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JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY
J OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY
VOL. XXXIX
REVIEW
Vol. hi, 1920
LONDON
THE -SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY
CENTRAL HOUSE, FINSBURY SQUARE, E.C.z
Journal of the Society of Chemical Industry
Vol. XXXIX. 1920.
INDEX OF REVIEW
Vol. III. 1920.
Abyssinia ; Mineral
Accessory food factors. Set Vitaniines
Acids, fatty ; R61e of in lubrication
Air pollution ; Effects of by smoke
Cohen
Alcohol as a motor fuel
Cellulose in Switzerland . .
denaturants Dobbie
denaturation at Canadian distilleries
denaturants in the United States
from coke-oven gas
Fuel ; Duties on
Industrial. Desborough
industry in Japan
Motor in Hawaii
Power
Power in Australia
production in France
production in Germany
Algeria ; Minerals of
Alkali works ; Report of the Chief Inspector on -
Alloy Research Association in the U.S.A.
Aluminium and its alloys
imports from Germany
industry in Germany
industry ; Protection of German —
in the United States in 1918
leaf; Use of ■ for water-proofing
manufacture in Norway
powder ; Inflammability of
Transmission lines in Canada
Ammonia. Synthetic ; Claude process for
Synthetic ; German remarks on the Claude process for -
Synthetic ; Plant for in Italy
Ammonium sulphate as a weed killer
Analysis ; Qualitative by means of the electric arc
Anemometer ; A directional hot-wire .
Anglo-French Agreement (Oil)
Ankinga fibre industry
Antimony developments in New Brunswick
in the United States in 1918
ores in Great Britain ; Report on .
ore; Output of in Bolivia
Role of in tropical medicine. Faigher ..
Aigentina; Chemical trade in .
Coal-tar dves in .
Oilfields ; Transfer of in
Petroleum deposits in Neugen . .
Report on . 1919
Rosario in 1919
Argon
Armenia; Mineral resources of
Arsenic
discovery in British Columbia
in the United States in 191S
industry in Japan. .
ores in Great Britain ; Report on .
Asbestos fields of Quebec ..
industry in Germany
in the United States in 1918
Aahantl in 1918
Asia Minor ; Asphalt as a source of lubricating oil in
Chrome ore deposits in . .
Asphalt and allied substances in 191S
as a source of lubricating oil in Asia Minor
379
337
308
381
302
186
154
.. 95
.. 288
.. 201
.. 220
.. 201
.. 147
40, 381
... 114
.. 275
.. 340
.. 288
.. 109
349
439
221
402
382
319
183
416
203
112
417
338
Association of British Chemical Manufacturers
Atom; Nuclear constitution of the . ..
Atomic weight of scandium ; Ro\ isiou of
Australia: Alkali industry in .
Broken Hill field
Castor oil plant in New South Wales
Castor oil production in Queensland
Caustic soda in Tasmania
Cement works in Tasmania
Cobalt ore in Queensland
Copper discoveries in the Xort hern Territor;
Eucalyptus industry in Victoria
Flax industry in .
Glass bottle manufacture in Tasmania . .
Glue and gelatin manufacture in New South Wales
Graphite in Western Australia
Industrial news
Industries in Tasmania ..
Iron ore at Yampi Sound
Manufacture of high-grade steel in Western —
Manufacture of white lead in .
Mineral output of New South Wales in 1919
Mineral output of Tasmania in 1918
Mineral output of Tasmania in 1919
Oil Agreement Act, 1920
Oil indications
Oil; Reward for discovery of — ■ — .
Paper plant of N. S. Wales Government
Power alcohol in .
Professional Chemists Bill
Report on the trade of . 1919
Sandalwood oil in .
Slag cement in .
Steel works for Queensland
Sugar industry in .
Timber treatment ; Powell process for
Zinc and iron industries in .
Austria, German ; Graphite production in —
Austria-Hungary ; Partition of the Endustriea of
Authors of signed articles : —
• Archbutt. L.
Bannister. CO...
Briggs. J. F
Calvert. H. T. and Morris. E. If.
Clarke. H. T. and Mees, C. E. K.
Cohen, J. B.
Dale, H. H
Desborough, A. P. H.
Dobbie. Sir J. J.
Evans. E. V.
Farghcr. R. G
Farmer. J. B
Grant. J. . .
Hill. 0. A
Humphrey. H. A
Leech, B
Louis. H. . .
Lukes. J. . .
Miall. S
Monypenny. J. H. G.
Mees. C. E. K. See Clarke, If. T.
Morris, E. H. See Calvert. H. T.
Payman, W.
Porritt. B. D
Richmond. H. 1). and Wilkie. J. M. . .
Ridge. H. M
Russell, E. J.
Sproxton, F.
Thorburn. J.
Turner, W. E. S
Vogel, J. L. F
Walpole. G. S
Wrheeler. E. Gridleigh
Wilkie. .1. M. See Richmond. H. D.
Williams. W. A
Wilson. L. P
378
320
218
430
339
256
371
351
124
407
230
284
an
REVIEW INDEX.
B
PAGE
Bahamas in 1918-19 366
Bakelite ; Use of lor making aeroplane propellers . . . . 338
Barbados in 1918 263
Barytes and barium products in the U.S.A. in 1918 .. .. 397
supplies 291
Bauxite industry in Germany . . . . . . . . . . 438
in the United States in 1918 288
Bavaria ; Carbide industry in ■ . . . . . . . . . 133
Belgium ; Artificial silk industry in . . . . . . . 257
Glass industry of . . . , . . . . . 77, 257
Industrial notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
Industrial situation . . , . . . . . , . . . 307
Metallurgy in ■ 149. 257
Sodium sulphate manufacture in . . . . . . . 360
Benzol production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419
production in Canada 200. 435
production in 1919 151
Keport on road test of . . . . . . . . . . . 58
Bismuth in 1918 in the United States 183
Bitumen in Mesopotamia . . , , . . . . . . 16
Bohemia ; Glass industry of 133. 219
Bolivia ; Antimony and wolfram ore production in . , 221
Mining district of Potosi . . . . . . . . . . 439
Mining district of Uyuni . . . . . . . . . . 348
Books reviewed : —
Alcohol ; Production, properties, chemistry and industrial
applications of . (Simmonds.) "Monier- Williams
Cement. (Blount) Panisset
Chemical dictionary ; The condensed .
Chemistry, Inorganic; Text-book of . (Friend.)
Schoeller
Chemistry, Molinari's. Partington
Chemistry ; Profession of . (Pilcher.) Forstcr
Chemistry; Treatise on . (Roecoe and Schorlemmer)
Thorpe
Cocoa and chocolate (Knapp.)..
Colloid chemistry ; Laboratory manual of elementary ■ — ■ — .
(Hatschek.) Findlay
Colloid chemistry ; Report on . Findlay
Colloides metalliques. Les . (Barv.) Hatschek . .
Diazo-eompounds ; Chemistry and Technology of the .
(Cain.) Morgan
Dyeing industry. (Higgins.) Leech
Electrolysis ; Quantitatve analysis by . (Classen.)
Sand
Fertilisers and parasiticides ; Chemical . (Collins.)
Dunstan
Food inspection and analysis. (Leach.) Cribb
Fuel production and utilisation. (Taylor.) Smith..
Gases. Industrial. (Greenwood.) Armstrong
H.M. Factory, Gretna ; Preliminary studies for .
Armstrong
Ions, electrons and ionising radiations.' (Crowther.)
Thomas .. .. .. .. .... ..
Hurter and Driffield ; Photographic Researches of ■'.
Higson
Kolloidchemie; Klcines praktikum der . (Ostwald )
Hatschek
Leather chemistry ; Practical . (Harvey.) Parker..
Lubricants. Solid ; Memorandum on . (Archbutt and
Thomsen.) Evans
Manganese ores (Curtis.) Wagner
Margarine. (Clayton.) Bolton
Metallography ; Principles of . (Williams.) Bannister
Metals; Electro-deposition of . (Langbein.) Barclay
Metals ; Physical chemistry of the . (Scbenck.) Lowrv
Oil Mineral ; Treatise on iiritish . (Greene.) Butterflel'd
Oils, Commercial ; Vegetable and animal . (Laucks )
Mitchell
Oils, fats and waxes ; Animal and vegetablo . (Martin )
Belly ........
Oils; Hydrogenation of . (Ellis.) Allan
Ore analysis; Technical methods of . (Low.) Kitto
Organic compounds ; Preparation of . (Barry Barnctt )
Plckard
Pharmacopoeia; The extra . (Martindale and West-
cott.) Bennett
Rocks ; Manual of the chemical analysis of -^-. (Washiuc-
ton.) Schoeller . .
Rubber ; Plantation and the testing of - . ( Whitbv ')
Schidrowitz * '
Sewage disposal. (Kcnnicutt. Wlnslow'. and Pratt.) Kershaw
Steel-works' materials; Chemical analysis of . (Ibbot-
son.) Jackson
Sugar; Manufacture of from the cane niid beet.
(Heriot.) Ogilvie
Tin ores (Davies.) Wagner ..
Tungsten ores. (Rastall and Wlleockson.) 'waener
Water ; Chlorluation of . (Race.) Ridcal
Borax industry in Czechoslovakia
Botany ; Economic and chemical industry. Farmer '. '.
Brazil ; Anhiuga fibre industry in
Cement market In .
Iron ore in . .. , ,
Mica deposits in Sao Paulo
Pita fibre in . . .
Report on . 1919!! !! '.', "'
Brazil — continued.
Resources of Matto Grosso
Rubber trade of .
Tanning industry in Sao Paulo
Bread ; Ropiness in . Grant
British Association for the Advancement of Science, Cardiff,
1920
British Association of Chemists
British Chemical Plant Manufacturers' Association
British Cotton Industry Research Association
British Grey and Malleable Cast Iron Research Association . .
British Guiana ; Cassava industry in .
in 1918
British Industries Fair. 1920
British Industries Fair. 1921
British Launderers' Research Association
British Pharmaceutical Conference
British Solomon Islands in 1918
Budget for 1920
Bulgaria ; Mineral resources of .
Oil shale in .
Otto of roses
Burma ; Camphor production in .
Tungsten ores in
299
;177
407
2S7
340
418
'Z7t
347
379
c
" Caa-ehe " plant as a sweetening agent .. .. .. 417
Cadmium in the United States in 1919 437
Caffeine combine in Japan . . . . . . . . . . 112
Calcium carbide imports into China 83
carbide industry in Bavaria 133
carbide industry in Norway 133
carbide industry in Switzerland 220
cyanamlde production in Germany .. .. .. .. 382
cyanamide ; Production of non-dusty . . . . . 360
Cambridge University ; Biochemistry at ■ . . . . . 203
Cameroons ; Cinchona bark from the 382
Camphor ; Allotments of Formosan 831
growing in the British Empire 149
industry in Japan . , 76, 306
in Foochoyv 387
in South China 185
production in Burma . . . . . . . . . . . . 379
Synthetic in the United States 236
Canada ; Alcohol denaturation at the distilleries . . . . 379
Aluminium transmission lines in — ■ — . . . . . . . 147
Antimony development in New Brunswick .. .. 210
Arsenic discovery in British Columbia 319
Arsenic ores in Ontario 435
Asbestos fields of Quebec . . . . . . . . . . 112
Benzol production in 200, 435
Bureau of Industries in Saskatchewan . . . . . . 378
Canadian Institute of Chemistry .. .. .. 70, 147
Chemical Products. Ltd. 218
Chemical trade of . 445
Chemistry ; Opportunities in industrial . . . . . 335
Clays in British Columbia 272
Coal discoveries in . . . . . . . . . . . 147
Coal industry of Alberta . . 112
Coal situation in . . . . . . . . . . . 356
Copper discovery in Quebec . . 319
Fertiliser industry in 319, 435
Forest Products Laboratories of . . . . . . . 415
Graphite industry in . . . . . . . . . . , 356
Gypsum in New Brunswick 304
Industrial notes .. .. .. .. .. ,, ,. 200
Institution of Professional Civil Servants .. .. !! 147
Iron ore deposits in British Columbia 38
Iron ores ; Electric reduction of . . . . . . . 320
Maple sugar in Quebec 290
Metallurgy in British Columbia 218
Mineral dye industry in Ontario . . . . . .38
Mineral output of British Columbia in 1919 . . . . S39
Natural gas in . . . . . . . . . . . , , 304
Nickel coinage in . . . . . . . . . ! ! 147
Nickel discovery in Quebec . , 319
Northern Aluminium Co. .. .. .. 147
OH iu 304i 41'9 435
Oxygen plants in . 147
Opportunities for British manufacturers in . .. .. 13(j
Paint and varnish industry in . . . . . . . . . 347
Paper and pulp industry in ■ \ \ 398
Paper industry 290
Report on trade of . 1919 222
Resources of . . . . . . . . . , , , 197
Rubber industry in . . . . \\ 435
Sliawiuigau Elect ro-Mctals Co. ,. 147
Sodium sulphate in Saskatchewan 415,435
Starch and glucose industry in 1918 386
Talc discoveries in . . . . . 147
Trade iu 1920 .. .' .' 1'3'c., 404
Water-power «le\ elopment in . .. .. .. ,, 66
Wood distillation industry in 1918 . . . . 200
Zinc output of , no
Zinc oxide plant in . .. .. , , 147
REVIEW INDEX.
PAGE
Carbon bisulphide ; Proposed manufacture of in New
Zealand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
dioxide ; Coal storage in . . . . . . . . . , . 16
tetrachloride as a fire-extinguisher. . . . . . . . . 397
Cassava industry in British Guiana . . . . . . . . 381
in the West Indies . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Castor oil industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392
oil plant in New South Wales . . . . . . . . . . m
oil production in Queensland . . . . . . , . . . 357
Catalysis and the law of mass action. Armstrong and Hilditch 249
Celluloid industry. Sproxton 352
industry in Japan .. .. .. .. .. ..176
industry in Switzerland . . . . . . . . , . 306
manufacturers in Japan . . .. .. .. , , .. 14
Cellulose-alcohol. See under Alcohol.
Cellulose; Cantor lectures on . (Cross.) Briggs.. .. 124
industry ; Sulphite in Sweden . . . . . . . . 341
nitrate as aeroplane dope . . . . . . . . , . 201
Cement ; Exports of . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384
Improvement in the manufacture of in the United
States 21S
industry in China . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
market in Brazil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
market in Spain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
tile-drains in the United States „ 149
works in Tasmania . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
Ceramic Society 35, 146, 180
Ceylon ; Plumbago situation in . .... . 43
Trade of . 1918 43
Chaulmoogra oil ; Research on . . . . . . , . . 414
Chemical and drug market in Turkey . . . . . . . . 227
and drug trade of China . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
assistants ; Register of . . . . . . . . . . . 381
engineering .. . . .. .. .. .. .. 114
exports from Norway . . . . . . . . . . 263
industries of Germany ; Position of . . . . . . . 10
industry and economic botany . . . . . . . . . . 157
industry and trade in Japan * .. .. .. .. .. 173
industry and trade in Spain 173
industry ; Development of German . 1919 . . . . 399
industry in Bengal .. .. .. .. .. m
industry in Germany . . . . . . . . , . , . 322
industry in Turkey . . . . . . . . . . 60
industry of Basle 347
industry of China ; Future of 307
industry of Germany. Evans, Walpole 47
industry of Hungary 219
industry ; Present position of fine 425
industry ; Reports on progress in . 1919 . . . . 1, 29
industry; Use of safety lamp in ... .. .. .. 67
industry ; Wage rates in Danish 133
industry ; Wage rates in German . . . . . . . 133
market in Sweden .. .. .. .. .. 153, 281
publications in the United States 415
requirements of Rumania . . . . . , . . , . 422
research in the Sudan , . . . . . . . . . . . , 132
standard samples. Bannister . . . . . . . . . . 351
trade of Argentina . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
trade of Canada . . . . . . . . . . , . . . 445
trade of Holland .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 153
trade of Hongkong in 1919 . . . . . , . . . . 245
trade of Japan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
trade of Switzerland in 1919 227, 297
trade of the United States in 1919-20 386
Chemical Industry Club 359, 380, 392
Chemical Society .. 36, 73, 92, 110, 130, 165, 200, 215,
257, 377, 414
Chemical warfare 58, 139, 401
warfare ; Future of 94
warfare investigations in the United States . . . . . . 58
warfare service in the United States . . . . . . . . 148
Chemicals, Organic ; Production and supply of synthetic
in the United States. Clarke and Mees . . . . 230
Prices of imported . .. .. .. .. .. .. 401
Rail conveyance of . Archbutt. Bullock. Lukes 315,
341, 371, 426
Chemist ; The dye-works . Leech 300
Chemistry, Industrial ; Canadian opportunities in . . . 335
Chemists ; Outlook for professional in Germany . . . , 16
Chile : Cinnabar ; Discovery of . . . . . . . . 400
Iron and steel in . . . . . . . . , . . . . 322
Potassium nitrate production in . . . . . . . . . 221
Sugar-beet cultivation in 322
China ; Calcium carbide imports of . . . . . . . 83
Camphor in Foochow . . . . . . . . , . . , 381
Camphor in South . . . . . . . , . . . . . i§5
Cement industry in . . . . . . . . . . , 65
Chemical industry ; Future of . . . . . . . . . 307
Drug and chemical trade of 227
Groundnut industry of . . . . . . . . . 120
Indigo crop in . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
Report on . 1919 326
Rubber in Hainan . . . . . . . . , . , . 204
Trade of Turkistan . . . . . . . . . . , , 445
Vegetable oil resources of the Shanghai district . . . . 312
Chosen ; Trade of in 1919 227
Chrome ore and chromium. 1913-1919 399
deposits in Asia Minor . . . . . . . . . . 77
Chromite in the United States in 1918 ?35G
Chromium compounds ; Manufacture of in South Africa 379
deposits in South Africa 03c
Cinchona bark from E Africa and the Cameroons 38*>
trade of Dutch East Indies .... mm
Cinnabar ; Discovery of in Norway 400
Clay, China ; Exports of . . . . . 094
Coal as a future source of oil fuel 354
Bituminous ; Behaviour of on coking ". 36
Bituminous ; Mineral constituents of ' ' 36
Briquetting of Oklahoma . . . . . " 337
Complete gasification of . .. .. [[ ' 124
conservation in the United Kingdom . . . . ' ' " 153
discoveries in Canada ...... 147
exports of South Africa . . . . , , [\ ' ] 132
fire . . . . . . . . , , " II ' ' 334
gas ; Calorific valuation of . . . '.". " ' 331
gas ; Composition of unsaturated hydrocarbons in — — * 53
industry in the United States.. .. 330
industry of Alberta " ' 11o
industry ; Proposed nationalisation of French * '. . " * 74
Pithead, values of . . , . . . . . . " 334
production in Holland . . . . . . " * ' " 4x7
production in 1919 ; Distribution of . ' " .'. "239
situation in Canada . . . . . . . . ] ] 356
storage in carbon dioxide . . . . . . \\ x6
-tar dyes in Serbia . . . . . . " * [] " 422
-tar industry of the United States in 1919 .. ..* .. 397
Cobalt ore in Queensland 37$
Cochin-China ; Copra production of 320
Coconut production in Mexico . . . . . . . , , 221
Coconuts in tropical America . . . . . . . , # # 115
Coffee research in the United States 379
Cohune nuts in tropical America 115
production in Mexico . . . . . . , t [[ '[ 221
Coke-oven plants ; Comparison of German, American and
English iq
walls ; Corrosion of . . . . . . . t4 mm \qq
Colloid chemistry ; Report on . , , . . . , . . 446
Colloidal fuel " 395,413
medicinal preparations ; Uses of . Dale . . . . 211
Colloids ; The industrial applications of 376
Columbia ; Resources of the Cali district . . . . . . 297
Resources of Tumaco . . . . . . . . , , ' ] 349
Colorimeter ; A new , . . . . . . . . ( < # p 379
Colour trade of Holland 404
Company News : —
Alby United Carbide Factories, Ltd 979
American Cyanamid Co. . . . . . . . , " 324
Angela Nitrate Co.. Ltd.. . . . . . [, " 295
Anglo-Persian Oil Co., Ltd. . . . . . . " [ ] 444
Associated Portland Cement Manufacturers, Ltd. .. ". 152
Benzol Manufacturers, Ltd. . . . . . . . . t ng
Bleacher?' Association, Ltd. .. .. ,] " '* 243
Boake, Roberts and Co., Ltd . . " * " 244
Boots Pure Drug Co., Ltd .. "," 225 244
Borax Consolidated, Ltd. .. .. ,, tm ' iig
Bradford Dyers' Association, Ltd. . . '. [ .'. .'. 98
Brimsdown Lead Co. . . . , . . . , . ' " ' 386
British Aluminium Co., Ltd. .. .. ."." .. 135 444
British Cellulose and Chemical Manufacturing Co., Ltd.*
98. 100. 280. 423. 444
British Cotton and Wool Dyers' Association, Ltd 208
British Cyanides Co.. Ltd. .. .. .. .. 44 243
British Dyestuffs Corporation .. .. . . 'ii6. 1SS', 401
British Glass Industries. Ltd. .. 21, 64. '225,' 444
British Glues and Chemicals. Ltd ' ' 189 310
British Oils and Cake Mills. Ltd * 244
British Oxygen Co., Ltd. .. "' 405
British Pluviusin Co., Ltd. . . . . . . . . , . 311
British Sulphate of Ammonia Federation . . . . . . 209
Brunner. Mond and Co. . . . . . . . . 81, 136 224 279
Burmah Oil Co.. Ltd ..'.." 243
Bush and Co., Ltd. . . . . . . . . ' , \m 280
Bwana M'Kubwa Copper Mining Co., Ltd. .. .. .'. 21
Calico Printers' Association. Ltd. .. .. . , . . 323
Carboil Syndicate, Ltd. , . 153
Cassel Cyanide Co., Ltd. 444
Cast ner-Ke liner Alkali Co. .. .. .. .. 21, 81
Cerebos, Ltd . . . . . . . . . , , . . " 98
Chilean Nitrate Producers' Association .. .. . . 423
Court aulds. Ltd. .. .. .. .. .. .. 135, 405
Electro-Bleach and By-Products, Ltd. .. 98, 136," 244
English China Clays. Ltd 152
English Oilfields. Ltd 20. 3G5
Explosives Trades. Ltd. . . . . . . . . 262^ 405
Gas Light and Coke Co. . . . . . . . . . . 81
Home-Grown Sugar, Ltd 151, 223
John Knight. Ltd 98
Jurgens. Ltd 188
Lautaro Nitrate Co., Ltd. . . . . . . . . . . 225
Lever Brothers, Ltd 65,118.189.324
Liverpool Nitrate Co.. Ltd 295
Low Temperature Carbonisation. Ltd. .. .. 244, 42:1
Magadi Soda Co.. Ltd. 405
Mond Nickel Co.. Ltd. .. .. - 280
New Paccha and Jazpampa Nitrate Co., Ltd. . . . . 225
Nitrate companies in 1919 .. .. .. .. .. 324
North Persian Oils. Ltd. 189
REVIEW INDEX.
445
218
216
169
319
150
258
238
348
320
221
Company News — continued.
Pan de Azucar Nitrate Co.. Ltd. .. .. .. .. 64
Power-Gas Corporation. Ltd. .. .. .. .. .. 20
Salar del Carmen Nitrate Co.. Ltd 295
Salt Union, Ltd. 136
Sand. Glass and Foundry Materials (Amalgamated). Ltd. . . 226
San Lorenzo Nitrate Co., Ltd. . . . . . . • • 225
Scottish Oils. Ltd 20, 243
Southall Bros, and Barclay, Ltd 152
South Metropolitan Gas Co SI. 311
South Staffordshire Mond Gas Co 98
Sulphate of Ammonia Association . . . . . . 44, 386
Synthetic Ammonia and Nitrates, Ltd 209
United Alkali Co., Ltd. 172
United Glass Bottle Manufacturers. I*d 136
United Premier Oi! and Cake Co., Ltd. .. .. .. 172
United Turkey Bed Co.. Ltd 65
Van den Berghs, Ltd 64
Wetcarbonising. Ltd. t . . . . . . . . . ■ - 423
Company News ; Foreign : —
Denmark . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
France . . 05. 92. 120. 173. 191. 245. 281. 290. 311. 320. 404
Germany .. 99, 120. 191. 210. 227. 281. 290. 404. 445
Holland 173
Italy 311
Japan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210, 245
Norway 120, 245
Rumania 210
Sweden 173
United States 120. 245. 405,
Concrete Boors ; Surface treatment of
Conductivity, Electrical
Conjoint Board of Scientific Societies
Copper discovery in Quebec
discovery in the Dutch East Indies
mines in Finland
mining in Russia
occurrence in Northern Territory, Australia
ore discovery in Finland
Physical and chemical properties of . ..
production of the United States in 1919
smelting in Peru
sulphate product ion iu Italy in 1920
Copra production in Cochin-China
Cork production and consumption
Correspondence : —
British oxygen industry. Murray
( leinieal commodities ; Rail conveyance of . Archbutt
Bullock. Lukes . . . . '
Colloidal preparations ; I'se of in medicine. Searle,
Alexander
Dyestuff situation. Burgess
Pointolite lamp. Higson
Silk ; Artificial industry. Rriggs. Wilson .
Corrosion of hot-water pipes
of metals
Costa Rica in 1918
Cotton ; Fire-prooflng of bales of
growing in the British Empire (Report)
industry ; Research association for British .
production in the British Empire
Crete; Trade and industry in .
Crimea ; Resources of 418
Cuba ; Economic conditions in . . . . . . . . . 348
Resources of Cardenas . .
Sugar crop of . 1919
Cyanide ; Substitute for melted in case hardening
Cyprus In 1918-19
Czecho-Siovakia ; Borax industry in -..
G lass Industry in . 306
Paper production in 400
Salt deposits In 438
Sugar production iu .
Dangerous Drugs Act .. .. .. .. 187, 278, 2'jf
Denaturants. 8ea under Alcohol.
Denmark; Margarine industry of . .. .. .. 322
Denmark; Report on . 1919 .. .. .. .. 345
Wage rates in chemical industry of . .. .. .. 133
Dibromoxyniercuryfluorcsein, a new therapeutic agent .. 14
Dietary ; Horse flesh in human . 38
Dominica; Trade of . 1919 347
Dutch East Indies ; Cinchona trade of . . . . . 380
Copper discovery in . . . . . . . . . . . 150
Proposed nitrogen fixation plant in 150
Trade of Soerabaya district 263
Dutch Guiana; Iron ore in . .. .. .. .. 185
industries; Protection of foreign . .. .. 439
industry 420
industry in Basic 238
.. 259
. . 413
.. 382
.. 389
88
.. 311
.. 271
.. 349
.. 168
419. 440
.. 420
.. 361
. . 348
94. 116
Dyestuff industries— continued.
industry in Great Britain
industry ; Position of French . . .
industry ; Relations of State to .
industry ; The synthetic .
intermediates : Standardisation of
manufacture in Sweden
situation
situation. Burgess
situation in Hongkong ..
situation in United States
Dyestufls ; Coal-tar in Argentina . .
Cost of production of in the United Sta
Import Regulation Act
Imports of .
Imports of German synthetic . . .
New Japanese duty on .
Purchase of in Germany
Report on progress in . 1919
Requirements of Polanel in . . . . . . . . . 417
Supplies of German
Swiss exports of organic .
Dye-works chemist. Leech
Earths; Rare for tile American gas mantle industry .. 13
East Africa ; Cinchona bark from 382
Trade of . 1918-19 44
East Africa Protectorate in 1917-18 99
Egg preservation in the United States . . . . . . . . 415
Egypt; Oil-seed industry of . 116
Report of the Government Analytical Laboratory and Assay
Office. 1913-1919 325
Report on . 1919 363
Electrical power (Severn scheme) . . . . . . . . . . 410
resistivity of dilute metallic solid solutions .. .. .. 433
Electricity (Supply) Act, 1919 1»
Electricity (Supply) Bill, 1920 439
Electricity supply undertakings in Germany 133
Electrochemical industries in the Pyrenees.. .. .. 305
Electrochemistry and electrometallurgy; Development of
in Germany during the war . . . . . . . . 7o
Electrolytes, Colloidal 74
Electroplating industry ; Problems in the . . . . . 395
Electrotechnical industry of Germany . . . . . . . . 418
Emery ore ; Production in the Levant . . . . . . . . 95
Employees ; Attendance of at continuation schools . . 36
Eucalyptus industry in Victoria 167
Excess profits duty and research contributions . . .. .. 258
Excess profits Duty and scientific research .. .. .. 205
Exhibitions. See under Fairs.
Explosions; Industrial in 1919 302
Explosives; Liquid oxygen . .. .. .. .. 317
■Report of H. M. Inspectors of .1919 344
F
Fairs and Exhibitions 21,05,110
Faraday Society 34, 130, 210, 370, 395,- 433
Federated Malay States ; Tin, gold and tungsten production
of 154
Rubber-seed oil in . .. .. .. .. .. ..381
Felspar (1913-1919) 360
in the United States in 1918 440
Fomentation industries; Reports on progress in . 1919 .. 32
Fertiliser; Anew . .. .. .. .. .. .. 275
iudustry in Canada .. .. .. .. .. .. S10
industry in Japan . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
supplies 445
Fertilisers ; Artificial nitrogenous . Russell . . . . 5
Nitrogenous in Germany . . . . . . . . . . 59
Nitrogenous ; Maximum prices for, in Germany . . . . 120
Fertilisers (Temporary Control of Export) Act .. 180,221 294
Finance Bill 186, 239, 258
Finland; Copper and zinc mines at Orijarvi 258
Copper ore discovery in . .. .. .. .. ..321
Industries of . .. .. .. .. .. .. 115
Finsbury Technical College 410
Fireprooflng of wood 379
Fischer, Emil ; Memorial lecture on . . . . . . . 377
Associations of with applied chemistry .. .. .. U
Flax fibre industry in St. Helena 59
Growing Committee ; Report of 260
industry in Australia .. 202
Fluorspar and cryolite in 1918 in the Unite 1 States .. ..184
in Derbyshire 438
REVIEW INDEX.
Food inspectors ; Report on work of . 191S-19 . .
Food investigation board ; Report of . 1919
France ; Alcohol production in .
Artificial silk manufacture in .
Chemical market in .
Chemical industry ; Progress in .
Claude synthetic-ammonia process
Coal industry ; Proposed nationalisation of .
Coal production in 1919
Coke problem iu metallurgical industry
Cotton and wool supplies of 320
Dye industry in . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357
Electrochemical industries in the Pyrenees . . . . . . 305
Franco-German synthetic-ammonia convention . . . . 305
Fuel economy in .
Fuel situation in .
Industrial notes .. 13, 92, 149, 167, 201, 217, 237, 255,
273, 287, 305, 320, 338, 357, 380, 397, 416
Institut de la Victoire 182
Iron foundries in Lorraine ; Fate of . . . . . . . 58
Metallurgy in -. .. .. .. .. .. .. 74
Haison de la Chimie 39
Nickel-copper coinage 167
Oilfields in Alsace 13,92
Oils and oil-bearing materials ; Trade in vegetable . . . 445
Olive oil industry. . 217
Patent rights ; Prolongation of 74
Phosphate deposits in Morocco . . . . . . . . . . 320
Phosphate production in French North Africa . . . . 438
Potash industry of Alsace 13, 132, 321
Senegal ; Resources of 217, 338
Tidal energy ; Utilisation of 357
Trade with Germany . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Zinc industry in 167
Fructose; Production of from iuulin 410
Fruit; Detection of frozen 414
Fuel, Colloidal 395, 413
economy ; Report on 308
for motor transport ; Interim reports on . . . . . 277
oils; Tentative regulations tor storage and use of in
the United States 57
Fuels, Liquid ; Spontaneous ignition temperatures of . . . 36
Mixed ; Recent patents on . 90
Fuller's earth (1913-1919) 323
Furfural in caramel 288
Gallium ; New use for . . . . . . . • . . . 287
Gambia in 1918 311
Gas firing ; Symposium on 180
industry; Report on progress of . 1919 29
producer reactions ; Theory of . . . . . . . . . 10
Regulation Act 187, 224, 240
supplies ; Standards of . . . . . . . . . . . 308
Gases dissolved in water (Streatfleld Memorial Lecture) . . 359
Georgia; Manganese industry of . .. .. .. .. 115
Germany ; Alcohol production in ■ 186
Alkali in 58
Aluminium industry in . . . . . . . . . . . 438
Aluminium industry ; Protection of . . . . . . . 95
Ammonia, Synthetic ; Works for . . . . . 399, 445
Asbestos industry in -. .. .. .. .. .. 417
Bauxite industry in . . . . . . . . . . . 438
Calcium cyanamide production in . . . . . . . 382
German Chemical Society. . .. .. .. ..150
Chemical firms ; Increased capitalisation of 99
Chemical industry ; Development of . 1919 . . . . 399
Chemical industry in . .. .. .. 10, 47, 322
Chemical industry ; Wages in the . 133
Chemical publications in . . . . . . . . . . - 437
Chemical societies ; Reorganisation of . . . . . • • 341
Chemists ; Outlook for professional . . . . . . . 16
Chemists ; Professional fees of . . . . . . . - • 186
Dye purchases in . .. .. .. .. 94, 116, 257
Electricity supply undertakings in . . . . . . . 133
Electrometallurgy and electrochemistry ; Developments in
during the war . . . . . . . . . . 78
Electrotechoical industry of -. . . . . . . - . 418
Factories; Conversion of war . ... .. .. ..150
Fertilisers, Nitrogenous : Maximum prices for . .. .. 120
Fertiliser supplies in 1921 438
Glass industry in the Saar region . . . . . . . . 322
Gold and platinum in . . . . . . . . . . - 238
Industrial conditions in . . . . . . . . . ■ ■ 273
Institute for lignite and mineral oil technology . . . . 238
Iron industry in 1919 .. .. .. .. .. .. 185
Leather research institute for Saxony . . . . . . . . 238
Leather Research Institute . . . . . . . . • • 439
Lignite mining development in . . . . . ■ • • • 274
Militar-Versuchsamt 220
New research institute . . . . . . . . . . • • 150
Nitrogenous fertilisers in 59
Patents ; Proposed extension of the life of . . . . . 58
Potash industry in 132,274,440
Potash production in 1919 238
PAGE
i l-i many — continued.
Potash supplies .. .. .. .. .. .. 100, 116
Report on . 1919 241
Sugar situation and . 203
Sulphur production in 134
Sulphuric acid in 58
Technical education in . .. .. .. .. .. 238
Textile industry in occupied area of . .. . .. 274
Trade with ■ . . 259
Trade with France 55
University attendance in 382
Washing soda prices in 209
Gilbert and Ellice Islands in 1919 386
Glass bottle manufacture in Tasmania . . . . . . . . 378
goods; Importation of . .. .. .. .. .. 41'.'
industry ; Employment in the 401
industry : Impressions of the American . Turner . . 429
industry in Belgium 77
industry in Bohemia 133, 219
industry in Czecho-Slovakia 306
industry in Japan . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
industry in the Saar Region 322
industry in the United States 11
Glasshouse pot of special construction . . . . . . . . 53
Glassware ; Factory inspection of . . . . . . . . . 53
Scientific; Report on . .. .. .. .. .. 441
Testing of volumetric at the National Physical Labora-
tory .. .• 76
Glauber's salt in Siberian lakes . . . . . . . . . . 00
Glucose industry in Canada in 1918 386
manufacture in South Africa . . . . . . . . 271
Giue and gelatin manufacture in New :-. )uth Wales . . . . 445
Glycerides, unsaturated ; Mechanism of the hydrogenation
of in the presence of finely divided nickel .. 10
Glycerin ; Foreign trade of Uuited States in 22. 312
Gold in Germany 238
New methods in the hydromctallurgy of . . . . 9
Gold Coast in 1918 330
Northern territories of in 1918 . . . . . . . . 99
Government Orders and Notices : —
19, 41, 61, 82, 116, 137, 152, 172, 190. 206, 240,
262, 309, 330. 364. 387, 404, 420
Graphite in 1918 78
industry in Canada . . . . . . . . . . . . 356
in Madagascar . . . . . . . . . . . . 13, 83
in Western Australia . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
production iu German Austria . . . . . . . . 133
situation in Ceylon . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Great Britain ; Oil exploration in . . . . . . . 359
Greece ; Report on . 1919 293
Gretna Factory : Studies for the . . . . . . . 312
Groundnut industry of China .. .. .. .. 120
trade of Hongkong . . . . . . . . . . ■ . 44
Guano deposits in Sardinia . . . . . . . . . . 438
Guatemala in 1917 and 1918 228
in 1919 246
Oil seeds and nuts in . . . . . . . . . . . 154
Gums in Mesopotamia . . . . . . . . . . ■ • 16
Gunmetal castings ; Solidity of 9
Gutta-percha industry . . . . . . • • • • 204
Gypsum developments in New Brunswick . . . . . . 304
in the United States in 1918 70
Hawaii ; Motor alcohol in .
Helium . . . . .. • • • ■ ■ • -15,
Cost of production of in United States
-hydrogen mixtures ; Use of for airships
production in the United States
resources of the United States
Holland ; Chemical trade of .
Coal production in .
Colour trade of .
Oilseeds and vegetable oil market in --—...
Report on . 191S • ■
Rubber industry in . . . . ■ • ■ 1DU>
Salt production in — : — .
Sugar supplies in .
Honduras ; Sugar industry ; New
Hongkong ; Dye situation in .
Glass trade of .
Oils and oilseeds ; Trade in — — .
Peanut oil trade of .
Trade of ■ . 1919
Hungary ; Chemical industry of
Hydro-electric developments iu Switzerland
Hydrogenation of unsaturated glycerides; Mechanism of
436
113
288
116
341
311
311
311
219
340
REVIEW INDEX.
I
PAGE
Iceland ; Iron ore discovery in . . . , . . . . . 321
Imperial Mineral Resources Bureau . . . . . . . . 219
Imports and Exports Regulation Bill . . . . . . 104
India ; Camphor production in Burma . . . . . . 379
Chemical industry in Bengal .. .. .. . . Ill
Cotton crop in 1919-20 201
Crop forecasts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 435
Crop production ; Improvement of . . . . . . . 199
Forest Research Institute . . . . . . . . . . 38
Indian chemical service . . . . . . 12, 56, 167
Indigo crop statistics
Indigo industry in ■ — — .
Industrial progress in the United rrovinces . .
Industries in the Indore State
Mineral production in 1918
Mineral resources of ,
Mining in .
Oleo-resin industry in .
Report on British trade with .
Science Congress
Soap industry of .
Sugar crop in 1919-20
Sugar industry of
Sugar-cane ; Estimated crop of for 1920-21
Trade and industry of .
Tungsten ores in Burma
Turpentine and rosin in ■ — — .
Indigo crop in China
industry in British India
Indo-China ; Rubber situation in .
Industrial Courts Act, 1919
Institute of Brewing
Institute of Chemistry
Institute of Metals
Institute of Physics
38, 398
131
112
358
358
379
201
167
415
.. 201
.. 116
131,398
109, 150, 234, 318, 395
169
Institution of Gas Engineers .. .. .. .. .. 199
Institution of Mechanical Engineers . . . . . . . . 412
Institution of Mining and Metallurgy . . . . . . . . 165
Institution of Petroleum Technologists . . 36, 90, 146,
182, 354, 395, 413, 434
International Chemical Conference . . . . . . . . 251
International Labour Conference and industrial poisoning.
Mlall 4
Labour Conference and the eight-hour day. Miall .. 68
Inulin ; Production of fructose from . . .
Inventions ; War-time scientific
Ireland ; Peat resources of -.
Iron, Cast : Research in malleable
Electro-deposited .
industry in Australia
industry in Chile
industry in Germany in 1919
industry in Italy
industry in Norway
industry in Sweden
industry ; Research association for the .
industry : Reports on progress in . 1919
-nickel alloys; Forging of .
ore deposits at Yampi Sound, Australia . .
ore in Brazil
ore in Dutch Guiana
ore In Iceland ....
ore in South Africa
ore in Switzerland
ores ; Electric reduction of — ■ — . . . . '.
Pig ; New industry in Northern Natal . .
works at Narvik, Norway
Iron and Steel Institute ..
180, 336
Italy ; Chemical industry during the war . . . . . . 204
. . 237
. . 348
. . 438
Chemical journals in
Copper sulphate production in 1920
Dyes. Reparation
Fertiliser manufacture in Sicily
Giornalc di Chlmica Industrial?,
Guano deposits in Sardinia ..
Iron and steel industry of .
Lignite production in . . .
M'Triiry production of Tuscany and Idria
Paper industry in .
Patent rights aud the war
Pumice industry in .
fiubbei trade of — — .
Silk ; Artificial industry
Soap trade of .
Soda industry in .
Sulphur exports from Sicily
Sulphur production in . ..
Sulphur situation in . ..
Sumac trade of Sicily . .
Synthetic ammonia plant in . ..
Trade of in 1919
Tungsten in .
438
154
417
204
840
276
359
263
276
366
359
Jamaica ; Agriculture in .
in 1918
Japan ; Alcohol industry in .
Arsenic industry in .
Beet-sugar industry in .
Caffeine combine in .
Camphor ; Allotments of Formosan ■ —
Camphor industry in .
Celluloid industry in .
Celluloid manufacturers in . . .
Chemicals and drugs in .
Chemicals and dyes ; Proposed duties on -
Chemical and physical research institute in
Chemical trade of .
Dyestuffs ; New duty on ■ . . .
Fertiliser industry in .
Glass industry in .
Hydro-electric power in Korea
Lead industry in .
Mineral output of the Hokkaido . .
Oil production in Echigo
Oils and oil-bearing materials ; Trade in
Paper from seaweed pulp
Potassium bichromate industry in .
Phosphorus industry in .
Pottery industry of .
Report on ■ . 1914-1919
Rubber trade of .
Soda industry in .
Sugar industry in Formosa
Sugar trade of .
Sulphuric acid industry in . . .
Tinplate industry in .
Trade conditions in .
Zinc industry in .
Jellies
Jugo-Slavia ; Sugar production In
.. 136
.. 289
416
.. 380
.. 112
.. 331
76, 306
.. 176
14
.. 173
.. 422
.. 202
.. 245
.. 348
.. 202
.. 112
380
273
159
827
245
289
202
202
357
422
Kauri-gum industry
" Key " industries
New Zealand
. . 237
130, 169,384
Lamp ; The " Pointolitc " .
The safety aud its use in chemical industry. Paymarj
Lead ; Erosion of .
industry in Japan
Occurrence of in South Africa
paints ; Toxicity of .
White production in Australia
Lead Processes Act 4, 223. 294, 38
Leather and tanning industry in South Africa
industry : Report on progress in 1919
research institute for Saxony
trade of Hongkong in 1919
Alleged infringement of •
Legal Intelligence : —
Aluminium welding patents
Caustic soda contract . .
Charter; Alleged infringements of Society's .
Contract ; Validity of a pre-war .
Copper sulphate ; Corrosion of ship's plates by dissolved -
Explosion ; Liability for damages due to an .
Glucose in transit ; Claim for damage to .
Liquorice, damaged
Naphtha. Heavy ; Carriage of .
Naphthalene transactions
Oil ; Whale and sperm .
Patent ; Capital value of a .
Picric acid ; Alleged damage due to
Plant ; Disallowance claim against useless -
Potash contract
Research ; Donations for scientific .
Saccharin transaction
Trade marks ; Action over similar .
Trade marks in foreign countries
Levant : Production of emery ore in the —
Lighting ; Industrial and its relation to efficiency
Lignite mining development in Gcrmanv
production in Italy
tar oils
Technological institute for in Germany
Limes in the West Indies
Limestone in Mesopotamia
188
187
170
120
274
417
188
REVIEW IXDEX.
PAGE
Linseed of the world . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
London University ; Proposed site for 134
Lord Monlton and the unity of the profession . . . . 253
Lubricating oils ; Examination of . . . . . . . 146
Lubrication : Problems of . . . . . . . . . 91
Role of fatty acids in 47
Theory and practice of . . . . . . . . . . . 53
M
Madagascar ; Graphite in 13, 83
in 1918 210
Magnesite (1913-1919) 340
deposits in Manchuria . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
Maleic acid ; Synthesis of in the United States . . 57
Malt ; Influence of various factors on the starch products of
the extract of . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Maltose syrup in the United States . . . . . . . . 436
Manchester Steam-Users' Association ; Report to . . . 97
Manchuria ; Magnesite and talc deposits in ■ . . . . . 133
Manganese and manganiferous ores in the United States in
1917 148
and manganiferous ores in the United States iu 191S . . . . 288
dioxide ore ; Uses of 17
industry of Georgia 115
ores in the Society Islands 321
Margarine industry of Denmark . . . . . . . . . . 322
Martinique in 1918 191
Mauritius in 1918 296
in 1919 437
Merchandise marks ; Report of Committee on . . . 259
Mercury in the United States in 1918 168
production of Tuscany and Idria 204
Mesopotamia ; Gums, bitumens, and limestones in . .. 17
Oil in 240
Trade of 422
Metallurgical industry in Belgium . . . . . . . . 149
industry in British Columbia . . . . . . . . . . 218
industry in France . . . . . . . . . . 74, 149
research ; Methods of . . . . . . . . . . . 285
Metallurgy ; Future of use of oxygen-enriched air in . . . 321
Metals ; Corrosion of . 109, 169
Crystal growth and recrystallisation in . . . . . 319
Son-ferrous ; British . Louis 194
Methyl alcohol ; Synthetic in the United States . . 379
Metric system ; Report on compulsory adoption of the in
the United Kingdom . , . , . . . . . . 385
Mexico ; Coconut and eonune production . . . . . . 221
Mineral output of . . . . . . . . . . . 400
Petroleum production in . . . . . . , 115, 239
Mica deposits in Sao Paulo. Brazil , . . . . . . . 221
Microscopy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Milk ; Condensed, evaporated and powdered in New
Zealand Ill
Destruction of bacteria in by electricity . . . . 292
Mineral discoveries in South Africa . . . . . . . . 379
exploration in Switzerland 360
industry of Spain 95
oils. See under Oils. Hydrocarbon.
output of Alaska in 1919 113
output of British Columbia in 1919 339
output of India in 1918 112
output of Mexico 400
output of New South Wales m 1919 339
output of South Africa in 1918 169
output of South-West Africa 218
output of Tasmania in 1918 Ill
output of Tasmania in 1919 436
output of the Hokkaido, Japan 289
output of the United Kingdom iu 1919 362
production within the Empire . . . . . . . . 165
resources of Abyssinia . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
resources of Algeria 154
of Armenia . . . . . . . . . . . . 341
of British India 358
of Bulgaria 418
of far-eastern Siberia . . . . . . . . 383
of Morocco 96. 382
of Rumania . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
Miners' strike ; Loss due to . . . . . . . . . 401
Mines and quarries ; Report on . 1918 63
Mines and quarries ; Report on . 1919 . . . . 362, 441
Mining in Bolivia 348. 439
in Great Britain . . . . . . . . , . . . . . 18
Mining Industry Act 240, 278, 294
Molasses in the United States 380
Morocco ; Minerals from . . . . . . . . . . . 332
Palmetto leaves in . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Resources of . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
Munition factories at Gretna and Waltham Abbey . . 169. 312
N
Natalite 036
National Association of Industrial Chemists . . . . 72. 291
National Physical Laboratory ; Testing of volumetric glass-
ware at the . . . . . , . . . , , 76
National Union of Scientific Workers 110, 396
Nauru Island Agreement Bill 224
Neon 15
Newcomen Society .. .. ,, ,. .. ,. 38]
Newfoundland ; Report on . 1919 222
News and Notes : —
Australia . . 12. 38. 111. 167. 202, 218. 236, 256. 272. 304.
320. 339. 356. 378. 435
British India .. 12, 38, 56. 75. 93. 111. 131. 147. 167.
184. 201. 256, 358. 379. 398. 415. 435
Canada . . 38. 56, 111, 147. 200. 218. C72. 290. 304. 319.
339. 356. 378. 398. 415. 435
France .. 13. 38, 55, 74, 92, 111. 131. 149. 167. 182.
201. 217. 237. 255. 272, 287. 304, 320. 338. 357. 380.
397. 416
Japan .. 14. 76. Ill, 202. 273. 289. 304. 357, 380, 416
New Zealand Ill 147 237
South Africa .. 12.93.111.131.148.168.184.202.218.
236. 271. 290, 304. 339. 379. 398, 415, 435
Sweden 39
United States . . 13. 38. 57. 75. 9L. Ill, 131. 148. 168.
183. 201. 217. 236. 256. 271. 287. 304, 321. 337. 356.
379. 397. 414. 435
New Zealand ; Carbon bisulphide ; Proposed manufacture
of 147
Evaporated and condensed milk in . . . . . . . Ill
Kauri-gum industry in . . . . . . . . . . . 237
Report on . 1919 402
Nickel coinage in Canada 147
-copper coinage in France 167
deposits in the Barberton district. South Africa .. .. 271
discovery in Quebec . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
Function of in hvdrogenation of unsaturated glvcerides 10
in the United States in 1918 437
mining ; Suspension of in Norway 43S
Nigeria in 1917 S3
in 1918 244
Nitrate companies in 1919 324
situation . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
Nitrates, 1913-19 417
Nitre cake. 1915-19. Calvert and Morris 407
Nitrogen fixation as a "key" industry .. .. 130, 139
fixation in the United States .. " 75
fixation ; Proposed plant for in the Dutch East Indies 150
Nitrogen Products Committee ; Report of the . . . 25
Nitrogenous fertilisers. See under Fertilisers.
