread
rapidly over all the districts of these areas. The case of the Sonthals,
Oraons and other backward and aboriginal tribes is quite different. They
are generations behind their more civilised neighbours. Devoid of worldly
wisdom, ignorant, self-distrustful, with very little conception of the value
of money, and economically children, they are not fit for credit co-ope-
ration on independent lines. Several societies of aboriginals have been
formed as an experiment. The story of all is the same. While carefully
supervised and kept on a small scale they do moderately well, but if the
controlling hand is withdrawn they are like sheep without a shepherd.
Obviously the multiplication of isolated societies presents few prospects.
The difficulties are increased by the almost complete absence of educated
aboriginals, who might take the lead in educating and guiding their coun-
trymen. At the same time there is little hope of their holding their own
in the economic struggle without combination in some form. But the im-
petus towards co-operation must come from outside. Government cannot
provide the staff necessary to bridge over the gulf of several decades' de-
velopment. Possibly a solution of the problem may lie in centralized or-
ganizations under which outside agencies undertake the control and training
of affiliated units. Such a scheme is now under discussion " .
FRANCE
I. _ SOME DEMOGRAPHIC AND ECONOMIC STATISTICS.
Sources :
Annuaire Statistique, 1905 et 1908. (Ministère du Travail et de la Prévoyance sociale).
Paris, Imprimerie Nationale [Statistical Yearbook, IQ05 and igo8, Paris).
Dénombrement de la population, 1906. (Ministère de l'Intérieur). Paris, Imprimerie Na-
tionale, 1907 {Census of Population, içoô. Paris, içoy).
Statistique annuelle du mouvement de la population de la France d'après les registres
d'état civil au cours de l'année 1908. Paris, I909 (Annual Statistics of the Move-
ment of the Populaliofi of France according to the registers for births, marriages and
deaths during the year içoS. Paris, içoç).
Statistique Agricole Annuelle, 1908. (Ministère de l'Agriculture). Paris, Imprimerie Na-
tionale, 1909 (Annual Agricultural Statistics, içoS. Paris, fçoç.)
Statistique des superficies cultivées, de la production végétale et du bétail dans les Pays
adhérents - Institut International d'Agriculture - Rome, 1910. (Statistics of Cultivated
Areas and of Vegetable and Animal Prcduclion in the adhering countries).
A. — Territory and Population.
Area: 536,463.7 sq. km.
Population in 1906: 39,252,245.
Density of the population per sq. km. in 1906: 73.1.
Occupations of the population in 1901 :
Percent
Agriculture and forestry . 8,176,569 41.5
Fisheries 67,772 0.3
Mines 266,351 1.4
Manufactures 5,819,855 29.5
Transports 830,643 4.2
Commerce 1,822,620 9.2
Liberal Professions . . . 399,839 2.0
Domestic Service .... 1,015,037 5.2
Civil Service 1,297,569 6.6
Not specified 18,820 0.1
Total. . . 19,715,075 1000
248
FRANCK
Birth and Death Rate per iooo of the population in 1908 (provisional
figures) :
Births 20.2
Deaths ig.o
Difference. .
1.2
Illiterate conscripts per 100 in 1907: 3.28.
B. — Agriculture, Forests, and Fisheries.
Distribution of territory in 1892:
Area of arable land cultivated. .
» » » not cultivated
» non agricultural land. .
Total area.
Principal Products in 1908:
44,241,720 hect. 83.70%
6,226,189 » II-77%
2,389,290 » 4.53 %
52,857,199 ha. (1) 100.00%
Area
Production
Wheat . . .
6,564.370 hect.
86,188,050
quint
Oats ....
4,896,670 »
47487.530
»
Rye ....
1,244,320 »
13,130,280
»
Barley . . .
729,580 »
9,208,6lO
»
Maize. . . .
496,240 »
6,667,080
»
Potatoes . . .
1.545,310 »
I70,I20,780
»
Vineyards . .
1,654,366 »
60.545,265
hecto
Area of woods and forests in 1892; 9,521,568 hect.
Farm Animals on the 31st December, 1908:
Horses 3,215,050
Mules 194,010
Donkeys 363,090
Cattle 14,239,730
Sheep 17,456,380
Pigs 7,202,430
Goats 1,424,870
(1) The total area of the territory was maintained the same in 1883 and 1892 for
reasons of comparison, although a statement emanating from the War Office fixes the
total area of France at 53,646,400 hectares.
SOME DEMOGRAPHIC AND ECONOMIC STATISTICS 249
Fisheries:
Gross value of fish caught by boats in 1905 . . 113,384,132 frs.
» » » » from the coast in 1905. 9,506,904 »
122,891,036 frs.
Number of fishermen in 1905: 95,804.
C. — Mines, Manufactures and Commerce.
Number of mining concessions: 1,489.
Number of concessions worked in 1907: 597.
Number of workmen employed underground: 149,548 )
» » » aboveground: 59,935 S
Output of the mines: 48,556,802 tons.
Value of output at the mines: 634,982,068 frs.
Number of industrial establishments having steam apparatus in 1907:
6i,773-
H. P. used by these establishments: 2,473,846.
Métallurgie Industries (in 1907):
Foundries: Total value of output . . 313,204,205 frs.
Welded iron and steel "7»597>9i3 »
Cast steel 439,060,460 »
Other metals 82,577,527 »
Silk Industry:
Amount of silk spun in 1907: 819,242.958 kg.
Sugar Industry:
Amount of sugar obtained during the season 1907-08: 656,832,135 kg.
Production of alcohol in 1908: 2,245,030 hectolitres.
Special Trade in 1907, in thousands of francs:
Imports Exports
Food stuffs 1,038,141 746>899
Raw material for manufactures. 4,013,292 i,5°7>634
Manufactured goods 1,171,524 3-341,575
Total. . . 6,222,957 5,596,108
25o FRANCE
D. — Navigation ami Inland Communications.
Maritime Shipping and Navigation in 1908:
Entered Cleared
Number Tonnage Number Tonnage
French vessels . . . S6,io2 14481,485 86,090 14,592,050
Foreign vessels. . . 22,073 21,163,108 22,222 21,220,834
Length of railways on the 31st December, 1906: 47,129.5 km.
» tramways on the 31st December, 1906: 7,167.7 km.
» navigable rivers and canals in 1907: 11,870 km.
E. — Finance.
Budget for 1909:
Revenue 4,003,414,949 frs.
Expenditure 4,005,224,676 »
F. — Money, Weights and Measures.
Unit of value : the franc of 100 centimes (Latin coinage league).
A gold piece of 20 francs weighs 6.4516 grammes, 9°%ooo pure gold.
The decimal metric system is adopted for weights and measures.
IL — THE AGRICULTURAL ASSOCIATIONS IN FRANCE.
This Monograph has been sent to us by the French Ministry of Agriculture
for Publication in the Bulletin.
Ever since the tentative efforts among the rural populations of Gaul
and of Mediaeval France, the spirit of association has had a regular evo-
lution, beginning with the de facto group, until it has arrived at the present
form of legal association regulated by special statute.
The first unions of farmers in groups seem to date back to the days
of the Roman domination, and the invasions of the Wisigoths and of the
Arabs. Their principal object was the collective cultivation or farming of
the soil, or the struggle against the two dreaded scourges of the time; drought
and inundation. They were, in most cases, unions of land-owners interested in
the existence of undertakings for such purposes as the drainage of lands, the dig-
ging, the repair or the use of irrigating canals, the construction and the main-
tenance of dikes along the banks of rivers and on the sea coast. They provided
for the carrying out of these works by means of contributions equitably
divided among the landowners in proportion to the particular interest each
of them had in the existence of these works. We may mention among
the first associations so formed : those of the Arrosants du Roussillon
(Roussillon Irrigators), of which the most ancient seems to be that of
St. Felix, the charter of which goes back to the 8th day of the kalends of Au-
gust, 1 163. From the beginning of the 12th century, the attention of the
authorities in certain regions of the South of France was more and more
given to the utility of these associations, and we may mention the statutes
and municipal laws of 1150 for the town of Aries, later altered in 1386,
1432, 1515 and 1578, successively.
The drainage of bogs and swamps, and the works for drawing off
water were regulated by other acts, the most ancient of which go back
to 1 33 1. We may mention as examples of these associations, besides those
known under the name of « œuvres d'Arles » (Aries Works), ot which
some go back as far as 1543, also the ancient association of the Nizades,
252 FRANCE
the Minaures Irrigators, the Tarascon Drainage Association, and the Bois-
gelin General Works.
For the rest, it is not only in the region of the South of France that
we meet with these associations. In the same way, from time immemorial
the proprietors of low and submerged lands, in the neighbourhood of Dunkirk,
have united for the carrying out in common of drainage works in associations
always under the name of « Watringues ».
In the West of France, in Poitou, Ancenis and Saintonge, analogous
associations were founded for the drainage and cultivation of the marshes.
In 1 197, Richard Cœur de Lion granted the palace of Marans to the Abbey
of Jard, and in 12 17, the historian of La Rochelle, Father Arcère, mentions
the digging of the canal of Cinq Abbés for the drainage of the marshes
of Langu and Vouillé. Later, in 1531, a new canal was dug to drain the
wild marsh. Henry IV, by edict of 8th April, 1599, granted Bradley
and his associates the half of the area of the marshes of Saintonge and
Poitou that they were able to drain; in 1564, an association of land holders
undertook to drain the marshes of the Sèvre, and it is thanks to an ana-
logous association that the marsh of Vise was drained in 1662. We could
multiply to any extent the examples of similar character.
But it is enough, to show the considerable importance these associations
had in France, to indicate the number of origin anterior to the law o
the 21st June, 1865, which still regulates the matter.
Associations anterior to 1865 :
413 associations for dike building.
941 » for scouring canals, etc.;
468 » for draining and reclaiming lands ;
3030 » for various undertakings.
Say a total of 4,900 associations, that is to say, 75 % of the total
number of agricultural hydraulic associations, which number 6,749.
By the side of these associations there exist others in certain regions
of France, notably in the Landes, which, known from time immemorial
under the name of Cotises or Consorces, were the precursors of the mutual
cattle insurance societies. Later, at the suggestion of Vincent de Gournai,
Superintendent General in charge of the Administration of Agriculture,
the first Society of Agriculture was founded at Rennes, in 1756. Gournai
considered that the Government, in order constantly to have exact inform-
ation on the situation and the needs of Agriculture, should encourage
associations of learned and competent men who should keep the farmers
informed of scientific discoveries and should make experiments in new
methods. The success of the attempt in Brittany encouraged Gournai to
proceed further in the work. Between 1757 and 1760, he organized and
obtained authorization for the societies of agriculture of Lyons, Toulouse,
AGRICULTURAL ASSOCIATIONS i$3
Orleans, Rouen, Auvergne, and Soissons, and prepared the organization
of those of Tours and Montauban.
The formation of an agricultural economic assembly, similar to that
created by Colbert for commerce, had long been desired at Paris; Gournai
zealously occupied himself with this, but he died before having accom-
plished his work. ItwastakenupbyTrudaineand, later, by Turgot, the latter
of whom, on the ist March, 1761, obtained an order from the King's
Council for the establishment of a Society ol Agriculture in Paris. The
results obtained were such that Louis XVI erected it into a Central and
Royal Society of Agriculture for the whole extent of the Kingdom, by order
of 30th May, 178S. All the men notable in agricultural science were united
in its service; its mission and its prerogatives were especially extensive.
It continued until the law of the 8th-i-Lth August, 17934, suppressed all
Academies, Institutes and Learned Societies; it was reconstituted on the
1 2th June, 1798, and has become subsequently, in some measure, the
Academy of Agriculture.
Side by side with these societies of agriculture, horticulture, etc.,
the 19th century witnessed the*creation in France of Agricultural Cornices,
organized by law of the 25th February, 10th and 20th March, 1851.
These formed the first professional agricultural groups. They were meant,
by the law, to serve as electoral constituencies for the constitution of
the Chambers of Agriculture.
The historical summary just given introduces us to the majority of
the forms of association still in use; the study of the existing situation per-
mits us to observe the presence, among the modern agricultural associations,
side by side with the earlier forms, also of new ones which, leaving the po-
litical or purely utilitarian sphere, have been formed for a more practical
and more immediate purpose, the defence of the economic interests of their
members.
Present State of Agricultural Unions in France.
The necessarily limited compass of this essay does not admit of our
dilating long on each of the forms that the agricultural unions may assume
in our days; we must simply pass them rapidly in review.
A) Agricultural Associations (Societies of Agriculture, Agricultural Co-
rnices (Assemblies), Chambers of Agriculture) ;
E) Agricultural Syndicates and groups derived from them (Agricul-
tural Credit Banks, Co-operative Societies and Mutual Life Insurance So-
cieties for Cattle, and Societies of Mutual Insurance against Risks in Agri-
culture etc.);
C~) Syndicate Associations.
254 FRANCE
A. — Agricultural Associations.
These associations have chiefly a philanthropie or scientific end in
view ; they are principally organs of study and of research, procuring for
the farmers enlightened advice, encouragement and rewards.
The Societies of Agriculture and the Agricultural Cornices may almost
be confounded together ; they are unions of persons, whose tastes and whose
abilities incline them to the scientific and practical study ol agricultural
questions.
First of all, the French National Society of Agriculture, regulated by
the decrees of the 23rd August, 1878, 27th February, 1879, and 5th June, 1880,
requires special treatment. The texts of these laws define its powers, they
limit the number of its members, and fix the procedure and manner of
its elections. It is at present composed of 8 divisions, including 52 hon-
orary members, 40 national associates, 15 foreign members, 150 national
correspondents and iso foreign correspondents.
The societies of agriculture, the importance of which cannot be com-
pared with that of the National Society, have, like it, followed the revo-
lutions of the legislation. In 1806, at the date of the promulgation of the
Penal Code, by the articles 291—294, their existence, when they comprised
more than 20 members, was subject to the consent of the Government.
This restrictive system remained in vigour up to the law of the 1st
July, 1 90 1, which, in its second article, authorizes associations of persons
to be formed freely without previous authorization or declaration, and gives
them civil personality, while subjecting them to certain formalities of public-
ation, prescribed by article 5.
It must, however, be observed that before 1901, numerous societies of
agriculture already existed, whether authorized in accordance with the Penal
Code, or whether, as in most cases, they had placed themselves under the
régime of the law of 1851, upon Agricultural Assemblies, or under that of
the law of 1884, upon professional syndicates.
Although their scope was not so extensive as that of the National
Society, we may consider that their rôle, but within much narrower limits,
comes within the part assigned to this great company by the decree of 1878.
If some have not so extended a field of action, their rôle in general
consists in :
« replying to the questions of the Government and enlightening it
upon everything concerning the progress and development of agricultural
industry ;
« studying all questions relating to agricultural legislation and rural
economy ;
AGRICULTURAL ASSOCIATIONS 255
« examining, estimating" the value of, and making experiments, where
there is occasion, with reference to new discoveries and processes in
different branches of agriculture, as well as in the rearing of cattle;
« studying the diseases of plants and animals;
« seeking out means for the destruction of insects injurions to
agriculture;
« publishing prize competitions in order to reward authors, whether
of useful discoveries, or of works that may be serviceable for improve-
ments in cultivation, or in the rearing of domestic animals, or, finally, of
studies, books and publications advancing the progress of agricultural
industry, or throwing light upon questions of legislation, statistics or political
economy, applied to agriculture ».
The societies of agriculture are, in fact, more especially restricted to
the holding of exhibitions and ol competitions among their members. Most
often, they have specialised themselves in a single important branch of the
subject of agricultural production, to become :
1st. Agricultural Societies ;
2nd. Horticultural » ;
3rd. Societies for viticulture and the science of vines ;
4th. Cattle rearing societies ;
5th. Societies for the rearing of birds ;
6th. » » » cultivation of bees and the study of insects ;
7th. >> » » » of silkworms ;
8th. » » horse breeding and racing ;
9th. » » ass and mule breeding.
The Societies of Agriculture are, at present, as far as their number can
be exactly determined, about 685. The Departments possessing the most
are: Seine (51), Seine-et-Oise (29), Nord (28), Isère (23), Calvados (22), etc.
To these societies must be added the agricultural Cornices, now serving
almost the same end.
As they exist to-day, the Agricultural Cornices exhibit the same char-
acteristic features as the Societies of Agriculture. The word itself, « Co-
mice», was employed in history, before that of "society ", as a title of an
agricultural group, founded at Valandry in Anjou, by the Marquis of Tur-
billy, on the 15th August, 1755. The rôle of this association was limited
to the yearly distribution of « two prizes, consisting in a medal accompan-
ied by a pecuniary reward » : these prizes were rewards to the farmer who
could show the finest crop of corn and the one who had the best rye ; the
prize winners wore the medal in their button-hole.
In 1 81 9, the Minister Descazes extolled them for the benefits derived
from them; since 1833, the State has largely subsidised them, as well as
the Societies of Agriculture.
We shall not again discuss the present rôle of the Cornices, which,
81.
2 56 FRANCE
for the purposes of this study, does not differ from that of the Societies
of Agriculture as specified above.
The number of the Comices is about 917. The Departments possessing
the greatest number are : Côtes du Nord (47), I Ile-et-Vilaine (39), Sarthe (32),
Corrèze (31), Manche (36), Morbihan (33), Haute Marne (30).
In 1900, there existed nearly 1,200 societies of agriculture and Co-
rnices (422 Socitties, 764 Cornices); their number to-day is 1,600, with
about 225,000 members.
The Societies of Agriculture and the Cornices have rendered the most
signal services to farmers, in popularising the new methods of cultivation,
the use of chemical manures, and improved machinery; they have bene-
fited by very large subventions from the authorities. From the social point
of view, they were the first to introduce the peasants to the benefits of
association, and they are justly to be considered as having often greatly
facilitated the creation of associations of the most modern form, such as
the agricultural syndicates and the mutual assurance societies.
B. — The Agricultural Syndicates and Unions derived from them.
- § 1. Agricultural Syndicates.
Whether there be question of Syndicates, of Credit Banks, of Mutual
Insurance Societies or of Co-operative Societies, the characteristic of the
modern movement of agricultural association in France is that it is purely
and strictly professional.
The whole reason of this is to be found in the very organization of
the associations which we have now to examine and which are, without
exception, based upon the professional syndicates.
The unions we have spoken of as the older type of agricultural asso-
ciations formed many more rural or popular associations than true agri
cultural associations in the strictest sense of the expression.
The agricultural association of professional type is the syndicate ; its
origin is still recent, deriving from the law of 21st March, 1884.
Before this law of the 21st March, 1884, gave the representatives oi
every industry almost complete liberty of association, the existence of so-
cieties of individuals was subject, as we have seen, to Government consent,
as soon as the members amounted to more than twenty.
The commercial and industrial workmen, better organized at that per-
iod than the farmers, sooner felt the inconvenience of this legislation and
it is due to their complaints, that the law of the 21st March, 1884, was
passed by which the peasants in their turn were to profit. It was, and
experience has fully proved it, of the greatest benefit to French agriculture
which had gone through a particularly severe crisis between i860 and 1874.
AG RlCl'LTURAL ASSOCIATIONS
257
This law of 1884, which has been of much greater importance for agri-
culture than for the other branches of production, since it has become the
constitutional charter of all the agricultural associations, is limited to the
dispensation of all unions of persons, exercising" the same or connected pro-
fessions from the necessity of obtaining the authorization of the public au-
thorities for their constitution as societies. The professional syndicates thus
created are only obliged to take certain steps for publication; their sole object
is « the study and protection of the interests ot their members ».
In spite ot all the advantages the farmers were later on to derive from
this law, the progress of the agricultural syndicates was at first rather slow.
Soon after it was to be accelerated and to become particularly rapid. From
18S4 to 1910 the agricultural syndicates show an increase of about 210 so-
cieties per year.
From the following table we may derive an exact idea of this rapid
progression:
Number
Increase
Number
Increase
Years
of
on
preceding
of
on preceding
s n iicates
year
members
year
/
i8S4
5
5
1885
39
34
1
1 836
93
54
1887
214
121
18S8
461
247
1889
1890
557
648
96
91
234,234
1891
750
102
269,298
35,o64
1892
863
113
313,800
44,502
1893
952
89
353,883
40,083
1894
1092
140
378,750
24,867
1895
1188
96
403,261
24,5"
1897
1275
87
423.492
20,231
1898
1499
224
448,395
24,903
1899
1824
325
491,692
43,297
1900
2069
245
5I2,794
21,102
1 90 1
2204
135
533,454
20,660
1902
2375
171
592,613
59,159
On the 31st December.
i9°3
1904
2434
2592
59
158
598,834
620,048
6,221
21,214
1905
3116
524
659.953
39,905
1906
3553
437
677,150
17,197
1907
3883
330
716,530
39>38o
1908
4423
540
1909
4743
320
1910
5146
403
777,066
The figures in the following table show the number of agricultural
syndicates and their members, for 1910, according to departments.
25S
FRAN' E
4
5
6
7
8
9
io
1 1
12
*3
14
15
16
17
iS
'9
20
21
22
23
24
- 5
Departments
Ain
Aisne
Allier
Alpes (Basses-) . .
Alpes (Hautes-). .
Alpes-Maritimes . .
Ardèche
Ardennes
Ariège
Aube
Aude
Aveyron
Bouches-dj-Rhône ,
Calvados
Cantal
Charente
Charente-Inférieure
Cher
Corrèze
Corsica. . .
Côte-d'Or'
Côtes-du-Nord
Creuse
Dordogp*
Doubs. w
Syndic
a te s
Number
cre.ited
created
Total
Number
of
in
in 1. 10
(1st
number
of
of
syndicates
1909
halfyear)
members
women
57
3
II,620
228
43
2
7,o82
185
133
iS
2
8,3^4
40
22
3
5,610
53
3
3.621
136
29
2
I
3.485
I09
48
2
I
12,746
203
34
3
5.306
53
9
1,868
3
120
2
9.963
206
55
8,635
306
iS
3
7.446
33
64
3
8,635
237
13
I
973
25
17
2
1,49 1
11
94
4
23,835
195
28
1
11,402
68
29
3
4.330
5o
13
1
1,757
21
12
1
1,509
34
109
3
13,131
130
34
••
3,926
199
34
3
••
4,264
24
33
7
3.536
38
140
7
7,862
389
v vi) The total number of members of syndicates affiliated to the unions has not been shown 1
of the syndjcR.es themselves,
AGRICULTURAL ASSOCIAIT iNS
259
13 ! M
16 I
Special syndicate:
Unions of Syndicates in
Wood
cutters
Insur-
ance
against
ha
G
Tobacco ! Anti-
Planters J Poaching
T. C.
Anti-
Phylloxera
Ph.
Agaiinst
cockcha-
fers
Kecon- Xt v
*•* ^ c \ Number
stitut; 1
land f
1 1 of unions
Number
of affiliated
syndicates
53
18
22
10
3'J
4 1 'j
35
21
iS
Number
of
members (1)
2,193
4,200
4Ô76
8064
4,250
18,497
40,000
2,615
14,550
4,6Co
would be mere repetition of the to'al of the column showing the number of the members
2ÔO
FRANCE
Departments
26
27
2 S
29
SO
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
5o
5<
52
Drôme
Eure
Eure-et-Loir ,
Finistère ,
Gard
Garonne (Haute-) ,
Gers
Gironde
Hérault
Ille-et-Vilaine
Indre
Iudre-et-Loir
Isère
Jura
Laudes
Loir-et-Cher
Loire
Loire (Haute-). . . .
Loire-Inférieure . . .
Loiret
Lot
Lot-et-Garonne . . .
Lozère
Maine-et-Loire . . ; .
Manche
Marne
Maine (Haute-) . . .
S y n d i c a t e s
Number
created
treated
Total
Number
of
in
in 1910
(I St
number
of
of
syndicates
1909
halfyear)
meu.bers
women
84
23
II
27
79
41
72
120
73
9
45
162
201
40
29
28
93
9
28
78
72
123
23
30
5
i S3
4
17
1
9
L3
6
1
57
10,060
9,284
10,487
4,088
12,322
13.754
3-911
20,251
7,098
12,415
10,400
15.423
25,47o
6,107
5,068
17,463
10,129
3.794
13.394
15.149
6,733
11,298
1,112
12,639
5.199
28,604
9,336
AGRICULTURAL ASSOCIATIONS
261
9 I 10 1 n
Special syndicates
Unions of Syndicates
Insur-
ance
against
bail
G.
Tobacco
Planters
Anti-
Poachin.9
10
59
20
Anti-
Phylloxera
Ph.
Against
cockcha-
fers
Recon-
stitution of
land
60
Number
of unions
Number
syndicates
73
20
2 :
40
Number
8,753
470
1,200
3-/67 !
2,500
2,000
20,495
2Ô2
FRANCE
1 4 I
Departments
Syndicat»:
Number
of
syndicales
created
in 1910
(1st
halfyear)
Total
number
of
members
53
54
55
56
57
53
59
60
61
G?
6;
64
65
66
67
CS
69
70
7i
72
73
74
75
76
77
7S
79
Mayenne
Meurthe-et-Moselle.
Meuse
Morbihan
Nièvre
Nord
Oise .
Orne.
Pas-de-Calais
Puy-de-Dôme
Pyrénées (Basses-)
Pyrénées (Hautes-)
Pyrénées Orientales
Rhin (Haut-) (Territory of Bel fort)
Rhône
Saône (Haute)
Saône-et-Loire
Saillie
Savoie
Savoie (Haute-)
Seine
Seine-Inférieure
Seine-et-Marne
Seine-et-Oise
Sèvres (Deux-) •
Somme
Tarn
16
104
57
61
79
103
21
10
55
52
104
4
2
80
225
74
44
5i
64
4
55
80
39
03
13
13
2
1
5
22
6
5
r
I
6
2
3
4
3
2
6
1
7
5
2
5
8
1
1
2
1
3
1 1
4
.
5.154
9,720
5,856
7,781
5,073
14,608
5,499
9,519
14.152
8,399
11.947
3,982
5,527
1,448
22,341
n,549
11,560
23,973
4,010
7,660
i>259
3,219
6,338
9,4o5
5,661
5.750
2,058
AGRICULTURAL ASSOCIATIONS
*3
io I
Special syndicates
Unions of syndicates
Wood
cutters
B.
Insur-
ance
against
hail
G.
Tobacco
Planters
T.
.Anti- Ant
Poaching |phyIlo
C. Ph
A_
cock
Recon-
stitution of
land
Number
of unions
Number
of affiliated
syndicates
153
24
430
17
15
Number
of
members
2,8oO
64 9,800
14,000
7>5oo
124,500
S97
8,000
264
FRANCE
Dep urtinents
Syndicates
Number
of
syndicate:
cr-;a"ed
in 1910
I 1 1 st
halfyear)
Tctai
number
of
members
80 Tarn-et-Garonue
81
82 Vaucluse
83 Vendée
Vienne
85 Vienne (Haute-')
Vosges
87 Yonne
» Algiers
Constantine
90 Oran
Total
14
91
3^
26
3«
54
96
145
52
21
13
5.146
2
I
5
1
1
13
0
2
1
2
353
68
1
2,733
11,389
8,201
8,316
I3,9L'4
1,908
13,4"
11,410
2,369
2,601
2,862
777,066
4!
14
41
17
16
5.
9
14.5*4
AGRICULTURAL ASSOCIATIONS
265
Special syndicate:
Insur-
ance
against
hail
G.
Tobacco
Planters
.Anti-
Poaching
C.
Anti-
Phylloxera
Ph.
Against
cockcha-
fers
Recon
stitution of
land
Unions of syndicates ^
Number
of unions
Number
of affiliated
syndicates
Number
of
members
22
73
41
l8
I,500
3,462
1,650
82
L55
72
55
2,392
266
FRANCE
Say 5,146 agricultural syndicates, with 777,066 members, of whom
14,519 are women.
And 55 Unions of Agricultural Syndicates uniting together 2,392 Agri-
cultural Syndicates.
A special enquiry further notes the existence, independently of these
syndicates, of 527 agricultural labourers' syndicates and 237 capitalists' syndi-
cates, with the inclusion also of ioresters and fishermen. The labourers' syn-
dicates unite 55,407 members, divided among 4 unions of syndicates: the
Union of the Agricultural Labourers' Syndicates of the North (71 syndicates
and 3,360 members) ; the Union of the South ; the Wood Cutters' Union
(8,271 syndicate members) and the Union of the Horticultural Syndicates.
The capitalist syndicates unite 43,227 members, federated in 4 Unions.
Years
Syndicates
Number of Persons united in syudicates
%
active
population
Capitalists
Labourers
Capitalists
%
active
population
Labourers
1st January
1902
I903
I905
1908
IOO
114
!35
166
237
124
I49
145
374
527
8,637
12,483
16,933
27,431
43.227
0.44
0. 54
1. H
1.23
15.312
15,5*5
15.592
45,014
55.407
0.47
0. 46
1. 32
I.89
In 7 years the number of labourers united in syndicates has increased
by 261 % and that of the capitalists by 400 %.
The different classes of agricultural capitalists and agricultural labour-
ers' syndicates are as follows :
Capitalists Labourers
Agriculturists, cultivators, tillers of the soil. 3 200
Shepherds, cattle breeders, herdsmen ... 50 1
Wood-cutters, forest labourers, rangers . . 9 214
Florists, horticulturists, gardeners .... 78 34
Milkmen, dairymen, milk producers ... 91 4
Market gardeners 15 r
Resin extractors • • 27
Vinedressers, viticulturists 3 4
The French agricultural syndicates are about half as numerous as the
commercial and industrial syndicates, of which the number on the 31st De-
AGRICULTURAL ASSOCIATIONS 267
cember 1909, amounted to 9,731. Yet it" we consider that, with an agricul-
tural population of iS million souls, France has about 6,800,000 agricul-
tural labourers, we shall see the enormous importance of the agricultural
syndicates, since, they represent about 1/g th of the active rural population
of the country.
Although also regulated by the law of 1884, the agricultural syndi-
cates are distinguished from the commercial and industrial syndicates by
their utilitarian tendency. While the syndicates of workmen or of mast-
ers, belonging to industry or to commerce, have sought in the union of
their members to give more weight to their claims, while they saw in the
syndicate a means of getting the right of strike conceded to them, the Agri-
cultural Syndicates, from the first years of their creation, have established
hemselves almost solely as distributive co-operative societies.
The reasons for this are at once sociological and economic.
The Agricultural Syndicates, when they united the rural populations,
were not called upon to unite the elements of an industry based upon the
proletariate. Then, while the commercial and industrial syndicates asso-
ciated masters and workmen in distinct and rival associations, for the de-
fence of their own interests, and sometimes of opposed interests, the agri-
cultural syndicates united the whole compact mass of field workers, binding
in one knot, the masters, the labourers, and above all the small pro-
prietors, who are at once employers and employed. On this account, the
agricultural syndicate lost the character of an organ for the assertion of
claims. One might then wonder what were the causes of the rapid pro-
gress of this institution which, at the start, lost one of its essential char-
acteristics.
Sociologically, the reason for the existence of the agricultural syndi-
cates is, more than anything else, the progressive education of the inhabit-
ants of the country, little by little won over to the principle of mutual
responsibility. The discovery of new horizons, forced upon the peasants
by reason of the multiplication and the rapidity of the means of transport,
has led them to shut themselves up less in their jealous isolation. Leaving
that selfish confidence in themselves, amounting almost to fear and dis-
trust of all those surrounding them, the field labourers have acquired the
habit of looking about them intelligently. They understand all the gain
they may derive from closer union with those contending in the same-
cause and for the same necessary ends. In association they have seen a
means of increasing their power, of which they had previously not un-
derstood the extent; their profound selfishness, shaken by an active propa-
gandism and by the help of the authorities, has, progressively, given way
to the sentiment of mutual confidence, and respect for their pledged word,
those two social virtues which must form the basis of the morality of
those associated for mutual interest.
i6& FRANCE
But the iirst causes of the great development of the agricultural
syndicates are before all others economic. They are utilitarian causes
due to the transformation and improvement of the methods of production.
It might have been thought, for a moment, that after the acute crisis
through which agriculture passed, the system of intensive cultivation and
the employment of improved machinery, necessarily costly, would be the
deathblow of peasant property, that would have to pass away and be an-
nihilated, absorbed by the great estates. These alarms have proved
vain, and never was peasant property more flourishing than to-day; it
owes it all chiefly to the syndicates who protected it in the person and
the property of all peasants.
The Agricultural Syndicate was then, in the beginning, the populariser
of the idea of solidarity, but also the element of a sort of tariff war, if
we may so express it. In the syndicate, the farmer sought less for an organ
for the assertion of his rights, than for the means of obtaining at small
cost all the merchandise and produce required for his farm work.
It was naturally the part of the agricultural syndicates, to follow this
tendency and serve their members as intermediaries for the purchase of
the goods they required. It was principally in the purchase of manure,
that this distributive co-operation was practised by the syndicates, who
were better able than their individual members to make the analyses and
arrange the due proportion of useful ingredients. The work of the syn-
dicates was afterwards extended to the purchase of agricultural or viticul-
tural implements and machinery, the purchase of superior animals for
breeding purposes as well as of selected seeds.
These purchases, made for their members' account, made it possible for
the syndicates to obtain great reductions on the prices, by which their members
profited. By uniting the crops and produce of their members for collective
sale, the syndicates obtained the advantage of considerable reductions in
the expense of carriage. In this department their services have been
great, and the purchases yearly made by them amount to several hundred
million francs.
Some of them have, it must be recognised, often exceeded their just
rights, selling sometimes to all comers goods having but a remote con-
nection with agriculture. These exaggerations have caused a certain tension,
a critical condition that it seems will soon require to be dealt with by
legislative provision, accurately limiting their powers.
For the social and professional education of their members, the agri-
cultural syndicates have organized competitions and shows, founded libraries,
established experimental fields and schools of farming, making themselves
thus the extenders of progress in the most backward country districts.
We must not, however, reduce their rôle to that of mere intermedia-
ries, to that only of co-operative distributive societies; though that is evi-
AGRICULTURAL ASSOCIATIONS 269
dently their most obvious purpose. Their task has been more difficult,
since it fell to their part to undertake the work of organizing in country
districts all the other professional agricultural associations, co-operative
credit societies, co-Operative societies for sale and production, various
mutual insurance institutions, institutions of insurance and thrift, giving
us to day the consoling picture of a rural democracy united in justice for
the common weal.
Some syndicates have remained strictly organs for study and defence
of professional interests, refusing to practise co-operation directly ; they
are, however, not very numerous: they numbered 764 in 1908. They do not
either represent the exact type of the agricultural syndicate. We have
had occasion to speak of them above, mentioning them as syndicates of
masters and workmen belonging to agricultural industries or to industries
connected with agriculture.
Making use of the powers conferred on them by article 5 of the law
of 2 1 st March 1S84, the syndicates have realised in their Unions, the as-
sociation of the second degree. It is hardly necessary to insist on the ser-
vices that these federations have rendered to very small groups that would
otherwise be doomed by their isolation to impotence.
The object of the Unions of Syndicates is identical with that of the
Syndicates themselves, the isolated efforts of which they co-ordinate. Their
power, extending itself over a larger sphere, has permitted them in certain
regions to assume enormous importance, both in co-operation and in the
social work devolving upon the syndicates. One of the preceding tables
shows the distribution according to departments, in 1909, of the 55 Unions
now existing in France. They unite, as we have seen, the majority of the
syndicates, since they have 2,392 syndicates affiliated to them out of a
total of 5,146.
Considering their importance, we shall here mention separately two of
these groups which have realised the association of the 3rd degree, fede-
rating both syndicates, and, more especially, unions of syndicates.
These are: The Central Union of the French Agricultural Syndicates;
And the National Federation of Agricultural Syndicates.
§ 2. Mutual Agricultural Credit Banks.
It the work of the agricultural syndicates is extensive in itself, it ap-
pears considerably amplified when we consider that from these hives of
the « rural population » have « swarmed out » 150 co-operative societies
of production, more than 3,000 credit banks, and about 10,000 mutual
insurance societies. In studying the organization and working of agricul-
tural credit in France, we must before all things keep in mind its funda-
27o FRANCE
mental characteristic oi strictly independent professional credit, clearly separ-
ated from popular or rural credit. To be affiliated to, and contract loans
from, a mutual credit bank, the peasant must justify his title of farmer
by producing proof that he is a member of an agricultural professional
syndicate. The agricultural credit so practised, is still of recent organiz-
ation; its theoretical constitution dates from 1894; its expansion only goes
back to 1S99.
Long before that date, the idea of agricultural credit was diffused in
France, but it was not then the case of credit as it exists to day, under
the form of mutual credit. Its history, however, does not go back to a
very distant date. The older régimes disapproved of it, and only saw in
it a new affliction for the peasants, as Louis XIV expressed it, they say, in
a celebrated phrase: « credit supports agriculture, as the cord supports
the hanged ».
The first attempts for the organization of credit in behalf of agricul-
ture, if we cannot, as some authors would like, trace them back to Law,
may be found in an enquiry instituted in 1826, by Casimir Périer, into the
best methods for reducing the burdens, and especially those of mortgage,
weighing upon landed property. In the session of 1 840-1 841, several De-
partmental General Councils passed votes praying Government for the in-
troduction of agricultural credit into France. In 1848, a first scheme for
credit at long date was proposed, but without success. Numerous systems
for the organization of agricultural credit were submitted to the authorities;
all aimed at the provision of credit on land and the reduction of mortgages;
the majority provided for the creation of paper money and aimed at the
realisation of too vast enterprises, some of which ill concealed a desire for
speculation. Besides, several establishments, founded between i860 and
1889, succumbed, on account of their defect of over centralisation, and their
inability to adapt themselves to agricultural needs.
Here and there, however, small groups of farmers were formed, some
placing themselves under the legal régime governing the societies (Law
of 1867), others under that governing the syndicates (Law of 1884), all
with the object of granting their members the credit required for the cur-
rent needs of their farms ; they were only isolated examples, but none the
less useful.
The idea of definitely organizing agricultural credit was only re-
sumed by the authorities on the 10th May, 1890, in a bill to allow the
agricultural syndicates to arrange these credit operations. Through the
fear that the work of the syndicates might be compromised the project
came to nothing, but the bill was taken up again, with some alterations,
and became law on the 5th November, 1894. Meanwhile a bill had been
proposed in 1892, for the foundation of a central bank of agricultural
credit; it was to become law later, on the 21st March, 1899.
AGRICULTURAL ASSOCIATIONS 27 1
Of these two laws, the first, of the 5th November, 1894, is far the most
important. It is this law which gives French agricultural credit its character
of professional, mutual and decentralized credit. It permits << the entire body
of the members of one or several agricultural professional syndicates or a
portion of the members of these syndicates » to constitute for themselves
« local banks » of mutual agricultural credit, with the exclusive object ot
facilitating and even guaranteeing operations with regard to agricultural
production, carried out by these syndicates or the members of these
syndicates. A more recent law of the 14th January, 1908, has assimilated
the societies for mutual insurance against risks in agriculture to the
professional syndicates for the constitution of credit banks.
These banks are mutual banks, partly, in that their members receive
a maximum interest of 4 % on their paid up capital, and no dividends in
any case, but, further, especially in that they are bound by solidarity, and
all are jointly and severally liable for their mutual engagements.
Lastly, let us add that agricultural credit is an eminently decentralised
institution. Leaving the old methods which tended to the foundation of a
central agricultural bank to radiate with numerous branches over the
country, the legislator, in the law of 1894, organized agricultural credit on
the basis of the farmers who were to profit by its advantages on the morrow.
The work of the law of 1899 was all co-ordination; its object may be
summed up in the foundation of banks styled « regional », generally having
the department for their sphere, and, having grouped around them, the small
local peasants' banks, that, through their too small capital, and their
extremely limited sphere of action, ran the risk of losing their vitality.
If it is to be regretted that agricultural credit is still so recent a thing,
we must allow that since 1894, the authorities have made use of every
means to obtain for it a prompt development, especially providing it with
the most considerable pecuniary assistance.
It is the law of the 17th November, 1897, or, more exactly, the con-
vention of the 31st October, 1896, that enriched our agriculture with this
financial support, providing for agricultural works, at the date of the re-
newal of the privileges of the Bank of France, an advance of 40,000,000 francs,
to be repaid on the expiration of the said privilege, besides annual aids
not to be repaid, based on the amount of discount of the Bank of France C/s)-
These aids can not be less than 2 millions a year, in fact, they have almost
consistently amounted to 4 or 5 millions, forming thus to-day a disposable
sum of 100,457,561 francs, by means of which the agricultural credit banks
may be largely supplied with funds.
The arrangement of this pecuniary intervention on the part of the
State is very simple. It is summed up in the power of endowing the re-
gional agricultural credit banks with advances to be repaid, that may
amount to four times their paid up capital for their short credit opera-
22.
2?2
IKAM'l
tions, and to twice the same capital for long credit operations. In fact,
the capital of these banks is thus increased sixfold. This capital is de-
rived from subscriptions on shares paid up by their own adherents, by the
agricultural syndicates, and their affiliated local banks.
A sum of ioo francs paid up by a farmer as subscription on shares
n his local bank, and again paid over by that bank to the regional bank,
imay, incertain cases, necessitate the payment of 600 francs by the State:
no other country has imposed such great sacrifices upon itself for the
progress of mutual credit, which has been, as is shown in the following table
particularly rapid.
Years
Capital of Banks paid up
local
regional
State
advances
Affiliated Local Eanks
Leans granted
^99
1 900
1901
1902
I9°3
i9°4
1905
1906
1907
1908
ï9°9
1910 (approxima-
tively for the 1st
six months). . . .
I,4I3,272
1,466,806
2,405,846
3,626,586
4,355,258
5.654,291
7.o55,2I4
8,47o,754
2,659,227
3,066,035
4,601,369
6,446,596
7,408,995
9.075,383
11,218,486
i3,546,8S8
9
612,250
9
87
2,175
3,223,460
21
300
-7.998
6,879,134
37
456
22,476
8,737,396
41
616
28,204
14,175,365
54
963
42,783
19,479.416
66
1.355
6I.S74
22,985,381
74
1,638
76,188
28,62S,477
88
2,168
96,192
35,783,027
94
2,636
116,866
46,231,463
95
2,983
133,382
55,400,528
97
3,15°
142,000
1,910,456
5, » 70,045
I4,302.65I
22,451,167
30,235,063
44,162,573
56,789,656
70,708,456
91,030,564
105,026,740
75,000.000
The figures in this table may serve to mark the evolution of agricul-
tural credit since they show that in ten years the number of local banks
has increased from 87 to 3,150, that of regional banks from 9 to 97, the
number of members from 2,175 to 142,000, that of loans granted and
advances from the state, from 1,910,456 frs. to 105,206,740 frs. and from
612,250 frs. to 55,400,528 frs. respectively (1).
What are the operations of the agricultural credit banks carried out
by means of the capital at their disposal; what is their character? The
ability of these banks to give credit may be divided, according to the per-
(1) For the statistical data see the tables pp, 296, etc. (Editors Note),
AGRICULTURAL ASSOCIATIONS 273
sonality of the debtor into individual credit granted to persons, and col-
lective credit granted to a definitely limited class of societies, agricultural
syndicates, mutual insurance societies against risks in agriculture, and
finally co-operative societies of production, manufacture and sale of agri-
cultural produce.
These two general classes of operations are subdivided, in their turn,
according to the term of credit required, into short and long individual
credit on the one side, and into short and long collective credit on
the other.
Before resuming the subjects ol these different branches of the action
of the credit banks, each in its turn, it is as well to note certain cha-
racteristics of agricultural credit, as it is understood in France.
First of all, let us remember that agricultural credit is a credit on bills
acceptable by banks; it is not given the farmers under the form of advances
upon security, but by means of bills payable to order, drafts, or any bill dis-
countable by the Bank of France, that is to say, bills covered by at least
3 signatures and not of more than go days' date, unless renewed. The
reason of this is to be sought in the very genesis of French agricultural
credit, which originated in the refusal of the Banking Establishments to
accept agricultural paper, on account of the impossibility of verifying its
value. By the signature of the borrower, and the successive endorsements
of the local bank and of the regional bank, agricultural credit is now more
easily verifiable than any other, generally speaking.
Agricultural credit is, in the second place, a cheap credit, not that it is
to be inferred that it is granted at a favourable rate of interest. Founded
with the object of competing against the interested friendliness of small
local bankers, but especially against the . flagrant abuses of the country
usurers, agricultural credit assured the peasants of credit at the average
rate for loans of money in their district.
It is, further, a personal credit, in that it is granted not in return for
pledges that might be exacted in addition, not even on mortgage, but only
in consideration of the personal character of the debtor. In this funda-
mental characteristic it contrasts with landed credit, for which property has
more importance than persons.
Having thus defined its general type, let us now consider the special
forms that agricultural credit may assume :
1. — Individual Credit,
a) Short Individual Credit.
The operations of short individual credit are the most important that
the credit banks perform ; they are, we might say, all credit operations
within the bank.