Non-ferrous metallurgy ; Reports on progress of . 1919 31
metals industry and research . . . . . . . . . . 114
mining industry ; Report on . . . . . . . . . 207
Norway : Aluminium manufacture in . . . . . . . 220
Carbide industry in . . . . . . . . . . . 133
Chemical exports from . . . . . . . . . . . 263
Iron and steel industry in . . . . . . . . . 275
Narvik iron works in . . . . . . . . . . . 220
Nickel mining; Suspension of in . .. .. 438
Potash felspar in 133
Pyrites ; Discovery of . . . . . . . . . . . 400
Pyrites industry in . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Report on . 1919 364
Rubber trade in 312
Zinc smelting in . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
o
Obituary : —
Fletcher. A. E 332
Groves. C. E 83
Huntington. A. K 162
MacArthur. J. S 161
Messel. Rudolph 100
O'Shea. L. T 192
Pickering, P. S. U 448
Reynolds, James Emerson . . . . . . . ■ ■ • 1--
Smart. B. J 388
Smith. Watson 1?1
Tipler. F. C 350
Wilson. L. P 368
Official Trade InteUigence :—
See Trade Intelligence. Official.
Oil and Colour Chemists' Association 73
Oil-burning locomotives 18, 258
fuel; Coal as a future source of <»4
seed cultivation in South Africa ^0-
seed industry of Egypt 11*
seed market in Holland . . . . . . - • - • • ■ Jl»
seeds and nuts in Guatemala 1=4
REVIEW INDEX.
392
220
445
445
1919
319
356
186
;:ou
238
3
182
304
435
439
130
379
198
Oils. Essential :
in Southern Spain
Sandalwood oil in Western Australia
Oils, Fatty:
Candlenut oil3 in the paint and varnish industry
Castor oil industry
Fat industry in Sweden
Oils and oil-ber.ring materials ; French trade in —
Oils and oil-bearing materials ; Japanese trade in -
Oils and oilseeds ; Trade of Hongkong in — — .
Olive oil industry in France
Olive oil production in Spain ..
Peanut oil trade of Hongkong
Rubber-seed oil in the F.M.S
Vegetable oil-bearing products of Trinidad . .
Vegetable oil market in Holland
Vegetable oil resources of the Shanghai district
Vegetable oils and fats ; Report on . 1919
Vegetable oils in Palestine
Vegetable oil trade of Kobe. Japan
Vegetable oils and fats in South Africa
Whale and sperm oil
Oil shales. See under Shales.
Oils, Hydrocarbon :
Examination of .
Gasoline substitutes in the United States
Lignite tar oils
Lubricating oil from asphalt in Asia minor . .
Mineral oil ; Technological institute for in Germany
itinera! oils ; Reports on progress in -
Oil ; Air-lift system for raising . . .
Oil developments in Canada
Oil discovery in Canada
Oil industry in Rumania
Oil in Great Britain
Oilfields in Alsace
Oil resources of the British Empire . .
Petroleum deposits in Neugen. Argentine
Petroleum discovery in France
Petroleum ; Evaporation losses of crude - —
Petroleum in Trinidad
Oils. Lubricating. See unfor Lubricating.
Mineral. See under Oils. Hydrocarbon^
Vegetable. See under Oils, Fatty.
Oleo-resin industry in India
Osmosis. Electrical ; Commercial application of -
Otto of roses in Bulgaria
Oxygen-enriched air; Use in metallurgy of —
Liquid as an explosive
plants in Canada
Pacific Islands ; Phosphates in the . 41
Paint ; Bulking values and yields of pigments and liquids used
in making 356
industry ; Candlenut oils in the . . . . . . . 105
industry in Canada .. .. .. .. .. .. 347
Paints ; Colloid chemistry of , . . . . . . , . 73
Palestine ; Vegetable oils in . . . . . . . . . 95
Palmetto leaves ; Commercial value of 59
Paper from seaweed pulp in Japan . . . . . . . . 14
industry in Canada 290
industry in Italy $40
making ; Raw material for . . . . . . . . . 203
production in Czeeho- Slovakia .. .. .. .. 400
trade of South Africa .. .. .. '. . .. .. 143
Para; Proposed rubber industry in 274
Para-coumarono . . . . . . . . . . . , . . 288
Paraguay in 1919 348
Sugar industry in — — . .. .. ., .. ,, 115
Parliamentary News :— IS. 79. 100. 110. 135. 151. 186.
205. 223, 239, 258, 278, 294. 361, 384. 419. 439
Patents and Designs Act, 1919 19, 40, 117, 172
Patents and Government servants . . . . . . , , 240
Chemical. MacRae .. .. .. .. .. .. i7(j
in Italy and the war ,. 291
in Sweden . . . . . . . . . , , , # # 291
Prolongation of French . . . . . . . " 74
Proposed extension of life of German . . 58
Peanut trade of Hongkong . . . . . . . , . , 44
Peat in the United States in 1918 14S
resources of Ireland . . . . . . . . . . , . 213
Perkin medal; Presentation of to C. F. Chandler .. 51
Persia ; Trade in 170
Personalia :— 11, 37. 55. 9G. 116. 184, 140. 166. 182. 205
216. 235, 255. 270. 280. 307, 825. 336, 355. 383
896. 418. 434
Peru ; Copper smelting in .... 1,;
Report on . 1919 '* " o03
Tanning industry of Lima .. .. ' " *" 2"8
Petroleum and the war
deposits in Neugen, Argentina
industry ; Economics of the .
investigations in the United States
Origin of .
production in Mexico
production in Trinidad
Philippine Islands ; Sugar industry of the .
Phosphate deposits in Morocco
deposits in the Pacific Islands
deposits in the Society Islands
production in French North Africa
rock in the United States in 1918
Supply of rock .
Phosphorus industry in Japan
Photographic sensitizers
Photography ; Applications of colloidal matter in -
of coloured and of distant objects
Physical Society
Phthalic anhydride ; New method for manufacturin
Pigments and liquids ; Bulking value and yields of
in paint, etc.
Hiding power of .
Pita fibre in Brazil
Plant output ; Control of
Platinum in Germany
Poisoning ; Industrial in 1919
Poland : — Dyestuff requirements of .
Potash industry in .
Salt industry in .
Silk, Artificial ; Manufacture of in .
Portugal ; Mineral resources of ■
New industries of
Potash deposits in Spain
felspar in Norway
industry in Alsace
industry in Germany . . . . . . 132
industry in Poland
in the United States in 1918
mines ; Liquidation of Alsatian .
production in Chile
situation in the United States
supplies from Germany
Potassium bichromate industry in Japan
Pottery in the United States in 1918
industry in Japan
manufacture ; Unestiniated losses in . . .
Stoves for drying .
Problems awaiting solution
Protection of Special Industries Act, 1920
PAGE
145
221
106
113
170
362
417
400
438
. . 321
. . 133
13, 132
23S. 274. 446
. . 400
. . 201
. . 321
. . 221
. . 356
100. 116
. . 380
.. 146
.. 373
135. 151
Publications Received :
174, 192. 210. 2
-24. 46. GO. 64. 122, 138. 156,
8, 246. 264. 282. 298. 314. 322.
350. 368. 388. 406. 424. 448
382
in Norway . . . . . . 400
Pumice industry in Italy
Pyrites ; Discovery of —
industry in Norway . . .... . . . . . . 77
in the United States in 1913 149
production of the world 292
Pyroxylin ; Reduction iu inflammability of 218
Radium supplies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
Rail conveyance of chemicals: Archbutt, Bullock, Lukes
^15. 841, 371. 426
Ramsay Memorial Fund 14
Rat poisons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
Report of H. M. Inspectors of Explosives. 1919 344
of the British Association Fuel Economy Committee . . 308
of the Chemical Services Committee (India) 175
of the chief inspector of factories and workshops. 1919 .. 362
of the Comptroller-General of Patents. Designs, and Trade
Marks. 1919 292
of the Departmental Committee on the Non-Ferrous Mining
Industry 207
of the Empire Cotton Growing Committee 97
of the Empire Flax Growing Committee 260
of the Food Investigation Board. 1919 363
of the Fuel Research Board for 1918 and 1919 .. ..151
of the Government Chemist for 1920 328
of the Merchandise Marks Committee . . . . . . . . 259
of the Nitrogen Products Committee. Humphrey . . . . 25
of the Privy Council Committee for Scientific and Industrial
Research 343
of the Tropical Agricultural College Committee . . . . 132
of the Water Power Kesources Committee .. .. .. 260
on alkali, etc.. works, 1919 276
on Argentina. 1919 402
on arsenic and antimony ores in Great Britain .. .. 203
on Brazil. 1919 385
on British trade in India. 1919 80
on British trade with China. 1919 326
REVIEW INDEX.
Report of H.M. Inspectors of Explosives, 1919 — continued.
on colloid chemistry
on compulsory adoption oi the metric system in the U.K.
on Denmark. 1919
on Egypt. 1919
on fuel for motor transport
on Germany. 1919
on glass bottles and jars and scientific glassware
on Greece. 1919
on Holland. 1919
on Japan, 1914 1919
on mines and quarries. 1918
on mines and quarries. 1919 . . . . . . . . 362
on Norway. 1919
on Peru. 1919
on progress in chemical industry in 1919
on Rumania. 1919
on scientific and industrial research
on Siara. 1919
on the destruction of bacteria in milk by electricity
on the present state of knowledge concerning accessory food
factors {vit amines)
on the trade of Australia. 1919
en the trade of Canada and Newfoundland. 1919
on the trade of New Zealand. 1919
on the trade of South Africa. 1919
on the work of inspectors of foods for the year 1918-19 . .
on the work of the Egyptian Government Analytical Labora-
tory and Assay Office from 1913-1919
on Turkey. 1919
to Manchester Steam Users' Association
Research and the non-ferrous metals industry
Scientific and industrial ; Report on .
Reunion in 1918
Rothamsted ; Investigations at .
Royal Institution
Royal Photographic Society
Royal Society
Royal Society of Arts
Rubber; Action of halogens on . . .
Extension of uses of .
from candleweed in the United States . .
goods industry in Holland
industry and the war. Porritt
industry for Para
industry in the Netherlands
industry ; Position and prospects of the
industry ; Reports on progress in 1919 of the
in Hainan, China
manufactures and foreign competition. .
output ; Limitation of .
production and prices
-seed ; Para oil
-seed oil in the F. M. S
situation in Indo-China
Synthetic
trade of Brazil . . • . .
trade of Italy
trade of Japan
trade of Norway
tyre production in the United States .
Rumania ; Chemical requirements of
Mineral resources of .
Oil industry of .
Report on ■ . 1919
Russia ; Copper mining in . . .
Iron ore deposits in South . . .
Tungsten deposits in .
121
325
. . 442
..175
..114
. . 343
. . 245
. . 359
35, 91, 145
181, 235, 395, 434
74, 199, 214, 378
129, 198, 214, 233
34
. . 203
. . 337
. . 274
..195
. . 274
. . 150
268
32
204
294
384
Williams
1274
348
227
245
345
238
St. Helena ; Flax fibre industry of . . . . . . . . . 59
St Vincent ; Agricultural industries of . . . . . . . 185
in 1918-19 404
Salt deposits in Czechoslovakia . . . . . . . . . . 438
industry in Poland . . . . . . . . . . . . 438
production in Holland . . . . . . . . . . . . 417
Saltpetre ; Competition for Swedish market of ■ — — 59
Salvador in 1918 228
Sand and gravel in the United States in 1918 148
Sandalwood oil in Australia Ill, 436
Scandium ; Revised atomic weight of . . . . . . . 323
Scientific societies ; Position of . Richmond and Wilkie . . 123
Sections ; News from the : —
America: Annual Meeting .. .. .. .. .. 129
Grasselli Medal ; Presentation of . . . . . . . 374
Pcrkin Medal ; Presentation of . 51
Birmingliam : Carbon dioxide ; Apparatus for estimating
. Slator 128
Catalysis. Maxtcd 72
Catalysis applied to oil hardening. Knapp .. .. 128
Catalysis applied to the oxidation of oils. Morrell . . 128
Catalysis applied to vulcanisation. Twlss and Brazier .. 128
Sections ; News from the — conthiued.
Catalysis in the oxidation of cellulose. Wilson . . . . 128
Cyanogen chloride ; Preparation of — — on a large labora-
tory scale. Price and Green . . . , . . . , 72
Lead; Erosion of . Liversedg.' and Knapp ,. ., 9
Malt ; Influence of various factors on the starch products
of the extract of — — . Sullivan .. .. .. 9
Metals ; Corrosion of non-ferrous — — and alloys ' 4 i2
Milk ; Dehydration of — — . Wright . . ". 128
Bristol and South Wales : Annual Meeting . . " . . 129
Cement. Watt .. .. .. .. ^71
Chemist ; The works . Stanford . '. . . .'. 432
Elements, Chemical ; Fresh light on the — .. Tvndall . . 336
Evaporation problems. Reavell 394
Metals ; Bearing of structure on the breakdown of .
Myers 71
Oilfields, Mexican ; Geology of the Brennan . . 394
Soaps; Alkalinity of with reference to their action
on the skin. Beedle and Uolam 432
War ; Chemical curiosities of the . Francis . . . . 129
Canada : Annual Meeting . . . . . . . , . . 235
Capital and labour; and chemists. Waddell .. .. 235
Chemistry under a constitutional government. Herty . . 235
Varnish industry ; History of the . Holland . . 235
Canadian Pacific. Chemistry in the community . . . . 394
Gold and silver ; New methods in the hydrometallurgy of
. Freeman . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Chemical Knginrcring Group. Annual Meeting; Theflrst . 144
Chemical works ; Labour-saving devices in . Con-
ference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
Edinburgh : Atom ; Modern ideas of the — -. Jerdan , . 72
Chemical waste products committee, Work of the .
Laurie 433
Chemist; Evolution of the industrial . Jerdan .. 375
Chemists ; Training of technical . Discussion . . 179
Metals ; Corrosion of , particularly aluminium.
Bailey 39
Nitro-cellulosc ; Solubility of in methyl alcohol.
Luff 34
Potassium iodide ; Manufacture of . dimming . . 34
Rubber; Action of halogens on . Porritt .. .. 34
Steam boilers and plant ; Causes of loss in . Jerdan 375
Strychnine ; An acid sulphate of . Dott . . . . 34
X-rays ; Production and uses of . Kemp . . . . 108
Glasgow: Annual Meeting .. .. .. .. ..179
Atomic theory ; Modern developments of the .
Cranston . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375
Gunmetal castings ; Solidity of . Gardiner . . . . 9
Porcelain ; Manufacture of . Roberts . . . . 107
Sulphuric acid ; Manufacture of by the chamber
process. Walmsley . . . . . . . . . . 108
Wetting power and its relation to industry . . . . . . 52
Liverpool : Annual Meeting . . . . . . . . . . 179
Coke-oven walls ; Corrosion of . Findley . . . . 412
Glycerides, Unsaturated ; Mechanism of hydrogenation
of in presence of finely divided nickel. Thomas 10
Hurter memorial lecture. Renwick . . . . . . 198
Limes and other West Indian products. Everington . . 34
Oil fuel ; Use of in chemical works. Dreaper . . 72
London : Annual Meeting . . . . . . . . . . 214
Cements ; Setting of dental . Lowry and Wilding . . 90
Chemicals and chemical apparatus ; Exhibition of . . 214
Decrepitation ; Experiments on . LowTy and
McHatton 145
German chemical industry ; Collective effort of .
Walpole 10
German chemical works ; British Mission to . Evans 10
Incorporation ; New test for . Perman . . . . 145
Lubrication ; Theory and practice of . Wells and
Southcombe . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Photography of coloured and of distant objects. Pope . . 369
Picryl chloride ; Preparation of . Frankland and
Garner . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
Powders ; Properties of . Lowry and Hemmings . . 90
Scrubbing towers with internal packing; Theory of .
Donnan and Masson . . . . . . . . . . 164
Sewage sludges ; Fertilising value of . Brenchley
and Richards .. .. .. .. .. ..144
Thiocarbonyl tetrachloride ; Preparation of . Frank-
land, Challenger, and Webster . . . . . . . . 164
Manchester : Annual Dinner . . . . . . . . . . 52
Annual Meeting . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
Bcta-trinitiotoluene and its derivatives. Robinson and
Gornall 431
Bread; Some causes of ropiness in . Grant.. .. 108
Carbon dioxide recorders and their application in boiler
efficiency control. Oldham . . . . . . . . 144
Coal ; New characteristic for : the agglutination
curve. Sinnatt and Grounds . . . . . . . . VI
Coals; Inorganic constituents of Lancashire — — . Grounds
and Bayley . . . . . . . . . . ■ • 375
Distillation plant. Masfaraud . . . . . . . - 163
Guncotton ; Hydrolysis of . Knecht and Bostock . . 108
Molecule ; Structure of in crystalline solids. Bragg 335
Naphthalene series ; Hydrogenation in the . Rowe 163
Nitro-group ; Estimation of in aromatic organic
compounds. Callan, Henderson and Stafford .. 72
Plant. Chemical; Non-ferrous metals used in . Rhead 128
Rubber ; A new process for the vulcanisation of .
Peachey and Skipsey 376
Thalleioquin reaction; History and analytical value of
the . Hart 432
Vapour tension ; New instrument for measuring .
Moore . . . . ■ • • • • • • • • • 33
REVIEW INDEX.
PAGE
Sections ; News from the — continued.
Montreal. Blacks ; Notes on decolourising . Bardorf 70
Kelp ; Utilisation of . Ball . . . . . . . . 70
Zinc and lead deposits of Gaspe. Beidleraan . . . . 70
Newcastle. Cements; Setting of calcium sulphate .
Haddon 162
Coal ; Determination of the heat of carbonisation of .
Weyman 109
Fuel econonmy. Paterson . . . . . . . . . . 374
Gas producer reactions ; Theory of . Paterson . . 10
Lake pigments ; Production of from basic dyestuffs.
Jennison .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 411
Tungsten ; Notes on . Moore . . . . . . 62
Tungsten ores in Burma ; Distribution and mining
of . Brown . . . . . . . . . . 52
Nottingham: Annual Meeting . . .. .. .. .. 129
Ammonium nitrate ; Determination of vapour pressure
of . Prideaux .. .. .. .. ..179
Animal by-products. Dunford . . . . . . . . 375
Arsenic acid ; It-eduction of to the arsenious state.
Wilkie 179
Arsenic ; Determination of minute amounts of in
the presence of large amounts of iron. Wilkie and
Kneightley 412
Chemical industry ; Theory and practice in with
special reference to physical chemistry. Prideaux 433
Chemical societies ; Present and future* position of
the of Great Britain. Richmond . . . . 412
Fats; Critical examination of Reichert-Polenske method
of determining soluble and insoluble acids in .
Richmond and Hall 71
Lead plaster ; Analysis of — — . Wilkie and Wain . . 71
Lubricants and lubrication. Archhutt 89
Nesbitt absorption bulb and " ascarite." Davidson . . 71
Nickel crucible ; An improved . Musgrave . . 71
Phenol ; Recovery of from spent liquors. Dawson 89
Samples; Standard analysed . Collitt .. .. 71
Silicon compounds ; Preparation of optically active .
Kipping . . . . . . . . . . . . . , 129
Ottawa : Fuels ; Colloidal. Bates 70
General Meeting . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Lecture Meeting 109
Opening Meeting . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
Patents. Chemical. MacRae 109
Waters of the Great Lakes ; Examination of the
during the pollution investigations in 1913. Amyot 1G2
Toronto : Canada ; Resources of . Price-Greene . . 197
Chemical industry ; The war and reconstruction as applied
to . Mitchell 70
General Meeting . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
Gretna explosives works. Gilmour . . . . . . 89
Rubber industry ; Electrical applications to the .
Drake 89
Yorkshire: Gas analyses; Graphical methods for interpreting
flue . Haworth . . . . . . . . 163
Lime-liquors; Analysis of . Atkin and Palmer .. 89
Ochre streams of the valley of the Don and Loxley.
Huwarth and Evans . . . . . . . . . . 394
Oils; Commercial analysis of sulphonated . Pickering 104
Selenium in 1918 in the United States 183
oxychloride 337
Senegal; Resources of 217, 338
Serbia ; Coal-tar dyes in '. . . . 422
Shales ; Oil in Bulgaria 274
Oil in South Africa 398
Oil in the United States 67
Oil ; Research in United States on . . 113
Siam ; Report on . 1919 309
Siberia; Glauber's salt in lakes of 60
Mineral resources of far-eastern . .. .. .. 383
Sugar cultivation in — — 59
Sierra Leone in 1918 190
Silica in 1918 in the United States 148
Silk; Artificial in Belgium .. .. " 257
Artificial industry. Wilson 266
Artificial industry in Fiance .. .. .. .. 132
Artificial Industry in Italy .. .. .. .. 322
Artificial industry in Poland 322
Art! OYhil industry in the United States 27
Artificial; Swiss exports of 209
Degumming in the United States 218
Silver ; New methods in the hydrometallurgy of 9
ore discovery in Spain .. .. .. .. .. .. 114
Slags. Basic ; Production and utilisation of 130
Soap industry of India 147
trade of Italy 120. 227
Soapstone in 1918 361
Society Islands ; Phosphato and manganese ores in . . . 321
Society of Chemical Industry ; Annual General Meeting. 1921 407
Annual Meeting 193t 247
Annual subscription ....... ' iq;[
Award of Medal of the to M. P. Kestner .. 1 1 157
BrqueHt by Dr. Mcssel 229
Council Meetings. 1920 358 431
Committees of the Council 85
Membership losses and gains 164
Presidential address to London Section 369
Society of Dyers and Colourists.. .. 72. 184. 319. 354, 413
Society of Glass Technology 11.53,90.179
80ciety of Public Analysts .. 53, 91, 145. 165, 199. 377, 414
PAGE
Soda industry in Italy . . . , . . . . . . . . 275
industry in Japan . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
Sodium compounds in the United States in 1918 . . . . 7
sulphate discovery in Saskatchewan .. .. .. 415, 435
sulphate in Siberian lakes . . . . . . . . . . 60
sulphate manufacture in Belgium . . . . . . . . 360
South Africa; Agricultural Journal .. .. .. .. 219
Association of Technical and Scientific Societies .. .. 304
Chemicals consumed on Transvaal mines in 1919 ,. 312
Chromium compounds ; Manufacture of . . . . . 379
Chromium ; Occurrence of . . . . . . . , . 236
Coal exports of . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
Cotton in the Transvaal . . . . . . . . . . 271
Fibre factory in Rhodesia . . . . . . . . , . 290
Gold output in the Transvaal 218
Haematite discovery in . . . . . , . . . 113
Industrial enterprises in . . . . . . . 12. 93
Industrial notes .. .. .. ,. .. .. 12
Industrial progress in . . . . . . . . . . . 339
Iron and steel industry in . . . . . . . . . 290
Iron works in 12. 93
Leather and tanning industry iu . . . . . 94. 219
Lead occurrences in 184
Mineral discoveries in . . . . . . . . . . . 379
Mineral output of South-West Africa . . . . . . 218
Mineral production in 1918 .. .. .. .. 94, 169
Mining in Swaziland . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
Natal spirit ; Production of in 1919 . . . . . . 435
Nickel deposits in the Barberton district . . . . . . 271
Oil-seed cultivation in . . . . . . . . . . . 202
Oil-shale deposits ; Development of . . . . . . . 398
Paper trade of . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
Pig-iron industry in Northern Natal . . . . . . . . 132
Report on trade of . 1919 344
South African Sugar Association . . . . . . . . 12
South-West African Protectorate 202. 272
Starch and glucose ; New factory for . . . . . . . 271
Sugar harvest in 168
Sugar ; Manufacture of white in Natai . . . . 415
Talc mine at Barberton 304
Tin ore discovery in . . . . . . . . . . . 236
Vegetable oils and fats in . . . . . . . . . 148
Spain ; Beet-sugar production in . . . . . . . 221
Cement market in . . . . . . . . . . . 331
Chemical industry and trade in . . . . . . . 173
Essential oils in Southern . .. .. .. .. 382
Mineral industry of . .. .. .. .. .. 95
Olive oil production in . . . . . . . . . . . 220
Potash deposits in ; New . .. .. ,. .. 321
Silver ore discovery in . . . . . . . . . . . 114
Spanish Morocco ; Resources of . . . . . . . 221
Tanning industry in . . . . . . . . . . . 360
Spelter. See under Zinc.
Spitzbergen Treaty . . . . , . . . . . . . 219
Starch industry in Canada in 1918 . . . . . . . . 386
manufacture in South Africa . . . . . . . . . . 271
Steel; Determination of carbon in . .. ., .. 201
Stainless. Mony penny . . . . . . . . . . . . 390
Strontium in 1918 in the United States . . . . . . 338
Strychnine ; An acid sulphate of . . . . . , . 34
Sudan ; Chemical research in the — — . . . . . . . 132
Sugar-beet cultivation in Chile . . . . . . . . . . 322
-beet industry in Japan .. .. .. .. .. 380
-beet industry in the United States . . . . . . . . 183
Beet production in Czecho- Slovakia .. .. .. 275
-beet production in Jugo-Slavia . . . . . . . , 381
-beet production in Spain .. .. .. . , ,. 221
Beet; Proposed British — —industry .. .. .. 15
-beet seed industry in the United States .. .. .. 236
-cane crop in British India in 1920-21 415
Cane industry in Australia 256
Cane industry in the Philippine Islands . . . . 14
Cane- ; Manufacture of white in Natal . . . . . . 415
Cane production . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
Cane production in Trinidad , ,, 381
Cuban crop in 1919 . . . . . . . . . . 220
cultivation in Siberia .. .. .. . , .. *' 69
Deterioration of during storage .. .. . . 415
imports of the United Kingdom in 1919 100
industry in Formosa . . . . . . . . . . . , 202
industry in Honduras . . . . . . . . . . mt 341
industry in India .. .. ,. ., ]* [[ iq?
industry in Paraguay " 115
industry in Sweden .. .. .. .. .. ## 275
iudustry ; Reports on progress in . 1919 11 1 31
in the Wast Indies in 1919 H 169
Maple in Quebec . . . . , . . . 1 1 1 1 290
research . . . . . . . . . . . . ^ at 219
situation and Germany . . . . . . . , , . " 203
supplies in Holland . . . . . . . . ] 1 ' [ \\q
trade of Hongkong in 1919 . . . . . . \[ [[ 245
Sulphur ; Estimation of by the lamp method . . . . 434
exports from Sicily . . . . . . . , 258
in the United States in 1918 .. .. 11 " H 149
production in Germany . . , , . . 1 1 1 1 134
production in Italy . . . . . , . , 1 1 1 1 275
situation in Italy . . . . . . , , 1 1 \\ 3^9
Sulphuric acid factory in Uruguay . . . . . . . . 258
acid industry in Japan .. .. .. ,. [[ [] 357
Sumac trade of Sicily 263
REVIEW INDEX.
PAGE
Sweden ; Cellulose ; Sulphite industry in . . . 341
Chemical industries; War-time . .. .. . . 39
Chemical market in . .. .. .. .. .. 153
Chemical market in 1914 and 1920 281
Chemicals and metals ; Imports of 153
Dye manufacture in . . . . . . . . . . . 382
Fat industry ; Position of the . . . . . . . 220
Foreign trade in 1919 209
Iron industry in . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400
Patents in . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 291
Saltpetre market ; Competition for the . . . . . 59
Sugar industry of . . . . . . . . . . . 275
Wood distillation products in . . . . . . . . . 282
Wood-pulp in 1919 275
Switzerland ; Carbide industry in . . . . . . . 220
Celluloid industry in 306
Cellulose-alcohol in . 322
Chemical industry of Basle . . . . . . . . . . 347
Chemical trade of — — . 1919 227, 297
Dye industry in Baste . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
Dyestutfs, Organic ; Exports of . . . . . . . 191
Hydro- electric developments in . . . . . . . 340
Iron ore in . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
Mineral exploration in . .. .. .. .. 360
Schweizerischer Chemiker-Verband . . . . . . . . 322
Silk, Artificial ; Exports of 209
Talc deposits in Manchuria 133
discovery in Canada . . . . . . . , . . . . 147
mine at Barberton. South Africa 304
in 1918 361
Tank wagon and storage tank charts. Wheeler . . . . 141
Tanning industry in Lima, Peru . . . . . . . . 228
industry in Sao Paulo .. .. .. .. .. ..172
industry in Spain . . . . . . . . . . . . 360
research in the United States . . . . . . . . . . 436
Tariff, Customs and Excise : —
21. 45. 62, 81. 101. 137. 155. 171. 189. 206. 226. 242. 261. 280.
296. 309. 329. 346. 365, 387. 403. 420. 443
Tarred roads and fish life 291
Temperatures, Low ; Studies on . . . . . . . . . 35
Textile Institute 306
Thermo-electricity; Recent progress in . .. .. 234
Tin; Export duties on 224
ore discovery in South Africa . . . . . . . . . . 236
Tinplate industry in Japan .. .. .. .. .. 422
Titanium in enamels . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
Trade Intelligence, Official :—
21, 45. «1. 81. 100. 117. 137. 154, 171. 189. 206. 226. 242. 261.
280. 295. 309. 329. 346, 365. 386. 403. 420. 443
Trade Marks Act. 1919 18
Trade Notes : —
21. 43. 65. 83. 99. 119. 136. 153. 172. 190. 209. 227. 244. 263
281. 296, 311. 330. 347. 366. 386. 404. 422. 444
Trinidad and Tobago in 1918 153
Cane-sugar production in . . . . . . . . . 381
Petroleum in . .. .. .. .. .. 95, 257
Vegetable oil-bearing products in . . . . . . . 221
Tropical Agricultural College Committee ; Report of — — . . . 132
Tungsten deposits in Russia .. .. .. .. .. 438
industry ; Present position of . Vogel . . . . 103
in Italy 359
Notes on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
ores in Burma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
production in the Federated Malay States 154
Tunis Resources of . 220
Turkey ; Chemical and allied industries of . . . . . 60
Chemical and drug market of . . . . . . . . . 227
Emery ore; Output of in Smyrna district . . . . 95
Report on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , 442
u
Unemployment statistics .. .. .. .. .. 384,401
United Kingdom ; Foreign Trade of in 1913 and 19X9 .. 99
United States ; Abrasive wheels ; Self-lubricating . .. 271
Aeroplane propellers made with bakelite 338
Alcohol denaturants in . . . . . . , , . . . 337
Alimentary pastes ; Research on . . . . . . . 287
Alloy Research Association .. .. .. .. .. 92
Aluminium powder ; Inflammability of . . . . . 201
American Ceramic Society . . . . . . . . 13. 131
American Chemical Society 113.183.217.338
American Engineering Council . . . . . . . . 436
American Petroleum Institute . . . . . . . . . . 14
Analysis ; Qualitative by means of the electric arc . . 288
United States — continued.
Antimony in 1918 . . . . . . . , , , , 57
Arsenic in 1918 .. .. .. , . [' "' " 133
Asbestos in 1918 , * ' ' " 333
Asphalt and allied substances in 1918 .. */. "" 305
Barytes and barium products in 1918 .. .. .. 397
Bauxite and aluminium in 1918 . . . . " [ , 288
Beet-seed industry in . .. .. .. " \\ 236
Beet-sugar industry in 133
Bismuth in 1918 [ m igj
Buttermilk used in bread-making .. .. " '. 131
Cadmium in 1919 .. .. .. .. [[ \] 437
Camphor Synthetic ■ in . . . . . * [ [\ 236
Cane-juices; Treatment of raw ■ . .. .. ., 201
Carbou tetrachloride as fire-extinguisher .. .'. .. 397
Cellulose nitrate as aeroplane dope 201
Cement; Improvement in manufacture of — — 218
Cement tile-drains in . . . . . . . , , . . 149
Chaulmoogra oil . . . . . . . . " . . 414
Chemical industries ; Sixth exposition of . .. . *. 379
Chemical publications in . . . . . . . . . 415
Chemical trade of . 1919-20 386
Chemical warfare service of 58. 148
Chemicals. Organic; Production and supply of . .. 230
Chromite in 1918 356
Coal ; Briquetting of Oklahoma . . . . . . . 337
Coal industry in 380
Coal-tar industry in 1919 397
Coffee research in . • . . . . . . . . . . 379
Colorimeter ; A new . . . . . . . . . . . 379
Commerce Reports . . . . . . . . . . . . 437
Concrete floors ; Surface treatment of . . . . . 218
Copper ; Physical and chemical properties of . . . 183
Copper production in 1919 113
Corrosion of hot-water pipes in . . . . . . . 131
Cotton ; Fire-proofing of bales of 236
Desiccated vegetables in . . . . . . . . . 183
Dibromoxymercuryfiuorescin. a new therapeutic agent . . 14
Dietary ; Horse flesh in human . . . . . . . 38
Dietetic value of the flesh of horses, seals, etc. . . . . 415
Dietetic values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Dye Imports Bill 113
Dye situation 271
Dye trust ; Projected American 422
Dyes ; Cost of production of . . . . . . . . . 168
Egg preservation in . . . . . . . . . . . 414
Engineers ; Compulsory licensing of ■ . . . . . . . 13
Evaporation research laboratory .. .. ,. .. 337
Exhaust gases from motor vehicles . . . . . . . . 168
Felspar in 1918 446
Fluorspar and cryolite in 1918 184
Food dehydration ; New method of . . . . . . 13
Fruit; Detection of frozen . .. .. .. .. 414
Fuel oils ; Tentative regulations for the storage and
use of . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Furfural in caramel 288
Gallium ; New use for . . . . . . . . . . . 287
Gasoline from natural gas . . . . . . . . . . 414
Gasoline ; Incomplete combustion of in automobiles . . 436
Gasoline substitutes . . . . . . . . . . . . 356
Glass industry ; Impressions of the . Turner . . . . 429
Glass industry of . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Glycerin ; Foreign trade in 22. 312
Gypsum in 1918 76
Helium ; Cost of production of . . . . . . . 92
Helium-hydrogen mixtures ; Use of for airships . . 436
Helium production . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
Helium resources 288
Iron-nickel alloys ; Forging of . . . . . . . 183
Jellies 287
Lactic acid in human dietary . . . . . . . . . . 236
lignite ; Briquetting of . . . . . . . . . 397
Lubricant ; A new for chronometers . . . . . . 436
Maltose syrup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 436
Manganese and manganiferous ores in 1917 . . . . 148
Manganese and manganiferous ores in 1918 . . . . 288
Massachusetts Institute of Technology . . . . . . 93
Mercury in 1918 168
Metallurgy; Future of use of oxygen-enriched air in ■ .. 321
Metallurgical notes .. .. .. .. .. 14. 39
Methyl alcohol ; Synthetic 379
Milk-containers in . . . . . . . . . . . 131
Mineral output of Alaska in 1919 . . . . . . . . 113
Molasses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - 380
Nickel in 1918 437
Nitrogen fixation in . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Oil shales in 57
Oil shales ; Research on . .. .. .. -. 113
Para-coumarone 288
Peat in 1918 148
Petroleum ; Evaporation losses of crude . . . . . 337
Petroleum investigations and helium production .. .. 113
Phosphate rock in 1918 168
Phthalic anhydride ; New method of manufacturing — — . . 57
" Physiological Reviews " . . . . . . . . - - 414
Pigments and liquids used in paint, etc. ; Bulking ralues
and yields of . . . . . . . . . * * 356
Plant Protection Institute 271
Potash from Searles Lake . . . . . . . . - • 38
Potash in 1918 201
Potash situation . . . . . . - . . . . • 356
Pottery in 1918 .. .- 75
Pyroxylin; Reduced inflammability of . . . .. 218
Rare earths for the Incandescent mantle industry . . . . 13
REVIEW INDEX.
United States — continued.
Reagents, Organic ; Supplies of for research
Rubber from candleweed
Rubber tyre production
Sand and gravel in 1918
Selenium in 1918
Selenium oxvchloride
Silica in 1918
Silk ; Artificial industry . .
Silk degumming
Sodium compounds in 1918
Steel ; Determination of carbon in
Strontium in 1918
Sugar ; Deterioration of stored .
Sugar industry of the Philippine Islands
Sulphur and pyrites in 1918
Synthesis of mateic, tartaric, citric, lactic and
acids in .
Syrup from home-grown sugar-beets
Tanning research
Technical association of the pulp and paper industry
Titanium in enamels
Trade of in 1919
Tyrian purple from Costa Rica
Vitamines ; Research on .
War gas investigations in .
"Wood -alcohol ; Dangers of consumption of
Wood-alcohol poisoning in .
Wood ; Fireprooflng of .
Wool as a filtering material
Wool grease ; Utilisation of .
Yeast-foods in .
Zinc production in 1919
University of Birmingham
University of Cambridge
University of London
Uruguay ; Chemical works ; Proposed State —
Sulphuric acid factory in .
Vapour tension ; New instrument for measuring .
Varnishes ; Colloid chemistry of .
Varnish industry; Candleuut oils in .
industry in Canada
Vegetable oils and fats. See under Oils, Fatty.
Vitamines; Report on present state of knowledge concern-
Research on in United States ..
H8
183
337
14-
113
486
266
113
840
340
184
4(H)
258
TAGE
260
412
w
Water power committee ; Interim report of .
Sterilisation of by chlorine
West Indies ; Limes and other products in 34
Sugar in 1919 169
Wetting power and its relation to industry . . . . . . 52
Will ; Prof. W 169
Wolfram ore output in Bolivia . . . . . . . . . ■ 221
Women and Young Persons (Employment in Lead Processes)
Act 4. 223, 294. 384. 440
Wood-alcohol ; Bangers of consumption of 38
alcohol poisoning in the United States .. .. .. 131
distillation in Canada in 1918 20O
distillation products in Sweden . . . . . . . . 282
Fireprooflng of 379
-pulp in Sweden in 1919 275
Wool as a filtering material 88
grease : Utilisation of . . . . . . . . . . . 271
Yeast-foods in the United States
" Yield value," a new constant in plastics
Zinc industry in Australia
industry in France
industry in Japan
mines in Finland
output of Canada
output of the United States in 1919
oxide plant in Canada
smelting in Norway
Spelter situation ; Keview of . Ridge
131
292
258
112
113
147
322
JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF
CHEMICAL INDUSTRY
Vol. XXXIX. No. I
January 15, 1920
REVIEW
REPORTS ON PROGRESS IN
CHEMICAL INDUSTRY IN 1919.
In continuance of its policy of keeping chemists
and allied technologists supplied with up-to-date
and authentic information, the Council of the
Society of Chemical Industry has decided to publish
a fourth volume of its Annual Reports on the Pro-
gress of Applied Chemistry covering the year 1919.
The publication is now too well known to require
any detailed description of its nature and objects,
and it must suffice to state that the reports take the
form of monographs written by acknowledged ex-
perts in the various branches of chemical technology.
The method of treatment is two-fold in character.
In the first place the writers aim at presenting an
accurate and reasonably complete, objective account
of progress achieved ; and in the second, they seek
to present a well-balanced survey, throwing the
events they record into proper prospective, and,
where occasion requires, interpreting them in the
light of their individual experience.
The demand for the three Reports already issued
(Volume I. has been out of print for some time),
and the reception given to them by the scientific
and technical press, bear testimony to the success
attained by the writers in carrying out the inten-
tions of the Council, and there can be no doubt
that the experience gathered with each successive
volume will ensure increased efficiency and utility
in those that follow. It is satisfactory to note that
there has been no duplication or overlapping in the
production of reports on industrial chemistry ; the
Society's publication occupies a unique place in the
literature of chemical science, and for this reason
alone it should find a plaee in the library of every
worker in this field. Satisfactory as has been the
reception of the Reports in the past, it is felt that
there is still scope for a wider circulation, more
particularly in other English-speaking countries,
and we would therefore draw the attention of our
colleague', overseas to the imminent appearance of
Volume IV.. which, it is hoped, will be published
during the month of March. The subjects treated
and the respective contributors are as follows: —
Plant and Machinerv: W. B. Davidson. M.A.,
D.Sc, Ph.D., F.I.C.
Fuel: J. T. Dunn. D.Sc. F.I.C.
Gas and Destructive Distillation : E. V. Evans,
M.B.E., F.I.C.
Mineral Oils: A. E. Dunstan, D.Sc, F.I.C.
Colouring Matters and Dves : F M. Rowe,
M.Sc, F.I.C.
Fibres, Textiles, etc.: S. S. Napper, A.C.G.I.,
F.I.C.
Bleaching, Dveing, etc. : S. H. Higgins, M.Sc.
Acids, Alkalis, Salts: T. Ewan, M.Sc, Ph.D.
F.I.C.
Glass, Ceramics, etc. : W. J. Rees.
Iron and Steel: A. Mc William, D.Met.
Non-ferrous Metals : W. G. Wagner.
Electro-chemistry: A. J. Allmand, M.C., D.Sc.
Oils, Fats, Waxes : G. H. Warburton.
Paints, Pigments, etc.: J. H. B. Jenkins.
Indiarubber: D. F. Twiss, D.Sc, B.Sc, F.I.C.
Leather, Glue : F. C. Thompson, M.Sc.
Soils, Fertilisers: E. J. Russell, O.B.E., D.Sc,
F.R.S.
Sugars, Starches, Gum : J. P. Ogilvie.
Fermentation Industries: A. Tait and L.
Fletcher.
Foods: H. V. Bvwaters. D.Sc, Ph.D., A.R.C.S.,
F.I.C.
Water Purification, Sanitation : Sir A. C.
Houston, K.B.E., M.V.O., M.B., D.Sc.
Fine Chemicals, etc : T. A. Henry, D.Sc.
Photographic Materials and Processes: R. E.
Crowther.
Explosives: W. Rintoul, O.B.E., F.I.C.
Analysis: C. A. Mitchell, M.A., F.I.C.
As a preliminary to the issue of the new volume,
it is thought that the immediate publication in the
Journal of short summaries of some sections dealt
with may be of interest and utility to our members
and readers. These epitomes are necessarily of a
somewhat sketchy character, and they can in no
way be regarded as substitutes for the full accounts ;
they should serve to give the reader a very general,
preliminary bird's-eye view of progress made and
add interest to the subsequent study of the reports
themselves. The short articles which follow in
this and the next issue have been contributed by
the authors of the reports, with the exception of
that on the Fermentation Industries which has been
supplied by Dr. A. Slator.
HEAVY CHEMICALS.
The literature of this first year of peace is still
dominated by the war. Much of the work done
during the war could not be published until after
the termination'of hostilities, and many interesting
details have appeared for the first time during the
year. The United States authorities have been
more communicative than those in this country, in
France or in Germany, although some light on the
conditions in the latter country is being afforded
by the visits of Allied representatives to the
occupied areas. During the war the heavy chemical
industry underwent great dislocation ; for example,
before the war about 3 per cent, of the million tons
of sulphuric acid produced annually in this country
was used in making explosives ; during the war the
production increased to 1J million tons, the greater
part of which was used for explosives. A very con-
siderable part of the increased production was in
the form of oleum. The obvious impossibility of
carrying on modern warfare without a supply of
nitric acid forced all the belligerents to devote great
attention to the provision of a supply within their
own borders. Very considerable progress has, there-
fore, been made in the fixation of atmospheric
nitrogen on a large scale. The very important
synthesis of ammonia from its elements can be, as
yet, regarded as an established industry only in
Germany, where the output appears to have ex-
REVIEW.
ceeded 150,000 tons of nitrogen in 1918— ;an extra-
ordinary record considering the complexity of the
plant and that operations began in 1913. The
cyanamide process was also installed in all the
principal countries taking part in the war, but
doubts are expressed about its ability to compete
commercially under normal conditions. The oxida-
tion of ammonia to nitric acid, which was carried
out on a relatively very small scale before the war,
has assumed enormous proportions.
The energetic search for new sources of potash to
take the place of the Stassfurt supply has met with
a considerable measure of success. In America the
production in 1918 reached about one-fifth of the
pre-war consumption, and in this country it
appears that there is sufficient potash in our blast-
furnace dust to cover the home demand.
A very remarkable illustration of the facility with
which the reputedly rarest substances can be
obtained in quantity is afforded by helium, which
it is proposed to use in place of hydrogen in air-
ships. It appears that a potential supply of
180,000 cub. feet daily exists in a natural gas in
Texas.
It is to be feared that much of the energy ex-
pended in devising new processes and in erecting
the plant tor working them will go to swell the
wastage of the war. This applies to ammonium
nitrate, the output of which, in this country alone,
increased from 100 tons to 3,000 tons weekly ; to
silicon and titanium chlorides, which were used in
producing smoke clouds, and to a smaller extent to
chlorine, which entered into the composition of
almost all of the poison gases used, and to sulphuric
acid.
DYES.
A matter of primary interest and importance is
undoubtedly the question of how far British manu-
facturers have succeeded in their endeavour to
render this country independent of German dyes.
The answer may be summarised in the statement
that progress has been considerable but much yet
remains to be done. As a result, little competition
is to be feared in the commoner and cheaper dyes,
but further development and increased output are
necessary with regard to special and more expen-
sive dyes, for the erection of plant has proved un-
able to keep pace with the progress of technical
research. At the present time, the list of dyes
which need never be purchased from Germany
again is large and evei increasing, whilst the tem-
porary products of the early days of the war have
been replaced by standard products of recognised
purity and value. (See also this J., 1919, 456 R.)
The deficiency in the supply of certain dyes has been
met to some extent by the importation from
Switzerland of products manufactured largely from |
British and French raw materials and inter-
mediates, which have replaced similar German
materials upon which the Swiss were dependent
formerly. The quantity of dyes now imported from
Switzerland is only about one-sixth of the quantity
which is being made by British manufacturers.
The arrival and disposal of the first consignment
of our share of the dyes due from Germany under
the Peace Treaty should do much to ease the present
situation and afford our manufacturers a breathing
space in which to continue their development and
consolidate their position. Given the plant, in-
creased yields and improved working conditions will
naturally follow as a result of practical experience,
so that there is every reason to believe that the
British colour industry may be established on a
satisfactory basis during the next five years.
A few of the important additions to the number of
colours manufactured in this country may be
quoted here: — Alizarin Celestol, Solway Purple
(Alizarin Irisole), Kymric Green (Alizarin Cvanine
Green), Coomassie Violet (Formyl Violet * S4B),
Lissamine Green B (Wool Green S), Gallo-
cvanine BD, Monolite Bed R (Lithol Red R),
Chloranthrene Red 5G (Algole Red 5G), Chloran-
threne Bordeaux R (Indanthrene Bordeaux B), and
bases for fur dyeing. Rhodamine will be placed on
the market shortly. The annual report should be
consulted for a complete record of the progress in
technical and theoretical colour chemistry during
the year 1919. Outstanding features, in the case
of intermediate products, are the further develop-
ment of processes for continuous sulphonation and
the attention which has been devoted to the produc-
tion and purification of N-alkylarylamines, whilst
in the case of dyes a large amount of work has been
carried out, principally in the azo-, triphenyl-
methane, sulphide, indigoid, and anthracene vat
classes.
FINE CHEMICALS.
There are no remarkable developments to record
in connexion with this group of chemical products
in 1919. JIuch interest has been shown in the
question of the supplies of cinchona bark, which for
many years past have been drawn almost wholly
from Java. A survey conducted in India by Colonel
Gage shows that in the districts in which some
cinchona is now grown, principally for the use of
the Indian Government's small quinine factories,
further plantations can be formed, but it it is sug-
gested that cinchona cultivation might be under-
taken on a large scale in the Tavoy district of
Burma, and that a new quinine factory might bo
erected there to utilise the bark produced. Phis
question is also receiving attention in the United
States, where proposals for the utilisation of South
American bark have been made.
In Germany, Morgenroth has investigated £h«s
action of a number of homologues of hydroquinine,
chiefly with a view to ascertaining the influence of
stereoisomerism on their physiological action.
This author shows that eucupinotoxine is a more
powerful ansesthetic than its structural isomeride
eucupine (iso-amylhydrocupreine), and from forty
to fifty times more powerful than cocaine.
During the wax, when " Turkish opium " was un-
obtainable, Indian opium secured a footing in this
country, and also in the United States, for the
manufacture of morphine. Although the Indian
drug proved to be richer in morphine than was
generally supposed, it contains on the average, as
marketed in this country, less morphine than
Turkish or Persian opium. It is known that opium
as rich in morphine as any of the commercial
varieties can be and is produced in India, and it is
understood that the botanical and chemical investi-
gations now in progress there have already given
results which indicate ways in which the average
quality of the opium exported can be greatly
improved.
Among the minor alkaloidal drugs, considerable
progress has been made in elucidating the structure
of hyoscine (King) and of scopoline, the basic
hydrolytic product of hyoscine (Hess). Further,
of seven alkaloids derived from mescal buttons,
Spath has shown that one is identical with
hordenine and the others closely related thereto.
Further details on the isolation of thyroxine, the
active principle of thyroid gland, have been pub-
lished by Kendall, but no particulars have yet
appeared regarding the synthesis of this substance,
which is stated to have been accomplished by Oster-
berg two years ago.
Of the many papers which have been published on
essential oils and their constituents, the most
interesting from an industrial point of view are
those concerned with the utilisation of p-cymene,
the chief constituent of "spruce turpentine," now
available in large quantities as a by-product of the
pulp industry. Methods have been devised for the
Vol. XXXIX.. No. 1.)
REVIEW.
3 R
conversion of this hydrocarbon into carvacrol and
p-aminocarvacrol (the latter is stated to be a pro-
mising photographic developer), whilst a method of
preparing thymol from cymene has been protected.
A number of Japanese essential oil-yielding plants
has been examined, some of which may prove to be
of commercial interest as sources of citral, geraniol,
thymol and carvacrol.
The new synthetic drugs described during the
year are for the most part mere variations on well-
known types. Interest in organic arsenic deriva-
tives shows no signs of slackening either in this
country or in the United States. Perhaps the most
notable work done in this connexion during the year
is the preparation at the Rockefeller Institute of a
series of arsenobenzenes and their intermediate
products derived from A'-phenylglycine-p-arsinie
acid, all of which have been protected by patents.
Judging from preliminary notices in the American
medical press, certain of these compounds are likely
to be of considerable therapeutic importance.
A considerable volume of patent literature
relating to the manufacture from acetylene of
acetone and the necessary intermediate products
has recently been set free. These deal largely with
details involved, but are of general interest as
giving a considerable amount of information on
obscure points in the series of reactions employed.
The foundation of an industry dealing with the
production of organic research reagents has been
discussed in this country, but in the United States
manufacture on a small scale has actually started.
VEGETABLE OILS AND FATS.
The past year has been one of steady if slow
progress. The enormous development of the
margarine industry (the output is computed by one
authority to have reached a total of 10,000 tons
per week) has led to oils being used for edible pur-
poses which a few years ago would have been con-
sidered as only fit for the soapmaker. This is in
great part due to the expansion of the process of
hydrogenation which has brought within the ken of
the margarine maker consistent fats from vegetable
oils and also fish oils to replace the oleo-margarine
from beef fat. Even hardened castor oil has
recently been suggested as a foodstuff.
The important subject of the amount and nature
of the vitamines contained in oils and fats has
received scant attention during the past year, and
a reasonably quick and accurate method for deter-
mining these somewhat mysterious substances is still
to be desired. It may be that the therapeutic effects
of codliver oil hitherto supposed to lie in the easy
assimilability of the glycerides of the highly un-
saturated fatty acids is due to the presence of vita-
mines. Unfortunately they are probably destroyed
by the high temperature required for hydrogena-
tion. For the same reason a process, recently
patented, of deodorising by blowing hydrogen
through the oil at temperatures up to 300° C. must
be regarded doubtfully pending further investi-
gation.
The process of hydrogenation has attracted con-
siderable attention of a scientific nature with the
object of discovering the rationale of the addition
of hydrogen, and on the technical side it has also
been the subject of investigation.
The study of the hydrolysing effect of enzymes
has been continued during the past year, mainly
in the United States. The work done in this field,
however, is of a purely scientific nature. Enzymes
as a reagent in the commercial splitting of fats
have been almost ousted by the Twitchell reagent;
that the process is 6till being worked in some
quarters is shown Dy a recent patent taken out for
purifying the glycerin resulting from ferment
hydrolysis. Various oils have been tried for their
suitability for the manufacture of the Twitchell
reagent, and the conclusion has been drawn that
hydrogenated castor oil gives the best result as
regards the colour of the final product.
A fair amount of work has been published on
the determination of the characteristics of new oils
and fats and on the re-examination of little-known
oils. Some of the latter may become of commercial
importance like " benefing oil " and para rubber
seed oil, which are capable of replacing linseed oil
in some directions. In these cases the natural
supply is large, but there is difficulty attending the
commercial exploitation owing to high cost of col-
lection and transport; in other cases where the
supply is limited, e.g., kernels of stone fruit (plums,
prunes, etc.), the extraction of the oil can only be
profitably worked as a side issue to some other
industry.
Among the marine animal oils our knowledge
has been increased of the different species of shark
caught in Japanese waters whose liver oils contain
highly unsaturated hydrocarbons. The accidental
inclusion of a shark liver may explain why the
analyst sometimes finds a large amount of un-
saponifiable matter in Japanese codliver oils.
A great stride in the commercial synthesis of
g'rycerin has been made by the development of its
production by the fermentation of molasses. There
is a considerable amount of alcohol produced as a
by-product, and as the process is applicable to
molasses which are quite inedible there should be a
future for it.
MINERAL OIL.
A retrospect of the reaction of petroleum and its
products on the European War affords both gratifi-
cation at the part played by mineral oil chemists
in the elucidation of momentous problems and satis-
faction that the importance of the chemical investi-
gation of the nature of the raw material is
receiving serious attention. When it is realised
what progress has been made, for instance, in the
unfolding of the chemistry of coal tar, it is some-
what surprising that the nature of the hydro-
carbons which occur in petroleum is to a large
extent unknown to us. With the exception of the
light petroleum fraction and the somewhat sporadic
occurrence of solid paraffins, little is known of the
vast bulk of the oil, and so far as the writer knows
there is scanty evidence that any decisively formu-
lated hydrocarbon has been isolated and its consti-
tution proved by the usual synthetic methods.
The commercial isolation of toluene from petro-
leum spirit in the form of its mononitro derivative
has been a feature of the war. Vast amounts of TNT
have been manufactured from this source, and to
a large extent this operation has been a deciding
factor in the struggle. Investigations in the
United States tend to show that the chlorination of
natural gas and the lower paraffins will open up an
important industry, resulting in the manufacture
of carbon tetrachloride, chloroform, acetic esters
of the butyl and amyl radicles, and a variety of
synthetic products, whilst on the other hand the
reactive unsaturated substances which result from
the cracking of oils have been shown to contain
notable amounts of isoprene and butadiene, and
are therefore of potential interest in the rubber
industry. It requires little imagination to foresee
in petroleum the starting-out material for a great
synthetic revival.
Optimistic statements have been made on the
important matter of the available quantities of
petroleum yet to be exploited. The recent bringing
in of highly productive wells in Mexico has called
renewed attention to the potentialities of that
great producing area, whilst the Persian fields,
i R
REVIEW.
at the moment barely " scratched," offer the rosiest
possibilities of a great Imperial asset.
The event of the year has been the striking of oil
in Derbyshire. Petroleum has long been known
to occur' in England. The late Sir Boverton Red-
wood, whoso loss is so universally deplored, always
insisted on the need for the ultimate test of tho
drill, and it is perhaps to his persistence in this
direction that Lord Cowdray's successful efforts
may bo traced. The close agreement between the
constituents of the Hardstoft oil and those pre-
dicted by Mr. J. E. Hackford is an agreeable con-
firmation of tho work that has been carried out on
English oil by this observer.
The oil itself is of excellent quality and it re-
sembles a high grade Pennsylvanian oil. High in
volatile content, with a residue of first-class lubri-
cating properties, the new crude may turn out to
ho of prime importance.
Efforts are being made to exploit tho native
shales, particularly in Norfolk. The fust attempts
were somewhat discouraging, seeing that the oil
possessed high sulphur content, but it is asserted
that the shale mined at lower levels yields an oil
which is free from this objection. Cannels and
other bituminous coals are also likely to bo distilled
in tho near future, and a recently formed combina-
tion, the .Midland Coal Products Company, pro-
poses to erect a testing station, at which a variety
of retorts and retortable material will bo investi-
gated.
The past year, therefore, has been one of great
promise for tho mineral oil industry, and it may
fairly be said that a renascence of scientific effort
has arrived. For many years the centre of gravity
of research in this field had passed into other
countries, albeit thai mineral oil was tirst commer-
ciallv worked in these islands. The munificent gift
of the groat oil companies to Cambridge University
and the establishment of research laboratories in
the industry itself are signs that the balance of
int. rost may well return to those shores.
I Vo be continued.)
THE INTERNATIONAL LABOUR
CONFERENCE AND INDUSTRIAL
POISONING.
BTEPHEN M1A1.L.
Tho International Labour Conference, hold at
Washington in November, 1919, is of some interest
to industrial chemists,
The Treaty ol Peace with Germany provided
that as part of the organisation of the League of
Nations there should bo an International Labour
Office with annual Conferences of four delegates
from each country included in the League, of whom
two are to be Government representatives, one to
represent the employers and one the workpeople.
These delegates are accompanied by advisors, and
the writer »a< privileged to attend as an adviser
to the employers' delegate from Croat Britain,
Mr I). S. MaijoiihanUs. of the firm of Armstrong,
Whitworth and Co., Ltd.
The Treaty of Peace also provided that the first
Conference should K> held at Washington, and the
agenda for that Conference should be (.H the
application of the principle of tho B hour day or
the 18-hour week; (2) unemployment: t.'it and (4)
the employment of women and children in certain
respects, including their employment in unhealthy
processes; (6) the extension of the Berne Conven-
tions on the employment of women, and the
prohibition of the use of white phosphorus. If the
Labour Conference comes to a decision on a matter
such decision is embodied either in a draft
convention or in a draft recommendation, and
these drafts are to be forwarded to the Govern-
ments concerned, in order that a treaty may be
signed, or that appropriate legislation may be
introduced, as the case may be.
Delegates from forty countries attended at
Washington. The German delegates wore invited
to attend, and got as far as Rotterdam, where
they wore delayed until it was too late for them
to reach the Conference. The proceedings were
conducted in French and English, and were
reported in those languages, and also in Spanish.
The majority of the delegates and their advisers
were well acquainted with the subjects to be
discussed, and many of thorn were experts whose
reputation is world-wide. Special Commissions were
appointed to consider (a) unemployment, (b) the
employment of women and children in unhealthy
processes, (c) the employment of women before and
after childbirth, (d) the employment of children,
and (e) the eight-hour day. These Commissions
had protracted sittings, and ultimately their
reports were adopted as recommendations by the
Conference,
The Commission on the Employment of Women
and Children in Unhealthy Processes was presided
over by Dr. T. M. Legge, the Senior Medical
Inspector of Factories in Great Britain; the
Commission included Dr. Gilbert, of Belgium,
and Monsieur Boulin, of France, both well known
as authorities on unhealthy processes. The
Commission found that to range over the whole
subject of industrial poisoning was impossible, and
it. confined its attention to plumbism, mercury
poisoning and anthrax. recommending that
carbonic oxide poisoning should be placed on the
agenda for tho next Conference, and specially
studied meanwhile.
The Conference recommended that women and
young persons should not be employed in the
following processes: —
(a) Furnace work in the reduction of zinc and
1< ad ores.
(b) Processes in the manipulation, preparation
and reduction of ashes containing lead, and the
desilverising of lead.
(o) In melting on a large scale lead and old zinc.
(d) In the manufacture of solder and alloys
containing more than in per cent, of lead.
(e) In the manufacture of litharge, massicot,
minium, white lead, orange lead, sulphate.
eliminate and silicate of lead.
(f) In mixing and pasting of electric
accumulators.
(g1) In the cleaning of workrooms where tho
processes are carried on.
The Conference also recommended that where
the employment of women is permitted and there
is any risk of plumbism. precaution should l>e
adopted, such as localised ventilation, cleanliness
,.i tools and workrooms, notification and compen-
sation, periodic medical examination, suitable
cloak rooms, and special protective clothing, and
SO Forth; and it laid down that where soluble salts
of load could be replaced by those of a non-toxic
nature stringent regulations should be enforced
where noxious substances continue to be used.
The statistics of plumbism in Great Britain.
submitted by Dr. Legge, show a very gratifying
reduction in number. Thus: —
Tho cases of lead poisoning in '.he smelting of
metals declined from 34 in tho year 1900 to IS in
1918; in the white lead industry the eases were
368 in tho year 1000, 17 in the year 1917, and no
CRSe "as reported in tho year 1918; in the china
ami earthenware industry there were 2(X1 eases in
1900 and onlv 11 in 1918, the reduction being
TaLxxxrr. >".- _
:_
■
"cad and red lead: in ill the
iarhmfr.d in lie returns inbism
my uid were M65 ia 1900. 601 in the avenge
• ' - '•'.■
••-■ -:.;: ' '■•> 7 <e ^-ir-T-s -- v -.- - ■ ■
•a iff— pill ihid by vise reguIatioBs. me:i:
ion. and cordial co-operation betw -
CWfiee. the employers sod the w
The Conference considered that the as
ef ii.ii.bij hy ha: ■ -•$ wits unnecessary.
-■.--•■ -_-:-•:■-- . - - ■ . -
::- i ':.;•: : -
The anthrax problem is a dime-.:
progress seems to haTe been ■
dJsinfeedou of wool. T
it option thai iafected weal is rea lered sterile ":■■
iL-.aaos ia warm water with
sodium carbonate and treatment with
jmiIbUbb of formaldehyde in the man:
t .-:■: — - -:-.:.- that ■Bteraataoaa] ■.. .:■- be takes to
ensure the disinf--' . [in -he
7:-: "-■■'- - -~-~~' -v—; — ._,: _•. . ..... -..^
-ion of
national Labour OS aace of
problems which surround - -
reasonable solutions which t'-. preperrr
ARTIFICIAL NITROGEN Q ,
-sEXL.
made his famous announeeme: British
~ - faced with
i -: .■: ;s : »i sj :~: :_ -.--:: u Id somehow ia-
... • _
:.■: :.e sol:::: : ::' -.'; : -- ■':.. :::. •-.'-. h ':;: ists
■ -
- •
ia the field.
hraagb _ I great dc velop-
meats haTe occur red.
There are a : - - lilable
meultare — ammonium .dciuni
nitrate, and cyanaimde. Ot these ammonium
nitrate is the most
• ! nsive.
termination of ;erent
eowefaawBrts had _ . - which
were otfcred as farmers :r own
coon try the price w as I j
:-
- par ton and ■ -- 10 per
-
per ton — the unic rirmer
• - • - nitro-
tmmonia, 16s
- - - Xitrate of
amBinaia was orach the cheapest, and
• 3 farmers at
Eve: -
aot an economic price for - hibmhiji. and
exhausted: :
- orders from
- ■ - - What
•
■enable
• .ember
...
-
equal
-
- • re frequently
v value
■
mmonia when
tfi lO on hay when
5 Up to 4 PS
r hand, the B
. . .
i»it
Tons.
• .-.id and
..uued. The
-
I supplied by
M« ; ga
: s —
3
Manure. Fer acre
Ferpluc iineanoi
two plots).
■
-
•am as 3 is
Superphosphate and salt . . . IT 3
I
Manuring: —
tress got dung at .
- to the acre.
■er manures at rate ot" —
S| M I -ns. per acre
t'tiTti.Tni l
Uj lb.
IV:lIeUt to
• :phate of
ammonia1.
-
Weight Mean
•er aire.
Superphosphate ■ -
1 animouja
-
xrtilicials
Cwts.
1:5a.
•
i
Cwts.
6r
REVIEW.
A dressing of dung was applied over the whole
field in the winter, and ploughed December 10 to
January 3.
Bates per acre of artificial manures: —
Superphosphate . .
Sulphate of ammonia
Jiitrate of i
Little Hoos Field: Wheat. 1918.
Variety, "Red Standard " (after clover).
Seed sown, November 3 to 5, 1917.
Crop cut, August 12 and 13, 1918.
Artificial manures applied, April 26, 1918 (by
hand), consisting of : —
2 cm ts. superphosphate per acre, or
1 cwt. sulphate of ammonia per acre, or 72J lb.
nitrate of ammonia per acre (these contain equal
quantities of nitrogen).
Dressed grain Straw , Total
per acre. ' per ] produce
acre. per acre.
Experimetit I.
Unmanured
Superphosphate only
Sulphate of ammonia and super-
phosphate
[Nitrate of ammonia and super-
phosphate
lb. bush.
2.195 33-9
2.492 38-6
8.178
8,120
Experiment II.
Unmanured 2.325 35-8
Superphosphate only . . . . 2,198 34-6
Sulphate of ammonia and super-
phosphate 2.585 401
Nitrate of ammonia and super-
phosphate 2.400 o7-7 5,050
On the other hand, nitrate of ammonia has some
disadvantages in comparison with nitrate of soda;
it is not so easily handled by the farmer; it has to
be stored in casks, not in bags, and it is not readily
applied by the ordinary drill. These are essen-
tially minor disadvantages, but they off-set any
slight advantage the nitrate of ammonia may
possess over nitrate of soda, and probably no farmer
would purchase it if he could obtain nitrate of soda
at the same unit price. So long as nitrate of soda
is obtainable at £20 per ton farmers are not likely
to purchase nitrate of ammonia unless it could be
obtained at about £35 per ton, or less.
Calcium nitrate. — This substance is now manufac-
tured on a large scale and is producible at prices
comparable with that of nitrate of soda. Further,
it is already fairly well known to agriculturists; it
is in charge of a competent propagandist agent and
is a really useful fertiliser. Experiments designed
to compare it with nitrate of soda are recorded in
this Journal for March 15, 1917 (Vol. 36, pp. 250—
261), and in Vol. 37, 1918 (p. 146 r), and no im-
portant difference has been discovered. The per-
centage of nitrogen differs, nitrate of soda contain-
ing 155% and nitrate of lime only 13%, correspond-
ing to 76'2% pure calcium nitrate, the rest being
mainly water with traces of calcium oxide, car-
bonate, etc. This is in favour of nitrate of soda.
On the other hand, nitrate of lime has the advan-
tage that the calcium is never hurtful in the soil,
while the sodium sometimes is, though also the
sodium is sometimes an advantage. On the whole,
farmers would probably be willing to pay nearly as
much per unit for nitrate of lime; and, assuming
that nitrate of soda were available at £20 per ton,
they would probably pay up to £16 or £16 10s. per
ton, though, of course they would purchase more
freely at a lower price.
Cyanamide. — Cyanamide presents the charac-
teristic that it is not at once available for plants,
but has to undergo change in the soil whereby
ammonia is formed, which subsequently nitrifies.
The whole value of the material, therefore, depends
on the rate at which this change proceeds. In some
soils it goes on rapidly, and here cyanamide is very
effective. In others, however, it proceeds more
slowly. It is a first essential that the change should
be fully investigated, so that it can be fully under-
stood ; there is reason to suppose that the produc-
tion of ammonia takes place in two stages, the first
of which is purely chemical and the second bac-
terial; further, that the agent producing the
chemical change is not always present in sufficient
quantity in the soil. It would be an obvious ad-
vantage if a chemist could say beforehand of a given
class of soil whether or not it were likely to decom-
pose cyanamide. Work with this purpose has been
carried out at Eothamsted, and the results are very
promising.
The results of all published field trials show that
the three fertilisers — nitrate of soda, sulphate of
ammonia, and cyanamide — when compared on the
basis of equal nitrogen content have the following
values : —
Nitric nitrogen 100
Ammoniacal nitrogen ... ... 97
Cyanamide nitrogen ... ... 90
But these include cases where the cyanamide
nitrogen could have had no proper chance of acting.
Under better advice, such as is now obtainable, the
farmer could have been warned beforehand, and
the use of the cyanamide kept to those numerous
cases where it can decompose rapidly and act well.
In these circumstances the value of the cyanamide
nitrogen might rise well above 90, and, what is
more important, the risk of failure might be con-
siderably reduced. Under present conditions
farmers would be unlikely to pay more than about
£18 or perhaps less per ton for cyanamide contain-
ing 20% nitrogen if sulphate of ammonia were ob-
tainable at £21. When the decomposition is better
understood, however, experts will be in a position
to advise more confidently ; the fault lies less in the
material than in our uncertain know ledge of some
of the fundamental points.
On the other hand, the makers must obviate the
presence in the commercial article of dicyanodi-
araide, which is actually harmful to vegetation.
This is a factory problem, but chemists will not
readilv believe it to be insoluble.
REVIEW OF THE SPELTER
SITUATION.
H. M. BIDGE.
In 1913 the world's spelter production amounted
to 982,000 tons, of which 32 per cent, was made in
the United States, 28 per cent, in Germany and
20 per cent, in Belgium ; in Great Britain only
6 per cent, was made, although the consumption
amounted to 23 per cent, of the metal produced
m the whole world, while in the whole of the rest
of the Empire only 3700 tons was produced. As a
consequence an acute shortage of metal was experi-
enced during the war and prices rose phenomenally.
Schemes were prepared for increasing the output,
but with the whole of the smelting capacity of the
United Kingdom in operation only 80,000 to 85,000
tons could now be produced annually.
During 1919 the world's production amounted to
about 520,000 tons, including 410,000 tons in the
United States, but only about 20,000 tons in Great
Britain, where the output has been limited by
shortage of ore and by labour troubles. Belgium
only recommenced smelting towards the middle of
the year, and was hindered by shortage of ore and
Vol. XXXIX., No. 1.)
REVIEW.
the difficulty of securing sufficient shipping ton-
nage even at high prices. During 1919 British
imports of spelter amounted to 94,226 tons.
At the present time production is progressing
satisfactorily in America, but Belgium is produc-
ing only 6500 tons a month or 39 per cent, of the
pre-war output, and Germany 3500 tons or 14 per
cent., and Great Britain 2000 tons or 40 per cent.
It is obvious that until conditions improve we are
dependent on American supplies. Owing to the
necessity of preference being given to the ship-
ment of foodstuffs, wool and other essential com-
modities, zinc ore is being shut out, and there
seems no prospect of the British or Belgian works
being able to run their furnaces at full capacity
during the coming months, but even then the out-
put in the United Kingdom will be limited by the
amount of plant available. If we are to become
independent of foreign supplies of spelter the ex-
tension of existing plants and the erection of new
works are necessary.
During the war zinc smelting was classified as
one of the important key industries, but no steps
have yet been taken to make the country self-sup-
porting, although ample supplies of ore are avail-
able within the Empire.
For the ten years before the war the average
price of g.o.b. spelter in London was £23 16s. 5d.
Since then the average prices have been : —
1914 £23 6 8
1915 £66 13 8
1916 £68 18 11
1917 £52 3 6
15)18 £52 4 0
1919 £42 5 3
On the teehnical side important improvements
have been made in recent years. Ordinary wet
methods for the concentration of zinc ore have been
superseded by the flotation process, electro-magnetic
separation being now used only quite exceptionally.
Flotation has necessitated finer crushing, but it
has been found that higher recoveries are obtained,
while the grade of the concentrate is improved
owing to more complete elimination of the gangue.
In the treatment of zinc concentrates no radically
new methods have yet proved suitable. Electro-
lytic precipitation has been tried in a number of
works in the country, but all of these have been
shut down, including the Hoepfner process plant
at Winnington, from which such a good product
was obtained for several years. It is interesting
to note that at the same time electrolysis has been
adopted for the new plants in Tasmania, Canada
and at one works in the United States, but in each
of these cheap power is available. The demand for
high-grade zinc will be large in future, but it can
now be obtained cheaply by new means which were
worked out during the war. Much progress has
been made with the electric furnace reduction in
Norway, Sweden and France, and the troubles ex-
perienced in the condensation of the zinc vapour
have been largely overcome, but here also cheap
power is essential.
Hand-rabbled furnaces for roasting are rapidly
being replaced by mechanical furnaces, and these
are already satisfactorily in operation in several
works in the country. The saving in labour is im-
portant, and at the same time a more regular pro-
duct is obtained and the consumption of coal
decreased. The even supply of sulphur fumes
materially facilitates the working of sulphuric acid
plant, and avoids the losses of nitre which take
place when hand furnaces have to be worked inter-
mittently.
Pot-making machinery was in the past obtained
from Germany, but during the war complete plant
for this purpose was designed and manufactured
here, and has given entire satisfaction. Novel
apparatus for more efficiently mixing the different
clays has proved successful. Clay for pot-making
used to be imported from Belgium, Germany and
Austria, but the war stimulated experiments with
British clays, and these can be used as well as the
imported materials, giving a good pot life when
working at a high temperature. After drying and
burning the red-hot pots have to be taken to the
furnace and put into place. Even in this arduous
operation hand labour is replaced by a simple semi-
automatic apparatus, and a good deal of delay to
the furnace is being saved by this means.
The results obtained with improvements in the
design and construction of the zinc distilling fur-
naces are worth recording. To reduce 10 tons of
ore 14J to 15 tons of coal was formerly required for
heating. In a plant built during the war the coal
consumption has been reduced to under 8 tons, a
figure which constitutes a world's record. The fur-
naces are built with counter-current recuperators,
and there are no reversing valves requiring atten-
tion; the heat in the waste gases is so efficiently
utilised to preheat the air that the temperature of
the gas going to the chimney stack is reduced very
much below what was formerly considered possible.
Weighing, mixing and transportation of the
charge to the furnaces is now done entirely mechani-
cally, so that much labour is saved and supervision
facilitated.
Charging the pots in the furnace probably used
to be the most laborious work of the zinc smelter,
and this has been overcome with the aid of charging
machines. These are driven electrically, and are
much more efficient than hand charging, the pots
being more uniformly charged and the charge
denser. The duration of the manoeuvre is shortened
by about two hours, and the time for working off
the charge is increased correspondingly, because
14 tons of charge can be fed into the pots in less
than twenty minutes.
The more extensive use of machinery reduces the
number of men, and at the same time makes the
management more independent of the skilled work-
men.
The outlook for the zinc industry in Great Britain
is not promising unless the existing works can
lie brought up to date and the smelting capacity
increased by the construction of additional works.
New plant built during the war has demonstrated
that zinc smelting can be carried on efficiently,
economically and profitably provided that the best
designs and apparatus are adopted, and in view of
the large demand for metal in the Empire it is
to be hoped that means will be found so that it will
become unnecessary to rely upon imports from
foreign countries.
SODIUM AND SODIUM COMPOUNDS
IN 1918.
A report recently issued by the United States
Geological Survey (Mineral Resources of the United
States, 1918, Part II., Pp. 198) contains many
statistical tables dealing with the production, ex-
portation and importation of all the important com-
mercial sodium compounds, together with analyses
of natural products, information concerning uses
and manufacturing processes, and in some cases the
names of manufacturers. The data supplied relate
mainly to the American products, but some particu-
lars of production etc. in other countries are also
included. The report also contains a bibliography
dealing with natural sodium salts.
The total quantity of sodium salts derived from
natural sources amounted to 6,999,920 short tons,
valued at $20, 836,044 in 1917, and to 7,262,797
short tons, worth 127,933,149, in 1918. The imports
of sodium salts during 1917 were 3,601,655,180 lb.,
REVIEW.
valued at $62,527,007, and 4,223,449,559 lb., valued
at $90,939,431, in 1918. Of these imports by far the
greater part was sodium nitrate, of which
3,456,780,000 lb. ($60,727,100) was imported in
1917, and 4,138,758.400 lb. ($90,216,935) in 1918.
The domestic exports of sodium salts were valued at
si, 320,963 in 1914 (July 1 to December 31), at
$7,725,034 in 1915, at $17,571,439 in 1916, at
$23,384,969 in 1917, and at $22,291,735 in 1918. In
1915 foreign sodium salts were re-exported to the
value of $40,358, and during succeeding years to
the respective values $193,086, $25,632. $73,402.
It is considered probable that pre-war prices for
potassium compounds will not be reached for a
very considerable time, and it is anticipated that
most of the substitutions of potassium salts by
sodium salts which have occurred under the stress
of war conditions will be permanent. The principal
producers of alkali in the United States have organ-
ised an Export Association, with offices at 171,
Madison Avenue, New York City, which aims at
securing uniform and favourable conditions in the
export trade, especially in regard to foreign bank-
ing facilities and ocean freight rates.
Production of sodium and sodium compounds in
the United States during 1917 anil 1918.
Quantity Quantity
(short tons), (short tons).
264
1,049
2,622
Sodiuni benzoate . .
203
Sodium bicarbonate
119,177
118,535
Sodium bichromate and chromate
22,446
28,334
Sodium bisulphite and sulphite
13,707
16,362
Sodium bromide
574
Sodium carbonate :
Soda ash
1,390,625
1,390,628
Monohydrate and sesquicarbonate . .
55,035
22,678
\\ ashing soda
77,939
82,465
Sodium chlorate and perborate
2,915
2,413
Sodium chloride :
Salt in brine
2,800,588
2,830,600
1,605,025
1,683,941
Evaporated salt
2,482,5S4
2,724,203
Sodium cyanide, iodide and peroxide..
9,694
9,086
4,173
4,525
Sodium fluoride, acid fluoride and fluo-
1,424
1,228
488,056
613,363
Sotlium nitrite
861
1,701
Sodium phosphate (all)
13,305
15,620
Sodium silicate
254,011
317,161
Sodium sulphate :
Salt cake
183,909
141,054
Glauber's salt
47,757
50,715
.Nitre cake
337,821
143,155
Sodium sulphide
49,494
43,490
Sodium tetraborate (borax)
32,089
26,673
Sodium thiosuphate
26,598
26,868
Miscellaneous sodium coinpoumds
4,563
381
10,164,825 10,198,842
• The output of sodium metal lor 1917 is included in that of
miscellaneous sodium compounds.
With regard to individual products it is noted
thai sodium bichromate has come into extensive use
in the tanning industry within recent years in place
of potassium bichromate, and has been found equally
efficient. The manufacture of soda ash is confined
almost entirely to the States of New York, Ohio,
Virginia, Michigan , California and Kansas. Of
nine companies manufacturing soda ash, five utilise
salt brine, three have deposits of natural salt and
one company incinerates the ash from spent pulp
liquor. Soda ash manufactured by the ammonia
soda process is of exceptional purity, running
!' 99"7% of sodium carbonate, and that made
From cryolite is stated to be very pure. A number
of pulp and paper mills, employing the soda pro-
making fibre, recovers sodium carbonate from
the spent liquor, effecting a saving of from 80 — 90
per cent, of the soda ash required. The Hargreaves-
Bird process of making sodium carbonate by the
electrolysis of salt solution, the cathode solution
being carbonated, is employed by at least three
firms. The natural deposits of soda in the "Western
States have been worked commercially in a number
of places, and methods of extracting the potassium
salts from the deposits are being elaborated.
Favourable conditions for the production of sodium
carbonate exist in the case of the waters at Owens
Lake. The lake water is merely evaporated in open
vats until a deposit of trona is formed. A large
number of patents has been issued in recent years
for the separation and utilisation of the several
salts occurring in the natural deposits of soda.
Sodium chlorate has supplanted potassium
chlorate to a considerable extent in medicine, and
is employed in the manufacture of dyes, matches,
and high explosives. The practice of returning the
cyanogen content of cyanides in terms of equiva-
lent potassium cyanide results in very impure
sodium cyanide being sold as 97 — 98% potassium
cyanide, but recently the sodium compound has been
sold on its actual sodium cyanide content, thehighest
grade being 96 — 98% sodium cyanide equivalent to
51 — 52 J' cyanogen. The Bucher process for cyanide
production from soda ash, powdered coke, iron ore
and air is now under investigation by Government
agencies. Restriction of imports imposed by war
conditions has resulted in the greatly-increased
domestic production of sodium ferrocyanide, which
now largely supplants the potassium salt. All
domestic requirements can now bo met by home sup-
plies.
Proposals for the erection of plant for the manu-
fucture of caustic soda, in order to meet foreign
demands, are numerous. The Brunner, Mond,
Company's plant at Amherstburg, Ont., has already
been referred to in these columns (J., 1919, 85 k,
435 h). Plants for the electrolytic production of
caustic soda are in course of erection in Peru,
Brazil, China and Japan. The Brazilian Govern-
ment offers pecuniary assistance to the three firms
first commencing operations. The Loewig process
of making caustic soda consists in heating soda ash
with ferric oxide, whereby sodium ferrite and
carbon dioxide are formed. The ferrite is decom-
posed by water, yielding a concentrated solution of
sodium hydroxide, and iron oxide, which is used
over again. Many samples of nitrate-bearing
material have been examined, but the results do not
foreshadow the possibility of successful commercial
exploitation. Sodium permanganate is made by
the electrolytic oxidation of sodium manganate,
and has largely supplanted potassium per-
manganate in use. The output of sodium phos-
phate was 2,340 short tons in 1899, 12,290 tons in
1909, 15,387 tons in 1914, and 13.305 and 15,620
tons, respectively, in 1917 and 1918.
Kxpcriments have shown that superphosphates con-
taining 15 per cent, of available PjOs can be readily
produced from Florida pebble phosphate by grind-
ing and mixing with nitre cake, the application of
heat being unnecessary. Nitre cake in a friable
form can be made by adding sodium carbonate or
any substance that evolves a. gas to melted nitre
cake. The application of natural sodium sulphate
in an increasing number of directions is recom-
mended. Experimental work has been carried out
on the production of anhydrous sodium sulphate
from the deposits of natural sulphate near Val-
mont, New Mexico, and commodity rates have been
granted to shipments of the product.
Crude natural borax (tincal) occurs in San Ber-
nardino County, Cal., in saline lakes and plazas in
Nevada. Oregon, and in the hot springs of Yellow-
stone Park. Borax is manufactured from th»
mineral colema.nite (Ca2B,On.5H.O) by treatment
with sodium carbonate. The Amercian Trona Cor-
Vol. XXXIX.. No. 1.]
REVIEW.
poration contemplates the production of from 20 —
.30 tons of refined borax daily from the water of
Searles Lake, and it is understood that production
from this source is now under way. New deposits
■ it boron ores have been located at Muroc, Kern
County, Cal. No borax is now imported into the
United States, and the quantity of boric acid im-
ported during 1918 was the smallest for many years,
with the exception of 1912. Deposits of boron ores
are being actively worked in Chile, Argentina,
Bolivia, Peru, Germany, Italy, Turkey, Russia and
Tibet.
NEWS FROM THE SECTIONS.
CANADIAN PACIFIC.
The first meeting of the session was held on
October 28 at the University Club of Vancouver.
During the afternoon the new Laboratories of the
Dominion Department of Health were open to visit-
ing members. After the customary dinner, a busi-
ness meeting was held when matters concerning the
organisation of the Society in Canada were
discussed.
The November meeting was held in the same
place on the 27th. In the afternoon, at the Con-
vention of the Canadian Mining Institute, Mr.
Horace Freeman, a member of the local Section,
read a paper on " New Methods in the Hydro-
metallurgy of Gold and Silver." The manufacture
of sodium cyanide from calcium cyanarnide by the
process patent»I by Mr. Freeman was referred to
and the superior advantages of the product empha-
sised. Mr. Freeman then reported his recent
discovery of the use of a metallic sodium-lead alloy
to replace zinc dust in precipitating gold and silver
from cyanide solutions. By the action of this alloy
the sodium cyanide solution is regenerated, while
the presence of the lead facilitates the recovery and
refining of the precious metals.
During the evening the members had the pleasure
of a very instructive discussion with Dr. A. B.
Macallum, Chairman of the Advisory Council for
Scientific and Industrial Research of Canada. Dr.
Macallum described the successful and progressive
work resulting from the establishment of the
Council and referred to the proposed legislation for
a National Research Institute for Canada, which
among other functions would assist the organisation
of Trade Guilds for Research among the industries.
Much interest was evinced in the announcement
that the Council proposed to investigate a number
of local problems, especially the utilisation of the
great quantities of wood and fish waste, and of the
production of iron and steel from British Columbian
ores.
gave the results of a series of experiments with
" thick " and " thin " wash at varying tempera-
tures. From parallel experiments with " dry "
malt containing 39 per cent, moisture and a
" slack " malt containing 10'7 per cent, moisture,
the author had little doubt that the difference
between the extracts was due to the fact that the
" slack " malt did not grind as finely, under like
conditions, as the "dry " malt.
' A paper on " The Erosion of Lead," by Messrs.
J. F. Liversedge and A. W. Knapp, was read by
Mr. Knapp. The erosion test with which the paper
dealt was devised by Dr. Houston. The experi-
ments were made with Birmingham water, a faintly
alkaline natural water which dissolves very little
lead, but which has, in the untreated condition,
the power of eroding lead, so that scales forming
on it fall away and leave a fresh bright surface
open to attack. Experiments were made to investi-
gate the effect of light, volume of water, area of
water exposed to air; bacteria, exposure to glass,
and of dissolved gases, liquids, and solids. The
authors conclude that erosion Is due to the action
of oxygen in the presence of water, and occurs
readily in waters containing no carbon dioxide.
Such variations as occurred naturally in the per-
centage of oxygen or carbon dioxide had no appre-
ciable effect on the erosion, but the presence of from
1 to 2 per cent, of carbon dioxide cause a sudden
change from " erosion " to " plumbo-solvency."
Calcium carbonate is the most effective preventive
of erosion, as little as 2 parts per 100,000 being
generally sufficient to inhibit it.
BIRMINGHAM.
Mr. L. P. Wilson presided at the meeting held
at the University Buildings, Edmund Street, on
December 11, and extended a cordial welcome to
Prof. G. T. Morgan, who has succeeded Prof. P. F.
Frankland in the chair of chemistry at the
University.
Mr. James O'Sullivan read a paper " On the
Influence of the Temperature, Concentration,
Duration of Mash, and Slackness of Malt on the
Starch Products of the Extract of Malt." Experi-
ments proved that cane sugar is not inverted in
the process of mashing, and that invertase is not
present in malt. The absence of invertase, also of
lipase, made the way clear for determining the
influence of varied conditions of washing on the
starch transformation products of malt. The author
GLASGOW.
The Glasgow Section held a joint meeting with
the local section of the Institute of Metals on
December 16 in the Royal Technical College. Prof.
C. H. Desch was in the chair.
Mr. Greer and Mr. Langlands congratulated the
chairman on his recent appointment to the chair
of metallurgy in Sheffield University. Mr. J. A.
Gardiner then read a paper on " The Solidity, or
otherwise, of Gunmetal Castings."
The paper was a judicious admixture of theory
and practice, and due credit was given to the art
and craft of the practical moulder. Although in the
present stage of foundry evolution the technical
worker lacks the experience that the older foremen
possess, the time is not far distant when the value
of science will be fully recognised and its dictates
put into practice. Cores, vents, gates, and risers
each have an effect on the solidity or otherwise of
the alloy. With regard to impurities, aluminium,
bismuth, and manganese are bad; arsenic in small
quantities and lead up to 2 per cent, are not objec-
tionable; phosphorus gives fluidity to gunmetal, but
its constant return in the scrap and borings makes
it undesirable. Bad gating gives improper feeding
to the casting and its effects are "drawn" holes
due to liquid metal shrinkage, pocketed air holes,
and the working into the casting of portions of the
moulding sand. By judicious gating the cooling
effects on thick and thin sections of a casting can be
controlled. In summing up, a questionable metal
can be more readily made to give solidity by judi-
cious moulding than a good metal in the hands of a
questionable moulder.
A dinner was held in the St. Enoch Hotel, on
December 18, to enable the members to meet Mr.
John Gray and Dr. Longstaff, who had come North
to visit the Scottish Sections. In an informal talk
with the members the progress of the Society in
the past and ways and means of increasing its
usefulness in the future were discussed. Mr. Moore
(the chairman) thanked the President and Dr.
Longstaff for their presence, and assured them of
the active co-operation of the Section.
REVIEW.
NEWCASTLE.
At a meeting held on December 17, at Armstrong
College, the chairman, Prof. P. P. Bedson,
announced that the Council had accepted the invi-
tation of the Section to hold the next Annual
Meeting in Newcastle, at some date in July. He
also proposed a vote of thanks to the Newcastle Gas
Co. and the Bede Metal Works Co. for allowing
parties of members to visit these works, and this
was carried.
The main item on the agenda was an address by
Dr. J. H. Paterson on " The Theory of Gas Pro-
ducer Reactions, with special reference to the rate
of gasification." In explaining the elementary
principles of gas producers, the author expressed
his dissatisfaction with some of the assumptions
made in text-books, e.g., that there are separate
zones of oxidation and reduction in a gas producer,
and that carbon monoxide is not the first product
of the reaction between the carbon and the air.
From the standpoint of economy, a gas producer
burning fuel at high rates, say, 50 — 100 lb. per
sq. ft. of grate area per hour, was preferable to a
low duty producer in that the capital cost of the
plant was less and the upkeep and labour cost lower.
The former kind must of necessity be supplied with
fuel of low ash content, and the problem of elimin-
ating or reducing ash was a very urgent on , which
should be dealt with at the colliery rather than at
the furnace. Dr. Paterson then described a very
compact, high duty producer, designed by Coi.
J. D. Smith, which had been used successfully for
the propulsion of motor lorries. It was worked
on the suction principle with a high rate of fuel
consumption, from 80 to 90 lb. per square foot
per hour, was entirely automatic in action, and
had a flat bar grate of the shaking type, which
had proved efficient under trial. There was an
extremely shallow fire bed, sometimes as low as
two inches thick, and the designer claimed that
when using bituminous coal the distillation zone
disappeared entirely, and a nearly tar-free gas was
produced. The opinion was expressed that this
typo of producer would come into general use. A
good discussion followed the address, and Dr.
Paterson announced his intention of writing a
lengthy paper on the subject.
LIVERPOOL.
A meeting of the Section was held at the Adelphi
Hotel on December 19 last, with Dr. Armstrong in
the chair.
Mr. R. Thomas contributed a paper on " The
Mechanism of the addition of Hydrogen to Un-
saturated Glyeerides in the Presence of Finely
Divided Nickel." The first portion of the paper
dealt with the mechanism of the addition of
hydrogen to unsaturated glyeerides. The author
pointed out that the use of finely reduced nickel
as a catalyst in chemical reactions involving the
addition of hydrogen to unsaturated compounds was
first established by Sabatier and Senderens in 1897,
but that none of the numerous investigations then
or since dealt with the subject from the dynamical
standpoint, although the velocity of the reaction
was a most important consideration for manufac-
turers. He showed certain equations derived for
the rate of the addition of hydrogen to mixtures of
unsaturated glyeerides, using nickel as a catalyst.
He considered that the reaction between pure
hydrogen, maintained at a constant pressure, and
an unsaturated glyceride was of the first order.
The more highly unsaturated glyceride (linolinj
took up hydrogen at a much greater rate than olem.
olive oil .is the starting point in his investi-
gations, as it was the nearest approach to a chemi-
cal entity among vegetable or animal oils, he found
that the addition of hydrogen at constant pressure
gave a unimolecular reaction, and he showed that
tue agreement between the observed values of the
hydrogen absorption and those calculated from the
equations justified this assumption. In Part 2 of
his paper, the author discussed the function of the
catalyst, its action being attributed by Sabatier to
the alternate formation and decomposition of an
unstable nickel hydride, while Armstrong and Hil-
ditch compared the action of nickel in fat harden-
ing to that of an enzyme in the hydrolysis of gluco-
sides. He described the results of experiments on
the influence of the pressure of hydrogen, and of
temperature, on the velocity of the reaction, and
showed that the rate of saturation of olein (con-
taining three double bonds) was proportional to
p1'5, where p is the pressure of the hydrogen. This
agrees with the view that the hydrogen becomes
active through its absorption by the catalyst —
Sieverts having shown that such absorption is pro-
portional to p — with a dissociation of the hydrogen
molecules into atoms. The temperature coefficient
of the velocity was found to be small, thus suggest-
ing a photochemical reaction, the molecules of olein
being brought into an active condition by the
absorption of infra-red radiation emitted by the
catalyst.
In Part 3 Mr. Thomas dealt with the influence
of foreign gases on the catalyst and on the velocity
of hydrogenation. He pointed out that the mode
of action of gaseous catalyst poisons may be a purely
physical one, or it may be chemical in that the
poison is capable of reacting either with or in the
presence of the catalyst. He described three ex-
periments which were conducted with hydrogen
containing (a) nitrogen, as typical of gases which
undergo no chemical action with or under the influ-
ence either of the catalyst, glyceride, or hydrogen ;
(b) carbon monoxide, as typical of gases which
undergo a transformation with hydrogen in the pre-
sence of the catalyst ; and (c) hydrogen sulphide, as
typical of gases which unite with the catalyst.
LONDON.
A meeting of this Section was held on January 5
at Burlington House, Mr. Julian L. Baker being
in the chair. Mr. E. V. Evans and Dr. G. S.
Walpole, who have recently returned from tours in
Germany, took as the subject of their addresses the
present position of chemical industries in that
country.
The first speaker, Mr. Evans, who was chairman
of the British Mission to German Chemical Works,
drew a vivid picture of the great Rhineland
organisation as it appeared at the time of the visit.
Ho depicted a huge organisation consisting of many
factories, efficiently and lavishly fitted with plant
in excellent repair, yet temporarily paralysed
owing to the need of raw material and the requisite
labour. Particular attention was drawn to the
favourable geographic and economic situation of
the chemical works in the Rhine valley, and to the
advantages accruing to the industry owing to the
fact that it has received the support of the nation,
the Government, the banks and the universities.
The faciors which were thought to attribute
essentially to the past supremacy of the industry
received consideration, the speaker laying stress on
the fact that the results obtained were not due to
witchcraft, but to collaboration between chemist,
physicist, engineer, and commercial director. He
emphasised the valuable part played by engineering
in the industry, and by scientific method in the
organisation of the undertakings. The success
attained by the organic chemical industry in Ger-
many was the result of the combined effort of 40
years or more, whilst in this country only the last
few years had been seriously devoted to this work.
which even then had been carried out under the
retarding influence of war conditions. The speaker
Vol. XXXIX. No. 1.]
REVIEW.
emphasised the necessity for immediate Government
protection, in view of the fact that there existed in
Germany an organisation capable of producing
almost the whole of the world's pre-war require-
ments in dyestuffs. whilst at the same time,
America. Switzerland and France were making a
determined effort not only to supply their own re-
quirements in these organic products, but also to
create an export trade.
Dr. Walpole next addressed the meeting on " The
Collective Effort of German Chemical Industry.''
He considered that the fundamental distinction
between the situation in Germany and this country
was the striking superiority of what may be called
the "staff work" of the German industry. He
remarked upon the curious paradox that the
English, who in sport " play for their side " should
in business exhibit such an invincible bias towards
individual effort, whereas the German with his
deficient sporting instinct always favoured, in
business, a highly developed system of combination
of interests. The essential factor of German success
in chemical industry was the policy of united effort
which took cognisance of, and extended its control
to every detail. The consequence of this highly
elaborated co-operation of interests was the aboli-
tion of useless competition amongst its component
parts, while the Government on its side offered every
inducement to municipal bodies, railways, inland
revenue authorities, harbour trusts and so forth, to
frame their regulations in accordance with the
needs of chemical industry. Dr. Walpole then
sketched the system underlying the training of the
great body of chemical workers in Germany, and
showed how such training is arranged for them by
the very industries which were ultimately to reap
the reward of their expert services. Stress was also
laid on the fact that chemical plant, which in this
country is so often the product of unspecialised and
unskilful improvisation, is in Germany the
speciality of numerous engineers who have devoted
their whole attention to the manufacture of plant
minutely adapted to specific ends. Machinery of
this nature was not purchased haphazard with a
view to secure some temporary gain, but as part
of a co-operative policy previously thought out with
care and thoroughness which took the world market
as its main consideration.
MEETINGS OF OTHER SOCIETIES.
SOCIETY OF GLASS TECHNOLOGY.
On December 17, at the Institute of Chemistry,
London, the President, Mr. S. M. Jenkinson, pre-
sented on behalf of the members testimonials to Mr.
W. F. J. Wood, the first president of the society,
and to Dr. W. E. S. Turner, the secretary, in token
of appreciation for the work they had done in
founding the society and in bringing it to its
present position of influence. Part of the testi-
monial to the former took the form of a cheque,
which the recipient had decided to invest and to
devote the interest to the foundation of an annual
prize to be awarded to a student in the Department
of Glass Technology of the University of Sheffield.
The paper on " The Glass Industry of North
America," announced to be read by Dr. Turner, was
distributed in proof as the author was unable to
read it on account of illness. Notes dealing with
the same subject were contributed by Mr. J.
Connolly, Dr. M. W. Travels and Mr. W. F. J.
A\ood, each of whom had recently returned from a
tour in the States. The chief points dealt with by
the speakers were : Raw materials for glass making,
batch mixing; glass-melting furnaces and pro-
ducers; annealing; pyrometric control; bottle and
jar manufacture; electric light bulb manufacture;
chemical and scientific glassware, optical glass,
glass rod and tubing; chemical and optical glass;
and refractory materials. Great stress was laid by
all speakers on the development of the use of auto-
matic and semi-automatic machinery in glass manu-
facturing in America and the consequent increase
and economy in production. A large number of
specimens of glassware, raw materials, etc., illus-
trative of American conditions and workmanship
was on view prior to the meeting and aroused con-
siderable interest, as did also a dividing machine
shown bv Messrs. Munro.
PERSONALIA.
Mr. Frank Merricks has beei elected president
of the Institution of Mining and Metallurgy for
the present year.
Dr. F. W. Keeble has been elected to the
Sherardian professorship of botany in the Uni-
vevsity of Oxford.
Sir Richard Glazebrook has been appointed to the
Zaharoff chair of aviation at the Imperial College
of Science and Technology.
At Leeds University the chair of mining has been
filled by the appointment of Mr. Granville Poole,
who has been an inspector of mines under the
Government.
Prof. H. G. Greenish, Professor of Pharmaceutics
to the Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain, has
received from the University of Paris the deg-ee of
doctor, honoris causa.
Dr. E. Ardern has resigned the post of chief
chemist to the Rivers Committee of the Manchester
Corporation and has accepted that of consulting
chemist to the same body.
Dr. F. Paneth, who formerly worked on radio-
activity in the laboratories of Prof. F. Soddy at
Glasgow, and Sir E. Rutherford, at Manchester,
has been appointed professor of chemistry in the
University of Hamburg.
Prof. R. Robinson, lately professor of organic
chemistry in the University of Liverpool, has taken
up his duties at Huddersfield as director of research
in the dyestuffs department of British Dyestuffs
Corporation, Ltd. (Huddersfield).
Dr. S. R. Wells has succeeded Sir Cooper Perry,
now Principal Officer, as Vice-Chancellor of London
University; and Mr. C. Grant Robertson, of Mag-
dalen College, Oxford, has been appointed Principal
of Birmingham University, in succession to Sir
Oliver Lodge.
The first list of New Year Honours, published
on January 1, includes the following: Peerage of
the United Kingdom : Sir Albert Stanley, late
President of the Board of Trade. Order of the
Bath, K.C.B. : Sir Richard T. Glazebrook, late
director of the National Physical Laboratory.
Baronetcy: Mr. A. F. Bird, a director of Alfred
Bird and Sons, Ltd.; Mr. J. T. Cargill, chairman
of the Burmah Oil Company; Col. J. Roper Wright,
chairman of Baldwin's, Ltd. Knighthood: Col.
W. A. Churchman, Ministry of Munitions, Explo-
sives Department; Mr. F. G. Ogilvie, assistant
controller in Trench Warfare Research Depart-
ment. Chemical Warfare Department; Prof. A.
Schuster, late secretary of the Royal Society.
REVIEW.
NEWS AND NOTES.
SOt'TH AFRICA.
Industrial Notes. — Manufacture of sheet lead. — A
Capetown firm has completed the erection of a plant
for the manufacture of sheet lead, which it is
understood is competing successfully with the
imported article. Besides sheet lead this firm is
turning out lead pipe, solder, and other articles.
South African Sugar Association. — After negotia-
tions extending over a period of two and a-half
years an amalgamation of the sugar planters' and
millowners' organisations has been accomplished,
resulting in the formation of the South African
Sugar Association. The view of both sections is
that this amalgamation of interests should be of
the utmost value to the industry.