274 FRANCE
They especially consist for the local banks in :
a) Granting" loans in return for negotiable paper (bills to order,
lrafts, warrants, etc.) to their members, on their proving the utility and
Agricultural character of these loans and offering sufficient guarantee ;
b) Discounting their bills for an agricultural purpose ;
c) Getting their bills discounted by a regional bank after endorse-
ment ;
d) Undertaking collections of money and payments on behalf of their
members ;
e) Contracting the loans necessary for the constitution or increase
of their working capital ;
y) Investing moneys temporarily uninvested.
This enumeration has already indicated the part of the regional banks,
which can :
a) discount bills signed by members of the local banks of mutual
agricultural credit of their district and endorsed by these banks;
b) advance money to these banks for the constitution of their work-
ing capital ;
c) receive deposits in current account, issue drafts, the total value
of which may not exceed three fourths of their bills and acceptances;
d) discount their bills and acceptances entirely or in part ;
e) invest moneys temporarily idle, and check the operations per-
formed by their affiliated local banks.
b) Long Individual Credit.
The duty of granting their members a credit for a period exceeding
three months, and by a method quite other than by bills accepted by the
banks was only attributed to the credit banks by the still very recent
law of the 19th March, iqio
This new legislative provision, filling the last gap in the organization
of credit, and crowning the whole edifice, permits the regional banks to
receive for an average period of 20 years, special advances that may
amount to twice the sum of their capital, already quadrupled, as we have
seen, for the requirements of short credit.
These advances strictly reserved to the needs of long credit are intend-
ed to be used by the banks for loans granted their members for a maxi-
mum period of 15 years. In. the desire only to serve the requirements of
small property, it has been determined that the maximum of each loan
shall not exceed 8,000 frs. The very title of ths law limits the utilisation
of these advances which must only serve for the acquisition, division, trans-
formation or reconstitution of the small rural farms,
AGRICULTURAL ASSOCIATIONS 275
Lent generally at the rate of 2 %, these sums must be extinguished
in annuities by the borrowers, by means of the increased value they have
given the farm.
According to the same principle of agricultural credit we have
noted, the credit banks must try to base the security of these loans on
the personal character of the debtor ; they must, further, by law, exact
(but these must only be considered as subsidiary pledges constituting an
extra guarantee), either a mortgage bond on the borrower's property, or
an insurance contract in case of the death of the beneficiary.
The law of the 19th March, 1910, is of the highest social import-
ance ; it brings agricultural credit out of the domain of theory' to place
it among the realities of life; it should be a sure weapon against the
exodus of our peasants to the towns, keeping them in the village for
love of the land they have wrongly suspected incapable of supporting
them.
This law, which its too recent date prevents us from judging by its re-
sults, has enabled the State in a few months to grant the credit bantcs a
sum of 1,119,000 francs. On every hand, new demands are coming in, and
all the regional banks will soon have important sums at their disposal,
through which small agricultural property should receive not only a re-
newal of life, but also a certain pledge of future prosperity.
2- — Collective Credit.
a) Short Collective Credit.
The only groups benefiting by this credit, copied also, as to its form,
from the short individual credit, are the agricultural syndicates, the mu-
tual insurance societies against risks in agriculture, and the co-operative
societies for production, manufacture and sale of agricultural produce.
As to the Agricultural Syndicates, short credit permits them to pay
cash to their suppliers, from whom in consequence, they obtain favourable
prices, without having to wait till some one of their members pays for the
amount of goods distributed to him.
So also for the agricultural mutual insurance societies. This credit
supplies them with the means of paying their members the sum due for
all losses suffered, without their being compelled to wait for the payment
of the premiums of the year in course.
As to the co-operative societies, short credit only profits those cons-
tituted according to the provisions of the law of the 29th December, 1906,
which we shall study later. It assures them the capital necessary for all
trade and for all industry.
276
FRANCE
b) Long Collective Credit.
Long collective credit consists, only for the agricultural co-operative
societies of production and of sale, in receiving from the State through
the medium of the mutual credit banks, advances at the almost uniform
rate of 2 %, for 25 years, the amount of which may not exceed twice the
amount of their paid up capital.
The fundamental law of this method of credit is that of the 29th
December, 1906, completed by the decrees of the 30th May and 26th
August, 1907. This law, while imposing on them certain obligations,
defines the character of the co-operative societies that may benefit by the
advantages of long credit.
First of all, it only allows this favour to societies for one of the fol-
lowing purposes: production, manufacture, preservation and sale of agri-
cultural produce -acquisition, construction, installation, adaptation of build-
ings, workshops, storehouses, carriage material, purchase and use of
machines and implements necessary for agricultural operations of collec-
tive interest.
In the absence of a general law upon the co-operative societies, the
law of the 29th December, 1906, enumerates further the characteristics
which permit us to recognise in an agricultural society the co-operative type,
qualifying it to enter into business relations with a mutual credit bank.
Thus, the rules of these societies, whether they are regulated by the
civil code for civil societies or come under the commercial code and the
laws of 1867 and 1893 for commercial societies, must particularly specify :
1st, that the shares of the members are in their own names, that
they are exclusively reserved to farmers, members of an agricultural syn-
dicate, and that the rate of reimbursement will not, in any case, exceed
their initial price;
2nd, the maximum number of votes of any member must correspond
with the number of shares he owns;
3rd, that no dividend shall be paid on the capital or on fractions
of the capital, and that the rate of interest shall not exceed 4 % ;
4th, what dispositions are arranged for the constitution of a reserve
fund to be deducted first from the eventual profits, with a view to the
extinction of the debt for the sum advanced by the State;
5th, that the annual surplus, deduction made for cost of manage
ment, sinking fund, interest on capital, general expenses, and the legal re-
serve fund, etc... can only be divided if it is divided, among the co-oper-
ative shareholders, in proportion to the operations that have taken place
between them and the co-operative society;
AGRICULTURAL ASSOCIATIONS 277
6th, that for all acts and operations of a commercial character, the
accounts shall be kept according to the prescriptions of the Commercial
Code and the special ministerial instructions.
These societies are exempted from the tax on patents, and the dis-
tillers' co-operative societies from the payment of licence.
The repayment of advances for long periods, for which the regional
mutual credit bank, acting as intermediary between the State and its debtors,
the Co-operative Societies, is in the first place responsible, is further gua-
ranteed :
1st, by a mortgage for the benefit of the State on the property of
the co-operative society borrowing ;
2nd, by the clause of the joint and several liability of all the mem-
bers, or by a joint and several engagement on their part recognised as
sufficient by the Credit Bank, and signed by all or part of the members
of the Board of Management of the Co-operative Society.
In spite of the still recent date on which this law came into force,
the agricultural co-operative societies of production and of sale which have
already profited by the advantages it offers are 128 in number; they have
received advances amounting altogether to 4,398,595 francs.
These societies are divided, according to the purpose they serve, into
53 dairies, and cheese dairies:
31 wine societies;
15 co-operative societies of collective purchase and employment of
agricultural machines and implements;
13 distilleries;
9 oil mills;
2 starch factories;
5 co-operative societies of various kinds.
The law of 1906, thus supplying the agricultural co-operative societies
with the largest advances, has been a new and powerful stimulator for
peasant property, for which it assures the sale of its produce at prices
excluding both extraordinary profits and excessive losses.
Besides the various operations we have just enumerated for short and
long credit, individual and collective, the credit banks serve the peasants
as deposit and savings banks. It is thus they must especially increase
their efforts to obtain for the land a credit, the means for which is derived
from the land itself.
The tables placed at the end of this Monograph show the operations
carried out in the course of the last financial year, both by the regional
banks and by the local banks affiliated to them.
We shall not return to the work of the Agricultural Mutual Credit
Societies, the great extension of which we have fully set forth in the course
of the preceding pages. It is enough to remember that if agricultural
278 FRANCE
credit is still a rather recent institution, it has rapidly progressed, espec-
ially by reason of the important sacrifices made by the State in its fa-
vour. Free of any political or religious bias, it has placed agriculture, up
to that moment without any system of credit at all, on the same footing
as the other two branches of production, commerce and industry, assuring
them all of that equality with respect to money, which is in the economic
order a principle as indispensable as is equality before the law in the social
and political order.
Besides the credit banks which we may call official, on account of
the important subsidies received by them from the State, there are at
work in France a certain number of banks that have remained independ-
ent and affiliated to two Unions ; the Federated Centre of Popular Credit
and the Union of Rural and Labourers' Banks.
The majority of the banks affiliated to the Federative Centre are also
affiliated to the regional banks of agricultural mutual credit; they are
therefore included in the general class of the banks we have already
considered.
The Union of Rural and Labourers' Banks, according to its bulletin,
federates about 1,400 banks. It seems that a large number of these so-
cieties have no real activity and but a nominal existence. Those that are
active, in number about 450, seem to have a total business (outgoings and
incomings) of from two to three million francs a year.
With these unions an association of more recent date, but far exceed-
ing them in importance, requires separate mention: the National Feder-
ation of Mutual Institutions and Agricultural Co-operation (1), the presid-
ent of which is the Senator, and ex-Minister of Agriculture, M. Viger, and
which, in its department of the National Federation of Agricultural Mutual
Credit Banks, unites all the regional and the great majority of local
banks, affiliated to them. This Federation does not engage in business;
its sole rôle is to co-ordinate the isolated efforts of the associations it fed-
erates. In its various branches, syndicates, Credit Banks and co-opera-
tive societies, it studies all questions relating to agricultural mutual socie-
ties, publishes reports, and passes votes ; it is for the authorities at once
a sure helper and one of the most authoritative of guides.
§ 2. Agricultural Co-operative Societies.
« Co-operation is an association of persons taking part in collective
work, with the view of obtaining the necessities of life more cheaply, real-
ising a saving and deriving greater advantage from their resources or their
work ».
(1) Head quarters of the Society. Musée Social, 5 Rue Las Cases, Paris.
AGRICULTURAL ASSOCIATIONS 279
Co-operation is to be summed up then simply as a method of di
vision of profits among individuals associated together to succeed in "no
paying too high prices ".
The co-operative method consists in suppressing intermediaries, as
they are necessarily costly; suppressing suppliers by distributive co-ope-
ration, bankers by credit co-operation, employers by the co-operative pro-
ductive society.
In French law the co-operative societies do not constitute a specia.
type of societies ; they may adopt any of the forms in common lawl
They are either civil societies coming under the articles LS32 et seqq. o
the civil code, or commercial societies regulated by the laws of the 24th
July, 1867, 1st August, 1S93, and by the Commercial Code.
Using the definition of co-operation given above, which is that of a
senatorial committee of 1892, we shall mention, for successive study:
1st. The Co-operative Distributive Societies;
2nd. The Co-operative Credit Societies ;
3nd. The Co-operative Societies for Production and Sale.
a) Agricultural Co-operative Distributive Societies.
Agricultural distributive co-operation is at once relatively rare and
highly developed, if we only regard the societies for distribution, without
considering the groups practising the same co-operation.
The agricultural co-operative distributive societies are lew enough if we
look in a statistical table of co-operative societies generally, for those serving
solely for the needs of agriculture. These societies are at the most 900.
The greater part of them are bakeries ; the number of these is about
600, of which 168 are to be found in Charente Inférieure and 75 in the
Deux Sèvres.
The other three hundred co-operative distributive societies are a kind
of small general warehouses, where the members may obtain all merchand-
ise of prime necessity. These societies are very seldom associations formed
solely of farmers. They are rather rural unions than agricultural asso-
ciations in the strict sense of the word.
If we reflect, however, that distributive co-operation enters largely
into the work of the agricultural syndicates, we shall understand all the
advantage agriculture derives from it. We may say that of 5,146 agri-
cultural syndicates at work in France, the great majority, if not the entire
body, practise distributive co-operation by buying wholesale all merchand-
ise and produce required for working the land, for later distribution of
the same among their members.
Some of these agricultural syndicates or unions of syndicates, often
through the medium of a co-operative society, do a very important annual
280 FRANCE
business, in which also operations of co-operative sale and production
enter to a small degree. Such are notably : the Co-operative Society of
the Central Union of the French Farmers' Syndicates, and the French
Farmers' Central Syndicate.
b) Co-operative Credit Societies.
We shall not here return to deal with credit co-operation, which is
represented in France by the organization of Agricultural Mutual Credit,
to which, on account of its great importance, we have previously given a
place apart.
c) Co-operative Societies for Productioti and Sale.
Association, for the purpose of collective production was that form,
which in France, as in every other country, men first felt the need of.
In face of the often considerable labour, that at a very remote date
was demanded for the clearing of lands, the peasants found themselves
co ..strained to unite in « communities », which were, in those early ages,
the first ancestors of productive co-operation, although at the present day
they appear to us rather communistic than co-operative.
The direct origin of the co-operative societies of production and sale
seems to date from the 12th century, at which epoch the first « Fruitières »
were formed in the Alps, the central mountain lands and the Pyrenees.
These groups, still subisting to-day under the name of « Fruitières »
in the Jura and the Alps, « Cabanes » or « Baraques » in the Pyrenees, were
formed with a view to the collective manufacture of cheese, and chiefly
of Gruyère, with milk supplied by the whole group of members. These
societies, of which some are very ancient, are very numerous to-day; three
principal types may be mentioned ; some are civil societies, others are com-
mercial, others, finally, and they form the majority, have preserved their
primitive form, in which in accordance with a kind of order given, each
of the members undertakes in turn to make the cheese in the common
chalet, with milk collected from all his fellow-members.. It is very dif-
ficult to determine the legal character of these societies, which, for the
most part, are constituted without any deed in writing, by a simple verbal
understanding between the members, and without any contributions to the
capital being demanded. Constituted among the original founders at an
epoch already remote from ours, they subsist, by virtue of a nameless con-
tract, binding together their members in the same agreements as their
ancestors.
The Fruitières are about i,Soo, extended over the mountain regions,
for which they form a guarantee of prosperity. They are often largely
AGRICULTURAL ASSOCIATIONS
encouraged by the authorities; thus, in the course of the period 1874-1902,
they received subventions amounting to 357,340 francs.
Co-operative production is also especially developed in the dairies and
butter making societies, which are to-day 685 in number. This is an espe-
cially large figure when we compare it with the total number of establish,
ments for the production of fresh butter, which in 1902 was 2,000.
These dairies are principally situated in the West of France, and, above
all, in the Charentes and in Poitou. Of 685 dairies, in fact, the central
association of the co-operative dairies of the Charentes and of Poitou now in-
cludes 116. They comprise 70,000 farmers' families possessing about 191,000
dairy cows. The produce of these dairies amounted, in 1908, to 250,000, 000
litres of milk, which gave 12 millions of kilogrammes of butter, or about
1 kilogramme for 21 litres of milk; their receipts were about 38 millions
of francs.
To sum up, co-operation has been notably developed in the following
branches of production :
Cheesemaking and Fruitières About 1,800
Dairies, Buttermaking
Wine making
Starch making
Collective purchase and employment of agricultural ma-
chines and implements
Oil mills
Distilling ,..,....
Milling and Baking ,
Sugar manufacture ,
Fruit and vegetable preserving . . ,
Collective carriage
Sauerkraut preparation
Sale of eggs and farmyard produce
Distilling flowers for perfumery
Flax preparation
Other co-operative Societies
The total number of co-operative societies for production and sale,
exclusively composed of farmers, is now about 2,660; to give a more pre-
cise idea of agricultural co-operation for this purpose, we should add to
»
685
»
39
»
34
»
23
»
20
»
17
»
16
»
8
»
5
»
»
»
»
»
»
8
About
2,660
282 FRANCE
this total about 600 various groups, consisting either of agricultural Syn-
dicates, practising these operations, or of co-operative societies not solely
composed of farmers; we may therefore estimate the number of these so-
cieties at 3,260.
We have seen, when speaking of the organization of credit, that some
of these (128) that have conformed to the law of the 29th December, 1906,
have received important advances from the State. At the date of their con-
stitution, a certain number also receive considerable subventions, of which
it is not possible to give the amount, but this shows what efforts the
authorities are making to encourage the association of the small land
holders in co-operation, with the purpose of bringing, as far as may be,
the large, the average and the small land holders to an absolute economic
equality.
§ 4. Agricultural Mutual Insurance Societies.
The Agricultural Mutual Insurance Societies first began to extend
ihemselves in France in 1898, the year in which M. Meline, the Prime Min-
ister and Minister of Agriculture, in his desire of stimulating and encour-
aging private enterprise, placed on the Agricultural Estimates a special
sum of 500,000 francs for subventions at once to societies in process of
ormation and to those whose work ran the risk of being compromised
by unusual losses.
It was necessary, indeed, to urge our agricultural populations towards
mutual insurance by procuring them the first indispensable subsidies, for,
up to that moment, they had shown themselves averse to any idea of thrift
and solidarity, preferring, in case of disaster, to have recourse to the help
of private persons, insufficient, however, through its insignificance (5 % of
the losses).
Thus, on the 31st December, 1897, there were as yet in France only
14S4 agricultural mutual insurance societies, and of this number more
than 700, organized in rudimentary fashion, had their headquarters in
the single department of the Landes. 27 departments possessed no asso
ciation.
When the first encouragement had been given, numerous associations
were quick to constitute themselves, and the number of societies rose
rom 1,484 to 1,594 on the 31st December 189S and to 1,935 on the 31st
December, 1899.
But these first hastily founded associations, liberating themselves from
the special régime imposed by the law of 1867 and the decree of 1868,
were constituted under the form of agricultural syndicates, conformably
to the provisions of the law of 21st March, 18S4. Their legality was
AGRICULTURAL ASSOCIATIONS 283
called in question, and several judgments were given aeainst them. There
were consequently claims from the Registration Office exacting the pay-
ment of the dues established by the law of 1867. In view of these claims,
the impulse we have noted in the ioundation of the societies was arrested,
and their future seemed compromised.
With a view to remedying this state of things, the Government pre-
pared a Bill, which the Senator, M. Yioer, took charge of and proposed,
and which, passed by Parliament, became the law of the 4th July, 1900.
This law exempted the agricultural mutual insurance societies, managed
and administered gratuitously and not aiming at the realisation of any
profits, from all stamp and registration dues, as well as from the formalities
prescribed by the law of the 24th July, 1867, and the decree of the
2SthJuly, 1868. For legal constitution the agricultural mutual societies had
only to deposit, at the town hall of the commune where their headquarters
were situated, two copies ot their rules and the list of their managers.
The law of the 4th July, 1900, thus regulating definitely the position
of the agricultural mutual societies, had a very great influence in the de-
velopment of these insurance societies. Thus we find the foundation of 349
societies in 1900, 390 in 1901, 469 in 1902, 737 in 1903, 1,105 m I9°4> 1,1 16
in 1905, 1,138 in 1906, 1,048 in 1907, 977 in 1908, 784 in 1909, 683 be-
tween the Ist January and the 30th September 1910, bringing the number of
agricultural mutual societies in operation on the 30th September, 1910, up
to 10,731.
These 10,731 societies are divided as follows, with regard to the nature
of the risks against which they meure:
8,428 Cattle Insurance Societies;
2,187 Agricultural Fire Insurance Societies;
25 Societies insuring against Hail;
7 » » » agricultural accidents;
58 Cattle Reinsurance Societies;
26 Fire » »
In view of this advance, the credit fixed by the financial law of 1898
at 500,000 francs soon became insufficient, and had to be increased to
600,000 francs in 1903, and to 1,200,000 francs in 1905.
1. — Societies for the Mutual Insurance of Live Stock.
Livestock Insurance, since the risks it contemplates are much less import-
ant and far less hurtful than those contemplated by the other branches of
insurance and since it adapts itself more easily to small local association,
is much the best organized in France, for out of a total of 10,649 so-
cieties, at present 8,428 are concerned with it alone.
284 FRANCE
The progress of this class of mutual societies has been as under:
On the 31st December, 1897: 1.469 societies with 87,072 members,
insuring a capital of 59,168,334 francs.
On the 31st December, 1898: 1,578 societies with 94,546 members,
insuring a capital of 62,449,269 francs.
On the 31st December, 1899: 1,917 societies with 117,292 members,
insuring a capital of 86,724,510 francs.
On the 31st December, 1900: 2,264 societies with 135,817 members,
insuring a capital of 106,807,194 francs.
On the 31st December, 1901: 2,646 societies with 155,496 members,
insuring a capital of 129,775,867 francs.
On the 31st December, 1902: 3,132 societies with 178,920 members,
insuring a capital of 158,999,954 francs.
On the 31st December, 1903: 3,811 societies with 209,490 members,
insuring a capital of 194,031,403 francs.
On the 31st December, 1904: 4,824 societies with 275,576 members,
insuring a capital of 278,960,543 francs.
On the 31st December, 1905: 5,765 societies with 318,146 members,
insuring a capital of 330,545,429 francs.
On the 31st December, 1906: 6,422 societies with 346,901 members,
insuring a capital of 372,815,500 francs.
On the 31st December, 1907: 6,982 societies with 389,478 members,
insuring" a capital of 417,477,023 francs.
On the 31st December, 1908: 7,569 societies with 403,984 members,
insuring a capital of 471,311,340 francs.
On the 31st December, 1909: 8,044 societies with 424,633 members,
insuring a capital of 513,532,254 francs.
On the 30th September, 1910: 8,428 societies with 438,216 members,
insuring a capital of 532,807,990 francs.
The Livestock Mutual Insurance Societies are divided, according to
their system of working, into three classes:
1 st Societies with fixed premiums;
2nd » » variable premiums;
3rd >> of mixed system.
Ist . Societies with fixed premiums.
Societies with fixed premiums or anticipatory and proportional sub-
scriptions, at the beginning of each year, exact from their members a
subscription, fixed in the majority of cases, at 1 % for cattle, and 1 1/2 %
for horses. The compensation they give in case of loss varies according
AGRICULTURAL ASSOCIATIONS 2S5
to the means at their disposal, yet without exceeding S/10 of the loss
suffered. In fact it is well to leave the loser to bear a small proportion
of his loss, so that he may have an interest in keeping his cattle alive.
2nd. Societies with variable àremiums.
The societies with variable premiums, found more especially in those
departments where the first mutual societies were formed (Landes and La
Vendée), only exact payments from their members in case of losses. The
contribution is then calculated at so much in the pound, so as to pay the
losers the compensation established by the rules of the society. At first,
these associations paid the whole of the loss, but conformably to advice
received from Government, the majority of them have reduced the com-
pensation to So %.
This system of insurance has the following inconvenience: payment
of compensation is delayed until receipt of the members' contributions,
and in many societies these are only collected twice a year. Besides, these
contributions may vary considerably from year to year, and sometimes
the members are obliged to make very large payments.
3rd. Societies oj mixed system.
These Societies partake of the nature both of the fixed and of the
variable societies. They make their members, at the beginning of the
financial year, contribute a fixed premium, generally very small, % %> so
as to form a reserve fund, allowing them to compensate their losers for
part of their loss immediately after it occurs, and without waiting for the
proportional division among the members.
In this class are to be found a large number of societies at work in
the South East of France, that divide among their members at a price
fixed in relation to that of the market, the carcase of the animal killed,
when the meat may serve for consumption.
Reinsurance — Cattle.
But the Livestock Mutual Insurance Societies, especially those with
fixed premium, which cannot make supplementary calls on their members,
are always at the mercy of an epidemic of contagious disease, and one bad
year would be enough to cause some of these associations, sustaining losses
exceeding the amount of their subscriptions, to cease working at once. This
is why from the first beginning of the organization of mutual insurance, all
the efforts of the administration have tended to the inducement of the small
local societies to group themselves together in Unions or Federations to
come to the assistance of their affiliated societies in case of need.
286 FRANCE
These insurance societies of the 2nd degree which unite together all
the societies, whether of the same department, or of the same district, have
for their object, by means of a small premium, generally Vio % or 3/20 %
for cattle and Vs % or Vé % for horses, the provision of their affiliated
societies, at the end of the financial year with the sums they need for
payment of the compensations established in their regulations :
on the 31st December, 1901, there existed 6 Livestock Reinsurance,
societies, federating together 106 local societies, and reinsuring a capital
estimated at 4,581,770 francs;
on the 31st December, 1902 : 10 societies, federating together
203 local societies with reinsured capital of 8,708,240 francs ;
on the 31st December, 1903 : 14 societies, federating together
631 local societies, reinsuring a capital of 17,687,184 francs;
on the 31st December, 1904: iS societies, federating together
917 local societies, reinsuring a capital of 32,413,226 francs;
on the 31st December, 1905 : 29 societies, federating together
1,373 local societies, reinsuring a capital of 61,853,075 francs ;
on the 31st December, 1906 : 33 societies, federating together
1,719 local societies, reinsuring a capital of 86,956,688 francs;
on the 31st December, 1907 : 44 societies, federating together
2,200 local societies, reinsuring a capital of 105,856,975 francs ;
on the 31st December, 190S : 53 societies, federating together
2,731 local societies, reinsuring a capital of 124,671,436 francs;
On the 31st December, 1909 : 55 societies, federating together
2,8S6 local societies, reinsuring a capital of 133,168,042 francs;
on the 30th September, 1910: 58 societies, federating together 3,055
local societies, reinsuring a capital of 153,900,3785" francs.
Other societies of this kind are in process of formation and there is
reason to hope that, at no distant date, every department will be provided
with a Livestock Reinsurance Office.
2. — Agricultural Mutual Fire Insurance Societies.
By reason of the important risks it undertakes Fire Insurance has
had greater difficulty in acclimatizing itself in France than Livestock In-
surance had, and it is only in 1903 that we observe the appearance of the
first Agricultural Mutual Fire Insurance Societies, that is to say, those
that, only concerning themselves with agricultnral risk?, are able to profit
by the fiscal immunities provided by the law of the 4th July, 1900.
AGRICULTURAL ASSOCIATIONS 287
The organization and the development of this class of associations
were retarded at first by the disputes that arose as to whether the law of
the 4th July, 1900, could be applied to them. This question being settled,
after eminent jurists had been called on to give opinion, and an under-
standing had been come to between the Ministers of Agriculture and of
Finance, the Mutual Fire Insurance Societies were not slow to begin a rapid
advance.
The progress of these societies was as follows :
on the 31st December, 1902: there were 5 societies with 534 members
and a capital of 3,652,116 francs;
on the 31st December, 1903 : 27 societies with 2,674 members and
an estimated capital of 20,181,502 francs;
on the 31st December, 1904: in societies with 5,930 members and
an estimated capital of 42,403,730 francs ;
on the 31st December, 1905: 273 societies with 12,437 members and
an estimatad capital of 101,972,610 francs;
on the 31st December, 1906 : 740 societies with 28,091 members
and an estimated capital of 239,137,850 francs;
on the 31st December, 1907 : 1,208 societies with 49,013 members
(of which 29,218 full members) with an estimated capital of 498,252,180
francs, of which 254,755,365 francs effectively insured ;
on the 31st December, 1908: 1,598 societies with 71,950 members
(of which 44,935 full members) and an estimated capital of 592,786,720
francs, of which 261,788,620 francs effectively insured;
on the 31st December, 1909 : 1,901 societies with 80,336 members
(of which 49,551 full members) and an estimated capital of 920,522,590
francs, of which 443,659,295 francs effectively insured ;
on the 30th September, 1910: 2,187 societies with 89,955 members (of
which 50,946 full members) and an estimated insured capital of 1,044,376,753
francs of which 508,374,563 effectively insured.
The Agricultural Mutual Fire Insurance Societies, just as the Livestock
Mutual Societies, must be managed and administered gratuitously and
consequently do not aim at making any profit. They must be open to
all the farmers of their district. Further they must only guarantee for
agricultural risks.
Reinsurance— Fire.
Even more than for the Livestock Mutual Societies, reinsurance is of
great importance for the mutual fire insurance societies, and all these small
associations can only protect themselves in the serious risks to which they
are exposed, by the formation of Unions capable of liberating them in some
degree from these risks.
23-
288 FRANCE
23 mutual fire reinsurance societies are now at work. Their advance has
been as follows :
on the 31st December, 1902 : 1 reinsurance society with 145 local
societies and a reinsurable capital of 16,282,335 francs ;
on the 31st December, 1903 : 3 societies with 433 local societies,
with a reinsurable capital of 64,605,490 francs ;
on the 31st December, 1904: 5 societies with 530 local societies with
a reinsurable capital of 81,888,000 francs;
on the 31st December, 1905: 8 societies with 625 local societies with
a reinsurable capital of 101,240,500 francs;
on the 31st December, 1906: 9 societies with 735 local societies with
a reinsurable capital of 141,148,600 francs;
on the 31st December, 1907: 10 societies with 862 local societies
with a reinsurable capital of 163,979,432 francs;
on the 31st December, 1908: 16 societies with 1,250 local societies
with a capital of 379,835,230 francs, of which 101,259,162 effectively
insured ;
on the 31st December, 1909: 20 societies with 1,766 local societies
with a capital of 532,204,430 francs, of which 204,922,130 francs effectively
insured ;
on the 30th September, 1910: 26 societies with 2,096 local societies
with a capital of 723,975,179 francs, of which 311,819,433 effectively in-
sured.
Of these associations two are organized for insurance in the 3rd degree.
Finally, the Governement has been advised of the organisation of
several fire reinsurance societies, and it may be hoped, that, in the near
future, fire reinsurance, equally with cattle reinsurance, may render real
service to tha local societies.
3. — Insurance Societies against Hail.
The organization of insurance against hail is that which leaves the
most to be desired.
This is due to the quite special conditions of this insurance which
has to face risks of such magnitude that local association is incapable of
guaranteeing the losers sufficiently. A special organization, extending over
great stretches of country so as to divide the risks not merely in the
region devastated, but also among those immune, seems an absolute ne-
cessity for this branch of insurance.
Yet there are now working in France 25 societies against hail, the
majority being departmental societies. Amongst these 24 societies there
are 7 associations exclusively composed of tobacco planters.
AGRICULTURAL ASSOCIATIONS
Progress :
on the 31st December 1898: there existed 12 societies with 16,812
members, insuring a capital of 8,499,456 fr. ;
on the 31st December, 1899: 14 societies with 17,067 members, in-
suring a capital of 9,552,468 fr. ;
on the 31st December, 1900: 16 societies with 28,760 members, in-
suring a capital of 13,841,656 fr. ;
on the 31st December, 1901 : 16 societies with 29,340 members, in-
suring a capital of 13,964,459 fr. ;
on the 31st December, 1902 : 19 societies with 29,604 members, in-
suring a capital of 14,785,435 fr. ;
on the 31st December, 1903: 21 societies with 32,050 members, in-
suring a capital of 18,380,715 fr. ;
on the 31st December, 1904: 22 societies with 33,023 members, in-
suring a capital of 18,640,520 fr. ;
on the 31st December, 1905: 22 societies with 33,963 members, in-
suring a capital of 19,299,800 fr. ;
on the 31st December, 1906 : 24 societies with 38,550 members, in-
suring a capital of 20,479,815 fr.
Since 1906, the number of societies has not increased, but the number
of members has risen successively to 40,500 on the 31st December, 1907;
42,065 on the 31st December, 1908, and 47,737 on the 31st December,
1909. As to the value of the capital insured, it rose to 21,500,000 francs
n 1907, to 22,580,580 francs in 1908, and to 27,084,970 francs on the 31st
December, 1909, and to 28,159,854, on the 30th September, 1910.
4. — Insurance against Accidents in Agriculture.
Lastly, there exist six Mutual Aid Societies against Accidents in Agri-
culture. These associations guarantee their members against accidents in
agricultural work, with the exception of those occasioned by mechanically
moved machines, accidents dealt with by the laws of the 9th April, and
30th June, 1899.
But these associations are too few in number, and too recent in date,
for us to pronounce authoritatively on the services they may be able to
render the farmers.
In proportion as the agricultural mutual insurance societies advanced,
and consequently the importance of the State assistance given them in-
creased, the necessity became greater for a more serious control over the
working of the assisted societies and the employment of the State aids
to them, the examination of the accounts produced being absolutely in-
290 FRANCE
sufficient for this purpose. It was of the first necessity to organize a control
on the spot, which alone would allow the Government to form an exact
idea oi the work of the societies. This control has been entrusted to three
agents who have each a determinate region for inspection, but who may
be entrusted, however, with special verifications of the accounts of societies,
not included in their district.
In principle, this control on the spot only affects the operations of
societies that have asked for a subvention from the State ; but the exam-
iners of the Ministry of Agriculture have to hold themselves entirely
at the disposal of all the societies which may of their own motion call
them to their assistance, and to give them every information and all
useful advice, both with respect to new foundations and to the good working
ot the existing organizations.
At the present moment, and although the control on the spot was only
organized four years ago, all the departments have been visited at least
twice, and thanks to the contact established between the societies and the
representatives of the Government, very great improvements have been
brought about in the organization of Agricultural Mutual Insurance in
France.
C. — Syndicate Associations.
As we saw at the beginning of this study, the Syndicate Associations
of Labour are of very ancient origin. But before 1865, legislation concern-
ing them only consisted of a few scattered texts, without connection
between them, and otherwise very incomplete. They are now regulated
by the law of 2 1 st June, 1865— 22nd December, 1888, and by a Decree of the
9th March, 1S94, which have codified the regulations on the subject.
In terms of this legislation, the following works may be the object of
a syndicate association among the land holders concerned, defence works
against the sea and rivers, whether navigable or not, scouring of water-
courses not navigable, draining of marshes, reclaiming damp or insalu-
brious lands, irrigation or warping, construction of farm roads and all other
agricultural works of improvement of collective interest.
The syndicate associations are unions, not of persons, but of holdings.
The social link uniting their members is then an obligation not personal
but real. The obligations deriving from the formation of a syndicate asso-
ciation, in fact, says the Decree of the 9th March, 1894.. are attached
to the syndicated fixed property and follow it into whatever hands it
passes, until the association is dissolved.
AGRICULTURAL ASSOCIATIONS 291
The syndicate associations have the legal right of suing at law, acquiring,
selling, exchanging, making compromises, borrowing, and mortgaging.
They are of two kinds : free or authorized.
The free associations, which can only be formed by the unanimous
consent of the parties interested, are formed without Government inter-
vention ; and their freedom of action is absolute. But in their relations,
whether with their own members or with third parties, they are only regu-
lated by the rules of civil law.
The associations styled " authorized " may be formed by the wish ot
majorities, which vary according to the class of work contemplated, and
can exercise constraint over minorities. They can only be formed by a
rather complicated procedure, by virtue of an authorization from the Prefect,
which must be, in certain cases, preceded by a decree of the Council of State
recognising in the works to be executed by the association a character ot
general interest, sufficient to justify the compulsion exercised over the
unwilling minorities. These associations have very important privileges.
They are considered as public institutions. Their works are on the footing
of public works ; the contributions imposed by them on that of public taxes.
The right of expropriation may be conferred upon them. The collec-
tion of their contributions is made in the same manner, and by the same
means as that of the taxes : their lawsuits, for the majority of their cases,
are of administrative jurisdiction.
The law of the 21st June, i865-22nd December, 1888, has had numer-
ous applications in the case of agricultural hydraulic works. It has espec-
ially permitted of important operations of drainage, scouring of water-
courses, dyke-construction and irrigation.
Statistics prepared in 1 901, and dealt with in number I of the bulletin
of the Director of Agricultural Hydraulics, inform us that, at that date,
there were 6,749 syndicate associations at work, of which 1,676 had been
constituted in terms of the law 1865-1888.
The following table shows the distribution of this number with respect
to the character of the works :
Dyke construction 316
Scouring of watercourses 228
Draining and reclaiming the land 317
Salt marshes 2
Irrigation 782
Various 31
Total . . . 1,676
Of these 1,676 associations, 1,463 were authorized syndicate associa"
tions, and 213 free associations.
292
FRANCE
The enterprises that form the object of the syndicate associations are
scattered over all parts of the territory. The principal undertakings for
reclaiming lands, carried out since 1865, are the following : Landes of
Gascogne, for an area of 800,000 hectares ; la Sologne, for an extent of
500,000 hectares; les Dombes, 112,000 hectares; le Double, 50,000 hectares;
le Forez, 60,000 hectares.
Amongst the most important irrigation canal works recently executed
by the authorized syndicate associations, we may mention :
The Manosque irrigation canal (Basses Alpes) (1881) — Perimeter
capable of irrigation : 3,186 hectares;
The Gignac irrigation canal (Hérault) (1882) - Perimeter capable 01
irrigation : 3,500 hectares ;
The Vallée des Baux Canal (Bouches-du-Rhône) (1889) - Perimeter
capable of irrigation : 6,000 hectares ;
The Pont du Fossé Canal (Hautes-Alpes) (1866) - Perimeter capable
of irrigation: 1,683 hectares.
The Bosque de Berre Canal (Bouches-du-Rhône) (1887) - Perimeter
capable of irrigation : 800 hectares.
We shall also mention, as a remarkable example of association applied
to irrigation works, the existence of 12 syndicates formed for the irrigation
of the approaches to the town of Verdun with water from the Meuse.
A special application of the law of 1865- 1888, that deserves to be noted is
the following: that, namely, accomplished when about 1880, the phylloxera
then threatening the destruction of the vines in the plain of the depart-
ments of Aude and Hérault, two laws, of the 3rd April, 1880 and the
30th July 1 88 1, authorized the construction by the State, at its own expense,
of 8 canals leading from the river Aude and the Southern Canal, for the
winter submersion of a vineyard, 1 1,000 hectares in extent. The works costing
more than five millions were, after completion, ceded in complete ownership
to the syndicate associations interested, in return for payment by annuities
of a part of the expenses advanced.
With regard to scouring of watercourses, when an attempt to form
a syndicate association does not succeed in obtaining in its favour either of
the two majorities exacted by the article 112 of the law of 1865-1888, the
article 21 of the law of the 8th April, 1898, arranges for the formation
of a compulsory association, made obligatory by decree passed in the
Council of State.
Very numerous examples exist of the foundation of this class of syndicates.
The law of 1865- 1888 continues to receive frequent application.
Since its creation, in virtue of the decree of 5th April, 1903, the
Agricultural Improvement Service has caused, as far as was in its power, the
foundation of numerous syndical associations, notably increasing the number
of 6,749 associations shown in the statistics of 1900.
AGRICULTURAL ASSOCIATIONS z93
It has formed a large number of associations with the object of draining
and reclaiming lands. It has founded some for the construction of farm
roads and to effect the reunion of patches of land and the reconstitution
of properties. In the small rural communes, the landholders have been
grouped in syndicates to carry out schemes for water leading, for drinking
fountains, and wash-houses. Associations have been formed for the buildino-
of co-operative edifices, for the utilisation of power from waterfalls, for the
installation of various industries, subsidiary to the farm.
The law of 1 865-1 888 has been fruitful in its results, in spite of its
imperfections. The Administration is now studying the means for simpli-
fyng the procedure for the constitution ot the associations as it is too
complex, and it has introduced into Parliament a bill of a nature to
reinforce the credit of these syndicate associations, and thus facilitate their
working,
294
FRANCE
STATISTICS RELATIVE TO AGRICULTURE
— Return of operations at short date by the Region
Regional Bank
Pate
of
Foundation
Paid up
Capital
Interest
shares
Bills
discounted
Including
Renewals
Amount
Re.
Loans granted in 1909,
to Individuals,
Syndicates, etc.
Amount
Rate
à
to
for \vc
Ain
Aixoise
Alpes-Maritimes. .
Amieiis
Ardèche
Aube
Aveyron
Avignon
Basses-Alpes
Basses-Pyrénées . .
Beauce et Perche.
Beauvais
Belfort
Bourbonnaise. . . .
Bourgogne et
Franche-Comté.
Brie
Cambrésis
Cantal
Carcassonne
2 March
1907
20 April
1903
24 Dec.
1899
7 March
1908
12 Nov.
1906
4 Jan.
1902
8 Feb.
1908
10 Feb.
1904
20 Feb.
1905
6 Oct.
1902
24 August 1 899
9 Dec.
1905
6 March
1907
1 Sept.
1905
Centre of Nor-
mandy
Cévennes
Châlons-sur-Marne
Charente
Charente-Infér . . .
15 Feb. 1900
4 May 1 90 1
21 Feb. 1901
1 5 June 1907
30 April 1908
9 June 1906
21 April 1902
1 April 1905
15 Nov. 1
I July 1901
rancs.
p.%
18,785
3- 5o
41,800
4. 00
43.350
3- 00
63,550
3- 50
47,725
3.50
62,275
3- 00
31.845
4. 00
60,000
4. 00
39,925
4. 00
361,500
4. 00
778,650
4. 00
ICO, 000
4. 00
52,475
4. 00
24,684
3to3-5o
119,250
3. 00
316,400
3.50
400,000
3.50
44,050
3 to 3-5o
83,300
275,000
35,000
30,700
135,158
183,895
4. 00
3- 5o
3. 00
4. 00
3. 00
4. 00
francs.
208,590
233.842
335,919
137,771
141,533
7I5,5H
109,380
1,089,170
257,478
3.385,578
4,562,857
1,203,980
21,900
292,080
1,064,169
3,037,925
3,175,471
45,45°
737,046
4,938,423
44,080
512,547
1,976,667
3,380,215
francs.
108,920
79,885
80,170
104,786
39,291
334,891
50,350
1.054,770
169,453
1,273,040
4,171,679
703,980
21,900
86,840
770,332
644,073
2,613,196
30,450
288,879
1,415,570
31,930
368,529
l8l,o8o
65L544
P- %
3- 00
3- 5o
3- 00
3- 5o
3-25
3&3. 25
3- 50
3- 50
3- 00
3- 5o
2. 00
2. 50
3- 00
3. 00
3- 00
2. 50 & 3
2. 00
2. 00
4. 00
3.00
3- 00
3.25
3- 00
3- 5o
AGRICULTURAL
ASSOCIATIONS
295
1
IT AND COOPERATION
1909.
UTUAL CRED
inks of agricultural mutual credit in
9 10
XX 1
!
13 1
14
15
16
17
Capital Inv
ested
General
Expenses
Reserve
Fund
Government
Advances
Reimburse-
ments
Loans
in course
at the end
of 1909
-
nks
.ital
ate
Total
Loans
in course
at the end
of 1908
General Total
•i
francs .
francs.
francs.
francs .
francs .
francs .
francs .
francs .
108,920
14,154
123,074
69,221
53,853
1,058
1,164
51,910
•50
82,521
33.Ï93
115, 7M
75.715
39,999
1,094
22,029
150,000
80,170
160,834
241,004
105,474
I35.530
153
14,225
101,050
104,786
15,265
120,051
71,117
48,934
1,690
2,848
150,000
39.291
31.580
70,871
3I,"7
39.754
868
8,009
100,000
:-
.50
387,841
180,096
567,937
355,522
212,415
765
15.343
214,850
5o,35o
22,350
72,700
34,8oO
37,9°°
1,043
840
120,000
.50
1,056,870
50,865
1,107,735
1,035,787
71,948
2,671
16,066
l62,000
169,453
89.725
259,178
180,054
79,124
1,050
7,117
137,050
1,273,040
1,130,215
2,403,255
1,060,998
1.342,257
10,683
101,125
1,413,600
4,171,679
2,105,806
6,277,485
4,311,891
1,965,594
9.309
2l6,IIO
2,430,000
•50
757.580
408,321
1,165,901
781,451
384,450
2,833
3,947
300,000
■
•
49.375
29.475
78,850
39,675
39,175
641
5,200
177,900
.OO
88,440
7o,44o
158,880
80,430
78,450
725
3,545
95,000
:
.oc
773.0I4
476,441
1,249,455
5I5.I"
734,344
4,46i
32,204
410,000
:
.00
667,773
927.837
1,595,610
997.326
598,284
3,6n
80,000
1,169,000
;
1.00
2,864,596
1,723,478
4,588,074
2,668,978
1,919,096
5.609
59,48i
1,185,000
.00
30,850
7,4oo
38,259
14,350
23,900
1,024
16,270
126,400
288,879
123,115
411,994
242,390
169,604
470
5,641
200,000
.00
1,415,670
719,595
2,135.265
816,164
1,319,101
7,576
30,764
1 ,000,000
.
3I.930
22,164
54.094
23,724
3o,37o
49°
20,584
100,000
.
368,529
74,635
443.164
329,108
114,056
806
5,934
122,000
i
.00
261,674
561,185
822,859
246,387
576,472
4,44o
34,844
438,000
651,544
828,987
1,480,531
629,867
850,664
5.852
68,729
500,000
296
FRANCE
I
2
3
4
5
° 1
7 1
8
Regional Pank
Date
of
Foundation
Paid up
Capital
Interest
on
shares j
Pills
discounted
Including
Renewals
Amount
Retui
Loans granted in 1909,
to Individuals,
Syndicates, etc.
Adv
to Lot
for world.
Amount
Rate
Amount
francs .
P.%
francs.
francs.
P.%
francs .
Cher
10 Dec. 1906
15,700
3.50
172,720
75,190
3.50
• •
3 Oct. 1906
I5.760
3- 5o
I7.320
8,500
3- 00
i,3<
17 Nov. 1907
2,400
4. 00
3-575
2,6oO
3- 00
Côte-d'Or
23 April 1904
Il6,000
3.50
2,031,646
946,890
3. 00
Côtes-du-Nord . . .