A nn ual Min in g Exh il i ( ion. — The Chemical, Metal-
lurgical and Mining Society of South Africa has
arranged for the resumption of the annual mining
exhibitions, which were discontinued during the
war. It is proposed to hold the next exhibition in
January, 1920, but as it will not be possible to
arrange for this exhibition to be on the same scale
as in former years, it is intended that on this
occasion it will be primarily for exhibiting the many
devices and materials manufactured locally on or
for the mines during the war as substitutes in
place of supplies usually imported. — (S. Afr. J.
Ind., Oct., 1919.)
Pretoria Iron Works. — An " African World " cable
announces that these works are being reconstructed
by the National Industrial Corporation, which is
associated with the National Bank of South Africa.
The Bank has underwritten £1,500.000 for working
capital.
AUSTRALIA.
Manufacture of High-Grade Steel in Western Aus-
tralia.— A company known as the " Australian Elec-
tric Steel Limited," of Sydney, is about to estab-
lish works at Guildford, Western Australia, for the
manufacture of high-grade steels, such as chrome
and manganese. This company was formed in 1916
and established works at Alexandria, New South
Wales, where it has met with considerable success.
Its capital has been increased from £40,000 to
£160,000, and employment has been found for a
considerable number of operators. It is estimated
that the output of the Western Australian factory
will be about £50,000 worth of steel of different
grades, special attention being given to the pro-
duction of high-grade manganese steel as used in
mining. The company is one of the largest con-
sumers of electric current supplied from the Govern-
ment power plant at East Perth, and it has pur-
chased about 15,000 tons of scrap metal from the
Government Railway Workshops.
Up to the present the company has been able to
carry on successfully with the "assistance of the
protection afforded by war conditions. But witli
the resumption of normal trade conditions it is
stated that it will be necessary to remove some of
the tariff anomalies at present existing, e.g., on
ordinary steel c:i<t tul: there is a duty of 35 per
eenl , while higher grades of steel, such as chrome
and manganese, are admitted free.
The Powell Process for Timber Treatment.— The
High Court of Australia recently gave judgment in
favour of tlic Western Australian Government in
the matter of termination of the Powell Company's
pa bent
I he case had been referred to the High Court by
way of appeal against the decision of the Court of
Western Australia on the issue whether Sub-
n 2 of tlu- Patents Act could apply to a State
patent. The Western Australian Court had decided
in favour of the company, but tin High Court, in
reversing this judgment, found that the State
Government is under no legal obligation to pay the
£51,550 royalties, which was the amount involved
in the termination of the contract.
The contract which was the subject of the above
appeal was one entered into by the State Govern-
ment with the Powell Process Company some years
ago for the treatment of Karri timber for the
prevention of dry-rot and attack by white ants
when the timber is used in contact with earth, and
involved certain royalties payable to the company
for every cubic yard of timber treated by its pro-
cess.
BRITISH INDIA.
The Proposed Indian Chemical Service — In the
Gazette of India for November 15 the Government
published a " resolution " concerning the creation
of a Chemical Service and an Indian Store Depart-
ment, which, although it merely stated that com-
mittees are being formed to deal with these sub-
jects, was nevertheless accompanied by a hundred
foolscap pages of annexures. The proposal to form
a chemical service, put forward at a conference at
Lahore in January, 1918, by Sir Thomas Holland
and elaborated in the report of the Industrial Com-
mission published in November last, met with the
general approval of chemists in the service of the
Indian Government. In the past chemists and
other scientific experts have generally been engaged
each on a separate agreement, the terms of which,
however, do not as a rule materially differ. In
nearly every instance the maximum pay is about
Rs.1000 per mensem, which seems fairly satisfac-
tory to young men commencing service, but, as is
stated in the report of the Commission (p. 87): —
" Many of the scientific specialists quickly reach
their maximum salaries, and, witnessing the
gradual rise in pay and position of their contem-
poraries in other services, naturally grow discon-
tented, and consequently become of reduced value
to the country. In view of the fact that no quanti-
tative standard can be established to gauge
scientific research, no one can say what the country
loses by discontent among its scientific staff."
Nevertheless, in its proposals for the establishment
of the Chemical Service (p. 255) the Commission
proposes only the appointment of one chief chemist
at a salary of Rs.3000, and he is apparently to be
recruited directly from England. The maximum
salary of other chemists still remains at about
Rs.1000.
Practically all the regular services, such as the
Public Works Department, the Forest Service, the
Police and the Education Department have either
received recently, or are about to obtain, sub-
stantial increases of pay in consideration of the
rise in the cost of living. It is interesting to com-
pare the rates for chemists with the new scale for
the engineers of the Public Wrorks Department as
announced in the Gazette of India for November 1.
Their pay starts at Rs. 450 per mensem, and rises
continuously to Rs. 1500 in the 20th year of service
and Rs.1600 in the 23rd, but by that time a man
would probably be a Superintending Engineer
drawing Hs.1750, rising to Rs.2150; and some must
rise to be Chief Engineers on Rs.2750 to 3000. The
new rates for the Forest Service are very similar.
One of the suggestions of the Industrial Com-
mission was that the chemists of the proposed ser-
vice should be seconded for periods of five years
to special appointments, such as agricultural
chemist in a province or professor of chemistry in a
university. A conference of agricultural chemis+s
objected to this on the ground that it took a man
a considerable number of years to become familiar
not only with agricultural chemistry generally, but
also with the conditions of a province, which are,
as a rule, quite different to those in another pro-
vince. This suggestion has consequently been
Vol. XXXIX., So. I]
REVIEW.
dropped, and hence, as a rule, a chemist will be
appointed to do work of one specific kind during
the whole of his service, unless his special experi-
ence is required for the central Government or for
some other work
In the Gazette of India for November 18 there
is also an announcement of revised rates of pension,
but many of the chemists will derive no benefit from
these.
FRANCE.
Industrial Notes. — Chemical Industry. — The im-
portation of German chemicals has begun on a
scale large enough to allow a few chemical indus-
tries to be run at a fairly normal rate of production.
Doubts are expressed in certain quarters if this
new state of things can last long owing to the un-
settled industrial conditions in Germany, which the
winter is not likely to improve. No great reliance
is placed on Italy either — whence France gets either
directly or through England such products as alu-
minium salts, borax and boric acid, sulphur, sul-
phates, citric and tartaric acids, oils, etc. — on
account of the great social unrest prevailing there,
which has at its root the shortage of the most vital
raw materials. Under such circumstances, and to
meet her own great wants, France will have either
to find substitutes for all these intermediates or
develop new processes if she is to cope with her
great economic difficulties, which can only be solved
by intensive production. This effort she is pre-
pared to make, but many difficulties are in the way.
tor, apart from the shortage of raw materials and
of intermediates, and a still disorganised railway
system, there is considerable labour unrest.
Another factor retarding production in the chemical
industries is a lack of co-ordination between the
different factories, each trying to turn out as many
different products as possible, thus dispersing in-
stead of concentrating effort. The importance of
organised specialisation is better understood now,
and the evident results it will have on working
costs will lead to its adoption.
Alsace-Lorraine'. — The development of the natural
resources of the recovered provinces is a favourite
topic. Recent prospecting has revealed that the
potash beds of Alsace can produce 300 million tons
of pure potash, which represents an amount 300
times greater than the world's annual consumption
before the war. The oilfields of Alsace are also
eliciting great interest. They are chiefly located to
the north-west of Strasbourg around Pechelbronn,
extend over an area of 44,000 hectares, of whicli
14,000 can yield petroleum on a commercial scale,
and are worked on very scientific lines. Quite
recently oil was struck in a new boring on a quite
virgin part of the oilfield, and this is estimated to
give a daily yield of 30 tons. The current opinion
on the iron-ore of Lorraine is that, although very
abundant, its high phosphorus content will compel
manufacturers to produce specialised goods, such as
rails, joists, and section iron. Coal supply will
be a great difficulty owing to the remote-
ness of the sources of fuel — North of France, Bel-
gium, and Germany. Another drawback will be the
shortage of labour, and recourse will have to be had
to foreign workers.
Coal ioiiI Transport. — Production is improving in
a \<rv noticeable manner in the coalfields. The
official figures for September amount to 1,687,000
tons, to which must be added 151,000 tons from the
coalfields of Lorraine. The production for Novem-
ber— Lorraine excluded — will probably exceed
1,800,000 tons. Labour is abundant and especially
so on the coalfields of the Central Plateau, where
the rate of raising coal has doubled. Prospecting is
rife all over France with a view to locating exten-
sions of the different coalfields. This policy is
dictated by the fears which the recent strikes in
England and the United States have inspired. The
various railway lines are being restored with great
speed. On the Northern railways practically all
the stations are now open to traffic. On the
Eastern railways abundant snowfalls in November
had a retarding effect, but work is progressing very
favourably. On December 1 less than 100 kilo-
metres out of the 367 kilometres of canals and
waterways which at the time of the armistice were
unnavigable remained to be open to navigation
again .
Colonies. — Great interest is shown in the develop-
ment of the graphite beds of Madagascar, which are
reckoned to be superior in value to the potash de-
posits of Alsace. Mining began in 1910, and the
production rose from 6372 tons in 1913 to 27,838
tons in 1917. The development of the industry was
retarded by the badly prepared state in which the
material was marketed, but methods of purification
have been improved at no great expense, and the
quality of the new grade determines a ready sale.
Mining is easier than in Ceylon because the deposits
can be worked in the open. Indo-China is also
rich in graphite, and from Anr.am 8000 tons was
recently exported to America and 15,000 tons more
are ready for shipment.
Of all the French colonies Tonkin is the richest
in coal, the output in 1916 having reached 695,000
tons. Fresh deposits of anthracite have just been
discovered. New Caledonia also has rich deposits
which have hardly been touched, and the same
applies to the lignite of Madagascar. Yet, in spite
of these natural resources, 600,000 tons of coal was
imported into the French colonies, not including
those of North Africa.
The production of phosphate in Algeria and
Tunis for 1920 is estimated at 1,400,000 tons, which
will be distributed thus: 700,000 tons to France;
247,600 to England; 355,000 to Italy; 14,700 to
Portugal; 3600 to Belgium; 550 to Switzerland;
and 73.600 to Spain.
UNITED STATES.
American Ceramic Society. — The annual meeting of
this society will be held at Philadelphia from
February 23 to 26. The headquarters will be at
the Bellevue-Stratford Hotel, where rooms are avail-
able for general and sectional meetings, and where
social functions will be held.
Dietetic Values. — As a part of its extension work,
the University of Blinois is distributing a " Home
Meal Calendar " which enables households to keep
a daily record of their consumption of protein,
starch, fats, sugars, and organic acids and mineral
substances. The desirability of having all five
groups represented in the diet is pointed out.
Compulsory Licensing of Engineers. — The State of
Michigan has introduced an innovation in the form
of a law compelling engineers, including chemical
engineers, to be licensed. Applicants will be re-
quired to prove their competency as regards know-
ledge of fundamentals and ability to solve techni-
cal problems correctly on paper. The experiment
will be watched with great interest by the chemical
profession.
Rare Earths for the Incandescent Mantle Industry. —
Surveys in the Southern States have revealed the
frequent occurrence of these rare earths in ground
which has no agricultural value. These minerals
would doubtless not have been discovered but for
the impossibility of importing the purified earths
during the war. Incidentally the explorations have
led to an increase in the output of meso-thorium,
for which there is an active demand.
New Method of Food Dehydration. — On December 5,
Dr. K. G. Falk, of the Harriman Research
Laboratory at New York, explained the new method
of food preservation elaborated at that institution
before the New York Section of the American
Chemical Society. The method consists, briefly, in
dehydrating the food (meat, eggs, vegetables,
fruits) in a comminuted state in a vacuum drier
at a temperature well below that at which changes
incidental to cooking occur. No preservatives or
bleaching agents are required. A variety of meats
and vegetables dried by th'is method had been
shipped to different parts of the world with success-
ful results.
The American Petroleum Institute. — It is anticipated
that this Institute will soon complete the organisa-
tion of its Division of Research and Statistics, and
that it will receive annually a sum of §500,000
obtained by a levy on the gross business of the pro-
ducers and refiners of petroleum. The director of
til.- Division will have the assistance of an advisory
committee composed of representatives of the
Government Departments directly interested, the
national engineering societies, the National Auto-
mobile Chamber of Commerce, the American
Chemical Society, and the National Research
Council.
A New Therapeutic Agent. — Drs. Young, White,
and Swartz, of Johns Hopkins Hospital, have
carried out a series of studies with a view to the
discovery of a therapeutic compound which would
be germicidal, relatively non-toxic and non-irritat-
ing, while possessing unusual penetrating qualities.
Such a substance has been found in dibromoxy-
mtrcury fluorescein or its sodium salt, the latter
carrying approximately 26 per cent, mercury. A
considerable number of observations has been
ir ide, and the experimenters, in summing up tneir
conclusions, state that the new germicide, whicn is
for use in the genito-urinary tract, has practically
fifty times the germicidal strength of acriflavine,
and that a solution of one in one thousand kills
B. Coli and Staphylococcus aureus in one minute in
urinary media (presumably in vitro). The new
drug is tolerated for from one to three hours
without irritation by the human bladder, and
injections of a 1 per cent, solution in the
renal pelvis are likewise free from pain. Studies
of the comparative value of this drug and
;>criflavine are not yet completed, but it is con-
sidered certain that methods of great value in the
treatment of certain diseases with both drugs have
been discovered.
Metallurgical Notes. — It is reported that each of
the various high speed steels emits a characteristic
spark upon coming into contact with an abrasive
wheel. These sparks vary in size, shape, and
colour, and the method is in use for sorting scrap.
The large quantities of copper-nickel scrap now
existing have given rise to attempts to use it for
nd bronze manufacture, the nickel, it is said,
replacing some of the tin content. Preliminary
work has in some cases given satisfactory results.
A committee has been formed in the Division of
Engineering, National Research Council, to inves-
tigate and improve the method for the magnetic
testing of ferrous metals. The need for testing
methods which are reliable and yet do not involve
the destruction of the sample calls for special atten-
tion.
Large spangles having been found to increase
both the non-corrosive qualities and appearance of
galvanised iron, experimenters have been busy
devising ways that would insure a larger percentage
of large spangled sheets. By using a titanium alloy
in the manufacture of the steel employed, it is
claimed that 75 per cent, of the sheets are to be
found with the desired formation of the zinc
crystals.
Arrangements have been completed so that work
may begin at once on fatigue phenomena of metals
at the University of Illinois under the auspices of
the National Research Council and Engineering
Foundation. Metallurgists are co-operating,
especially in supplying proper samples for the testa.
The subject makes a wide appeal, and there is every
reason to expect important results. Professor
Moore is iu immediate charge.
Sugar Industry of the Philippine Islands. — In 1893
the Philippine Islands exported 260,000 tons of
sugar. As a result of the Spanish-American War
this export dropped to 63,000 tons in 1900, but has
since exhibited an upward tendency, reaching
101,000 tons in 1905. There is even good reason to
anticipate, in time, a possible annual output of at
least 1,000,000 tons; for the area of the Philippines
is double that of Java, with an annual output of
1,000,000 tons. Further, the soil is good, the
climate favourable, and labour cheap; also sugar
cane can be grown in nearly every part of the
Islands. tTp till now the industry has been so primi-
tive and the methods of manufacture so antiquated
that the yield of crude sugar has never exceeded
T25 tons of crude sugar to the acre. To-day efforts
are being made to do away with these unfavourable
conditions as far as possible, and this is to be
achieved mainly by a system of co-operation, the
formation of central mills and the production of
more centrifugal sugar, in place of the native mus-
covado and pilon sugar, the demand for which is, in
fact, slackening. The cost of producing a ton of
good centrifugal of 96° polarisation is practically
no more than the cost of making muscovado or pilon
sugar, whereas prices obtained for the former are
double those of the latter. Already many small
planters are selling their muscovado to large mills
or "centrals " for the purpose of having it con-
verted into centrifugal sugar, the -xport of which
has increased from 47,234 tons in 1917 to 64,018 tons
in 1918.— (V .S. Com. Rep., Oct. 23, 1919.)
JAPAN.
Paper from Seaweed Pulp. — H.M. Commercial
Secretary in Yokohama reports the formation of a
company with a capital of 2,000,000 yen (approx.
£200,000) to manufacture pulp from seaweed
(ajimo) and papers of all kinds. — (B<l. of Trade J.,
Dec. 4, 1919.)
Japanese Celluloid Manufacturers. — The Acting
Vice-Consul at Osaka reports that the amalgama-
tion of eight Japanese celluloid companies into the
Dai Nippon Celluloid Company with a capital of
yen 12.500.000 (£1.276,000) has' been effected. The
object is to bring about a more economical use of
the available supplies of camphor by the concentra-
tion of manufacture in the factories of four of the
companies so as to secure the advantages of keeping
both machinery and operatives working full time.
The annual production of celluloid is now
6,000,000 lb., worth £1,300,000, and is three times
the pre-war output. Three-quarters of the raw
camphor (which is a Government monopoly) pro-
duced in the Japanese Empire comes from Formosa,
where efforts are being made to increase the output.
The remaining one quarter i9 produced in Japan
itself. Owing to exports, only one quarter to one
half of the total production is available for celliloid
manufacturers. Future German competition "3
feared, as it may be possible to effect economy by
the use of artificial camphor. — (Bd. of Trade J.,
Dec. 18, 1919.)
GENERAL.
Ramsay Memorial Fund. — The Ramsay Memorial
Fund has received from Prof. H. Kamerlingh Onnes
the very substantial sum of £1571 9s. 5d., which
has been given or promised by donors in Holland.
These generous contributions are evidence of th?
sympathy felt in Holland for British science and
scientists, and the respect so widely felt in Holland
for the memory of the late Sir William Ramsay.
Among the subscriptions are : Philips Gloeslampen-
fabriek, £500 ; Fransch Hollandsche Cliefabrieken,
Delft, £300; Nederlandsche Gist and Spiritus-
Vol. XXXIX., No. 1.1
REVIEW.
fabriek, Delft, £300; Van deu Bergh's Fabrieken,
Rotterdam, £300; and Lvm and Gelantinefabriek,
Delft, £100.
The Hiding Power of Pigments. — An instrument
for whicb the name of " Cryptometer " (kpvtttu,
conceal; ^erpou, measure) has been proposed places
in the hands of the paint technologist a means
whereby the long-felt want of a simple method of
determining the hiding power of pigments can be
carried out in the laboratory without undue intro-
duction of the personal element. Hiding power
or opacity of pigments has hitherto been carried
out by finding the weight of paint necessary to pro-
duce obscuration of black lines or alternately-
placed squares on a white background by applica-
tion of successive coats of the paint under examina-
tion. Apart from its tedium, the method was at
best approximate in accuracy, mainly on account
of the difficulty of securing equal distribution of
the coating. It required, moreover, for anything
like successful application the services of a skilled
craftsman. The simplicity of the cryptometer
favours its rapid adoption in works' laboratories,
where this most important factor in the valuation
of pigments has hitherto been in many cases left
undetermined. It is to be hoped that quantitative
.valuation of white pigments in terms of opacity
by this instrument will replace the meaningless
analyses so often figuring as standards in specifi-
cations of white pigments and paints. (See also
this issue, p. 34 a). — (./. Franklin Inst., Nov., 1919.)
Proposed British Beet Sugar Industry. — The present
and prospective shortage in the supply of sugar for
home consumption, largely brought about by the
disorganisation of the industry in Germany and
Austria which formerly provided 53 per cent, of
our imported supplies, again raises into impor-
tance the possibility of establishing a home indus-
try in this essential commodity. An abortive
effort to establish a beet sugar factory at
Lavenham, in Suffolk, was originally made some
fifty years ago. The enterprise was strongly
supported by Lord Denbigh, who, some twenty
years ago, carried out experiments with a
view to proving that sugar-beet, of which farmers
knew nothing, could be grown profitably in
this country. The next step was the formation
of the National Sugar-Beet Association, strongly
supported by the Duke of Bedford and other lead-
ing agriculturists. This carried out much useful
experimental work right down to the commence-
ment of the war, an attempt being made in 1912
by means of a factory erected at Cant'ey in Nor-
folk to put the industry on a working basis. Un
fortunately the necessity of providing a substan-
tial area of suitable land for the production of
roots adjacent to and under the control of the
factory was overlooked. Production was left en-
tirely to the enterprise of the farmers, who failed
to provide the roots in quantities sufficient to
make the undertaking a success.
In 1918 the British Sugar-Beet Growers' Society,
Ltd.. formed in 1915, purchased the Kelhain
Estate, near Newark, Nottinghamshire, a portion
of which was subsequently sold to the Board of
Agriculture to be developed as a farm colony under
its Land Settlement Scheme. The remainder, some
2,800 odd acres, is worked as a large farm with thn
ultimate object of introducing sugar-beet as the
main crop as soon as a factory can be erected.
Meanwhile the land is devoted to cereals and stock,
with a small area of sugar-beet for feeding and
for seed production. The manager of the estate
is Mr. Sidney Colyer, formerly fanning assistant
to Sir Daniel Hall, and he acts under the control
and direction of a Joint Committee of the Board of
Agriculture and the Sugar-Beet Growers' Societv.
The latter has now brought the enterprise to a
point where, to establish it on a sound commercial
footing, a large outlay of capital is required.
With this object in view it is now proposed to form
a public company, and the Government contem-
plates taking up a portion of the capital. The title
of the proposed company will be " Home Grown
Sugar, Ltd.," and the nominal capital £1,000,000;
half of this will be issued, and it is proposed
that the Government will take up £250,000, and
the remainder offered to the general public. It
is believed that such a company will be in a posi-
tion to pay a remunerative price to the fanners
for their roots and to sell the sugar at a price
which, even allowing for a heavy fall in the mar-
ket, will afford a substantial interest as an indus-
trial proposition.
From a national point of view, the success of
this undertaking is greatly to be desired. Not
only does it provide an ultimate means of making
the country more self-supporting in regard to the
beet sugar supply, but it will confer great benefits
on agriculture. It may be remembered that under
the Finance Act of 1919, sugar produced in this
country will enjoy a preference over foreign im-
ported sugar of £6 4s. 5jd. per ton, and of
£1 18s. 10 fd. per ton over sugar imported from
British Dominions and Colonies. Before the war
more than 90 per ecent. of our sugar came from
foreign countries. It has already been proved
that we have the soil and the climate to produce
sugar-beet to the best advantage ; it would there-
fore appear to be only a question of enterprise on
the part of the farmers and support from the
general public to carry the project to success.
Neon. — In a recent communication to Nature,
Mr. F. W. Aston, of Cambridge University,
announced that by using a new and more powerful
method of positive-ray analysis, he has succeeded
in obtaining indisputable evidence that atmospheric
neon (atomic weight 20'200, 0 = 16) is a mixture of
two isotopes having the atomic weights 20'00 and
22'00 respectively.
Argon. — The boiling points of argon and oxygen
being different by about 4° C. only, and those of
oxygen and nitrogen by 13° C, any impurity :n
the liquid oxygen collecting at the base of an air
rectification column consists mainly of argon. The
proportion of this impurity is increased somewhat
by regulation, and the liquid is then passed into a
special column, where it is subjected to a further
rectification before being gasified to furnish the
oxygen product. The impurities are withdrawn
from the system, (1) as a gas containing 60 — 65 per
cent, argon and 1 — 4 per cent, nitrogen (the
remainder being oxygen) at the rate of 600 — 700
litres per hour, and (2) as a gas consisting of
nitrogen, with a trace of oxygen. After removing
the oxygen from the three component mixture, by
combustion with hydrogen, an argon-nitrogen
mixture is obtained containing only a small pro-
portion of nitrogen.
Within the last few years a use has been found
for argon in the electric lamp industry. It had
been thought that the most perfect vacuum was
necessary in lamps, not only to prevent oxidation
of the filament, but also to prevent heat losses by
conduction and convection. It was subsequently
found that the volatilisation of the filament was
diminished in an atmosphere of nitrogen, thus per-
mitting a higher temperature and a better lighting
efficiency, the gain in intensity of illumination far
outweighing the loss of heat. Later it was dis-
covered that argon further retarded volatilisation,
thus allowing of a still higher filament tempera-
ture. There has consequently arisen a considerable
demand for argon, and the British Oxygen Co. has
now installed at its new Wembley works a plant
for extracting argon from the air, and a second at
its new factory in Birmingham. — (Ind. Gases, Dec
1919.)
Gums, Bitumen, and Limestone in Mesopotamia. —
The small shrubs which yield gum tragaeanth grow
throughout the entire mountainous region on the
north-west frontier of Mesopotamia, and are tapped
by the Kurds, who make incisions in the roots after
first burning the leaves off the bushes. The first
tapping gives white gum of the best quality; that
from subsequent tappings is inferior and of a yellow
colour. The chief collecting centre is Suleimanaya,
whence the gum is sent to merchants in Baghdad,
who export it to foreign countries (130 tons in
1887, 39 tons in 1890). Another gum called "elk "
in Arabic is obtained as an exudation from incisions
made in the trunk of the tree (known as ''buttoni"
by the Arabs and "gykraswan" by the Kurds),
which grows, but only in the valleys, in the part
of Kurdistan now occupied by the British. Most
of this gum is exported directly from Suleimanaya
to Aleppo, where it is used for sizing cloth, and
some goes to Baghdad to be used locally for the
same purpose and in the preparation of sweets,
etc. Both gums are produced in the Mosul Vilayet,
but there is no organised trade in them in that dis-
trict, partly on account of the imperfect roads.
Almost unlimited deposits of crude bitumen and
of limestone impregnated with bitumen occur round
Hit, but the secrets of lime burning and of refining
the bitumen are jealously guarded by the local
experts, without whose co-operation nothing can
be done in the absence of scientific advice. The
possible monthly outputs of lime and of refined
bitumen are, respectively, 300 to 150 tons and 600
to 300 tons, calculated from the figures given for
the amount of the fuel "siyalla" (a highly-oxidised
bitumen) available monthly, but more of this fuel
is probably obtainable. — (Bd. of Trade J., Nov. 20,
1919.)
Agriculture in Jamaica. — The year 1918 was, on
the whole, a satisfactory one for agriculture in
Jamaica. The institution of central co-operative
sugar factories under Government guarantee, but
managed by planters, is calculated to lead to satis-
factory results. Such a system should secure equal
rights to all, a fair division of profits, and prevent
the development of large capitalistic combinations.
It is thought that with remunerative prices for
sugar, and the security afforded by Imperial prefer-
ence, bananas will give way to sugar to a greater
or less extent in areas favourable for sugar produc-
tion. The market for cacao showed some improve-
ment during the year, the exports being valued at
£154,000, as against £117,000 during 1917. With
tlir Imperial preference of 7s. per cwt. for cacao a
distinct encouragement to this product is now
afforded, and the planting of cacao by small settlers
should again be taken up with vigour. Pimento
was in fair demand, and this should increase with
the opening of the markets of Central Europe.
Ginger, which is chiefly a small man's crop in
Jamaica, bad another good vear with an export
value of £85,000, as against £70,000 in 1917 and
£30,000 before the war. Annatto, another minor
product, did very well with an output of about 450
tons, valued at £18,000. — (Bept. of Dept. of Agric,
Jamaica, 1918-19.)
"Copper Smelting in Peru. — H.M. Commercial Secre-
tary in Lima reports that a well-known American
company has decided to construct a new smelter at
Oroya at a cost "t approximately £2,000,000. The
present smelter lias five blast and four reverbera-
tory furnaces, and the additions are to include two
furnaces of cacli kind with a capacity double that
of the old. The smelting capacity will in this way
be increased from about 1,500 to 2,500 tons of ore.
The new plant is expected to be completed in two
years.— (Bd. "f Trade J., Dec. 25, 1919.)
Coal Storage in Carbon Dioxide. — A novel method of
storing coal in carbon dioxide has been adopted
recently at Dortmund, in Germany, in order to
prevent the possibility of spontaneous ignition.
The storage arrangements consist of three cylindri-
cal bunkers, with semi-spherical tops and bottoms,
each bunker holding 2,500 tons of coal. There are
three outlets in each bunker for withdrawing the
coal, and three holes in- the top for receiving it, the
lower outlets closing gas-tight. There is a slight
leakage of carbon dioxide during the withdrawal
of the coal, but this can be replenished without
difficulty.— (Gas. ./., Dec. 16, 1919.)
Comparison of German, American and English Coke-
Oven Plants. — In an article appearing in the
Zeitschrift des Yereins deutscher Iiujenieure for
Nov. 8, 1919, it is remarked that whereas American
coke-ovens are, as a rule, erected near foundries,
in Germany they are situated in the neighbour-
hood of coal mines. The American practice assures
that the blast foundry is supplied with the class
of coke desired by the owner who exercises some
supervision over the operation of the coke-ovens.
The following table gives data relative to the
respective coking installations in Germany, the
United States and England: —
At end of 1914.
At end of 1918.
Ger- United, Eug- Gor- United Eng-
many. States, land. many. States, land.
(apprx.)
(apprx.) (apprx.)
\ early through-
put of coal in
by - product
coking ovens
(million tons)
35
26-5
15
41
50
21
Kumber of by-
product coking
ovens
20.173
6.438
7,813
22.003
9.940
9.827
\ early through-
put per oven
(tons)..
1.7.'>U
4.100
1.900
1,800
5.030
2,130
It is contended that America's advantage in the
matter of cheap coke production can only be met
by imitating the American mode of installation. In
1918 by-product coking-ovens contributed 45 per
cent, to the total coke production. As only about
60 per cent, of the by-products is recovered in bee-
hive ovens, compared with 82 per cent, in the
modern by-product coking-ovens, America econo-
mised to the extent of about 13,000,000 tons of coal
in 1918 compared with previous years. — (Z. angeic.
Chem., Nov. 25, 1919.)
Outlook for Professional Chemists in Germany. — The
" Verein deutscher Chemikerinnen " (Society of
German Women Chemists), which is affiliated to the
" Verein deutscher Chemiker," has recently sanc-
tioned the publication of a cautionary notice
against the choice of chemistry as a profession
under present economic conditions. During the
next few years the absorption of present students of
chemistry, whose number is steadily increasing, will
be impossible; and the many chemists accredited
with war .service will have first call on the industry.
The sphere of work of a female chemist is very
restricted, and this, together, with hygienic and
mental considerations, leads the Society to advise
women to avoid the profession. The " Bund
angestellter Chemiker und Ingenieure " has
recently issued a hrochure dealing with the difficult
position of the industry and the danger of its
becoming overcrowded. Students are accordingly
strongly urged not to take up the study of
chemistry. The Zeitschrift der angewandte Chemie
directs attention to the false assumption that
underlies the calculations made in the publication,
namely, that the number of chemists in Germany
before the war was 15,000; this figure, it states, is
quite 50 per cent, too high. — (Z. atii/etr. Chem.,
Nov. 11, Dec. 9, 1919.)
Vol. XXXIX., No. 1.]
REVIEW.
17 B
Partition of the Austro-Hungarian Industries. — Of
the total output of pig iron of the former Aus-
trian Empire, amounting to 14,293,834 cwts., that
associated with the new Austria is 5,500,000 cwts.,
and that with Czechoslovakia 7,000,000 cwts. The
shares of Poland and Trieste amount to 1,700,000
cwte. and 300,000 cwts., respectively The iron in-
dustries of Prague, Kladno, Witkowitz and
Mahrisch-Ostran are included in the new Czech
state where large extensions are being under-
taken, e.g., by the firm of C. T. Petzold at Komo-
rau. In the new Austria, except for a number of
small firms such as the Sulzau-Werfen ironworks
at Salzburg, there are only the Alpine Montan-
gesellschaft with its works at Donawitz and two
others. The annual output of ore in Austria
amounts to 18,600.000 cwts.. while that of Czecho-
slovakia is not quite 7,000,000 cwts., therefore in
this matter the relative positions of the two States
are reversed. The ouput of the Styrian mines
formerly constituted two-thirds of the total pro-
duction of the Austrian Empire, so that in default
of being able to secure supplies elsewhere, and
this has now been the case for some time, Czecho-
slovakia will be compelled to derive its supplies
of iron ore from Austria. The ores themselves are
very pure and also contain the necessary flux in
the form of limestone.
The zinc industry is now located in the Jugo-
slav region. Zinc ores, even those mined in the
Tyrol, were formerly brought to Unterkotting
near C'illi to be smelted and the zinc production
therefrom in 1915 was 40,253 cwts. Very little
zinc occurs in the southern Slav regions, and its
smelters will therefore not be employed to the
same extent as formerly. German Austria must
therefore provide itself with a smelting industry.
The Polish region has its own zinc smelters at
Trzebinia, and also zinc sheet mills, which pro-
duced, in 1915, 54,470 cwts. of spelter and 19.672
cwts. of zinc sheets. In the old Austrian Empire.
one works only is of importance, for the produc-
tion of metallic tin, namely the works at Teplitz,
uow alloted to Bohemia. Copper) works are
located practically entirely in the new Austria.
The output of the Mitterberger Kupfexaktien-
gesellschaft of Ausserfelden (Salzburg) amounted
in 1915 to 28,965 cwts. refined copper, 20,095
cwts. electrolytic copper, and 86 cwts. of copper
sulphate The output of lead ores in the last year
of peace amounted to 257,511 cwts. of which
177,553 cwts. was obtained from Carinthia, 5,054
cuts, from the Tyrol and 71,434 from Galicia ;
75 per cent, is therefore obtainable from German
regions, the remainder from Poland. Red lead,
white lead and litharge were obtained from works
in Klagenfurt in the old Austrian Empire, and in
normal times in sufficient quantity to supply the
needs of the whole Empire. There is therefore
every prospect of the possibility of German
Austria exporting these materials. Antimony
ores, of which the output was 12,701 cwts., are
found in the Jugo-Slav region. The ores of
uranium and tungsten are mined in German
Bohemia. In the year preceding the war man-
ganese ores were mined to the extent of 165,400
of which 157,090 cwts. was obtained from
the region of Czernowitz, the remainder from Lai-
bach. Sources of bauxite in the old Empire are
confined entirely to the southern Slav region.
Czecho-Slovakia leads in the enamel industry,
possessing an output equal to 90 per cent, of the
factories of the old Austrio-Hungarian monarchy;
nine factories are located in Czecho-Slovakia, four
are in the New Austria, and three in Bohemia.
The Polish and Illyrian regions each possess one
factory. The most important enamel undertaking
on the Continent is the A.-G. Oesterreich, with
headquarters in Vienna, and whose works are
situated in German Austria and Czecho Slovakia.
With sufficient supplies of raw materials the works
in Austria will be able to meet the demands of
the State. The export of enamelled vessels which
in normal times absorbed 60 per cent, of the
enamel produced will be in the hands of Czecho-
slovakia in future. (Handels-museum, also
S chic eiz-C hem. Zeit., Sept. 24, 1919.)
Uses of Manganese Dioxide Ore. — Estimates of the
consumption of high-grade manganese dioxide ore
for other than metallurgical uses vary from 25,000
to 50,000 tons per ajinum. The ore most in demand
is the best pyrolusite, which is used chiefly in the
production of dry cells, as a dryer for paint and
varnish, and for decolorising glass.
In dry cells the function of the ore is that of a
depolariser, and for this purpose it must have a
high content of available oxygen and be free from
metals electronegative to zinc, such as copper,
nickel, cobalt, and arsenic. Of these metals copper
is by far the most objectionable, but little harm
results if the metals are present in a form insoluble
in the electrolyte employed in the cell. If present
in a form soluble in the electrolyte, however, they
are finally deposited on the zinc of the cell, thus
causing local corrosion, which is greatly intensified
when the cell is in use. Before the war Caucasian
pyrolusite containing from 80 to 85 per cent, of
Mi'O, and less than 1 per cent, of iron was used.
When this material, which was of uniform com-
position and purity, was no longer available makers
of dry cells had to utilise ore from other sources
containing 70 to 80 per cent, of Mn02 and as much
as 3 or 4 per cent, of iron. Experimental work has
indicated how material of this character can be
made to give results almost as good as those ob-
tainable with the purest Caucasian ore. The
physical condition of the ore is of considerable im-
portance in dry cell manufacture, porosity and
moderate hardness being the most desirable pro-
perties. Such an ore is preferable to a very hard
and dense material even when the latter contains a
somewhat higher content of available oxygen.
Careful sizing of the particles is also required, very
fine powder being often removed as it will hold con-
siderably less of the electrolyte than material which
has been ground only to pass a 10 or 20 mesh screen.
It is thus evident that many ores of an earthy
character, such as wad, are not suitable for use in
dry cells.
Manganese dioxide is more often used than
selenium, nickel, or cobalt for neutralising the green
tint produced by the presence of iron in glass. Pre-
war specifications usually required 80 to 85 per
cent, of Mn03 and less than 1 per cent, of iron.
Carbonaceous pyrolusite is objectionable, but the
silicious variety is permissible. Powdered ore is
usually employed where the glass is made in pots,
whilst the lump or granular variety is frequently
employed when tanks are used for the melting. The
amount of manganese dioxide added varies from 2
to 15 lb. per 1(100 lb. of sand in the batch. An
ornamental black glass has been produced by adding
about 3 per cent, of the ore to the glass mixture.
Manganese dioxide is also used in the preparation
of purple glazes and enamels.
Manganese dioxide, either natural or artificial.
is extensively used as a " drver " for linseed and
other oils. The quantity added rarely exceeds 0'5
per cent., but it is stated that even this amount
tends to darken the oil; this objection, however,
does not hold in the case of certain salts of man-
ganese, such as sulphate, borate, oxalate, resinate,
and linoleate, which are also largely used.
Manganese dioxide also finds application in the
preparation of the chloride, used in dyeing cotton
cloth brown, and in the production of potassium
permanganate. — (United States Bureau of Mines
Min. Invest. Series No. 16.)
REVIEW.
PARLIAMENTARY NEWS.
HOUSE OF COMMONS.
Import Restrictions.
Sir A. Geddes, replying to Sir D. Maclean, said
that, in view of the Sankey judgment (this J., 1919,
181b), the Customs have been instructed, pending
reversal on appeal or legislative action, to allow the
importation of all articles affected thereby. Early
next Session the Government will press forward
legislation for the purpose of reimposing restric-
tions of the limited scope indicated in the Imports
and Exports Regulation Bill. At present the
Government is not in a position to restrict im-
portation from countries affected by a collapse in
exchange. — (Dec. 18.)
In reply to Mr. Hogge, Mr. Bonar Law stated
that the Government had not decided to abandon
the above-mentioned Bill.— (Dec. 22.)
Cement.
In answer to Mr. J. Davidson, Mr. Bridgeman
said he understood that prohibitions on the export
of cement are in force both in Germany and in Den-
mark. However, there are ample supplies available
in this country, and there should be no necessity to
import it. — (Dec. 18.)
Oil Fuel Locomotives.
Mr. Neal. replying for the Minister of Transport,
informed Major 6. Palmer that the railway com-
panies are considering the question of the use of
liquid fuel in place of coal. Liquid fuel was used
successfully by one company from 1886 — 1906, when
its use was abandoned on account of the price.
There is no doubt that some of the railways will
commence using it again as soon as it is economical
to do so.— (Dec. 18.)
Cardiijnii Metal il/;»es.
Replying to Mr. AY. Thome, Mr. Bridgeman con-
firmed the statement that during the last 100 years
over 260 metalliferous mines have been operated in
Cardigan, 194 lead mines in Derbyshire, and 259
mines extracting tin, lead, copper, and zinc ores in
Cornwall. At the present time there are working
4 mines in Cardigan, 2 in Derbyshire, and about 50
in Cornwall. The decline in the industry is now
the subject of investigation by u Departmental
Committee.— (Dec. 19.)
Dyes.
Asked by Mr. Sugden as to the facilities for
obtaining certain essential dyes which have not
been manufactured in this country7, and if he would
expedite their delivery, Sir A. Geddes said that
arrangements have been made for obtaining sup-
plies from Germany in advance of the formal rati-
fication of the Treaty. About 350 tons have
actually arrived, and further quantities are in
transit.— (Dec. 22.)
fertilisers.
Questioned bj Lieut.-Col. Sir N. Griffiths as to
the Government's intentions with regard to the de-
control of fertilisers, Sir A. Boacawen explained
thai apart from the imposition of maximum prices
for basic slag and sulphate of ammonia, and certain
arrangements made (also in the case of superphos-
phates) in connexion with their production and
distribution in home markets, these fertilisers are
now free from control. Control of the exportation
ol fertilisers is still necessary in order to safeguard
supplies For home consumption, but licenses there-
for arc Freelj granted, and it is hoped to discon-
tinue this control as soon as practicable. — (Dec. 22.)
Palm Kernels.
Sir H. Craik asked the Minister of Food if he
would consider the advisability of removing the pro-
hibition on the export of palm kernels imported
from British Possessions in view of the fact that
Brazilian babassu kernels and shea nuts were im-
ported without restrictions.
Mr. Roberts replied that the Brazilian materials
were imported only in small quantities and were not
yet staple raw materials for margarine manu-
facture. Tho re-export of West African palm ker-
nels would not only tend to congest the ports still
further, but would take up British shipping re-
quired for other purposes. — (Dec. 22.)
Storage of Petrol.
The Home Secretary, in reply to Viscount
Curzon, said he was advised that bulk storage of
petrol in underground tanks was by far the safest,
most convenient, and most economical method, and
that it should be encouraged. He believed it was
the policy of his Department to increase the amount
of storage in this country for oil fuel of all kinds.
—(Dec. 23.)
Industrial Courts Act, 1919.
A Bill introduced by the Minister of Labour to
promote arbitration or conciliation in industrial
disputes, and to maintain wages at the war stan-
dard until September next, received the Royal
Assent on November 20 last. The measure places
on a permanent basis the Interim Court of Arbitra-
tion which was instituted in January last, and
which had before it some 853 cases, all of which,
except three, were settled without a strike. Under
the new Act a dispute in any trade may be referred
by the Minister of Labour to a Court of Arbitration
or a Court of Inquiry, but only with the consent of
the parties concerned. The decisions of a Court
are not legally binding.
Trade Marks Act, 1919.
The Trade Marks Bill received the Royal Assent
on December 17 last, after the amendments made
by the House of Lords had been agreed to. These
amendments included one to Clause 2, making it
clear that the Registrar is not compelled to insti-
ture a search before accepting a mark intended for
Register B ; and in Clause 6 the following words
were added : "No word which is the only prac-
ticable name or description of any single chemical
element or single chemical compound, as distin-
guished from a mixture, shall be registered as a
trade mark." A new clause concerning the regis-
tration of assignments was introduced in place of
Clause 11. The Act will come into operation on
April 1, 1920.
Electricity (Supply) Act, 1919.
After drastic alterations in the House of Lords,
the Electricity Bill was passed by the House of
Commons and received the Royal Assent on Decem-
ber 2.3. The alterations comprised the deletion of the
proposal to institute district boards empowered to
provide electrical power and to acquire existing
generating stations and main transmission lines
within their areas. Electricity Commissioners are,
however, to be appointed, and these will have power
to veto proposals for extending existing generating
stations, and in the event of an adequate scheme
not being forthcoming, they may formulate, and,
if necessary, enforce a scheme of their own. Power
is given to them to incur a total expenditure of
£20,000.000 in the construction of necessary
generating stations. The Government has an-
nounced its intention to re-introduce the proposals
concerning district boards at an early date.
Vol. XXXIX., No. 1]
REVIEW.
The Patents and Desiyns Bill.
On December 17, the Solicitor-General moved the
Lords' amendments, the more important of which
are: (1) In Clause 1, dealing with provisions for
the prevention of abuse of monopoly rights and in
Clause 2 dealing with "Licences of Right," a
licensee is entitled to institute proceedings for in-
fringement in certain circumstances and to make
the patentee a defendant; the amendment provides
that a patentee thus made a defendant shall not
be liable for any costs unless he enters an appear-
ance and takes part in the proceedings. (2) Clause
7 of the Bill provides that when considering a
petition for the extension of the terra of a patent
the Court may taKe into account any loss or damage
occasioned to the patentee »by hostilities between
His Majesty and any foreign State, except in cases
where the patentee is the subject of any such
foreign State ; the amendment considerably
broadens this provision by including under the term
damage, loss of opportunity of dealing in or deve-
loping the invention owing to engagement in work
of national importance connected with such hostili-
ties; furthermore, the application for extension,
when hostilities form the basis thereof, may be
made by originating summons instead of by peti-
tion, thus avoiding certain costs. (3) Clause 8 of
the Bill is eliminated by the amendment, that sub-
stituted differing mainly in that when a Govern-
ment Department has used an invention and the
Court, or arbitrator instructed by the Court, con-
siders what compensation is due to the patentee, it
or he shall have regard to any compensation which
may have been already granted by Mr. Justice Sar-
gant's Commission at present sitting, and as a
corollary the Clause is not to come into force until
that Commission has completed its work. (4)
Clause 16 of the Bill deals with registration of
assignments, etc. ; the amendment is a re-drafting
of the clause by Lord Moulton, the chief change in
substance being a proviso that notwithstanding
entries in the Register of Patents, any equities in
respect of a patent-may be enforced in like manner
as in respect of any other personal property. (5)
Under the heading Minor Amendments of the Prin-
cipal Act is one that excepts the reading of a paper
by the inventor before a learned society or the pub-
lication of the paper in the society's transactions,
from among the publications which will invalidate
a patent granted to the inventor subsequently to
such publication.
The various amendments were adopted. With
certain exceptions, the provisions of the Act came
into operation on December 23 last.
LEGAL INTELLIGENCE.
GOVERNMENT ORDERS AND NOTICES.
PROHIBITED EXPORTS.
The Board of Trade (Licensing Section) has
removed, as from December 24, 1919, the following
articles from List A and /or B of Prohibited
Exports: — Cotton seed; feeding stuffs containing
molasses; soya beans; patent and proprietary cattle
foods of all kinds ; all cakes and meals which may
be used for forage or food for animals, with the
exception of cottonseed cake and meal, linseed cake
and meal, maize germ meal, maize meal and flour,
husk meal, all of which are to remain on List A.
The heading " Coal Tar, all products obtainable
from and derivatives thereof, etc.," on List A, has
been deleted and the following substituted:
(A) Coal tar, all products obtainable therefrom
and derivatives thereof, whether actually so
obtained or derived from other sources (including
all mixtures and preparations containing such
products and derivatives), suitable for use in the
manufacture of dyes or explosives.
Claim fob Damage to Glucose in Transit. Rey-
nolds and Sellers v. Great Eastern Railway Co.
In the King's Bench Division, on December 16,
Lord Justice Bankes disposed of an action brought
by Messrs. Reynolds and Sellers, of Mincing Lane,
London, against the Great Eastern Railway Com-
pany, as carriers, to recover £502 in respect of
damage to a number of bags of glucose chips in
course of transit from Norwich to London.
The case for the plaintiffs was that Messrs. A. J.
Caley and Son, Ltd., glucose manufacturers, of
Norwich, had handed the goods to the railway
company in a perfectly dry condition, but that upon
delivery at Wapping 85 of the 200 bags were damp
and torn, and the contents damaged by moisture.
The defence contended that the goods when handed
over at Norwich were in a damp condition, and that
even if they were not, the railway company was
excused because there was " an inherent vice " or
tendency in glucose chips to abscrb moisture from
the atmosphere, and that occurred on this occasion.
Scientific evidence was given on both sides as to
the effect on glucose of exposure to the atmosphere.
Lord Justice Bankes, in giving judgment, said
that it was possible that damage could be caused
by exposure to the natural atmosphere, but he was
satisfied that such exposure had not occurred when
the goods in question were under the charge of the
railway company. The action was accordingly dis-
missed with costs.
Corrosion of Ship's Plates by Dissolved Copper
Sulphate.
In the Admiralty Court, on December 19, Mr.
Justice Hill gave judgment in an action brought
by the owners of a mixed cargo of copper sulphate
in bags and cotton yarn, on board the small steam-
ship " Yorkshire," built in 1893. They claimed
damages for alleged breach of contract owing to
the unseaworthiness of the ship. The defence of the
shipowners was " perils of the sea."
Iii the course of his judgment Mr. Justice Hill
said that the ease turned upon the question of the
seaworthiness of the ship. The plaintiffs said that
owing to the failure of a lead pipe and to a defec-
tive storm valve in the ship's side, sea water entered
the hold and, dissolving the copper sulphate, pro-
duced a highly-corrosive acid solution which
damaged the cargo ; also that the acid attacked
and ate through some of the bottom plates which
were already thin and corroded before the voyage
was undertaken. The defendants contended that
the pipe was sound, but had cracked owing to stormy
weather, and that the valve was reasonably fit for
its purpose ; also that the bottom plates were sound,
and that the corrosion was due entirely to the acid
and wholly caused during the voyage.
His Lordship thought that the lead pipe pro-
bably became cracked on the preceding voyage, but
the matter was left in doubt, and the onus was
on the plaintiffs. The crack was the initial cause
of the damage, and the latter was greatly aggra-
vated by the invasion of water through holes in
the bottom plating. The cause of the holes was the
acid produced by the solution of the copper sul-
phate. There was most conflicting expert evidence
as to the time it would take for such a solution to
corrode the plate. Looking at the evidence as a
whole, he drew the conclusion that in this case
the acid had acted with unusual rapidity, but he
could not say that the plates must have been so
unsound before the acid reached them as to make
the ship unseaworthy. The onus being on the
plaintiffs, he was unable to find that there was
evidence either that this ship was unfit for the
KKVIEW.