24 Oct. 1904
59.030
3-5o
1,132,625
235,260
2 to 3
27,4^
Creuse
18 March 1906
14.655
4. 00
115,070
23,000
300
2(
Dauphiné
19 Nov. 1904
186,545
3-25
949,066
762,809
3.00
23 April 1904
27,000
3. 00
240,851
85,600
3- 5o
Dordogne
19 Nov. 1904
20,800
3- 00
270,513
59.239
3.50
6,K
Uoubs
1 2 June 1904
1 60,000
4. 00
737.148
275,973
2. 50
12,7c
Drôme
27 Dec. 1904
81,200
4. 00
568,704
275,100
3- 5o
Est-Epinal
27 June 1899
84,800
3. 00
621,844
260,684
2. 00
7,4*
Est-Nancy
22 April 1899
179,250
4. 00
1,055,021
353,913
2. 50
3o,Il
Eure
24 Oct. 1906
156,150
3- 5o
1,190,383
699,876
2. 00
2,5c
Finistère
23 Nov. 1907
23.050
3. 00
157,370
99,820
3-25
1.7c
Forézienne
13 August 1 904
28,500
3. 00
74,655
38,910
3- 00
13.3;
Gers
9 Jan. 1901
2 Dec. 1 901
281,452
4 17,000
3 & 4
4. 00
2,635,378
7,739,999
1,012,784
2,140,380
3. 00
3-25
12,2)
Gironde
Gray et Haute-
Saône
23 June 1899
I9.950
3.00
58,634
50,986
3-50
Hautes-Alpes ....
25 Nov. 1905
20,950
4. 00
124,875
7I,IOO
3. 00
Haute-Bretagne . .
2 Feb. 1904
38,38o
3. 00
208,740
123,705
3. 00
8,OC
Haute-Loire
14 Feb. 1907
106,700
3- 5o & 4
568,005
282,270
3.25
Haute-Marne ....
15 Dec. 1 901
1 6o,000
3- 5o
672,093
5II.937
2 & 3
30.4Î
Haute-Normandie.
15 May 1 901
97.IOO
3- 5o
650,921
627,888
3.00
Haute-Savoie ....
30 Dec. 1906
127,885
4. 00
1,058,560
333,887
3- 00
56,11
Haute-Vienne. . . .
1 6 June Ï907
70,200
3. 00
367,245
125.345
3- 5o
I.7C
Ile-de-France ....
22 Dec. 1901
84,600
3- 00
668,040
376,020
3. 00
1 8,4!
AGRICULTURAL
ASSOCIATIONS
29?
5 1 xo 1
« 1
1
13 1
M
15
16
17
Capital Invested
Genera!
Expenses
Reserve
Fund
Government
Advances
. L1 Total
Loans
in course
at the end
of 1908
General Total
Reimburse-
ments
Loans
in course
at the end
of 1909
- , francs
francs .
francs.
francs .
francs .
francs.
francs .
francs.
75>!90
26,IOO
101,290
66,790
34,500
792
758
54,000
; 3 9,800
4,540
14,340
7,950
6,390
562
1,057
34,200
2,600
2,6oO
80O
i,Soo
l83
139
8,200
946,890
268,223
I,2I5,U3
857,778
357,335
2,502
32,241
422,500
5 262,707
167,758
430,465
192,349
238,116
1,137
6,653
191,000
D 23,200
27,210
50,410
25,860
24,550
140
2,089
55,820
762,809
293,217
1,056,026
708,796
347,23o
3,692
5I,8lO
618,320
85,600
38,525
124,125
78,036
46,089
466
11,448
49,500
a 65,364
72,488
137,852
57,159
80,693
I,07I
2,672
8l,200
la 288,673
439,473
724,146
289,035
435,i"
4,238
31,690
46o,COO
275,100
137,355
412,455
234,168
178,287
2,088
17,127
250,000
;d 268,172
200,6l2
468,784
268,131
200,653
i,377
39,89!
312,900
id 384,029
438,699
822J28
350,6o6
472,122
2,84s
31,324
428,150
3 702,376
331,496
1,033,872
563,442
47o,43o
1,323
14,400
500,000
5 92,520
",446
103,966
51,39!
52,575
463
1,365
85,000
5 52,289
37,465
89,754
41,867
47,887
676
58,200
1,012,784
551,408
1,564,192
777,351
786,841
10,253
54,343
757,000
. 5 2,152,595
2,007,683
4,160,278
2,042,367
2,117,911
16,668
80,407
1,597,660
50,986
25,325
76,3H
50,412
25,899
1,181
8,561
15,000
7I,IOO
23,180
94,280
56,890
37,390
1,101
2,126
66,oooj
13IJ05
42,543
174,248
103,686
70,562
491
I,5l8
35,7oo
282,270
160,535
442,805
195,563
217,242
3,179
6,516
342,000
j 3 542,392
424,852
967,244
474,622
492,622
2,282
87,520
620,000
627,888
120,312
748,200
S^"01?
235,183
2,274
18,697
318,000
D 390,002
252,690
642,692
150,320
492>372
2,448
4,651
347,000
3 127,050
100,533
227,583
97,453
130,130
2,034
8,336
190,000
jJ 394.470
182,196
576,666
348,486
228,180
3,3o5
17,763
335.500
298
FRANCE
Regional Eank
Date
of
Foundation
Paid up
Capital
Interest
shares
Bills
discounted
Including
Renewals
Rett
Loans granted in 1909,
to Individuals,
Syndicats, etc.
Amount
Rate
Ad
to I.
for worl
Ille-et-Vilaine. . . .
Indre
Indre-et-Loire. . . .
Jura
Libournais
Lille
Loire-Inférieure . .
Loir-et-Cher
Loiret
Lot-et-Garonne . .
Lozère
Maine
Maine et Anjou. .
Maine-et-Loire . .
Manche
Marne, Aisne et
Ardennes
Meuse
Midi
Morbihan
Nièvre
Nyons
Orne
Pas-de-Calais
Puy-de-Dôme. . . .
Pyrénées-Orient. .
Quercy
Rhône
15 Oct. 1904
30 Nov. 1 90 1
27 Dec. 1 90 1
18 Oct. 1906
17 Sept. 1907
19 March 1902
9 Sept. 1905
12 Dec. 1903
24 Dec. 1906
6 April 1905
1 May 1905
21 Dec. 1900
1 1 March 1901
1 July 190S
1 1 August 1 906
1 July 1S99
7 July 1 908
3 April 1900
2 March 1907
7 Dec. 1907
6 Dec. 1900
3 Nov. 1906
23 Dec. 1899
21 Oct. 1904
24 Dec. igor
1 6 Nov. 1907
30 Dec. 1906
francs.
P
%
6.IOO
3-
00
335.650
3-
5o
250.035
3-
00
214,635
4-
00
19,500
4.
00
65,000
4-
00
109,200
4-
00
428,200
3-
5o
58,790
3-
00
72,045
3-
5o
37,975
3-
00
397,600
4-
00
40,000
3-
00
18,270
3-
00
27,870
3-
00
609,350
3-
00
13,925
3-
00
981,700
4-
00
16,085
3-
00
54,600
4-
00
32,8oo
3-
5o
33,900
3-
00
422,650
3.
5o
570,300
3&4
126,850
4.
00
30,000
4.
00
188,862
3-
25
francs .
143,120
I.S45.789
1,014,612
1,295,238
172,350
263,695
837,659
4,726,989
222,467
470,004
445,185
2,843,278
97,750
68,632
169,770
2,113,895
43,"7
20,676,464
879,770
85,015
l8l,522
121,027
1,558,534
414,662
2,798,669
454,895
571,070
francs.
p.%
38,740
3.25
1,380,497
2. OO
289,487
2. OO
422,948
3 & 3-5o
86,400
3.50
208,015
3.25
323,517
3- 00
3,990,103
2. 00
108,644
2. 00
158,609
3- 00
115,940
3- 00
2,608,832
3. 00
97,750
2. OO
51,642
3- 00
97,350
2. 00
1,894,048
2.50
35,052
2. 00
9,907,312
4. OO
109,295
3.00
40,015
3- 00
104,441
3- 00
59,928
3.50
699^35
2. 25
18,781
3- 5o
1,058,469
4. 00
179,113
3- 25
436,391
3.00
AGRICULTURAL ASS< >CIATlONS
299
-5
-1
0 !
xo 1
„ 1
1
.3 1
m
>5
General
Expenses
16
17
t C .1
p i t a 1 I n v
ested
Reserve
Fund
Government
Advances
—
S
auks
,pital
lite
General Total
Reimburse-
ments
Loans
in course
at the end
of 1909
Total
Loans
in course
at the end
of 1908
'•%
francs
francs.
francs .
francs.
francs.
francs.
francs .
francs.
I. OO
44,702
3L7I7
76,419
25,877
50,542
368
738
I9.350
L38o,497
717,521
2,098,018
1,421,954
676,064
4,049
68,646
88o,200
2.ÛO
506,877
373,524
880,401
420,802
459,599
3,503
20,606
525,320
422,948
303.845
726,793
296,355
43o,438
2,952
21,819
5!4,275
86,400
13,800
100,200
20,200
80,000
56o
595
51,120
2.00
2l6,Ol5
I28,OI4
344,029
240,664
103,365
3,747
i5,I23
250,000
323,517
198,970
522,487
304,440
218,047
2,651
9,7i4
365,800
2.00
4,069,603
1,660,876
5.730,479
3,855,158
i,875,32i
4,852
84,186
1,595.000
2. On
109,444
38,5IO
147,954
89JI9
58,235
1,492
2,014
125,600
158,609
IOI,76o
260,369
I43,OI3
117,356
3,279
4,816
220,000
115,940
74,785
190,725
95,860
94,865
L549
4,534
135,00c
2,608,832
1,001,093
3,609,925
2,685,379
924,546
6,955
51,270
1,4,38,400
2.00
103,525
36,725
140,250
78,375
61,875
1,002
7,o6i
62,000
;voo
52,542
600
53,142
34,882
18,260
906
181
57,800
97,350
36,450
I33,8oO
78.IOO
55,4oo
1,363
448
98,000
2.50
2,048,600
1,060.518
3,I09,Il8
I,S8o,882
1,228,236
io,733
162,192
2,134,620
2.00
43,552
3,335
46,887
21,245
25,642
848
216
47,5oo
:;i
4.00
9,932,312
5,406,550
15,338,862
10,519,550
4,819,312
27,452
490,000
3,685,000
109,295
238,135
347,430
l85,7C3
161,727
2,47i
2,373
63,780
!
2.00
3.00
45.815
107,041
18,660
80,975
64.475
34,995
29,480
102,996
1,067
989
1,100
5,309
100,000
114,500
.1
l88,Ol6
85,020
59,928
17,963
77,891
5L927
25,964
511
8,017
100,000
699>L35
1,284,683
1,983,818
695,182
1,288,636
1,838
156,493
1,110,000
18,781
579,922
598,703
393,128
205,575
8,299
2,260,600
1,058,469
790,681
1,849,150
1,274,583
574,567
6,389
47,343
448,853
I79,"3
89,613
268,726
140,549
128,177
L794
570
86,000
436,391
177,989
6l4,38o
337,5"
276,869
6,297
6,102
400,000
3oo
FRANCE
Regional Bank
Date
of
Foundation
Paid up
Capital
Interest
shares
Bills
discounted
Including
Renewals
Loans granted in 1909,
to Individuals,
Syndicates, etc.
Amount
Rate
A
to I
for wo)
A mou
Roannaise
Santerre
Saône-et-Loire . .
Savoie
Sc-ine et-Oise. . . .
Sud-Est
Sud-Ouest
Tarbes
Tarn
Tarn et-Garonne
Toulouse
Uzès
Var
Vendée
Vexin
Vienne
Yonne
Total. . .
29 Jan. 1904
22 July 1905
I Jan. 1904
9 March 1907
26 Nov. 1904
29June 1899
8Jan. 1901
22 May 1902
7 Jan. 1 90 1
29 Sept. 1906
1 Jan. 1 901
1 March 1906
17 March 1900
8 July 1 90 1
2 Dec. 1 90 1
4 Nov. 1905
2 1 August 1 904
francs .
31,575
151,600
59.400
141,545
550, oco
273,400
384,250
161,912
49,475
55-550
129,920
9-050
88,300
129,300
98,825
65,200
61,320
13,546,888
p%
3. 00
3. 50
4. 00
4. 00
3-5o
3.50 & 4
3 & 4
4. 00
3- 00
4. 00
4. 00
2. 00
3- 00
3.50
3.50
3- 00
3. 50
francs .
38o,35I
698,807
594,164
4 28,200
7,292,479
2,701,862
2,735-777
1,267,275
719,042
157,322
2,989-449
8,900
666,179
742,036
1,038,232
386,025
202,349
123,222,174
francs .
167,931
368,142
203,379
327.S75
2,903,660
2,380,462
2,161,724
334,45o
114,065
62,822
986,174
5,4oo
247,35o
333,479
789,807
140,340
89,138
61,262,856
p-%
3.50
3-5o
2. 00
3- 00
3. 00
3. 00
3- 00
3- 50
3.50
3.50
3- 00
4. 00
3- 00
3- 00
3- 00
3. 00
3 °o
fran
73
5
2
65-
5-<
43,s
32,5
1,480,1
AGRICULTURAL ASSOCIATIONS
301
i, 1 10
1 »
1
X3
! M
15
16
17
If Capital Invested
General
Reserve
Government
s
Loans
Reimburse.
pital
Total
at the end
General Total
in course
Expenses
Fund
Advances
-late
of 1908
merits
of 1909
, 0/
• .'0
francs .
francs .
francs .
francs.
francs .
francs.
francs.
francs .
•
167,931
IOIJ7I
269,702
170,865
98,837
2,256
3,518
123,700
1.00
442,042
3H.985
757,027
353,500
403,527
2,765
I7,58o
486,000
2.00
208,439
125,158
333,597
194.495
139,102
1,643
9,185
185,000
5.00
329.905
65,898
395,803
260,893
134,910
2,295
7.084
400,500
2,903,660
2,549.073
5.452,733
2,303,148
3,149.585
5.8II
85,316
2,200,000
Ï.OO
2,389,462
979,620
3,369,082
2,409,490
959.592
II,204
53,414
906,800
2,161,724
791,060
2,952,784
1,923,310
1,029,474
6,405
76,152
1,324,775
334.450
353.450
687,900
265,975
421,925
7,606
26,320
532,650
114,065
164,568
278,633
81,194
197.439
2,899
8,Il8
142,490
62,822
23,080
85,902
52,160
33,742
2,221
6,772
150,000
986,174
854,656
1,840,830
1,086,613
754,217
2,435
25,108
423,000
5,400
4,641
10,041
1,370
8,671
59
20,000
j'-5o
312,850
310,688
623,538
280,443
343,095
2,999
18,682
324,48o
;.oo
338,479
143,325
481,804
221,804
26o,000
3,52i
14,286
378,000
;.oo
833.007
403,688
1,236,695
945.520
291,175
369
15,600
110,000
140,340
77,840
2l8,l8o
100,740
117,440
1,561
10,909
180,725
:.oo
121,717
102,908
224,625
119,141
105,484
2,415
11,854
245,240
'
62,743.036
38,022,643
100,765,679
59,502,996
41,262,683
304,017
2,868,544
44,108,688
FRANCE
II. — Return of Operations at short date by Local Baia
Regional Banks
Title
Departments
in which their Local Eanks
are situated
Number
of
Banks
Number
of
members
Paid up
Capital
Avignon
Basses-Alpes
Basses-Pyrénées
Beauce et Perche
Beauvai=
Belfort
Bourbonnaise
Bourgogne et Franche-Comté
Brie
Cambrésis.
21
1,364
6
301
17
1.057
9
336
19
749
23
1,249
14
317
12
293
/ 25
19
4
16
86
12
17
659
5ji
6,573
,813
698
223
712
860
i,653
francs
18.480
21,490
28,767
26,365
l6,020
92,200
IO,795
5-477
6,667
246,775
451,610
89,287
27,475
21,885
81,291
212,930
253,444
AGRICULTURAL ASSOCIATIONS
303
iliated to the Regional Banks, in the yeai
1909.
7
9
10
1
» 1
*3
M
Local
5 a n k s a f f
iliated
Amount
bills received
in 1909
New
granted
loans
in 1909
Loans
in course
at the end
of 1908
Totals
Reimburse-
ments
Loans
in course
at the end
of 1909
Reserve
Fund
Amount
Rate
francs
francs
%
francs
francs
francs
francs
francs
208,590
108,920
3.50
14,154
123,074
69,221
53,853
233,842
79,885
4. OO
33,193
113,078
73,079
39-999
3,619
766,772
80,170
215,062
295,232
86J2I
208,511
7,934
L37,77I
104,786
4. OO
15,265
120,051
71,117
48,934
641
I4L533
39-291
4. OO
3L580
70,871
3LH7
39,754
610
767,933
382,761
3 M
161,824
544,585
312,665
231,920
8,889
109,380
5o,35o
3- 50 & 4
22,350
72,700
34,8oo
37,900
I,844,I77
1,692,072
3- 5o to 5
263,554
1,955,626
1,668,285
287,341
6,085
259,351
169,453
4. 00
89,725
259,178
180,054
79-I24
2,37o
3,385,578
1,273,040
3- 5o
1,130,215
2,403,255
1,060,998
1,342,257
I5.791
4,562,857
4,171,679
3. 50 to 4
2,105,806
6,277,485
4,3",89I
1,965,594
89,057
I.4I7.791
757,58o
3- 25 to 4
368,645
1,126,225
756,045
370,180
9>929
5Ï.300
35,900
3- 00
22,500
58,400
21,150
37,25o
698
332,605
98,980
4. 00
76,695
175,675
85,885
89,790
2,133
2,Ol8,862
1,077,626
3. 50 to 4
L7I3,972
2,79L598
833,779
1,957,819
62,165
3,037,925
605,366
3. 00
1,085,050
1,690,416
984,633
705,783
20,566
3,370,828
3,048,448
3. 5° & 4
1,815,426
4,863,874
2,903,613
1,960,261
86,400
3°4
FRANCE
x
>
3 1
4
s !
6
Regional
Banks
Title
Departments
in which their Local Banks
are situated
Number
of
Banks
Number
of
members
Paid up
Capital
Interest
on share; 1
Cantal
Carcassonne <
Cantal
Aude 27 1
Hérault 1 \
Calvados 1
Gard
Marne
Charente
Charente-Inférieure ....
Cher
II
28
29
17
36
82
24
13
5
5
22
35
7
22
7
17
14
16
. 8
! -
9
27
9
m
289
916
I.383
1,114
I,o62
2,174
2,895
46I
199
IOO
1.352
1,220
217
1,158
628
334
925
1,690
1,182
431
759
598
186
2,911
francs
19,605
25,855
143,800
26,679
24,680
32,730
49,930
14,475
6,640
1,795
86,735
39>!3o
13,995
175,200
12,515
18,228
28,975
35,97o
92,070
114,080
109,900
i6,oS5
27,205
276,627
%
2-75to3-|
4. 00 1
3- 5o
3. 00
3 & 4)
3 to 4
3- 00.
3. 50
3. 00
3 & 1
3 to 3. j|
3- 5o
3 & 4l|
3.25;
3- 00
3. 00
3- 00:
3 to 4 \
3. 00
2. 50 to 1
2 to 3. 5]
2. 50 tO 1
3. OO
4 001
Centre of Normandy
Cévennes ; .
Châlons-sur-Marne
Charente
Charente-Inférieure
Cher
Corrèze
Corrèze
Corsica
Côte-d'Or
Côte-d'Or
Côtes-du-Nord
Côtes-du-Nord
Creuse
Creuse
Dauphiné
Isère
Deux-Sèvres
Dordogne
Doubs
Dordogne
Doubs
Drôme
> Vosges 7
l Haute-Marne 1
v Meurthe-et-Moselle . 8
( Meuse 3
Eure
Drôme
Est (Épinal)
Est (Nancy)
Eure
Finistère
Finistère
Loire
Forézienne. .
Gers
Gers
AGRICULTURAL ASSOCIATIONS
;ûs
7
1
1
9
i
ii
1 « 1
«3
«4
Local
Banks
affi
i a t c .1
Amount
>f bills received
in 1909
New loans
granted in 1909
Amount Rate
Loans
in course
at the end
of 1908
Totals
Reimburse-
ments
Loans
in course
at the end
of 1909
Reserve
Fund
francs
45.45°
737-046
4,938,423
44,oSo
5I2Ô47
2,i53,24i
3.380,215
172,720
i7,32o
3.575
2,031,646
1,132,625
115,070
949,066
333,489
27o,5i3
737.148
568,704
812,391
1,055,021
1,190,383
162,570
79.833
2,635,378
francs
30,450
288,879
1,415.570
31,930
368,529
3",9S7
651.544
75.Ï90
9,Soo
2,600
959,490
235,260
23,100
762,809
96,617
65,364
275.973
275,100
454-541
353. 9X3
699,877
92.970
52,2
1,012,784
%
.50103.50
5. 00
3- 50
3. 60
3.50104.50
4 to 5
3- 5o *o 4
3- 5o
4. 00
3- 5o to 4
3.50
3 & 4
3- 75
4. 00
4. 00
3 & 4
4 & 4- 5o
2. 50 & 3
3. 50(04
4. 00
4. 00
4. 00
4. 00
francs
7,400
123,115
719.595
22,164
74,635
561,185
828,987
26,IOO
4,540
268,223
150,962
27,OIO
293.217
72,166
72,488
420,230
137,355
366,208
438,699
328,996
I 1,196
29,342
551,408
francs
37,850
411,994
2,135,165
54,094
443. J 64
873,172
1,480,531
101,290
14,340
2,600
1,227,713
386,222
50,110
1,056,026
168,783
137,852
696,203
412,455
820,749
792,612
1,028,873
104,166
81,631
1,564,192
francs
14,350
242,390
816,064
23,724
329,108
322,493
629,807
66,790
7,950
80O
870,378
175-553
25,55o
708,796
73.79
57,159
273-792
234,168
460,147
334,oio
560,943
51.591
33,744
777.351
francs
23.500
169,604
I,3l9,IOI
30,370
114,056
550,679
850,664
34,500
6,390
I,800
357,335
210,669
24,56o
347,230
94,990
80,693
422,411
178,287
360,602
458,602
467,930
52,575
47,887
786,841
francs
205
954
4,062
Si5
21,396
13,725
208
*9
19,706
555
18
1,623
525
8,631
5-397
44,628
35,oS4
20.438
402
403
9,675
3o6
FRANCE
,
2
3 1
4
5 ~1
6
Regional
Banks
Title
Departments
in which their Local
are situated
Ranks
Number
of
Hanks
Number
of
members
Paid up
Capital
Interest
on shares!
Gironde
Gironde
Haute-Saône
56
6i
9
6
27
20
17
58
53
30
14
30
> 29
29
1 1
6
42
27
23
40
27
43
2,667
1,295
438
231
915
1,583
871
1,872
971
949
391
2,793
1,463
2,327
271
263
945
2,960
770
1,059
649
2,820
francs
30IJI2
3,050
14,760
33,890
86,827
35,970
80,525
96,375
67,800
90,825
4,855
188,350
247,928
28,715
4,705
45,525
38,900
305,728
53,120
61,255
34.910
352,290
%
4. OO j
2. 50 to ;
3- 00
4. 00 1
3- 00
4.oo|
3. 00
3. 00
3. 00
3. 00
3. 00 i
4. 001
3- ooj
3. OOI
3. 50
3. 00J
3&3. 5,
3.00
s&4;
Hautes-Alpes
Ille-et-Vilaine
Haute-Bretagne . . .
Haute-Loire. .
Haute-Marne .
Haute-Loire
Haute-Marne
Haute-Normandie . .
Seine-Inférieure
Haute-Savoie ....
Haute-Savoie
Haute-Vienne
Haute-Vienne
1
Ile-de-France . , . (
Seine
Seine-et-Oise
| Eure-et-Loir ....
* Oise
Ille-et-Vilaine. . . .
Indre
Indre-et-Loire . . .
. Maine-et-Loire. . .
^ Vendée
Tura
• • 4
..,«1
• • 9
26 '
2 ,
I
1
Ille-et-Vilaine
Indre
Indre-et-Loire. . . . <
Jura
Libournais . .
Gironde
Nord
Loire-Inférieure .
Loir-et-Cher. .
Lille
Loire-Inférieure . .
Loir-et-Cher. . ,
Loiret
Loiret
Lot-et-Garonne ....
Lot-et-Garonne .
Lozère
Lozère
Sarthe
AGRICULTURAL ASSOCIATIONS
307
7
I
1 9
»
xx
»
«3
X4
Local
Banks a f f
il i a t e d
-
Amount
of bills received
in 1909
New
granted
loans
in 1909
Loans
in course
at the end
of 1908
Totals
Reimburse-
ments
Loans
in course
at the end
of 1909
Reserve
Fund
Amount
Rate
francs
francs
0/
francs
francs
trancs
francs
francs
7.739-999
2,140,380
4 to 5
2,037,842
4,178,222
2,060,311
2,117,911
34,o83
58,634
50,986
4. OO
25,325
76,3"
50,412
25,899
4,165
125,125
71,350
4. OO
24,020
95,370
57,980
37,390
846
208,740
123,705
4. OO
29,900
I53.605
91,170
62,435
45
568,005
282.272
3. 50 to 4
160,535
442,805
195,563
247,242
2,796
672,093
5",937
3. 50 to 4
395,863
907,800
445,633
462,167
17,236
650,921
627,888
4. 00
120,312
748,200
5I3,OI7
235,183
6,200
1,053,560
333,887
3- 5o to 4
252,690
586,577
148,740
437,837
365,860
125,790
"2,413
238,203
109,778
128,425
968,701
563,538
3- 5° tu 4
206,022
769,560
521,190
248,370
8,483
164,430
41.135
4. OO
30,975
72,IIO
23,700
48,410
491
1,845,789
1,380,497
3-50
717,521
2,098,OlS
1,421,954
676,064
74,332
1,156,308
365,002
3 t° 4- 5°
373Ô24
738,326
278,927
459,599
23,022
1,278,791
423.523
3-50
306,150
729,673
299,235
43°,43<s
6,586
172,350
86,400
4. OO
13,800
100,200
20,200
80,000
203
263,695
2o8,OI5
4. OO
128,015
336,030
232,665
103,365
4,589
837,659
323-5I7
3-5o
198,970
522,487
304,440
218,047
1,483
4,726,989
4,069,603
3 & 3- 5o
1,660,876
5,730,479
3,855,158
1,875.321
61,930
222,467
108,644
4. 00
37,7IO
146,354
88,919
57,435
637
470,004
158,609
4. 00
IOIJ60
260,369
143,013
H7,356
!,303
445,185
115,940
3. 50 to 4
74,7*5
190,725
95,860
94,865
583
2,843 278
2,608,832
4. 00
1,001,093
3,609,925
2,685,379
924,546
29,844 1
i
1
3o8
FRANCE
Regional Banks
Departments
in which their Local Banks
are situated
Number
of
Banks
Number
of
members
Faid up
Capital
15
51
208
212
359
434
2,690
199
14,182
19
1,088
6
145
8
381
13
543
11
2,034
11
599
7J
3>489
13
527
58
1,868
12'
791
9
709
9
504
38
993
29
1,468
francs
59.530
14,825
26,965
323.l8o
6,965
442,385
16,085
13,140
25,725
18,540
248,530
27,480
10,875
17,512
188,862
10,975
84,600
44,820
62,500
547,414
AGRICULTURAL ASSOCIATIONS
3°9
I .4
Local Banks affiliated
Amount
of bills received
in 1909
New loans
granted in 1909
Rate
Loans
in course
at the end
of 1908
Totals
Reimburse-
ments
Loans
in course
at the end
of 1909
Reserve
Fund
francs
"6,175
68,632
169,370
2,113,895
43,"7
francs
116,175
52,542
110,320
1,904,548
35.052
20,676,464 5,932,312
879,770
86,IIO
181,522
192,491
1.558,534
414,662
2,798,669
454.895
57I.070
38o,35l
698,807
594.164
428,200
7,292,473
4. OO
3- 5o & 4
3 to 4
5. 00
109,295
3- 00
44,435
4. 00
104,441
81,268
4 & 4- 50
699.Ï35
3 to 4
18,781
4. 00
058,469
5. 00
i79."3
3. 00
436.391
3- 5o
167,931
368,142
4 & 4. 50
203,379
327,875
4. 00
903,660
3.09103.90
francs
44,o63
600
36,450
1,060,518
3,335
5,406,550
238,135
19,920
77,375
26,514
1,284,683
579,922
790,681
89,613
177,989
101,771
252,285
119,600
65.897
2,549.o73
francs
160,238
53.H2
146,770
2,965,066
38,387
15.338,862
347,430
64,355
181,816
107,782
1,983,818
598,703
1,849,150
268,726
614,380
269,702
620,427
322,979
393,772
5.452,733
francs
9LI36
34,88
90,500
1,891,382
17,907
10,519.550
francs
69,102
18,260
56,270
1,073,684
20,48c
4,819,312
185,703
37,555
81,420
62,549
695,182 1
393,i28|
1,282,3881
140,549
337,5"
170,865
290,800
188,937;
258,862'
161,727
26,800
100,396
45,233
288,636
205,575
566,762
128,177
276,869
98,837
329,627
134,042
i34,9ID
2,303,148, 3,149,585
frr.ncs
1,742
46,412
376
125,899
2,838
4,029
70,419
21,416
2,197
1,429
3.832
2,505
2,358
24,480
3io
FRANCE
1
2
3
4 1
5 1
6 1
Regional
Banks
Title
Departments
in which their Local Banks
Number
of
Number
of
Paid up
Interes ' d
are situated
Iîanks
members
Capital
on shart 1
francs
%
Ain
. 20 I
Hautes-Alpes
i
Ardèche . . .
• S 1
Drôme
.ii
Isère
' I7
Sud-Est (
Loire
• 7 ^
117
3.966
157,096
3 to 4
Rhône
8
Saône-et-Loire. . . .
• 9 '
Savoie
t6
1
Haute-Savoie
• r7 /
1
Landes
. 22
Sud-Ùuest ,
Gers
Basses-Pyrénées . . .
"M 5*
■ 6^
2,753
381,619
3 t0 4 |
Gironde
I
Tarbes
Hautes-Pyrénées . .
133
3,576
81,425
4. 00 1
35
9
517
162
34,275
l8,IOO
3- 00
4. 00
Tarn-et-Garonne
Tarn-et-Garonne . .
Haute-Garonne . . .
.20
Aude
Anege
. 12
I
> 36
2,148
77,520
3 to 4 II
i Lot
I
\ Tarn-et-Garonne . .
• 2 ,
Uzès
Gard
Var
8
5i
42
152
2,867
2,659
4,725
81,135
77,465
2. 00 I
Var
3. 00 1
Vendée
Vendée
3- 5o \
Vexin
Eure
7
217
78,407
3 to 4 |
Vienne
Vienne
20
739
55,952
2. 75 to ;|
Yonne
Yonne
32
1,306
50,150
3 & 3- 5<|
Total
2,983
133,382
8,470,754
AGRICULTURAL ASSOCIATIONS
1
1 9 E
xo |
1
12
X3 I
14
Local Banks affiliated
Amount
of bills received
in 1909
New loans
granted in 1909
Loans
in course
at the end
of 1908
Totals
Reimburse-
ments
Loans
in course
at the end
of 1909
Reserve
Fund
Amount
Rate
francs
francs
%
francs
francs
francs
francs
francs
3.037,276
2,4",53I
3- 50 to 4
1,235,553
3,647,084
2,432,763
1,214,321
36,139
2,735.777
2,161,724
4. OO
791,061
2,952,785
I,923,3IO
1,029,475
38,742
1,3.54,875
334,450
3- 50
353,450
687,900
265,975
421,925
4,401
720,415
114,065
4 to 4. 50
164,568
278,633
81,194
197,439
i57,322
62,822
23,080
85,902
52,l6o
33,742
500
2,989,450
986,174
3- 5o to 5
854,656
1,840,830
I,c86,6l3
754,217
6,333
8,900
5.400
4. 00
4,641
10,041
8,671
1,370
848,293
344,497
4. 00
340,616
685,113
343,710
341,403
5,198
742,036
333,479
3. 50 to 4
138,824
472,303
217,303
255,000
4,57i
1,038,232
833,007
4 to 4. 50
403,688
1,236,695
945,520
291,175
8,567
386,025
140,340
4. 00
77,840
2l8,l8o
100,740
117,440
1,669
202,349
117,019
3 to 4. 50
102,908
I
219,927
126,118
93,809
1,406
126,489,454
63,742,093
40,126,197
103,868,290
60,889,309
42,978,981
1,201,627
AGRICULTURAL ASSOCIATIONS
313
III. — Statement showing the progress of the Local Agricultural Mutual
Credit Banks in 1909, according to Departments.
Departments
Number
of Local
Banks
Number
of
Members
Paid up capital
Loans granted
I
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
Ain
Aisne
Allier
Alpes (Basses-) . . .
Alpes (Hautes-) . .
Alpes-Maritimes . .
Ardèche
Ardennes
Ariège
Aube
Aude
Aveyron
Bouches-du-Rhônc .
Calvados
Cantal
Charente
Charente-Inférieure
Cher
Corrèze
Corsica
Côte-d'Or
Côtes-du-Xord ....
Creuse
Dordogne
Doubs
Drônie
Eure
Eure-et-Leir
41
2,092
16
476
16
712
13
556
10
449
17
I.057
25
885
7
402
1
30
23
1,249
10
6,958
14
317
11
503
29
1,383
1 1
289
S2
2,174
24
2,895
13
461
5
199
5
100
2S
i,572
35
1,220
7
217
17
334
78
4,669
35
2,688
19
1,156
22
3,645
francs
32,266
64,710
21,885
6,959
16,040
28,767
32,831
81,325
I,66o
92,200
272,322
IOJ95
23,405
143, Soo
19,605
32,73o
49,93o
14,475
6,640
1,795
90,845
39>!3o
13,995
18,228
28,975
82,445
260,907
421,160
francs
635,895
393,965
175,675
260,470
95,37o
295,232
131,171
492,315
13,649
544,585
6,300,739
72,700
239,001
2,135,165
37,85o
873,172
1.480,531
101,290
i4,34o
2,600
1,334,667
386,222
50,110
137,852
3,098,250
1,267,869
2,912,576
6,105,957
314
FRANCE
Departments
Number
of Local
Banks
Number
of
Members
Paid up Capital
Loans granted
29 Finistère
30 Gard
31 Garonne (Haute-).
32 Gers
33 Gironde
34 Hérault
35 Ille-et-Vilaine. . . .
36 Indre
37 Indre-et-Loire
38 Isère
39 Jura
40 Landes
4 1 Loir-et-Cher
42 Loire
43 Loire (Haute-). . . .
44 Loire-Inférieure . . .
45 Loiret
46 Lot
47 Lot-et-Garonne . . .
48 Lozère
49 Maine-et-Loire ....
50 Manche
51 Marne
52 Mîrne ( Haute-) . . .
53 Mayenne
54 Meurthe-et-Moselle
55 Meuse
5 6 Morbihan
57 Nièvre
58 Nord
27
33
20
140
68
130
20
3o
26
39
45
22
27
28
33
42
23
14
40
27
13
i5
64
21
9
19
6
23
598
1.653
992
3.897
2,952
8J65
622
2,793
1,158
i,563
3,684
1-395
2,960
1,191
1,078
945
770
58i
1,059
649
547
434
2,874
i,952
212
36i
270
1,088
145
1,916
francs.
16,085
38,489
14,150
437,077
3o8,II7
248,653
38,745
188,350
214,740
189,163
105,896
179,169
305,728
48,270
89,017
38,900
53.I20
18,072
61,255
34,9IQ
38,013
26,965
201,825
85,97o
59.530
85,980
35,o65
16,085
13,140
298,969
francs.
104,166
253,035
883,254
2,6l8,370
4,284,422
10,098,604
225,715
2,098,018
5H,OOI
1,284,656
I,OI2,27o
1,316,694
5,730,479
468,380
508,149
522,487
146,354
319,576
260,369
190,725
264,767
146,770
2,521,950
1,386,356
160,238
619,582
211,417
347,430
64,355
5,199.904
AGRICULTURAL ASSOCIATIONS
315
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
7i
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
epartments
Number
of Local
Ranks
Oise
Orne
Pas-de-Calais
Puy-de-Dôme
Pyrénées (Basses-)
Pyrénées (Hautes-)
Pyrénées-Orientales
Rhin (Haut-) [Belfort] . .
Rhône
Saône (Haute-)
Saône-et- Loire
Sarthe
Savoie
Savoie (Haute-)
Seine
Seine-Inférieure
Seine-et-Marne
Seine-et-Oise
Sèvres (Deux-)
Somme
Tarn
Tarn-et-Garonne
Var
Vaucluse
Vendée
Vienne
Vienne (Haute-)
Vosges
Yonne
Total
Number
of
Members
Paid up Capital
Loans granted
27
I,02S
14
581
1 1
2,034
II
599
299
6,93i
L33
3,576
7i
3.489
4
223
66
2,i53
61
1,295
18
812
43
2,820
54
1-523
75
2,458
4
83
17
871
18
1.332
40
1,482
7
628
18
1,045
35
517
11
221
54
2,942
3
343
43
2,776
20
739
53
971
7
813
32
1,306
2,983
133.382
francs.
72,549
19,780
248,530
27,480
287,075
81,425
10,875
27.475
240,143
3,050
48,055
352,290
63,450
120,535
L3,575
80,525
433.93s
377.004
12,515
110,965
34,275
18,250
82,325
1.955
87,465
55.952
67,800
42,070
5°.! 5o
francs.
1,077,982
135.357
1,983,818
598,703
2,979,168
687,900
1,849,150
58,400
728,063
76,3"
439.°93
3,609,925
1,233,284
1,539.612
55,166
748,200
4,470,529
2,932,202
168,783
740,478
278,633
"5.992
693,018
I,8l3,Io6
485,203
2l8,l8o
238,203
342,193
219,927
8,470,754 103,868,290
\i6
FRANCE
IV. -
- Return of co-operative Societies receiv
I
2
3
4
5
«J "O
z
Co-operative Societies
(classified according to their nature)
Date
of Foundation
Capital
Nucnbe
of Meinbi
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
1st Dairies.
Clermont (Oise) ,
Crosville-sur-Scie (Seine Inférieure)
Echiré (Deux-Sèvres)
Melle (Deux-Sèvres)
Ronsenac (Charente)
Chauvigny (Vienne)
Juaye Mondaye (Calvados)
Nolleval (Seine-Inférieure)
Lyons-la-Forêt (Seine-Inférieure)
Vars (Charente)
2nd Cheese Dairies and Fruitières.
Brétigny (Ain)
Chevry-Dessous
Chindrieux (Savoie)
Prégnin (Ain)
3rd IVine Societies,
Wine-growers' co-operative Society of
Haute Garonne
La Garde (Var)
Néoules (Var)
Saint-Georges (Hérault)
Saint-Tropez (Var)
Camps (Var)
24th December
1902
22,600.
DO
27 th September
1907
25,000.
OO
1 8th March
1894
53>38o.
OO
20th March
1907
3 1 ,000.
OO
3rd November
1907
10,640.
OO
15th October
1905
83,000.
OO
30th May
1 908
30,000.
OO
28th May
1909
40,000.
OO
2 1st January
1909
35,000.
00
1 7th April
1908
15,000.
OO
25th February 1909
February 1909
29th March 1 908
24th February 1909
5th January
1905
50,000. 00
31st May
1908
12,000. OO
25 th May
1908
4,000. OO
22nd July
1 906
13.475- 00
23 rd February
1908
10,250, OO
9th May
1 906
11,679. 00
5,000. OO
2,820. 00
10,000. 35
2,500. 00
AGRICULTURAL ASSOCIATIONS
i»7
'ances for long periods in 1908 and 1909.
I «
Advances Granted
1908
Duration
Interest
upon Advances
Regional Banks intermediary
francs
20,000
50,000
So.OOO
46,150
12,000
lOO.rro
--. ! tO
>',■ l o
~ô 5<_o
20,000
23,000
50,000
60,000
75,000
70,000
25,000
10,000
5,200
20,000
4,000
13
10
10
5
10
15
12
10
12
12
12
12
12
12
25
12
20
II
25
20
%
2. OO
2. OO
2. OO
2. OO
2. OO
2. OO
2. OO
2. OO
2. OO
2. OO
2. OO
2. OO
2. OO
2. OO
Ile-de-France.
Haute-Normandie.
Deux-Sèvres.
Deux-Sèvres.
Charente.
Vienne.
Centre de la Normandie.
Haute-Normandie.
Beauvais.
Charente.
Ain.
Idem.
Savoie.
Ain.
2. OC
Toulouse
1. 50
Var.
1. 50
Idem.
2. OO
Midi.
I. 50
Var.
1.50
Idtm,
;i8
FRANCE
Co-operative Societies
(classified according to their nature)
Date
of Foundation
Capital
8
9
10
ii
12
14
15
16
17
Colombiers (Hérault)
Colombiers (Hérault), 2nd advance
Arbois (Jura)
Bassan (Hérault)
Bompas (Pyrénées-Orientales)
Bras (Var)
Brue-Auriac (Var)
Gironde (Co-operative Society for sale of
Wines in)
Lézignan (Aude)
Pupillin (Jura)
Seillous (Var)
4th Oil Societies.
Flayosc (Var)
Society of fatty oils (Alpes-Maritimes) . . .
Lambesc (Bouches-du-Rhône)
Levens and neighbouring communes (Al-
pes-Maritimes)
5 th Wim and Oil Societies.
Montfort-sur-Argens (Var)
Entrecasteaux Labourers' Solidarity (Var).
La Montfortaise, at Montfort-sur-Argens
(Var)
6th Distilleries.
Vaudoue (Cooperative distillery of Vau-
doué) [Seine-et-Marne]
Raffetot (Co-operative Society of the di-
stillery of Raffe o [Seine-Inférieure]. .
25th October
25th October
4th January
8th November
31st August
loth March
28th March
5th December
nth April
13th February
14 th February
1907
1907
1906
1 908
1909
1909
1909
1 908
1909
1909
1909
2nd August 1908
28th February 1904
29th November 1908
15th October 1905
23 rd August i<
19th July i(
13th May
1908
26th February 1!
15th January I(
francs
10,200
OO
5,000
OO
IO,IOO
OO
50,000
OO
I4,0OO.
OO
10,700.
OO
1 1 ,000.
OO
6o,000.
OO
5,500.
OO
9.500-
OO
IO,362.
50
18,700.
OO
2,000.
OO
l6,000.
OO
3.500.
OO
5,000.
OO
10,000.
OO
96,300.
OO
50,000,
OO
AGRICULTURAL ASSOCIATIONS
3»9
Advances Granted
1008
francs
10,000
95>o25
IOC), OOO
25-
Duration
francs
10,000
10,000
20,000
So.OOO
28,000
l6,400
22,000
48,000
10,000
19,000
12,000
30,000
4,000
16,000
7,000
10,000
20,000
years
IO
IO
15
20
20
15
15
20
CO
15
20
15
20
24
15
Interest
upon Advances
2.
OO
2.
GO
2.
OO
2
OO
2.
OO
I
50
I
5°
2
OO
2
CO
2
OO
I
r,o
1. 50
2. OO
2. OO
!■ 5°
1. r>o
': Banks intermediary
Midi.
Idem.
Doubs.
Midi.
Pyrénées-Orientales.
Var.
Idem.
( lironde.
Midi.
Jura,
Var.
Yar.
Alpes-Maritimes.
Aixoise.
Alpes-Maritimes.
Var.
Idem.
Idem.
Seiue-et-Oise.
Haute-Normandie.
32°
FRANCE
Co-operative Societies
(classified according to their nature)
Date
of Foundation
Capital
Lespignan (la Vigneronne) [Hérault] ....
Bizanet (Bizanet Winegrowers) [Aude] . . .
Olonzac (Minervoise d'Olonzac) [Hérault].
Saint-Georges-du-Bois (Charente-Inférieure)
7th Threshing Societies.
Beaurepaire (Isère)
Cadouin (Dordogne)
Cheny (Yonne)
Enclave, La Martinière, near Melle (Deux-
Sèvres)
Issigeac (Dordogne)
Laurière (Haute-Vienne)
Monthoiron (Vienne)
Quenne (Yonne)
Watten (Nord)
8th Various Co-operative Societies.
Bram (Society of Alimentation) [Aude] . .
Condom (Agricultural Mills) [Gers]
Cotignac (Society of Agricultural produc-
tion « la Travailleuse ») [Var]
Cotignac (Agricultural co-operative So-
ciety) [Var]
Goro (Co-operative Starch factory) [Vosges]
Morigny (Agricultural Sugar factory)
[Seine-et-Oise]
Vosges (Agricultural co-operative flax
Society of the Vosges)
Saint-Genis-Terrenoire (Agricultural and
Viticultural co-operative Society) [Loire]
1 2th August 1 905
23rd May ïÇOO.