.. ;;., g ,' |,;,.| ;, . . :,l<<:,,"l 01 ttttduA
that it bod bottom |
■
II- held that tli': defence ol " p' rils
ded, and then n
COMPANY NEWS.
i-i,.., i.i OH | ORPOBATION, LTD,
i ;,, annual matting wa hi Id in Mam hi I
I*, ,, ,,,i,. i i ■ I., i Mi K Lloyd P< - e, who
,,,, ,,i,,i ,. i, rn 'I !■■ thi fai I that tht profit
available froin thi | '" ""'
,,i II,. company 1 he nel profit for the
v,.i,i ended Bi pU mix - 30 ' 8,662 ap at
HI and it wh propo "I to carry forward
t :■!,' id ' el u I.i. h two yei ■ profits
i ,. i ibli (I ft] I 6800,000 i Dunns
i.i,,, piuii (Jnom i.i sai the i ompany had ra umed
Its ,,i.,i iii. i. mi;. i in. ing i'ir Inei s, but the pro
i i goni ral ongim i i ing woi I to pow< r-gas
.I., than in I ha pa il The po iii ion
i,, i the latter type ol work la atill unfavourable
(.mi iiv iih ing I" 1 1>" vi-i ,v high • o i "i i i 'i
1 1 1 in i hi . mil |..n ! I I" i I in selling prioe ol
I) , | lui i h - uoi kepi pace a ith i be coat of
,,, ii, , i.iin mill labour, There has been a oon
mili'i mIiI.' dnvalo] Hi, in the manufacture <>i small
gai plants foi pj odui inn ga I mfaol urine
and I'"" m pui i"i ii ■ K 'ii ii." condil ions, u bii a
..I., unfavourable in large under'takings, are
favourable in the adoption by smaller Industrial
it... i i ..i ii.ii ti 'I plants involving only a
I., iii . ipitol outlay, The ohlof reason for this
Ilea in il.,- great Increase In the oosd oi town gas
..mi ol fuel !'iii<i.iii\ 'riii, most suitable fuel for
inn ii mall plants Is i okc oi n n i liraoito, ol whii b
ii.. i. ii.iiii.i be mi abundant supply. Mr, Pease
then reviewed the poll 03 ol orool oentral oleotrio
" mipei utiil 1 ." hi. 1 1 ho relal ive merits ol gas
inn! elei 1 • 1. Mm mil data which Indicated
1 1. 1 1 a In 11 in" 11 gai and 1 ol e or on1 hraoite oan be
"iiiii 1. boat from gaa will cost about one-third,
and powoi in. in nil,., iili.mi throe quarters, oi the
■ ' 1 hi 1 11 1 1 1. 1 1 servi ces from a oentral power station,
SCOTTISH oils, LTD,
Hif 1 'inn lea 1 h . .ii« m . in 1 > ■ eaiding at the
1 »»■} ' Ling ni this oompanj in London, on
DeueinUu !10, reviewed the objoots of and the
■ in urn -iiiiii. .■ 'i attending the formation of the
■ ump 1113 (tlti 1 11)10, I •' n, l(M n) The offer of
the tnglc P 11 «'ii Oo had been aooepted bj
'"' i" 1 "''.I ni the ordinal ) sh ireholders ol tha
;; Ii hale ml . ompanies, and the reoi |
ii.'ii "i the in. in .1 ' » ..ii more up to dato lit* 1 i
'" "'- 1 >edod with Th Inl sale and distribu
Mon "i ii"' I'l'.iiii. 1 ..I the Scottish industry, and
ah he imported product* is now In the bands
"' ••" "H sytian, the Boottish Oil \ - \
I Limited) iii.- proapei tta ol tho Scottish
• Willi '"" "' "I with the termination ol
luwlilliMt! i, "« Ing lo iii.' i.''iu, Uona in the pi ii os
"i Impoi ted oils, to whii h the SeotU&h products
had Ui .'.'in. 'i in. and i" the ini n ol pro
•lii'i'"". due liii''.-l\ to the 8«nk»3 rVwni-d The
13 Mi Id&mson in the House
ol i ".I. in. ..!■. (this J . I'M". I80i0 that the
"i"1"-' le in.lu-iiv had not received the
pei dw under this award «
Mrel,\ in.... 1,', ■■! , tin-, advance had entailed an addi
burden ,.n id,, in.lu-.'.M ,.( about t 1900 000
pei annum The addition at 6s pea ton to the
r ■: Involved n fur the
1 iHK' per annum, m«,l then tlu-
industry became hopelessly unprofitable. That
v.:m the position when the shale oil workers put
forward their claim to a reduction in the hours of
labour. The oil companies were compelled to re-
im, which would have meant an addi-
tional CO t ol about £'200,000 per annum. After a
abort period of closing down the Board of the new
company was able to arrive at a temporary ar-
ment with the representative of the workers.
whereby the industry is still kept going, although
not yet ait full capacity. The position of the Board
11 the V li'.nr day can be adopted without
sacrificing a reasonable return on the invested
al, it will be conceded.
ENGLISH OILFIELDS, LTD.
The annual meeting was held in London on
December 80, l!)l!l. After a short address by the
chairman, Sir .lames Heath, Bart., who stated that
II. Al. Petroleum Executive had agreed to give the
company an exclusive licence to bore for liquid
petroleum over a very extensive area,Dr.\V.Forbe9-
Le In , managing director, dealt at length with the
recent activities of the company in regard to rail-
way construction, equipment, brickyards, drilling
operations and the character of the geological
strata encountered on the property in Norfolk.
Inter alia, a contract has been given for a by-
1 1'" 1. plant ea|)ablo of dealing with 20 million
cub. II. of gas per 24 hours, with power to extend
up to .'ill million, An 11 ft. seam of shale has been
Ml rink containing a heart of torbanite material
which yields on analysis 85 — 95 galls, of oil per day.
The productive shale measures have been practic-
ally proved to be of greater thickness than 500 ft.,
ami distinct evidence of the occurrence of liquid
".I baa been obtained. Deep-drilling operations
have il i.hi In nil the existence of a mineral formation
hitherto quite unknown in England, which, as it
contains valuable metals and mineral substances,
may prove I" be of industrial importance.
Dr. E, Burnet, chemical adviser to the company,
Baid that the Norfolk shales wore very rich in
volatile mailer. Whereas the average amount of
oil produced from Scottish oils was about 23 galls,
per ton, that of the Norfolk seams was approxi-
mately till galls. Owing to the high organic content
ol the latter il was not found, as in Scotland, that
the yield of ammonia varied inversely with the
3 "lil of oil. As much as 60 — 70 lb. of ammonium
sulphate had been recovered from Norfolk shale,
and the Spent material from the retort should
prove \ei\ valuable for making Cortland cement.
The breaking strain of a specimen of such cement
u.is found to be 6281 U>. per sq. inch (the standard
being 160), and a cement containing 75 per cent.
Of sand gave a breaking strain of ;i7;?} lb., or 86 per
cent, above the norma] .standard. The question
of devising a suitable retort for distilling Norfolk
shale bad been under investigation, and the speaker
hoped to be in a position shortly to publish the
details oi such R retort. Norfolk crude oil has a
reddish-brown colour and a garlic odour; its
specific gravity is 0*998, and on fractional distilla-
tion yields 10 80 per cent, of gasoline and 40 — 50
kerosene, leaving a residue of about
10 per cent, boiling above 870° O. On distilling
this residue up to 800° C, there is left a bitumin-
ous material oi sp. gr. 1170. m. pt. 88° C, of which
nearly 90 per cent, is soluble in carbon bisulphide:
I his should be of great value as a binder in road-
inakiiu'.. The average refining loss for Norfolk
shale oil is estimated to be about 85 per cent
lit c lo more.
MAJ' Qi ing S MBS shareholders
of i he IVnv. Got • been officially
i thai, subi,, Ooi
■'.: has been arrived at with the Peruvian
Vol. XXXIX., So. 1.]
REVIEW.
Government whereby the Corporation redes the
right to the Government to extract and export
762,872 tons of guano still due to it in return for
payment of £3,501,488.
BWANA M'KUBWA COPPER MIXING
CO., LTD.
At the ordinary general meeting, held in London,
on December 20, the chairman, Mr. R. Littlejohn,
stated that the results of the trial treatment of
the company's ore (in Rhodesia) by the Minerals
Separation Company's process had so far been
highly satisfactory. The results for 51 days' run
were: — Tons of ore treated, 3,676; assay value,
5'3 per cent, copper; concentrates produced, 544
tons ; value, 26'2 per cent, copper ; recovery of
copper contents of the ore, 78'1 per cent. ; value
of tailings, 1'46 per cent, copper. The trial test
operations are being continued. The capacity of
the plant is 100 tons of ore per day.
Amalgamations. — British Glass Industries, Ltd.,
has entered into a contract to acquire a controlling
interest in a number of firms manufacturing glass,
including lamp-blown glass for scientific purposes.
The Castner-Eellner Alkali Co., Ltd., has re-
ceived an offer from Messrs. B runner, Mond and
Co. to purchase not less than 75 per cent, of the
shares not already held by them, the payment to
be made in ordinary shares of the latter company
in the proportion of two shares for one Castner-
Kellner share.
OFFICIAL TRADE INTELLIGENCE.
(From the Board of Trade Journal for
December 25, 1919, and January 1, 1920.)
OPENINGS FOR BRITISH TRADE.
The following inquiries have been received at the
Department of Overseas Trade (Development and
Intelligence), 35, Old Queen Street, 'Westminster,
S.W. 1, from firms, agents or individuals who desire
to represent U.K. manufacturers or exporters of
the goods specified. British firms may obtain the
names and addresses of the persons or firms referred
to by applying to the department mentioned and
quoting the specific reference number.
Locality of
Materials.
Reference
Ann or agent.
number.
Australia ..
Galvanised iron sheets
'363 2,12
British India
Alcoholic beverages, preserved
food
1
Briti=b Wes* Indies
Alcoholic beverages, mineral
Rubber
4
Canada
E'ectrical porcelainware
Glue
X
B^'eium . .
1279
Italy
Resistance wire for electric
lamps china insulators
12
Chemical*, meta's
13
Switzerland
Tlides. skins, tinning materials.
oil-s^eds, laul, tallow, edlb'e
oil3, minora1 oils »ss*ntial
nils paraffin wax, rubber ..
1890
Cl-'ina elass cmckcrv
Palestine . .
W:ndow glass lamp passes, china
1™1
MnrfHVO
V'-fumerv Inks
i?Q ;
Til itxl States
Oils greases
12"--
Peru .. .. Oils, greases, u
• Official Secretary, Commercial Information Bureau, Australia
House. Strand, W.C.2.
} Canadian Government Trade Commissioner, 73. Basinghall
Street, E.C. 2.
Markets Sought. — A firm with head office at
Novorossisk. South Russia, and branches in the
Near East desires to get into touch with U.K. im-
porters of old rubber overshoes, benzine from Gor-
maia, pnd potash for soap manufacture. These
commodities are now readv for export at Novo-
russisk. [1288].
TARIFF. CUSTOMS. EXCISE.
Australia. — A proclamation, dated October 15,
I919j prohibits the import of food containers the
inner surfaces of which (a) consist wholly or in
part of lead or zinc, or (b) consist of any metal alloy
containing more than 10 per cent, of lead or zinc,
or (c) are tinned with a metal alloy containing
more than 1 per cent, of lead, or (d) contain enamel
or glaze or indiarubber or guttapercha which yields
lead on boiling with vinegar, or (e) contain more
than i of a grain of arsenic per lb. of alloy enamel
or glaze.
Brazil. — The proposed revision of the customs
tariff affecting paper, stones, earths, minerals,
china, glassware and certain metals may be seen at
the Department, 73, Basinghall Street, E.C. 2.
British Guiana. — An approved form of certificate
of origin for goods entitled to admission under the
preferential rate of customs duty is given in the
issue for December 25.
France. — A new tax of 5 centimes per unit has
been levied " for the development of foreign trade "
on all articles subject to the statistical tax as from
August 25 last. The tax does not apply to goods
in transit through France.
Germany. — The decree relating to the payment
of duties in gold is temporarily suspended.
Netherlands. — Export prohibitions have been
temporarily raised from, inter alia, magnesia,
hides, tanning materials, gums, matches, paper,
fusel oil, iron and steel scrap, peat, tin-foil, " Haar-
lem oil," black lead, aloxite, alundum, emery,
carborundum, and malt.
Portugal. — The full text of the decree for the
control of exports and imports is set out in the
issue for January 1. The provisions of the decree
entitle the Government to double the present
import duties and surtaxes on all articles in the
schedule annexed to the Decree No. 5612 of 1919.
South Itussia. — The revised list of goods which
may be imported free of Customs duty includes
malt, starch, vinegar, manure, animal fats and oils,
hides and skins, copra, medicinal plants, stone,
asbestos, acid-proof stoneware, raw rubber, Stass-
furt salts, sulphur, antimony, boric acid, borax,
ammoniacal preparations, saltpetre, soda, pot-nh,
chloride of lime, certain acids and chemicals,
medicinal and pharmaceutical preparations, phos-
phorus, ether, chloral, chloroform, opium, vegetable
oils, glycerin, tanning materials, dyes, certain
pigments, some metals, ore3 and alloys, vegetable
fibres and margarine.
Spain. — The decree for the control of the manu-
facture and sale of pharmaceutical specialities may
be seen at the Department, 73, Basinghall Street.
TRADE NOTES.
BRITISH.
Forthcoming Industrial Fairs. — United Kingdom . —
The British Industries Fair, 1920, organised by the
Board of Trade, will be held simultaneously in
London, Birmingham, and Glasgow from February
23 to March 5. At the London fair (Director, 10,
Basinghall Street, E.C. 2), to be held at the Crystal
Palace, the exhibits will include glassware of all
kinds, china and earthenware, scientific instru-
ments, photographic appliances and requisites,
drugs and druggists' sundries. There are 2J
million cubic feet of stands, and the exhibition will
be the largest ever held in this country. The Bir-
KEVlEWi
[Jan. 15, 1920.
miiigham fair (Secretary, The Chamber of Com-
merce, 95, New Street) will include exhibits of
paints, colours, varnishes, and painters' requisites,
tubes in copper, lead, brass, and steel, pipe fittings,
etc. The Corporation of the City of Glasgow
(General Manager, Kelvin Hall of Industry, Glas-
gow) will show, amongst other goods, chemicals
(light and heavy), and domestic chemical products.
Bale. — It has been arranged to hold the fourth
annual sample fair from April 15 to 29 next.
Bandoeng. — An industrial fair, under private
auspices, will be opened at Bandoeng, Netherland
East Indies, on May 20, 1920, and will last for two
or more weeks. Among the eight groups of articles
is " Chemicals and Nursery Appliances."
Barcelona. — From April 2 to 12, inclusive, an in-
ternational business organisation exhibition will be
held in the Palaccio de Bellas Artes, and will be con-
tinued annually. The Barcelona international fair
will be held From May 15 to 30.
Bordeaux. — The period fixed for the fourth
annual trade fair is June 5 to 20.
Brazil. — The British Chamber of Commerce at
Sao Paulo has organised a series of British industry
fairs in order to stimulate the importation of
British manufactures into Brazil. The fairs will be
open until February 28, 1920.
Brussels. — The municipality of Brussels has
organised an international commercial fair, to be
held in that city from April 4 to 21 next. The ex-
hibits will comprise chemical industry and products,
pharmaceutical products and drugs, leather,
ceramics, glassware, metals, and photography.
'Executive Committee, Grand Place 19, Brussels.)
Johannesburrj. — The annual mining exhibition,
liold by the Chemical, Metallurgical and Mining
Society of South Africa, will be held at the School
of Mines, Johannesburg, from January 21 to 31.
Leipsic. — This fair is in future to be held in two
sections — the general sample fair from February 29
to March 6, and the technical fair from March 14
to 20, 1920. The former will include exhibits of
glass and ceramics, metal goods of all kinds, goods
of leather, rubber, cork, and celluloid, soaps and
perfumes, chemical-pharmaceutical wares, optical
goods, etc. At the technical fair will be shown
machinery, tools, and apparatus of all kinds, fac-
tory equipment, safety appliances, measuring in-
struments, balances and weights, optical instru-
ments, chemical plant, etc. Thus chemical in-
dustry will be represented in both sections, the
general idea being that materials required for the
household shall be shown at the general fair, and
those which supply technical needs, at the technical
fair. Associated with both fairs will be an exhibi-
tion of raw materials and semi-manufactured
goods.
Lyons— The international (spring) fair will be
held from March 1 to 15. (British agent: A
Rousset, 69, Wood Street, E.C. 2.)
Milan.— The 1920 international fair will be open
from April 1 to 15. Only Allied and Neutral exhibits
will be shown. There is said to he a good market
tmcals in Italy. It is proposed to hold the
tair twice yearly, in the spring and autumn.
Port*.— An exhibition of samples is to he housed
permanently in the Musee Commercial Universal in
Paris, where space has been allotted for 1200 ex-
hibits. Branches are to be established in Italy
Spain, Belgium, Switzerland, Poland, and the Far
East.
Sweden.— FailB are to be held this year in
Suudsvall and Malmo. A new organisation is
planning a fair to be held irt 1921 and thereafter in
Gothenburg.
• Vtref^ir~V^ fo"rth annual national industries
t;nr will be held from February 23 to March 6
I Secretariat, Jaabans, Administratiege-
baw, \ redenburg, Utrecht.)
FOREIGN.
United States Foreign Trade in Glycerin. — The trade
of the United States in glycerin has been com-
pletely revolutionised by the war. Annual imports
ranging from 10,000 to 20,000 short tons prior to
1914, dwindled to 500 tons in 1919, when not only
was sufficient glycerin produced for home consump-
tion but 10,500 tons in 1918 and 6,500 tons in
1919 were exported. No accurate data are avail-
able concerning the production of glycerin in the
United States since the census taken in 1915. but
the estimated output in 1917 was 35,000 tons, crude.
The world's total output before the war was 40,000
tons. Figures representing imports of glycerin
into the United States have been separately
enumerated since 1884. The record quantity of
glycerin imported was 20,590 tons in 1910. In the
following table the total annual imports for a
number of years are given in tons, together with
the average price per pound : —
Fiscal year ending
Short tons.
Average price
June 30.
per lb.
a. d.
1884
2,910
0 5}
1894
4.160
0 3
1904
15.539
0 4
1914
18.205
0 6
1915
8.810
0 6
1916
5.310
0 10
1917
2,061
1 3i
1918
937
1 9*
1919
5S5
1 3}
The United Kingdom and France were the lead-
ing suppliers of glycerin up to 1916, when exporta-
tion ceased, to be resumed in 1919, when the former
exported 51 tons. The following table gives tho
exports of glycerin from the countries named to the
United States, expressed in percentages of the total
imports of glycerin for the year: —
1'iscal Austria- Bel- France. Ger- Italy. Nether-
years Hun- gium. many. lands.
ending gary.
Spain.
United
King-
dom.
1884
1-6
10
60-6
21-5
IS
1-7
_
10-9
1894
01
120
561
2-6
9-2
0-6
15-7
1-9
1904
OS
4-4
461
1-8
5-7
5-6
4-3
24-5
1914
0-7
7-3
30-8
5-2
2-4
7-0
•0
29 0
1915
0-7
2-9
22-5
0-3
0-9
4-5
0-9
44-7
1916
~
~
16-5
~
8-7
240
81
Glycerin made in the United States was exported
to 54 countries during the fiscal year 1918 (the first
year for which it was separately shown in the export
schedule), 91 per cent, of it going to Europe. Of
the total 10,073 short tons exported to Allied
countries, 9,443 tons went to Italy, 718 tons to
Canada, 104 tons to England, 50 tons to France and
40 tons to Japan. The following table shows the
amount and destination of glycerin exported during
the year ended June 30, 1919 : —
1919.
Destination. Tons (short). Per cent, of total
exported.
United Kindgom . . 3.420 52-5
Japan 1,258 19-8
Italy 857 13-2
Canada .. .. .. 511 7-8
Norway 131 2-0
Argentina .... 72 i-i
Cuba 44 0-67
China 33 0-55
British India .... 21 0-33
Total to all countries, 6.509 tons, valued at $0,833,432.
There was a striking decline in the export trade
during the last six months of the fiscal year as com-
pared with the first half, viz., 1,350 tons, against
5,159 tons.— (U.S. Com. Sep., Nov. 10, 1919.)
Vol. XXXIX., No. 1]
REVIEW.
REVIEWS.
The Profession of Chemistry. By Richard B.
Pilcheb. Pp. xi. + 199. (London: Constable
and Co., Ltd., 1919.) Price 6s. 6d. net.
Although intended by the author to provide box-
room chemists, their parents and schoolmasters
with information regarding the profession it is
their ambition to enter, this book will be read with
very considerable interest by chemists themselves.
The latter will probably be astonished to find that
there is so much to say, but they will agree that
nobody is better qualified to say it than Mr. Pileher,
whose long and loyal service to the Institute of
Chemistry commands the gratitude and admiration
of the whole profession.
The opening chapter, on Preliminary Education,
automatically leads to the inevitable comparison
between classics and science as instruments for
cultivating the mind, and the author crystallises
our creed in the following words: "The demand
for more science in general education was not neces-
sarily associated with the idea of neglecting classi-
cal study and literature, but was made in order to
secure that all classes of the community should be
given the opportunity of knowing sufficient of the
fundamental principles of mechanics, physics,
chemistry and biology to enable them to appreciate
their value in the affairs of everyday life." It is
this opportunity of a balanced education which has
been denied us in the past by our classicists who,
in accusing us of " too early specialisation," ignore
the fact that it is they themselves who have hitherto
specialised most unblushingly. It is probable that,
in consequence of this, not one per cent, of parents
travelling on the Underground each day could give
their sons a coherent sketch of the energy trans-
formations involved. Fewer still, although we are
all engaged from breakfast to bed-time in organic
chemical operations of the greatest subtlety, have
the slightest conception of the food-materials which
they assimilate. It- is the yawning gaps in our
understanding of everyday life typified by these
examples, acting on minds eager for distraction,
which stimulate the demand for ephemeral litera-
ture : how much happier and better the world would
be if only schoolmasters realised how little nature-
study need be given to enable boys and girls to
prefer, for instance, those delightful essays com-
prised in " Science from an Easy Chair " to
" Snappy Snips."
Basing his hopes upon an interesting historical
discussion of the words chemist, druggist, apothe-
cary and pharmacist, the author looks forward with
patience and moderation to the day when en-
lightened public opinion will remove the present
absurd anomaly from our commercial nomenclature,
a misfortune which has exerted incalculable influ-
ence in retarding the appreciation of chemistry in
Great Britain. Pharmaceutical practice represents
a communal factor much too necessary and honour-
able to require the supposed assistance of a mis-
nomer, and a pharmacist cannot be a better phar-
macist for calling himself a " cash chemist." There
is at least one pharmacist in London who describes
himself as a " continental chemist " ; probably his
claim to continentality is more easily imagined than
Btatl •!.
Tin' chapter on Professional Training is a com-
prehensive guide to the various institutions at
which the study of chemistry may be pursued, and
should prove extremely valuable to the afore-
mentioned parents and schoolmasters, who will also
scrutinise with some anxiety the Prospects and
Conditions of Practice. Becher's description of
chemists as "a strange class of mortals impelled
by an almost insane impulse to take their pleasure
among smoke and vapour, soot and flame, poison
and poverty," is not entirely out of date. Hitherto
there has been one singular resemblance between
Holy Orders and the practice of chemistry— the
practitioner is supposed to receive part payment
from his temperamental delight in the subject itself.
Whilst there may be ethical objection to substantial
fees lor spiritual guidance, there is no similar
obstacle to the due recognition of chemical advice,
and it is deplorable that this is still incompleted
appreciated because the responsibilitv of the chem-
ist is not realised. On this point the' author makes
the following appropriate observation : " The public
analyst who makes a mistake suffers in prestige. In
the law, judges may frequently express the opinion
that the litigants have been badly advised; for
instance, that a case should not have come into
court. This is a matter between solicitor and
client. In medicine, eminent physicians may make
a faulty diagnosis, and scarcely anyone hears of it.
In architecture mistakes can often be rectified
before the building is completed. The public
analyst, however, whose practice as such consists
largely of investigations bringing usually but a. small
return, is answerable as a public official, and his
reputation is at stake on any lapse from accuracv,
though it may be the result of an accident — for
instance, through a confusion of samples, or lack
of uniformity of a sample unevenly mixed."
The book includes a long and admirable chapter
on Industrial Chemistry, and a shorter one on the
relation between Chemistry and the State. It is a
thoroughly commendable work, carefully written,
full of sound common-sense presented in an
attractive manner.
M. O. Forster.
Practical Leather Chemistry. By A. Harvey.
Pp. 207. (London: Crosby Locku-ood and Son.
1920.) Pitce 15s. net.
The author describes his work as " a handbook of
laboratory notes and methods for the use of
students and works chemists," and as such the book
will be useful.
It consists of twenty chapters, each chapter deal-
ing with the method of analysis of each of the im-
portant substances used in connexion with tanning
and leather dressing. The chapters deal with the
analysis of water, lime, alkaline sulphides, the
estimation of nitrogen, analysis of used lime liquors
and limed pelt, deliming agents, single and two hath
chrome liquors, egg yolk, soap, oils, fats and waxes.
In this chapter a list is given of the most important
constants in connexion with the oils used for
leather dressing, together with some information
as to the interpretation of the values. A chapter
dealing with the qualitative reactions of the various
tannins gives some useful and simple tests for the
better known substances. The quantitative methods
of tanning analysis, including both the iodine and
Lowenthal processes, as well as the official method,
are also described ; and a comprehensive list of the
average analysis of most tanning materials is pro-
vided in tabular form. The analysis of used tan
liquors, leather analysis, finishing materials,
natural dyestuffs and coal-tar dyes are considered
in subsequent chapters, and some useful tables are
given in the appendix.
Mr. Harvey does not attempt to deal with either
the principles underlying the methods of analysis,
or the interpretation of results, but confines himself
to outlining the most common methods for the
analysis of the material under discussion, giving in
nearly every instance equations and the detailed
method of calculating results with typical examples.
In fact, a considerable amount of space is taken
up by examples of calculations which, in a book
of this nature, might have been omitted.
The volume contains just a little more informa-
tion than the " Leather Chemists' Pocket Book,"
but at the same time is not sufficiently complete to
make it a full laboratory text book. It will, how-
ever, be of considerable use to every chemist in a
leather works, and also to students, although the
latter will not be able to use this volume except in
conjunction with larger works giving alternative
methods.
Mr. Harvey is a clear writer, and describes each
process in simple and clear language. The addition
of blank pages bound between each chapter for
notes will be found useful. There are not many
illustrations, but those which are supplied are excel-
lent and simply prepared.
When the author comes to revise this volume for
a second edition it will bo well for him to consider
whether he should not cut out the unnecessary ex-
amples of calculations and so make it into a pocket
book or, on the other hand, the volume could be
enlarged with advantage, thus bringing it up to the
standard of an analytical text book, for which, at
the present time, there is a distinct want.
The book is well printed and well got up, and is
quite equal to this well-known publisher's usual
standard.
J. Gordon Parker.
Commercial Oils: Vegetable and Animal. With
specml reference to Oriental Oils. By I. P.
Laucks. Pp. 138. (New York: John WUey
iiml Sons, Inc. London: Chapman and Halt,
Ltd., 101!).) Price 6s. net.
The primary object of this little book is to give
those connected with the oil trade a description of
the nature of oils, their uses, and the methods used
in their examination, with sufficient details to en-
able a non-technical reader to understand the mean-
ing of an analysis. On the whole the author has
succeeded in this object, although in some places the
explanations of technical points have been omitted.
For example, on p. 34 mention is made of the
"yield of hexabromides," but no description is
given of the meaning of the term. Incidentally it
may be mentioned that the application of the term
to glycerides is misleading. The insoluble bromides
separated from certain oils are probably the
bromides of mixed glycerides and are certainly not
linolenic hexabromide. Another omission to be
noted is in connexion with rancidity. It is a matter
of great importance to check the action of enzymes
prior to expression of oils, and the meaning of
enzymic action might therefore have been dealt
v. ith in a non-technical manner.
The value of this book for English chemists is that
it includes in a form convenient for reference the
tests and specifications drawn up for different oils
by the United States Army, the Chicago Board of
Trade and various commercial associations. There
is also a useful chapter on the methods of sampling
oils. The constants of Oriental oils typical of those
now being imported into the United States were
determined in the author's laboratory and are given
here in tabular form. These differ very considerably
from recorded values for the same kinds of oils of
different origin, and it is cogently suggested that
new standards should be fixed for these oils. In the
short tables in the text the usual upper and lower
limits for the values of oils are given, and excep-
tional values arc excluded.
C. A. Mitchell.
PUBLICATIONS RECEIVED
ELEMENTARY PbACTIOAI CHEMISTRY. Part. I.
General Chemistry. By P. Clowes and J. B.
COLEMAN. Seventh edition. Pp. 241.
(London: Messrs. J. and .1. Churchill. 1920.)
I'rirr 6s.
Qualitative Analysis. By F. Clowes and J. B.
Coleman. Ninth edition, with 84 illustrations.
Pp. xvi.-t-400. (London: Messrs. J. and A.
Churchill, 1920.) Price 12s. 6d.
Applied Chemistry. A Practical Handbook for
Students of Household Science and Public
Health. By C. K. Tinkler and H. Masters.
Vol. I. Pp. 292. (London: Crosby, Lockwood
and Son, 1919.) Price 12s. 6d.
Popular Chemical Dictionary. By C. T. King-
zett. Pp. 368. (London: Bailliere, Tindall
and Cox. 1920.) Price 15s.
Report on the Present State of Knowledge Con-
cerning Accessory Food Factors (Vitamines).
Compiled by a Committee appointed jointly by
the Lister Institute and Medical Research
Committee. National Health Insurance, Medi-
cal Research Committee. Special Report
Series, No. 38. (London: II. M. Stationery
Office. 1919.) Price 4s.
The Manufacture of Glue in the Tropics from
Tannery Refuse. By Kalyan C. Srinivasan.
Pp. 24. Indian Department of Industries.
(Madras: Government Press. 1919.)
Manurial Experiments with Sugar-Cane. By
H. H. Tempany, Department of Agriculture,
Mauritius. Pp. 28. (Port Louis: The Govern-
ment Press. 1919.)
Further Trials with the Cultivation and Manu-
facture of Reunion Tobacco. By H. H.
Tempany and G. G. Auchinleck. Department
of Agriculture, Mauritius. Pp. 20. (Port
Jsouis: The Government Press. 1919.)
Rapport sur le Commerce et l' Industrie de la
Suisse, 1918. Pp. 524. (Zurich: I'Union Suisse
du Commerce et de V Industrie, 1919.) Price
9 francs.
Nomenclature des Journaux, Revues, Periodi-
ques Francais. Pubtiee par I' Argus de la
Prcsse. (Paris: 37, Rue Bergcre, IX\ 1919-20.)
Technical Book Review Index. Issued by the
Technology Department of the Carnegie
Library of Pittsburg. No. 1, Vol. III. (Pitts-
burgh and Carnegie Library. 1919.)
Subject List of Works on the Textile Industries
and Wearing Apparel, including the Culture
and Chemical Technology of the Textile
Fibres in the Library of the Patent Office.
Patent Office Library: Subject Lists. New
Series. CO20—CZ. Pp. 329. (London: H.M.
Stationery Office. 1919.) Price 2s. net.
Publications of the United States Geological
Survey. Department of the Interior.
(Washington: Government Printing Office,
1919.)
Sand and Gravel in 1918. By R. W. Stone.
Manganese and Manganifebous Ores in 1917.
By D. F. Hewett.
Quicksilver in 1918. By F. L. Ransome.
Arsenic, Bismuth, Selenium and Tellurium
in 1918. By James M. Hill.
Gold, Silver, Copper, and Lead in South
Dakota and Wyoming in 1918. By Charles
W. Henderson.
Gold, Silver, Copper, Lead and Zinc in New
Mexico and Texas in 1917. By Charles W.
Henderson.
Building Operations in the Larger Cities in
1918. By Jefferson Middlf.ton.
Coal in 19i7. Part B. Distribution and Con-
sumption. By C. E. Lesheh.
Peat in 1918. By C. C. Osbon.
Corrigendum. In the issue for December 31,
1919, p. 486 r, col. 1, line 39-40, read " indigotin."
Vol. XXXIX., No. 2.]
REVIEW
[January 31, 1920.
THE REPORT OF THE NITROGEN
PRODUCTS COMMITTEE.
H. A. HUMPHREY.
No more important scientific report has ever
been published by the Government than that of
over 350 pages presented in May last to the Minister
of Munitions by the Nitrogen Products Committee
of the Munitions Inventions Department. The
Committee, composed of some of our most able
scientists and technical men, each an expert in one
or more subjects, has spent three years in collecting
information on the nitrogen situation from all
sources, many of which would not otherwise have
been accessible, and has tabulated, weighed,
adjusted and adjudicated, with the sound judg-
ment derived from wide experience. In thus
bringing expert knowledge to bear on the questions
involved, the Committee has contributed the most
up-to-date and authoritative information on the
nitrogen problem in the form of a report, which
by reason of the care bestowed on its final prepara-
tion by those who are noticed in the concluding
remarks therein, is a model of clarity and, typo-
graphically, sets up a new high standard which
might well be followed by all Government
Departments.
The responsibility resting on the Committee was
a heavy one. If its findings and recommendations
are not accepted and acted upon, there will be a
still heavier responsibility on the Government.
The issues raised in the report are vital to the
interests of the nation. There are hopeful
prospects mixed with grave warnings, but many
will be disillusioned of long-cherished ideas. The
Committee has mapped out certain lines of action
which the nation can only refuse to follow at its
great peril, and it is for readers of this Journal to
do their full share " in seeing that the utmost
possible good shall result from the valuable work
done by the Committee.
The present article is an attempt to throw into
relief some of the salient features of the report
and to comment briefly on them.
Nitrogen products are chiefly of importance to
the world because, without them, the crops on
which we live could not be grown. Nitrogen com-
bined as nitrate and sulphate forms the basis of
fertilisers for all plant growth and therefore, if
indirectly, of practically all food. Nitrogen is also
an essential constituent of nearly all our explosives
and is therefore the basic weapon with which
modern war is waged. Without an abundant supply
of nitrates we should have lost the war. In fact, had
the enemy been capable of maintaining a fleet to cut
off our supplies of Chilean nitrate we must have
been defeated. At one time the sinking of ships
bringing nitrate to this country was serious enough
to force us to start building a factory to make
nitrates synthetically in this country. Germany
was making synthetic nitrates before the war,
developed her manufacture during the war, and
would have been reduced to impotence at a much
earlier date if, by synthetic means, she could not
have kept pace with her requirements for nitrogen
products. It is an amazing fact that before the
armistice was signed Germany was producing
synthetic ammonia at the rate of 650 tons per
day, approximately equivalent to 500,000 tons of
ammonium nitrate per annum ! Contrast this with
the fact that the only synthetic ammonia pro-
duced in this country was a few pounds weight per
day — the product of experimental apparatus at
University College, London. Under present con-
ditions, if we had the misfortune to be at variance
either with Chile or with a country capable of
preventing supplies of Chilean nitrate reaching
England we might be compelled into acquiescence
because we should have insufficient explosives to
warrant a threat to use force.
Let us return, however, to the question of com-
bined nitrogen and see first how matters stood
before the war, both as regards the world position
and the position of this country, and in doing so
we may remember that 70 per cent, of the total
output is required for fertilisers.
The world's consumption of Chilean nitrate was
naturally greater than that from any other single
source, because in the vast deposits of sodium
nitrate in Chile there was available a source of
supply only needing to be dug out, purified, and
shipped.
In 1903 the world's consumption was 1,429,150
tons. In 1913 it had risen to 2,464,540 tons,
showing an increase of 1,035,390 tons per annum in
a period of 10 years. Of this amount the British
imports were in 1903, 116,715 tons, and the price
was £9 10s. lOd. per ton; in 1913, K0,926 tons, and
the price per ton was £11 Is. 8d. In 1917 the price
rose to £27 per ton ! British imports during the
war were, of course, much larger, and indeed were
only limited by the possibility of sparing ships
(from a greatly depleted tonnage) urgently needed
for bringing food and for transporting men and
material. The Allies collectivelv imported over
2,000,000 tons of Chilean nitrate in 1915, and
nearer 3,000,000 tons per annum in 1916 and 1917.
Germany imported 833,112 tons in 1913 or, say,
six times our own consumption. During the war,
thanks to our fleet, her imports were nil, yet she
managed entirely to replace the loss and at the
same time to establish an industry of the utmost
post-war value.
The next nitrogenous fertiliser in order of
importance is sulphate of ammonia, of which the
world's production prior to the war was, in 1903,
540,200 tons per annum; in 1913, 1,389,810 tons per
annum, showing an increase of 849,610 tons per
annum in 10 years, during which there was a
steady rise every year. The price was variable,
and ranged from £11 5s. to £14 7s. 9d. per ton in
England. Seeing, however, that sulphate was sold
in this country 22 years ago for £7 10s. per ton, the
general upward trend is evident. During the war
it rose to £17 10s. per ton, and would have soared
higher but for Government control.
Of the above quantity of sulphate, Great Britain
in 1913 produced 439,540 and Germany 549,558
tons. Ammonium sulphate is mostly derived from
gas works and coke ovens, and both countries did
all they could to increase their output from these
sources during the war. Owing to adverse circum-
stances the British increase was quite small.
Germany, however, succeeded in raising her by-
product output to about 700,000 tons. Greater
attention was paid to the simultaneous extraction
of benzol and toluol, because both were required for
explosives, the latter being used for making TNT
(trinitrotoluene). It should however be noted that
much of the TNT we used during the war was
derived from the distillation of imported light oils.
Some people still think we fought the war on
explosives made from by-products of the gas
industries ; that is quite a mistake, although such
products played a most important part.
Before the war Great Britain not only supplied
her home requirements for sulphate, but in 1913
exported some 325,000 tons. At one stag* of the
war this valuable export trade had to be stopped
because the ammonia was needed for warlike pur-
poses and to meet the increased agricultural
requirements. The British export trade was the
largest of any country and was rapidly growing.
In the ten years 1903 — 1913 our exports of sulphate
doubled, and, if we are to continue to hold our
a2
REVIEW.
markets abroad, it can only be done by manu-
facturing cheap synthetic ammonia.
Reserving comments on the above facts, let us
examine the Committee's figureB for the production
of synthetic nitrogen products. Omitting, for
reasons of space and not for lack of interest, all
reference to partly developed processes, it will be
assumed that readers are familiar with the estab-
lished methods of nitrogen fixation. The chief
methods and their primary products are : — The
arc process, producing nitric acid; the cyanamide
process producing calcium cyanamide; and the
Haber process, producing ammonia. As the pro-
ducts differ, it is desirable to compare the processes
on the basis of their combined nitrogen content.
The commercial products have nitrogen contents
approximately as follows: — Nitric acid (as 100%)
22'2%, ammonia (liq. sp. gr. 0'88) 29'3%, calcium
cyanamide 17'5% ; and for comparison we may add
Chilean nitrate 156%, and ammonium sulphate
20-2%.
The three leading processes differ greatly in their
requirements for power and in the capital cost of
the respective plants, as will be seen from the
following table: —
a
m-o -o
£•£§
£•*»
ogoB
rod
on
ned
rod
on
rod
Process.
J? 2
P-* p.
3s
Cost of p
ing one
comb
nitiN.v
Cost of p
ing one
primary p
£
£ £
Arc process . .
8-41
Cone, nitric acid
178-4
51-8
11-51
Nitrate of lime, .
178-6
D8-8
7-65
Cyanamide
2-13
Calcium cyana-
45-4
240
4-69
Process
mide
Haber process
0-42
Ammonia
Ammonium sul-
54-0
20-6
170
phate
CS-7
29-3
603
Metric tons are used in the above figures, and it is
assumed that steam power costs £3'75 per kw.-year.
The figures are on a pre-war basis and paragraph 32
of the original report should be consulted for
details of the charges included. Similar figures,
based on water power, are also given in the report.
It is evident that in a country like ours, where
no large water-power schemes exist, the arc process
may be practically ruled out, leaving as suitable for
development the cyanamide and Haber processes.
Apart from the fact that cyanamide contains less
nitrogen than ammonium sulphate, there is little
doubt that the latter is the better fertiliser for most
purposes. Both processes should be established in
this country, but, all things considered, the Haber
process appears best suited to British require-
ments.
The Haber process differs from all manu-
facturing processes established in this country in
that it involves the use of red-hot gases at the very
high pressure of 150 — 200 atmospheres. Further,
it needs very pure hydrogen and nitrogen. Unless
the hydrogen is pure, the catalyst, which brings
about the direct union of the two gases to form
ammonia, becomes poisoned and ceases to be active.
But for these facts the process would be incom-
parably superior to all others. However, the diffi-
culties have been overcome in Germany, where the
process is now established on an enormous Bcale.
Single catalyst units producing 20 tons per day are
in regular operation and, as already stated, some
650 tons of ammonia have been produced per day,
and from two works only. This enormous output
has been made under the pressing necessities of the
war, but it menaces the world's markets after
peace has been concluded.
The development of the Norwegian nitrate in-
dustry was so hindered during hostilities, that
although the war produced marked change in the
form of the products yet the total output remained
almost stationary. Thus there was a decrease in
the production of nitrate of lime and of calcium
cyanamide and an increase in ammonium nitrate,
the output of the latter rising from 9167 tons in
1913 to 63,578 tons in 1917.
Both France and Germany largely increased
their plants for cyanamide products during the
war, as the following figures show : —
Cyanamide produced in
Country. 1913. 1917.
France 7,500 100,000 tons
Germany 24,000 500,000 tons
But the most significant growth in Germany's
nitrogen industry is in the Haber process output,
which rose from 30,000 tons (as sulphate) in 1913
to 500,000 tons in 1917, and the plant capacity is
now probably over 800,000 tons.
The annual capacity of the German plants may
now be placed at the following approximate
figures : —
From by-product
ammonia ... 700,000 tons (as sulphate)
From cyanamide
process ... 500,000 tons (as cyanamide)
From Haber pro-
cess 800,000 tons (as Bulphate)
Total 2,000,000 tons of products
The actual German production in 1917 was
1,600,000 tons of products containing 320,000 tons
of combined nitrogen, or say 28 per cent, of the
world's postwar capacity, including Chilean
nitrate. During the war the world's capacity for
producing nitrogen products has increased by
over 40 per cent.
What relation have such figures to possible
peace requirements? It is rather astonishing to
find that the world's increase in productive
capacity over the war period does not appear to be
greater than would have been the case under
normal conditions had the ordinary pre-war rate of
increase been maintained, for the total require-
ments were doubling every 10 years. Over-pro-
duction therefore need not be seriously feared.
What concerns us intimately and vitally is : Where
will our Empire stand with regard to its own
production and consumption P
The United Kingdom alcne is.expected to require
for agricultural purposes combined nitrogen equiva-
lent to half a million tons of ammonium sulphate
per annum, an increase of nearly 150 per cent,
compared with pre-war figures. Our farmers use
little more than half the chemical fertilisers per
acre as compared with German practice, and the
larger amount is undoubtedly a paying proposition
at pre-war prices.
Then there is our export trade, valued before the
war at £4,000,000 per annum, which should be
greatly increased. In order to render the United
Kingdom independent of imported nitrogen and at
the same time to enable a large export trade to be
maintained, the total home production of ammonia
nitrogen alone would have to be increased to 125,000
metric tons per annum to satisfy the immediate
visible demand, and to 182,000 tons per annum to
meet the estimated demand of the near future.
In other words, the present scale of production
would require to be augmented at an early date by
the equivalent of about 155,000 tons of ammonium
sulphate per annum, and by 440,000 tons per
annum in the near future, corresponding to
increases of about 33 and 100 per cent, respectively
upon the 1917 output.
We had markets in neutral countries which
Germany will try to capture, and there are our
own grain-growing Dominions and Colonies to be
Vol. XXXIX., No. 2.)
supplied. Is Germany to capture this trade, or a
part of it? It is not easy to answer this question,
out evidently it depends on policy and prices.
Leaving matters of policy to others, let us turn
to prices, which are dealt with in considerable
detail in the report. We have already seen that
the price of nitrogen fertilisers has been steadily
rising. This country produces its sulphate almost
entirely from by-product ammonia, and, based on
the market price of crude ammonia liquor for 1911
to 1913, it costs £13 6s. to produce a ton of
sulphate. Compare this with the Haber cost figure
of £5'67, and one sees at once the great possibilities
of the Haber process. If the prices ruling in May,
1919, be taken the comparison is £17 10s. and
about £11.*
From these figures certain outstanding con-
clusions may be drawn : —
(1) There is room for a large increase in the
output of nitrogen products in this country.
(2) It is of the greatest importance that the cost
of production should be as low as possible so that
the use of nitrogen products may be stimulated
and we may retain and extend our export trade.
(3) Only by manufacturing ammonia by the
cheapest synthetic process can we meet the require-
ments of (2).
(4) The price of by-product ammonia must fall
to meet competition.
With reference to the question of international
competition, cheap synthetic nitrogen processes will
control 30 per cent, of the world's supply of fixed
nitrogen in the near future. How will that affect
us and others? Possibly the price of sulphate of
ammonia will have to drop to the lowest level
hitherto recorded, say to £7 10s. per ton, equal to
£37 per ton of combined nitrogen.
Calcium cyanamide can be made abroad where
cheap water power is available at, say, £4 — £5
per ton. Allow for packages, etc., and we have
a factory cost of say, £5'75 per ton, equal to £29
per metric ton of combined nitrogen at the factory.
The trade in Chilean nitrate will suffer unless the
Chilean export duty is so reduced and the working
methods of extraction so improved that the product
can be produced for about £7 10s. per ton, equal
to £47 per ton of combined nitrogen.
Nitric acid is likely to be produced in Norway
at less than £8 per ton (calculated as 100%), but
there will be the difficulty of transport to be faced.
In Great Britain nitric acid cost before the war
£22 per ton, whereas it could have been made here,
by the oxidation of cheap ammonia, at £11 per ton
nine months ago.
Nitrate of lime and sodium nitrate, made by the
arc process with cheap water power, may be able
to compete with Chilean nitrate even allowing for
a substantial fall from the pre-war price of the
latter product. The cheap nitric acid of the arc
process may enable combined nitrogen in the form
of these products to be produced at £30 per metric
ton.
To sum up, the Haber a,nd cyanamide processes
are likely to determine prices in the future and
may well bring them down to the level of £7 10s.
per ton for ammonium sulphate and £6 10s. for
cyanamide.
Incidentally the dangerous rise in the price of
coal may be mentioned with reference to the possi-
bility of producing cheap power for synthetic pro-
cesses in this country, for a rise of only 2s. 6d.
per ton, from the assumed basis of 7s. 6d., increases
the cost per kw.-year from £3"75 to £4"51, i.e., an
increase of over 20 per cent.
These considerations bring us back again to the
Haber process, and we are led to ask what is being
• Recent advances in the cost of coal and labour have seriously
affected the power problem and production costs Generally. In this
article, as in the Report, estimates of costs have for the most part
been based upon pre-war figures. — Ed.
done to establish the process in this country. The
answer is satisfactory up to a point, for the Com-
mittee is able to direct attention to the organisa-
tion it created under the Munitions Inventions
Department, the staff it appointed to carry out a
programme of experimental work, and to the splen-
did results achieved. Under Dr. J. A. Harker
three principal branches of investigation were
formed to deal respectively with ammonia syn-
thesis, ammonia oxidation, and the production of
gases suitable for the synthesis of ammonia. The
heads of these three branches were Lieut. H. C.
Greenwood, Capt. J. R. Partington, and Capt.
E. K. Rideal, and they have been ably assisted Dy
others who all deserve to be named individually.
The experimental work has mostly been carried
out at University College, London, in laboratories
made available by the willing co-operation of the
Provost and the directors of the Ramsay Labora-
tories. Other experiments have been conducted at
King's College and at gas works able to provide
special facilities. No more scientific, thorough,
or successful programme of work has ever been
carried through by any Government Department,
and the highest praise is accordingly due to the
Munitions Inventions Department and its staff.
It took Germany over five years to develop the
Haber process, and its secrets were most jealously
guarded ; the research staff of the Munitions In-
ventions Department, a small but brilliant body
of experts, worked out the whole process in half
that time and in some respects is ahead of Ger-
many to-day as regards efficiencies obtained. Valu-
able discoveries, covered by over twenty patents,
have been made during these investigations, and
although the opportunity of putting the results
into actual commercial use is still awaiting
decision, yet this country has been brought abreast
of German results so far as semi-technical work is
concerned.
At a time when difficulties were increasing
rapidly and the transport of Chilean nitrate to this
country was becoming more and more precarious
owing to shortage of ships and sinkings by enemy
submarines, the Department of Explosives Supply
decided that the work done by the Munitions In-
ventions Department was sufficiently complete to
warrant the erection of a large factory in Durham
to manufacture 60,000 tons of ammonium nitrate
per annum by the Haber process. The synthetic
ammonia stage was to be followed by the oxida-
tion of part of the ammonia (by the catalytic
method) to nitric acid, and a combination of the
other part with the acid to yield ammonium
nitrate.
A site was chosen at Billingham, some 3$ miles
N.E. of Stoekton-on-Tees, and work was started;
but lack of high priority, and the subsequent drain
on the D.E.S. staff for the still more urgent pro-
duction of poison gas in overwhelming quantities,
prevented the work from being completed. When
the armistice was signed building operations had
not advanced very far, although a considerable
amount of plant had been ordered. Whatever
decision may ultimately be reached with regard
to the future of this development it is a matter of
vital importance that this beginning of a new in-
dustry in our country should not be allowed to
drop. If it is not to be revived as a Government
measure, then it should proceed as a private enter-
prise.*
One of the features of the war was the use made
by us of ammonium nitrate explosives. This
material constituted by far the greater weight
•Early In November. 1919. the Secretary of the Ministry o'
Munitions announced that the Government had decided to leave
further development to private enterprise, and that the Minister
of Munitions was prepared to receive offers for the acquisition of
the partly constructed factory from persons or firms in a position
to develop successfully the fixation of atmospheric nitrogen. — Er>.
REVIEW*
[.Tan. 31, 1920.
of the total explosives used. In peace time, and
on a large scale, it should be possible to produce
a ton of ammonium nitrate via Chilean nitrate for
£30. It actually cost us, under war conditions,
double this figure. If we had possessed Haber
plant sufficient to meet our needs for ammonium
nitrate, the cost per ton, even assuming as an
extreme case twice the pre-war basis, would have
been £22 per ton — a saving of £38 per ton. At
only 400 tons per day (and we used more) we
should have saved nearly £1,000,000 every two
months and could have used our Chilean nitrate
transport fleet for other purposes.
Again, we used imported Chilean nitrate to make
the enormous quantities of nitric acid used in the
manufacture of other explosives, i.e., for pro-
pellants, TNT, etc. Nitric acid so produced cost
us about £30 per ton (100%). By the process in-
tended for Billingham it could have been made
at half the cost; indeed, the calculated pre-war
basis was as low as £9 10s. per ton of acid.
At the time and under the conditions then exist-
ing, the Explosives Department had no choice and
was obliged to base its production on imported
nitrates, but never again must that occur. It is
essential to national safety that we should be
independent of imported products required in any
future war. The United States, France, Italy and
Japan all recognise that the same necessity applies
to them individually, and they are taking the
necessary steps by establishing synthetic processes.
England must lead the way and not lag behind.
There has been a close liaison between the Allies
over all technical war matters, and the greatest
admiration has been expressed at the valuable
work done by the British scientists and technical
men of our Government staffs. The United States
has decided to have a permanent organisation to
continue technical work of this kind under
Government auspices and cordially hopes we shall
do the same. Unfortunately for such a prospect,
however, the Munitions Inventions Panel, of which
the members of the Nitrogen Products Committee
formed a strong section, was disbanded even before
the Committee's far-reaching and influential re-
port was published ! Truly we are a wonderful
nation, and it is not surprising that we puzzle our
Allies.
One of the most important sections of the Nitro-
gen Products Committee's Report deals with the
cost of production of electric power in this country,
chiefly in connexion with power plants operating
on continuous full load as required for chemical
factories such as those producing synthetic am-
monia. For the first time we have an authentic
review of all the systems of power production avail-
able for use on a large scale, and the numerous
charts and tables given in the report are of the
greatest interest. Some of the results will come as
a shock to holders of pet ideas on the subject. We
are all familiar with the notion that as nitrogen
products can be obtained from the destructive dis-
tillation of coal, and still better by its gasification
in producers, that all coal for power purposes
should be submitted to one or other of these pro-
cesses, or that distillation should be followed by
gasification of the resulting coke. Experts in these
matters were already aware to what extent the
promises based on these ideas would have to be dis-
counted, but in this report we have the facts put
to the test of cold, unbiassed figures. Every tech-
nical man interested in power production will
closely scrutinise these tables ami charts for him-
self, for they cannot be briefly summarised. Some
broad conclusions can, however, be stated.
One kilowatt-vear can be obtained at the switch-
board of a 100,000 kw. station with: —
I. Direct coal fired boilers and steam-turbo-
generators for an expenditure of 6'5 tons of coal.
Using other systems to generate the steam by
gas-firing and giving the same electrical output
(lkw.-year) the coal consumptions would be as
follows : —
II. High temperature carbonisation of coal : 9'4
tons.
III. Low temperature carbonisation of coal : 8'6
to 9'0 tons.
IV. Complete gasification of coal in recovery
producers: 12'3 tons.
V. Low temperature carbonisation of coal fol-
lowed by complete gasification of the resulting coke
in recovery producers: 14'3 to 16'2 tons.
The cumulative effect of the thermal losses in
the various stages of a complete power scheme
utilising by-product recovery processes is such that
the total consumption of coal becomes from 32 to
150 per cent, in excess of that required for direct
firing.
The pre-war cost per kw.-year with the direct
coal-fired station and coal at 7s. 6d. per ton is
taken at £3"75, full details being given to show-
how this figure is arrived at. Assuming certain
yields of by-products, and their probable market
value, the revenues and working expenses for the
other systems (Nos. I. to V.) are set out in full
detail in a number of tables.
The capital outlay in each case is given as
follows, per kilowatt (available) of plant: —
I. Direct coal-firing £1026
II. High temperature car-
bonisation system ... £1645 to £20'63
III. Low temperature car-
bonisation system ... £1704 to £17-35
IV. Complete gasification in
producers £19"20
V. Low temperature com-
bined scheme £28-79 to £31-82
Therefore the additional capital expenditure in
applying a b37-product recovery process to a large
electric power station represents a capital increase
of from 60 to 200 per cent, according to the system
adopted.
Still, in spite of the obvious disadvantages due
to greater coal consumption and working and
capital charges, the financial results are not so
bad, and may even be favourable in certain cases,
provided coal is cheap. With coal at 10a. per ton
there is, compared with direct firing, a loss in
cases II. and r\T.. a gain in case III., and either
a gain or loss in case V., according to which of
two low temperature schemes is adopted.
Naturally the results will vary with coal prices
and with the prices obtained for the by-products,
but the tables and charts in the report show clearly
how the ultimate cost of the electric energy is
related to such variations. The financial results
with direct coal-firing are less sensitive to changes
in the price of coal than are the results of any
other schemes.
From the national point of view the question
is: Are we justified in using from 32 to 150 per
cent, more coal in order to employ a process which
yields us the by-products from the coal used? If
coal at the central station is going to cost any-
thing approaching £1 per ton then the whole pro-
blem will settle itself, for carbonisation and gasi-
fication will not pay and dear coal will have killed
a promising development. If we ever have the
great advantage of cheap coal again then carboni-
sation and gasification processes will require close
investigation, especially if the possible develop-
ments outlined in the report should mature.
The report does not consider the case of a com-
bined gas and electricity distribution station from
which gas is sold outside, though this is in some
respects a still more favourable proposition.
Regarding the use of gas engines, the Committee
states that it would at the present time be entirely
Vol. XXXIX., No. 2.]
REVIEW.
impracticable and uneconomical to employ gas
engines for power stations of the size necessary for
the competitive operation of nitrogen fixation pro-
cesses under British conditions. For small blocks
of power the position is much more favourable
both as regards capital cost and operating costs,
the latter being as low as, or even lower than, the
corresponding cost for steam engine plant.
These considerations have an important bearing
upon one aspect of the nitrogen problem to which
the Committee has devoted much attention —
namely, the possibility of utilising peat as a source
of power and fixed nitrogen by gasifying the
material under ammonia recovery conditions and
using the surplus gas as fuel for a gas-engine
electric station. The crux of the problem lies in
the possibility of excavating and drying raw peat
in large quantities throughout the year under vary-
ing climatic conditions at a cost which will permit
of the economic use of the resulting low grade
peat fuel. Plants abroad, where the climate is
more favourable than in Great Britain, are operated
with fair success, for the peat bogs are drier than
in our country and the peat has a high nitrogen
content, but artificial drying has to be employed
for large plants.
The difficulties to be faced may perhaps best
be realised by considering the following facts. Raw
peat in the bog contains only about 15 per cent,
of solid material, the remaining 85 per cent, being
water. For every kw.-year produced by a steam-
turbo station of 5000 kw. capacity using gas-fired
boilers, the gas being derived from the peat,
2-V7 tons of theoretically dry peat is required, or
the equivalent of 171 tons of the raw peat. If
the gas is used in gas engines, the exhaust from
which is used to raise steam, then only 10'8 tons
of dry peat, or 72 tons of raw peat, is needed
per kw.-year. Even when using gas engines this
means that the 5000 kw. station will, with 100 per
cent, load factor, require 360,000 tons of raw peat
per annum and the quantity is more than doubled
if a steam-turbo plant is used.
If the peat fuel is fed into the producers with
a moisture content of 35 per cent., then 132 tons of
water has to be dried out of the peat prior to its use
in the producers for every kw.-year distributed
from the station when using steam plant; or 55 tons
of water must be dried out when using gas engines.
Still in spite of these formidable difficulties there
is a promising future in isolated cases where coal
is expensive, and a much wider field would be
opened if mechanical means of removing water from
peat, to a much lower limit than is now attainable,
were invented.
In concluding this review of the report a few
of the other important observations and conclusions
of the Committee may be given in the Committee's
own words : —
" Two years' expenditure upon imported raw
materials at war prices would alone more than
cover the estimated pre-war capital outlay for
synthetic installations capable of furnishing the
same output.
"Very serious risks are involved in relying upon
overseas shipments of raw materials.
" Imperial defence is too vital a matter to be
subordinated to other considerations, but a wise
policy in regard to defence could to a very large
extent be made a sound economic policy.
" The conclusion seems evident that considera-
tions of national safety, of finance, and of utility
would force a country to resort to the policy of
adopting synthetic methods as an insurance against
future emergencies, instead of placing reliance on
the importation of the Chilean nitrate.
" The diversion of a large portion of fixed nitro-
gen to munitions for a period of several years has
been to the great detriment of the world's food
supply.
" The food problem has become the most impor-
tant consideration for all the belligerents."
The recommendations of the Committee include
minimum provisions for safeguarding the future,
e.g., the establishment of the cyanamide process on
a scale sufficient to produce 60,000 tons of cyan-
amide yearly, of the synthetic ammonia process to
furnish 10,000 tons of ammonia, and of the ammonia
oxidation process to provide annually 10,000 tons of
95 per cent, nitric acid ; but these, and also the more
detailed conclusions at the end of each section of
the report, should be read in full.
The cry of "Wake up, England" is needed to
ensure that not one of the Committee's conclusions
goes unheeded, and to what body of influential men
can they appeal to in greater force than to the
habitual readers of this Journal?
In this article only the Iroad facts have been
touched upon, but the report is so full of interest-
ing data, especially on the economics of the sub-
ject, as to make it in effect the most modern text-
book on nitrogen fixation. No technical man can
afford to be without a copy for his own reference,
for the data it contains have never before been
collected. Most earnestly it is hoped that this
treatise, for it is nothing short of this, on nitrogen
products, will be officially revised from time to time
and kept up to date so that it may remain, what
it is to-day, the work of reference on the subject.
REPORTS ON PROGRESS IN
CHEMICAL INDUSTRY IN 1919.
THE GAS INDUSTRY.
Whilst the gas industry has played an all-
important role in aiding the nation to carry out
its main responsibility during the years of war, it
has itself suffered by virtue of the shortage of raw
material and men ; not only has progress been
greatly retarded, but even the maintenance and re-
newal of plant and apparatus have been markedly
inadequate. Signs are evident that the lines on
which reconstruction in the gas industry is to be
carried out are fundamentally sound, but many
difficulties are encountered in carrying into effect
such schemes of reorganisation, and to these the
labour question and the shortage of material are in
no way unimportant contributors.
The question of primary importance to the gas
industry at the present moment relates to the
nature of the gas which, in the best interests of the
consumer and manufacturer, should be distributed.
This is an intricate and involved problem and one
on which there is naturally a diversity of opinion.
i The experimental work recently undertaken at the
■ University of Leeds at the instigation of the Insti-
tution of Gas Engineers affords some useful
' evidence towards the elucidation of the problem,
: and particularly valuable is the general conclusion
| arrived at from these investigations, namely, that
the value of the gas to the consumer is approxi-
mately proportional to its calorific value. Follow-
ing the enunciation of this principle, one of the
London gas companies published a scheme showing
that gas could be sold upon a calorific basis, rather
than by volume. Shortly following this proposal,
important and, indeed, almost revolutionary pro-
posals were made in a report issued by the Fuel
' Research Board. Whilst the main reeommenda-
! tion of this report related to the sale of
* Continued from r- 4 R of the last issue.
REVIEW.
gas upon the basis of its calorific value, recom-
mendations were made to the effect that a gas
undertaking, subject to certain stipulations, should
be free to deliver to its consumers any mixture
of combustible gases free from sulphuretted
hydrogen, and not containing more than 20 per
cent, of inert constituents for two years, not more
than 18 per cent, for the succeeding two years, and
not more than 15 per cent, thereafter. It was pro-
posed also that under normal conditions a gas
undertaking should supply gas in any main or
service pipe of over 2 in. diameter at a pressure of
not less than 2 in. of water.
These proposals have received the approval and
support of the main representatives of the gas in-
dustry.
An important contribution has been made by Sir
Dugald Clerk, in collaboration with Professors
Smithells and Cobb, which presents a careful and
comprehensive analysis of the thermal efficiency of
the carbonisation process, and in this interesting
paper comparisons have been drawn between the effi-
ciency of the coal carbonisation process and of other
methods of producing light, heat, or power. In the
majority of cases these comparisons are distinctly
in favour of the gas industry. Emphasis is also
placed upon the value of the chemical by-products
obtainable from the gas industry and their value
from a national standpoint.
Additional information on the steaming of
vertical retorts has been furnished by various
workers. The Gas Investigation Committee of the
Institution of Gas Engineers reported on the con-
ditions and yields under this system at Uddingston
and found that in general practice a yield of 30,000
cub. ft. of gas of 385—394 B.Th.U's. per ton of the
particular coal carbonised was obtained, together
with increased yields of tar and ammonia. Other
results obtained under this system of carbonisation
have been reported, and the economic value of the
process has also received attention.
Important work has been carried out in studying
the effect of inert constituents of the gas upon effi-
ciency during combustion, and generally the work
of investigation in the gas industry bears directly
upon the question of the nature of the gas to be
manufactured in the future.
The work of reorganising the financial basis of
the gas industry is over-delayed, and during the
year directors and administrative staffs of gas
undertakings have been largely concerned with
those matters.
IRON AND STEEL.
The past year has been typically a period of
transition from the manufacture of the greatest
possible quantities of material for the purposes
of war to the ultimate manufacture of the materials
required for peace times, and the consequent
irritability of the human being has produced dis-
agreements in number and severity that have over-
shadowed technical difficulties. The general uncer-
tainties have accelerated the tendency to establish
large self-oontained units that can produce within
themselves as nearly as possible everything required
to complete the finished articles ready for sale to
the user. Several examples in Great Britain could
be cited, and probably some of the most interesting
features of the time are the present developments
of the Tata Iron and Steel Co. in India, and the
planning of the State Iron and Steel Works in
Australia.
Basic steel has been put recently to progressively
diverse uses. The total quantity made in the United
Kingdom has increased by about 2,000,000 tons,
derived almost entirely from British ores. During
tho war it was found safe to make high-explosive
shell from basic instead of acid steel, and also
gradually to increase the permissible contents of
sulphur and phosphorus from 004 to 0'08 per cent.
respectively. The necessities of this type of work
impressed on all concerned the great need for care
in the making of the steel ingot. As flaws in the
ingot gave trouble to the user right down to such
material as the finest of wire, it is to be hoped that
this lesson will not soon be forgotten.
War-time secret and confidential work is gradu-
ally being revealed, and one of the most important
papers on special steels recently published is that
on nickel-chromium steels by J. H. S. Dickenson.
He deals with the highly controversial subject of
the tests that may be relied upon to prove brittle-
ness in steel, and strongly favours the notched-
bar shock test. He shows how by the heat-treat-
ment of special steels high elastic limit and tough-
ness may be obtained, and discusses in detail
temper brittleness, which when developed by cool-
ing in air after tempering can be avoided by
quenching after tempering. The real cause of
temper brittleness has not yet been made clear.
Dr. W. H. Hatfield, in a paper on the mechanical
properties of steel, which evoked a great amount
of discussion, considers that there is a tendency
to give too much weight to the notched-bar test
in judging of the possible brittleness of steel in use.
During the war there has been a curious com-
bination of secrecy and unusual publicity; on the
one hand results of work on newly-developed needs
were kept from the enemy, but spread abroad
among the Allies; and on the other, those firms
that had made great successes in their special lines
not only pooled their information, but taught their
practice to outside firms. Such intercommunica-
tion, together with the general difficulties brought
about by greatly increased production costs, gave
a further impetus to the development of systematic
research work in factories. Noteworthy events in
this connexion are the recent opening of a research
laboratory at Messrs. Bruntons' works and the
really good progress achieved by the American
Malleable Castings Association.
Alloy steels are being used more and more, and
the high chromium type known as " stainless " will
undoubtedly be much extended in use now
that the embargo on its manufacture has
been withdrawn, the whole supplies of chro-
mium no longer being needed for war work.
Alterations in the composition of alloy steels
are represented by two new patents of Sir
Robert Hadfield on his manganese steel. The
position with reference to the employment of
electric furnaces in steel smelting is being very
carefully re-examined. The success in prospecting
for Indian iron ores, and the movement to establish
two if not three new steel plants in India, besides
the gradual expansion of the Tata plant to an out-
put capacity of three-quarters to one million tons
of ingots per annum, have all attracted attention.
During 1918-19 the difficulties attending the use
of Indian refractories were completely overcome,
thus marking a very distinct advance. The dis-
coveries of the manganese ores in West Africa seem
of great importance. Calcium carbide was
evidently tried by the enemy during the war as a
partial substitute for manganese, but did not prove
satisfactory. The viscosity of blast-furnace slags
and the mineral constitution of open-hearth slags
have been studied in relation to the general ques-
tion of the influence of slag on the metal produced.
The patent for the Miris Steel process of quenching
ingots in a liquid so soon as -they can be handled
has been published, and extensive experiments are
being made with the process. Mr. Humfrey has
developed on the lines of Dr. Sorby's "nature"
prints a method of showing clearly the structure of
an ingot. A number of studies of the metal of
electric and oxy-acetylene welds has been made.
It is claimed that the existence of two distinct
eutectics has been proved, the austenite-graphite
at 1153° and the austenite-cementite at 1144° C.
Vol. XXXIX.. No. 2.1
REVIEW.
NON-FERROUS METALLURGY.
Although progress reported in non-ferrous metal-
lurgy during the year shows several points of in-
terest, technical matters have been perhaps some-
what overshadowed by economic considerations.
The year began with large reserves of metals under
the control of the Allied Governments, but later,
under the influence of a greatly increased demand,
accentuated by labour troubles, lack of fuel and
difficulty of transport, an actual scarcity occurred,
especially in lead, which was soon reflected in
market prices.
While this country is in a more fortunate posi-
tion than most others, in view of the vast resources
of the Empire, it is disappointing that the hope of
increasing home production is so far from being
realised that in some cases our smelter production
is actually considerably less than before the war.
With regard to progress of a general nature,
flotation processes of ore concentration continue to
show notable advances. Oxidised copper ores are
now treated with some success, and it is said that
a selective agent has been discovered enabling the
flotation process to be applied commercially to tin
ores. The Cottrell electrostatic method of fume
and dust precipitation, first developed to mitigate
objectionable and damaging fumes, continues to
find extended applications, not only in the recovery
of valuable by-products, but as an essential portion
of process plants.
Of the base metals, judging from the amount of
space occupied in the technical press, the metal-
lurgy of zinc is receiving most attention at the
hands of technical workers, more especially in con-
nexion with the hydro-metallurgical and electrolytic
treatment of ores. The fact that success in the
electrolytic deposition of zinc depends so largely
upon the purity of the electrolyte is reflected in
many articles and patents on the subject, and much
careful work in regard to detail has been
published. Prof. C. H. Fulton has continued his
researches relative to thermo-electric methods of
distillation and has described a series of experi-
ments in a novel type of resistance furnace wherein
briquettes, composed of a mixture of roasted zinc
ore and coke, are so arranged as to constitute part
of an electric circuit and are heated by an electric
current to such a degree as to distil the zinc. The
large organisations owning deposits of complex zinc-
lead ores (notably the Burma Corporation) are ex-
perimenting with a view to obtaining higher re-
coveries of the metallic values than is possible even
with the methods now available. Two processes —
the Ganelin-Queneau and the Elmore — have been
specially referred to, but no authoritative descrip-
tions have yet been published, and, with the excep-
tion of the earlier patent specifications, informa-
tion is limited to the meagre references in the com-
panies' reports to the shareholders.
In the copper smelting industry, pulverised coal
fuel has long been successfully used in reverberatory
furnaces, and it is now being tried as a substitute
for coke in blast furnace practice. Leaching pro-
cesses provide a mass of reading matter in the
technical press, and keen interest continues to be
shown generally in connexion with the treatment of
low-grade oxidised copper ores, which exist in
enormous quantities in many parts of the world.
Nothing very new has been reported, but a con-
tinnal regard to detail has increased the efficiency
of existing plants and methods.
The new hard lead alloy, composed of lead and
small amounts of calcium and barium, and known
under the name of " UIco," is receiving consider-
able attention. Originally designed as a substitute
for antimonial lead in the manufacture of shrapnel,
it is claimed that the alloy will take its place among
the important bearing metals in view of its high
melting point, excellent structure, and low co-
efficient of friction.
The physical properties of the metals and alloys
is beyond the scope of the present report, but
attention should be drawn to the excellent work of
British investigators in the field of original re-
search, most of which appears reported in the pages
of the Journal of the Institute of Metals. Special
mention may be made of the report of G. S. Ben-
gough and O. F. Hudson to the Corrosion Com-
mittee giving the results of their investigations into
the actions which take place when metals such as
zinc, copper, aluminium, and alloys, such as 70:30
brass, corrode in distilled water and sea water.
SUGAR.
Generally speaking, the manufacture of sugar
from the cane is now carried on with a high degree
of efficiency. In several countries local experiment
stations have been established for the investigation
of problems concerned with the agriculture of the
cane and the process of extraction, and by the staff
of these institutions (as well as by others) a con-
siderable amount of useful work is being done.
During the period under review, the operation of
expressing the juice from the cane by mills has been
further improved, and in Hawaii it has now been
found possible by the adoption of certain modifica-
tions to realise an extraction of sucrose in the juice
of no less than 98 per cent, of that originally
present in the raw material. Sources of loss at
different stages of manufacture have been investi-
gated by means of a careful system of chemical
control, and the result is that in many factories
the recovery of commercial sugar from the juice has
reached a high figure.
Contributions have been made in regard to the
colouring matters present in the cane which pass
into the juice, as well as those which form during
the operations of clarification and heating, and
from the point of view of white sugar manufacture
these are naturally of considerable importance.
In the refining of raw sugar animal charcoal has
been in general use for the past 100 years. It is of
some interest to draw attention to the application
of other forms of decolorising carbon as an alter-
native medium for the adsorption of colouring
matters (and other impurities) from solutions of
raw sugar. It is possible to record that methods
depending upon the use of decolorising carbon are
now in routine practice in certain factories for the
production of refined sugar. Some work has also
been done during the past year in indicating the
comparative value of different methods that have
been proposed for the preparation of these special
carbons.
There can be little doubt that, while some manu-
facturers of raw sugar produce excellent grades for
refining, others appear to operate without suffi-
cient care and without always bearing in mind the
I requirements of the purchasers of their wares. In
the Annual Report attention is drawn to the most
desirable qualities that a raw sugar should possess
from the point of view of the refiner. A criticism
is made of certain practices in manufacture thai
render the work of the refiner of the raw sugar un-
i necessarily difficult, and suggestions for the avoid-
! ance of such irregularities are indicated.
Raw sugar during storage may undergo deteriora-
tion as the result of the action of certain micro-
organisms, considerable financial loss sometimes
; being occasioned in this way. Recent investigations
', have revealed the conditions that should be ob-
j served in order to establish the best conditions for
the avoidance of such changes in the quality of the
product. The nature of the micro-organisms effect-
ing the alteration under consideration has also been
the subject of study.
Some progress has been made during 1919 in the
direction of founding the beet-sugar industry in
[Jan. 31, 1920.
this country. The industry on the Continent has
greatly suffered as the result of the war, and, in
consequence, there is little progress to record in
this direction. Nevertheless, a few papers worthy
of attention have appeared.
FERMENTATION INDUSTRIES.
Details of fermentation processes which have
been used on a manufacturing scale during the war
have lately come to light, and interest in the year's
work is centred chiefly on these publications. A
conference on the recent devolpments in the fer-
mentation industries was held at the annual
general meeting of the Society. The manufacture
of acetone by Fernbach's process was discussed at
length. The process was used successfully during
the war, but at the present time acetone can be
made more cheaply by the destructive distillation
of wood. At the same meeting the establishment
of a national institute of industrial micro-biology
was recommended. Small quantities of glycerin
are found when sugars are fermented by yeast. The
yield can be much increased if the fermentation is
carried out in slightly alkaline solutions, and during
the war the Germans obtained on a manufacturing
scale 20 — 25 per cent, of the sugar as glycerin by
fermenting in presence of sodium sulphite, the
glycerin being used for making explosives and for
other purposes.
Various investigators have described methods of
obtaining alcohol from such sources as horse-
chestnuts, marine algre, Iceland moss, vegetable
ivory, etc. The report on " Power Alcohol " points
out that sun-dried flowers of the mahua tree contain
about 60 per cent, by weight of sugar, which can
undergo alcoholic fermentation. This report also
considers the production of alcohol from ethylene
derived from coal or coke-oven gases. Distilleries
and the vinegar industry may eventually have to
face competition from a synthetic alcohol manu-
factured in this way.
The food accessory factor known as the anti-
neuritic " vitamine," or " water soluble B," occurs
in yeast and in preparations from yeast. Such t
preparations have been of much use during the
war. It is interesting to note that over a gram of
yeast is consumed daily per head of population in
this country in the form of baker's yeast in bread.
This yeast is not likely to have lost its anti-
neuritic properties during baking, and the state-
ment that white bread is deficient in this unknown
principle seems to require modification. The whole
question of " vitamines " is being vigorously
attacked at the present time, as the recent report
on the subject shows.
Papers dealing with the saline constituents of
brewing waters have appeared. The matter is dis-
cussed mainly with reference to the effect these con-
stituents have on the hydrogen ion concentration of
worts and beers. American investigators show that
the most favourable acidity for diastatic action is
Pn = 4'4 — 4'5 for malt amylase and 4"8 for the
enzyme in Aspergillus oryzae. The figures are of '
interest, for an aqueous solution of carbon dioxide
shows an acidity closely approximating to these
figures. The action of diastase on starch is ac-
celerated if yeast is present, and possibly the pro- '
duetion of a favourable acidity due to the formation
of carbon dioxide is the only cause of this acceler-
ating influence.
Other methods used by the physical chemist can
be employed to solve certain fermentation problems.
The importance of some velocity constants has been
emphasised, and these constants have been used as
a basis on which to build up an explanation of yeast
growth and fermentation by living yeast. ' The
maladies of low gravity beers have forced their
attention on many investigators, especially in Ger-
many. Discoloration, unpleasant flavours, cloudi-
ness, and other undesirable characteristics have
been observed.
The idea that acetaldehyde plays a part as an in-
termediate compound in alcoholic fermentation has
received further support, and the use of a. sulphite
as a " fixing agent " for aldehydes has been further
extended. Aldehyde appears to be an intermediate
compound in other fermentation reactions.
Some detailed analyses by A. E. Ling of barleys
and malts derived from them have been published.
The results are of interest, as very few analyses of
this kind are on record.
RUBBER.
The literature on rubber has been concerned
generally with the examination of more or less
fundamental principles rather than with any inves-
tigation or discovery of a startling nature. Much
of the work, however, is of importance, and is
significant of the desire to eliminate empiricism as
completely as possible from technical practice. Con-
sidering the unsettled condition of the period it
is perhaps not unnatural that much of the work
is of a distinctly practical type, emanating chiefly
from the factory and the plantation.
A remarkable feature of the work is its wide scope
and general nature. As an interesting example
of plantation work which could not well have been
done elsewhere may be quoted that of O. de Vries
on the specific gravity of Hevea latex, which
S. Whitby's subsequent research on the latex
yield and rubber production of individual trees
serves to complement. On the manufacturing side
papers have dealt with such diverse topics as the
methods for introducing mineral and other in-
gredients into rubber, more modern rubber fillers
such as glue and amorphous carbon, the catalytic
speeding up of the hot vulcanisation process, the
relative efficiency of organic and the commoner
mineral catalysts, and S. J. Peachey's new method
of cold vulcanisation with sulphur dioxide and
hydrogen sulphide. Other investigations worthy
of note are those by E. Beckmann and his collabor-
ators, and by A. M. Kellas on the composition of
molten sulphur at vulcanising temperatures, and
also the interesting physico-chemical investigation
of G Bruni and M. Amadori as to the actual condi-
tion of so-called "free" sulphur in sulphur chloride;
these are of considerable significance with respect
to vulcanisation by the hot and cold methods
respectively.
It is somewhat surprising Lo note what a large
proportion of the year's work may be regarded as
directly concerned with the molecular condition of
rubber, an unsolved problem of which previous
partial elucidations, even the investigations of C. D.
Harries, serve chiefly to emphasise the magnitude.
The information which has become available during
the year as to the limited success experienced in
Germany with synthetic rubber, clearly indicates
the unsatisfactory state of knowledge in this direc-
tion, because it is not possible to make any definite
decision as to the molecular state of the synthetic
product or of the natural rubber which it is in-
tended to reproduce, although the difference in this
respect probably accounts largely for the short-
comings of synthetic rubber. The gradual altera-
tion in physical properties, or the " ageing " of
vulcanised rubber, involving change in tensile
strength, extensibility and solubility, which has
received Further attention during 1919 from O. de
Vries, B. J. Eaton and F. W. F. Day, and H. P.
Stevens, is also presumably bound up in some modi-
cation of the molecular condition; the importance
of the problem is evident. In all likelihood also to
lie referred to the same prime cause is the difference
observable even between different lots of rubber of
similar origin, such as Hevea rubber, in the relation
exhibited between increasing load and the corre-
sponding increase in elongation ; this relation, de-
Vol. XXXIX., Xo. 2.1
BEVIEW.
33 k
fined by P. Schidrowitz and H. A. Goldsbrough
as the " slope " or " type " of the rubber, calls for
particular attention in view of their recently
elaborated method for airing mathematical expres-
sion to the characteristic latter portion of the
stress-strain curve for vulcanised rubber.
Probablv mainly as the outcome of war-time ex-
periments various reports have been published as
to the rate and measurement of the diffusion of
hydrogen through rubbered fabrics; these, together
with "the recently published experiments of Sir
J. Dewar, have necessitated a brief review of the
position with respect to the diffusion of gases
through rubber films. For this review, and also
for others dealing with less extensive investigations
in various directions, the reader must be referred
to the Annual Report on the subject.
LEATHER.
Scientific work in connexion with the leather in-
dustry has been small in quantity during 1919, and
no outstanding discoveries have been made. In
actual works practice there is a steady and in-
creasing effort to utilise machinery in every possible
way. Many tanners are now using mechanical
methods of liming for unhairing in place of the
slower process that has been used for hundreds of
years. In the actual tanning of hides there is the
same tendency, as is readily seen from a survey of
recent patents.
There is no slackening in the efforts to establish
firmly the chrome tanning industry, and it is
generally recognised that the chemist must here
play a large part if permanent success is to be
attained. In the leather industry as a whole the
value of technological training is now admitted.
The proofs of this are the overflowing state of the
two leather industries' schools in this country, and
the support given to conferences of tanners and
technical chemists.
Artificial tanning materials have not been con-
spicuous in the patent literature, but are very
widely used. It remains to be seen what will be
the effect of more normal supplies of vegetable
materials which have been so difficult to obtain
during the war. Cultivation and systematic in-
vestigation of natural supplies are now much in
evidence, particularly in the British Empire, and
the old wasteful methods of production will not, it
is hoped, endure for long.
A very interesting paper on leather manufacture
by Cross. Greenwood, and Lamb dealt with a prin-
ciple which appears to the writer to be of far-
reaching practical importance, namely, the prin-
ciple of restrained tannage. A colloid, such as
gum-tragasol, having affinity for tannin, but to a
less extent than has hide, is mixed with the tanning
liquor before introducing the hide. The effect is
to render possible the use of very strong liquors
without the usual difficulties of drawn grain and
case-hardening. The speed of tannage is very
greatly increased. The principle appears to be
embodied in the patented process of Turnbull and
Carmichael, in which starch is the colloid used.
The most important analytical work has been
that carried out by committees, particularly in
America, on leather, sulphonated oils, fat extrac-
tion . etc. Most of this has been on the testing, com-
parison and standardisation of methods already in
use. Work has been published indicating the de-
sirability of reopening the question of tannin
analysis, in the lieht of advances in colloid
chemistry since 1907, when the present official
methods worn fixed. A most important fact,
brought to light by Wilson, is that electrolyte non-
tannins (rji. sodium sulphate) are not taken up by
hide powder in the proportion in which they are
present in solution, and thus invariably give rise
to errors.
The synthesis of gallotannic acid (the tannin of
oak galls) is now an accomplished fact. When
Fischer began his work on this substance some ten
years ago its constitution was not known, although
chemists had worked on it for over a century.
Fischer's demonstration that gallotannic acid was
pentadigalloylglueose, and his final achievement of
its synthesis will rank amongst his best work. It
is good to notice that others are continuing in this
field. The puzzling influence of neutral salts of
strong acids on basic chrome liquors, chromic
chloride solutions, and dilute acids is being worked
upon by Baldwin, and is also the subject of a recent
paper by McBain. The enhanced acidity produced
is of great importance in chrome leather manu-
facture, and a sound explanation is much to be
desired. Loeb's recent work on the behaviour of
gelatin at its iso-electric point is of great interest,
though carried out from the biochemical standpoint.
NEWS FROM THE SECTIONS.
MANCHESTER.
At the fourth meeting of the session, held on
January 9, Mr. John Allan presiding, Mr. Harold
Moore read a paper on "A New Instrument for
Measuring Vapour Tension." There was a large
attendance of members.
The determination of the volatility of motor
spirits by the process of fractional distillation does
not constitute a direct measurement of volatility,
and is therefore only indirectly indicative of the
behaviour of the spirit in the engine. In the jet
carburetter of the present day the fuel is sprayed
into the induction system and drawn into the
cylinder partly in the state of gas-air mixture and
partly in the form of a fine mist. The portion not in
the gaseous state may be gasified by the heat of the
cylinder if the engine has been running, and also
by the heat of compression. The ratio between the
amounts of fuel in the liquid and in the gaseous
state determines the ease of starting under stan-
dard conditions, and also the "flexibility" of the
engine whilst running at various loads and speeds.
The proportion volatilised depends upon the
vapour tension, a knowledge of which is essential
in the evaluation of motor spirits.
The author's instrument for determining the
vapour tension of motor spirits and motor spirit
mixtures consists of two tubes, of about 5 mm. bore
and about 800 mm. long, connected to each other
and to a levelling bottle containing mercury, by
means of a Y-piece and thick-walled rubber tubing.
Both tubes are clamped vertically and possess
mercury-sealed cocks at their upper ends, and one
is surrounded by a water jacket containing a ther-
mometer, so that its temperature can be regulated.
When the levelling bottle is raised and the cocks
opened, mercury fills the tubes, and on closing the
cocks and lowering the levelling bottle two baro-
metric colums are formed.
To make a determination the cup on the jacketed
tube is filled with motor spirit and a small measured
amount passed into the tube, sufficient mercury
being then placed in the cup to ensure an effective
seal. The levelling bottle is lowered, and the
difference in height of the mercury in the two limbs
observed. This measures the vapour pressure of
the spirit. In accurate work it is necessary to
ma ke a correction for the density of the mercury.
The laws governing vapour tensions of mixed sub-
stances are somewhat complex, and a mixture of
two soluble substances may have a vapour tension
either lower or greater than that of either con-
stituent, or which may even approach the sum of
34 B
REVIEW.
[Jan. 31, 1920.
the individual vapour tensions. Cases in which
the latter phenomenon is shown are of extreme im-
portance to the student of motor fuels, as any
method of raising vapour tension is of great value.
In cases where the vapour tension exceeds the re-
quired value there may be found plenty of cheap
fuels which can bo added to bring about the neces-
sary reduction in volatility. Graphs showing the
vapour pressures of mixtures of alcohol-benzene and
alcohol-petrol at various temperatures accompanied
the paper.
LIVERPOOL.
A paper was read by Major F. E. Everington on
" Limes and Some Other West Indian Products," at
the meeting held on January 16. After reviewing
the importance of the lime as a source of citric acid,
and pointing out that by far the greater quantity
of the acid used in this country was prepared in
Germany, the author emphasised the value of the
West Indies for growing limes and the need of
manufacturing the acid from the juice in this
country. He then described the cultivation of
the lime, the preparation of the lime oil, both by
milling by hand and by machinery, and the manu-
facture of the concentrated juice and of calcium
citrate. The lecturer then dealt with the cultiva-
tion of cassava and the details of the preparation
of starch, tapioca, dextrin, and glucose from its
roots, as well as the utilisation of the waste pro-
ducts as food for animals. The value of cassava as
a source of starch in comparison with the potato
was shown by crop statistics and analyses of the
starch contents of the two materials, cassava being
markedly superior. Brief references were also
made to cocoa, vanilla, and some other products.
EDINBURGH.
An informal meeting was held on January 13,
with Dr. D. S. Jerdan in the chair.
The meeting opened with a discussion on several
points regarding the progress of the Society which
had been raised by the President and Dr. Longstaff
during a recent visit to Edinburgh, and various
means were discussed by which the popularity of
the meetings and the membership of the Section
might be increased.
Mr. B. D. W. Luff then read a note on " The
Solubility of Nitro-cellulose in Methyl Alcohol "
which showed that the solubility was not due to the
presence of acetone as is commonly supposed, but
that nitro-celluloso would dissolve in the pure
alcohol.
Mr. B. D. Porritt read a paper on " The Action
of Halogens on Rubber," dealing with the matter
in the first instance from the historical standpoint.
The action of halogens on raw and vulcanised
rubber was then considered in detail, and also the
possibility of using the formation of the tetra-
bromide as a means of estimating the amount of
rubber in crude samples. The method, however,
is rendered inaccurate by the presence of other
organic products in the rubber which may take part
in the reaction with chlorine. In vulcanised rubber
the presence of from 2 to 3'5 per cent, of combined
sulphur introduces some uncertainty as to the
accurate figure for the bromine content of the fully
saturated caoutchouc tetrabromide. Mr. Porritt
also gave a description of the attempts which have
recently beeu made to make a lacquer for substances
exposed to acids, alkalis and chlorine, and similar
corrosive influences, by the action of chlorine on
rubber dissolved in some solvent such as carbon
tetrachloride.
Dr. A. C. dimming read a note on " The Manu-
facture of Potassium Iodide," dealing especially
with the reasons for the discoloration of the salt
so frequently observed.
Mr. D. B. Dott read a note on "An Acid Sul-
phate of Strychnine," and showed that the acid
salt on re-crystallisation from water loses acid and
gradually becomes converted into the normal salt.
Ho drew attention to the danger in the case of
such a powerful drug as strychnine of the use of a
salt of variable composition, and expressed the
opinion that on account of its greater solubility and
neutrality the normal salt only should be used in
medicine.
There was a good attendance of members, and
an interesting discussion followed the reading of
the papers.
MEETINGS OF OTHER SOCIETIES.
FARADAY, ROYAL MICROSCOPICAL, OPTI-
CAL AND PHOTOMICROGRAPHIC SOCIETIES.
A joint meeting of the Faraday Society, the Royal
Microscopical Society, the Optical Society and the
Photomicrographic Society was held on the 14th
inst. at the rooms of the Royal Society. The meet-
ing consisted of two parts : an exhibition of micro-
scopes and accessories, and a series of papers on
microscopy.
Amongst the exhibits was a new form of illu-
minator for opaque specimens, consisting of an
annular electric lamp which surrounds the objec-
tive. It is claimed that many objects, particularly
in metallographic work, are shown much more
clearly by this type of illumination than by the
ordinary vertical or normal illumination. The
exhibits also included many forms of microscopes,
both for visual and photographic work, and a
number of different forms of illumination, including
small oil, acetylene, gas and electric lamps. Various
filters, lenses, etc., were also shown. Although only
indirectly connected with microscopy, mention must
be made of the crystal models exhibited by Miss
Nina Hoselli. These very beautiful models are
arranged to show the various development of crystal
forms round the different axes of symmetry, and
are made of coloured threads stretched across wire
supports and mounted in glass cases, the latter
representing one of the possible crystal forms.
Microscopists have been divided into " Brass
and Glass Men " and " Bug and Slug Men," and
the division was apparent in the papers which were
read at the meeting, though in many cases, more
particularly perhaps in the papers emanating from
the metallurgists, there was a decided tendency to
bridge the gap between the two classes, as, for ex-
ample, in the excellent contributions by Prof.
Desch and by Dr. Rosenhain on the metallurgical
microscope, and by Dr. Willows on the microscopic
outfit of a textile research laboratory.
There appeared to be a substantial unanimity,
both among the authors of papers and the members
who took part in the discussions, that for photo-
micrography the best source of illumination either
was, or would shortly be, a tungsten arc, or Pointo-
lite lamp. As at present made, the lamp is hardly
poworful enough for use with high magnifications,
but larger types — up to 4000 candle power — have
recently been put on the market. For low powers
the half-watt cone filament lamp, as manufactured
for motor-car head lights, has proved satisfactory.
A considerable amount of divergence of opinion
was expressed as to whether the apochromat lens
was necessary for the highest quality work in metal-
lurgical photomicrography. Some workers con-
sidered that the flatter field given by a good achro-
mat more than compensated for the less good colour
correction of the latter type, the bad effects of
which could be eliminated by the use of a suitable
Vol XXXIX., No. 2.]
REVIEW.
35 B
light filter. The majority of the speakers, how-
ever, appeared to he decidedly of the opinion that
better results were obtainable by the use of apoch-
romatic objectives.
The question of magnification was much dis-
cussed, many speakers emphasising the fact that
resolution was of far greater importance than mere
magnification, which indeed would be harmful if
carried too far. In this connexion reference may
be made to tho photographs in the paper by Sir
Robert Hadfield and Mr. Elliott, some of which
were magnified 5000, and one 8000 diameters. A
paper on the work of Sorby, and a general review of
the subject, particularly from the metallographic
point of view, were contributed by Sir Robert Had-
field, president of the Faraday Society; a general
survey of microscopy by Mr. J. E. Barnard, pre-
sident of the Royal Microscopical Society, and a
paper on the history and design of photomicro-
graphic apparatus by Mr. Duncan, president of the
Photomicrographic Society, were also read.
THE CERAMIC SOCIETY.
At the monthly meeting on January 12, dis-
cussion took place on " Unestimated Losses in
Pottery Manufacture." Dr. J. W. Mellor opened
with some remarks on what he termed " Works
Blindness," which he characterised as a kind of
disease attended by the blunting of the observa-
tional powers due to constant association with a
particular works or process. One instance quoted
had reference to the appearance of ferruginous
specks in ware produced at a certain factory where
the condition of the stores department for raw
materials was regarded with special pride. On visit-
ing the store-room, Dr. Mellor promptly perceived
the presence of a rusty iron bracket in a prominent
position, and also a rusty gas pipe running round
the room. No doubt the managers and foremen, if
they had visited another works, would have noticed
anything of the kind at once.
Mr. A. Fielding stated that many unestimated
losses were taking place from want of attention to
details, from carelessness, from want of adequate
supervision, or in some cases from want of know-
ledge, the last being almost inevitable because of
the large number of subjects which had some bear-
ing on operations carried on in a pottery. Engines
and boilers were often sources of loss through being
unsuitable or not properly worked. A good stoker
can save more money than tho engine man, as there
is no need to send out clouds of black smoke. Ex-
travagance in the use of steam accounted for some
unestimated losses, especially in the absence of
records to check the working of the engine. Defec-
tive valves, etc., also give rise to losses. Another
source of loss was the running off of the condensed
water, instead of using it (freed, if necessary, from
oily matter) for charging the boiler. The use of a
jug instead of a proper oil-can for lubricating pur-
poses wastes much material. Loss is also sustained
through letting waste heat escape instead of
utilising it. Other losses arise from not showing
due regard for cleanliness, as in unloading clay etc.
on a dirty floor, so that some of the material cannot
be used.
Most (if not all) of the foregoing considerations
apply to other factories as well as to potteries.
The Institute of Metals. — The list of forth-
coming meetings issued by this Institute bears
U'itness to the progress that is being made, for in
addition to the ordinary meetings to be held in
London, fixtures have been arranged in connexion
with the local sections at Birmingham, Sheffield, and
Scotland. The annual general meeting will be
held on March 11 and 12, at the Institution of
Mechanical Engineers, Storey's Gate, Westminster.
The membership of the Institute is now over 1200.
THE ROYAL INSTITUTION.
The first Friday Evening Discourse of the present
session was delivered on January 16 last by Sir
James Dewar on "Low Temperature Studies."
After remarking that the present year marks the
coming of age of the Dewar vacuum vessel, the
lecturer proceeded to describe an experimental
method whereby the relative transparencies
or diathermancies of various materials to low tem-
perature radiation may be compared at the
temperature of liquid oxygen. Liquid oxygen was
shown to be highly transparent to such radiation.
A thin membrane of indiarubber is similarly trans-
parent. The physical properties of such thin india-
rubber membranes at the temperature of liquid
oxygen render such membranes eminently suitable
for the construction of a device capable of serving as
a low-temperature thermoscope. Essentially, the
device consists of a number of carbon particles of
linear dimensions of the order of 0'5 mm. resting
upon a support of chiffon and contained within
a receptacle which is closed above by a thin rubber
membrane. The receptacle is connected with a
delicate manometer and, when desired, a trap-door
device can be lowered above the rubber membrane,
effectively shutting off the carbon granules from all
outside radiation. Inordertosecureeffectivethermal
insulation the device is immersed in liquid oxygen
contained in a vacuum vessel, the latter being sur-
rounded by a vessel containing liquid air. The
liquid oxygen must be free from particles of solid
ice or carbon dioxide; if present, they are removed
by lowering into it a crystal of uranium nitrate.
Owing to the pressure developed in the uranium
nitrate crystal, consequent upon its cooling, it
becomes electrified and the ice and solid carbon
dioxide crystals become attached to it and are
easily removed. The inner surface of the vessel con-
taining liquid oxygen is covered with black paper,
which serves to absorb any stray radiation. When
low-temperature radiation, transmitted through
the superincumbent liquid oxygen, is incident upon
the carbon granules, an alteration in the volume of
gas occluded by the charcoal occurs, and the conse-
quent change of pressure in the enclosure contain-
ing the granules is indicated by the manometric
device, and serves as an indication of the intensity
of radiation incident upon the granules. The device
is capable of detecting a change of temperature of
the enclosure of the order of 00005° C. When
applied to the measurement of the relative trans-
parencies of various media to radiation at the tem-
perature of liquid oxygen it is found that quartz
is very much less transparent to radiation at such
low temperatures than at ordinary atmospheric
temperature. The fourth-power law of radiation
emission holds equally well for low temperature
radiation as for high temperature emission.
Experiments on the transparency of rock salt in
the massive, crushed and compressed forms show
that when the mass is crushed, moistened with
brine, and subsequently compressed, the small
crystals are separated by strongly adhesive films of
water which no amount of pressure can remove.
The relative transparencies of various substances
are indicated as follows: — Hydrogen chloride,
! 10"6% ; sulphur dioxide, 20% ; ammonia, 4% ; carbon
| tetrachloride, 33% ; carbon oxysulphide, 53% ;
phosphorus, 76%. The following numbers indicate
the respective transparencies to low-temperature
radiation of some compressed solids: — Iodine, 38% ;
benzoic acid, 7%; camphor, 9%. The substitution
! of hydrogen by nitrogen in organic substances
results in the transparency of the body to low-
i temperature radiation being considerably reduced.
'' Isomers can readily be detected by the method of
[ diathermancy measurement, for in general the
j transparencies of isomers are markedly different.
In conclusion the lecturer deprecated very
strongly the present-day demand for utility in all
REVIEW.
[Jan. 31, 1920.
activities, and entered a strong plea for the sup-
port of the scientific work of the Institution. Our
world position would never be maintained if we
were impelled solely by utilitarian motives. Pure
science must be fostered. Scientific men must make
science attractive to the world, and must themselves
attract the world to it.
THE CHEMICAL SOCIETY.
On January 15 Sir J. J. Dobbie presided at an
ordinary scientific meeting, when two papers re-
lating to the constitution of coal were read by Dr.
R. Lessing, the one on the behaviour of banded
bituminous coal on coking, and the second on its
mineral constituents. The researches were under-
taken at the suggestion of Dr. Marie Stopes and
Dr. R. Y. "Wheeler, whose work on the constitution
of coal is well known to chemists (v. this J., 1918,
311 it; 1919, 452a).
The author's experiments were carried out on
samples of fusain, durain, clarain, and vitrain, iso-
lated by Dr. Stopes from a block of South Stafford-
shire bituminous coal. It will be remembered that
Tideswell and Wheeler submitted these constituents
to slow destructive distillation in vacuo, raising
the temperature by intervals of about 50° C. (Chem.
Soc. Trans., 1919, 619; this J., 1919, 614a). Dr.
Lessing distilled similar samples rapidly in a con-
fined space, viz., in a narrow quartz tube fitted with
a movable piston, and found that fusain did not
form coke, that durain showed little tendency to
. form it, and that clarain and vitrain gave a very
coherent coke (at 600° C). Coke from durain was
of a dull gray colour; that from clarain was
brownish with a bronze lustre, and that from
vitrain silver-gray and lustrous, like a high-class
metallurgical coke. At 900° C. the differences were
much more marked, particularly in regard to the
appearance of a crater or mushroom-like formation
on the surface of the coke from vitrain. The
author expressed the opinion that the differences in
coking quality were not due solely to the varying
content of organic matter, and he holds that the
process of coal formation was probably influenced
by the nature and amount of mineral matter
present, the latter perhaps acting catalytically.
In the second paper Dr. Lessing described the
ash obtained by incinerating the above-mentioned
coal constituents. The differences were very
marked, not only in colour, but also in regard to
quantity and composition. Thus fusain left
45 — 16% of ash, durain 5 — 7%, clarain and
vitrain, l'l — 1*2%. The solubility of the ash in
water and in hydrochloric acid was also investi-
gated and found to vary widely with the different
constituents. All the ashes were alkaline except
that from durain, which was neutral. Quantita-
tive examination disclosed notable differences in
composition, from which the author drew some in-
teresting speculative conclusions. Thus the very
high alumina content of durain ash (42%) might be
explicable on the assumption that this constituent
is derived mainly from lycopodia, the only known
plants which contain a high aluminium content;
and this inference is supported by the observation
that under the microscope durain is seen to contain
a great many spores in the plant matrix. It was
found, however, that the ratio Al20,:Si02 in durain
and fusain tallies with that in clay substance (0'85),
rather than with the average ratio in tho ash from
lycopodia (2'92), but the ratios for clarain and
vitrain come close to the latter. Similarly, the high
magnesium content of clarain may be associated
with the (unique) presence of leaf-tissue substance,
magnesium being a constituent of chlorophyll.