25th April 1909
3rd September 1908
5th August 1908
9th May 1908
28th November 1908
19th July 1908
27th September 1908
1 2th July 1908
1st May I9°9
15th April 1909
1st June I9°9
29th March 1907
9th February 1908
27 th August 1907
2nd April 1905
13th February 1908
2 1 st May 1 904
23rd November 1907
22nd December 1907
francs
10,000. OO
10,820. OO
13,110. OO
12,000. OO
4,500. OO
3,000. OO
3,420. OO
3.765. OO
4,062. 50
2,200. OO
2,500. OO
1,700. OO
3,400. OO
31,450. OO
25,000. OO
10,625. OO
22,925. OO
20,000. OO
50,000. OO
7,500. OO
1,700. OO
AGRICULTURAL ASSOCIATIONS
321
6 7 1 8
9
10
Advances Granted
Interest
upon Advances
Amount
Duration
Regional Banks intermediary
igoS
1909
francs
20,000
55,000
50,000
21,250
45,000
40,000
100,000
15,000
3.400
2I,6oO
26,220
24,000
9,000
6,000
6,840
7,350
8,000
4,400
5,000
3.400
6,600
15
20
20
IO
IO
IO
9
IO
IO
IO
IO
9
25
%
2. 00
2. 00
2. 00
2. 00
2. 00
2. 00
1. So
Midi.
Idem.
Idem.
Charente-Inférieure.
2.
OO
Dauphiné.
2
OO
Dordogne.
2.
OO
Yonne.
2.
OO
Deux-Sèvres.
2
OO
Dordogne.
2.
OO
Haute Vienne
2.
OO
Vienne.
2.
OO
Yonne.
2.
OO
Lille.
Toulouse.
Gers.
Var.
Idem.
Est, à Epinal.
Seine-et-Oise.
Est, à Epinal.
Forczicnne.
322
FRANCE
Co-operative Societies
(classified according to tKeir nature)
Pate
of Foundation
Capital
Nul
of M«
Sauer Kraut Society of the Lyonnaise Re-
gion at Ril lieux (Ain)
Ban-de-I .aveline Starch factory (Vosges). .
Collective Sale and Di*tillation of flowers
at tirasse (Alpes-Maritimes)
Agricultural and Viticultural co-operative
Machine Society of the Haute— Loire
at Puy
Society of Carriage service of May-en-
Multicn, l.izv-sur-Ourcq, le Plessis-
Placy (Seine-et-Marne)-
8th November 1908
26th March 1905
1 6th February 1 90S
2nd January 1909
24th April 1 90S
francs
68.970.
00
54,oco.
00
20,000.
00
4.250.
00
95,100.
00
Say then a total of 65 co-operative societies with a total paid up ca-
pital of 1,351,402 f. 35 c. and 6,449 members, which have received id
advances for long periods a total sum of 2,122,775 francs. The 42 societies
of new or recent formation are divided into 5 dairies, 4 cheese dairies or
fruitières, 9 wine societies, 4 oil societies, 2 wine and oil, 1 oil society-
together with a silkworm nursery, 3 distilleries, 9 threshing societies and
5 co-operative societies of different kinds.
AGRICULTURAL ASSOCIATIONS
323
Advances Granted
Duration
Interest
upon Advance
Regional Kanks inttrmediary
francs
I37.940
12,000
40,000
8,500
150,000
years
%
17
2. OO
Ain.
20
2. OO
Est, à Épinal.
15
2. OO
Alpes-Maritimes.
*5
I.50
I laute-Loire.
13
2. OO
Brie.
The table given below sums up the general results for 1908 and 1909
drawn from the preceding data:
Years
Societies
Paid up Capital
Number
of Members
Advances
granted
1 90S
1909
23
42
fr. c
579,724. OO
771,680. 35
3,282
3.*67
francs
964,325
1,158,450
GREAT BRII^IJV AIVD IRE^XvAJVI}
I. — SOME DEMOGRAPHIC AND ECONOMIC STATISTICS.
Sources :
Statistical Abstract for the United Kingdom in each of the last fifteen years from 1894
to 1908. — London, 1909.
Census of England and Wales, 1901. — London, 1901-1904.
Eleventh Census of the Population of Scotland, taken on the 31st March, 1901. —
Glasgow, 1 901- 1902,
Census of Ireland, 1901. — Dublin, 1901-1902.
Agricultural Statistics of Ireland, 1 908. — Dublin, 1908.
Agricultural Statistics of Great Britain, 1909.
Annual Statement of the Trade of the United Kingdom with Foreign Countries and British
Possessions, 1909. — London, 1910.
Annual Statement of the Navigation and Shipping of the United Kingdom for the year 1908.
— London, 1909.
Accounts relating to Trade and Navigation of the United Kingdom for the years 1909-
1910.
Census of Production, 1907.
A. — Territory and Population.
Area : 314,378 sq. km.
Population on the 1st April 1901 : 41,976,827.
Density of the Population per sq. km. on the 1st April 1901 : 133.5.
Estimated population at the end of June 1909: 45,008,421.
Density of the estimated population per sq. km. at the end of June
1909: 143.2.
326
GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND
Occupations of Males and Females aged 10 years and upwards
in 191 1 :
England and Wales
Scotl
ind
Ireland
Males
Females
Males
Females
Males
Females
Agriculture and
fisheries
1,094,765
57,730
196,581
40,730
790,475
85.587
Manufactures . . .
6,326,788
2,023,388
878,446
3 ! 9.049
406,157
233,256
1,779.685
78,769
221,579
24,136
92,863
5,026
Other profe ions
Totals. . .
2,933,021
1 1,029,698
359.475
I,406,327
910,545
1,934,866
12,134,259
13.189,585
1,656,081
1,790,242
2,200,040
2,258.735
Perce
n t a g e
Agriculture and
fisheries
9. 02
O. 44
II.87
2. 27
35-93
3- 7S
Manufacture . . .
52- H
«5- 34
5304
17. 82
18.46
10. 33
Commerce
H.67
0. 59
»3- 38
i- 35
4. 22
0. 22
Other professions
24. 17
83.63
21.71
7S.56
41.39
85. 67
100. 00
100. 00
IOO. OO
IOO. 00
IOO. OO
IOO. OO
Birlh and Death Rate per iodd of population in 1908:
Births
England and Wales
Scotland ....
Ireland
26.5 14.7
27.2 16. 1
23.3 17.6
Illiterates: Bridegrooms
Bride
Persons who have n^t signe 1 the marriage registers
England and Wales (190S). 1.3 %
Scotland (1907) 1.32 %
Ireland (190S) 8.6 %
No. of illiterate recruits in 1907-908: 13.52 %.
Emigration (including foreign emigrants) :
In 1906 325.137
» 1907 395,68°
» 190S 263,199
1-5 %
1-75 %
5-5 %
SOME DEMOGRAPHIC AND ECONOMIC STATISTICS
327
B.
Agriculture, Forests and Fisheries.
Area cultivated in 1909
Great Britain . .
Ireland
13,027,064 hectares
6,929,807 »
Principal Products :
Wheat . .
Great Britain (1909)
Ireland (1507)
Area
Production
Area
Production
hectares
738.H3
673JI3
1,206,994
232,935
629,652
1,705,982
7.064,384
thous. of hectol.
22,389
22,174
44.799
thous. of quint.
37.350
255.353
hectares
I5.440
68,987
435.296
239.I8S
111,352
872,569
4,090,242
thous. of hectol.
4S2
2,445
17,929
thous. of quint.
22,820
41,607
Bailey
Oats
Potatoes
Turnips
Clover, sainfoin and ro-
Permanent grass
... .
Occupiers of farms according to area in 1908 :
Great Britain.
From 1 to 5 acres (from 0.4047 hect. to 2.024 hect.). 108,094
» 6 to 50
» 51 to 300
More than 300
( » 2.429 » to 20.24 »
( » 20.644 » to 121.434 »
(more than 121.434 hectares) .
Total . . .
Ireland.
108,094
/o
21.25
231,819
45-58
151,002
29.69
17,7*4
3-43
508,629 100.00
Less than 1 acre (less than
84,869
14.10
4- than 1 acre and —
than 5
acres (4- tli
an 0.4047 h.
-tl
an 2.024
hec
)
6i,73o
10.26
» » 5 acres »
15
» ( »
2.024 h.
»
6.072
»
)
153.299
25-47
» » 15 » »
SO
» ( »
6.072 h.
»
12.144
»
)
136,058
22.61
» » 30 »
5o
» ( »
12.144 h.
8
20.2 j.
»
)
75.192
12.50
> » 50 »
100
» ( >
20.24 h.
J
40.48
9
)
58,241
9.68
» » 100 » »
200
• { *
40.48 h.
»
80.96
»
)
22,863
3.80
» » 200 » »
500
» ( »
80.96 h.
»
202.4
»
)
7.969
1.32
» » 500 »
\ "
202.4 h.)
Total
1.544
601,765
0.26
100.00
328
GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND
Forests :
Great Britain (1905) 1,120,529 hectares
Ireland (1908) 122,096 »
Live stock in 1909 :
Great Britain Ireland
Horses i,552»993 599.293
Cattle 7,020,982 4,698,412
Sheep 27,618,419 4,132,392
Pigs 2,380,887 1,148,715
Fisheries :
Production in 1909 (not including salmon or shell-fish): 10,340,727
quintals.
Value of production in 1909 (not including salmon or shell-fish)
£ 10,623,970.
C. — Mines, Manufactures and Commerce.
Mines :
No. of workmen employed in mines in 1908 1,017,740
Total value of mineral output in 1908 £ 130,003,670
Principal manufactures according to Census of Production in 1907:
Average
number of workmen
Value of production employed on the last
in thousands Wednesdays
of pounds sterling of January, April,
— July and October
Cotton Industries .... 176,940 572,869
Woollen » .... 70,331 257,017
Iron and Steel Industries. . 105,597 262,225
Shipbuilding and Marine En-
gineering 41,660 184.557
Engineering Industries. . . 101,599 455.56 1
Cycle and Motor Industries 10,643 46,800
Leather Industries .... 17.551 27,258
Paper » .... 13,328 39-990
Commerce in 1909 (provisional figures):
General Imports Domestic Exports
Pounds sterling Pounds sterling
Food stuffs, beverages, tobacco . . . 254,333,62s 23,627,458
Raw materials . . . . 220,153,047 50,782,779
Manufactured articles 147,684,111 297,303,812
Miscellaneous 2,569,731 6,665,395
Totals . . . 624,740,517 378,379,444
SOME DEMOGRAPHIC AND ECONOMIC STATISTICS 329
D. — Navigation and Inland Communications.
Total tonnage of vessels engaged in Foreign Commerce entered and
cleared in the ports of the United Kingdom in 1908:
Entered Cleared
Tonnage Tonnage
in 1000 tons in 1000 tons
British vessels 38,890 38,980
Foreign vessels 26,579 26,997
Total . . . 65,469 65,977
Length of railways in operation at the end of 1908 . . . 37,337 km.
» » navigable canals in 1905. 7,519 »
E. — Finance.
Revenue in 1909 £151,578,295
Expenditure in 1909 .... £152,292,395
F. — Money, Weights and Measures.
Unit of value: the sovereign in gold weighing 123.-274 grains or 7.9881
grams, — pure gold is equal to 25 francs.
Long Measure, the yard = 0.9144 metre
Avoirdupois, the pound = 0.453592645 kgr.
Liquid Measure, the gallon .... ~ 4.543453 litres.
IL — AGRICULTURAL ORGANISATION
IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND
Bibliography.
a) Official publications :
Reports of Proceedings under the Small Holdings and Allotments Acts. (Published annually
by the Board of Agriculture and Fisheries),
Reports of the Chief Registrar of Friendly Societies. Part B. (Industrial and Provident
Societies).
Abstract of Labour Statistics of the United Kingdom. (Published annually by the Labour
Department of the Board of Trade).
Directory of Agricultural Associations in Great Britain. (Published by the Board of Agri-
culture and Fisheries).
Annual General Reports of the Department of Agriculture and Technical Instruction for
Ireland.
Annual Reports of the Congested Districts Board for Ireland.
b) Publications of Associations :
Annual Reports of the following societies :
Agricultural Organisation Society ;
Irish Agricultural Organisation Society ;
Scottish Agricultural Organisation Society ;
National Poultry Organisation Society.
Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society of England (Annual).
Transactions of the Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotland (Annual).
c) Other publications :
British Year-Book of Agriculture. Published by Vinton and Co., London.
Sir Horace Pi.unkett : «Ireland in the New Century». Third Edition, 1905.
E. A. Pratt: «The Organisation of Agriculture ». Published by John Murray. London.
E. A. Pratt : « The Small Holder : What he must do to succeed «.Published by T. S. King
and Sons, London.
E. Béchaux : « La Question Agraire en Irlande au commencement du XXèrae Siècle » .
( « The Land Question in Ireland at the Beginning of the 20I/1 Century »). Published
by Arthur Rousseau, Paris.
Hemri Besse : «La Crise et l'Evolution de l'Agriculture en Angleterre.». [«The Crisis
and Evolution in Agriculture in England » ).
AGRICULTURAL ORGANISATION 331
In presenting a brief sketch of the development of agricultural organ-
isation (co-operative and otherwise) in Great Britain and Ireland, it will
be possible to deal with the United Kingdom as a whole when indicating
the laws relating to associations and describing the non-co-operative agri-
cultural societies, but it will be necessary to deal with Ireland separately
from Great Britain when tracing the growth of agricultural co-operation.
I. — Legislation.
Si, — Methods of Obtaining legal Recognition.
In the LTnited Kingdom, the law allows complete liberty of associa-
tion and does not insist upon societies being registered. An unregistered
society has, however, no corporate existence and the following are the
principal methods by which legal recognition may be obtained:
1. By Royal Charter.
2. By registration under the Companies Acts.
3. By registration under the Industrial and Provident Societies
Act, 1893.
4. By registration under the Friendly Societies Act, 1896.
A few of the more important of the non-co-operative agricultural so-
cieties, such as the Royal Agricultural Society of England, are incorpo-
rated by Royal Charter, but the great majority of such societies are un-
registered.
§ 2. — The Industrial and Provident Societies Act.
Of the co-operative societies, a small number are registered under the
Companies Acts, but by far the largest number are registered under the
Industrial and Provident Societies Act, 1893. This Act, which replaced an
earlier statute, was passed primarily in the interests of the distributive co-oper-
ative societies of the towns and no special provision was made for the re-
gistration of agricultural co-operative societies. It has however, been
found to be fairly well adapted to their requirements and many such socie-
ties are now registered under it.
In societies so registered the liability of the members is limited, but
there is no obligation to fix a limit to the number of shares which may be
issued. Practically all co-operative societies avail themselves of this privi-
lege, in order to prevent the shares from appreciating in value and be-
coming a subject of speculative dealing. On the other hand no individual
member may hold shares of a total nominal value of more than £200.
The fees for registration under the Act are fixed by the Treasury.
Under the present Treasury Regulations the registration fee is £5, but
332
GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND
the Registrar has power to reduce it at his discretion to £i, and it is
this reduced fee which is usually charged in the case of societies approved
by any of the important propagandist bodies.
Societies are empowered to have dealings of any description with land
and buildings and practically the only restriction upon the investment of
surplus funds is that no money must be invested in the shares of any
society or company other than one with limited liability.
All societies registered under the Act are required to furnish annual
returns to the Registrar.
In 1 90S a bill was introduced into the House of Commons with the
object of amending the Industrial and Provident Societies Act, and a sim-
ilar Bill was introduced in the present year. To agricultural societies
the most important clause of the Bill is that whereby it is proposed to
remove the restriction upon the number of shares which an individual
member may hold.
§ 3. — The Friendly Societies Act.
Agricultural credit societies with unlimited liability are registered under
the Friendly Societies Act, 1896, as " specially authorised societies ". No
fee is charged for registering credit societies and they enjoy, in common
with friendly societies, certain exemptions from stamp duty. Credit societies
are required to furnish annual returns but, unlike societies registered under
the Industrial and Provident Societies Act, they can only invest surplus
lunds through the medium of trustees.
It was found that, when registered under the Friendly Societies Act,
agricultural credit societies had no legal power to obtain loans or receive
deposits from persons other than members and to remove this restriction
a short Act was passed in 1898 called the Societies' Borrowing Powers Act.
Another restriction, which still exists, is that whereby a credit society,
registered under the Friendly Societies Act, cannot undertake trading of
any kind. A bill, known as the Thrift and Credit Banks Bill, has been
introduced more than once into Parliament for the purpose of enabling
such societies to combine trading with banking.
II. — Non Co-operative Agricultural Societies in the United Kingdom.
The most characteristic feature of the agricultural associations in the
United Kingdom is that they are purely voluntary. With a few unim-
portant exceptions they are entirely independent of the Government and
are supported either by the subscriptions of their members of by such
receipts as the entrance-fees and " gate-money " of their shows. The fact,
AGRICULTURAL ORGANISATION 321
already mentioned, that they are for the most part unregistered makes
it extremely difficult to obtain accurate information regarding them. They
do not furnish returns to any Government Department and no attempt
seems ever to have been made to collect complete statistics of their number
or membership. Almost the only available sources of collected information
are " The British Year-Book of Agriculture ", an unofficial but very re-
liable compilation, and " The Directory of Agricultural Associations in
Great Britain ", published by the Board of Agriculture.
Classi&cation.
It is also difficult to classify the non-co-operative agricultural societies
as many of them combine different functions. The following classification
may be provisionally adopted :
1. Societies for the encouragement and advancement of agricul-
ture generally.
2. Societies for the protection of farmers' interests.
3. Societies for the encouragement of particular classes and breeds
of live-stock.
§ 1. — Societies for the Encouragement of Agriculture.
The first of these classes includes several large and influential societies,
of which the most important is the Royal Agricultural Society of England,
founded in 1838 and numbering about 10,000 members. This Society
holds annually the " Royal " Show, the largest agricultural show held
in the United Kingdom. The Show is held each year in a different part
of the country, that of 1910 being held at Liverpool. The 1908 Show
was held at Newcastle-on-Tyne, being open from June 30th to July 4th.
The area occupied by the Show was 105 acres and the entries included
2,619 entries of live-stock, 768 of poultry, and 416 of produce. In the
implement yards there were 389 stands. The total receipts from the 1908
Show were £35,598 and its total cost was £25,544. The ordinary in-
come of the Society in 1908 (apart from the Show) was £8,442 (including
£7,487 from members' subscriptions) and the ordinary expenditure, £7,879.
The Royal Agricultural Society has a library and reading-room ; it
obtains for its members at low fees analyses of manures and soils and re-
ports on the purity of seeds ; it gives them information respecting animals,
insects, etc.; it conducts an experimental farm of about 140 acres near
Woburn, in Bedfordshire, at which experiments are made in the growing of
crops and the feeding of live-stock; in co-operation with the Highland and
Agricultural Society of Scotland it conducts examinations and gives diplomas
in agriculture and dairying; finally, it discusses questions affecting agricul-
tural interests, upon which its pronouncements carry considerable weight.
334
GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND
In Ireland a similar position is occupied by the Royal Dublin Society,
which was established in 1731 and is the oldest society of the kind in the
United Kingdom. The objects of this Society include the advancement
of science and art and of other branches of industry besides agriculture,
but it is in connection with agriculture that its most important work has
been done. For many years it administered a Government grant for the
improvement of live-stock in Ireland, but its functions in this respect were
transferred to the Department of Agriculture and Technical Instruction for
Ireland on the establishment of that Department in 1908. The Society
holds three shows annually, the most important of these being the Horse
and Sheep Show, better known as " The Dublin Horse Show ". All the
shows are held at the Society's premises at Ball's Bridge, near Dublin,
which occupy 40 acres of ground and were purchased and equipped by
the Society at a cost of more than £80,000.
The Royal Dublin Society numbers 3,385 members. Its total income
in 1908 was £23,885, including subscriptions, £4,956; receipts from the
Spring Show, £3,427; receipts from the Horse and Sheep' Show, £11,654;
receipts from the Winter Show, £1,091. The expenditure in the same year
amounted to £21,895, including cost of Spring Show, £3,119; cost of
Horse and Sheep Show, £5,401; cost of Winter Show, £1,323. In 1908
the number of entries at the Spring Show was 2,228, including, 1,051
breeding cattle and 696 bulls. At the Horse Show, there were 1,481 entries,
including 570 hunters and 329 young horses suitable for hunters. At the
Winter Show there were 2,024 entries in classes representing fat cattle,
fat sheep, poultry, farm and dairy produce.
In Scotland the leading society in the Highland and Agricultural Society
of Scotland, established in 1784. Besides holding an annual show, each
year in a different part of Scotland, the Society takes part in the discus-
sion of questions affecting agriculture; it gives assistance to local agricul-
tural associations and makes grants for agricultural education to various
colleges; it advises its members regarding insect pests, etc., and obtains
analyses of manures, etc., for them at low rates. Mention has already been
made of the diplomas of agriculture and dairying which the Society grants
in conjunction with the Royal Agricultural Society of England ; it also
conducts examinations in forestry and gives certificates.
The number of members in the Highland and Agricultural Society of
Scotland is about 6,500. The total receipts in 1908 were £14,133, includ-
ing £1,691 from subscriptions and £8,530 receipts from the Show. The
receipts also included £3,667 from interest and dividend, the invested
funds of the Society amounting to £106,352. The total expenditure was
£11,480, including the cost of th" show, £6,461.
Amongst other important societies are the Bath and West and Southern
Counties Society, founded in 1777, and the Smithfiekl Club, founded
AGRICULTURAL ORGANISATION 335
in 1798. Besides the large societies of this class, embracing in their scope
either one of the three kingdoms or a group of counties, there are many-
smaller county or local societies. The principal work of most of these
smaller societies is to organise local agricultural shows.
§ 2. — Societies for the Protection of Farmers' Interests.
Societies for the protection of the farmers' interests include a few of
large scope and a number of local chambers of agriculture and farmers'
clubs. The most important of the larger societies is the Central Chamber
of Agriculture, founded in 1865, which has 105 affiliated chambers with
a membership of about 20,000. The principal object of the Central
Chamber and of the chambers affiliated to it is to watch over all legisla-
tive and administrative measures affecting agriculture. Amongst the ques-
tions discussed have been the repression of cattle disease, the incidence of
taxation in rural districts, the compensation of out-going tenants for un-
exhausted improvements and the relations of the railway companies with the
agricultural producer. Thechambers of agriculture have exercised considera-
ble influence on agricultural legislation in the past quarter of a century, no-
tably in regard to the reestablishment of the Board of Agriculture in 1889.
The local chambers usually embrace a county within their scope, but
sometimes they are formed for smaller areas. They vary greatly in size
and activity, but no chamber having less than fifty members can become
affiliated to the Central Chamber. Some of the affiliated chambers are
agricultural societies or farmers' clubs which are regarded as chambers
of agriculture because they have added to their other functions the discus-
sion of economic or political questions affecting agriculture.
In Scotland there is a central chamber known as the Scottish Chamber
of Agriculture, to which are affiliated 71 local societies with a total mem-
bership of 12,500. The chambers of agriculture in Scotland usually restrict
their membership to tenant-farmers or landowners farming their own land,
whereas the English chambers freely admit not only landowners but per-
sons engaged in businesses connected with agriculture.
Besides the chambers of agriculture there are many other societies
of somewhat similar character. Amongst these may be mentioned the Cen-
tral Association of Dairy Farmers, with 16 affiliated associations formed
to further the interests of the dairy industry.
§ 3. — livestock Societies.
The societies for the encouragement of particular classes and breeds
of live-stock include the important societies by which the various stud-books,
herd-books and flock-books are published. Amongst other functions of these
societies are the organisation of special shows, the giving of prizes for
competition at agricultural shows, the holding of sales, and the publication
26.
336 * GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND
of lists of persons competent to act as judges. With the exception of
the Devon Cattle Breeders' Society, which was formed in 1851, all these
societies have been established since 1875.
For horses there are ten societies issuing stud-books. A typical society
is the Shire Horse Society, formed in 1878 with the object of promoting the
old English breed of cart horses. This society numbers 3,848 members, its
receipts in 1908 amounted to £7,950 and its payments to £7,639. The
Society holds an Annual Show in London, the cost of which was £3,317
in 1908; the number of entries was 652. In addition to prizes to the value
of £2,200' given at the Society's own show, £1,299 was distributed in
prizes at 258 shows throughout the country. The 30th volume of the
Society's stud-book, issued in 1909, contains the entries of 1,156 stallions
and 3,870 mares. Export certificates were issued for 389 horses in 1909.
There are 15 cattle-breeders' societies issuing herd-books, besides a few
others which do not do so. The most important of the herd-book societies
is the Shorthorn Society, founded in 1875. Fifty-four volumes of the Society's
herd-book (known as Coates's Herd Book) have been issued. Volume 54
contains the pedigrees of 3,440 bulls and 6,338 cows. During 1908 export
certificates were issued for 1,089 animals, the great majority of these being
for South America. The Society does not itself hold a show, but it offered
£1,015 m prizes at the various national and county shows in 1908. The
number of members is 1,658 and the annual receipts are about £3,300.
Of the sheep-breeders' societies, 24 publish flock-books. To describe
a typical society, the Southdown Sheep Society, founded in 1892, numbers
404 members. Its receipts in 1908 amounted to £644 and its payments
to £518, including £100 given in prizes at local shows. Volume 17
of the Society's Flock Book, issued in 1908, contains records of 367 regis-
tered flocks (comprising 108,756 breeding ewes) and individual entries of
533 rams and 251 ewes.
The National Pig-Breeders' Association issues a herd-book for four
different breeds of pigs. Volume 24, issued in 1908, contained the pedi-
grees of 467 boars and 1,025 sows. The society has 230 members. In 1908
it gave prizes to the value of £101 at various shows. There are three other
pig-breeders' societies issuing herd-books. In Ireland herd-books for vari-
ous breeds of pigs are issued by the Royal Dublin Society and the Royal
Ulster Agricultural Society. For goats a herd-book is issued by the British
Goat Society. For poultry there are about 80 poultry clubs, mostly devoted
to the interests of special breeds, but including the Utility Poultry Club,
with 1,224 members, which gives prizes and holds laying competitions.
In addition to the various kinds of societies mentioned, there are
other kinds, less numerous or less important, but reference to these must
be deferred until it is possible to give a more extended survey of agri-
cultural organisation in Great Britain and Ireland.
AGRICULTURAL ORGANISATION
337
§ 4. — Statistics.
The following statement showing the number of non-co-operative agri-
cultural associations enumerated in " The Directory of Agricultural Asso-
ciations for 1910 " published by the Board of Agriculture, relates only to
Great Britain:
1) National Societies (Societies whose sphere of operations is not
confined to any one county or district):
Agricultural Associations and Chamber of Agri-
culture , 20
Livestock societies - General 3
» » Horses 12
» » Cattle 22
» » Sheep 26
» » Pigs 6
» » Goats 1
»> » Poultry 82
Horticultural Societies 12
Dairy Societies 12
Forestry Societies 3
Education and Research Societies 4
Hop Industry Societies 3
Milling Industry Societies 2
Trade Societies (1) 10
Miscellaneous 5
Scientific Societies 19
Total number of National Societies . . . 242
2) Local Societies :
Chambers of Agriculture and Agricultural Asso-
ciations (2) 866
Live-stock societies (3) 237
Bee-keepers' associations 35
Total number ot Local Societies . . . 1,138
Total number of National and Local Societies in Great
Britain 1,380
For Ireland similar figures cannot be given, but the number of non-
co-operative agricultural associations in Ireland is comparatively small.
(0 Societies of persons engaged in trades connected with agriculture.
(2) Including farmers' clubs, dairy associations, horticultural associations, trade so-
cieties, etc.
(3) Including a few ploughing associations and local show societies.
338 GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND
III. — Agricultural Co-operation in Great Britain.
§ I. — Voluntary Propaganda.
Although in Great Britain distributive co-opsration has attained to
very great development, it is only in recent years that agricultural co-oper-
ation has been systematically promoted in that country. A few pioneer
societies were formed many years ago and some of these, notably several
societies for the supply ol agricultural requirements, have become very
large and successful concerns. A number of societies for the mutual insur-
ance of cows and pigs also sprang up, as it were, spontaneously, but they
were usually very small and often partially dependent upon philanthropic
assistance.
For the promotion of agricultural credit societies, the Agricultural
Banks Association was established in 1894, the name being subsequently
changed to the Co-operative Banks Association.
In 1896 an ambitious scheme of co-operation for the sale of produce
was put forward in connection with the National Agricultural Union, but
unfortunately it was unsuccessful. Under the name of the British Produce
Supply Association, a society was formed with a capital of £50,000
and started both a wholesale business at Covent Garden Market (London)
and a retail business in an adjoining street. The intention of the promot-
ers was to obtain supplies of produce direct from the farmers and to sell
them partly to retailers and partly direct to the consumer. Owing, how-
ever, to the want of organisation amongst the farmers, it was found
that regular supplies could not be obtained. The result was that heavy
losses were made and in fifteen months the society was dissolved. A new
society, with the same name but on a smaller scale, was formed to take
over part of the business, but (with the exception of eggs) it 'does not
obtain supplies direct from the farmers.
The National Poultry Organisation Society, one of the objects of
which was to promote co-operative methods in connection with the poultry
industry, was established in 1898, but it was not until 1900 that a move-
ment was started to promote agricultural co-operation generally. This move-
ment owed its initial impetus to the example of Ireland where, as will be
seen, agricultural co-operation had been successfully promoted since 1889.
The British Agricultural Organisation Society was formed in 1900 to carry
on in England propagandist work similar to that carried on in Ireland by
the Irish Agricultural Organisation Society. In the following year an amal-
gamation was effected between the British Agricultural Organisation Soci-
ety and the National Agricultural Union, the amalgamated society being
called the Agricultural Organisation Society. In 1904, the Agricultural
AGRICULTURAL ORGANISATION 339
Organisation Society enlarged its scope by absorbing the Co-operative
Banks Association and in 1909 it entered into an arrangement with the
National Poultry Organisation Society whereby it took over the work of
organising egg and poultry societies in England and Wales, the National
Poultry Organisation Society continuing to give technical advice on poul-
try-keeping and to assist societies in the marketing of their eggs and
poultry.
The Agricultural Organisation Society is a voluntary association, con-
sisting of persons interested in the welfare of agriculture in Great Britain
who have subscribed money to be spent in teaching farmers how to apply
co-operative methods. It is not a trading body and it gives its services
gratuitously, except that it sometimes asks for payment of the travelling
expenses of the lecturers whom it sends down to explain how to form
co-operative societies and that the societies, when formed, pay it a small
annual contribution. It is worth noting that in the United Kingdom no
great development of co-operation (either industrial or agricultural) has
ever taken place except under the guidance of some propagandist society
similar in character to the Agricultural Organisation Society.
Both the National Poultry Organisation Society and the Agricultural
Organisation Society included Scotland within their scope, but, although
they helped to spread a knowledge of co-operation in that country, few
societies were actually formed until after the establishment in 1905 of the
Scottish Agricultural Organisation Society.
§ 2. — State-aid.
Until recently the Government, whether national or local, has taken
little interest in the promotion of agricultural co-operation. In a few
instances the Education Committees of the County Councils have pro-
vided lectures on the subject, usually by arrangement with the Agricul-
tural Organisation Society. The Board of Agriculture issued leaflets re-
commending co-operative methods, but it was only after the passing of
the Small Holdings and Allotments Act, 1907, that the Board aided, to
any appreciable degree, in the promotion of co-operation.
The Act mentioned was not the first Act passed with the object of
encouraging the creation of small holdings and allotments, but it pro-
vided much more effective means to this end than any of the previous
Acts. It not only gave the County Councils power to acquire land and
let it or sell it to applicants for small holdings, but it imposed upon them
the duty of supplying the demand for small holdings and provided for
the appointment of Small Holdings Commissioners to see that this duty
was adequately performed. To facilitate the County Councils in obtaining
34°
GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND
land the Act also provided that, if it could not be acquired by voluntary
agreement with the landowners, it could be obtained compulsorily. In
like manner the Act imposed upon parish councils and urban district
councils the duty of supplying allotments to suitable applicants and
enabled them to obtain the land, if necessary, by compulsion.
All parties in Parliament recognised the importance of co-operation
to small holders and provision was accordingly made in the Act for the
encouragement of co-operation. The Board of Agriculture was empowered
to make grants to societies formed for the promotion of co-operation in
connection with the cultivation of small holdings or allotments, and in
virtue of this power, the Board has given a grant since April 1909 to the
Agricultural Organisation Society. The grant will vary from £1,200 to
£1,600 per annum according to the amount received by the Society
from voluntary subscriptions or donations.
County councils were also empowered by the Act to promote the for-
mation of co-operative societies of which the object is " the provision or
the profitable working of small holdings or allotments ", and (subject
to the consent of the Local Government Board) to assist such societies
by means of grants, advances or guarantees. Up to the present little (if
any) advantage has been taken of these powers.
The Small Holdings and Allotments Act applied only to England and
Wales. In Scotland no State-aid has been given to the promotion of
co-operation, with the solitary exception of a grant of £20 made by
the Congested Districts Board for Scotland (1) to a small society to enable
it to purchase egg-boxes.
In 1909 the Development and Roads Improvement Funds Act pro-
vided for the creation, out of the National Exchequer, of a Fund to be
devoted to the promotion of the economic development of the United
Kingdom and amongst the purposes to which the Development Fund can
be applied is the organisation of co-operation. It is understood that the
Board of Agriculture is preparing a general scheme of agricultural devel-
opment in which will be included provision for the promotion of co-oper-
ative methods. Recently the President of the Board of Agriculture has
announced the intention of the Government to assist in establishing a sys-
tem of agricultural credit, but it has not yet been made public what
steps will be taken to effect that object.
(1) The Congested Districts Board for Scotland is (as is well-known) a Government
Department charged with encouraging agricultural and industrial development* is certain
districts in the Highlands and Islands of Scotland where the land is of very poor quality
and the population is so large that the people are not able to obtain an adequate sub-
sistence under present conditions.
AGRICULTURAL ORGANISATION 341
§ 3. — Societies for the Supply of Requirements.
The most numerous agricultural co-operative societies in Great Brit-
ain are the societies for the supply of agricultural requirements, such as
feeding-stuffs, artificial manures, seeds, implements, etc. These societies
have enabled their members not only to effect considerable savings in
price, but to secure goods of better quality.
Indirectly they have influenced the price and quality of agricultural
requirements all over the country and even farmers who are not members
have benefited by their establishment.
The societies of this class vary greatly in size. Some confine their oper-
ations to a small area and do a business amounting to a few thousand
(or even a few hundred) pounds sterling per annum, while others embrace
a county or a group of counties in their scope and do a very large bus-
iness. The scope is partly determined by the character of the farming
in different districts.
Great difficulty has been experienced in federating the societies for
combined trading. In 1905 the Agricultural Co-operative Federation, Ltd.,
was formed in the hope that it would develop into a strong federation
including all the societies in England and Wales, but from the first it
failed to secure the support of the larger societies. An alternative scheme
has been put forward whereby it is proposed that England and Wales
should be divided into large districts, in each of which a " district fede-
ration " or " district trading centre " should be established, and that these
organisations should be linked together by a joint advisory committee.
A beginning has already been made in the carrying out of this scheme.
In Scotland a temporary arrangement was made whereby the Farmers'
Supply Association of Scotland, an old-established society, should act as
a trading federation, but the tendency now is for the societies to group
themselves geographically and make mutual arrangements for combined
purchase.
§ 4. — The Sale of Produce.
The co-operative sale of produce in Great Britain offers an exception-
ally difficult problem. The markets are close at hand and there is
usually a considerable choice, not only of markets to which to send prod-
uce but of methods of despatching it. These facts make it very difficult
to induce the farmers to take concerted action and, accordingly, we find
that in Great Britain co-operation for the sale of produce is still in its infancy.
Some of the societies formed primarily for the supply of requirements have
undertaken, as they have grown stronger, the sale of live-stock, grain, hay,
seeds, etc., on behalf of their members. A few societies have been formed
specially for the sale by auction of live-stock and others for the sale, by
342 GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND
auction or otherwise, of fruit and vegetables. In addition to the egg and
poultry societies formed by the National Poultry Organisation Society, a
considerable number of such societies has been established by the Agri-
cultural Organisation Society, especially during the present year. To most
of the egg and poultry societies the National Poultry Organisation So-
ciety acts as a trading federation, assisting them in selling their produce
to advantage, but there are one or two societies doing a large business
which prefer to market their produce independently.
The problem of the better organisation of the sale of produce has
become pressing in England in connection with the creation of small hold-
ings under the Small Holdings and Allotments Act, for the greatest dif-
ficulty which will face the statutory small holders (as they are called) will
be the disposal of their produce. In anticipation of this difficulty and as
a step in the direction of solving the general problem, the Agricultural
Organisation Society endeavoured to persuade the Co-operative Wholesale
Society, the great trading and manufacturing federation of the distributive
co-operative societies, to establish a department for the purchase of agri-
cultural produce. This, however, the Co-operative Wholesale Society could
not see its way to undertake, though it agreed to establish in the North
of England a department for the purchase of fat stock. The Agricultural
Organisation Society has, therefore, set to work in other directions and
there has lately been established a society called the Federated Producers,
Ltd., which will open a depot at Birmingham market for the sale of fruit
and vegetables. If this is successful, the Federated Growers, Ltd., will
open depots in other important markets.
§ 5. — Co-operative Dairying.
As the English dairy farmer is generally able to find an outlet for
whole milk, and as butter-making is not his most remunerative method of
dealing with milk, the co-operative creamery, at which butter is manufac-
tured, is almost unknown in England. Co-operative dairy societies are
not numerous, but they show considerable variety of method. One sells
milk wholesale and conducts a small cheese factory to dispose of surplus
milk in times of glut ; another distributes milk direct to the consumer and
has a similar factory; a third manufactures cheese in the summer, leaving
the members to make their own milk-contracts in the winter; and soon.
In certain districts in Wales, where butter is still largely produced, soci-
eties grade, blend and market the butter manufactured by the members
in their own dairies.
In Scotland, co-operative dairying seems likely to develop more rap-
idly than in England. The capital required for the erection of milk de-
pots and dairy factories has largely been provided by the landowners
AGRICULTURAL ORGANISATION 343
whose tenants were members of the societies and it is stated that there is
keen competition for farms on estates where a milk depot has been erected.
A recent development is an agreement made between the dairy societies
in the West of Scotland fixing a minimum price below which they will
not sell milk.
§ 6. — Mutual Insurance.
Mention has already been made of the small societies formed for the
mutual insurance of live-stock. In addition to these there has been formed
a society called the Agricultural and General Co-operative Insurance So-
ciety, Ltd., through which all kinds of farm-insurance can be effected. The
Society works chiefly in connection with the societies affiliated to the Agri-
cultural Organisation Society or with kindred associations, to which it looks
for assistance in determining the character of the risks insured. Hitherto
the kind of insurance principally effected has been the insurance of farm
buildings and farm stock against fire.
§ 7. — Agricultural Credit.
Agricultural credit has made but little progress in England and Wales
and no credit societies have yet been formed in Scotland. The number of
credit societies is increasing slowly in England, but the aggregate busi-
ness is still very trifling. The Central Co-operative Agricultural Bank,
Ltd., was formed in 1906 to assist local credit societies in obtaining the
necessary capital.
The question of agricultural credit is being much discussed in Eng-
land at present. It is not only the small holders (more particularly the
statutory small holders) who require it, but the middle-sized farmers, whose
facilities for obtaining advances have been greatly curtailed by the rapid
absorption of the old private banks by the great banking companies, of
which the administration is centralised in London.
§ 8. — Small Holdings and Allotments Societies.
A class of society which has increased very rapidly in numbers since
the passing of the Small Holdings and Allotments Act, 1907, is the society
formed for the purpose of acquiring land and sub-letting it to the members
in small holdings or allotments. The Act gave power to county councils,
urban district councils and parish councils (with the consent of the Board
of Agriculture) to let land to associations complying with certain condi-
tions. The Board of Agriculture has warmly encouraged the letting of land
to associations working on a co-operative basis and many have been formed
with the assistance of the Agricultural Organisation Society. Some of
these have obtained land from the local administrative bodies, while others
have been able to rent land direct from a landowner.
344 GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND
§ 9. — Statistics of Agricultural Co-operatiou in Great Britain.
The total number of agricultural co-operative societies formed by or
affiliated to the Agricultural Organisation Society in England and Wales
on December 31st., 1909, was 319, with a total membership of 19,500
and an estimated aggregate turn-over in 1909 of £S6o,ooo. In addition
to these societies, the Agricultural Organisation Society, in its Annual
Report for 1909, estimates that there were in England and Wales 104 regis-
tered agricultural co-operative societies, not affiliated to it, with a mem-
bership of about 24,000 and an aggregate turn-over of about £1,100,000.
This gives a total of 423 registered co-operative societies in England
and Wales in 1909, with a total membership of 43,500 and an aggregate
turn-over of £1,960,000. The societies included 144 societies for the
supply of requirements or sale of produce; 147 small holdings or allot-
ments societies; 14 dairy societies; 15 egg and poultry societies; 30 credit
societies; 57 societies for the mutual insurance of live-stock and 16 so-
cieties of other kinds.
The Report of the Scottish Agricultural Organisation Society for the
year 1909 contains a list of 39 affiliated societies, of which 30 were agri-
cultural trading societies, six were dairy societies and three were societies
of other kinds. The statistics of membership and turn-over are not quite
complete but of the societies furnishing returns the total number of mem-
bers was 2,332 and the aggregate turn-over was £102,934.
IV. — Agricultural Co operation in Ire'and.
§ I. — Voluntary Propaganda.
Until the year 1889, agricultural co-operation was unknown in Ireland,
but in that year the first co-operative creamery was formed as the result
of the advocacy of co-operative methods by Mr. (now Sir Horace) Plunkett.
For some time Mr. Plunkett continued to preach co-operation without
the aid of any regular organisation, but the work was afterwards carried
on under the auspices of the Co-operative Union (1), an Irish Section
(i) The Co-operative Union is well-known as the most influential society in the United
Kingdom for the promotion of co-operation. It is a federation of co-operative societies
(principally of consumers' societies for the supply of household and other requirements)
and is supported entirely by the affiliation contributions of such societies. It assists in
the formation of co-operative societies, advises the societies affiliated to it and organises
a great Annual Co-operative Congress and other conferences between representatives of
the societies.
AGRICULTURAL ORGANISATION 345
being- formed for the purpose. The need of a special propagandist so-
ciety was, however, soon felt and in 1S94 the Irish Agricultural Organ-
isation Society was formed. From this time rapid progress began to
be made.
§ 2. — State-aid.
In Ireland, up to the end of 190S, more help was provided by the
Government in the promotion of agricultural co-operation than in England
and such assistance has been given almost entirely through the medium of
the Irish Agricultural Organisation Society.
Small grants for the organisation of agricultural credit societies and
home industries societies in the West of Ireland have been made by the
Congested Districts Board (1). For some years these grants were of inde-
friite amount, the Congested Districts Board refunding to the Irish Agri-
cultural Organisation Society the salary and expenses of one organiser,
but in 1908 the amount of the grant was fixed at £350 per annum. A
few county councils have also contributed to the organisation of credit
societies.
Greater financial assistance was received from the Department of Agri-
culture and Technical Instruction for Ireland, a government department .
with very wide powers for the encouragement of agriculture, which was
created in 1898. Soon after it came into existence the Department of
Agriculture relieved the Irish Agricultural Organisation Society of the
expense of a considerable amount of technical instruction which it had
given as a necessary adjunct to the work of organisation. The Depait-
ment also agreed to defray the expenses of organising and supervising agri-
cultural credit societies, to which were subsequently added the similar
expenses in connection with certain other kinds of society. The grant in
respect of these expenses for the year ended February 28th, 1906, was
the fixed sum of £2,000. A new arrangement then came into force
whereby a grant was made to the general expenses of the Irish Agricul-
tural Organisation Society, the amount being dependent on the Society's
income from voluntary sources, but in no case exceeding £3,700. This
arrangement, however, only lasted until the end of 1908, when the Depart-
ment ceased to give a grant to the Society. Except for the small grant
from the Congested Districts Board, the promotion of agricultural co-oper-
ation in Ireland is now once more on a basis of voluntary effort.
(1) See note on page 254 on the Congested Districts Board for Scotland. The
Congested Districts Board for Ireland was formed earlier and it was because of the admir-
able work which it accomplished in improving economic conditions in the poverty-stricken
districts of the West of Ireland that it was decided to form a similar Board for Scotland.
346 GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND
Another way in which both the Congested Districts Board and the
Department of Agriculture have assisted co-operation is by making loans
to credit societies. In 1897 the Congested Districts Board agreed to lend
money to credit societies in " congested " districts at 2 ' 2 per cent, and
in the following year loans of £50 each were made to 14 societies and
of £ioo each to three societies. The example of the Congested Districts
Board was followed in 1901 by the Department of Agriculture, which
offered to make loans of £50 to £100 to credit societies in ! those parts
of Ireland in which the Congested Districts Board did not operate. The
interest charged by the Department was, however, 3 per cent. Many soci-
eties have availed themselves of the help offered by the Government,
but its most beneficial result has been to inspire confidence in the societies
and to enable them to attract deposits or to obtain loan capital from ordin-
ary sources. Nearly all the great banking companies in Ireland have
agreed to lend money to credit societies and it is largely from this source
that they obtain the capital they require.