A good discussion followed, in which Dr. M.
Stopes (who exhibited microscopic slides of the coal
constituents and also remarked upon the very great
differences in their water content), Dr. H. G.
Colman, Dr. Alex. Scott, Mr. A. C. Chapman, and
Dr. R. H. Pickard took part.
INSTITUTION OF PETROLEUM TECHNO-
LOGISTS.
At the January meeting, a paper on " The Spon-
taneous Ignition Temperatures of Liquid Fuels "
was read by Mr. Harold Moore. Sir Frederick
Black, president, was in the chair.
A summary of previous investigations on this sub-
ject, which is one of the greatest interest to users
of internal combustion engines, showed the need
for an apparatus and technique capable of simple,
rapid and accurate operation. The author had
devised such an apparatus in which the fuel was
dropped into a cavity in a heated steel block, the
temperature of which could be controlled and deter-
mined with accuracy, a current of preheated air
or oxygen being simultaneously admitted. The
preliminary data published in 1917 had been aug-
mented, and a careful study had been made of the
influence of variation in the conditions employed
in the test, particularly as regards the quantity of
fuel and of oxygen used, the effect of dilution with
carbon dioxide and the catalytic action of the
material of the test cup, all these factors proving
of very small moment.
The spontaneous ignition temperatures in air and
in oxygen of a large number of fuels, including
crude petroleums and various distillates and resi-
duums derived from these, coal tars and distillates,
shale oils, alcohol and a selection of pure organic
compounds were tabulated, the most noteworthy
conclusions being: —
1. Among petroleum distillates the lightest pro-
ducts have the highest ignition temperature.
2. The same rule holds with coal-tar products,
but all aromatic compounds have ignition tempera-
tures very considerably higher than petroleum pro-
ducts of corresponding boiling point. Olefinic com-
pounds, such as cracked spirit, ignite at a lower
temperature than the corresponding saturated
hydrocarbons.
3. The temperature of spontaneous ignition in
oxygen is usally from 100° to 170° C. lower than in
air.
Some curves of great interest were shown illus-
trating the variation of spontaneous ignition tem-
perature with composition in the cases of various
mixtures of fuels, such as petrol-benzol and cannel
oil-creosote, and demonstrating that a small amount
of the component of low ignition point has a much
more notable effect than a considerable proportion
of the component of high ignition point.
The application of the data obtained in this
research to the question of the most suitable com-
pression-pressure for a specific fuel used in a Diesel
engine and the modifying effect of variations in
engine design and other influencing factors, was
discussed and illustrated by curves derived from
engine tests.
ASSOCIATION OF BRITISH CHEMICAL
MANUFACTURERS.
Attendance of Employees at Continuation
Schools.
A meeting was held recently at the offices of the
Association of British Chemical Manufacturers,
with Mr. W. J. U. Woolcock, M.P., in the chair,
for the purpose of discussing with Sir Robert Blair,
the Chief Education Officer of the London County
County, a scheme for Compulsory Day Continua-
tion Schools under the Education Act, 1919.
Sir R. Blair expounded the conditions under
which the Education Department of the London
County Council deemed it advisable for tho con-
Vol. XXXIX., No. 2 )
templatcd action to be taken. In view of the fact
that hitherto only some 20 per cent, of ex-elemen-
tary school pupils have attended evening schools,
a compulsory further education is now regarded as
ial. The Art requires that after a given day
(which will probably be July 31 or October 31 nest)
boya and girls who have attained 11 years of age
shall attend compulsory day continuation schools
for s hours a week for 40 weeks in the year, an
obligation which is to apply at first only to boys
and girls between 14 and 16, but after seven years
from the appointed day also to those between 16
and 18.
Owing to the circumstance that boys and girls may
live in one district and work in another, the pro-
blem of arranging the hours of attendance at these
schools is very difficult, but Sir R. Blair suggested
that two days of four hours each — either morning
or afternoon — would be the best solution. The
opinion of those present was that this method should
be adopted. There is also an obligation on the
part of the employer to allow sufficient time for the
boy and girl to reach the school and to be in a
fit physical condition to assimilate the instruction.
In regard to the chemical industry, Sir R. Blair
suggested that it might be advisable to establish
a chemical school where the pupils could not only
take general education, but also receive tuition in
chemistry. It is therefore necessary to ascertain
the number of boys and girls, within the specified
age limits, who are engaged in chemical works in
London, and he asked those present to endeavour
to supply this information. In answer to a ques-
tion put by the speaker as to the seasonal nature
of different branches of the chemical industry, the
meeting gave the following information: — Tar dis-
tilling, pharmaceutical and fine chemical branches :
-on, busy all the year round. Gas companies :
seasonal ; winter the heaviest time. Fertiliser
industry: seasonal; autumn, winter, spring busy;
summer slack.
As there are some 60,000 children leaving the
London elementary schools yearly, provision will
have to be made in continuation schools for 240,000
pupils when the Act comes into force. The problem
of providing accommodation and teachers will there-
fore give considerable trouble to the local authori-
ties, who are responsible for carrying out the pro-
visions of the Act. Sir R. Blair suggested that if a
firm had a sufficient number of boys and girls of
the proper age in its employ, the question of pro-
viding a school room on the premises should be
considered, and if the firm also had on its staff
adults capable of giving the requisite teaching, the
necessity of boys and girls attending separate com-
pulsory continuation day schools could in this way
be obviated. A private works school would lie
recognised by the authorities, provided the curricu-
lum and the number of pupils were held to be satis-
factory by the Local Education Authority.
It was very important to consider whether the
boys and girls who will leave the elementary schools
at the end of each term — estimated at 15,000 —
should be exempt from continuation schools by
attending full-time schools. In response to various
questions, Sir Robert Blair said that secondary and
central schools would be most suitable for full-time
education.
Employers appear to have the right to refuse
to employ children under the age of 16.
The chairman referred to the question of the
number of boys and girls employed in chemical
factories in the London area, and the opinion of
those prc-ent was that approximately 15 per cent.
of the total number of employees would be boys and
girls between 14 and 18 years of age. It was there-
fore estimated that provision would have to be
made for 3,000 pupils engaged in the chemical
industry in the London area. In the case of gas
companies it was estimated that the percentage was
about 10 — 12.
On the subject of the curriculum, Sir R. Blair
said that physical education must be pursued in
the first two years. Boys from 14-16 years of age
would be instructed in writing, English, some Eng-
lish literature, history and geography; and from
16-18, in mathematics, science and some definite
technical subject relating to the trade in which they
were engaged.
PERSONALIA.
Prof. W. A. Noyes has been elected president of
the American Chemical Society for 1920.
The death is announced of Dr. J. H. Wilson, lec-
turer in agriculture in the University of St.
Andrews.
Dr. Edwin Deller has been elected Assistant
Secretary of the Royal Society, in succession to
Mr. R. Harrison.
Prof. R. Willstatter, of Munich, has accepted the
chair of chemistry in the University of Berlin,
vacant by the death of Emil Fischer.
Prof. W. Nernst, director of the Institute of
Physical Chemistry in Berlin, has been elected a
foreign member of the Swedish Academy of Sciences
in Stockholm.
Mr. A. C. J. Charlier, president of the National
Association of Industrial Chemists, has been re-
elected president of the Federation of Technical
and Scientific Associations.
The Perkin Medal awarded annually by the
American Section (late New York Section) of the
Society of Chemical Industry is being awarded this
year to Dr. Charles F. Chandler for his work on
the standardisation of kerosene.
The William H. Nichols Medal of the American
Chemical Society is to be awarded to Dr. Irving H.
Langmuir for his paper on " The Arrangement of
Electrons in Atoms and Molecules," which has been
adjudged the outstanding feature of the publica-
tions of the Society during the past year.
Dr. T. F. Sibly, professor of geology at Arm-
strong College, Newcastle-on-Tyne, has been ap-
pointed principal of the Swansea Technical College.
This college, which has recently been affiliated to
the University of Wales, has departments of
chemistry, metallurgy, mathematics, physics, and
engineering.
The following candidates were successful in the
examinations held bv the Institute of Chemistry in
January, 1920 :— Fellowship : G. B. Brook (Metal-
lurgical Chemistry); F. F. Beach, M.A., B.Sc.
(Food and Drugs, Fertilisers and Feeding Stuffs,
Soils and, Water). Associateship : H. H. Barber,
B.Sc: L. P. McHatton, A.R.C.S., and H. C. S.
de Whalley (Organic Chemistry) ; J. Haycock and
Miss E. E! Sparling (Food and Drugs, etc.).
Colonel Sir Frederic Nathan, recently officer in
control of alcohol under the Ministry of Munitions,
has been appointed Power Alcohol Investigation
Officer under the Fuel Research Board of the De-
partment of Scientific and Industrial Research.
The appointment is a direct consequence of a recom-
mendation made by the Inter-departmental Com-
mittee on the Production and Utilisation of Alcohol
for Power and Traction Purposes (this J , 1919,
250 r). A similar appointment is that of Prof.
Pierce Purcell, formerly secretary to the Irish Peat
Inquiry Committee, to act as Peat Investigation
Officer under the Fuel Research Board.
38 b
REVIEW.
[Jan. 31, 1920.
NEWS AND NOTES.
CANADA.
A New Mineral Dye Industry in Ontario. — A new
company, named the Mineral Dye Products, Ltd.,
will shortly be producing pigments at Trenton,
Ontario, the mineral being derived from a property
near the Rideau Canal, 18 miles from Ganonoque.
It is reported that the company has perfected pro-
cesses for the manufacture of high-grade mineral
dyes for woollens, silks, etc., as well as for the paper
industry. It will also probably manufacture
paints.
Iron Ore Deposits in British Columbia. — The iron
ore deposits on the coast of British Columbia are
shortly to be investigated under the auspices of the
Provincial and Dominion Governments. Mean-
while representatives of an English steel firm are
prospecting privately and have notified the Depart-
ment of Mines of British Columbia that if the
deposits are found to be as stated, the firm will
finance the erection of iron and steel works in the
vicinity of Vancouver and build the necessary rail-
way.— (Official.)
AUSTRALIA.
Reward for Oil Discovery. — Following a recent
meeting of the Federal Cabinet the Prime Minister
(Mr. W. M. Hughes) made the following announce-
ment:— "The Commonwealth Government has
decided to offer a reward of £10,000 for the dis-
covery of oil in commercial quantities in Australia."
Presumably this refers to free mineral oil
(petroleum), which has long been sought in various
parts of Australia without much of a practical
nature resulting, although traces of oil have been
discovered in several places.
In New South Wales oil-bearing shales have been
worked to a limited extent for many years, and
similar deposits are known to exist in some other
of the States. The Shale Oil Bounty Act of 1917
provides for the payment of bounty on crude shale
oil produced in Australia from local shale at rates
ranging from 2Jd. to lid. per gallon according
to the quantity produced, the amount to be so ex-
pended by August, 1921, being limited to £67,500.
In Papua the Common weal th Government has spent
much money in putting down bores and testing
likely fields. Oil is undoubtedly present, but whether
in commercial quantities has yet to be proved.
Arrangements have lately been made to spend a
further £100,000 in boring operations, the Imperial
Government finding half the money. — (Hardware &
Machinery, Nov., 1919.)
BRITISH INDIA.
Indigo Crop Statistics. — The area under indigo cul-
tivation is officially estimated at 233,800 acres, the
total yield at 37,100 cwts., and the average yield at
18 lb. per acre. The corresponding estimates for
the previous year, 1918-19, were 296,200 acres,
43,800 cwts., and 17 lb. respectively.
Forest Research Institute. — We have pleasure in
inserting the following communication received
from the President of the Forest Research Institute,
Dehra Dun: — There are now special opportunities
of developing the forest resources of India. Both
the Government of India and Provincial Govern-
ments have already taken measures to inaugurate
new industries, and a special staff is being organ-
ised to deal with the commercial undertakings that
have already been or are rapidly being established.
Delays are inevitable in communicating with manu-
facturers of plant and equipment, and it is there-
fore proposed to open a library of catalogues and
price lists in the Economic Branch of the Forest
Research Institute. The Forest Economist will be
pleased to receive and circulate among inquirers
catalogues, etc., dealing with every branch of equip-
ment used in forest industries. It is hoped that
firms will help in establishing and maintaining this
library by contributions in duplicate of catalogues,
pamphlets, etc., as they are issued.
UNITED STATES.
Wool as Filtering Material. — Experience gained
during the war in industries using magnesium
chloride, tungstic acid, aluminium sulphate, Epsom
and Glauber's salts, etc., shows that such materials
can be filtered through woollen filter pads. These
have the advantage over cotton in that they can be
washed repeatedly and re-used ; but, of course, they
cannot be used for alkaline substances.
Horse Flesh in Human Dietary. — In his presidential
address to the Association of Official Agricultural
Chemists, Dr. P. F. Trowbridge discussed the
economic gain which would result from the use of
some two million undersized horses in the United
States for food purposes, and produced a sample of
dried horse flesh prepared in his laboratory which
compared very favourably with the best grades of
dried beef. It was the opinion of many of those
who sampled both materials that the dried horse
flesh prepared from an animal twelve years of age
was not only more tender, but of better flavour than
the best grades of dried beef. Notwithstanding
such successful demonstrations, it will doubtless
take many years to overcome existing prejudice
against unusual foods.
Potash from Searles Lake. — Owing to the high
borax content of the potash produced at Searles
Lake, the Department of Agriculture has found it
necessary to place restrictions on the use of potash
salts containing borax, so that not more than two
pounds of anhydrous borax may be applied per
acre. Instructions have been issued to fertiliser
manufacturers and mixers not to sell potash salts
direct to farmers when they contain more than
five-tenths of one per cent, of borax, nor to sell
mixed fertilisers containing more than two pounds
of borax per ton. If these restrictions are complied
with it is thought that no danger whatever will
attend the use of Searles Lake potash salts. In
view of the possibilities of Searles Lake it is un-
fortunate that any material should have been used
carrying damaging amounts of borax, as it is feared
that it will be some time before the prejudice
created can be overcome.
The Dangers of Wood Alcohol Consumption. — At the
invitation of the American Chemical Society, Dr.
Reid Hunt, head of the department of pharma-
cology in the Medical School of Harvard University,
has written a bulletin with the object of exposing
the dangers attending the consumption of wood
alcohol in beverages sold to the public. After em-
phasising the difficulty of distinguishing wood
spirit from ethyl alcohol outside of the laboratory,
Dr. Hunt adduces pharmacological evidence in
support of the contention that the action of the
former on the animal organism is fundamentally
different from that of the latter. Whereas ethyl
alcohol is oxidised rapidly to water and carbon
dioxide, and any excess of it is eliminated by the
kidneys and lungs, wood alcohol remains in the
organism as such for a considerable time and is
then slowly converted into formic acid, and possibly
also formaldehyde. The alcohol and its conversion
products attack the brain and other organs, causing
death or blindness. Toxicity is a specific property
of the alcohol, and although the fatal dose varies
with individuals, its deadly nature is evident from
the fact that of a group of 130 men who drank a
Vol XXX1X.,>0 2.)
REVIEW.
39 r
mixture of wood and grain alcohol all but 32 died
or became blind. (C/. this J., 1916, 795 et seq.,
191S, 26 t.)
Metallurgical Notes. — A new refractory brick
has made its appearance. It is a metal-
encased magnesia brick which can be used in
place of magnesia or silica brick in parts
of furnaces. Rectangular or circular soft steel
casings, open at both ends, are rammed full of
high grade, dead-burned magnesite, and when
properly dried the bricks are ready for use without
having been burned. The bricks are laid as headers
with either open end next the heat. No cement is
used in laying the rectangular bricks, but magnes-
ite La used in the case of the circular ones. In use
the steel container melts back from the surface for
a short distance and impregnates the dead-burned
magnesite which it encloses. The surface becomes
practically monolithic, and the tendency to spall
is thereby greatly lessened.
A satisfactory substitute for the bath of melted
cyanide ordinarily employed for case hardening has
been invented by P. W. Shimer. The bath consists
of a fusion of such materials as sodium chloride,
calcium chloride, and barium chloride, into which
selected lumps of fresh calcium cyanamide, com-
posing 5 per cent, by weight of the bath, are intro-
duced, preferably in a basket. As soon as the
cyanamide is introduced there is an active evolution
of gas, and so long as this continues to eseape the
bath is in proper condition for use. The hardening
obtained is perfectly satisfactory, the expense of
operating the bath is less than with cyanide, and
obviously the danger is removed.
FRANCE.
A French " Chemistry House." — Arrangements are
now in hand for the founding of a central institu-
tion, to be called " La Maison de la Chimie," which
will house all the important chemical societies and
at the same time form a rendez-vous for the carry-
ing out of business transactions. The " Maison "
will be located in the heart of Paris and will extend
hospitality to all members of the chemical profession
resident in foreign parts. It is further suggested
that the premises will afford the most suitable
meeting-place of the International Union for Pure
and Applied Chemistry.
The Coke Problem in the Metallurgical Industry. —
Official statistics show the production of pig iron
during the first half of 1919 to have been 1,000,428
tons, including 450,697 tons from Alsace-Lorraine ;
this represents about 22 per cent, of the production
in 1913. Some of the blast furnaces started up in
July last had to be slowed down owing to the acute
shortage of coke. In November last the Lorraine
works were supplied with this material at the rate
of 6000 tons a day, and the works elsewhere at the
rate of 1140 tons a day. As one means of remedy-
ing the shortage, the big iron masters are working
to secure the abolition of the syndicates of coal mer-
chants which have hitherto practically monopolised
the supply of fuel to the metallurgical industry.
" La Societe des Acieries de Longwy " set a notable
example in this direction by taking a leading part
in the formation of a company — " La Societe Lor-
raine de Carbonisation " — with the object of erect-
ing a coking plant at d'Auby, near Douai. The
Longwy company has a 58 per cent, interest in the
new undertaking, and expects to obtain from it a
yearly supply of 145,000 tons of coke. The Longwy
company, in conjunction with four other metallur-
gical firms, has erected another coke installation at
Sluiskill, on the Scheldt, in Holland. These works,
which are supplied with British coal, have an out-
put capacity of 300,000 tons of coke per annum,
which may eventually be increased to 500,000 tons.
The Longwy company has, further, acquired a large
interest in the Gewerkschaft Carl Alexander, near
Aachen, where a rich deposit of coal covering some
3,650 hectares exists. In this way French metal-
lurgical firms are extending their interests both at
home and abroad in order to safeguard their fuel
supplies.
Fuel Economy. — Another step towards economy in
fuel consumption is the foundation of L' Office de
Chauffe Bationelle, an organisation with Govern-
ment support, which, amongst other things, has
established a school of instruction for stokers and
firemen, and which also acts in a consultative
capacity to engineers. Attached to it is a research
laboratory in which much useful work has already
been accomplished.
SWEDEN.
War-time Chemical Industries and their Prospects. —
In an informative paper read before the Sixth
General Swedish Chemical Congress, Alf. Larsson
referred to the difficult problem of fuel supplies for
the Swedish industry. The output of the Swedish
coal mines is equal to about 300,000 tons of English
coal, and that of the peat industry to about 280,000
tons. The consumption in 1914 was 5,076,000 tons
of coal. Wood is abundant, but it is considered un-
economical to burn it, as it she aid be converted
into wood pulp. The recently opened mine of
bituminous mineral at Billingen should be useful,
and the Strehlenerts process of manufacturing a
powdered fuel from the spent liquors of the sulphite
wood-pulp mills is considered to be promising. The
increase in wages and the shortening of the working
day from 9 — 10 to 8 hours are estimated to increase
average production costs by 11 per cent.
The wood tar industry has been of great import-
ance during the war, as it has supplied the country
with substitutes for lubricating oil and grease,
motor oil, linseed oil for painting, fat for soap
making, oil for electric transformers, printing oil,
and paraffin for matches. These war-time indus-
tries have, however, now ceased, and manufacturers
are asking for protective duties, especially against
imports. From the spent liquor of the sulphite
pulp mills there have been produced glue, lime, and
tannin. Twenty plants for making spirit from
these sulphite lyes have been erected, and these are
producing about 20,000,000 litres yearly of 100 per
cent, alcohol. Great difficulties have been placed in
the way of the utilisation of this spirit for indus-
trial purposes by official restrictions and temperance
legislation.
Lack of fat was one of the greatest difficulties o£
the war period both for the people and industry.
Rape, mustard, and flax have been cultivated, butt
insufficiently. The straw of rape has been treated!
with good results to make pulp. Two modern oil
factories — in Karlshamn and Kalmar — were
erected during the war, and table oil from native
seed is now produced in Sweden. A new plant for
utilising the fat from carcases, fish residues, etc.,
to produce industrial fat and feeding meal for
cattle, was built in Malmoe, and works satisfac-
torily even now. A fat-hardening works was erected
in Sundsvall, where electrolytic hydrogen from alkali
manufacture was available. A plant for making
trichlorethylene was also erected and is still run-
ning at Hudiksvall. Carbon bisulphide is produced
at a new electrical plant in Trollhattan.
During the most severe period of the war wood
pulp was used advantageously for feeding cattle ; if
suitably prepared it is a good substitute for oats
and hay.
Saccharin and crystalose have been made by A/B
Svensk Fargamnesindustri, Sodertelge, which also
manufactures drugs and organic dyestuffs.
The manufacture of Swedish matches was nearly
stopped owing to lack of phosphorus and paraffin.
A/B for Kemisk and Elektrokemiskproduktion, at
Trollhattan, however, started to make phosphorus
in electrical furnaces from apatite, and produced
100 tons in 1917. Another factory, A/B Reduktor,
at Gullspang, was started later. These two firms
REVIEW.
have been bought out by the Swedish Match Trust
CSvenska Tandstieks A/B), and the Swedish match
industry is now assured of a sufficient home supply
of phosphorus. . , |
The production of chromium salts has been
started in two plants, and it is believed that these
will produce sufficient for the Swedish market.
Hoganas-Billesholms A/B has an experimental
plant running for producing oxide of aluminium
from fire-clay and, eventually, metallic aluminium.
Another method (electrolytic) for making alumina
from clav is under investigation.
Tannin extracts are produced at two factories
one started before the war in Yastervik, and a new
one in Landskrona— and both utilise Swedish and
imported raw materials.
Distillation of oil from shale has been started on
large scale at Kinnekulle, but an import duty is
required to ensure its continuance.
The production of calcium carbide has been in-
creased enormously during the war, owing to the
great scarcity of paraffin oil and stearin for candie
manufacture. Part of it has been used for making
calcium nitrate, the fertiliser. A plant for pro-
ducing sulphate of ammonia from nitrate of lime as |
raw material has been started at Ljungaverken.
Bleaching powder was imported before 1914; now I
three factories are running, and three others are i
producing sodium hypochlorite for bleaching wood '
pulp. At Trollhiittan a cyanide works (2000 kw.)
has been started satisfactorily. The method is
supposed to consist of heating in an electrical fur-
nace a mixture of potash felspar and coal in a
current of nitrogen.
Only one small plant for the fixation of atmo-
spheric nitrogen by the Birkeland-Eyde process is
in operation, but a* new process of the A/B Kvave-
industri is undergoing a large-scale test at Gothen-
burg. The results are being kept secret.
Chlorates of potassium and sodium are made in
Trollhattan by Hamilton and Hansell (1000 kw.).
Another plant is running at Alby. Perchlorates
are made at a factory at Trollhattan (Stockhohns
Superfosfat A/B, 2000 kw.), part of the output
being used for producing the new high explosive
" Carlsonite," which consists of ammonium per-
chlorate with TNT and dinitronaphthalene. The
production of " nitrolite," a war-time explosive
with a low content of nitroglycerin, will probably
soon be abandoned.
Electrolytic refining of copper from scrap and
brass, as well as from copper ore, is now carried on
at three new works.
During the war plants for the electrical smelting
of zinc and lead, started several years ago, proved
of great value for furnishing the Scandinavian in-
dustry with these metals. A new plant for pro-
ducing magnesium and another for making sodium
metal have been started. Graphite for lubrication
and electrode manufacture is made at a new
plant in Trollhattan. At this place, which pos-
Bessee a hydro-electric station near the excellent
harbour of Gothenburg, a new company, A/B
Alkaliverken, was formed to make sulphuric acid
and alkali from sodium bisulphate or sulphate.
An experimental plant for the electrolytic pre-
cipitation of iron in basic solution by the Estelles
system is running. The result, however, is not
known.
Elmoverkens A/B, at Almhut, started in 1917
with a paid-up capital of 3,000,000 kronor (about
£170,000), makes high quality glass, especially
lenses, and will probably render Sweden inde-
pendent of foreign supplies.
The above shows that the Swedish chemical in-
dustry has developed on many new lines during
t lie recent past, and that the country will be eco-
nomically more independent than formerly. (See
also this J., 1919. 9r. 28 b. 88 r. 115 r, 210 r, 352 r,
445 r, 457 R.)
GENERAL.
British Dye Purchases in Germany. — A mission, con-
sisting of representatives of the most important
dye-users' organisations, has proceeded to Germany
in order to purchase large supplies of fine dyes
needed by British colour users. The mission has
been sent with the full knowledge and approval of
the Board of Trade, but the Government is not in
any way responsible for the financing of the pur-
chases. The Board of Trade has intimated that
the quantity of dyes to which British users are en-
titled under the reparation clauses of the Peace
Treaty will probably be substantially in excess of
the 1500 tons stated, and that the purchases now
being made will be in addition to whatever amount
may be received under that treaty.
Proposed Synthetic Ammonia Plant. — The Times of
January 17 announced that the rights of the new
French Claude process for synthesising ammonia
(see this J., 1920, 61 a) have been secured for the
United Kingdom, South Africa, India, Australia,
and New Zealand by the Cumberland Coal, Power,
and Chemicals, Ltd., with which is associated an in-
fluential British financial group; and that it is in-
tended to proceed as soon as possible with the
erection of synthetic ammonia works on a large
scale in West Cumberland. The process devised by
M. Georges Claude is claimed to be an improvement
on that termed the Haber process, inasmuch
as by using pressures up to 1000 atmospheres
and not increasing the temperature, the yield
of ammonia is increased about fourfold, i.e.,
up to 50 per cent, of the theoretical, the
velocity of the reaction being increased pro-
portionately. It is also claimed that the total
power expenditure per ton of product is no greater
than is required with 200 atmospheres. The com-
pany mentioned has acquired 25,000 acres of coal
land near the proposed site of the new works, and
will, in the first place, erect a plant with an annual
output capacity of 50,000 tons of ammonium sul-
phate.
The Patents and Designs Act, 1919.— The Council of
the Chartered Institute of Patent Agents has issued
the following summary of the most important
alterations introduced into British patent law by
the passing of the new Act. Items numbered (6) and
(7) are not yet in force: —
(1) The period of provisional protection is in-
creased to nine months. Any application, there-
fore, accompanied by a provisional specification
and lodged subsequent to March, 1919, may be com-
pleted within nine months of the date of applica-
tion or by the payment of a fine, within ten months.
(2) The term of a patent is increased to sixteen
vears. This applies to all patents on applications
dated December 23, 1905, or later. The fees, if
any, to be paid for the fifteenth and sixteenth years
are not yet fixed.
(3) A patentee, other than a late enemy, who by
reason of the war has suffered loss or damage (in-
eluding loss of opportunity of dealing with or de-
veloping his invention owing to his having been
engaged in work of national importance connected
with the war) may apply in a simpler and cheaper
manner than was before possible for a prolongation
of the term of his patent, and the Court in con-
sidering the application, may have regard solely
to such loss or damage.
(4) Any person who has acquired or may acquire
by assignment, licence, or the like, any interest in
a patent or design, must register his interest at
the Patent Office.
(5) The grounds on which the grant of a patent
may be opposed are enlarged. Such grant may now
be opposed on the ground that the invention has
I been published in any document published in the
United Kingdom prior to the application.
Vol. XXXIX., .No. 2]
REVIEW.
(6) At am time aftei the sealing of a patent the
patentee may request the Comptroller to endorse
the patent with the words "Licences of right."
The Comptroller, on being satisfied that th*
patentee is not precluded from making such re-
quest, will so endorse the patent, and thereafter
.he patentee will only have to pay half the normal
renewal fees, but any person who wishes to use th?
invention will have the right to a licence on terms
to be settled by the Comptroller in default of agree-
ment between such persons and the patentee, anc\
the Comptroller may, in order to secure equality of
idvantage among several licensees, reduce the
royalties payable under an}- licence previousl7
granted.
(7) Somewhat drastic provisions as regards the
/rant of compulsory licences and revocation have
been substituted for Section 27 of the old Act, the
to-called "working" section.
I nder certain conditions publication of an
invention in a paper read before a learned society
does not invalidate a patent subsequently applied
for. This provision, however, is fraught with the
greatest danger and should not be taken advantage
of without professional advice.
(9) No person other than a registered patent
agent may now practise, describe or hold himself
out as a patent agent.
British Launderers' Research Association. — The
Secretary of the Department of Scientific and
Industrial Research announces that the Research
ition of the British Launderers' Industry has
been approved by the Department. The Association
is to be registered as a non-profit-sharing company.
Emil Fischer's Associations with Applied Chemistry.
— At a special meeting of the German Chemical
Society held on October 24, 1919, in memory of the
late Prof. Emil Fischer, Prof. C. Duisberg passed
under review his associations with applied chem-
istry.
Unlike Adolf v. Baeyer, Fischer had a keen
appreciation of chemical technology, and while it
is true that his researches were not undertaken
with any utilitarian motive he realised the necessity
of a liaison between pure and applied science. His
fidelity to pure science was shown in 1883, when he
refused the offer of the Badische Anilin- und Soda-
fabrik to succeed Caro as director of the scientific
laboratories with a salary of 100.000 marks. Fischer
was pre-eminent in matters of organisation. It was
due to his initiative that during the war the manu-
facture of nitric acid from ammonia derived from
atmospheric nitrogen was developed; likewise the
production of sulphuric acid from gypsum, of
glycerin by fermentation, and of synthetic rubber.
As chairman of the Foodstuffs Committee he
directed attention to the utilisation of straw, and
among other things he established the important
fact that stearic acid is digestible by man when dis-
solved in oils and fats.
Fischer's first investigations were concerned with
the coal tar dyes, more particularly with fluores-
cein and eosin. His discovery of phenylhydrazine
led Knorr to the discovery of antipyrine, and later
to that of pyramidon ; the importance of the hydra-
zines to the dye industry was instanced later by
the discovery of the tartrazins. The constitutions
of rosaniline and fuchsine were cleared up by his
work on hydrazine compounds, thus leading to
industrial progress in the triphenylmethane series
of dyes. Fischer first established direct contact
with industry in connexion with his well-known
work on the sugars, for he required so much acrolein
for the synthesis of the acroses that he was forced
to use a large-scale plant placed at his disposal by
the Hbchst dyeworks. His work on the purine
group led to the cheap production of theobromine
and theophylline. In conjunction with Mering, he
prepared veronal, the manufacture of which was
taken up by the Elberfeld and Hochst works, then
diphenylbarbituric acid, and subsequently adalin.
Fischer showed how bromine, iodine and arsenic
could be incorporated with compounds of a non-
toxic character, and, together with Mering, he
discovered " Sajodine," the calcium salt of di-
iodobehenic acid. His " Elarson " acquired great
importance in arseno-therapy during the war.
Immediately prior to the war Fischer was co-
operating with Carel in work connected with the
treatment of cancer, to which affliction he, by a
tragic fate, succumbed.
The " Interessengemeinsehaft " of the dye indus-
try has decided to erect statues to the memory of
Baeyer and Fischer in Munich and Berlin.
Phosphate in the Pacific Islands. — A Memorandum
presented to the New Zealand House of Represen-
tatives states that on Nauru Island there are
reserves of phosphate amounting to about
100.0)0,000 tons, sufficient to meet the world
demands for 200 years. The deposits on Makatea
Island are estimated at 30,000,000 tons, and,
together with those on Ocean Island and Christmas
Island, will probably be worked out within the
present generation. The phosphate on Nauru
Island is of the highest grade (85 — 86%), contains
little rock, and is easily mined. The average yearly
production is 150,000 tons, which could be increased
to 200,000 tons with present appliances. The New
Zealand Board of Agriculture considers that it
would be to the advantage of New Zealand if the
proposed agreement between the British Govern-
ment and the Governments of Australia and New
Zealand, for the administration of Nauru Island
and for the distribution of the phosphate, be
ratified.
Other Pacific Islands containing deposits of
phosphate of a varying degree of purity are Angaur
Island, Surprise Island, Clipperton Island, Walpole
Island, and Maiden Island. — (Bd. of Trade J.,
Dec, 18, 1919.)
GOVERNMENT OBDEfiS AND NOTICES.
EXPORT PROHIBITIONS.
The Board of Trade (Licensing Section) has noti-
fied the removal of the following articles from Lists
A or B of Prohibited Exports: — Palm kernels,
copra, groundnuts, palm-kernel oil, coconut oil,
groundnut oil, cottonseed cake, and cottonseed
meal.
The Board of Trade has issued instructions
(Cmd. 512, price Id.) regarding the conditions
under which trade may be carried on with Ger-
many, Turkey, Bulgaria, countries formerly in-
cluded in the Austro-Hungarian Empire, Norway,
Sweden, Denmark, Holland, Switzerland, Poland,
Finland, Esthonia, Lettland, and Lithuania.
Export Credits Scheme. — Rumania has been
added to the list of countries to which this scheme
applies (this J., 1919, 339 r, 381 r).
Industrial Explosives. — The Open General
Licence for the export of industrial explosives and
munitions for smooth-bore guns (this J., 1919, 481 R>
has been withdrawn, and another substituted
authorising exportation to: — British and French
Possessions and Protectorates, the United States,
South America, Japan and Korea, Asiatic Russia,
Fiance, Belgium, Spain, Portugal, Greece, Italy,
Serbia, Rumania, Norway, Sweden, Denmark, Hol-
land, and Switzerland. All destinations in the
Prohibited Areas are excepted, and for these an
export licence is required for all arms, ammunitions
and industrial explosives.
REVIEW.
[Jan. 31, 1920.
LEGAL INTELLIGENCE.
REPORT.
Caustic Soda Contract. The Produce Brokers Co.,
Ltd., v. Widenmann, Broicher and Co., Ltd.,
and Others.
In the King's Bench Division, on November 27,
before Mr. Justice Roche, the Produce Brokers
Co., Ltd., sought to recover damages against
Widenmann, Broicher and Co., Ltd., Mr. P. D.
Leake, accountant, and Cowan Bros., Ltd. (all of
London), for alleged breach of a contract by which
the plaintiffs sold to Widenmann, Broicher and Co.
300 tons of American caustic soda (76 — 78%) at £4o
per ton, for delivery in New York.
It was stated on behalf of the plaintiffs that the
original contract was with Widenmann, Broicher
and Co., Ltd., and delivery was to be by September
30, 1918. In August, 1918, it was ordered that
the business of Widenmann, Broicher and Co. in
the United Kingdom should be wound up, and the
second defendant, Mr. Leake, was appointed to
supervise the winding up. Mr. Leake sold the
business to Cowan Bros., and it was provided that
the buyers should take over the liabilities of Widen-
mann, Broicher and Co. After these events the
plaintiffs asked each of the defendants to take de-
livery of the soda which was ready in warehouse in
New York, but they did not do so, and the plaintiffs
had to sell against them, and in respect of the loss
they claimed £8647 damages.
Mr. Justice Roche entered judgment in favour
of the plaintiffs against Widenmann, Broicher and
Co. for £8504 7s. 7d., as claim and counterclaim
with costs. He entered judgment in favour of Mr.
Leake with costs and in favour of Cowan Bros., but
•without costs. The undertaking was given on
behalf of Cowan Bros, that they would not take
any steps to prevent the plaintiffs' claim being
satisfied out of the funds in the hands of the con-
troller. Liberty was given to apply to the judge in
regard to any future third-party proceedings.
On January 12, 1920, third-party proceedings
were brought by Messrs. Widenmann, Broicher and
Co. against Messrs. Cowan Bros, to recover an in-
demnity in respect of the sum awarded to them and
costs. Messrs. Cowan Bros. counter-claimed
damages for breach of warranty in consideration of
the sale by Leake on behalf of Widenmann of the
latter's business. When the purchase was nego-
tiated there was a visible profit for the year of
£6,768, but subsequently it was found that there
had been no profit at all, but a loss.
In the course of the proceedings it transpired
that there had been a big error in the balance-sheet,
whereupon it was agreed between the parties that
there should be judgment for the defendant, with
costs, the amount payable to be decided by the
judge. It was also agreed that Mr. Leake had
given no warranty when he negotiated the sale of
the business.
His lordship sanctioned the agreement arrived at.
Alleged Damage due to Picric Acid. Crow Nest
Estate v. Brookes' Chemicals, Ltd.
The hearing of this action was concluded in the
High Court on December 11, before Mr. Pollock,
Official Referee. The plaintiffs claimed damages in
respect of injury to the estate by noxious fumes and
pollution of a stream alleged to be caused by the
manufacture of picric acid at the defendants'
works at Lightcliffe, near Halifax. Defendants ad-
mitted that there was substantial pollution of the
stream at the date of the armistice, but contended
that there was no permanent damage, as claimed
by the plaintiffs. Mr. Pollock held that the claim
failed on the ground of permanent injury, and he
gave judgment for the defendants, with costs.
VITAMINES.
Report on the Present State of Knowledge
concerning Accessory Food Factors (Vita-
mines). Medical Research Committee, Special
Beport Series Mo. 38. (London: H.M. Station-
ery Office, 1919.) Price 4s. 6d.
The report of the Joint Committee on Accessory
Food Factors (Vitamines), appointed by the Medi-
cal Research Committee and the Lister Institute,
collects and brings up to date the existing know-
ledge on the subject. The introductory chapter
tells of the importance of these substances as food
constituents, an importance out of all relation with
the amounts in which they are normally consumed,
suggesting that they function rather as catalysts
than as sources of energy. Three of them are
clearly recognised, each having its own special
function and distribution among foodstuffs. It is
believed that they are formed only in the living
tissues of plants, whence they pass to those of her-
bivora, and thence to those of caruivora. Succeed-
ing chapters deal with the two main experimental
lines of attack that have been made on the subject,
the one line discovering the accessory food factors
as substances essential to the growth of young rats,
and the other revealing them as substances, in the
absence of which certain well defined diseases (" de-
ficiency diseases ") develop in human beings or in
animals. These two lines of research are more and
more converging and on many points they have
now met.
Dealing with the accessory food factors as sub-
stances necessary to growth, the first to formulate
any such concept was Lunin in 1881 ; later Hopkins
in 1906 made the same point, but it remained for
American workers to carry out the bulk of the
work from this aspect. As a result of their activi-
ties, two accessory growth factors were clearly de-
fined, in the absence of either of which rats cease
to grow, decline and die. The one, designated Fat
Soluble A by McCollum, is associated with animal
fats, particularly butter and codliver oil, but not
with lard or vegetable fats ; it is also present in
green leaves and the embryos of seeds. The second,
Water Soluble B, is associated with the embryo
and bran of cereals, the seeds of pulses, eggs,
yeast, meat and vegetables, it does not accompany
the butter fraction of milk, but remains behind
when the cream is removed. The Water Soluble B
is resistant to heat, only being destroyed slowly
even when heated under pressure at 122° C. for 2
hours; the Fat Soluble A also appears to be resist-
ant to heat in some conditions, but evidence on this
point seems scanty and conflicting.
In addition to these two, a third factor, the anti-
scorbutic factor, is also now recognised as neces-
sary for the optimum growth of rats. Its existence
was originally overlooked by the workers on growth
factors because it does not seem to be essential to
growth in rats. Careful experiment, however,
shows that it is necessary for optimum growth.
The second great line of work, dealing with the
accessory food factors as substances in whose ab-
sence the deficiency diseases develop, has eluci-
dated the etiology of scurvy and beriberi and put
them on a perfectly clear footing. Further, very
recent work which is recorded in a much later sec-
tion of the report, makes it clear that rickets is
also a deficiency disease, due to the lack of a speci-
fic accessory factor.
The distribution of the anti-beriberi and anti-
scurvy accessory food factors (vitamines) and their
behaviour towards heat and certain reagents is
fully set out and discussed. When these data are
carefuhV examined and compared with similar data
for the Fat Soluble A and the Water Soluble B
Vol. XXXIX, Xo. 2]
REVIEW.
43 b
factore, it becomes apparent that the two lines of
research have met and that the Water Soluble B
factor and the anti-beriberi vit amine are identical.
The anti scorbutic factor and the Fat Soluble A
factor, however, retain a perfectly clear and sep-
arate individuality.
Very detailed experiments by Delf are given
dealing with the resistance to heat of the anti-scor-
butic vitamine, which have practical importance in
connexion with the cooking of foods. The be-
haviour of the anti-scorbutic vitamine to heat has
led Delf to make a very interesting tentative sug-
gestion with regard to its composition; the co-
efficient shown for its rate of destruction on heat-
ing cabbage at various temperatures; is so low as
to suggest that it is not an enzyme-hke or protein
body, but some much simpler substance.
Two large sections of the report are devoted to
the application of the experimental work to the
practical problems of human diets, one section deal-
ing solely with the nutrition of children. These
chapters are perhaps the most interesting in the
report, but they do not lend themselves to conden-
sation in a short abstract. Numerous quotations
from human experience show how old dietary
puzzles resolve themselves in the light of the new
knowledge; how completely experiment and experi-
ence fit in and confirm one another; and how, as
the fruit of experiment, the right remedy is dis-
covered. The history of lime juice is a" case in
point (see this J., 1919, 351 e).
The section dealing with the nutrition of infants
has much in it of prime importance. Breast feed-
ing is strongly urged, but it is pointed out that
only if the mother herself is receiving a diet suffi-
cient in vitamines, is she able to hand them on in
sufficient quantity to her child, so that the diet
of nursing and pregnant mothers should be rich in
vitamines. The risks likely to be incurred from the
vitamine standpoint in bottle feeding a child,
either with raw cow's milk, or with heated or other-
wise treated milk, or with proprietary foods is
fully gone into, and important recommendations
for obviating these- very real dangers are set out.
From the medical and national standpoint the
chapter which deals with rickets as a deficiency
disease is probably the most important in the whole
report. Experiments are detailed, the work of E.
Mellanby, in which typical rickets was produced in
puppies by feeding on a diet of separated milk,
white bread, linseed oil, yeast, orange juice and
salt. On this diet puppies, taken from their
mother at 6 weeks old and kept under laboratory
conditions, could be relied upon to develop rickets
within 6 weeks. Animal fats, some vegetable fats
and extractives, e.g., meat and malt extracts, were
found to have a protective value, but no value was
found to attach to fat simply as fat.
The distribution of the substance preventing
rickets corresponds very closely with that of the
Fat Soluble A accessory factor, and here again it
seems possible that the two great lines of research
may meet and the identity of two more separately
discovered dietary essentials be established. Con-
firmatory is the experience of Hess and Unger, who
distributed codliver oil among negro families in
New York, where 90 per cent, of the children, even
when breast-fed, is said to have rickets. After 4
to 6 months, the percentage of nonrachitic chil-
dren was found to vary directly with the amount of
codliver oil distributed.
The relation between defective teeth and rickets
is shown to have been placed on an experimental
basis by May Mellanby, and that between rickets
and lowered resistance against infection has also
been observed.
Finally the claim of pellagra to be considered as
a deficiency disease is discussed, and the very in-
teresting investigation of outbreaks of pellagra in
Egypt, by W. H. Wilson, of Cairo, are summarised.
These results seem to correlate the disease with a
low intake of protein of good biological value
that is to say, pellagra seems to develop when the
intake of protein containing certain essential
amino acids falls below a certain minimum.
The report closes with a short appendix, origi-
nally published separately, in which are incor-
porated the committee's recommendations for the
application of the knowledge to food relief in
famine-stricken countries. This appendix includes
a very valuable table of the distribution of the
accessory food factors among the common food-
stuffs.
TRADE NOTES.
BRITISH.
Ceylon in 1918.— The trade of Ceylon during 1918
was fairly satisfactory, though the. volume was con-
siderably less than in 1917, financial stringency,
shortage of freight, and difficulties of exchange
continuing, though in a less acute form. The total
value of trade, exclusive of specie, in 1918, was
4,065i lakhs of rupees, as compared with 4,983J
lakhs in 1917. The exports and imports for the
year included the following (cwts.) : —
Exports. — Rubber, 413,303; coconut oil, 527,481;
copra, 1,272,321; plumbago, 304,340; cacao, 79,025;
citronella oil, 9,359; cardamoms, 3420.
Imports.— Cement, 89,299; manure, 1,307,680;
sugar, 414,989.
The direction and source of the exports and im-
ports, with their relative values, were as follows : — •
Exports to.
Imports from.
British India
10
38-08
Burma
002
19-51
United Kingdom
44-72
1611
Japan
■61
514
United States . .
17-78
317
Freightage difficulties and the control of imports
into the United States brought about an accumu-
lation of stocks of rubber, the exports showing a
decrease of 232,494 cwts. on those of the previous
year. The area under rubber continues to expand,
and approximately 255,000 acres is now under cul-
tivation.
The trade in coconuts and coconut products com-
menced unfavourably, but a demand for copra in
India, and extensive purchases of coconut oil by
the Imperial Government effected an improvement,
prices ruling very high towards the end of the
year. Crops were satisfactory on the whole.
The possibilities of vanilla cultivation on a small
scale are being investigated, and attention is being
given to the prospect, of the successful cultivation
of sisal and other fibres.
The manufacture and collection of salt is a Gov-
ernment monopoly. A record yield was obtained
during the year, amounting to 1,186,524 cwts.
Owing to shortage of stocks it was found necessary
to continue the importation of this commodity.
The total stocks at the end of the vear amounted to
1,426,244 cwts.
Some beds of monazite sand have been dis-
covered in Ceylon, and a special plant for the
treatment of this sand was erected during 1918 at
Bentota. The plant has worked successfully, and
20 tons of refined sand was awaiting shipment to
England. (For plumbago production, see below.)
— (Col. Sep.— Annual, No. 1007, Nov. 1919.)
Ceylon Plumbago Situation. — At present there is no
market for Ceylon plumbago, and the shipments
have been falling off for some time, thus: — 1916,
33,000 tons; 1917, 27,000 tons; 1918, 15,400 tons;
first half of 1919, 4000 tons. The bulk of these
REVIEW.
[Jan. 31, 1020.
quantities was taken by Great Britain and the
United States, as the following figures show: —
United States. Great Britain.
1917 77% ... 15%
1918 55% ... 41%
1919 (half) ... 62% ... 32%
The price, which rose in 1916 as high as $500 per
ton, now stands at #85 to $175, according to grade.
As most of the mines are in the hands of natives of
small means, the market conditions are quickly re-
flected by the mining returns; at the beginning of
1919 there were only 263 mines, with 6433 men at
work, while in 1917 there were 1288 mines, with
19,912 men. The normal capacity of the Ceylon
mines is about 30,000 tons.— (U.S. Com. Bep., Nov.
6, 1919.)
Trade of East Africa (formerly German) in 1918—
1919. — The Acting Administrator reports that
owing to- absence of ocean tonnage the import
trade into East Africa has been restricted to pur-
chases in Zanzibar and British East Africa. Export
trade was confined mainly to sisal, hides and
cotton. Exclusive of military supplies the imports
were valued at Rs. 15,116,097 (rupee = ls. 4d.), in-
cluding kerosene, soap, and matches to the value
of Rs. 729, 224. The exports were valued at
Rs. 10,507,627. The trade in dyed cottons is of
some importance, and at present supplies are de-
rived from the United Kingdom. Formerly the
market was controlled by Holland. Soap was im-
ported, principally from Zanzibar. Some progress
has been made in the local manufacture of soap,
but the quality does not compare with that im-
ported from Zanzibar. The main items of export
were as follows: — Sisal, 7954 tons; cotton
1,654,881 lb.; hides, 30,636 cwts. ; copra, 48,790
cwts. ; wax, 5375 cwts.; ghee, 5328 cwts.; ground-
nuts, 17,598 cwts. ; rubber, 3447 cwts. ; and skins,
1120. The exports of sisal were seriously affected
by lack of ocean tonnage. Under normal con-
ditions it is anticipated that the 1913 production of
20,834 tons will be exceeded. The exports of copra
declined owing to local military demands for oil,
and to the establishment of a few small soap fac-
tories. The territory abounds in oleaginous pro-
ducts awaiting exploitation. There are vast areas
suitable for the cultivation of sisal, cotton, and
rubber. The future trade of the region depends
on its exports, facilities for transport between the
various trade centres, and direct transport com-
munication with the European markets. — (Bd. of
Trade J., Nov. 27, 1919.)
FOREIGN.
Hongkong Peanut Oil Trade.— A big boom in the
export of this oil to the United States occurred dur-
ing August and September, 1919. The value of ex-
ports in August alone amounted to $805,000, or more
than three times that of the whole of 1918. Large
quantities are available in the Hongkong market,
as it not only draws its supplies locally, but imports
large quantities of nuts from China, India, and
also oil from North China. The oil from whatever
source is usually refined in Hongkong, the free fatty
acids being reduced to not more than 2 per cent.
The price at the height of the boom rose to about
S20 per owt. : previously, in April, it was only $13$.
Both price and exports have begun to decline —
chiefly owing to the rise in the silver exchange —
and at the middle of September $20 per cwt. was
quoted. — (U.S. Com. Bep., Nov. 4, 1919.)
Manufacture of Chemical Fertilisers in Sicily. —
Aw. Filippo Lavelia, organiser of co-operative
associations in Sicily, has formed a company for
scientific development of farm lands and the manu-
facture of chemical fertilisers on a large scale. The
Bancs Italiana di Sconto gives financial support.
— (17. .S'. Com. Bep., Nov. 15, 1919.)
COMPANY NEWS.
BRITISH CYANIDES CO., LTD.
An extraordinary meeting was held in London on
January 21 to pass a resolution to increase the
capital of the company to £450,000 by the creation
of 100,000 new shares of £1 each.