In some instances the societies unfortunately came to regard the Gov-
ernment advances as perpetual loans and the Department of Agriculture
has recently taken legal proceeding in a few cases to compel the repay-
ment of the money.
The Department of Agriculture has sometimes used co-operative agri-
cultural societies as a medium through which to conduct agricultural
experiments. Thus in 1900 the Department carried out, with the assist-
ance of 45 societies, a series of experiments in the use of basic slag for
the improvement of pasture land. The samples of slag were supplied by
the Department, while the land was provided by members of the societies,
who also undertook to measure the land, apply the slag and report the
result to the Department.
In introducing improved varieties of seed potatoes the Department of
Agriculture has worked, to some extent, through the credit societies. As the
credit societies cannot themselves do any trading, the Department asked
the societies to encourage their members to borrow money for the pur-
pose of buying seed potatoes of the kinds recommended and, where ne-
cessary, lent additional capital to the societies to enable them to make
the loans.
§ 3' — Co-operative Creameries.
The principal achievement of the Agricultural Co-operative Movement
in Ireland has been the change which it has brought about in the butter
industry. In Ireland butter is manufactured chiefly for export to England
and Irish butter was being steadily driven out of the English market by
the increasing competition of butter imported from Denmark and other
AGRICULTURAL ORGANISATION 347
countries. It was, therefore, urgently necessary, as Mr. Horace Plunkett
saw, to organise the Irish dairy farmers and establish co-operative creameries.
The work oi organisation proceeded slowly at first. No less than 50
meetings of farmers were held before a single co-operative creamery was
formed and nearly two years elapsed before a second was established. The
year 189 1, however, marks the beginning of more rapid development. In
that year 15 new creameries were formed, and the number has since stead-
ily increased, reaching 292 in 190S, with a membership of 42,404 farmers,
a paid-up share capital of £130,017 and a turn-over of £1,726,596.
The success of the co-operative creameries has encouraged capitalists
to erect proprietary creameries and as early as 1907 the Irish Agricul-
tural Organisation Society was able to report that the available dairying
ground in Ireland was almost completely occupied by co-operative and
proprietary creameries. The chief need at the present time seems to be
the extension of the system of winter dairying, so that the supply of Irish
creamery butter may be maintained throughout the year.
Many difficulties have been met with in developing co-operative dairy-
ing in Ireland. At first the want of skilled managers was severely felt
and many societies suffered from inefficient management, but the Govern-
ment provided means for the training of managers and the difficulty was
graduallv overcome. Some societies were insufficiently equipped with ma-
chinery, but there has been a steady improvement in this respect, notably
in the general introduction of pasteurising plant. In the keeping of ac-
counts (necessarily rather complicated in the case of a co-operative creamery)
the societies have required considerable supervision and assistance. There
were complaints, again, that the farmers did not sufficiently realise the ne-
cessity of strict. cleanliness in handling the milk which they brought to the
creamery, but such complaints are now far less frequent.
The principal difficulty has, however, been in regard to the marketing
of the butter. Even now, the prices obtained are lower than they should
be, owing to the want of combined action between the societies. Acting
independently, the societies compete with one another and a manager,
ignorant of the ' condition of the market, may injuriously affect other soci-
eties by accepting a price lower than that which he might have obtained.
In order to prevent such competition, attempts have been made to estab-
lish a " Butter Quotation " for Irish creamery butter, similar to the Copen-
hagen butter quotation, but hitherto without success.
As early as 1892 a trading federation, the Irish Co-operative Agency
Society, Ltd., was formed to assist the co-operative creameries in market-
ing their butter. The Agency Society was capably managed, in illustra-
tion of which it may be mentioned that, while bad debts were not infre-
quently made by the dairy societies which sold their butter independently,
the Agency Society only made bad debts to the extent of £168 in
348 GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND
the first six years of its existence, although its turn-over in that period
amounted to more than £700,000. The Agency Society has not, how-
ever, succeeded in obtaining general support from the co-operative cream-
eries. Its turn-over in 1908 was only £161,141, so that scarcely 10 per
cent of the butter manufactured by the creameries passed through its
hinds. There is a tendency for societies to consign butter to the Agency
Society when prices are low and to market their butter independently
when offered good prices elsewhere.
The earlier co-operative creameries were independent societies, each
with its butter factory complete, but in 1895 a system of central butter
factories with auxiliary separating stations began to be developed. In some
cases the separating stations were controlled by the same society which
owned the central factory ; in others societies were specially registered to
control the auxiliaries. Experience showed that the latter method was
preferable and it has been more generally adopted. The change which
has taken place in this respect may be indicated by the fact that while in
1 90 1 there were 196 registered dairy societies and 81 unregistered auxil-
iaries, in 1908 there were 292 registered dairy societies and only 64 un-
registered auxiliaries.
§ 4. — Agricultural Credit.
In 1895 the Irish Agricultural Organisation Society began to turn its
attention to the formation of agricultural credit societies and this has proved
to be one of the most useful branches of its work. A few societies on
the Raiffeisen system were formed and as they were immediately successful
a special organiser was appointed in 1898, from which time the number
rapidly increased. The credit societies have been of great benefit to the
peasantry, more particularly in the West of Ireland, but the system has
been adopted even amongst the well-to-do farmers. A few societies have
been formed on a basis of limited liability.
Owing to the action of the Department of Agriculture and the Con-
gested Districts Board in making advances to credit societies and to the fact
that they have received generous treatment at the hands of the joint-stock
banks, there has been no urgent need for the establishment of a central bank.
§ 5. — The Supply of Requirements.
The formation of societies for the supply of requirements also dates
from 1895. These societies resemble the agricultural trading societies in
England and Scotland, but are usually much smaller. Federation for
combined purchase has been more successfully carried out than in England.
The Irish Co-operative Agency Society at first acted as the trading feder-
AGRICULTURAL ORGANISAT idN 340
ation of the agricultural societies, but in 1897 a special federation for
this purpose was formed under the name of the Irish Co-operative Agri-
cultural Agency, Ltd. This was re-organised in the following year, the
name being changed to the Irish Agricultural Wholesale Society, Ltd.
Early in its existence the Irish Agricultural Wholesale Society ren-
dered a striking service to the farmers of Ireland by breaking a " ring '
of manure-manufacturers which had been formed to keep up prices. As
a result the prices of artificial manures were lowered by about 20 per cent.
The •' ring " was, however, again formed and for some years the Whole-
sale Society was unable to obtain from the manure-manufacturers as fa-
vourable terms as they allowed to their own agents. The difficulty was
eventually overcome in the case of the manure-manufacturers, but the
Irish implement-makers still refuse to give satisfactory terms to the Whole-
sale Society or the local agricultural societies.
In spite of its initial difficulties, the Irish Agricultural Wholesale Society
has secured the support of most of the agricultural trading societies and
of the dairy societies which have taken up the supply of requirements in
addition to the manufacture of butter. Its turn-over in 1908 was £73,154.
As the aggregate turn-over of the agricultural trading societies was £87,045
and the agricultural goods sold by the dairy societies only amounted in
value to a few thousand pounds., it is evident that the greater part of the
co-operative trade in agricultural requirements in Ireland is done through
the medium of the Irish Agricultural Wholesale Society,
An interesting illustration of the indirect results of co-operation may
be found in the fact that it is largely due to the influence of the agricultural
co-operative societies that the practice of spraying potatoes for the prevention
of disease has become general in. Ireland,
§ 6. — The Sale of Produce.
As in England, the sale of produce has been taken up by a number of
the agricultural trading societies, but no general system has been adopted.
In particular, live-stock, barley and wool have been sold co-operatively.
Societies have been specially formed for the sale of eggs and poultry and
some of the dairy societies have also taken up this business. A federation
was established with the object of assisting in the marketing of e ggs and
poultry, but it has been amalgamated with the Irish Agricultural Vii 7holesale
Society.
§ 7. — Other Forms of Co-operation.
Co-operation has also been applied in Ireland to a variety ot otner
purposes connected with agriculture, amongst which may be ment i°ned
flax-scutching, bacon-curing and bee-keeping. A numb er of societies ^as
35o
CKKAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND
also been formed to organise and develop industries, such as lace-making,
embroidery, etc., which can be carried on as home industries in rural
districts.
§ 8. — Statistics of Agricultural Co-operation in Ireland.
The latest available statistics of agricultural co-operative societies in
Ireland are those for 1908, published by the Irish Agricultural Organisation
Society in its Report for the year ended June 30th., 1909. The following-
table gives the number of societies of each class, with the total mem-
bership, paid-up share capital, loan capital and turn-over:
Dairy Societies
Auxiliary Societies (not
separately registered).
Agricultural Societies . .
Poultry Societies
Credit Societies
Home Industries Societies
Bee-keepers' Societies . .
Flax Societies
Miscellaneous (including
Bacon curing Societies)
Totals. . .
Number
of
Societies
Membership
Paid-up
share
Capital
Loan
Capital
Turn over
292
64
I66
24
268
36
3
12
4
12
42,404
12,999
6,650
17,403
I,6l2
67
552
238
4,014
£
130,017
5,i43
2,-6i8
2,154
17
97
4,811
13,905
£
93,863
29,211
4,819
53,123
1,231
1,817
13,267
3,053
£
1,726,596
87,045
72,597
56,co4
8-479
33
589
258,145
42,892
88 1
85,939
158,762
200,384
2,252,380
These figures are, however, far from complete, as 161 societies failed
to furnish returns of membership and 202 furnished no returns of trade.
§ 9. — Plunkett House.
Indirectly the Agricultural Co-operative Movement in Ireland has
given rise to the creation of various institutions, not of a co-operative
character, but formed to further agricultural development. Amongst these
may, indeed, be included the Department of Agriculture and Technical
Instruction, which was established on the recommendation of the so-called
AGRICULTURAL ORGANISATION
" Recess Committee ", a group of prominent public men brought together
by Mr. Horace Plunkett to investigate the methods adopted in other
countries of applying State-aid to the development of agriculture.
More recently an institute has been formed, under the name of " The
Plunkett House " for the study of rural sociology. In 1908, a substantial
sum of money was subscribed in order to present a testimonial to Sir Horace
Plunkett in recognition of his great services to agricultural development
in Ireland, and, at his own request, the money was spent in the purchase
of a large house in Dublin which should serve as a centre for the invest-
igation of rural problems. The offices of the Irish Agricultural Organi-
sation Society are now situated in " The Plunkett House " and. in addition
to this what has been described as a " Country Life Institute " has been
organised.
The aims of this institute will be, in the words of Sir Horace Plunkett,
" to advance the well-being of the large and scattered agricultural popul-
ation by bringing together information as to the progress of rural com-
munities, by encouraging the scientific study and investigation of the
conditions which contribute to their social and economic advancement,
and -by spreading knowledge and stimulating public opinion on the vital
importance of a strong farming and rural communitv to the maintenance
of the national life as a whole." An appeal has been made to the public
for funds to enable tne Country Life Institute to carry on this work. Already
lectures are held periodically and a specialised library is being formed.
Y. — Relations between the Agricultural Co-operative Movements
in England, Scotland and Ireland.
Although the Agricultural Co-operative Movement is carried on inde-
pendently in each of the three countries which compose the United
Kingdom, the three Agricultural Organisation Societies have always kept
in close touch with one another by correspondence and the exchange of
visits. These relations have been drawn still closer by the formation in 1908
of a Joint Board for Organisation, composed of representatives of the
propagandist societies and a Joint Board for Trade composed of repre-
sentatives of the principal trading bodies. These Joint Boards meet occa-
sionally to discuss matters of common interest to the Movements it the
three countries.
27.
IV ORWA Y
I. — SOME DEMOGRAPHIC AND ECONOMIC STATISTICS.
Sources :
Statistisk Aàrbok for Kongeriket Norge. Kristiania, 1909 and 19 10. {Statistical Yearbook
for Norway).
Folketaellingen i Kongeriket Norge, 3 December, 1900. Kristiania, 1904-1906. {Census
of December 3rd, igoo).
Norges Officielle Statistik. Norges Handel. Kristiania, 1908 {Commercial statistics for
Norway, içoS).
The Statesman's Yearbook. London, 19 10.
Statistics of cultivated areas and of vegetable and animal production in the adhering
countries. International Institute of Agriculture. Rome, 19 10.
A. — Territory and Population.
Area: 322,986 sq. km.
Population on December 3rd, 1900 (census): 2,240,032.
Density of population per sq. km. on December 3rd, 1900: 7.17.
Population (census) on December 1st, 1910: 2,392,698.
Density of population per sq. km. on December 1st, 1910: 7.41.
Occupations of the population (census of December 3rd, 1900):
Agriculture, forests, fisheries . . 359>763 = 25.8 %
Mines and manufactures. . . . 242,642= 17.4%
Trade and transports 122,256= 8.8%
Civil service and liberal professions 35,904 = 2.6 %
Domestic service and unspecified
professions 525>538 = 37.8 %
Private means, pensioners . . . 68,203 = 4.9 %
No profession 34.743= 2-5 %
Profession unknown 2,860 = 0.2 %
1, 39 1, 909 = 100.0%
354 NORWAY
Birth and Death per iooo inhabitants (i) :
Year Births Deaths
1907 . . . . , 26.9 I4.2
1908 . . . , . 26.8 I4.3
I909 26.7 I3.5
Oversea emigration:
Average for 1901-1908. 19,474 = 8.43700 inhabitants (1900)
» 1908. 8,497 = 3.61 %0 » »
» 1909. 16,152 = 6.75700 » (1910)
B. — Agriculture, Forests and Fisheries.
Distribution of territory in 1907 (hectares):
Barren lands 24,345,000 = 75.3 %
Seeded land (including gardens) (2). 257,713= 0.9%
Artificial meadows 493,606= 1-6%
Natural meadows 361,281 = 1.1 %
Woods and forests 6,841,100 = 21. 1 %
Principal products in 1909:
Area Production
Hectares Quintals
Wheat 5.020 85,009
Rye 15.055 256,617
Barley 35.919 594.574
Oats 106,279 1,489,236
Potatoes 41.164 5,603,372
Hay 795.900 29,032,370
Occupiers of farms in 1907:
Without cultivated land (gardens excluded). . 33,557
2 ha. and less 142,726
From 2 to 10 ha 65,904
From 10 to 50 ha 16,690
50 ha. and over 371
259,248
(1) Provisional Figures.
(2) Gardens (10.034); fallow lands are included in the total shown above.
SOME DEMOGRAPHIC AND ECONOMIC STATISTICS
355
Li*'e-stock (census of 1907):
Horses 172,468
Cattle 1,094,101
Sheep 1,393,488
Goats 296,442
Swine 318,556
Reindeer 142,623
Poultry 1,482,439
Beehives 20,702
Fisheries. — Total value of products in 1908 : 36,090,000 kroner.
» » 1909: 39,206,100 »
C. — Mines, Manufactures and Commerce.
Mines :
Mineral output . . . . . . 470,378
Value of mineral output . . . 10,339
Number of workmen employed 6,174
Manufactures :
No. of factories in 1908. . . .
459,629 thousands of kgs.
10,834 » » kroner
4.238
No. of workmen 102,852
No. of steam HP 457-639
Foreign trade (1) :
Year
Imports
Exports
Norwegian
Foreign
Total
I908
I909
Kroner
376,129,000
386,616,600
Kroner
211,247,900
234,640,600
Kroner
28,828,700
29 685,400
Kroner
240,076,600
264,326,000
D. — Navigation and Inland Communications.
Merchant marine:
Steamers . .
Sailing vessels
Total .
No.
1909
2,698
5,219
Tonnage
1908 I9°9
855754 870,376
725,392 702,173
2,8lO
5.742
8,552 7.917 1,581,146 1,572,549 58,197 56,602
Crews
190S 1909
27.712 28,220
30,485 28,382
(l) Stat. Yearbook for Norway, 1910, pp. 58-59.
356
NORWAY
Shipping movement in 1908:
Entered :
Foreign * ....
Total. . .
Cleared :
Norwegian ships . . .
Foreign » ....
Total. . .
Loaded
In Ballast Total
No.
Tonnage
No. 1 Tonnage i No.
Tonnage
4,393
2,564
1,600,049
1,055,370
2.29I
3,676
776,662
970,380
6,684
6,240
2,376,711
2,025,750
6,957
2,655,419
5,967
1,747,042
12,924
4,402,461
5,764
5-476
2,034,793
1,607,412
925
780
370,572
409,546
6,689
6,256
2,405,365
2,016,958
11,240
3,642,205! 1,705
780,118
12,945
4,422,323
Inland communication in 1908:
State railways 2,429 kms.
Private railways 1,425 »
E. — Finance.
Revenue
Expenditure. . . .
1907-08
Kroner
1908—09 (1)
Kroner
1909—10
Kroner
1 per
tctal \ . r , .
inhabit.
total
per
inhabit.
total
P«r
inhabit.
114,936,824
108,118,864
49- 3
46.4
144,588,364
137,459.221
49- 2
46. 7
122,243,829
116,751,005
51.6
49-3
F. — Money, Weights and Measures.
Unit of value: the Norsk Krone of 100 ore, = 1.38 fr. A 20 krone
gold piece weighs 8.960572 grammes 9°o/1000 pure gold.
The decimal metric system is adopted for weights and measures.
(1) For 15 months (1-4-1908 - 30-6-1909). The number of crowns per inhabitant
has, however, been reduced to correspond to 12 months.
II. - AGRICULTURAL CO-OPERATION.
This monograph was forwarded to us, for publication in the Bulletin,
by Dr. A. Fjelstad, the Delegate for Norway.
Bi bliography.
Sources :
I. — Official Publications :
Statisk Aarborg, 29de. og 30 de. Aargang, 1909 and 19 10. {Statistical Annual for the
Kingdom of Norway, 2Çth and s°th Year, içoç). Published by the Central Statisti-
cal Office at Christiania.
Jordbrag og Foedrift (Agriculture and cattle rearing içoi-içoj). Published by the Central
Statistical Office at Christiania.
Aaars beretning angaaende offentlige Foranstaltninger til Landbrugets Fremme, 1909.
(Annual reports of the public Institutions for the encouragement of Agriculture, içoç) .
Published by the Director of Agriculture.
Tidsskrift fordet norske Landbruk. (Journal for Norwegian Agriculture). Published by
the Royal Society for the prosperity of Norway, at Christiania.
II. — Other Publications :
Sanwirke. {Collective Action). Published by the Agricultural Society for collective pur-
chase. Christiania.
Beretning om den 3dje. Nordiske Lanbrugs Kongres. Kristiania, 1907. {Report of the
jrd Norwegian Agricultural Congress) I, II. Christiania, 1 907.
Norsk Forsikringstidende {Insurance Journal). Christiania.
Frôi, Norsk Bondeblad (Norwegian Peasants' Gazette). Christiania. From Is' January, 191 1.
Landmandsforbundet (Farmers' Union). See " Bulletin of the Bureau of Economic and
Social Intelligence ". 191 1, January p. 88.
Introduction.
Agricultural co-operation in Norway only commenced a few years
ago. It is true there had been some collective attempts previously made
for the improvement of agriculture, but co-operation properly so called
is a quite recent development.
The principal reason of this delay is that the Norwegian population
is sparse. Sail, judging by the progress the co-operative societies have
now made, the co-operative idea has indeed penetrated into the minds of
the rural populations.
358 NORWAY
The first agricultural co-operative society in Norway was formed by
the union of various societies for the encouragement of agriculture and for
the defence of its interests. The " Landhusholdningsselskaber " {District
societies for the encouragement of rural economy), the " Kongelige Selskab
for Norges Vel " {Royal Society for the prosperity of Norway) and the
" Norsk Landinansforbund " {Norwegian Farmers' Union), have been the
most important contributors to the development of agricultural co-operation.
These societies have as auxiliary organs two permanent committees. The
mission of these committees is generally to encourage co-operation and
to give it a reasonable organization.
It is thus that associations of a more or less co-operative character
have been formed. A very long time, however, was required before certain
of these associations acquired a strictly co-operative character, and before
they lost the special impress received from the societies from which they
proceeded. Amongst the societies which, without being co-operative so-
cieties, properly so-called, had notwithstanding quite the same character,
we may mention the live-stock improvement associations, the " control "
societies, etc.
As to legislation, as yet there are no special provisions regulating the
organization and work of co-operative societies in general. The co-opera-
tive societies are subject to the general provisions of the commercial code,
except for a few amendments. There are only special provisions in fa-
vour of certain branches of co-operation, for example, cattle-breeding.
g I. Credit.
a) Smail credit {Farming credit), etc.
The Sparebanker or Savings' banks, which have been at work for about
fifty years, are now spread over the greater part of the towns and vil-
lages, and this renders the absence of co-operative credit societies less
sensible. Thanks to the Sparebanker, the rural population can obtain the
money necessary for their work. At the end of 1908, the Sparebanker
had at their disposal assets to the total amount of 508 millions of
crowns.
Now that cultivation is tending to become more and more intensive,
the inconveniences due to the want of co-operative credit societies, properly
so-called, is the more felt; and attempts are being made to found some,
making use of the existing credit institutions. We may mention, as a first
attempt in this order of ideas, the institution of a credit association {Indkjobs-
saynlag), occupying itself with the provision of fodder, manure and seed
and, further, granting advances in money to its members.
AGRICULTURAL CO-OPERATION 359
b) Credit on Mortage.
In Norway, there are no co-operative institutions for credit on mort-
gage, such as are found elsewhere. Loans on mortgage on land property
are here supplied by various State institutions, such as the Hypothekbanken
(Mortgage Bank), the Atbeiderbruk og Boligbanken (Bank for the creation
of small properties), and other public institutions. The loans on mortgage
granted by the Hypothekbanken amounted at the end of 1909 to 180 mil-
lions of crowns, in 1908, 170 millions. As to the Arbejderbriik og Bolig-
banken, founded in 1903, its mission is to facilitate the acquisition of land by
the labouring class and to stimulate the attachment of the rural populations
to agriculture. The Bank began with a capital of 30 million crowns.
§ 2. Societies of Collective Purchase and Sale.
a) Co-operative purchase societies.
It is in this form that co-operation in Norway is most developed.
The most important collective purchases are of fodder, manure and seeds;
and we may say that the good organization of the supply of matters
of such importance for the farmer has had a most favourable result. The
merit of this organisation, thanks to which collective purchase has reached
a comparatively large figure, is due to the local Societies for the encour-
agement of rural economy.
Purchase co-operation is organized according to the special conditions
of each locality. Generally a town, more or less large, is chosen for the
central headquarters of the co-operative society, and branches are opened
in the districts. To give an idea of the work of these co-operative so-
cieties, it will be enough to mention that the Landhusholdningsselskaberyies
Faellesindkjôbsforretning (Office of the Rural Economic Societies for col-
lective purchase) (*), of which the operations extend over six districts, has
466 branches and numbers 13,500 members. Its total business (outgoings
and incomings), in 1909, was 4,300,000 crowns.
The Nordentjeldske co-operative society of sale and purchase at Trond-
hjem in 1909 did a total business (outgoings and incomings) of 735,000
crowns; it had 151 branches and counted about 10,000 members.
The co-operative society of collective purchase of the Western Agri-
cultural Society at Bergen counted in 1909, 300 branches and its total bus-
iness (outgoings and incomings) amounted to 214,000 crowns.
Besides these organizations of a certain importance, there are also at
work some small agricultural co-operative societies for collective purchase.
(*) Six rural economic societies of South Norway (Sondenfjeldske Norge) have founded
this office in common.
36o NORWAY
There is a certain connection for business purposes between the various
central co-operative organizations. Further, we must mention the " Norges
Kooperative Landsforening ,, (Norwegian Co-operative Union), which is par-
tially occupied with the purchase of various articles needed in agriculture,
and has branches throughout almost the whole country, notably in the
rural communes.
Besides the collective purchase of various goods a beginning is now
being made with the purchase of machines.
As a result of these purchases, we may here mention the institution
of small agricultural machines, for example, steam-threshers {Tamp'œrs^
amlag).
b) Sales.
Co-operation for sale is still less developed than for purchase, ana
there are no statistical data on the subject.
In a certain number of villages there are co-operative societies for the
sale of eggs ; several co-operative societies are especially concerned in the
export. Other co-operative societies devote themselves to the sale of fruits
and berries, as well as of seeds. Up to recently each of these little co-
operative societies acted separately on its own account ; now an effort is
being made to unite them in a central association under the title of Norges
Binaeringer, of which the headquarters would be at Christiania.
A group of dairies occupy themselves with the collective sale of milk;
they are now also attempting to regulate their trade by means of a co-
operative organization. An attempt is being made to constitute a central
co-operative association for the environs of Christiania, to include some
fifty dairies, of which the total production at present would be about
30 millions of crowns per year.
As to the co-operative societies dedicated to the trade and export of
butter, the majority oi them have their headquarters in the Western part
of Norway. The three most important co-operative societies of this class
have theirs at Trondjem, Nordmôre and Stavanger. The export of butter
in 1 901 reached a total figure of 3 million crowns.
§ 3. Co-operative Societies for Production.
a) Dairies.
The co-operative dairies at work in 1909 were 700 in number. By the
side of these co-operative dairies there exist about fifty dairies belonging
to private individuals. The total production for the year was about aoo
millions of litres of milk, of a value of some twenty million crowns.
AGRICULTURAL CO-OPERATION 361
Naturally, these figures do not express the milk production of the en-
tire country. The co-operative societies produce butter and cheese; the
separated milk is in part returned to the producers, who use it for their
cattle, but the greater part is used in the dairies for cheese making. In
certain districts, the dairies are chiefly employed in the manufacture of
cheese. For the dairies situated in the neighbourhood of towns, the supply
of milk to the urban population is an important part of their work.
Besides the groups of co-operative societies above mentioned, there are
at present no other co-operative organizations for dairy work.
We have now only to mention here, as a new form of co-operation,
the collective treatment of the milk for butter and cheese making in the
high plateaux. As in Norway the mountains occupy large regions, one can
imagine the importance a rational organization for farming the meadows
of the high plateaux will one day have for the country.
b) Co-operative Slaughter Houses.
There is a co-operative slaughter house, at Hamar, founded in 1904,
There they annually slaughter about 1500 pigs, 1200 oxen and cows, and
a certain number of horses, calves and sheep. This experiment having
given satisfactory results and having permitted the farmers to sell their cattle
at profitable prices, they are about to organize a central co-operative society
of the same character at Christiania (1), to include several districts. It is
expected that the Christiania co-operative slaughter-house will supply the
market with 10,000 head of horned cattle annually.
Amongst the co-operative societies for production, we must also mention
a certain number of distilleries, starch-factories and associations for collective
working of the peat bogs.
§4. Technical Co-operative Societies.
a) Co-operative Live-stock improvement Societies.
Although these societies are not properly speaking co-perative societies,
they are closely connected with the latter. So it is well to mention them here.
The majority of these societies receive subventions either from the State
or from the communal administrations.
Altogether there are about 800 live-stock improvement societies at
work; they are especially widely diffused in the localities where the Flach
system for favouring an improved selection of bulls and cows has been
introduced. Certain associations especially dedicate themselves to the rear-
ing of horses, sheep, and poultry.
(1) In fact, the second co-operative slaughter Louse was founded, in the winter of
1910-11, at Oester Aker, near Christiania.
362 NORWAY
b) " Control " Associations.
The first " control " association in Norway was formed in 1908.
Cattle breeding becoming an industry ever more and more complicated,
it became necessary to provide for its "control". Thus gradually associa-
tions ot " control " have arisen. At the end of 1909, there were 145 of
these associations at work in Norway; the cows placed under their control
numbered 36,000, or on an average 250 per association.
Besides this general form of " control " association there are also in
Norway associations for keeping the cattle books (Fjôsregnskabsfore-
ninger).
Their organisation is adapted to the extraordinary dispersion of the
farms in Norway, and although at present they are only 25 in number,
they promise a brilliant future. These associations differ from those men-
tioned above, in that the " control " takes account only of the milk
yield of each cow ; the " control " of the food, on the other hand, is ar-
ranged for the whole herd of cows. The number of members reaches 70,
while true " control " associations cannot accept a number greater than 25.
The State provides assistance in money to a total amount of 25,000
crowns for these two forms of association.
§ 5. Agricultural Insurance.
a) Cattle Insurance.
Cattle insurance in Norway is conducted on the mutual principle. There
are now two Societies of insurance of which the operations are extended
over the whole country, two mutual insurance associations, of which the
sphere of action includes several districts, and even a certain number
(167 in 1905) of local associations. The assurances are for horned cattle,
horses and pigs. The owner who insures receives compensation not only
in the case of the natural death of the animal, but also in case he finds
himself obliged to kill it, or that its health declines so that the animal loses
its value. The owner insuring is at the same time insurer for part (from
o to 10 %) of the risk. The premium varies according to the locality; thus
the premium charged by the local assurance associations for cows varies
from 1 to 1 y2 %, whilst the more important associations charge a pre-
mium of from 2 ^2 to 3 % for the same class of assurance. The assurance
may be signed with or without previous intervention of the veterinary
surgeon; if the animal assured has not been examined by the veterinary
surgeon, a supplementary tax is charged (1 crown for horses and 50 ore
for horned cattle). They generally refuse to insure horses and cattle more
than 15 years old. According to the calculations of the insurance manager
AGRICULTURAL CO-OPERATION 363
Ôedegaard, at the end of 1905 there were 32,000 horses and 68,000 head of
cattle insured for a total sum of about 19 millions of crowns, of which
9 y3 millions in the local associations. According to the official return of
1900, there were in Norway 172,999 horses and 950,201 head of cattle. We
may then assume that about 18 % of the horses and 9 % of the cattle were
assured. Allowing 350 crowns as the average price of a horse and 100 crowns
as the average for each head of cattle, we get a total of 155.5 millions of
crowns, of which 13 % was covered by insurance.
b) Fire Insurance.
Fire insurance is represented by the following Societies and Asso-
ciations.
The General Fire Insurance Society or Bank (Almindelig Brandfoo-
sikringsin dretning). — A public institution of mutual insurance, founded
in 1764 and re-organized in 1845. It only insures fixed property. The total
sum insured by this Society amounted at the end of 1909 to 1,520 (at
the end of 1,908 to 14S0) millions of crowns, of which 1,042 (1,018) millions
in the towns department and 478 (463) millions in the country department.
Akershus Mutual Insurance Society. Total amount insured (Fixed
Property) at the end of 1909 : 171 (in 1908 = 166) millions of crowns.
There were, besides, in 1905, 226 rural mutual assurance associations.
These associations had assured fixed property for 328 millions of crowns,
moveable property for 183 millions of crowns, and fixed and moveable
property together for 11 millions of crowns, in all, say, 522 millions of
crowns.
There are also six limited liability societies of insurance for fixed and
moveable property. In 1909, the amount insured by these societies figured
at 1,248 (1908: 1,055) millions of crowns. In this sum the risks under-
taken by foreign societies are included, but it would not be possible to
give the proportion for the country districts. There are besides at work
in Norway some thirty foreign insurance societies, the amount of whose
business (outgoings and incomings) is unknown.
According to the "Norsk Forsikringstidende ,, {Insurance Gazette),
towards the end of 1906, the total amount of fire insurances in Nonvay
might be valued at 32 millions of crowns, which would give an average
of 1,384 crowns per inhabitant.
c) Insurance against hail, etc.
Damage from hail being comparatively of rarer occurrence in Norway
than in the countries of Central and Southern Europe, there are hardly
any associations for insurance against hail.
364 NORWAY
§ 6. I,ife insurance, etc.
There are no mutual life insurance societies amongst the farmers in
Norway. By law, the employer is obliged to insure certain classes of
agricultural workmen at the " Rigsforsikringsanstalten ,, at Christiania
{State Insurance Office) of which the operations extend over the whole
country.
They are now organising assurance societies against sickness among
the rural population.
HOI^LAXD
I. — SOME DEMOGRAPHIC AND ECONOMIC STATISTICS.
Sources:
Jaarcijfers voor het Koninkrijk der Nederlander, 1908. 's Gravenhage, 1909 (Statistical
Yearbook for the Kingdom of Holland'),
Overzicht van de voorloopige uitkomstea van de negende tienjaarlijksche Volkstelling
op 31 December 1909. 's Gravenhage, 1 9 10 {Abstract of the provisional results ef
the census of the population on December jist. içoç).
Verslag over den Landbouw in Nederland over 190S. 's Gravenhage (Reports on Agricul-
ture in Holland).
Statistique des superficies cultivées, de la production végétale et du bétail dans les pay~
adhérents. Institut International d'Agriculture, Rome, 1910. {Statistics of the areas ad .-
vated, the vegetable and the animal production in the countries adhering to the Institute).
The Statesman's Yearbook, 19 10.
A. — Territory and Population.
Area: 32,595.5 sq. km.
Population on December 31st, 1899: 5,104,137.
Population on December 31st, 1909 (provisional results): 5,853,037.
Density of the population per sq. km. on December 31st, 1909: 180.
Occupations of the population on December 31st, 1899:
Manufactures 650,574 = 12.75 %
Agriculture 570,278 = 11. 17 %
Fisheries and hunting .... 22,496 = 0.44 %
Trade and transports .... 332,225 = 6.61 %
Other professions 314,716 = 6.17 %
Persons engaged in no special
occupation 33,296 = 0.65 %
Pensioners 7,072 — 0.14 %
Unknown 50 = 0.00 %
Without profession 3, 1 73,430 = 62.17%
5,104,137 = 100.00 %
366
HOLLAND
Birth and death rate per thousand :
Year Quick births Deaths
1 899- 1 903 (average). . . . 31.8 16.8
1904-1908 » .... 30.4 15. 1
190S 29.7 15.0
Illiterates per 1000 recruits :
1880 115
1S90 72
1900 23
1908 16
Emigration :
Emigrants sailing from Dutch ports:
1899 . . . 20,296 of whom 1,347 = 0.26 0/oo inhabitants, were Dutch.
190S . . . 10,545 » 3,030 = 0.52 7^ » » »
B. — Agriculture, Forests and Fisheries.
Distribution of the territory in 1908 (per hectares):
Arable land 862,740 = 26.47 %
Pasture lands .... 1,204,433 = 36.95%
Gardens 74.575 = 2.29 %
Woods 259,446 = 7.96 %
Uncultivated land . . . 858,358 = 26.33 %
Principal products in 1909 (preliminary data forwarded to the Inter-
national Institute of Agriculture by the Government of Holland):
Area Production
Hectares Quintals
Wheat 51,268 1,119,472
Rye 223,973 4,472,686
Barley 28,412 723,100
Oats 14 * .537 3,074,986
Hectolitres
Potatoes 161,259 34,280,058
Sugar beets. . . . 55,062 14,969,286
Roots 28,359 —
Artificial meadows . 66,144 —
Forage (2nd crop) . 100,932 —
SOME DEMOGRAPIHC AND ECONOMIC STATISTICS 367
Occupiers of Farms in 1904:
Proprietors Renters
From 1 to 5 hectares . 50,345 = 50.70 % 42,348 = 50.S5 %
5 » 10 » . 20,372 = 20.52 % r4,426 = 17.32 %
» IO » 20 » • 16,885= 17-01% 12,912= 15.51%
» 2° » 5o » . 10,333= 10.41% 11,672= 14.01%
» 50 » 100 » . 1,259= 1-26% 1,830= 2.20%
» 100 and over . ... 96= 0.10% 88= 0.11%
99,290 = 100.00 % 83,276 = 100.00 %
Live-stock :
i9°4 1910
H°rSeS 295,277 327.377
Cattle 1,690,463 2,026,943
Sheep 606,785 889,036
Goats 165,497 224,231
Swine 861,840 1,259,844
Poultry 5.4I7.5I8 (in 1903) 6,709,593
Bee hives 111,270 69,406
Sea Fisheries in 1907 :
Value of the products of the North Sea Herring Fisheries: 8,159.150
florins.
Product of oyster beds: 2,131,257 kgs.
Fishing boats: 5,356. Tonnage, 239,321; Crews, 20,502.
Mines, Manufactures and Commerce.
Mines
Output of coal in 1908. . . 908,201 thousands of kgs.
Value of the output . . . . 6,071 » of florins
Number of miners .... 4,896
Output of peat beds in 1902. 2,104,280 thousands of pieces.
Manufactures:
Steam engines employed in manufactures at the end of 1908:
Number of factories . .
>> of boilers . .
Heating surface in sq. m,
4,937
7,289
312,327
27.
368
HOLLAND
Inland trade in 1908:
Imports 2,824,000,000 florins
Exports 2,181,000,000 »
Value of exports and imports in 1908, distributed into 4 groups
Imports Exports
Thousands of florins Thou-ands of floiins
584,418
551.953
312,848
360,615
Food stuffs ....
63L359
Raw material . . .
686,800
Manufactured goods .
3IO>958
605,063
D. — Navigation and Inland Communications.
Merchant marine in 1908:
Sailing vessels Ste*m»rs Total
Number 4°3 283 686
Capacity (thousands
of cub. metres) . 125 1,172 1,297
Shipping movement:
■ — . —
Entered
Cleared
Numbr
Capacity
in 1,000
of cub. mtrs.
Number
Capaeity
in 1,000
of cub. mtrs.
3,991
9,8lO
9,925
26,897
4,052
9.769
9.893
26,660
Total. . .
13,801
36,822
13,821
36,553
Inland communications :
Railways on December 31st. 1908 . 3,353-8 kms.
Principal tramway lines on Decem-
ber 31st. 1907 2,173 »
Canals in 1879 3,068.6 » =
93 m. per 100 hect.
76 m. per 100 inhab.
SOME DEMOGRAPHIC ANT) ECONOMIC STATISTICS
;6g
E. -
Ordinary expenditure
Special »
Ordinary revenue .
Special » .
Finance (iqoS).
187,041 thousands of florins
6,996 » »
194,037 thousands of florins
182,327 thousands of florins
717 » »
183,044 thousands of florins
F. — Money, Weights and Measures.
Unit of value: the gulden, or florin, of 100 cents, equal to 2 1rs. 10.
A 10 florin gold piece weighs 6, 720 grammes, 9°%ooo pure gold.
The decimal metric system is adopted for weights and measures.
II. — AGRICULTURAL CO-OPERATION AND ASSOCIATION.
Our official correspondent for the Netherlands, the Director General of
Agriculture, has lent us his direct assistance in the final preparation
■ of this Monograph for the press.
Biblioéraphy.
1. Official Publications :
The most important statistics of agricultural co-operation are contained in the
Verslag over den Landbouw which appears yearly in the form of a No. of the Vers-
lagen en Mededeelingen van de Directie van de Landbouw, published by the Ministry
of Agriculture.
As the co-operative movement is not very much centralized, the Ministry finds
itself obliged to collect most of its information itself from the local associations.
This is done partly every year, partly every three or four years. As the associa-
tions have no reason for giving false statistics and the relations between the Govern-
ment and the societies leave nothing to be desired, the information is very complete
and reliable.
The statistics of the credit banks found in the Verslag over den Landbouw are
taken from the reports of the central banks, to which all the local banks are affiliated.
2. Other Publications :
1) The most complete work on agricultural co-operat:on in the Netherlands was pub-
lished by advocate Miers under the title of: Landbouwcooperatie in Ne der land (Rot-
terdam, 1907).
2) F. B. LoHNlS : Articles on agricultural co-operation in the Landbouwkundig 7yd-
schrift, 1895, 1896, 1897, 1899 and 1900.
3) P. van Hoek : lets over coopcratie op het gebied van de veefokkery (Co-operation in
cattle breeding). Landbouwkundig Tydsckrift, 1899 and 1901.
4) J. B.s Westerdyk: Cooperatic op 't gebied van den Landbouw (Agricultural co-
operation), 1 89 1.
5) Frost : Agrarverfassung in den Ncderlanden. (Berlin, 1906). Published by the Ministry
of Foreign Affairs for the German Empire, pages 389-417.
6) L'Etude du Musée Social, M: moires (Paris, 1909). La coopération agricole dans les
Pays-Bas, par le comte DE ROCQUIGNY (Social Museum Study. Proceedings (Paris, 1909).
Agricultural cooperation in the Netherlands, by the count de Rocquigny).
AGRICULTURAL CO-OPERATION 371
7) Th. Van der MaRCK: De f 'organisation du crédit rural aux Pays-Bas (Organisation
of agricultural credit in the Netherlands'. Library of the International Institute for
the Middle Classes, Ghent, 19 10.
. 8j Th. Vax der MaRCK: Boerenleenbanken (RaifTeisen system) (Agricultural credit banks
of RaifTeisen type). Roermund, 190 1.
9) La coopération agricole dans les Pays-Bas (Agricultural co-operation in the Nether-
lands). Report of the 3rd Int. Coop. Congre*;, 1897. Delft.
10) N. R. Kuperus: Zuivelcooperatie (Co-operative Dairies), 's Gravehhage, 1902.
11 J. Rixkes Borger: De Beteekenis der coopérât 'ie voor de zuivclbereiding in Friesland
Co-operation in butter-making in Friesland).
12. J. H. V. LaaK: Boer 1 tie door middel van Raijfeisenbanken (Organisation of
the peasants by means of th - RaifTeisen credit bar,
13) Landbouwkredit door middel van Raiffeisenbanken (Agricultural credit through the
Raiffeisen credit banks). Amsterdam, 1900.
3. Publications in Periodicals :
In the Netherlands there are no periodicals exclusively deoted to agricultural
co-operation. However, in the following, articles are sometimes found dealing with
this subject.
1) Nederlandsch Landbouw Weekblad ;
2) Weekblad van den Nordbraiantschcn Christelykcn Boerenbond ;
3) Land en vee, orgaan van den Litnburgschen Landbouwbond ;
i,) Officiel orgaan van den Algeineenen Nedtrlandschen Zuivelbond ;
5 : Maandblad voor de Cooperalie, orgaan van d.'/i Xederlandschen Cooperatitvcn Bond ;
6) Sociaal Weekblad.
Introduction.
The co-operative movement amongst the Dutch farmers dates from
the agricultural crisis which began to make itself felt about the year 1880.
This crisis is in part the cause of the co-operative movement, because it
forced the peasants to the improvement of their condition, and made them
accept the idea oi association. In great part, however, the movement is
due to the complete revolution that the last quarter of the nineteenth
century brought about in agricultural production and the trade in agri-
cultural produce.
The development of agricultural co-operation has been marvellous.
The figures to be found in the following pages, referring to the co-
operative societies, will assume much greater importance, when it is taken
into consideration that about the year 1890 co-operation was almost an
unknown thing among the peasants of Holland.
A fact, which deserves to be noted, is that the organization of agri-
cultural co-operation in theNetherlands was essentially due to the pr.
initiative of the peasants. The Government limited itself to the propa-
gation of the idea of co-operation by means of its officers. Agricultural
372 HOLLAND
credit and cattle breeding alone have received in the last few years a smail
subvention from the State, but it has never intervened in favour of socie-
ties for collective sale and purchase, of co-operative productive societies
or of Agricultural Mutual Insurance Societies.
A. Co-operative Legislation.
The characteristic point in the Netherlands legislation consists in leav-
ing the associations the amplest latitude of choice as to their own legal
form. There exist in Holland four types of association, namely ;
§ I. Naamlooze Yennootschap.
To obtain a civil personality these societies must get the royal sanc-
tion to the notarial deed of their constitution.
The following are the characteristics that distinguish the Naamlooze
Vennootschap (a society with liability limited by shares) from a society
founded in accordance with the law on the co-operative societies. In the
case of the Naamlooze Venoolschap it is not permitted to make changes
in the number of members, nor in the capital. The members are only
liable to the amount of their shares. The profits are shared in proportion
to the paid up shares.
The Naamlooze Vennootschap is adapted to great capitalistic enter-
prises, but hardly to the work of rural co-operative societies. Only when
these require a large capital to start with can the choice of the form of
a Naamlooze Vennootschap be preferred. Such is for example the case
in the province of Groningen, where societies of this class manage dairies,
and starch factories and manufacture cardboard from straw.
§ 2. Associations regulated by the law of 1876 upon eo-operation.
These associations have no need of royal sanction; they obtain civil
personality by virtue of the notarial deed establishing their rules, after
which these last are published in the official journal. The members of the
association assume a liability, limited or unlimited, but continuing for
a year after they have left the association. As a general rule, the profits
are not divided in proportion to the payments on shares, but in propor-
tion to the produce supplied by each of the members to the association.
i. § 3. Associations not possessing civil personality.
These associations are very numerous, especially amongst the societies
for collective purchase. Although up to the present, this kind of asso-
ciation has not led to serious difficulties, still civil personality is to be
preferred.
AGRICULTURAL CO-OPERATION 373
§4. — Associations founded in accordance with the law
°* 1855 npou the " Zedelyke lichamen ".
These associations, though also active in the economic sphere, are
formed either for the defence of professional interests, or for the fulfilment
of a moral mission. The majority of the small co-operative dairy asso-
ciations in the provinces of North Brabant and Limburg, for example,
come under this head. It is the same with the Loan and Savings Banks
affipaled to the Central Bank of Eindhoven. This Central Bank itself is
constituted in terms of the law of 1876 on the co-operative associations.
By virtue of the law of 1855 any association whose aim is not inconsis-
tent with public order shall receive the kings' approval. Such asso-
ciation, however, may not have for its object the exclusively personal
interest of its own members. By the concession of royal authorization the
association receives civil personality.
Finally it must be mentioned that the law of 1855 gives the insur-
ance co-operative societies the privilege of obtaining civil personality
without completing any special formalities or applying for royal sanction.
*%
B. Co-operative Associations.
§ I. — Co-operative Credit Societies.
The Dutch agricultural co-operative credit societies are of relatively
recent creation. The first agricultural banks were constituted towards the
end of the nineteenth century, on the initiative of the Boerenbond. They are
all of the Raiffeisen type and form dependencies of three central banks
whose headquarters are at Utrecht, Eindhoven and Alkmaar.
These Central banks are societies constituted in conformity to the
law of 1876 on the Co-operative societies. They have as members the
local banks and also individual members, admitted by the general assem-
bly. That of Utrecht also admits agricultural co-operative societies. Each
member of the Bank of Utrecht must take a share of 500 florins value,
and in that of Eindhoven, formerly one, but since 1905, two shares of
1,000 florins value.
The banks affiliated to the Central banks of Eindhoven and Alkmaar
have no liability beyond the shares taken, whilst those affiliated to the
Bank of Utrecht are only liable for 2,000 florins (4,000 francs), as regards
their Central Banks (1).
The local banks receive from the State an initial subvention (at the date
of their constitution).
(1) For further details as to the organization of co-operative credit in Holland see
our Bulletin of the Bureau of Economie and Social Intelligence, 191 1, March, p. 126.
374
HOLLAND
The accounts of the Central banks are audited by an accountant se-
lected by thé Government. The local banks have theirs audited by the
Central Bank.
The annual reports of the Central Banks above spoken of furnish very
complete statistical information ; a summary is published by the Department
of agriculture in the annual agricultural report mentioned above.
We give two tables showing the progress of agricultural credit :
Number of banks affiliated to the three central banks.
Central Bank
i899
1900
1 901
1902
i9°3
1904
1905
1906
1907
1908
1909
J Eindhoven
j Utrecht
i Alkrnaar
Total . . .
33
13
46
21
62
35
80
55
104
77
132
129
9
154
170
16
190
208
23
216
234
26
237
271
29
263
290 1
29
46
67
97
135
181
270
340
421
476
537
582 !
Numbers of men
bers of the b
inks affiliated to the three
central bank?.
Central Bank
IOOI
1902
1903
1904
1905
1906
1907
1908
Eindhoven
Utrecht
2,501
3,016
6,92s
4.605
9.679
7,712
I7.391
11,919
io,495
641
14,691
13.583
1.339
i6,8So
15.372
1,608
33.86c
1
19,166 ;
19.858
1,816 J
Alkrnaar
Total. . .
2,501
3,0 1 '■
".533
23.055
29,613
40,840
We must also note the creation in 190S, of a rural bank for credit on
mortgage, due to the initiative of the central bank of Eindhoven. The reason
for the foundation of this bank was the following. An enquiry made in
this connection revealed that a very considerable number of loans, granted
by the local banks affiliated to the central bank of Eindhoven, were con-
ceded on the security of a mortgage bond. To liberate the rural banks from
this class of customer it was judged that nothing better could be done than
to found an agricultural bank for credit on mortgage. To hinder the dege-
neration of this bank into an ordinary mortgage bank with no other
object than to make profits, of which class of institutions there is a very
large number in the Netherlands, it is laid down in the rules that only
agricultural banks can become shareholders.
AGRICULTURAL CO-OPERATION 375
§ 2. — Societies for purchase or for sale.
Co-operative purchase is carried on by the agricultural societies.
These societies are divided into three classes :
Ist The landbouwmaatschappyen branches. Forty years ago no other
agricultural societies were recognized than thes landbouwmaatschappyen of
which there was one in each province divided into local branches. These
Mo a tsi happy en pursued a variety of ends, such as the general defence of
agricultural interests, the advance of agricultural education, the foundation
of experimental farms, etc. Later, after the societies mentioned here below
in the 2nd and 3rd place, had set the example, they also began to give
their attention to co-operation ;
2nd The desire of making collective purchases was the chief cause
of the foundation in nearly every village, about 1890- 1900, of local inde-
pendent societies for this purpose, which are known under the name of
dorpslandbouwvereenigingen ;
3rd In the Catholic districts a number of these dorpslandbouwve-
reenigingen united with the provincial federations, Boerenbonden. The
number of departments and of members of these Boerenbonden increased
very rapidly because they were actively encouraged by the Catholic clergy.
The Boerenbonden interest themselves in everything that may serve the
economic interests of their members. They have especially furthered
various kinds of co-operation. It was very difficult for the landbouwmaat-
schappyen in the provinces of Limburg and of North Brabant, where
almost all the population is Catholic, to maintain their position side by side
with the Boerenbonden. In the province of Limburg the Maatschappy
became fused with the Boerenbond. The result of this fusion was the
Limburgsche Landbouwbond.
All the provincial Boerenbonden are confederated in the Nederlandsche
Boerenbond.
The number of local societies, in 191 1, is altogether 1376 (1910: 1341)
with 142,235 (1910 : 134,815) members, divided as follows: Landboiav-
maatschappyen 34,517 (1910: 32,845) members; Boerenbonden 63,874
(1910: 58,084) members, Dorpslandbouwvereenigingen 43,844(1910: 43,886)
members.
From the figures to follow, it will be seen that not all these societies
are concerned with collective purchase.
The collective purchase business is chiefly concerned with manures
(especially in the provinces of Groningen, Drenthe and Zeeland) and
with concentrated foods for cattle (above all in North Brabant, Gelderland
and Overyssel).
The majority of the Netherlands purchase co-operative societies do
not possess civil personality.
The local societies, grouped in federations, only exceptionally make use
376
HOLLAND
of the federation for collective purchase. The rule is for each branch to
make its own purchases independently of the provincial federation.
They may make such purchases either from wholesale merchants
or from the Centraal Bureau at Enschede. This Centraal Bureau, organ-
ized in 1900 by the central Committee of the Agricultural Associations
{Nederlandsch Landbouw Comité}, is a co-operative society composed of
11 members, one for each province. Each of these is elected by the pur-
chase societies of his province. The local societies desiring to pur-
chase through the Central Office address their orders to their provincial
member, who forwards them to the Centraal Bureau. The latter executes
the orders at market prices.
The Landbouwverslag (see Verslagen en Mededeelingen van de Diredie
van den Landbouw içoç, n. 4, pp. XLVI-XLVII and pp. 75, 79) gives
detailed information as to the different associations of this nature. This
information is obtained from the local associations.
The following table gives an idea of the purchases in the different
provinces in 1907 :
Co-operative purchases in 1907
Provinces
Purchases
(florins)
Number
of societies
Number
of members
2,988,014
600,957
2,119,249
2,025,607
1,852,590
421,726
1,053.537
1,869,826
I,7lO,OlI
2,650,386
1,309,668
"5
30
92
62
107
26
78
66
79
202
*39
5.871
2,253
5,916
6,189
11,140
9S1
4.381
3,"8
4,902
I7.707
11,984
Utrecht
Nederland. . .
18,601,571
996 (0
74,442
(1) The reason that this figure is lower than that given for the local societies is that there are
local societies that do not occupy themse'ves with collective purchase.
AGRICULTURAL CO-OPERATION
S77
Co-operation for sale in Holland is chiefly organized in connec-
tion with garden produce (vegetables and fruit). This co-operation is
managed by the local horticultural societies. In 1909 there were 245 of
these societies of which 80 organized public sales for the produce of their
members. In 1909 the value of produce sold amounted to more than nine
millions of florins.
Besides this, co-operative sale is carried on by the Vereeniging voor
Piuimveehoitdery (Poultry breeders' society), for their eggs, by some dairy
unions, for butter, and by the Boerenbond of the province of North Bra-
bant, for fattened waives.
§ 3 — Co-operative Production.
In this class of co operation it is incontestably the dairies that rank
first both for number and for importance. The first co-operative dairy
was founded in 18S6 at Warga (Friesland). Since then they have in-
creased rapidly. The following figures showing their condition in 1908
are taken from the official statistics contained in the Landbouwverslag, pub-
lished by the Agricultural Department.
Groningen
Friesland .
Drenthe .
O very ssel .
Gelderland
Utrecht .
North Holland
South Holland
Zeeland . .
North Brabant
Limburg . .
Netherlands
N
co-opera
worke
by
steampo
1 ruber
of
ti\e dairies
1 worked
by
ver hand
Quantity
of butter made
in the
co-operative dairies
38
4
1,674,000 kg
84
2
10,929,600 »
50
29
3,899,800 »
33
9
2,844,200 »
T-
27
4,971,600 »
5
• •
330,000 »
7
• •
101,700 »
6
2
119,500 »
4
1
128,800 »
52
150
5,322,300 »
33
101
2,843,500 »
353
328
33,165,000 kg
The number of non-co-operative dairies is 244, of which 213 are
worked by steam, and 31 by hand. The quantity of butter made in the
non-co-operative factories amounts to 11,295,000 kg.
The majority of the co-operative dairies are grouped in seven pro-
vincial federations, of which 5: Groningen, Friesland, Drenthe, Gelderland,
378 HOLLAND
Overy -el and Limburg, are united in the General Netherlands confeder-
ation of the co-operative dairy societies (i).
These provincial federations have the special rôle, amongst other
things, of centralising all purchase of technical materials for the affiliated
dairies; practising, in some degree, collective sale, they also centralise, in
some measure, the butter production of the affiliated dairies.
Another peculiarity of the Netherlands co-operative organizations consists
in the creation and development of offices of « control » of the manufacture
and quality of the butter. Their organization is due to private initiative, and
the state grants them a total subvention of 26,000 francs (13,000 florins).
Not only the co-operative dairies but also the non-co-operative ones
are for the most part attached to offices of « control ».
This system of « control » gives tne purchasers an efficient guarantee
that the butter provided with the official trade mark, is pure and it has
contributed much to the restoration of the good name of Dutch butter,
which ran the risk of being lost through the sale of the adulterated art-
icle. In 1909 the quantity of butter made under the control of these
« control » offices was 43 millions kg.
Among other agricultural industries we must note some hundred co-
operative cheese-making establishments, chiefly in the province of North
Holland, 13 co-operative starch factories in the provinces of Groningen,
D. vnthe and Overyssel, 6 co-operative factories of goods made from straw
in the provinces of Groningen and Drenthe, and two beetroot sugar fac-
tories, one in the province of Zeeland and one in North Brabant.
§ 4. — Co-operation in Cattle Rearing.
The associations for improvement of horned cattle may be divided
into three groups :
1. The stierhouderyen, having no other end than the collective pur-
chase of bulls ;
2. The contrôlevereenigingen, formed for the « control » of the milk
yeld of the cows belonging to members ;
3. The fokvereenigingen which are real breeding societies, « control »
the milk yield and keep genealogical registers.
The number of these three groups of societies, which, for the most
part, receive Government aid, at the beginning of 1910, was as under:
Stierhouderyen 170
Contrôlevereenigingen 87
Fokvereenigingen 61
Total . . . "3Î8
(1) In 1909 North Brabant left the confederation, thus diminishing the number of
affiliated dairies. A detailed study on the development of the Co-operative Dairies in the
Netherlands was published in our " Bulletin of the Bureau of Economic and Social In-
telligence ", I9II, January, page 89.
AGRICULTURAL CO-OPERATION
In North Holland, where the number of Fokvereenigingen is greater
than -in other provinces, these societies are associated in a provincial fede-
ration {Provinciale Bond van Rundveefokvereenigingen).
Side by side with these breeding societies, and working in harmony
with them, are the Netherlands Herdbook, and the Frisian Herdbook.
For the improvement of the equine race, there exist a large number
of societies for the purchase of good stallions
Besides which we must mention het Nederlandsch Paardens/amdock,
with branches in five provinces and seven independent herdbooks in the
different provinces.
For some years past, people have begun to give greater attention than
formerly to the improvement of the breeds of goats, sheep and pigs. In
several provinces, breeding societies for this purpose have been formed
§ 5. — Agricultural Assurance Societies.
Ist. The most important branch of agricultural mutual assurance deals
with life assurance of live stock. This form of assurance, which is very
widely spread in Holland, has made notable progress since 1880.
All the associations are founded on private initiative, and they receive
no State assistance. They are not federated.
The small societies have little desire for federation. The reason of
this is that now the management can be very simple and inexpensive, so
that all official services may be performed gratuitously, whilst the limited
number of members, who all know each other, is a guarantee against care-
lessness and fraud. Associating in federation would necessitate a perfect
administration, carried on by paid functionaries. The following statistical
table taken from the Verslag over den Landbouw gives an idea of the
Livestock mutual life insurance societies in 1896 :
1
» » members ....
• » animals insured
Horses
Cattle
Pigs
Sheep
and goats
377
3o,447
56,814
1,692
748
72,797
273>099
5.294
56
4,357
9,096
582
55
3,857
6,362
4S3
20 Insurance against hail is undertaken in Holland by nine mutual so-
cieties. Small cultivators, however, do not usually insure their crops. In
1906, the number of hectares insured by the nine mutual societies was
86,562 for a value of 14,898,000 florins. These figures show that in the Ne-
therlands only 8 % of the crops are insured against hail.
RUSSIA
SOME DEMOGRAPHIC AND ECONOMIC STATISTICS.
Sources :
Russian Year-book. Published by the General Management of Agriculture. St. Petersburg,
1909.
Russian Statistical Year-book. Published by the Central Statistical Committee. St. Peters-
burg, 1909.
Foreign Trade Reports. Monthly and Annual Publications of the Department of Finance.
St. Petersburg, 1909.
Official Messenger. St. Petersburg, 19 10.
Collection of Statistical and Economic Data. Published by the General Management of
Agriculture. St. Petersburg, 1909.
Statistique des superficies cultivées, de la production végétale et du bétail dans les Pays
adhérents. Institut International d'Agriculture. Rome, 1910 (Statistics of Cultivated
Areas and of vegetable and animal production in the adhering countries. International
Institute of Agriculture. Rome, iqio).
A. — Territory and Population.
Area: sq. km. 21,463,290.
Population as estimated on the 1st. January, 1908: 155,433,300.
Population according to the Census of 1897 : 126,896,200.
Geographical Distribution of the Population on the 1st. January, 1908:
Europetm Russia :
50 Russian Provinces 113,841,000 inh. or 26.8 per sq. km.
10 Polish Provinces . 11,360,900 » » 101.S »
Finland 2,968,600 » » 10.3 »
Caucasus 10,908,400 >> » 26.2 »
Russia in Asia:
Siberia 7,049,200 » » 0.6 »
Central Asia . . . 9,305,200 » » 2.9 »
Average Density of the Population for the Empire on the"Tst. Jan-
uary, 1908,: 8.1 per sq. km.
382 RUSSIA
Distribution of the Population:
a) according to race :
Russians 65.5 %
Turco— Tartars 10.6 %
Poles 6.2 %
Fins 4.5 %
Lithuanians 2.4 %
Germanic Group 1.6 %
Kartvèle Group 1.1 %
Hill-Tribes of the Caucasus .... 0.9 %
Armenians 0.9 %
Mongols 0.4 %
Other Native Races 5.9 %
b) accordi?ig to social condition:
per 1000 inhabitants
Nobility and State Functionaries ... 15
Clergy 5
Middle Classes, Tradesmen and Artisans. 112
Peasants 771
Cossacks 23
Various Native Tribes and Foreign Subjects 74
c) according to age :
Under 10 years . 27.3
From 11 to 19 years 2 1 . 1
» 20 » 29 » 16.2
» 30 » 39 » 12.6
» 40 » 49 » 9.3
» 50 » 59 » 6.6
» 60 » 69 » 4.3
Above 70 years 2.6
Illiterate :
per 1000 inhabitants
Males 707
Females 869
Average for the two sexes 789
SOME DEMOGRAPHIC AND ECONOMIC STATISTICS
j°j
Movement ot' the Population in 1903:
Births Deaths
Males 2,554,799 1,607,428
Females 2,423,506 i,495>785
Average per 1 ,000 inha-
bitants 48.1 30.0
Increase of the Population per 1,000 inhabitants: 18,1.
Marriages: 912,082.
Internal Emigration :
Emigrants (peasants) who passed from European Russia to Siberia
from 1896 to 1898 : 2.150,748.
Foreign Emigration :
Number of Emigrants in 1906: 122,191.
B. — Agriculture and Forestry.
Division of land— areas in 1908 :
Cultivated Lands 99,085,259 ha.
Meadows and Grazing Lands. 34,954,905 »
Forests 426,540,955 »
Division of landed property (in 1905) in Russia in Europe (exclusive of
the Polish Provinces and Finland) :
Déciatines
Crown Lands 138,086,168
Appanages 7,843,015
Churches 1,871,858
Convents 739*777
Towns 2,042,570
Various 4,106,125
Total . . . 154,689,513
28.
384 RUSSIA
Private Pro pert)- :
Déciatines
Peasants 148,735,808
(including 124,078,089 déciatines of the mid tel) (1).
Nobles 53,169,008
Merchants 16,669,049
Cossacks 14,689,498
Lower Middle Classes 3,828,537
Foreign Subjects 352,438
Clergy 337,2°6
Miscellaneous 2,721,386
Total . . . 240,502,930
Principal Produce in 1909 :
Area Yield
Corn 26,483,781 ha. 213,425,189 q.
Rye 29,143,059 » 228,077,539 »
Barley 10,886,947 » 103,899,461 »
Oats 18,732,399 » 166,450,455 »
Maize 1,539,654 » 10,149,616 »
Potatoes .... 4,361,389 » 324,860,958 »
Hay 35,351,396 » 491,506,065 »
Averages 1 904-1 908 :
Corn 24,874,999 ha. 157,412,661 q.
Rye 29,732,683 » 203,598,269 »
Barley 9,981,352 » 75,707>783 »
Oats 18,316,831 » 134,353,926 »
Maize 1,409,842 » 12,343,296 »
Potatoes .... 4,139,995 » 275,475,714 »
Animals (Census of 1909) :
Horses 29,564,502
Cattle 43,377,886
Sheep and Goats 61,460,853
Pigs 12,113,937
C. — Mines, commerce.
Mines :
Number of miners in 190S : 582,408.
(1) The land the peasantes received as collective property on the abolition of serfdom.
SOME DEMOGRAPHIC AND EC< >NOMIC STATISTICS
Mineral and General Output in 190S:
Gold .
Platinum
Copper
Zinc . ,
Mercury
Pig-iron .
Iron
Steel . .
Ponds
(1 pond = 16.3; kg.)
1,862
320
519,333
4^2,973
I 940I
166,834,756
9>786>5i5
138,364,610
Coal 1.139,714,707
Naphtha .
Manganese
Salt. . .
Cotton. .
Tobacco .
461,153,949
31,009,287
112,468,734
23,000,000
4,500,000
Special trade :
Imports
Exports
(not including the prec'ous metals)
Roubles
Year 190S 912,659,360 998,250,391
Average from 1903 to 1907 723,300,000 1,046,600,000
D. — Navigation and Inland Communication.
Sea-going Shipping in 1908 :
Ports
Ships Entered
Ships Cleared
Number Tonnage
Number Tonnage
White Sea and Arctic Ocean :
Russian Vessels
Foreign Vessels
Baltic Sea:
Russian Vessels . .
339
6lO
953
5-367
451
3>243
52,957
617,592
573,043
4,094,432
556,356
4,808,433
312
609
1,046
5,394
3H
3,235
52,071
617,404
665,251
4i4o,595
373.556
4,788,784
Foreign Vessels
Black Sea and Sea of Azov:
Russian Vessels
Total :
Russian Vessels
1,743
9,220
1,182,356
9,520,457
1,672
9,238
1,090,878
9»546,783
Foreign Vessels
Total. . .
10,963
10,702,813
10,910
10,637,661
1
Railways: Length of Railway lines in 1909: 69,990 km.
3S6 RUSSIA
E. — State Finances.
Budget passed for the year 191 1 :
Ordinary Expenditure in thousands of Roubles 2,527,272,220
Extraordinary » » » 192,836,607
Rbls. 2,720,108,827
Ordinary Revenue in thousands of Roubles . 2,707,708,827
Extraordinary » » » 12,400,000
Rubls. 2,720,108,827
F. — Money, Weights and Measures.
Unit of Value : the rouble (V15 of an Imperial) of 100 kopeks =
2.66 francs.
Weight: Pound = 0.4095174101.; Poud (40 pounds) = 16.38 legs. ;
Tons — 1,000 legs. Shipping Last (2 tons) = 1,965.72 kgs.
Measures : Length. Foot = 0.304794 metre ; saghie (7 feet) =
2.13356 metres; ar chine (V3 of the sagène) ; verschok (7i6 of the archine);
verste (500 sagènes) = 1.067 kilometres. Superficies: Square Sagène =
4.5521 sq. metres. Square archine = 0.5080 sq. metre; déciatine =
109.25 ares. Capacity : védro (liquids) .= 12,229 litres ; Tcheivert = 209,726
litres; Tchetverik (grain) = 26.2175 litres; cubic Sagène = 9.632 cubic
metres.
IL — AGRICULTURAL CO-OPERATION IN RUSSIA.
Bi bliography.
a) Official Publications:
Law of the 7th. June, IÇ04 on Small Credit Institutions.
Collection of Laws and Regulations relating to Agricultural Organization. Published by
the Office of the CommiUee for Agricultural Matters, at the General Management of
Agriculture. St. Petersburg, 1908.
Supplement No. 1 to the Collection of Laws abovementioned. St. Petersburg, 19 10.
Russian Year-book. Published by the Central Statistical Committee (Home Office). St. Pe-
tersburg, 1909.
Bulletin (Izvestia) of the General Management of Agriculture and Agricultural Organ-
ization. St Petersburg, Years 1909 and 19 10.
The Agricultural Associations in Russia in 1Q08. Publication of the General Manage-
ment of Agriculture (Department of Agricultural Economics and Statistics). St. Pe-
tersburg, 1910.
The Financial, Industrial and Commercial Messenger. Weekly PubV'cation of the Department
of Finance. St. Petersburg, 19 10.
Agricultural Credit in Russia. Publication of the General Management of Agriculture and
Agricultural Organization. St. Petersburg, 1910.
Collection of Statistical and Economic Data characterizing the Situation of Agriculture in
Russia and in several Foreign Countries. Publication of the General Management of
Agriculture and Agricultural Organization (Department of Agricultural Economics
and Statistics) St. Petersburg, 1909.
b) Other Publications :
Proceedings of the National Congress of Co-operative Societies at Moscoiv. Moscow, 1908.
Present Condition of Small Credit in Russia. Publication of the Petersburg Branch of
the Committee of the Moscow Agricultural Society for matters in connection with
the Agricultural Loan and Savings Associations and the Industrial Associations. S(. Pe-
tersburg, 1909. Press of the Department of Finance.
388 RUSSIA
S. Borodaïevsky : Proposed Law on Co-operative Associations. St. Petersburg. igoS. Press
of the Department of Finance.
The Commercial and Industrial Gazette. St. Petersburg daily paper. Year 1910.
N. Makarow: The Co-operative Movement among the Peasants of West Siberia. Moscow
Mamontow Press, 19 10.
P. LOKHTINE : Comparison of the Conditions of Agriculture in Russia and in Other Coun-
tries at the beginning of the XXth. Century. St. Petersburg, 190 1.
D. M. Bobylfav: The Zemstvo and Co-operation. Peron, 19 10.
A. F. TCHOUPROW; Small Credit and Co-operation. Moscow, 1909.
Rossia. St. Petersburg daily paper.
V. Kra'ixskY: Organization of Small Credit in Turkestan. St. Petersburg, 1909.
S. Borodaïevsky: Handbook of Small Credit. St. Petersburg, 1909.
S. O. MarGOLINE: The Jewish Co-operative Credit Societies. St. Petersburg, 1908.
V. Kra'insky: The Rural Commune and Co-operation. St. Petersburg, 1907.
V. TOTOMIANTS: Agricultural Co-operation. St. Petersburg, 1908.
A. BaLAKCHINE: The Siberian Co-operative Butter-making Societies. Moscow, 1 908.
L. T. KOVALEVSKY: Co-operation and the Artelle. Moscow, 1908.
§ 1. General Development.
The great mass of the agricultural population in Russia remained
until recent years more or less opposed to the co-operative movement,
which is everywhere gaining ground. It is none the less true that the prin-
ciples of mutual aid have long been practically applied by the Russian
peasants. The Russian artelle is, in fact, one of the most ancient forms
of professional co-operative association. Although opinions are divided as
to its origin, it is anyhow certain that the early ar telles were purely pa-
triarchal in character. They were, as a rule, small associations of peasants,
who periodically left their homes, either in search of temporary work, as
carpenters, joiners, packers, messengers, or porters in the towns, or of
agricultural work outside their commune.
The artelles differed from the ancient trade guilds in having neither
rules nor regulations, and by the fact that their chiefs (starosta) enjoyed,
by traditional right, very extensive powers. The members of these artelles
took their meals together and lodged together.
A considerable number of artelles have in turn been transformed into
large co-operative labour sociedes, regulated by rules. Such are, for example,
the cashiers' and collectors' artelles at St Petersburg, Moscow and Yaroslaw,
which provide the large banks, the workshops, factories and shops with
almost all their confidential staff. Besides these associations, there are
AGRICULTURAL CO-OPERATION 389
large artelles of porters and packers, carpenters, joiners, masons, navvies
and carters.
With very few exceptions, the members of all these artelles own little
farms in their villages, in which they pass a part of the year.
Another characteristic feature of these artelles is that each of these
associations is generally formed of peasants from one and the same province.
Certain large and especially prosperous artelles, have at their disposal
very large funds (amounting to millions of roubles) and have current
accounts at the banks. These associations are well aware of the great influ-
ence they exert and of the prestige they enjoy. So, on the registration of
new members, they exact, in addition to the subscription laid down in
their rules, the payment of a relatively high premium. The new members
submit very readily to this exaction, because the artelle undertakes at once
to procure them permanent employment and even gives them a fixed
allowance during the periods of forced unemployment. Any member who
becomes an invalid leaves the artelle and withdraws his share of the capital.
The agricultural co-operative societies properly so called are of much
more recent formation. The Russian legislation of recent years is visibly
tending to favour their development in every way, especially in the hope
that these co-operative societies may become one day important factors
in the export trade in cereals and other agricultural produce.
In the following sketch we shall set forth the different phases of the
development of Russian agricultural co-operation in its main lines.
§ 2. Co-operative Credit Societies.
Among the agricultural co-operative societies, the credit societies come
first by right of age. The first co-operaiive loan and savings association
was formed in 1866, at Dorovatovo, in the district of Vetlouga (province
of Kostroma). Three years later, we find a loan and savings bank, also
co-operative in character, formed at Fellin (Livonia). The Dorovatovo
association and the Fellin bank served as models for co-operative credit
societies in other provinces and districts.
The Fellin bank differed from the Doiovatovo co-operative association,
in exacting from its members an immediate money contribution, to be made
once for all; whilst the Dorovatovo co-operative association permitted its
members to pay up their shares by annual instalments.
The initiative of the founders of the Dorovatovo co-operative associa-
tion excited the special interest of the Moscow Agricultural Society (1),
(1) This Society, without being a co-operative society in the strict acceptation of the
term, has for its object- the development of rural economy and agricultural industry in
every way.
3t)0 RUSSIA
which, in 1871, organized a special committee to favour the progress of
co-operative societies of this character throughout the empire. The Imper-
ial Treasury encouraged the Moscow Society in this work and granted
it a subsidy of 5,000 roubles. Influential representatives of the Ze?nsivo
(independent provincial and district administrative bodies) were called to
form part of the above-mentioned committee (i), and gradually a large
number of co-operative associations were formed, similar to that of Do-
rovatovo, in almost all the provinces of European Russia. The provincial
zemstvo of Novgorod was the first to grant pecuniary subsidies to the agri-
cultural co-operative credit societies; thanks to its support, seven co-ope-
rative societies were founded in that province, receiving a subsidy of 1 ,000
roubles each. On the 1st July, 1871, there were 36 new agricultural co-op-
erative credit societies at work in European Russia, to which the zemstvo
had granted loans. In the course of the six years 1872-1877, other 782 co-
operative societies of this character were formed, and the zemstvo boards
of management granted them a total subvention of 321,000 roubles. This
forward movement slackened abruptly in 1878, and the number of new
co-operative societies fell gradually from 329 in the period 1878-1883,
to 80 in 1884-1886. After 1887, the zemstvo boards of management, finding
that the majority of the co-operative societies had allowed themselves to
be turned aside from their mission, ceased to interest themselves in their
fortunes, and were from that time only anxious to recover the loans they
had made to them under the form of subsidies.
Experience had shown that the co-operative societies, by insisting on
the formation of a share capital (to be paid up either entirely at the start,
or in several annual instalments) only attracted a minority of the agricul-
tural population, remaining entirely inaccessible to the great mass of the
peasants.
The zemstvo boards of management further found that a large number
of peasants in comfortable circumstances who had quite enough money
to satisfy their personal requirements borrowed from the co-operative so-
cieties solely to lend in their turn to a third party, and that under con-
ditions extremely burdensome for their debtors (2).
As soon as the co-operative societies found themselves compelled to
repay the zemstvo the subsidies they had received, the majority of them
went into liquidation. In 1888, 395 co-operative societies had already vir-
tually ceased to exist.
(1) Among the pioneers of the Russian Agricultural Co-operative Movement, we must
mention, MM. S. Longuinine, A. Yakovlew, Prince A. Vassiltchikow, Prince A. Tcherkasski,
MM. A. Kochelew, D. Samarine, V. Pertsow, A. Tchouprow, X. Verestchaguine, S. Mouk-
hortow and J. Brylxine.
(2) Agricultural Credit in Russia, page 139.
AGRICULTURAL CO-OPERATION 391
At the date of the revision of the charter of the State Bank, in 1893,
the subject of the reform of small agricultural credit was raised, leading
to the promulgation on the 1st June, 1895, of a special law upon " loan and
savings co-operative associations " and on " agricultural co-operative credit
societies. " The following year official model regulations were published
or these two forms of co-operative societies.
The " loan and savings co-operative societies " were, according to the
conception of the law, to have a regional character and to fill, in a certain
measure, the office of central banks for the small " Agricultural co-opera-
tive credit societies " whose rôle was to be purely local. It is true that
the loan and savings co-operative societies, as they existed at the start,
could admit as members, co-operative associations, artelles and rural
communes as well as individuals ; but they remained inaccessible in fact
to the small farmer, for each member had to pay up at the very moment
of his admission a share of 100 roubles ^266 francs), an amount not often
within the reach of a peasant.
New principles having been adopted in 1904 for the general reform
of small credit in Russia, the regulations of the " loan and savings co-opera-
tive societies " underwent considerable modification.
The general management of the service of popular credit institutions
has been entrusted to an office dependent on the State Bank and bearing
the title of " General Administratioyi of Small Credit. " This office has a
president, chosen from among the members to the Board of Directors of
the State Bank, and a Central Committee, to which belong, besides the
president and vice president, representatives of the Imperial Control (Au-
ditor's Office), of the Departments of Agriculture, Home Affairs, and Fin-
ance, and of other public services concerned. The president has power
to invite, when he shall judge necessary, representatives of the zemstvo
and of the various associations to take part in the meetings of the cen-
tral committee, with the right to speak but no vote.
The General Administration of Small Credit has the following func-
tions :
1 st. It distributes donations in money to the new associations and
grants subsidies to the already existing associations to increase their
funds ;
2nd. It provides for the popularizing of small credit by the public-
ation of popular tracts;
3st. It is entrusted with the chief management and the examination
of the accounts of the popular credit institutions.
The general administration of small credit has a large staff of exam-
iners and revisers.
Its provincial agents are:
392
RUSSIA
ist. The provincial committees, to which the representatives of the
various public services interested belong;
2nd. Special inspectors attached to the branches of the State
Bank.
All these agents must be vigilant to see that the popular credit asso-
ciations and establishments conform to the regulations and instructions
of the General Administration.
One of the first acts of the new Administration of small credit was to
prepare model regulations (promulgated on the 29th March, 1906) for the
loan and savings banks of the rural communes. The opening of these
banks follows upon the decision taken in conformity thereto by a majority
of at least two thirds of the inhabitants of the commune possessing voters'
rights.
These banks, which are strictly co-operative in character, may enter
into business relations with the zemstvo provincial and district banks insti-
tuted by the law of the 7th June, 1904. Among their other powers, the
zemstvo banks may grant loans to small co-operative banks, to artelles,
artisans, small manufacturers and farmers.
The zemstvo banks, like the banks of the small rural communes, may
receive deposits from third parties and contract loans within the limits
provided for in their regulations.
The liability of the members of the rural co-operative banks may be
limited or unlimited, according as the General Meeting shall decide.
In order to assimilate the " Loan and Savings Co-operative Societies "
to other rural banks, the necessary amendments were introduced into their
regulations. The principal change introduced was the reduction of the
amount of the share to be paid up by each member from 100 roubles to
10 roubles.
The general provisions of the various legislative measures taken since
1904 have, in fact, ended in the unification of the service of all the popular
banks under State control.
As we have just said, the co-operative credit societies are subdivided
into two groups, that is to say:
a) those styled loan and savings banks, and
b) those styled credit associations.
From 1 87 1 to 1877, 966 loan and savings banks were formed,
of which 416 received from the zemstvo institutions loans amounting alt-
ogether to 1,162,420 francs (437,000 r.). A great number of these banks
had to go into liquidation, and there followed a period of decline for these
establishments (up to the year 1895). On the ist. January, 1907, there
were in Russia, altogether, 979 of these banks, and 1,210 Credit Associations
(approaching the Raiffeisen type) at work. On the ist. September. 1908,
AGRICULTURAL CO-OPERATION 393
the number of the first had risen to 1.386 and that of the Credit Associations
to 2,360 (1).
According to the data furnished by 902 loan and savings banks and
by 1,199 credit associations (on the 1st. January, 1907), these two groups
of co-operative credit societies had the following available funds :
Loan and Savings Banks Credit Associations
Thousands of francs
Capital belonging to the
Institutions . . . . 54,695 3>822
Capital borrowed . . . 110,890 36,657
It is seen from this statement, that each of the loan and savings
banks, on an average, had at its disposal 194,000 francs of capital, while
the credit associations, on an average, had only about 3,227 francs each.
As to the number of members (with regard to which we have only
fragmentary data), it varies greatly with the different regions. The loan
and savings banks having a regional character, some of them have bet-
ween 5,000 and 7,000 members (that of Vinnitsa, in Podolia, for example,
has more than 7,000). The banks that had more than 1,000 members
each, at the beginning of 1907, were 122. The loan and savings banks
which furnished data as to the number of their members were 873 Ac-
cording to these data they had altogether 431,526 members (1), on the
(1) On the 1st. January, 1909, the Loan and Savings Banks numbered 1,116 and the
Credit Associations 3,070.
Number of the co-operative societies working on the 1st. January 1910, according
to the Messager de la cooperation (Messenger of the Co-operative Societies).
Loan and Savings Banks Mutual Credit Association
Approximate figures .... 4,000 3>2o°
The average number of members being between 450 and 500 per Co-operative Society
the total number of members may be estimated at about 2 millions.
These Co-operative Societies have been, in the greater number of cases, formed
in the provinces of Perm (170 credit associations and 64 loan and savings banks) and of
Kherson (242 credit associations and 59 loans and savings bank). The other provinces that
possessed between 100 and 200 co-operative credit societies were 23 in number (Southern
Rnssia, centre of the zone called the " black land ", the Volga basin, Viatka and Livonia)
The provinces possessing each between 50 and 100 co-operative credit societies were 8 in
number. The provinces of Siberia, Transcaucasia and Turkestan have each of them less
than 10 co-operative credit societies.
(i) M. S. Borodaïevsky, Departmental vice director, at the Ministry of Commerce,
in his report presented at the last Brussels Congress, gives the following approximate figures :
Loan and Savings Banks Credit Associations
Number of members on the 1st. January, iqio ... » 1,693,000
Number of members on the 1st. January, 190S . . . 545.000 »
394
RUSSIA
ist. January, 1907. At the same date, 1,199 credit associations had 501,379
members. We get thus the following averages:
Loan and Pavings Banks Credit Associations
Average number of members
per association 494
418
The financial statements of these two groups of co-operative societies
give us the following totals (on the ist. January, 1907):
902 Loan and Savings Banks 'iiço. Ciedit Associations
Thousands of francs
Debits:
Capital in Shares
Reserve Fund . .
Special Funds . .
Deposits ....
Loans contracted
Commission account
Temporary amounts
Interest and Credit balance
Total . .
Credits :
41,706
6,336
7.951
1,037
1,583
420
01,651
20,884
i4>l83
9,978
11
40
4,573
261
4,027
1,524
175,686
Credit balance in current ac-
counts in Credit Institutions 9,504
Bills and Acceptances . . . 10,829
Loans 147,032
Goods bought 199
Real and Personal Estate . 3,673
Expenditure and Losses . . 354
Cash in hand
Total
i7i>59i
• 4,094
• 175,685
40,480
1-553
511
35,796
410
596
128
38,994
1,487
40,481
The funds belonging to the banks include members' shares, reserve funds
and funds of special destination (funds for the extinction of debts on real
estate purchased, for assistance to members, and those set apart against
AGRICULTURAL CO-OPERATION 395
irrecoverable claims, etc.). To the funds belonging to the banks the avail-
able amount of the net profit is added.
One of the characteristics by which the loan and saving banks are
distinguished from the co-operative societies designated by the title of credit
associations is that, in the first, the capital is chiefly composed of the shares
of the members themselves, while the capital of the credit associations is,
for the most part, made up of loans, generally contracted with the State
Bank and to a lesser degree with the respective independent provincial and
district institutions {zemstvo). The total amount of capital borrowed by
the credit associations on the 1st January, 1907, was divided as follows :
Capital borrowed
(in Francs)
From the State Bank 4,729,480
From the zemstvo 361,760
From other parties 404,320
The State Bank generally grants this class of co-operative societies
loans for their capital account varying between 2,660 and 5,320 francs,
according to the territorial extension of their sphere of operations.
The capital borrowed from other parties is furnished to the credit
associations chiefly by the rural communes, by the boards of managements
of the volostes, by agricultural societies and by banks.
Besides the loans made to the capital account at their start, the State
Bank grants these co-operative societies loans for a period of time in order
to facilitate their current operations. We have only fragmentary data
on this matter. It appears from these data that, on the 1st January, 1907,
the State Bank was under this head creditor of 990 credit associations for
the amount of 7,591,640 francs, and of 841 loan and savings banks for the
amount of 1,095,220 francs.
The loan service of these two classes of co-operative credit societies
naturally forms the most interesting part of the balance sheets reproduced
in the pamphlet published by the committee. The following statement gives
under this head a recapitulation for the three financial years 1905, 1906
and 1907 :
39<>
RUSSIA
Number
of
Co-operative
Societies
Credit
Balance
on Loan
Accounts
Average
per
Co-operative
Society
(thousands of roubles)
Average
Debt
per
Member
Average
Debt
per
Borrower
(roubles)
On the Ist January, 1905:
Loan and Savings Banks. .
Credit Associations
On the Ist January, 1906:
Loan and Savings Banks. .
Credit Associations
On the Ist January, 1907:
Loan and Savings Banks. .
Credit Associations
877
536
856
773
902
1,199
47294
4,786
49.943
8,273
55.275
13,457
61
1 1
54
123
9
24
58
125
11
27
129
27
39
46
53
According to the information published by the General Management
of Agriculture (Collection of Statistical and Economic Data regarding
agriculture in Russia and in other countries), on the 31st of December,
1909, the following were the total figures presented by the mutual credit
and savings associations: :
Number of Associations 1,476
Number of Members 673,590
Roubles
Assets and Liabilities 96,046,843
Loans Granted 79,796.117
Deposits and Amounts Borrowed (excluding
those received from the State Bank) . . 65,071,078
At the same date the total figures shown by the credit associations
were :
Number of Associations 2,691
Number of Members 1,269,230
Roubles
Assets and Liabilities 36,545,363
Loans Granted 22,159,922
Deposits and Amounts B01 rowed (excluding
those received from the State Bank) . . 21,109,088
AGRICULTURAL CO-OPERATIOX 397
It is seen from this that the average debt of the members of the loan
and savings banks greatly exceeds, that of the members of the co-operative
societies styled credit associations. This is due, first of all, to the fact
that the members of the loan and savings banks are generally small man-
ufacturers and more or less well to do farmers. As these banks require
their members to make an immediate payment towards the capital on
their admission, which is not done by the small co-operative societies,
known as credit associations, which are not obliged to form a share capital,
the result is that the first attract a contingent of members in easier cir-
cumstances. Further, we must observe, that in the figures given above,
indicating the amount of the average debt of members, no account is taken
of the credit of the member in question on account of his shares.
In other words to get the net amount of the members' debt, we
should, strictly speaking, deduct from the amount given above the sum
paid up by the same members in liberating their shares.
Now, as this sum may vary between 26 and 266 francs according to
the provisions in the rules of the different banks, it is evident that the
difference between the figures shown above for the debt per member and
that of the real debt of the same members may be very considerable.
Popular credit in Russia being organized in such a manner that no
distinction is made between the agricultural and the town banks, we may
observe that, of the 1,199 co-operative credit societies mentioned above,
only 66 are town banks. It is further to be noted that 24 of these 66 town
societies extend their operations also to country districts.
The loans of the co-operative credit associations, in 1906, were, under
the following heads:
Amount
of
loans granted
(in francs)
For purchase of land 645,625
» various buildings 3,184,552
» agricultural works 61,978
» purchase of implements etc 803,852
» purchase of cattle 6,142,472
» purchase of manure Z2^1^
» hire of lands 4,426,772
» purchase of seeds 1,571,794
» purchase of requisites 1,792,308
» hiring labour 649,838
» purchase of goods to be re-sold 3,335,640
» purchase of fodder 1,204,980
» payment of debts, accounts, and for various expenses 5,935.736
398 RUSSIA
It is evident that the small co-operative credit associations have espe-
cially facilitated the purchase of cattle, and the lease of farm lands and
rural buildings.
§ 3. Co-operative Societies for Production, Purchase and Sale.
The other co-operative societies (for production, purchase and sale)
are regulated either by special rules, or by uniform regulations, models
of which were officially published in 1897 and 1908.
The special law of 1908 had for its object the encouragement oi small
agricultural co-operative societies. It abolished the obligation for members
to form a capital in shares, substituting for the purchase of shares small
annual payments, the amount of which is fixed by the General Meeting.
The simplest forms have been adopted to regulate the work of these co-
operative societies, of which, as a rule, only peasants residing in the same
village and on the neighbouring farms, should be members. The debts
of the association are secured by the whole of the assets and by the per-
sonal property of the members up to three times the amount of their
annual subscriptions.
Although the majority of the associations, in terms of their rules,
propose to " arrange for the purchase of everything that may be required
in agriculture ", and for the sale of" every kind of agricultural produce ",
in practice their action is limited to operations of a certain class. Thus,
for example, the great Esthonian co-operative society, formed in 1897 at
Reval, is almost exclusively concerned with the provision of manures,
machines, and agricultural implements, dairy plant, iron and steel goods
and building material. The Federation of the Siberian Butter-making Socie-
ties, also regulated by the rules of 1897, devotes itself to the exportation of
butter, whilst the Pomiestchik (1) association with its headquarters at
St Petersburg, was founded with the sole object of selling in the capital and
in other towns the produce of the butter making establishments and dairies
belonging to the landowners of the Baltic Provinces. A co-operative
association at Warsaw only concerns itself with agricultural improvements
both on its members' land and for third parties.
§ 4. Cooperative Butter Factories in Western Siberia (2).
The development of co-operation among the Siberian butter manu-
facturers, in its different phases, exhibits characteristic features which give
(1) Landed Property.
(2) In view of the special importance of these co-operative societies, we think it well
in this article to give some details as to their work ng, which, for want of space, we
cannot do in the case of other Russian co-operative productive societies.
AGRICULTURAL CO-OPERATION 399
us a general idea of the agricultural cooperative movement in a region
of more than 2 million square kilometres.
M. N. Makorow, in a volume recently published, under the title of
The Co-operative Movement among the Peasants of Western Siberia (Mos-
cow, Marmontow Press, 19 10) furnishes unpublished data on this subject,
which we shall reproduce here in as concise a form as possible.
The Siberian butter industry is spread all over the provinces of Tobolsk
and Tomsk, and a portion of the provinces of Yenissei and Orenburg,
as well as of the territories of Akmolinsk and Semipalatinsk. Besides this,
the industry is making constant progress in the province of Perm.
Up to the date of the construction of the Transsiberian Railway (1894),
the population of this immense region was extremely scattered and com-
posed principally of small farmers. Large estates were almost entirely
unknown in Siberia, and average sized estates had but an insignificant
vole. According to M. Kaufmann, there were, at the opening of the Trans-
Siberian Railway, only 719 landed estates in Siberia of a total area of 430,000
hectares. The town population formed hardly 7 % of the total inhabitants.
This proportion decreased further to about 5 % towards the end of the
19th-century, after the opening ot the Transsiberian Railway for traffic,
which favoured the movement of inland emigration and brought hundreds
of thousands of colonists to the Siberian regions (1).
Together with the construction of the Transsiberian Railway, the
Imperial Government provided for the study of a series of measures to
be taken for the encouragement of Siberian rural economy, and it was
decided, amongst other details, to favour the extension of the butter indu-
stry by sending into Siberia a certain number of specialists as instructors.
In the vast region traversed by the railway, cattle rearing formed
the principal industry of the agricultural populations. The abundance and
extraordinary extent of the natural meadows favoured the development of
this agricultural industry.
A St. Petersburg merchant of the name of Valkow, was the first to
inaugurate a butter factory (in 1894) near tne town of Kourgan. His
example was soon followed by a large number of small speculators, who
bought the milk by weight (at about 5 centimes the kilogramme) from
the peasants, and exported the butter to the great centres of European
Russia. These speculators were followed by the agents of various foreign
firms (English, Danish and Hamburg) by whom offices were opened at Kour-
gan, Omsk, Ka'insk and Barnaoul. These firms were not long in getting
almost the whole of the Siberian export butter trade into their hands. The
(1) According to official data, in the course of the period 1 906-1909, 2,841,602 peas-
ants have immigrated into Siberia by the Transsiberian, of whom about 90% have per-
manently settled there, Rossia of the 6th- 19th. November, 19 10.
29,
4oû RUSSIA
butter was supplied to the exporters from hundreds of small dairies ma-
naged by private people. A great number of these small manufacturers
also owned shops, where the peasants could buy on credit food and all
kinds of personal necessaries. These small speculators naturally realised a
double profit at the expense of .the peasant, and this has contributed
indirectly to the encouragement of the co-operative movement.
The idea of co-operation was, besides, no novelty for the Siberian
peasants. Artelles, which indeed are only co-operative labour associations
of a special form, had been long working in the different Siberian regions.
There were fishermen's and carters' artelles, peasants uniting periodically
in artelles either for the gathering of cedar nuts in the forests, as these
nuts form a very important article of Siberian export trade, or for the
extraction of tar from the firtrees or for the production of charcoal. Very
often also peasants united in artelles to go and reap or mow on other
farmers' lands. In short, co-operation in its modern form had the ground
prepared for it, when the first dairy specialists arrived, sent by-the Gov-
ernment to familiarise the agricultural population with the most im-
proved methods of butter making. This technical staff, it is true, was
very small at the beginning: 47 men in all, including the foremen. But,
fortunately, they had at their head an energetic and enterprising man,
M. V. Sokoulski, who did not limit his action to the purely technical part
of the mission that had been confided to him. Being persuaded that
technical improvements had but a secondary interest for the small specu-
lators, he himsell took the initiative in the formation of co-operative so-
cieties of peasant producers.
From that moment a new phase began in the production of Siberian
butter: a struggle commenced between the small speculators working the
butter dairies and the co-operative societies. A few years sufficed for the
complete triumph of the latter.
The organization of the Siberian co-operative butter factories is very
simple. The members undertake by mutual contract: 1st., to deliver to
the co-operative society all the milk they produce; 2nd., joint liability
for the engagements contracted by the co-operative society. The contract
is registered at the office of the voloste, to which the rural commune, in
which the society has its headquarters, belongs. At the moment of
the formation of the co-operative society, each of the members mako
a payment to the Society in proportion to the number of cows he owns.
Those who have not the money available, deliver milk for an amount
corresponding to the payment they should have made in money. The
chief management of the business of the cooperative society rests with the
general meeting, in which each member has only one vote, however many
cows he may possess. Certain co-operative societies, that include many
villages, substitute for the general assembly of members an assembly of
AGRICULTURAL CO-OPERATION 40 ï
delegates elected by the members in each village. The general meeting,
as a rule, appoints a representative entrusted with the business manage-
ment. The representative is responsible for the cash and for the accounts
of the society; he it is who arranges the purchase of the technical plant,
the engagement of the staff, the sale of the butter, and the settlement of
accounts with each member at the end of the financial year, in confor-
mity with the decisions come to at the general meeting. Sometimes, the
technical manager of the dairy fulfils besides his own duties, those of
business manager.
Many co-operative societies have inserted in their contract with
their technical manager a clause providing for reduction or increase of
pay according to the quality of the butter produced. In this clause the
butter is divided into three classes. For each pond (16.37 kilos) of
butter ot the first quality produced, the manager receives a premium
of 10 Kopeks (26.60 centimes); on the other hand 10 Kopeks for each
poud of third quality butter produced is deducted from his pay. In this
way the interest of the manager is all in favour of the production of
butter of the best quality.
The progress of the co-operative butter societies was intensified in 1902
under the management of M. A. Balakchine, who obtained the support
of the Departments of Agriculture and Finance for his work. M. Balakchine
and his fellow workers put themselves into direct relations with the prin-
cipal Russian and foreign manufacturers in order to provide the Siberian
butter factories with the most perfect equipment.
They commenced the publication of a periodical Bulletin, specially
meant for the Siberian co-operative societies, in order to keep them in-
formed of the progress of the industry in which they are concerned, and
to encourage their united action. In 1907 more than 270 co-operative so-
cieties, consisting of the households of 52,000 peasants, were united in
a federation, of which M. Balakchine became the representative.
The following statement (1) shows the gradual development of the
co-operative societies in the Provinces of Tobolsk and Tomsk :
Province of
Tobolsk Tomsk
Vear Number of co-operative societies
1894 , . . . . — —
1895 — -
1896 5 —
1897 12 —
(1) Th;s statement was prepared by M. N. Makarow, from the data furnished at
the Congress of Russian Co-operative Societies in 1908, and from the latest official data
at his disposal.
402 RUSSIA
1898
l899
1900
1 901
1902
I903
I904
I905
1906
I907
1908
In 1908, the co-operative butter factories formed 59 % of the total
number of butter factories in the province of Tobolsk and 26.S % of
the butter factories in the province of Tomsk.
M. N. Makarow shows that the co-operative movement had been par-
ticularly important in the districts where popular reading" rooms had been
opened.
To give an idea of the increasing prosperity of these co-operative so-
cieties, we reproduce here, from the reports of M. Balakchine's Organisation,
the following table giving detailed data as to the co-operative societies,
divided into groups according to the year of their formation:
Tobolsk
Number of
CO
ince of
Tomsk
operative societies
l8
—
21
24
8
34
12
?
20
?
16
190
54
233
114
354
?
?
336
595
497
AGRICULTURAL CO-OPERATIOX
403
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4o4
RUSSIA
The headings of the preceding table showing the averages per co-
operative society point to two facts, namely : ist, that the number of
the members, and of the co-operative societies is constantly increasing
from year to year; 2nd, that the increase of dairy cows is slower than
that of the members, which proves that at the start the co-operative society
attracts to itself the households of the better off peasants and that the
poorer peasants follow the movement as the work off the co-operative
organization develops.
By the side of these strictly speaking co-operative butter factories,
semi-co-operative communal (yolostè) butter factories have also been formed,
generally in rural communes in which almost all the peasants possess
dairy cows. The essential difference between these communal butter factories
and the strictly speaking co-operative factories consists in this, that the
net profit of the first, instead of being divided among the members, is paid
into the communal bank, or else used for paying the land taxes due to
the State.
We have no precise data as to the number of these communal butter
factories.
At present, the majority of the Siberian co-operative butter factories
furnish their butter directly to the great import markets. They also possess
stores, in which members may buy and ot. er goods needed for their per-
sonal use. The opening of these stores has enabled the members of the
co-operative societies to make large savings in their purchases.
The success of the Siberian Co-operative Societies is confirmed by
the data furnished by the Inspection Service of the General Management
of Agriculture and Agricultural Organization with regard to the butter
factories the of province of Tomsk (i). According to these data, there were,
at the end of 1909, in the province of Tomsk, 2,061 butter factories, of
which 612 were co-operative societies. In these figures, however, the
butter factories (about fifty in number, according to the local press) of
the region of Narymsk are not included. We should observe that the
produce of the butter factories of the province of Tomsk forms 60 % of
the total exports of Siberian butter.
The co-operative butter factories, although less numerous, are more
important from the point of view of production, which amounted, in 1909,
on an average, to 1,094 pouds (17,820 kilos) per co-operative butter fac-
tory and to 3S0 pouds (6,224 kilos) per non-co-operative factory. Some
co-operative butter factories of the province of Tomsk have a thousand
(1) Commercial and Industrial Gazette, of the 23rd Octube1--5t.l1 November, 1910.
AGRICULTURAL CO-OPERATION 405
members each. The production of butter is principally concentrated in
the Southern districts,
Detailed data have only been collected in the case of 434 of the co-
operative butter societies abovementioned, comprising 493 villages. These
434 co-operative societies had altogether 58,930 members, owning 296,198
dairy cows, which gives an average of 5 cows per peasant household.
Besides, according to the report for the financial year 1909, (1) the
Federation of Siberian butter makers, on the 1st of January 1910, included
altogether 108 artelles (co-operative associations), 44 in the region of Kour-
gan, 46 in the territory of Tchéliabinsk, and 18 in that of Pétropavlovsk.
In the course of 1909, the Federation sold the following quantities
of butter:
Quantity
Value
Pouds
Roubles
Central Counting house . .
. 127,583.01
I,722,I08
Tchéliabinsk Branch . . .
29,720.22
390,390
Pétropavlovsk » . . .
33.289.02
419,548
Total . .
• I90,59I-25
2,635,046
To meet their general expenses, the central counting house and branches
receive a fixed sum of 10 kopeks (26.6 centimes) per poud of butter sold.
The balance of 1909 showed a net profit of 5,464 roubles, 15 kopeks,
of which 273.15 r. have been placed to the reserve fund and 5,191 r.
divided among the artelles.
It is evident from the report that the above amount of net profit was
arrived at after the deduction of a loss of 1,262 r. 26 k., incurred by the
Tchéliabinsk branch, the artelles of which were poorly organized. Now
that this defect has been remedied, the Inspection Commission of the Fede-
ration expects that future balance sheets will show more considerable
profits.
§ 5. Other Agricultural Co-operative Societies.
There have recently been organized with the assistance of the Gen-
eral Management of Agriculture, a certain number of co-operative so-
cieties for the control of dairy cows. These are small peasants' associa-
tions, which have no regulations; the members are only mutually bound
by simple contract. The members engage an expert for their common
service; he visits the farms in turn, examines the sanitary condition of
the animals, measures the quantity of milk produced by each cow, gives
(l) Messenger of Finance, Commerce and Industt No. 23, of the 6th- 19th June, 19 10.
4o6 RUSSIA
his advice as to the nourishment of the cattle, etc. The owner of the
farm provides the expert with free board and lodging and places a
vehicle at his disposal to enable him to continue his tour. Further each
member pays into the common fund a rouble (2.66 francs) a year for
the salary of the expert and the defrayment of the other expenses. The
General Management of Agriculture, for its part, has granted to each of
these associations, as an experiment, a subsidy of 400 roubles (about 1 ,000
francs). As these associations have given good results, twelve others
have just been formed in the province of Yaroslaw.
The advantage of uniting for their mutual benefit is beginning to be
recognised by the Russian co-operative societies. Quite recently seven
co-operative societies of the districts of St. Petersburg and Schlusselburg
combined for the formation of the St. Petersburg Central Agricultural
Society for collective purchase of farm requisites and for the defence oi
common interests. To this central society some forty agricultural co-opera-
tive societies of the province of St. Petersburg have now adhered. (1)
(1) Bullcttin (fzvestia) of the General Management of Agriculture, No. 25 of the
20th June- 3rd July, 19 10.
STATISTICAL TABLES,
4o8 RUSSIA
Small
Total Financial Results for the Mutual Credit and Savings Associations
ON THE ist
GOVERNMENTS
S 9
5 o
. T3 1> 9-
™ o o —
D- § x f «
1 Arkhangel
2 Astrakhan
3 Bessarabia
4 Vilno
5 Vitebsk
6 Vladimir
7 Vologda
8 Volhynia
9 Voronetz
io Vjatka
I i Grodno
12 Territory of the Don Cossacks
13 Jekaterinoslaw
14 Kazan
15 Kalouga
16 Kiew
17 Kovno
1 8 Kostroma
19 Courland
20 Koursk
21 Livonia
22 Minsk
23 Mohilew
24 Moscow
130
99
13.803
5.864
3.669
i,S6i
25i
969
14,710
2.893
2,356
5,700
5.729
1,085
249
12.539
20,992
1,253
12,510
166
15,210
8,290
2,223
2,253
8,362
37,6o2
861,819
375.309
156,126
258,718
SS^o
168,027
745,345
141,042
158,633
683,956
505.010
55.654
78,434
858,743
3.i44,35o
107,325
6,1 10,919
22,002
8,748,895
691,828
108,288
2H,495
6,257
20,784
743,439
167,837
146,459
88,171
31,587
141,563
647,707
120,223
97,500
599.569
468,634
47.434
53,789
774,584
2,595.29i
81,820
5.433,212
16,469
7.486,913
591.317
89,060
147.595
895
5,4oo
375.0I4
264,059
8i,939
78,017
3.734
62,124
363,592
33,896
122,993
291,422
240,839
18,481
32,690
523.389
1,974,880
25,101
4,786,715
5.29°
6,905,150
418,557
71,291
70,196!
(red
AGRICULTURAL
c:0-OPERAT ION
409
t.
from
information supplied by the Management of the
Small Credit Ban»
ks).
I A N 0 A R Y
190
5
190
6
.2
o
<
o
e-s
3
Z
e
0
y
Z
0
M 4J
2 -5
5 3
Deposits and A-
mounts J'orrowed
(Excluding those
received from the
State Bank)
0
<
0
V
.- «
p c
s .a
z "
J3
S
V
S
0
1
z
ÏÎ
i-3 3
0
•grt
< "
a
G
ci
C 3
« 0
0 aj
Deposits and A-
mounts Borrowed
(Excluding those
received from the
State Bank)
2
125
8,337
5,986
190
2
126
7,909
6,024
L35
2
79
35,56o
21,362
5,400
1
43
35,693
15,758
14,616
26
14-716
946,044
840,420
423,382
24
14,448
961,121
860,702
437,534
IO
6,038
415,009
178,041
292,181
IO
6,047
326,734
l87,5O0
206,136
8
4,295
190,644
174,629
103,210
8
5-042
256,535
233,551
151,712
6
2,117
262,466
105, :o3
79,384
6
2,144
266,559
I06,I37
98,620
3
243
35,79i
31,73s
3,7"
2
82
13,012
IO,758
2,466
2
1,027
177,763
150,782
57,4io
2
1,014
167,023
H3,3I3
60,149
20
14,679
783,199
604,051
386,498
20
15.437
825,860
702,330
410,604
IO
3,268
148,965
123,096
37,465
9
3-334
141,682
I I5,066
35.341
3
2,639
189,407
111,167
145,485
3
3-054
222,583
I 20, 1 03
176,332
18
6,337
791,400
705,789
326,129
16
5-943
794,223
707,459
346,659
12
6,200
574,372
508,088
319-386
13
5,467
4",i95
368,769
187,452
4
1,120
6i,335
53,184
17,658
4
1,071
61,480
53,282
17,255
3
195
64,308
46,496
24-197
3
158
52,890
36,171
17,758
15
14,190
985,789
896,092
583,228
15
15,552
1,110,749
990,285
670,327
32
21,062
3,030,319
2,573,088
1,870,480
30
18,237
2,813,675
2,340,350
1,726,342
9
1,291
109,027
85,772
23,868
9
1,309
109,706
87,251
23,158
. 67
11,840
6,595,838
5,942,752
5,121,928
59
11,290
5,692,059
4,95I-H3
4-449, ! 95
4
160
21,056
16,069
4-304
2
155
19,255
14,739
3,477
5S
17,725
10,939,817
9,183,473
8,461,075
38
14,267
9-684,535
8,231,278
7,681,723
16
9,212
825,843
712,217
500,716
17
11,250
955,980
820,177
585,373
4
2,567
141,605
101,050
89,479
4
3-039
172,434
126,929
106,062
8
2,512
232,022
163,809
76,146
8
2,793
238,498
170,628
73,54i
4io
RUSSIA
S m al
Total Financial Results for the Mutual Credit and Savings Association
GOVERNMENTS
ON THE ist
O V
«Sa?
o c — ■- v
i Arkhangel
2 Astrakhan
3 Bessarabia
4 Vilno
5 Vitebsk
6 Vladimir
7 Vologda
8 Volhynia
9 Voronetz
io Vjatka
i i Grodno
12 Territory of the Don Cossacks
13 Jekaterinoslaw
14 Kazan
15 Kalouga
16 Kiew
17 Kovno
18 Kostroma
19 Courland
20 Koursk
21 Livonia
22 Minsk
23 Mohilew
24 Moscow
119
45
17,521
6,402
6,157
2,271
76
993
15,886
3,392
3,987
7,659
6,267
580
147
18,993
19,500
1,367
12,054
274
23,603
12,143
4,820
3-059
7,638
36,421
1,175,040
514,687
339>i62
261,178
",54i
170,386
859,541
148,972
403,797
1,020,727
540,700
42,286
51,814
i,335,23i
3,064,068
H3,596
7,548,256
30,204
16,430,021
1,094,015
241,658
236,279
5,523
15,934
937,755
210,726
3°°>377
110,655
9,546
146,466
745,946
122,583
227,837
910,846
487,848
36,692
33,973
1,192,546
2,460,672
90,097
6,619,089
26,885
13,614,857
924,987
180,043
170,448
140
14,952
560,312
376,590
216,714
87,251
1,783
54,264
428,336
36,025
341,734
474,58o
268,327
",524
17,649
797,166
1,946,787
23,253
5,919,082
6,834
13,146,682
674,768
144,716
70,436
AGRICULTURAL CO-OPERATION
411
Credit.
{from information supplied by the Management of the Small Credit Banks)
JANUARY
1 9 o S
"2 o-S _
-e£*H ^
■»
d
0
O
S
<
s
O
0
u
^
•C '/>
J3
E 0
3
Z"
z
<IJJ
r" S 2 3-
- .9 „ 3
0 5 -3. S «
O. 3 3 U *J
0 SM «3 ■"
2
123
2
102
6l
26,275
24
8,256
I I
6,979
9
88,420
2
7i
7
6,915
18
15,184
10
3,557
22
8,171
25
9-879
15
7,924
5
1,069
3
121
42
28,802
44
24,109
10
i>454
74
17,774
3
513
74
25,849
42
8,618
17
7,726
8
3,157
7,069
28,935
1,763,152
669,682
461,646
283,363
11,128
431,009
843,761
158,929
632,922
1,184,993
685,452
61,041
44,155
1,786,411
3,437,642
117,269
9,431,528
52,555
19,326,227
1,453,009
421,469
236,194
4,806
16,230
1,534,534
272,441
409,609
142,049
8,919
378,631
724,182
132,415
389,431
1,051,860
616,340
54,336
29,053
1,590,801
2,658,778
91,518
8,284,732
46,363
15,893,706
1,241,848
336,618
173,338
9,
987,
499,
309,
102,
I,
228,
417,
38,
504,
593,
365,
17,
13,
1,068,
223
25
7,465
21
15,650
886
278
66
165
1
108
,741
7
473
,472
82
40,890
,541
36
10,984
,664
21
10,331
.9*9
11
3>I5i
,874
1
5i
,327
23
",73i
,246
20
16,157
,201
S
3.791
,979
3°
13,757
,073
36
12,891
,754
21
9>534
,243
7
2,104
,799
4
220
,085
66
4o,475
,534
53
26,937
,945
10
i,o55
,735
80
21,261
,641
4
783
,260
87
28,026
,799
54
22,026
,715,
23
10,859
,025
11
3.762
6,675
47,181
2,355,018
815,571
664,869
317,886
8,735
696,655
877,328
165,671
1,101,915
1,405,875
807,120
89,046
46,232
2,37i,35o
3,678:951
117,799
11,722,106
69,886
I9>958,237
1,624,802
526,906
245,407
5,23i
29,005
2,126,595
373,o27
555,774
190,555
7,384
6i4,737
781,086
145,300
707,177
i,24i,745
735.291
81,928
29,921
2,110,777
2,828,370
93,683
10,297,006
62,551
16,147,560
1,364,218
417,041
187,790
248
18,117
1,309,128
599,517
457,789
io7,558
1,614
401,166
420,404
39.389
876,078
692,927
386,430
29,518
14,045
1,358,459
2,295,309
25,966
9,427,376
24,986
16,187,949
i,o53,i55
321,063
60,554
412
RUSSIA
GOVERNMENTS
ON THE is
e c
3.2
7. "
•2 3
hJ 3
o
p « g
p. 3 i< « «
25 Nijni-Novgorod
26 Novgorod
27 Orenbourg
28 Orel
29 Perm
30 Podolia
3 1 Poltava
32 Pskow
33 Rjasan
34 Samara
35 St. -Petersburg
36 Saratow
37 Simbirsk
38 Smolensk
39 Taurida
4° Tambow
41 Tver
42 Toula
43 Ufa
44 Kharkow
45 Kherson
46 Tchernigow
47 Esthonia
4S Jaroslaw
Total for 48 Govern, of European Russia
627
i,i54
5.137
56
S23
19,711
8,737
6,043
H.633
1,777
801
3.842
9,59!
1,202
5,121
3o,44i
4,305
4.391
2,224
943
4,564
2,495
8,678
650
273,109
134,562
259,383
11,999
27,416
907,417
838,562
565,135
704,618
108,815
43,743
344,896
680,696
104,833
235.740
3.453,884
402,368
475.3H
81,988
47,305
427,198
316,116
505,070
1,037,628
106,802
36,095,277
108,171
214,460
9,662
22,431
788,636
772,229
513.747
55^505
92,751
36,110
289,610
585.899
96,249
199,984
2,899,234
318,037
386,738
68,621
40,018
400,704
266,983
456,700
556,163
67.643
32,48
48,37,
52(
3,71*
283,77*
5i7,32i
235.71
317,43'
3i,i8:
11,67;
95,37c
285,96c
4S,28<
75>27<
1,909,60}
139,26;
177,01
21,23:
i7,72(
205,23:
151,80}
212,51
927,69
29,571
30,339.499 22,534.41*
AGRICULTURAL CO-OPERATION
413
J A N I
J A R Y
190
5
190
6
0
<
0
s §
3.2
Z a
,0
£
4)
O
g
z
"3 3
___ 3
c
" c
Loans Granted (in
Roubles)
Deposits and A-
mounts Borrowed
(Excluding those
received from the
State Bank)
.2
0
< .
3 .5
Z"
.a
g
u
V
c
Z
11
'" -5
0
G*"
a .5
c
V
C
c J
n 0
Deposits and A •
mounts Borrowed
(Kxcluding those
received from the
State Bank)
4
1,185
136,319
109,483
31. 591
4
1,158
129,487
104,187
25,284
15
5.537
267,569
224,452
51,223
12
5,548
258,842
2I9J7S
5I>623
1
49
11,492
9.°32
735
1
46
10,091
6,954
56i
3
837
26,387
21,503
3.321
3
785
24,308
19,368
4,165
59
19,828
932,025
781,365
296,642
54
19,980
882,725
771,223
211,504
4
9.030
869,945
790.33I
534.267
4
9,378
928,838
831,178
542,686
19
6,228
602,528
535.044
249,274
20
6,698
651,224
579,073
272,298
21
15.177
720,722
570,875
329.573
19
14,613
682,838
563,322
309,091
5
1.532
110,392
93,924
32,001
*
1.575
96,346
81,138
26,514
4
811
47,258
38,419
13.526
o
0
373
27,056
24,222
6,941
21
3.979
359.318
303,182
100,853
22
4,825
420,265
363,036
1 16,820
26
10,311
748,600
634,507
30,148
19
8,949
642,521
558,271
252, 6S0
2
1,188
107,461
90,61 I
45.530
I
873
80,014
65,516
33,627
6
5.074
238,937
201,547
63,056
6
4,871
206,110
170,764
42,282
45
32»533
3,904,952
3 241,782
2,192,787
43
36,759
4,320,562
3,6l7,026
2,576,326
17
4,597
418,859
329o82
144,753
15
4,36i
389,565
3I4,"4
128,737
13
4,39ô
488,667
405,042
186,127
13
4,45 l
489,003
407,699
182,334
7
2,261
84,048
71,277
20,700
6
2,261
79,586
68,l8l
i7,47i
6
920
42,858
31.109
12,775
5
859
41,188
30,105
12,548
1 1
4,779
487,022
449. 1 73
243,811
10
4,410
453,7"
423,285
228,500
6
2,55'
370,425
337,285
174,155
2
789
67,995
63,5"
30,945
*9
S,-c6
545,603
500,576
224,528
*9
8,84£
620,143
556,588
277,616
5
776
1,140,708
596>o39
1,025,009
7
1,093
1,430,028
901,627
1,262,959
6
1,000
107,797
69,695
29-316
6
982
105,839
69,010
28,122
665
286,427
40,335>3°S
33,830,289
25,259,111
603
284,782
38,379.675
32,183,026
24,123,846
!
414
RUSSIA
GOVERNMENTS
ON T H E ist
G 5
« o
- B
25 Nijni-Novgorod
26 Novgorod
27 Orenbourg
28 Orel
29 Perm
30 Podolia
31 Poltava
32 Pskow
33 Rjasan
34 Samara
35 St.-Petersburg
36 Saratov/
37 Simbirsk
38 Smolensk
39 Taurida
40 Tambow
41 Tver
42 Toula
Ufa
44 Kharkow
45 Kherson
46 Tcbernigow
47 Esthonia
48 Jaroslaw
Total for 48 Govern, of European Russia
4
1,108
14
5,720
1
46
3
769
62
27,638
4
9,614
24
7,693
17
12,833
5
1,873
2
236
23
4,979
T9
10,179
1
949
8
5,402
44
38,409
14
4,329
1 1
3,543
6
2,245
5
889
IC
4,667
4
1,589
25
10,346
7
1,190
6
707
741
324,314
126,872
281,761
10,091
23,774
994,531
945-5*4
721,666
617,072
H9,93i
23,972
483,726
690,373
82,514
282,776
4,557,092
388,361
392,753
8i,755
47,173
525,683
98,127
736,263
i,533,oi8
104,835
49,546,851
99,716
235.49°
6,954
18,719
835,965
833,120
628,901
503,633
97,75i
21,648
409,569
601,868
68,817
229,380
4,022,215
312,682
325,582
68,347
4o,737
460,948
89,046
671,299
961,398
68,684
41,194,800
23,183
55,028
561
4,937
252,499
562,20$
306,706
262,947
37,328
12,885
157,806
289,247
34,576
69,659
2,612,96g
133,438
154,589
16,674
15,043
290,907
55,o7c
336,034
i,35i,536
26,417
32,682,139
AGRICULTURAL CO-OPERATION
415
JANUARY
100
8
1 g 0
9
Number of Associa-
tions
X!
£
O
•3 f,
-. ~
0
c
rt C
*> v
.g
S
C3 O
OX
» T5 1) <U
< u « X
^ * S "
^ 0 "3 a
US 1
" e 5
•~ »• "S "S --
0 c — .5 u
£• i ^ " 1
.2
0
<
0
0)
x> m
e 3
V
XI
I
x>
e
z
3 5
-a
G
§1
v-c « J)
"0 p— •
z s a
0 =^.iv
J* 0 *S S 2
£ — ^-
4
1,108
128,433
103,191
l
23.453!
4
1,112
122,436
99,168
42,609!
.4
5.746
288,375
238,607
64,651
15
5,742
294,807
249,052
64,364
2
581
18,563
14,139
3.863
4
294
10,281
7,867
402
62
27,477
943.508
771,438
246,171
46
14,329
825,606
664,927
248,437
•' 15
13.159
1,113.338
1,018,243
656,416
24
17,190
1,291,765
1,194,556
707,252
28
11,380
918, 397
840,826
431,290
37
15,457
1,134,067
1,037,288
525,527
l6
11,612
554,o63
451,713
250,654
16
",215
529,203
425,447
240,264
5
1,957
123,167
100,203
40,641
7
2,436
124,631
103,669
48,193
2
147
14,868
I I,Q 10
1,274
3
984
58,864
47,195
24,792
3 38
8,999
744,708
625,441
25,047
41
11,315
872,651
734,222
354,638
j 25
11,764
819,592
697,272
370,047
25
2
12,193
827,197
719.301
333,031
1
930
83,820
69,57o
35.8gf'
976
8 5 ; 99 \
71,462
36,241
9
6,379
345,359
289,88s
98,457
9
6,453
340,369
287,996
79,064
48
43,o3i
5,236,172
4,452,674
3,274,36i
5o
46,889
5,440,080
4,756,629
3,365,8"
15
•i! 11
5.23o
3.522
400,274
38o,777
321,490
322,465
150,683
150,191
23
10
6,894
3.694
465,413
366,561
380,787
3"i9i3
161,602
136,339
7
2,473
86,132
74,461
i8,745
7
2,707
96,428
80,981
22,842
* 4
1,152
45,7i8
32,553
17,040
4
i,i77
50,295
43,549
19,396
3 «3
5,97o
682,125
626,151
368,069
13
5,S29
694,845
633,on
394,032
11,581
812,251
730,036
407,244
45
18,220
1.199,975
i,o75,38i
670,740
5 36
14,319
947,400
461,284
44
18,615
1,191,825
1,115,719
543,012
* 7
i,257
1,039,208
1 ,004,865
159-574
S
i,346
L783.245
1,085,314
1,590,818
5
939
951
ic4,47c
68,016
26,479
S
1,384
109,443
67,572
24,754
49L773
59,960,259
40,805,927
1 '
37,055,268
1,141
497, 80S
67,637,205
56,326,758
45,722,905
3o.
'
4i6
RUSSIA
GOVERNMENTS
E c
1904
j -2
o
"S^
ON THE i
' T3 *> O
< |S£
c t S
«S o- <
t c e
o c-.i V
^ ES.2A
4
5
6
7
8
10
1
2
3
4
5
6
1
2
3
4
5
Poland.
Warsaw
Kalisch
Kieletz
Lomja
Lublin
Petrokow
Plotsk
Radom
Souwalki
Sicdlitz
Total. . .
Caucasus.
Batum
Territory of the Cossacks of Kouban. .
Koutais
Territory of the Cossacks of Terek. . . .
Tiflis
Erivan
Total. . .
Siberia.
Prov. Akmolinsk
Iénisséisk
Prov. Semipalatinsk
Tobolsk
Tomsk
Provinces of the Ural Cossacks
Total. . .
Total for the Empire. . .
2 3
10
5
4
1 1
21
1
10
3
_4
92
i9>57o
3.396
3.27o
961
6,486
22,232
72
5.459
790
582
62,818
3,159.889
632,813
252,651
107,371
1,097,721
2,772,483
5,104
597.905
93.65
53,i6i
11
T73
7,44i
3,714
209
875
12,239
530
119
492
186
1,357
349,523
8.772,751
916,222
269,246
",7i3
33,332
2,669.384
556,592
224,620
94,75o
1,032,527
2,363,921
4,946
574,018
83,003
_ 5^897
7,655,658
1,230,513
654
19,400
13,191
34,905
7,757
75,907
46,174,448
850,787
254,627
11,582
3o,457
i,i5o,453
55
16,968
11,154
16,274
6,862
51,811
39,194,421
1,901,3c
451J
I49>9<
67,0
731.X
i,757,5<
4,o
39o,3
56,4
31,2
5,54i,o
541,8
103,2
3,4
4 J
652,c
H
12,
M
17,
28,745,'
AGRICULTURAL CO-OPERATION
417
4 N U A R Y
6 g
>— 3
-«sr* -a
0 si; -ga
a - x » s
g o 6
a?
S*.Sia
24
17
7
5
14
2:
I
II
3
4
ICO
19,970
4,374
3o63
1,320
7-934
21,212
87
5,635
835
726
65,456
3,306,476
722,781
281,048
142,858
i,347,i99
2,821,460
5,282
720,482
116,567
7L377
2,931,974
655,613
245,805
I34,n2
1,200,779
2,520 874
5,o74
686,044
94,186
68,651
9,535,5301 8,543!^
1,984,755
487,555
159,962
84,964
886,344
1,665,689
4,122
461,458
72,651
42,223
10,901 1,450,835
3,746
219
1,552
47
1 1
832
16,418
28
52
102
473
230
277,811
14,426
93,545
1,360,627
266,770
13,327
1,816,617
1,355
369,656
713
19,777
12,189
35,857
11,010
79,546
1,729,606
609
16,503
10,655
15,3-35
10,695
5,849,733
846,337
99,204
2,2J0
20,669
968,443
53,797
51,767,501 44,156,804
2,407
850
13,622
3 566
20,445
32,097,732
118
20,647
5,525
3,904
1,644
10,005
20,653
87
7,278
1,002
1,042
7L787
3,571,287
856,354
346,525
204,552
1,641,770
2,775-515
5,823
848,936
132,577
140,784
10,524,123
769
13.189
2,856
1,138
_i 7^83
404
93
469
39°
i,356
1,920,134
202,325
i24,752
3,125,647
757,732
309,947
i87,355
1,463,674
2,498,464
5,547
814,642
125,692
134,975
9,423,675
ii,456
36,701
14,182
104,568
375,10851,255,577
1,687,888
197,087
98,929
1,978,904
4L445
9,3o6
20,518
13,619
2,184,036
576,444
203,146
123,723
1,032,097
1,643,013
4,637
583,150
80,868
83,890
6,470,004
1,186,558
63.451
_ 34,93o
1,284,939
84,888
43,7oi,3i6
539
95c
13,317
4,944
i9,75o
31,898,539
4i8
RUSSIA
GOVERN M F. N T S
"" -°
t ^
â £
n J2
= a
S's
~.x
O N THJ
"E«l
4
5
6
7
8
9
io
roland.
Warsaw
Kalisch
Kieletz
Lomja
Lublin
Petrokow
Plotsk
Radom
Souwalki
Siedlitz
Total.
Caucasus.
Batum
Territory of the Cossacks of Kouban . .
Koutais
Territory of the Cossacks of Térek .
Tiflis
Erivan
Total.
Siberia,
Trov. Akmolinsk
Iénisséisk
Prov. Semipalatinsk
Tobolsk
Tomsk
Provinces of the Ural Cossacks.
Total
Total for the Empire
5
127
22,14s
6,250
4,047
1,789
12,394
21,415
86
7.9H
i,i45
1,284
78,472
16,307
2,395
3,215
!I,9I7
587
99
357
39c
4,143,605
1,041,429
389,733
246,491
2,077,453
3,651,453
5,844
989,919
174,066
iq8,o8o
12,918,073
3,439-386
897,395
328,578
226,069
1,835,846
2,785,119
5,66o
933,834
154.493
192,479
2,617,
719.
23I
154
1,398.
2,437
4
628
1 10
121
10,798,859
2,515,787
204,026
237,738
2,957,551
i.5
425,936
41,90s
16,203
11,007
2i,435
14,182
2,357,928
194,056
215,266
2,767,250
4i,3i9
12,141
9,091
16,422
13,619
104,805
65,527,280
92,592
54,853,501
8,426.
i-545
60
76
1,520
42,80?
AGRICULTURAL CO-OPERATION
4i
- : = : — : -
N U A R Y
I 9 c.
8
1909
"P.
0
c S
.2 -
~~ 5
a
■a
C 3
rt 0
■ -o «J V
•c o-S _,
5 t c
0 S3
« » »* -a
" -S_, 0
'J «"S «M
c C — •- u
a§ x s s
k
0
0
<
0
-° m
S c
3.2
A **
.0
s
.a
S
.23
>-. 3
0
S .S
.5
■a
V
c
^ V
ai "2
C 3
J-4
* 13 V V
< 5 o-S
"g S* a
£•3 x S «
36 25,555
4,916,416
3,86S,7o7
3,212,214
5S
35,146
6,209,(1 39
4,793,346
4,219,098
25 8,137
1,571,763
1,356,773
1,130,777
31
10,501
2,065,721
1,854,685
1,507,309
9 4,972
532,184
45I>437
329,566
IO
5,689
664,811
560,092
421,025
8 2,268
320,846
298,676
206, 7S2
8
2,809
443,041
418,038
307,431
25 17,179
3,000,330
2,688,974
2,090,983
36
23,719
4,119,089
3,727,627
2,922,569
30 26,506
5,276,639
3,636,379
3,763,o6i
39
37,490
7,081,209
5,102,160
5,057,099
5 584
44,327
38,205
28,855
8
1,488
"3,636
104,343
83,560
15 9,i8S
1,256,427
1,170,742
814,562
18
11,185
1,692,843
1,553,453
1,140,825
7 1,803
228,873
221 282
147,574
9
2,318
277,103
266,204
176,782
S 2,674
38 98,866
374,599
356,283
246,607
26
7,954
138,299
810,903
75L603
19,236,55 J
562,371
17,522,404
14,087,458 11,970,981
243
23,477,995
16,398,069
—
—
—
1
129
5,502
5,241
607
|!6 20,660
3,224,428
2,923,075: 2,064,177
40
26,720
4,171,724
3,558,849
2,764,275
|6 2,457
208,980
196,193 66,870
15
2,S4o
203,868
193,069
55,115
1 1 164
13,582
13,229 5,379
1
170
15,161
14,863
3,478
—
—
—
—
1
74
5,488
5,285
104
J 5 3,9"
303,091
274,161
93,553
9
4,524
363,745
314,669
99,366
3 s 27,192
2 476
3,75o,o8i
3,406,658
2,229,979
67
34,457
4,765,488
4,091,976
2,922,945
2,404
47,566
47,o49
775
2
550
50,553
49,907
' 3 280
15,072
12,032
1,107
3
270
12,822
6,082
752
1 99
1 1,490
9-253
850
1
94
IO,753
8,666
430
4 463
37,266
16,354
13,242
4
461
41,621
33,267
17,652
2 315
19,850
18,187
4,7i6
3
477
27,49!
25,663
5,464
—
—
—
—
12
25
i,i74
22,915
17,247
457
27,159
1,633
131,244
102,875
67,402,918
20,69a
3,026
166,155
140,832
7 619,464
81,363,988
6,81651,27
1 L476
673,59C
99,046,843
79,796,117
65,071,078
d
4 2o
RUSSIA
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
io
i r
12
13
M
15
i6
17
iS
»9
20
21
22
2;
24
25
26
27
2S
Total Financial Results for the Credit Associations (from inj
GOVERNMEX T S
Arkhangel
Astrakhan
Bessarabia
Vilno
Vitebsk
Vladimir
Vologda
Volhynia
Voronetz
Vjatka
( ! rod no
Territory of the 1 >on Co
[ekaterinosla-w
Kazan
Kalouga
Kiew
Kostroma
Koursk
Livonia
Minsk
Mohilew
Moscow
Nijni— Novgorod
Novgorod
Olonez
Orenburg ;
Orel
Penza
ON THE
S «
3 °
« c
452
1 12
2,879
2,286
433
483
5.544
831
178
503
76
7.335
1,212
1,634
2,085
i,438
3,42i
173
3,484
27,042
2,193
60,578
62,500
9,518
I3,i79
98.756
15.032
3.178
12,825
3,oS5
186,140
32.794
97,386
69,520
37,947
50,329
1,670
47,539
C 3
a o
< 2
S
o -
0 ;W Si
12,990
2,105
53,376
57,360
8,578
12,895
93,204
10,985
2,So4
12,174
1,965
166,203
30,730
92,175
51,170
30,673
47,358
1,462
45,783
23,8<
1, 01
40,9
27,1
4,3
23,4
3,9
6,5
1 '7,3
25,8
72,7
40,4
13,3
22,4
13,4
AGRICULTURAL CO-OPERATION
421
nation furnished, by the Management of the Small Credit Banks)
JANUAR Y
5 o
Z"
a
« a
o £ 73 t *>
S o
°ï
• •cou
■*• > S ■£
1 s-5 s
* " 3 ï
3 >■ ■>■
2
767
2
295
15
6,408
2
129
19
7.347
4
785
12
1,241
35
9,420
[O
1,697
4
711
S
1,172
I
792
34
12,733
1
1.375
4
1,802
12
4,091
M
2,709
14
5.149
7
796
1 1
5.279
2
131
43.922
5,03s
130,812
4,379
184,612
18,206
36,026
194,319
29,032
22,235
31.517
16,223
320,979
23,872
123,829
124,478
64,106
76,491
12,017
79,388
2,772
34,92o
4.99°
112,151
4,33i
168,634
16,052
34,102
175,242
20,212
21,862
28,912
15,502
288,863
22,282
110,784
98>!33
56,856
70,097
6,301
73,942
2,75'
38,564
2
2,066
3
88,143
20
651
6
104,562
3o
5,992
5
9,127
20
63,054
39
1 1,420'
15
3.073
7
18,670
14
4,985
1
219,105
52
16,919
1
103,452
4
74,759
13
i9,6S6
22
32,362
17
595
15
33,549
'9
7
10
1,609
940
9,185
181
665
17,619
907
3,207
1 1,622
4,002
1,43"
3,i54
1,228
i9,57o
1-533
1,929
5,978
4,826
6,765
2,853
10,963
1,480
77,277
22,928
170,825
3,020
17,242
448,444
28,910
109,800
577,513
54,632
41,246
78,429
32,510
492,277
41,275
I3L536
i54,5I4
120,879
98,430
46,807
165,433
21,087
67,850
19,888
146,699
2,814
i5,95i
406,076
26,413
106,281
522,506
47,200
36,981
73,049
30,804
453.481
35,953
"6,347
127,770
100,08
90,078
39>IXI
157,716
19,981
62,581
14,1 11
104,229
3,397
239,085
14,320
48,445
375,835
14.6S2
7,509
42,050
12,50-,
330,063
33.199
110,399
SS.oSS
34.S5I
41,986
7,734
54,682
2,021
422
RUSSIA
i
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
io
t r
12
i;
14
15
16
17
18
'9
2^
24
25
26
27
28
76>/tf/ Financial Results for the Credit Associations (from infor
GO V E R N M K N T S
ON THE 1st
B c
Arkhangel
Astrakhan
Bessarabia
Vilno
Vitebsk
Vladimir
Vologda
Volhynia
Voronetz
Vjatka
Grodno
Territory of tlie Don Cossact
Jekaterinoslaw
Kazan
Kalouga
Kiew
Kostroma
Kcnirsk
Livonia
Minsk
Mohilew
Moscow
Xijnl-Xovgorod
Novgorod
Olonez
Orenburg
Orel
Teuza
43
18
II
IS
3
81
1
4
17
40
21
1
20
32
14
•C V
G
« a
G 3
-, S C c 'X
2,235
s,339
15.578
1,165
2,629
39,008
2,û2I
6>975
19,321
6,948
2,499
4.989
2,091
28,312
1.775
2,091
7.406
9.329
8,239
72
6,342
19.345
3.812
107,023
154,976
303,798
16,196
52,922
952,660
58,168
228,932
803,689
104,138
48,639
138,929
61,089
692,076
58,029
142,067
196,196
239.032
110,717
1,065
119,904
269,316
60,620
93.028
142,125
273,720
14,518
45,722
877,640
52,332
217,838
716,030
92,511
43.749
126,977
58,058
624,239
50,879
117,412
162,133
202,278
103,124
!,o39
"3-743
254,9I3
54,833
AGRICULTURAL CO-OPERATION
42;
Ation furnL
'ht'd by th
e Management of
the S
'mail Ci
'edit Bank)s
A N U A R V
I 9 c
8
190
9
k
'G
c
y.
<
a
J -r,
S =
3 .a
te
u
« a
a a
cz 0
0 x
• •cou
< % g -s
!§*§_
•- „^y-l
c a-.> v
a. a - y *•»
.s
0
<
0
V
V
-a
S
~.
0
V
.0
e
11
3 -S
0
ne
«• u
a
-c
V
c
et
~ 6
x 3
a a
a 0
: X
:
. -c u 0
1Z" a
0 0 So
a, ^ «'- ■g
. - J: xi .5
0 a — > „
agxgï
II
1,336
2I,3S2
20,096
2,903
21
4,307
206,460
180,898
140,194
37
8,985
393,521
314,862
246,594
64
24,910
569,889
531,963
276,926
101
52,621
1,542,734
1,451,264
851,127
I
93
1,242
306
242
1
136
I,8l6
1,568
751
—
—
—
—
—
2
200
4-7S9
4,298
642
65
28,016
559,551
499-549
287,198
88
41,912
870,853
784,269
469,662
10
2,033
36,382
30,667
4,488
13
3,210
62,544
57,5IO
8,257
32
5,935
101,971
94,715
47,233
1,004,626
61
14,110
225,258
207, Soi
29,795
101
69,334
1,773,035
L53I,603
122
97,557
2,864,603
2,568,069
1,404,832
39
10,905
206,23s
182,979
65-953
S2
3L37I
459,239
385,732
219,226
1
23
5,804
IJ63
2,071
2
283
8,343
5,324
3,593
5o
13,089
432,511
406,22I
219,768
73
21,605
816,847
760,747
482,405
49
24, 396
1,027,934
922,525
643,866
62
29,984
1,132-324
1,044,259
707,215
42
17,090
218,933
192,529
50,351
67
29,000
372,692
336,950
118,361
13
4,150
67,846
62,552
16,475
18
7,392
96,153
79,743
26,538
27
8,211
235,928
218,405
143,723
37
12,602
342,709
321,646
!95-997
13
5,95S
123,197
117,614
24,429.
26
10,516
229,242
210,824
65,293
102
43,090
1,020,026
921,89s
614,780
118
53,455
1,153,449
1,044,462
688,498
-
—
—
—
—
1
94
10,551
io,537
9,195
1
2,040
79>76l
7I,98o
69,225
3
2,591
127,184
101,476
107,436
4
2,262
155,838
131,430
122,605
8
3,323
177,346
154,149
130,057
21
9-543
264,817
2l8,86l
144,070
290,144
29
12,929
326,496
265,276
I57,8i7
65
18,620
410,986
352,8o8
73
23,716
505,050
449,412
156,198
3i
",575
153,296
»39»i55
58,439
35
14,073
196,009
178,171
75,6o3
1
104
2,097
1,064
—
1
10S
2,385
i,435
—
25
ïo.SH
204,691
181,913
63,253
34
16,518
349,072
303,482
130,969
54
32,140
467,728
436,195
ÏS9.569
93
54,o6o
885,688
811,954
289,738
3i
10,177
169,322
156,869
25,126
36
16,423
235,262
212,394
1
48,723
424
RUSSIA
GOVERNMENTS
o
ON THE is
■B
29 Perm
30 Podolia
31 Poltava
32 Pskow
33 Rjasan
34 Samara
35 St. -Petersburg
36 Saratow
37 Simbirsk
38 Smolensk
39 Taurida
40 Tambow
41 Tver
42 Toula
43 Ufe
44 Kharkow
45 Kherson
46 Tchernigow
47 Jaroslaw
Total for 47 Governments
of European Russia. . . .
Poland.
1 Warsaw :
2 Kaliscb
3 I.omja
'5
276
7,490 163,253
6,815
1,004
324
M,i45
203
551
3.293
1,108
S.395
i,i44
700
102
i,5Si
638
2,459
1,658
86,174
1,433
606
449-973
17,839
12,258
259,835
21,843
10,910
63,073
25,723
674,956
43,85o
17,698
2,762
17,259
11,31c
67,364
93,592
2,406,270
99,852
26,301
141,402
420,197
3-977
11,090
2 14,349
12,149
10,251
58,535
19,429
528,907
3S.467
11,726
2,276
19,072
14,211
76,072
102,585
2,807,125
107,527
27,910
AGRICULTURAL
CO-OPERATION
425
-
JANUARY
190
5
1 g 0
6
«
<
y
5.3
0
3 £
•~ 3
— a
0
■ex
< B
Loans Granted (in
Roubles)
Depos i t s and A-
mounts liorrowed
(Kxcluding those
received from the
State Bank)
«
0
<
S c
3.2
Z"
.a
E
.Q
B
Z
11
3 e
< B
c
■0
V
c
«,3
c =
a 0
11 e pos i t s and A-
mounts Borrowed
(1'x hiding those
received from the
State Bank)
25
13.639
270,127
231.4H
192,723
29
19,899
444,672
369,512
295,196
29
10,845
601,301
562,426
449,637
29
I4.075
778,325
700,103
604,267
3
1,283
24.242
9.743
14,040
3
1,428
25,806
",954
16,602
1
4
1,181
26,565
25.479
12,822
4
1,980
41,813
39.721
27,592
7i
25,031
447,659
351.263
76,224
81
36,228
871,387
718,029
167,881
4
559
44.348
22,212
19,235
4
721
53,919
28,620
22,809
1 1
2,050
40,336
33,863
14,697
27
5.739
133.797
122,213
40,682
13
4,Si6
107,384
96,698
49.246
16
6,160
l62,OI5
148,648
81,617
10
3.466
58,617
39.856
31.417
12
5.424
92.073
75,435
49,898
M
io,435
S6S.336
7IO,IOI
726,756
18
18,562
1,527,092
1,251,828
1,266,063
S
2,025
66,587
59.754
46,588
M
3,288
115,674
101,681
65,566
4
1,611
2o,4S5
2 1,4 39
20,945
5
2,401
49.817
37,452
38,838
4
300
6,660
6,078
416
16
2,195
28,061
24,862
1,646
23
6,656
75-393
58,291
21,047
23
8,S37
I06,850
S2,i6o
51,878
7
1.239
28,175
22,801
IO,738
16
2,904
66,536
55,768
23,129
-:
44
9.382
199,818
186,554
70,865
85
28,402
510,979
481,619
167,427
::
2
1.778
128,767
"5,378
65,694
2
ii9°3
136,301
120,993
73.776
3
730
1 1,260
10,963
975
6
1,440
24,iSS
21,212
4,614
489
161, S55
4.579.313
3,934,234
2,674,120
706
275.693
S, 104,319
7,064,841
4,642,233
1
i,6So
91,965
79-389
8i,955
1
1,727
103,522
73,159
94,3IO
1
860
30,125
29,673
25.399
1
929
44,604
38,7ci
39>OI4
2
254
10,256
9.542
6,3H
2
464
32,999
25,253
28,260
426
RUSSIA
G iiVERN M F. N T S
O N T H E ist
c c
3.2
29 Term .
30 Podolia
3 1 Poltava
32 Pskow
33 Rjasan
34 Samara
35
36 Saratow
37 Simbirsk
Smolensk
39 Tan rid
40 Tambow
41 Tver
42
43
44 Kbarkow
45 Kherson
46 Tchernigow
47 Jaroslaw
Total for 47 Government
of European Russia. . . .
Poland.
Warsaw ;
Kalisch
Lomja
36
1 1
45
3
6
105
5
5i
*9
14
29
23
9
24
30
33
126
7
7
1,107
26,086
2,681
!9.963
i,527
3,070
54,525
1,062
11,847
7,442
7,239
24,392
6,708
3,74o
6,3So
15,746
6,690
52,969
2,780
2,906
458,274
1,71 1
976
617
642,756
44,647
1,066,913
29,963
57,953
1,516,471
73,86i
259,102
212,546
141,618
2,002,480
iS5,Si5
86,905
75.342
281,908
163,653
1, IC2.359
167,330
4,181
13,073,614
112,030
58,939
46,915
541,927
43,263
928,442
8,552
54,52i
1,416,640
36,39!
245,608
195,492
"4,447
1,700,241
168,448
59,153
65,Si7
255,853
139,348
1,031,699
154,744
39,o25
",633,452
74,142
40,914
34,577
391,69°
10,560
816,751
20,704
39,892
70,167
34,562
80,068
109,855
103,448
i,535,56i
100,725
65,838
8,386
137,499
53,865
421,252
83,46:
15,194
6,921,792
103,464
5i,94i
41,034
AGRICULTURAL CO-OPERATION
427
JANUARY
1908
S o
■Spa
'• = c ~
•/. — '_' - ~
" -S _, rt
? 1 1 S £
-J £ pi] u .«
1909
n o P —
D. 3 3 « "
« 2w gS
ES " -Jl
54
40,766
21
6,102
69
32,198
8
3,571
13
5,642
I3S
77,292
5
1,480
60
17.345
x9
8,512
22
11,251
41
31,250
48
14,409
13
6,211
42
I3,CS4
69
29,489
56
14.735
172
81,069
24
7,137
1 1
5,124
1,850
767,194
2
1,806
1
9S8
4
1,653
1,149,263
141,188
1,537,718
43.617
92,805
1,820,437
87,829
363,439
227,730
219,503
2,606,108
317,550
134,125
125,784
468,505
357,564
2,289,447
279,848
73,500
938,174
133.905
1,377,355
24,501
81,712
1, 652, 127
43,525
339-879
204,444
19,922
2,048,533
274,340
95,922
104,251
355.7S3
3"»487
2,147,513
259,633
64,355
20,830,993 18,072,323
114,787
81,148
113,887
80,271
54,643
105,328
781,977!
47,ooS
1,108,0461
21,776
56,676
539.915.
34,4i6|
^154.439
112. 169
I
105,980!
2,193,045
212,601
94.732|
34-56o|
254,123'
142,407
1,244,385
106,379
33,6So(
IOI
28
99
12
35
157
4
73
26
31
5o
62
26
53
97
81
205
55
17
11,853,0742,446
102,976
73,065
100,896
67,607
10,142
47,74i
5.286
11,507
98,019
1.687
25,255
12,15s
15,867
36,596
21,556
io,497
22,951
48,955
27,792
106,643
16,25s
S,655
11,55,282
2*154
1,202
3,263
1,902,940
233,370
2,021,228
69,151
202,888
2,245,573
69,000
58i,53S
287,608
315,390
2,888,418
420,157
236,614
231,020
761,325
654,498
3,246,845
475,181
116,863
30,373.148
150,026
84,053
233,685
1,584,683
224,557
1,827,249
40,065
185,595
1,974,865
37,891
535,9^9
259,375
278,482
2,415,336
360,319
155,2
201,514
627,131
600,429
2,902,359
453,647
108,510
26,860,772
116,123
75,694
224,015
1,187,758
92,541
i,337,8io
36,739'
118,23;
876,306
21,21 1
281,118
145.392
143,554
i
2,287,358;
2 16,5 .v.
I63,63S|
102,4 29';
409,683
315.460
1,927,480
158,591
57,63:
16,506,896
128,734
74,509
210,307
428
RUSSIA
GOVERNMENTS
ON THE ist
c c
5 2
<
IP
o «
■ - /-S -a |
c - — .S u
?■ gr§ S a
- = £ K x
Lublin
Flozk
Total.
C<7Mftf.f«.?.
Territory of the Cossacks of Kouban
Koutais
Stavropol
Territory of the Cossacks of Terek .
Tiflis
Erivan
Total.
Siberia and Central Asia.
Trov. of Akmolinsk
Jenisséisk
Transbaikalia
Maritime Province
Frov. of Scmipalatinsk
Tobolsk
Tomsk
Territory of the Ural Cossacks
Frov. of Fergana
Total.
Total for the Empire.
is
4
306
245
6,699
116
I-391
97
1,604
572
133
149
854
97,612
17,293
482,512
635,242
6,962
47,688
58,044
8,798
1,103
i,i49
11,050
3,511,460
16,848
413,009
556,010
6,845
46,818
3,394 1,224
54,887
7,882
1,020
1,112
10,014
3,027,181
12,472
408,771
539,246
2,055
27,952
I5S
30,162
3,439
108
i.547
2,278,700
AGRICULTURAL
CO-OPERATION
429
.JJjANUARY
1
190
5
190
6
«
o
<
0
5.2
z **
g
J5
g
z
ri —
■j -2
■a x
<t fi
t> </!
-a
5 °
•-cou
< «» S J=
S 0 «
■a S •»
1 S" s
2 a s
!H T3 J&
■ i5 s ss;
0 s V) •- u
°- 3 « S «
" e -^ 0 «-*
0
<
0
u
v
,0 m
1.1
z B
6
c
0
V
.a
S
3
Z
5 if
3 -2
0
* .S
c a
O p£
il* a
a a ° — ■
v. B °
-al"8«
0 C — .2 u
0. = S u -
I
546
37,133
31,141
30,977
1
1,156
75,187
70,657
67,042
i5
20
4
9.432
581,844
518,768
490,449
15
11,159
674,730
567,618
579,609
12,772
751,323
668,513
635,094
20
15,435
931,042
775,388
808,235
728
17,449
I5,804
3,498
16
2,747
73,873
57,121
26,747
i
35
I,OI3
970
—
1
35
1,073
932
—
il
3,836
I39>458
127,480
104,796
13
5-934
276,231
248,773
218,996
2
571
2i,495
21,299
9,748
6
2,155
95,413
90,330
48,902
2
20
99
3,4i8
3,223
80
2
38
100
3,555
3,3oo
231
5,269
182,833
168,776
Il8,I22
10,971
450,145
400,456
294,876
4
738
n,773
IO,497
4,214
5
955
18,302
16,702
7,286
—
i
163
i,34i
1,192
I70
—
—
—
—
—
«
487
4,335
3,264
630
4
1,303
18,311
15,248
10,862
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
7
536
1,388
17,449
14,953
5,OI4
9
2,258
36,613
3i,95o
18,148
181,284
5,53o,9i8
4,786,476
3,432,350
773
304,357
9,522,119
8,272,635
5,763,492
43o
RUSSIA
GOVERNMENTS
ON THE
• T3 V V
< £ ■&■£
n o ° "
., pq Mi •*
u o 5
o c — .2 v
a " S «> t:
Lublin
Plozk .
Total. .
Caucasus.
Territory of the Cossacks of Kouban.
Ko\itais
Stavropol
Territory of the Cossacks of Terek . .
Tiflis
Erivan
16
Total.
55
Sice: iti and Centrai Asia.
Prov. of Akmoliusk
Jenisséisk
Transbaikalia
Maritime Province
Prov. of Seniipalatinsk
Tobolsk
Tomsk
Territory of the Ural Cossacks.
Prov. of Fergana
Total.
M
Total of ti e Empire. . 7 1,19g
2,494
12,557
i8,355
7,639
33
8,436
4,542
20,750
145,009
794,808
1,157,701
i,37o
268
2,362
4,000
50I-379
250,412
1,058
412,716
257,152
3,315
924,653
25,844
3,812
32,176
6i,S
15,217,800
137,667
653,836
941,136
210,402
981
375,3s1
241,080
130,011
698,15
i,c24,6i
134,82
5
316,69
118,22
3,169
570,04
830,96
23,56^
3,072
24,950
51,589
i3,457.i4o
8,99
2,25
15,52
26,77
5,543»2|
Il
AGRICULTURAL
CO-OPERATION
431
J A N U A R Y
1 g 0
8
190
O
<
o
11
Z B
u
0
.0
s
Z
11
'" -°
-a v
s
« .5
t. *
ta u
< "
-a
c
<r. 3
rt S
c ^
Deposits and A-
mounts Borrowed
(Excluding those
received from the
State Bank)
"G
0
<
0
ja »
Z "
u
S
0
S
z
5?
.5 "0
0
a
n C
T3
V
a
C 3
rt O
Deposits and A-
mounts Borrowed
(Excluding those
received from the
State Bank)
5
4.546
316,365
296,309
280,953
7
7,759
555,163
533,925
499, I54
16
28
14.837
I,068,005
9OOJ85
1,437,336
966,377
16
16,998
1,435.184
1,204,720
1,326,285
23,830
1,694,192
1,524,267
34
31,676
2,458,1"
2,154,477
2,238,989
58
20,010
898,528
770,883
561,860
96
35.706
1,855,203
1,498,651
1,304,019
2
I30
3.022
2,8'SO
—
5
912
20,964
17,189
2,439
28
13,945
682,545
591,404
547,5"
36
19,696
1,014,724
891,608
765,754
14
7.044
325,728
290,085
253,529
23
9,520
458,898
418,451
201,090
\
1
45
4,576
4,l60
—
2
114
IO,263
8,282
2,403
2
105
148
2,937
1,917,336
828
—
2
134
3,141
2,666
—
39.322
I,660,240
1,262,009
164
66,082
3,363,193
2,836,847
2,275,705
12
2,020
4I,800
38,889
17,703
15
2,865
58,642
55,089
22,060
—
—
—
—
3
396
IO,744
9>i3i
1,957
—
—
—
—
—
1
3°5
l6,60I
16,535
5,200
—
—
—
—
—
1
143
6,299
6,206
25
1
220
2,830
2,072
934
1
344
6,427
5,6io
2,366
4
758
19,460
I7,060
12,298
6
I.47I
42,465
35-747
27,559
.
11
5.258
88,005
72,827
53,2o6
iS
10,482
199,343
170,778
126,799
—
—
—
—
—
1
69
2,OIO
854
—
1
29
2,012
89
8,o6o
7,030
2,278
1
"5
8,380
8,875
i,532
8,344
160,155
137,678
86,419
47
16,190
350,9"
307,825
187,498
838,691
24,602,676
21,307,577
14,726,660
2,691
1,269,230
36,545,363
32,159,922
21,209.088
3i-
® ^\r EDEN
SOME DEMOGRAPHIC AND ECONOMIC STATISTICS.
Sources :
Sveriges officiella Statistik i Sammandrag. Stockholm, iqio (Statistical Yearbook of Sweden).
Befolkningsstatistik. Ny fôljd. XLII. Statistiska Centralbyrans underdSniga beriittelse for
âr 1900. Bidrag till Sveriges officiella Statistik (Statistics of Population. Official sta-
tistics of Sweden). Stockholm, 1903.
D° for 1907, Stockholm, 1909.
Statistique des superficies cultivées, de la production végétale et du bétail dans les Pays adhé-
rents. Institut International d Agriculture. Rome, 19 10. {Statistics of Cultivated Areas
and of vegetable and animal production in the adhering countries. International Ins-
titute of Agriculture, Rome, içio).
Sveriges utfôrsel och infbrsel âr 1907, etc. {Exports and Imports of Sweden during içoj).
Stockholm, 1908.
Statesman's Yearbook, 19 10. London, 1910.
A. — Territory and Population.
Area: 447,862 sq. km. of which the lakes occupy 36,852.6 sq. km.
Population on the 31st December, 1900: 5,136,441 inhabitants.
Density of the population per sq. km. on the 31st Dec. 1900: 12.5.
Estimated population on the 31st December, 1908: 5,400,000.
Density of estimated population per sq. km. on Dec. 31st, 1908: 13.2.
Birth and Death rate per thousand inhabitants:
Year Cirths Deaths
Average 1898-1907 . . . 26.2 °/00 15.6%»
1907 25-5 %o M-6 %o
I908 25.7 %o 14-9 °/oo
434
SWEDEN
Occupations of the population in 1900:
Profession
Exercising
the Profession
Family and Servants
Men
Total
Men
Women
Grand
Total
Liberal profes-
sions
Agr'culture and
fisheries
Mines and manu-
factures
Trade and trans-
ports
Private means and
unspecified . . .
Total. . .
Liberal profes-
sions
Agriculture and
fisheries
Mines and manu-
factures
Trade and trans-
ports
Private means and
unspecified . . .
Emigration
74,815
720,216
361,760
125,136
195,098
20,928
262,770
5Ï-263
23,3°3
231. 803
1,477,025
5- 1
48.7
24. 5
8-5
13. 2
56,445
480,169
266,156
83,464
i43,J77
120,107
131,260
915,401 1,200,385
53o,72i
lS2,240
291,469
590,067 1,029,411
627,916
208,600
338,275
141,035
1,178,171
581,984
205,543
523,272
2,039,93s 2,506,436 2,630,005
272,295
2,378,556;
I
1,209,900
414,143
861,547
/' rcentage Figures,
3-
6
44
5
8.
7
3-
9
39
3
5-5
46. 6
25-9
8. 1
13- 9
5-9
44-9
26. o
8.9
14.3
5-2
47.9
25- 1
8.3
13- 5
5-4
44-8
22. 1
7- s
19.9
5,136,441;
5-3
46. 3
23-5
8. 1
16.8
Over- sea
emigration
Total
emigration
Per 1000
inhabitants
I901-905 (average).
1906
I907
1908
I909
25,590
21,242
19,325
8,873
18,894
29>536
24,704
22,978
12,499
5- 67
4.65
4. 29
2. 31
Illiterates amongst the conscripts in 1907: 0.34%
SOME DEMOGRAPHIC AND ECONOMIC STATISTICS
435
B. — Agriculture
, Forests and Fisheries.
Distiibution of Territory
in
1 90S:
Cultivated fields
36,410 sq. kms. —
8-9 %
Natural meadows .
13,278 » =
3-2 %
433 » =
214,460 » ==
146,431 » =
0 1 °/,
52.2 %
35-'' %
Other lands . . .
Total area of land .
41 1,012 sq. kms. =
100.0 %
Area of lakes . .
36,851 »
447,864 sq. kms.
Principal products (i):
1908
1909
Wheat . . . 91,013
ha.
1,907,109 quintals
1,881,000
Rye .... 404,502
»
6,076,586 »
6,338,000
Barley . . . 195,450
»
3-158,883 »
3,037,000
Oats .... 808,683
»
11,759,247 »
11,728,000
Meslin . . . 154,600
>>
5,069,393 hectolitres
Potatoes . . . 152,336
»
25.540,676 »
15,696,000
Distribution ot
farm landj in 1908
!
Farms
:ulliv.. tej Cultivated
by o\rner 1 by non— owner
1
Total
%
81.172
I96o45
2 2 9IO
2,054
302,481
IO,372
30,388
IO,593
I 2o8
52,561
91.544
226,733
33.503
3.262
(0 355,042
25. s
63- 9
9-4
0.9
From 2 to 20 »
From 20 to 100 »
Over 100 ha
100. 0
(1) The Stitistlc.tl Yeirtookfer Sweden for 1910 (p. 3;) from w'tich we take these fig. res, puts
the total number i.f farms at 350,117.
Live— stock on December 31st, 1908:
Hordes 574.S72
Cattle 2,685,020
S1 e^p 1,010,217
Goats 65,887
Swine 894,670
Reindeer 237,253
Poultry 4,100,000
Bee hives 120,000
(1) Provisional figure --.
43^
SWEDEN
C. — Mines, Manufactures and Commerce.
Production of iron ore in
» silver and lead
» copper
» zinc
» manganese
» pyrites
Principal manufactures (1907):
Wood manufactures
Machinery
Iron and steel, founderies, etc. . .
Stone industries etc
Foreign Trade:
Year Imports
I906 644,227,836
I907 682,104,613
I908 608,932,257
1908: 4,712,494 tons
» 2,058 »
» 21,371 »
» 4°,°77 »
» 4,616 »
» 29,569 »
Number Number
of establishments of workmen
1.955
63,891
428
24.133
636
23.39°
741
23.152
Exports
504,284,
813
524,662,
547
482,017,467
D. — Navigation and Inland Communications.
Shipping in i<,oS :
K:itererl
Cleared
No.
Tonnage
No
Tonnage
I7.I3I
16 937
5067.767
5,015,956
17,301
17,304
4,917,720
5."9.44i
Length of railways at the end of 1906: 13,388 km.
E. — Finance.
Revenue in 1910: 228,139,000 kroner.
Expenditure » 228,139,000 »
F. — Money, Weights and Measures.
Unit of value: the Krona of 100 ore. A 20 kroner piece in gold weighs
*, 960, 572 grammes — pure gold. 100 kroner = 1,388. 89 frs.
The decimal metric system is adopted for weights and measures.
II. — AGRICULTURAL CO OPERATION IN SWEDEN.
This monograph has been communicated to us, /or publication in the
Bulletin, by our official correspondent, M. Dann/eldt, Secretary to the Royal
Academy of Agriculture at Stockholm.
Bibliography.
II. Juhlin Dannfeldt: Sketch of the Swedish Agricultural Institutions; Stockholm, 1910.
Kalender ôfver svenska landtbruket (Calendar of Swedish Agriculture, içioî).
Lag 0111 registrerade foreningar for ekonomisk verksamhet (Law of the 28th June, fSçj,
on the registered associations of economic character, together with the amendment of
the 24th July, içoj).
Introduction.
Agricultural Co-operation in Sweden is of comparatively recent date,
and, altogether considered, it has not had the same extension there as in
many other countries. The sentiment of independence innate in the Swedes,
and the aversion the peasants there feel to the interference ol others in
their affairs, render the nation little inclined to co-operation, the result of
which is to limit the rights of individuals.
We must add to this that the population is scattered, and the enor-
mous distances make certain forms of agricultural co-operation difficult,
especially in the provinces of the North.
Also co-operation was only introduced in Sweden after the success
attained by it in other countries had become known, and in its intro-
duction co-operative institutions already on trial elsewhere, especially in
Denmark, were taken as models. Besides in this case the initiative came
less from farmers than from the Provincial Societies of Rural Economy
{Hushallningssâllskapen), with whom it lies to lake all steps for the
development of this special form of rural economy.
Generally the local co-operative societies are entirely independent of
each other. Only the associations for credit on mortgage and those for
collective purchase have united to form national federations.
As registration is not obligatory for the co-operative associations, one
result of their isolation is that their number and the work done by them
438 SWEDEN
is very insufficiently known. We have complete data for the total business
(outgoings and incomings) only in the case of the associations for credit
on mortgage; because the associations for collective purchase only publish
an annual report of the business done by the provincial federations. Yet
there are sufficiently detailed statistics {Svensk Mejeridriftsstatistik) of the
working of the co-operative dairies, prepared by the public dairy instructor.
Every year he publishes statistics of these associations and a summary
every five years.
§ I. — Credit Associations.
Swedish Bank of credit on mortgage. Provincial associations for credit
on mortgage.
Up to the beginning of the nineteenth century the Bank of Sweden
{Sveriges riksbank) alone had the privilege of granting loans upon the se-
curity of landed property. But difficulties presenting themselves when
the requirements of agricultural credit had to be satisfied, provincial asso-
ciations of credit on mortgage {Hypoteksfôreni>igarné) were created one
after the other. The first was that of Scania, which commenced operations
in 1836; the most recent, that of Norrland, dating from 1861.
These Associations for Credit on Mortgage were at first private insti-
tutions, independent of each other, and their principal object was, by sell-
ing their bonds, to grant their members loans, extinguishable in instal-
ments, on first mortgage of agricultural property. The competition among
these associations for the sale of their bonds began to have troubloseme conse-
quences. Then the Swedish Bank of Credit on Mortgage {Sveriges all-
manna Hypoteksbanfc) was founded by the law of the 26th April 1861.
The principal object of this bank is to negotiate loans to permit of the
supply of the funds necessary to the Associations lor Credit on Mortage.
It has the exclusive privilege of issuing bonds to bearer, secured upon
agricultural property, and is endowed with 30 millions of crowns capital
in state securities.
The Bank of Credit on Mortgage is administered by a Council whose
president is nominated by the king, the vice-president by the members ot
Parliament {Riksdag) deputed to the administration of the Public Debt
{Riksgàldsfullmàktige) and the three other members by the Associations of
Credit on Mortgage. The members of the Committee of Supervision, 5 in
mumber, are appointed, one by the members of Parliament deputed to the
administration of the Public Debt, and the others by the associations. The
rules, sanctioned by the king, can only be modified with the authorization
of the Riksdag.
The Provincial Associations of Credit on Mortgage {Hypoteksforening-
artie), ten in number, are administered in accordance with regulations
AGRICULTURAL CO-OPERATION 439
sanctioned -by the king. They can only lend on security of cultivated land
and of meadows. The valuation of the ground is made by experts, and
upon very strict lines. The value of buildings and of forests is not included
in this valuation. The loan, always on first mortgage, may in no case
exceed the half of the value of the property.
The existing rates are : 4 per cent interest, if not extinguishable in fixed
instalments, or from 1 Y2 to 2 per cent, if so extinguishable. The right
of repaying the loan after ten years is always reserved. Loans extinguish-
able by instalments are allowed up to the half of the value of the pro-
perty, loans redeemable in other ways only up to the third.
The members of the associations, that is to say, the borrowers, are
jointly and severally responsible for the engagements of the Association
with the Bank of Credit on Mortgage, each of them in proportion to the
loan that has been granted him. On the other hand, the associations are
jointly and severally responsible to the Bank, each proportionally to the
amount of its debt to the Bank.
During the )rears 1861-1908 the Bank of Credit on Mortgage supplied
the ten associations for credit on mortgage, in piovisional loans, loans
extinguishable by instalments, and loans not so extinguishable, with a total
sum of 598,248,414 crowns 54 ore. The sum of 236,709,702 crowns 26 ore
having been repaid, the remainder due from the associations amounted
to 361,538,712 crowns 28 ore. But by the 31st December 1908, the total
amount paid into the sinking fund being 80,000,892 crowns 26 ore, the nett
remainder of the loans due that day was consequently 281,537,820 crowns
2 ore.
440
SWEDEN
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AGRICULTURAL CO-OPERATION 441
The associations for credit on mortage provide principally for the credits
required by landholders of a certain importance. The small proprietors and
the majority of the peasants apply to the banks, the Savings banks, or
private individuals. For the establishment of small properties or family
properties (1) {egnaheni), the State, through the medium of the societies
of rural economy, the societies of liability limited by shares, and the so-
cieties for purchase of family properties, grants loans to the amount
of 5/6ths of the property and the necessary buildings.
§ 2. — Societies for the purchase of family properties (2).
The object of these societies generally is to furnish their members
with the means for purchasing a family property.
Two of these societies are National Unions, with a total number of
members of about 6000, and an original capital of 32S.530 crowns; three
are provincial societies with an original capital of 66,620 crowns; twelve
are independent societies and merely local.
A plan for the organization of the State loans for country farms
through the medium of the credit co-operative societies has been prepared,
but it has not yet been presented to Parliament.
#3. — Associations for collective purchase.
At the end of the year 1908, the number of the associations for col-
lective purchase was about 800. They had about 40,000 members.
Of these associations, 663 were affiliated to 19 provincial federations,
which in their turn make up the Swedish Farmers' National Union (Svenska
landtmàns riksfôrbund).
The principal object of all these associations is the purchase, on behalf
of their members, of feeds, manures, seeds, and other articles necessary
for farmers, but the regulations of the majority of them show that other
purposes of their foundation are the sale of the agricultural produce sup-
pied by the members, and the advancement of their economic interests.
Another combination of which there are a few examples is that in
which the co-operative dairy serves at the same time as an association of
collective purchase.
The members of the primary or local associations generally pay an
entrance fee, which, in the associations affiliated to the Union, is usually
(1) These small properties do not enjoy the privilege of exemption from seizure, as
family properties in France and in the United States do.
(2) A detailed study of Family Property in Sweden was paV'shed in our -l Bulletin
of the Bureau of Economic and Social Intelligence », 191 1, January, p. 237.
442
SWEDEN
in proportion to the extent of arable land. The fee is generally 5 crowns
per hectare of cultivated land. Only a very small portion is paid on en-
trance. For the rest an engagement is given which will serve to indicate
the member's liability, limited to 5 crowns per hectare, in addition to the
entrance fee. In other societies the entrance fee and the liability are fixed
at from 1 to 3 crowns for the entrance fee and 100 crowns for the liabi-
lity. In the majority of the independent associations members have no
personal liability, that is to say the association offers no other security
than its own assets, for the satisfaction of its obligations.
The right of voting is individual. One vote is accorded to each person
or lot (hectare), but in the latter case the votes of each member are li-
mited to i/ioth of the total voters.
The management of business is most usually entrusted to delegates,
who receive no remuneration. The conditions of payment are generally
cash or short credit ; in some associations from 10 to 20 % is paid in
advance when ordering.
In the greater number of the associations affiliated to the provincial
federations obligatory purchase has been introduced for certain articles,
seeds always being excepted. Generally the purchases are made by the
federations and the produce is sold at the merchants' prices. The assets
of the registered associations must, by law, exceed the liabilities by a sum
at least equal to the value of the shares together with the reserve fund,
and the law forbids the declaration of a dividend of which the amount
is either entirely or in part deducted from the capital. According to the
regulations of the majority of the centralized association, 10 % of the profits
are paid into the reserve fund, 5 % interest paid on the shares paid up,
and the rest of the profit is divided among the membres proportionally to
their purchases.
The provincial federations are generally societies whose affiliated
members are either local associations, or individuals farming at least
Irom 150 to 300 hectares of arable land. The entrance fees and the lia-
bility are generally fixed in the same manner as in the primary associa-
tions. Purchase is obligatory in the majority of the federations.
In certain cases the provincial federations are constituted as societies
with liability limited by shares.
The members of the Swedish Farmers* National Union are only pro-
vincial federations (or societies with liability limited by shares), paying a
certain sum at the date of admission, and an annual subscription of 10
crowns for every hundred thousand or fraction of a hundred thousand.
Obligatory purchase is not inserted in the rules, but has been fixed by a
somewhat long standing convention and affects certain kinds of produce.
The total business (outgoings and incomings) of the National Union
in 1910 amounted to a total of 7,650,296 (1909 : 6,828,149) crowns, giving
AGRICULTURAL CO-OPERATION 443
a nett profit of 32,276 (1909 : S1^0) crowns without considering the
discount granted to the members, which amounted to 140,017 (1909:
122,205) crowns (1).
§ 4. — Association for the sale of eggs.
Farmyard business was long neglected in Sweden, but in the course
of recent years a keen interest has been taken in the development of this
branch of rural economy, especially on the part of the small farmers; up
to the present the production of eggs is the chief thing they aim at.
. For the sale of eggs the suppliers unite in local associations In 1908
there were more than 200 of these. The majority of these associations
have fixed for their members an entrance fee in proportion to the number
of hens they possess, most often 5 ore per hen. The members are obliged
to deliver to the associations all the eggs not serving for their own
household consumption. Generally the eggs are marked, so that it may be
known where they came from, and heavy penalties are inflicted upon any
poulterer delivering bad eggs.
Some of the local associations are affiliated to one of the two fede-
rations existing in the country.
§ 5. — Association for producion of peat moss litter.
The use of peat, it being recognized as the best means of preserving
dung, is speading more and more extensively among the Swedish farmers. To
get the original material for themselves the farmers of a region combine, they
buy or rent a bog and there prepare peat moss litter sufficient for the
needs of the members of their association, and sometimes even they man-
age to produce enough for sale. When it is possible they also produce
peat for fuel. The number of this class that have been registered only
amounts to about thirty.
On the 31st December 1903, 28 associations for the production of peat
moss litter were at work; they had 6,940 members. In 1908 they pro-
duced 32,203 cubic metres of peat, 398,525 bales of peat moss litter, and
6,571 bales of peat dust.
§ 6. — Associations for purchase and maintenance of stallions.
In almost all the provinces the horsebreeders have formed local asso-
ciations for the maintenance of stallions. The majority of the societies of
rural economy grant associations of this kind in their district loans, ex-
tinguishable by instalments, for the purchase of stallions.
At the end of the year 1908 these associations were 90 in number,
and had 4,102 members. They had at their disposal 129 stallions that
in the course of the year had served 7,797 mares.
(1) See the report of the work of these unions in recent years, published in our
Bull, of Econ. and Soc. Int., 191 1, March, p. 130.
444 SWEDEN
i 7. — Associatiovs for the purchase and use of agricultural machines.
The farmers of a region associate in order to buy high priced machines,
such as the machine-threshers, necessary for their farms, but which their
private resources would not permit of their getting for themselves.
$ 8. — Associations for the purchase and maintenance of bulls.
It is ever more and more recognized that the question of the good
stock of the bulls is very important for cattle breeding. Consequently the
price of bulls judged good for reproduction has risen so high that cattle
breeders who only have a small number of cows cannot procure them.
Little by little, as greater interest has been taken in the improvement of
horned cattle, associations are also more frequently being formed, whose
members can thus have one bull in common for their cows. In 1909 there
were about 1,000 such associations.
As these associations are considered as one of the conditions for success
of the work to be done for the improvement of cattle breeding among the
small cattle breeders, and as a complement to the shows of horned cattle,
the societies of rural economy favour them in many ways; they supply them
with loans without interest and extinguishable by instalments, and accord
diem the highest prizes and supplementary prizes at the shows. Thanks
to the payment of service fees, the instalments of the loans and the mainten-
ance of the bulls are covered altogether or in part by the said societies.
§ 9. — Associations for the " control " of cowhouses.
The economical production of milk having little by little become the
central consideration in farming, the "control" of this branch of economy
is of very serious importance, but to carry out a scrupulous " control "
is beyond the means of the individual farmer. To reach this end recourse is
had to association. Some farmers of a district, generally of very limited
extent, combine to engage an " assistant controller " who visits the cow-
houses of the associated members in turn and ascertains the quantity of
milk produced by each cow in a day and the amount of butter fat in the
milk, as well as the amount of each sort of fodder consumed by the cow.
It is judged necessary to repeat this " control " twice a month: in that case
the number of associates may be 12, and each of them may have a maxi-
mum of 40 cows : a greater number of cows could not be controlled in a
single day.
For each «row an entry is made in a register of the figures expressing
the quantity of milk it produces, the amount of butter fat contained in
that milk, and of the different sorts of fodder consumed. For these last
the unit of measurement adopted is the kilogramme of corn or of dried roots.
AGRICULTURAL CO-OPERATION 445
At the end of the year of " control " the figures are added up, and
a calculation is made in kilogrammes of the quantity of milk furnished by
each cow for 100 kilogrammes of fodder consumed. Knowing the price of
the milk and of the fodder, one can check the economic result obtained
for each cow and for the whole herd, - assuming that the value of the
dung covers all other expenses.
In several provinces a superior " controller " has been engaged, en-
trusted with the supervision of the " control " work of the province.
This " control " has given excellent results, and the societies of rural
economy have themselves published them (1).
It has brought about a general increase in the milk production, and
it has occasioned the use of fodder richer, but at the same time more ra-
tional and cheaper : besides the " control " of the cows has given cattle
breeding a safer starting point.
On account of the great importance attributed to this " control " the
associations occupying themselves with it receive, under certain conditions,
1 arge aids from the State and from the societies of rural economy, for the
organization of it, and to enable them in their turn to assist those mem-
bers who do not possess more than 25 cows.
Persons desirous of qualifying as " assistant controllers " may obtain
the necessary instruction and practice in the courses given by certain theo-
retical schools of agriculture. These courses last a month.
The number of " control " association is 700, of which about
220 are in Scania. In 191 1 they will receive more than 41,000 crowns
in aids from the State, and more than 45,000 from the societies of rural
economy.
During the year of " control " the number of herds of cows belonging
to the members of the Association was about 8,800, representing an ap-
proximate total of 206,000 cows.
§ 10. — Co-operative dairies.
In the middle of the last century the preparation of dairy produce
became a real industry. First of all it was individuals or limited liability
companies that occupied themselves with it. The material came from their
own establishments or was bought by them.
In the last 25 or 30 years the dairies established to deal with bought
milk have been more and more replaced by co-operative dairies (andels-
mejerier) which are the property of local limited liability companies and
are chiefly composed of the small farmers of the district.
(1) Compare the note on the centralisation of the Swedish Control Associations in
our Bull, of Econ. and Soc. Int. 191 1, March, p. 132.
446 SWEDEN
They have played a great part in the progress made by the dairy
industry and have especially thriven since they have paid for the milk
according to the quantity of butter fat it contains. The greater part of the
large dairies having buttermaking for their chief object, there was great
difficulty in finding a lucrative market lor the large quantities of sepa-
rated milk, especially as skimmed milk cheese was almost unsaleable. This
difficulty has almost disappeared since the farmers have begun to take
back the separated milk, as well as also the whey from the cheese making
establishments.
The number of co-operative dairies has largely increased. It now
amounts to about 500, compared with about 400 private dairies and about
500 belonging to companies limited by shares.
The co-operative dairy belongs to the society. The members gener-
ally pay an entrance fee, often in proportion to the number of cows they
possess, and in other cases to the extent of their arable lands. In some
societies no entrance fee is charged, but the members have to supply a
fixed quantity of milk ; generally the members may only keep back that
quantity of their milk required for their own personal needs.
In most cases the members are not responsible for the engagements
made by the society.
The business is generally managed by a board of directors, assisted
by the manager of the dairy, but often he alone is responsible.
A statistical summary of the business done by the dairies is published.
At the end of the year 1908 the number of the members belonging to
the co-operative dairies was about 54,000 and the sale of the produce of
these dairies had brought in more than 51 millions of crowns.
§ 11. — Co-operative Slaughter-houses.
The object of the foundation of these associations was to manage
butchers' businesses on behalf of their members, and to encourage the sale
of fattened cattle, especially of pigs. The members make a deposit with
the association, either in money or in the form of a bond, and this deposit
amounts generally to 10 crowns for each pig registered for sale during the
year. The Society elects a board of directors to manage its business with
the assistance of the manager of the butcher's establishment. The profits,
deduction being made of the part to be added to the reserve fund, are
shared in proportion to the value of pigs sold in the year. These are
registered to the credit of the suppliers.
Of the four existing co-operative slaughter-houses, those of Halmstad
and Tomelilla work more especially for the export trade, whilst those of
Kalmar and Skenninge still have their markets in Sweden.
AGRICULTURAL CO-OPERATION 447
During the year 1909 the number of members was 4,398 and the num-
ber of payments 21,486. The members had registered 91,096 pigs, and
26 cows for sale, for which they had been paid 1,784,975 crowns 95 ore.
Besides these co-operative slaughter-house already working, others
have been formed in the districts of Hessleholm and Kristianstad, in
Scania and in Blekinge. The two first are already working to a certain
degree, but their slaughter— houses are not yet built.
Further, steps are betng taken to start new co-operative slaughter-
houses in the provinces of Gefle and of Malmô, while in Ostergôtiand a
plan has been put forward for the farmers to build a small establishment
in connection with the slaughter-houses of Linkôping.
The Society styled « Visby factory of meat for export and manu-
factory of preserves » is in sufficiently extended relations with the co-opera-
tive slaughter-houses, since the members, numbering some hundreds,
are Gotland farmers. Considered as an organization, it is a society with
liability limited by shares.
— Agricultural Insurance Societies.
Law on Insurances, 24th July
The members of the mutual insurance sociedes are the persons insured
themselves. For the engagements entered into by a society of this cha-
racter the members are liable, the liability bein^- either unlimited, or limited
to a certain sum, but in the case of societies whose business is not with
insurance of property it may be decided that the assets of the society are
the only security it offers.
The insurance societies are divided, according to the extension of their
Sphere of action into: a) National Societies dealing with more than one
province; b~) Provincial Societies whose action extends to more than one
canton, yet without passing the limits of the province; c) « Cantonal »
and parochial Societies limited to a canton at the utmost.
1) Cattle Insurance Societies.
At the end of the year 1908 there were 11 national societies with
a considerable extension of business and 35 less important, 107 provincial
societies and 502 « cantonal » and parochial societies.
The receipts and expenditure of these societies are shown in the
following tables:
32.
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45°
SWEDEN
2) Societies for Mutual Assurance against hail and frost
At the end of the year 1908 there were two national and five pro-
vincial mutual assurance societies against hail and frost. The amount of
the receipts of these societies deriving from assurance premiums was
242,069 cr. 60 and the expenditure due to compensations paid, adding
thereto the part paid into the reserve fund, gave a total of 171,093 cr. 27.
The number of assurances in force at the end of the same year was 16,869
representing a capital sum of 53,153,680 cr. 70. For the same year the
members' contributions came to 234,355 cr. 64 and the number of cases
oi damage to 706.
3) Mutual Fire Insurarce Societies
a) National Societies.
Assurances in force at Ihe
end of the year 1908 :
Number for fixtures . . .
» » moveables.
Amount of insurance :
Fixtures
Moveables
Amount of liability :
Fixtures
Moveab!- s
Of which reinsured
Number of compensât ons
paid during the year :
Fixtures
Moveables
Amount of compensations:
Fixtures
Moveables
General^Fire
In-urance
Societies
for
Country
lïuild.ngs
12.2 5
I77,S20 462
177,820,462
2,836,164
259,8 I 7
<"",eneral lira
Insurance
Mutual Fire
Insurance Society
>n
Osterg >tlar.d
and
neighbouring-
provinces
Scanian Fire
Institute
36, ;o;
161,452,115
57,883,678
245,980
1,4981
2,739;
7,702
15,196.220 229,938,601
161,452,115! 14,021,310]
40,491 940( 229,93S,6oi
32,364,680
16,130
I4-51?
46
104,030
AGRICULTURAL CO-OPERATION 45 1
6) Provincial Mutual Fire Insurance Societies.
These societies, in number 23, are found in all the provinces, except
that of Gotland. The total number of insurances in force in these societies
at the end of the year 1908 was 158,941 for fixtures, and 204,772 for move-
ables. The amount of insurance for fixtures came to 948,554,070 crowns
and for moveables to 721,581,075 crowns. The amount of liability for
fixtures was 1,044,896,855 crowns and for moveables 779,382,982 crowns.
During the whole year the compensations paid for 760 fires in the
case of fixtures came to 934,465 crowns and for 965 fires in the case of
moveables to 815,895 crowns. The members' contributions came to
2,103,939 crowns.
c) Small Mutual Fire Insurance Societies.
These societies were 363 in number at the end of the year 1908.
The total amount of insurance on fixtures and moveables by these
societies was 1,621,903,382 crowns. The number of insurance policies
was, in the case of fixtures 144,059, in that of moveables 153,440, and in
that of fixed and moveable property 260,778. The number of compen-
sations paid was 1,351 representing 1,711,041 crowns. The members' con-
tributions amounted to 1,4.83,817 crowns.
HD International Institute of
1491 Agriculture, Bureau of
A3I58 Economic and Social Intelligence
v»l Monographs on agricultural
co-operation in various
countries
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