In moving the resolution the chairman, Mr. C. F.
Rowsell, said that the additional capital was
required to finance the rapid increase in the com-
pany's business; the factory at Popes-lane was to
be greatly extended and alterations effected at the
Tat Bank works (near Birmingham). Mr. Kenneth
M. Chance, managing director, referred to the
remarkable revival in the chemical trade which
occurred last autumn. The company was unpre-
pared for the flood of orders which then poured in.
The pace at which the company is developing is
rather too rapid, as it throws a heavy strain on the
staff, already strained during the war. AVhen the
projected extensions have been completed the out-
put of many of the company's products should be
doubled or trebled ; meanwhile the full demands of
customers cannot be met. The policy of the board
is to provide for all time ample and cheap supplies
of the two raw materials which are the mainstay
of the business — cyanogen and potash — the outlook
for both of which is extremely promising. The resolu-
tion to increase the capital was carried unanimously.
SULPHATE OF AMMONIA ASSOCIATION.
The fifth annual report of the Sulphate of
Ammonia Association for the year ended June 30,
1919, was presented at a meeting of subscribers
held on December 18 last. It was anticipated by
the chairman, in his address, that the Association
will be transformed into the British Sulphate of
Ammonia Federation, Ltd., by the end of February,
the transformation being accompanied by an
extension of operations. During the year, 36,870
tons of sulphate of ammonia was sold for export,
the total sum realised being £1,050,700. For agri-
cultural purposes, 269,000 tons was supplied for
use in the United Kingdom. This represents an
increase in home consumption of nearly 700 per cent,
compared with pre-war deliveries. Orders for
200,000 tons are in hand for the present season.
Propaganda work has been reorganised with the
object of getting into direct touch with as many
farmers as possible. A number of experimental
plots has been laid out on a 20-acre demonstration
centre near Ormskirk. The question of autumn v.
spring manuring is being investigated by arrange-
ment with a number of agricultural colleges. Cereal
and root crop competitions are to be organised in a
number of different areas. More rapid progress in
the production of neutral sulphate of ammonia
is desirable. The German claim to have produced
synthetic urea is recognised as one which may have
a far-reaching effect on the nitrogen problem. The
following table affords a comparison of the extent
to which sulphate of ammonia and nitrate of soda,
respectively, are used for agricultural purposes in
Great Britain : —
home acr!- whd* ^dfor
Exported cu.tura, rur- *%&•&
poses.
Prod vict ion
sulphate of
ammonia as
such.
tons.
tons.
1913
•372,000
324.700
•40.000
•80.000
1914
•3li3. 1
313.900
•50.000
•80.000
1915
•350.000
294.300
•64,000
•40.000
191fit
315.500
l«o. :im
144.600
• ."..III il
1917t
283.500
28.500
234.000
• 5.000
1918t
331.500
38.400
269.000
•10.000
•Estimated. The nitrate of soda figures i
t The figures relate to the "fertiliser ye;
in each 5 ear.
■ only rough estimates.
"' commencing June I
Vol. XXXIX., No. 2]
REVIEW.
OFFICIAL TRADE INTELLIGENCE.
(From the Board of Trade Journal for January 8
and 15.)
OPENINGS FOR BRITISH TRADE.
The following inquiries have been received at the
Department of Overseas Trade (Development and
Intelligence), 35, Old Queen Street, London,
SAW 1. from firms, agents, or individuals who
desire to represent U.K. manufacturers or ex-
porters of the goods specified. British firms may
obtain the names and addresses of the persons or
firms referred to by applying to the department
mentioned and quoting the specific reference
number :—
of
MATERIALS.
Reference
firm or agent.
number.
Italy
Leather, imitation leather,
varnishes
Bne
83
Spain
Chemical fertilisers
49
Switzerland
Chemicals, dyes
51
Algeria
Alcohol, chemical manures
86
Morocco
Sugar, pottery, tinplate . .
Clear window sbss
87
88
Mexico
Heaw chemicals . dyes . .
54
Ecuador
Drugs, paper
92
British Indi.i
Galvanised barbed wire, annealed
wire
Chemicals
58
British v
Dyes, soap
31
Canada
Steel, borax glass, litharge.
lead
acetate, soda ash. cyanide,
zinc dust, bone ash, leather,
chemical glassware and porce-
lain
Chemicals, minerals
Oils, confectionery, druggists"
sundries
Tinplate. sheet metals
Paper
Glass bottles
Phosphates
Paper, glass, soap
Iron, steel, tinplate, galvanised
iron, paints, varnishes
Leather of all kinds
High speed and tool steels, in-
dustrial oils, potash
Tinplate. tin solder, zinc sheets,
galvanised iron
Iron and steel bais, sheets and
plates
Chemicals, tanning products
Cement, cocoa, copra, fats, oils,
etc.. for soap making, skins,
paper (goods in demand) ,.
• The Hinh Commissioner for Canada, 19. Victoria Street S.vc l.
t The Canadian Government Trade Commissioner, 73. Basinghall
treet. E.C. 2.
Markets Sought. — A Canadian company desires
to get into touch with U.K. importers of asbestos
cement products. Inquiries to the Canadian
Government Trade Commissioner.
A firm in the British "West Indies able to export
cocoa, coconut oil, copaiba oil, vanilla, etc., wishes
to get into touch with importers in the U.K. [31.]
A firm in Belgium desires to get into touch with
U.K. importers of old metal. [75.]
TARIFF. CUSTOMS. EXCISE.
Australia. — The import of stranded copper cable
is prohibited except under licence as from
December 20, 1919.
The date of operation of the conditions pre-
scribed for the importation of rubber-covered wire
has been further postponed until April 1, 1920.
Baltic Provinces. — Licences to export goods from
Latvia will only be granted to firms who import and
sell to the Government or municipal authorities, or
to co-operative societies, in return for payment in
Latvian money, an equivalent quantity of the most
indispensable goods ; all applications for export
licences must be accompanied by certificates to this
effect.
Belgium. — A circular relating to the position
with regard to Customs restrictions and the issue
of licences has been received, and the clauses so far
as they affect British trade are set out in the issue
tor January 8.
Brazil. — The proposed tariff changes affecting
iron and steel manufactures, metalloids, miscel-
laneous metals, and scientific instruments, may lie
seen at the Department of Overseas Trade. 73,
Basinghall Street, E.C. 2.
British India. — The Collector of Customs is em-
powered to take and pay for samples of drugs or
articles of food for the purpose of examination.
Czechoslovakia. — Among the articles the import
of which is entirely prohibited are cocoa powder,
chocolate, tinned and smoked fish, certain edible
nuts, and spices.
Among the articles that may be imported under
certain conditions are olive oil, Dutch margarine,
cocoa beans, and cocoa butter.
Egypt. — The issue for January 8 gives the im-
port tariff valuations of various metals with effect
from Dec. 1. 1919, to Jan. 31, 1920.
France. — Among the articles the export and re-
export of which are prohibited are animal fats
other than fish oils, margarine, organic and
chemical manures, raw bones, oleaginous seeds and
nuts, sugar, molasses, glucose, fixed vegetable oils,
edible vegetable fats, natural phosphates of lime,
bauxite, sulphate of ammonia, dephosphorisation
slag, nitrates of soda and lime, soap (other than
perfumery soap), certain metals, and iron ore.
These goods, however, may be sent in transit
through France to Switzerland, Italy, or Spain
from the U.K. under the pink certificate " S. 45B."
France (Algeria). — A consumption tax of 320
francs per kilo, has been levied, as from December
29 last, upon saccharin and other artificial sweeten-
ing substances.
Germany. — Among the goods the export of which
is forbidden without permission are food, fodder,
seeds, animal and vegetable fats and oils, artificial
manures, skins, hides, leather, bones, glue, gelatin,
iron, iron ore, iron alloys, manganese ore, paper,
timber, lime, plaster, cement, soda, potash, caustic
potash, sulphate of soda, and certain pharma-
ceutical products.
The law relating to the payment of customs duties
in gold came into force on January 1.
Grenada. — The export duties on cocoa, cotton
seed, nutmegs, and mace have been increased as
from November 25. 1919.
Italy. — Among the articles the export of which is
subject to a certificate of cession of exchange are
citric acid, tannic acid, copper sulphate, soap,
candles, white paper, cement, earthenware, and
certain kinds of glass.
Nigeria. — Among the articles upon which the
import duties have recently been changed are
alcoholic beverages, gunpowder, lead, matches,
petrol, and soap. The import duty on kerosene
and all other lamp oils is fixed at 3d. per imperial
gallon.
The export duties on palm kernels, palm oil, and
groundnuts have been raised.
Rumania. — The pre-war tariff is, with some ex-
ceptions, still in force.
St. Vincent. — The export duties on cotton,
cotton seed, arrowroot, starch (other than arrow-
root), cocoa, sugar, syrup, and rum have been
amended as from November 2, 1919.
Sicitzerland. — The export of, inter alia, beer,
wines, alcohol, and animal waste, extract and
tablets of rennet is now covered by general export
licence.
Uruguay. — A copy of the law whereby certain
building materials are permitted to be imported
duty free mav be seen at the Department of Over-
seaa Trade, 35, Old Queen Street, S.W. 1.
REVIEW.
Alcohol : Its Production, Properties, Chemistry,
and Industrial Applications. By C. Simmonds.
Pp. 2X.+574. {London: Macmillan and Co.,
Ltd., 1919.) Price 21s. net.
The appearance of a comprehensive work on
alcohol by a British author supplies a long-felt
want. The brewing industry is well served with
text-books, but reliable information on the distilla-
tion and technology of alcohol in this country and
on the evolution of the present system of Excise
Regulations and procedure has hitherto been some-
what scattered and inaccessible.
In this country the technology of alcohol stands
on a somewhat different footing from that
obtaining on the Continent and in America, both
as regards the raw materials used and also, to
some extent, the character and uses of the finished
products. On the Continent the distilling industry
has been fostered and subsidised for many years,
and the consequent increase in the cultivation of
potatoes has been attended with marked benefits
to agriculture in general. In Great Britain petrol
and benzol, as sources of motive power, have
hitherto held the field on account of their relative
cheapness, although the production of synthetic
alcohol from calcium carbide and from coke oven
gas bids fair to assume noteworthy proportions in j
the not far distant future, and we are evidently
approaching a period of keen, competition between
the existing available sources of energy, in which j
alcohol will play an increasingly important part.
The eventual exhaustion of the world's supplies of
coal and mineral oil may well have the effect of
stimulating the development of the agricultural
resources of tropical countries, which should be
capable of furnishing an almost inexhaustible
supply of fermentation alcohol. The author is
fully alive to the possibilities of the future, and the
chapter on alcohol as a source of light, heat and
motive power is an interesting feature of the book.
After a short historical account of alcohol and
the development of modern views on fermentation,
a chapter is devoted to an outline of the technical
production of ethyl alcohol. The chief raw
materials, the enzymes of malt and yeast, the
different types of yeast and their relative impor-
tance in brewery and distillery practice, and the
thiol amylase-producing moulds are fully treated.
The section on mashing and fermentation
contains a resume of the work of Harden and
Fernbach on the mechanism of alcoholic fermenta-
tion and a useful account of the " amylo " process.
A curious anomaly still exists in connexion with
the introduction of this process into Great Britain.
It is a statutory requirement that the gravity of
distillers' wort before distillation shall be
ascertained by means of the saccharometer, a
procedure which is impracticable in the " amylo "
process. It is to be hoped that some means will be
found of removing an obstacle which in the
author's words " impedes progress," and which
discourages research in a most promising field.
A short but concise account of the distillation
and rectification of alcohol is followed by sections
on the production of alcohol from wood and other
cellulosic materials, including sulphite waste
liquor, on synthetic alcohol from acetylene and on
statistics as to the production of alcohol in
different countries
In chapters IV. to VI. the chemistry and physics
of methyl and ethyl alcohols are dealt with in
considerable detail. The separation of these
alcohols from one another and from other organic
liquids and their estimation under varying
conditions present analytical problems often of
considerable difficulty, and a selection of methods
is given which should be of great value to the
analyst.
A separate chapter is devoted to alcoholometry
in which, as might be expected in a work
emanating from the Government Laboratory, a
great deal of valuable information is to be found
regarding proof spirit and the use of Sikes'
hydrometer. The alcohol tables on pp. 237 — 257
are considerably more extensive than those usually
met with in reference books on this subject.
Industrial alcohol and its technical applications
are dealt with in chapters VIII. and IX. The
field of industrial alcohol is a large one, and it is
obviously difficult in the compass of a single
volume to give more than a general outline of the
various processes and manufactures in which
alcohol plays an important part. During the war
the demand for alcohol in the manufacture of
explosives increased to an enormous extent, to say
nothing of the immense scale upon which, towards
the close of hostilities, " mustard gas " was being
prepared from alcohol-derived ethylene. The
author has however, perhaps wisely, omitted any
detailed accounts of exceptional developments
created solely by war conditions and has confined
himself to » discussion of the more pacific uses
of industrial alcohol.
In the chapter on spirituous beverages, the
relative advantages and defects of the Allen-
Marquardt, Beckmann, Government Laboratory
and other methods of estimating higher alcohols
are fully discussed. This chapter contains a useful
section on the composition and analysis of wines,
a branch of analysis which, although highly
developed in France, has perhaps naturally
attracted but little attention in this country.
The outline given of the main principles and
methods used by French chemists will be welcomed
by those who may be called upon to undertake
detailed examinations of foreign wines.
The book concludes with a chapter on the
physiological effects of alcohol, in which the
author acknowledges his indebtedness to the recent
admirable report of the Advisory Committee
appointed by the Central Control Board (Liquor
Traffic).
A useful bibliography and indexes of names and
subjects are appended.
The author has arranged, in concise and readable
form, a large amount of useful information
bearing upon every aspect of the alcohol industry.
The book cannot fail to commend itself to a large
circle of readers, and may very well rank as a
standard work on the subject.
G. W. MoNIER-WlLLIAMS.
PUBLICATIONS RECEIVED.
Final Report of the Nitrogen Products Com-
mittee, Munitions Inventions Department,
Ministry of Munitions of War. Cmd. 482.
Pp. vi. +357. (London: H.M. Stationery Office,
1919.) Price 4s.
The Dyeing Industry. By S. H. Higgins. Being
a third edition of " Dyeing in Germany and
America." Pp. 189. (Manchester: The Univer-
sity Press; London: Messrs. Longmans, Green
and Co. 1919.) Price 8s. 6d.
Chlorination of Water. By Joseph Race. First
edition. Pp. 158. (New York: John Wiley
and Sons, Inc.; London: Chapman and Hall,
Ltd. 1918.) Price 7s.
Annuaire Sucrier, 1919-1920. Pp. 696. Liste des
Fabriques de Sucre et Raffineries du Monde
Entier. (Paris: Bureaux du Journal des Fabri-
cants de Sucre. 1919.)
Vol. XXXIX., No. 3]
REVIEW
[February 16. 1920.
THE ROLE OF FATTY ACIDS IN
LUBRICATION
Hitherto, free fatty acids in lubricants have been
judged mainly by the injurious effects which they
we capable of causing, and their presence has come
to lie regarded as wholly objectionable; but Messrs.
Wells and Southcombe, in their interesting com-
munication to the London Section on February 2,
now show that, in strictly limited amount, free
fatty acids are capable of greatly improving the
friction-reducing values of mineral oils, and that
the improvement in " oiliness " or lubricating
power of a mineral oil, caused by mixing with it a
fixed oil, is due far more to the small quantity of
tty acid contained in the fixed oil than to
the neutral glyceride.
Some figures quoted by Mr. ^Yrchbutt in the dis-
cusion illustrate this point very forcibly. In some
experiments made with a Thurston machine under
conditions of vers* low speed and high pressure, so
as to ensure a certain amount of solid friction
between the bearing and the journal, it was found
that (V5 per cent, of rape oil fatty acids added to a
mineral oil reduced the friction coefficient from
0-0066 to 00049, whilst nearly 60 per cent, of
neutral glyceride of the same rape oil was required
to produce the same effect. It appears, therefore,
that this discovery affords the means of diverting
to other more useful purposes the greater part of
the saponifiable oils and fats which are to-day used
for blending with mineral oils, and of employing
in their stead a very much smaller proportion of
free fatty acid.
The authors' theory that the action of the fatty
acid is due to the fact that the interfacial tension
between oil and water and between oil and mercury
is greatly lowered by the addition of fatty acid to
:i mineral oil met with a good deal of criticism,
and it was pointed out that, although neutral
rape oil added to mineral oil greatly reduced
the friction coefficient, the inter-facial tension
between neutral rape oil and water was
nearly as high as that between mineral oil and
water. In the lubrication of a shaft or journal
running at a fairly high speed and under moderate
pressure, the bearing is separated from the journal
by a film of oil, and the friction is solely due to the
viscosity of the lubricant. That property of a lubri-
cant which is not viscosity and is termed " oili-
nese only becomes important when the conditions
are such that solid or "contact" friction occurs,
;ind all recent work points to the fact that it is the
chemically reactive and unsaturated constituents
of lubricants which promote " oiliness," and that
they do so by entering into physico-chemical union
with the solid faces lubricated, forming new com-
posite surfaces with lower surface energy and
opp eing less resistance to shear than the unlubri-
cated surfaces. The great activity of free fatty
acids is quite in accordance with this theory.
Messrs. Wells, Southcombe and Archbutt are to be
tulated on having made an important
addition to our knowledge of lubrication.
THE CHEMICAL INDUSTRY OF
GERMANY.*
IMPRESSIONS AND REFLECTIONS ARISING
FROM A RECENT VISIT OK INSPECTION
OF CHEMICAL WORKS IN THE
RHINE AREA.
E. V. EVANS.
Many of us have had the opportunity as chemist*
of visiting German chemical works from time to
time, but in the majority of cases we have gone as
experts upon a particular matter, and throughout
have dealt only with the subject under investiga-
tion. Few chemists, however, have had the
opportunity of inspecting at their own choice any
of the chemical works to be found on the Rhine,
or have been enabled to take part in a visit of
inspection which included the works of Bayer &
Co. at Leverkusen, Meister, Lucius & Brtining at
Hochst, the " Badische " at Ludwigshafen and
Oppau, Griesheim Elektron, and some smaller
works such as those of Raschig at Ludwigshafen.
A fairly complete inspection of these works
would have taken mouths if not years, but it was
only possible to devote two or three weeks to this
task. Under such circumstances only a compre-
hensive bird's-eye view of the Rhineland indus-
tries en masse could be obtained, but the ex-
perience thus gained was in its way unique, for
the specialist referred to above was able only
occasionally to see just one corner of the industry.
Not only were these impressions obtained through
visits to works, but they were also supplemented
by frequent conversation with directors of the Ger-
man undertakings and with members of the
economic sections representing British and French
authorities.
The outstanding impression gained during the
visit was that of a huge and highly efficient organi-
sation temporarily paralysed. The works were
seen lying practically stagnant but in an exceed-
ingly good state of repair, everything ready except
the raw material and available men to do a reason-
able day's work, directors with time hanging on
their hands, research and control laboratories half
empty, the chemists having returned temporarily
to their professors to continue some form of re-
search work. The latent potentialities of such an
organisation can only be fully appreciated by an
actual inspection of these idle plants, and when
consideration is given to the special facilities
afforded to the industry owing to its situation on
the banks of the Rhine, it is realised that the pre-
sence of such an immense potentiality in the world
cannot be ignored. I do not want to be pessimistic
or in the least to decry the effort that has been
made in Britain for the resuscitation of the organic
chemical industry ; neither have I been made so
dizzy by a rapid flight through the German Rhine-
land that it has been impossible to find sanity
again. I wish to place facts before you which
must be taken into account. Once British chemists
decide definitely to face these faots, then I know
perfectly well that we have nothing to fear.
The industry in Germany is an immense and ex-
ceedingly efficient machine; it has had national
support behind it, from the Government and the
banks ; it has been fostered as a new born babe of
royal blood. The Universities and technological
schools have given a sound training to the young
men, the chemical industry has kept in the closest
touch with the Universities, chemists have been
created in such number that the process of expand-
• Papers read before the London Section on January 5. 1920.
[fob. w iaa>.
ing the industry has been greatly facilitated. It
may be said that the chemical industry in Ger-
many has been fostered with a pride equal to that
of our own shipbuilding industry. It is not sur-
prising therefore that the German has chosen such
a unique spot as the Rhine, which, apart from the
facilities which have been given to it by man,
seems to be particularly suited for the development
of a chemical industry. The river itself, in addi-
tion to being a source of water supply, provides
the direct means of transit both for the raw
materials imported and the finished products
despatched for export, while the tributaries bring
from the valleys many of the raw materials so
essential to the industry. Further the region is
provided with an excellent railway service, unham-
pered by unnecessary restrictions, which connects
up by means of its branches the manufacturing
centres with the river, and in fact with the whole
of Germany. The industry is, moreover, supplied
efficient!; and economically with power, as the pre-
sence of brown coal in the adjacent regions has led
to the establishment of large electric power in-
stallations which deliver power to the neighbour
ing works at a remarkably low figure. Finally the
works situated near the foot-hills possess the addi-
tional advantage of being able to draw upon an
inexhaustible supply of soft water from the under-
ground streams. It is all these regional facilities
which initially place the chemical industry in a
distinctly advantageous position.
I feel that this is but a very cursory treatment
of so important a matter as the natural and ac-
quired facilities of the Rhineland industry. 1
should like to take the opportunity of urging you
to read with care the Report of the Chemical Mis-
sion to Germany prepared by the Association of
British Chemical Manufacturers. I have been
placed in a very favourable position to know how
assiduously the members of that mission worked to
convey their impressions to the British chemist.
One of the members, Mr. J. Allan, the chairman
of the Liverpool Section of this Society, has
stated that in bis opinion the strength of the Ger-
man industry may be attributed to the scientific
control of every department of business activity,
and to the courage and breadth of outlook dis-
played by those in command. He considers that
Germany possesses no secrets in the manufacture
of inorganic products except in a few instances
(and here I think ho refers particularly to the manu-
facture of synthetic ammonia by the Haber pro-
cess) which would entitle her to world supremacy,
whilst he states that some of the processes in-
spected compare unfavourably with those operated
in Great Britain. The latter statement, however,
cannot lie applied to the British organic chemical
industry, but I too agree that even in this branch
of manufacture the. processes used do not appear
to be based on unique reactions. I have visited
process alter process for the manufacture of or-
ganic products, but have not seen one based on a
chemical reaction unknown to me. I want here
to emphasise the point that the German chemical
industry does not appear to utilise unique chemical
reactions, but only those which have resulted from
a careful selection of a number of possible re-
actions well known to the academic chemist.
The outstanding feature in process design is the
immaculate can' given to the selection of a process
which entails a minimum number of operations,
whilst such factors as the conservation of high
yield and the highest possible degree of purity of
the product together with the ultimate cost of
manufacture are studied exhaustively. I know
these are the underlying principles studied
throughout the world, but it appears to me that
they play a more important part in the estab-
lishment of the industry in Germany than else-
where. Its strong position is not accounted for by
witchcraft, but results from the complete col-
laboration of chemist, physicist, engineer, and
commercial director. In many of the more efficient
British works all these points are brought simi-
larly into evidence, especially in those cases where
efficient chemists and engineers have devoted much
time and energy to a particular process.
I should like to suggest that there is something
about the German temperament which allows it to
be specially adaptable to spade work. In this coun-
try the field of specialisation of the chemist appears
to cover a much wider range than is the case with
the German chemist. The wealth of detail that is
worked out for each process in German factories,
whether it be the fractionation of naphtha or the
manufacture of synthetic indigo, requires the
drudgery that appears to be so ably supplied by the
German. One Oberchemiker had manufactured
benzyl alcohol, benzaldehyde and benzoic acid ever
since leaving the university, and in company with
benzaldehyde and its derivatives his hair and beard
had become quite white with age. In his spare
time this man, having been thoroughly trained,
kept in touch with the general advances in
chemistry. He possessed a control and research
laboratory, and when questioned as to the nature
of the research conducted, his reply was " benzyl
alcohol, benzaldehyde, and benzoic acid, their
manufacture and application." Here is the
whole tale of the German spirit, and although it
is not to be admired, yet it is a quality wo are up
against.
This " Oberehemiker's " kingdom was in this
sphere of chemistry, and it was the general prac-
tice for the directorate to decide according to his
recommendation.
Such work, as you know, in this country is often
relegated to a foreman, and it would be one of the
duties of an over-worked director or chief chemist
to maintain a guiding eye on the benzaldehyde
plant. It was surprising to learn how little is
known by the chemist engaged on any one par-
ticular process of what is going on in other parts
of the works, whilst it was just as surprising to
realise the degree of expertness possessed by each
Oberchemiker. One of the directors stated that
he had spent many months on a certain process
which had given the Oberchemiker of the process
too difficult a problem. This director being respon
sible to the board for a series of similar processes
had relegated a portion of his duties to another
in order to work out the problem.
Another director had personally dealt with the
manufacture of sulphuric acid from gypsum, and
he had apparently done nothing else for years.
When it was suggested that this process had been
evolved only for the purpose of relieving Germany
from the temporary difficulty of obtaining pyrites
or other source of sulphur, he emphatically stated
that there should be a much larger future for
this process than the present cost-sheets showed
owing to the faot that the reduction mass resulting
from roasting gypsum with low quality fuel was
.most eagerly sought for by cement manufacturers.
It was this which in his opinion determined the
future of the process.
Great care has been taken to maintain a high
standard of morale among all workers.
Another point of the utmost importance which
affects the prosperity of the German industry is
doubtless the fact that engineers have found it
worth their while to cater for the chemical indus-
try. This in my opinion is one of the most im-
portant assets possessed by Germany at the pre-
sent moment. Enamels, acid-resisting cements,
filtration materials and alloys, have been studied
very carefully by the engineer and chemist in col-
laboration. The problem before this country at
Vol. XXXIX., No. 3.]
REVIEW.
the moment is not only the capture of the organic
chemical industry, hut the adaptation of engineer-
ing to the requirements of the industry. Thi6 is
no small question and will require a considerable
amount of effort. In most of the second-rate
chemical works which I have seen in this country,
the state of affairs as regards the engineering side
is too disgraceful to warrant detailed description.
The difficulty arises largely from the fact that the
engineering aspect of the question is frequently
left to a foreman fitter, and he is only able to
supply what the engineering firms in this country
have specialised in.
There are, however many indications of the
existence of the will to improve matters in this
respect, and the creation of the Chemical Engin-
eering Group of this Society is a healthy sign. The
reading of papers, though of extreme value, ie,
however, only work of propaganda, and no time
should be lost in. setting our house in order, for
the progress of chemical industry at the present
moment is sadly hampered by the difficulties of
obtaining plant and apparatus. This is due to a
complication of circumstances in which labour
plays no small part, but it must always be remem-
bered that in pre-war days we often obtained ap-
paratus from Germany. I must confess that
although orders for plant were placed in this
kingdom, my reference books for the design of
plant were largely the catalogues of the chemical
engineering firms of Germany.
The large output that has been attained by many
of the German installations is another factor which
must be taken into account, as the effect of mass
production on the reduction of working costs is a
very material one. The ammonia oxidation plant
at Hochst is capable of manufacturing the nitric
acid equivalent of 10,000 tons of sodium nitrate
monthly, and is so wonderfully designed that the
whole plant is operated by one man. The output
of oleum at the Dormagen plant is 100 tons daily,
of caustic soda at the Hochst plant 70 tons daily,
whilst at Knapsack 300 tons of calcium carbide
may be produced per day.
In all these matters it is farthest from my wish
to present to you the German bogey which, in the
•chemical industry at least, is almost done to death.
The British organic industry is sometimes con-
sidered to have had five years start, but you know
perfectly well that nothing of the sort has hap-
pened. We have been busy at war, and there has
been a shortage not only of material for construc-
tion, and labour to carry on work, but the
chemicals required for the manufacture of dyes
have themselves had to be diverted to the more
urgent preparation of explosives. It is probable
that we are doing very well under the circum-
stances, but we should not delude ourselves into
the belief that there is a smooth journey in the
future. I have Been in Germany the value of the
organised effort of a great body of men possessing
sound scientific training. It has taken Germany
40 to 50 years to create this body of scientific
workers and to build their industry. The position
to-day is that although plant has been kept in, a
state of good repair, the shortage of raw materials,
the want of men and many other causes due to the
war account for the fact that little progress is
being made.
An aspect of the dye question which appears to
present difficulty lies in the fact that although
there exists in Germany an organisation capable
of producing 80 per cent, of the world's pre-war
requirements of dyestuffs, yet Britain, America,
Switzerland, and even France have made and are
making elaborate extensions in order not only to
become self-supporting, but to create if possible a
large export business. Manufacturers agree that
in the case of a great number of products the
question of mass production is an all important
one, and if for no other reason than this, an export
business frequently becomes necessary to countries
possessing small home consumption. Even should
the efforts of all these countries be successful it is
quite a question whether the world's requirements
will not be largely over-supplied, and there will
then result that inevitable attainment of equili-
brium which has such drastic effects upon the less
fortunate members of the industry. Moreover, it
is not to be expected that Germany will lie quietly
aside whilst this equilibrium is being attained.
Further it must be borne in mind that the erec-
tion of plant in these times requires capital ex-
penditure three or four times as large as that in
the years when such an institution as Bayer of
Leverkusen was developed. It must also be re-
membered that the capital of Bayer and of most
large German undertakings is largely written
down. Again, the importation of German pro-
ducts is greatly favoured by the present low value
of the mark in this and other countries.
It would appear to stand to reason therefore
that even assuming it is in the interest of world
progress that in the countries mentioned above
great extensions of plant should be effected, it is
certain that some form of protection must be
given to manufacturers in this country to prevent
ruthless importation. In Great Britain the pros-
perity of the large textile industry is materially
dependent upon an adequate supply of colouring
matters, and it is only natural that the dye-users
should have been given facilities to import the
dyestuffs so urgently required for the maintenance
of their business. In this connexion it is well
known that Switzerland has rendered most valu-
able service.
It is regrettable that the public appears to con-
nect with the protection of a key industry those
vexatious questions of tariff reform and free trade.
The temporary fostering of an industry falls under
an entirely different category. In 1918 the Board
of Trade created the Trade and Licensing Com-
mittee for the purpose of preventing the importa-
tion of dyestuffs, if such could be made in this
country in the quantity and of a quality that
would satisfy the dye-user. This Committee con-
sisted of a few experts who gave a considerable
amount of their valuable time, and worked most
assiduously — for the Committee met about once
weekly in Manchester. It is no simple matter to
differentiate between the multitudinous names
under which dyestuffs appear. Not only is the
nomenclature exceedingly complicated, but the
question of quality is of immense importance, and
it would appear that the names given to modern
products do not always' convey to the dye-users
what those names may have meant in 1913. In my
opinion, a licensing system is the very way to pro-
tect the infant dye industry, and at the same Itime
to satisfy the dye-user — a most important man in
this country — but it must be realised by the Gov-
ernment that to do this effectively requires a well-
organised and comprehensive department manned
not only by adequate administrative staff but also
by chemists and analysts capable of computing the
constitution of dyestuffs, of adjudging their rela-
tive values, and of comparing the home-produced
colours with those imported. Such a scheme may
seem to be elaborate, but past experience has shown
that a large machine will be necessary to deal with
this question. The members of the Trade and
Licensing Committee have done their utmost and
are worthy of considerable praise, but the present
system has broken down hopelessly owing to the
inordinate amount of work required to carry out
the task adequately.
I would urge every member of the Society to use
such influence in his power to help the Govern-
50b
REVIEW.
ment to formulate some means of fostering the
organic chemical industry of this country. The
task before the chemiat here is great enough, but
the present international position renders his
future success uncertain. The projected Imports
and Exports Regulation Bill was a complete failure.
It is believed that this Government intends to legis-
late for the benefit of the so-called key industries,
but this should be done expeditiously, for the risk
of placing capital into the chemical industry at the
present moment is so high that definite progress
cannot be expected in the near future.
There is one final suggestion that I should like
the opportunity of presenting to you, and that
relates to the fact that although it is of importance
to be able to manufacture in this country colours
already produced in Germany, the real supremacy
of British individuality will best be realised by the
creation of specialities. For this the chemical in-
dustry depends very largely upon the resources of
the universities and technical schools which are
capable of undertaking the highest form of re-
search. If applied chemistry is to progress in the
next 20 years proportionately to the achievements
of the last 20 years in Germany and elsewhere, the
whole face of the subject will be altered, and it is
the nation which plays the most important role
in new achievements that will ultimately triumph.
The chemical industry is already manned with
staff able to reproduce processes in this country
which are not new to the world, but that industry
looks to the leaders of pure science to mark out the
path of the future.
I am afraid that notwithstanding the efforts that
I have made to depiot an optimistic story, the fact
remains that it has not been possible to do this,
but in conclusion I should like to remind you of
Dr. Alfred Ree's opinion of British characteristics
which are considered by him to be " independence
of thought and action, great originality, pluck and
perseverance, and that saving grace of common
sense and level-headedness."
THE COLLECTIVE EFFORT OF GERMAN
CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
G. S. WALPOLE.
The policy of combined effort, which forms such
an outstanding feature of German chemical indus-
try, is but part and parcel of the policy of German
industry as a whole. The nation exists essentially
as a manufacturing nation, and is organised to
that end. The land on which a works is built, and
the railway running into it, are obtained directly
from the Government, and the Government expects
good use to bo made of both. The raw materials of
manufacture are conveyed by rail straight into the
works, and when the processes on them are finished
they go out again by rail either to another works
to be further treated, or direct to the consumer.
The great advantages of such a system, working as
it does smoothly and efficiently day in and day out,
are obvious, but its full significance can scarcely
be realised without actual observation of the manner
in which chemical plant is handled.
Our methods are different. The land on which
a works is built is not invariably freehold ; the
question of the entry of a railway into the works
is not to be taken for granted ; it is a matter which
has to be settled between the works' management
and the railway company. The latter demands
terms that ensure profit to itself in any event, and
is not concerned with any other aspect of the case.
The Railway Sidings Act, 1906, is never invoked.
Moreover, the railway company demands that the
works' management shall satisfy all local authori-
ties. Possibly most of us have discovered that in
dealing with local authorities the requirements of
| chemical industry do not outweigh all other con-
siderations.
All this means that if the chemical manufacturer
wishes to extend his plant, modernise his processes,
cheapen his cost of output, and improve his trans-
port he has to face the leaseholder and his soli-
citors, the landlord and his solicitors, the surveyors
for the solicitors of both, the borough surveyor,
and the insurance guarantee of the shareholders ;
! also, in many cases, the representatives of a river
' conservancy or harbour trust; then, again, the
I local surveyor demands the employment of an
; architect, and so on, so that it very often happens
in small works, at any rate, that developments are
! not made simply because of the delays and diffi-
culties that these prolonged negotiations involve,
i I have every reason to believe that these processes
' are very much simplified for the German indus-
trialist, and that the simplification is the outcome
of excellent staff work by somebody, somewhere.
Meeting the directors and staffs of these factories
from day to day, one could not but be impressed by
the breadth of their scientific knowledge and the
minuteness of their acquaintance with the details
J of their own industry. Their facilities for work
were excellent — large, airy offices and laboratories,
good libraries, etc., and, in fact, all the equipment
that makes life worth living to an educated man.
But, over and above all this, one was particularly
struck by the wide knowledge of chemical plant
possessed by the younger men. Speaking very
generally, a works chemist of thirty in England who
has earned his own living since he took his degree
has not held responsible positions in many works,
and his knowledge of plant is limited. This would
not be so under a system whereby technical men
could proceed from one works to another to gain
a varied experience.
In the smaller German chemical works there is
also evidence that the chemist is well served by the
engineer. In this country a small works appears to
start in a very small way indeed by purchasing odd
pieces of plant here and there, then gradually ex-
tending its buildings and " feeling its way." One
year it buys a lorry, and the next year a second
boiler, and so on. The process adopted is usually
one that is known to be worked already with profit
elsewhere, and is run in competition. There are,
of course, many small factories of this type in Ger-
many, but in most cases they are laid out in detail
on paper in the first instance, the business policy of
the company is arranged, sites are laid down, and
transport conditions arranged at the very outset.
Then money is put up, a large share being generally
held by some bank, and the work goes forward on
definite lines — not to enable the undertaking to
make a start, but to enable it to deliver certain
quantities of goods on certain dates to certain
specified customers.
Success on these lines depends largely upon the
service of good chemical engineers. We have too
few chemical engineers in this country, and we
lack even an adequate supply of draughtsmen.
Most plant is of iron or steel, and so can be ob-
tained in Germany cheaply and promptly. German
chemical industry need fear no shortage of plant
as soon as it can pay for it. English chemical in-
dustry can pay for it but cannot get it.
The picture conjured up by German chemical
industry to-day is team work in its highest develop-
ment. Partly as a consequence of this, one notices
everywhere the most stringent economy of materials
and men but the most lavish expenditure of capital
on plant designed to work with a minimum of
attendance. It is as rare to see a man shovelling
anvthing as to see a waste product; even calcium
sulphate, the tangential blind alley, as it were, to
so many cycles of chemical operations, is either
washed, dehydrated, and sold as gypsum, or, as at
Leverkusen, it is mixed with sand and clay and
Vol. XXXIX . Xo. 3.]
REVIEW.
51 K
converted to sulphuric acid and cement. This may
all be traced to the thoroughness with which the
whole cycle of operations is studied by the chemist
in the first instance, the sureness with which the
chemical engineer lays out every detail of the
plant, and the experienced confidence of the banks.
Plants are not put down piecemeal, haphazard, with
a view to catch some temporary gain, but as the
essential part of a far-seeing policy which takes the
world market as its main consideration.
With regard to the chemists themselves, the
situation is somewhat unique. There is a great
over-production of aspirants to the profession both
in this country and in Germany. In England it is
6aid that, owing to the Government grant system,
there will be double the normal output for at least
three years, whereas the demand will probably not
increase. These chemists are, of course, needed,
but they will not be wanted. In Germany the
over-production will be greater, so much so that the
Bund angestellter Chemiker und Ingenieure has
circularised the students, urging them to choose
some other profession. At the present time there
are three big organisations whose main object is to
further the interests of technology and industry : —
(1) The Beichsverband der deutschen Industrie,
a kind of federation of German industries whose
main interest is the development of export trade.
The federation of German chemical industries will
naturally form part of this.
(2) The Deutscher Verband Technisch-Wissen-
schaftliche Yereine is a federation of societies, asso-
ciations, and unions of technical men, which issues
lists of the names of its members, publishes an ex-
cellent handbok, but takes no direct part in
organising industry.
(3) The Beichsbund Deutscher Technische Bevuf-
stiinde is a league of technical professional men, to
which all kinds of technical and professional asso-
ciations subscribe, including the two main bodies,
to which are affiliated the very numerous special
chemical societies. These two bodies are the Verein
deutscher Chemiker, which is the professional
organisation for chemists, and the Bund angestell-
ter Chemiker und Ingenieure, which includes
among its members the majority of the academically
trained works chemists and engineers. As an
example of the activities of the latter association,
it may be mentioned that in September last it
secured for all its members in the Berlin area a
minimum wage of 500 marks per month, with cer-
tain stipulated increases ; and it also arranged
terms of agreement between certain firms which
were offering prizes for the best descriptions of pro-
cesses and the competitors. It will be easy to
understand that a rapprochement between the
F«retn and the Bund was not easy to arrive at, but
nevertheless an agreement was concluded between
them in November last.
It has always appeared strange that the English-
man, who in sport always plays for his side, should
in business prefer to play a lone hand, whereas the
German, having no sport other than his business,
always plays on a highly developed system of com-
bination of interests.
The power of German chemical industry lies in
its policy of united effort with control extending to
uverv detail. The organisation of an industry as
one big, self-contained industrial body involves the
abolition among its parts of useless competition
under which one product may be made on a small
scale in a number of little works, and some badly
needed intermediate may not be made at all, but
must be imported. Municipal bodies, railways, in-
land revenue authorities, harbour trusts, and so
on are pressed to frame their regulations in sym-
pathv with the needs of chemical industry, and not
blindly to adhere to edicts laid down when the
value and technical qualities of chemical products
were less well understood than they are now.
Under such organisation the post-graduate training
of chemists and engineers is not left to the initiative
and energy of the individual — his combativeness is
rather reserved for the technical difficulties of his
profession — but is arranged for him by the industry
which will eventually reap the reward of his expert
services. And this mode of organisation carries
with it the provision of chemical plant, not made in
odd corners of engineers' and boiler-makers' shops,
but in factories specialising on definite lines to
produce plant of the necessary design and quality.
It must also be remembered that the interchange
between firms of members of their technical staffs is
necessarily accompanied by the pooling of informa-
tion, and that this is supplemented by co-operation
between the buying and selling organisations.
In this country the Army and the Aliens Act,
together with certain protectionist legislation,
alone stand to-day between us and the extinction
of synthetic chemical industry. During the last
five years our industry haB enjoyed the most won-
derful protection of Providence. Chemists were
withdrawn in large numbers from positions of risk
and danger in the field ; many of those who had
never seen the inside of a factory learned to handle
plant and workmen ; and men from University
Btaffs got into close touch with the proprietors and
managers of chemical works. All this was done
under a system of restricted or prohibited imports.
Now that the shielding influences are being one by
one withdrawn, trench warfare behind barbed wire
will develop into battles in the open. Man for man
we shall have to hold our own; our plant and our
training will be put to a severe test ; but the whole
issue will depend upon the collective action of the
big chemical industries in this country and upon
the efficiency of their " staff work."
NEWS FROM THE SECTIONS.
AMERICA
At a meeting of this Section on January 16, at
the Chemists' Club, New York, Dr. Charles F.
Chandler was presented with the Perkin Gold Medal
for his distinguished scientific achievements.
After some introductory remarks by Mr. C. E.
Sholes, chairman of the Section, and some reminis-
cences by Dr. M. C. Whitaker, who was associated
with Dr. Chandler at Colombia University, the pre-
sentation was made by Prof. Marston T. Bogert,
president of the Society of Chemical Industry in
191:2 — 13. The medal, he explained, is awarded
annually to the American chemist, who, in the
opinion of a jury of his profession, has done most
to advance the progress of chemistry. The original
medal was conferred upon Sir William Perkin by
the parent Society in recognition of his discoveries
which lead to the foundation of the coal-tar dye
industry.
In reviewing the life of the recipient, Prof.
Bogert stated that he studied at the Lawrence
Scientific School of Harvard University, and at the
University of Gottingen, where he graduated. Ou
returning to the United States he became assistant
instructor in chemistry at Union College, Schenec-
tady. As this post did not carry any emolument,
he was forced to serve simultaneously in the same
institute as a janitor at a salary of $400 per annum.
In 1864 he was called to Columbia College, and
became one of the founders of its well-known School
of Mines; and he served as the Mitchill professor
of chemistry in Colombia University until his re-
tirement in 1911. He is also regarded as the founder
of the American Chemical Society, which he twice*
served as president.
In addition to his educational work, Dr. Chandler
acted as a consultant to the sugar, petroleum, coal-
b2
REVIEW.
gas and photographic industries ; he conducted im-
portant researches which led to an increased pro-
duction of caustic soda, and he originated many
important manufacturing processes. As a petro-
leum expert he introduced standards and tests for
kerosene which practically eliminated accidents
from its use. He also enforced standards for the
puritv of milk and initiated a campaign against
adulterated liquors and spoiled food. Although
84 years of age, Dr. Chandler is still practising his
profession as advisor to chemical manufacturers on
the best means of utilising the 4,000 foreign
chemical patents taken over by the Alien Property
Custodian.
MANCHESTER.
The annual dinner was held at the Grand Hotel
on January 22. Mr. J. Allan, chairman of the
section, presided, and announced with regret that
Mr. John Gray was unavoidably prevented from
attending. He also paid a tribute to the excellent
work which Mr. Gray was doing as president of the
Society.
Mr. W. Thomson, vice-chairman of the Section,
presented to Mr. L. E. VHes an illuminated album
as a mark of esteem from the members on his retire-
ment from the office of honorary secretary, which
he had filled so successfully from 1913 to 1919. Mr.
VJies, in his reply, remarked on the very small
number of hon. secretaries which had served the
Section, and conveyed his sincere thanks to the
members and to the late chairmen, who had guided
and stimulated him during his tenure of office.
Prof. F. L. Pyman, in proposing the toast of
" The Chemical Industries of the District," laid
stress on the enormous number of students now
studying chemistry and of the need for liaison be-
tween the industry and the chemical schools. Dr.
Herbert Levinstein responded. The acquaintance
with chemical factories which many professors had
acquired during the war would be of great service
to them in training young students, and it was
worthy of note that it was not until academic
leaders had distinguished themselves in industry
that the rush to the chemical schools had occurred.
The war had undoubtedly awakened the people to
a knowledge of the national value of the organic
chemical industries; had the revelation come earlier
the war would have been of much shorter duration ;
and the present and prospective development of
these industries were the best guarantee of future
peace. Dr. E. F. Armstrong, who also responded
to the toast, recalled the pioneer work of the late
Ivan Levinstein in founding the British dye in-
dustry, in protecting it against the encroachments
of the foreigner, and in building up the nucleus
around which the present industry had developed.
He also emphasised the need, particularly in the
organic branch, for research work and for trained
workers, who must be offered adequate financial in-
ducement. The British were pre-eminent in the
possession of financial intelligence, but this had too
often been applied on the " get-rich-quick " prin-
ciple; healthy development would only ensue on the
basis of large organisations, co-operative action,
ample financial resources, preparedness to risk large
sums of money, and patience to await results.
NEWCASTLE.
The meeing held on January 26 was devoted to
the reading of two papers on tungsten. Prof. P. P.
Bedson presided.
Mr. J. Coggin Brown, in his " Notes on the Dis-
tribution and Mining of Tungsten Ores in Burma,"
dealt in the first place with the early research
work on tungsten, and stated that the commercial
life of this metal dates from 1847, when Oxland
patented a method for the preparation of sodium
tungstate and metallic tungsten. In 1857 he
patented a preparation of alloys of tungsten with
iron, steel, and nickel.
In 1910 the world's production of tungsten was
about 6,000 tons of 60 per cent. WO, concentrates,
the chief producing countries being the United
States, Portugal, Queensland, the Argentine and
Bolivia. In 1911 Burma, with an output of 1300
tons, became the leading producing country, and
kept the lead until 1916. Although Germany had
no domestic or colonial supplies of importance, she
was said to control two-thirds of the world's pro-
duction in 1913, and British steelmakers usually
obtained their supplies of finished tungsten pro-
ducts from the German manufacturers.
The most important metallogenic province is the
Sino-Malayan one, which includes Burma, the Shan
States, the Malay States, the Dutch East Indies,
Siam, Tonkin and South China. In Burma, wol-
fram and cassiterite always occur in direct associa-
tion with the granite ranges which stretch from the
Shan States to the extreme south of the province.
The early methods of mining were very primitive,
and the industry still suffers because they are not
entirely eradicated. Of late years, however, im-
proved methods have been used. Tributing, though
still largely practised, is controlled; deep level
work is carried on by compressed air-driven drills;
concentrating mills have been erected, and large-
scale mine plans and sections are required by law;
hydraulic machinery is being installed. Wolfram
is a difficult mineral to recover even by the most
modern devices, as it breaks into thin mica-like
plates when powdered. The best method, in the
opinion of the author, is to sort the ores by means
of coarse crushing in rolls, sizing and jigging.
Before 1916 the mixed concentrates were wholly
shipped as they came from the mines. Then a mag-
netic separating plant was installed by the High-
Speed Alloys Mining Co., Ltd., so that some part
of the output is now separated before export. The
machines used are of the Ulrich type.
In "A Few Notes on Tungsten," Mr. T. W.
Moore outlined the history of the manufacture of
tungsten and tungsten steels, and gave typical
anlayses of its ores as prepared for the smelter, and
of ferro-tungsten. He also outlined 6ome of the
methods for extracting tungsten, dwelling more
especially on the production of ferro-tungsten in
the electric furnace, and concluded by describing
in detail the quantitative determination by fusion
with alkali and subsequent precipitation with mer-
curous nitrate.
GLASGOW.
A meeting was held at the Royal Technical Col-
lege on January 27, with Mr. Q. Moore in the
chair.
Mr. W. H. Nuttall read a paper on " Wetting
Power and its Relation to Industry." The factors
influencing the power of a liquid to wet a solid
surface were described, emphasis being laid on the
fact that it is the interfacial tension between a
liquid and a solid, rather than surface tension,
which determines the wetting power. Since most
solids requiring to be wetted in industrial opera-
tions are usually already coated with a greasy
or waxy layer, the wetting liquid must also possess
some slight solvent action on such substances. The
part played by surface concentration (adsorption)
in the wetting power of certain liquids, e.g.,
saponin solution, was also considered.
In describing various methods for comparing the
wetting powers of liquids, the author gave details
of a method he had employed for some time which
was based on the use of Donnan's " drop pipette."
In this method a standard oil is made to represent
the surface to be wetted ; the lower the interfacial
tension of the wetting liquid towards the oil, the
higher is its wetting power.
Vol. XXXIX.. Xo .3.1
REVIEW.
The factors conducive to the formation of good
emulsions of oil in aqueous liquids were next
described, as well as those necessary to give a
permanent foam. Since the chief requisite for a
good oil emulsion is a low interfacial tension of
the oil to the aqueous liquid, a good emulsion has
always a high wetting power. Donnan's "drop
pipette " can also be used for measuring emulsifying
power. The important part played by wetting in
various industrial operations was illustrated by
reference to the minerals separation flotation
method, to disinfectants, cattle dips, tree sprays,
and to the use of soap, Twitehell's reagent, etc.
LONDON.
At the meeting held at Burlington House on
February 2, Mr. Julian L. Baker presiding, Mr.
H. M. Wells and Mr. J. E. Southcombe contributed
a paper entitled " The Theory and Practice of
Lubrication: The Germ Process."
The primary object of the authors was to
elucidate the reason for the superior lubricating
efficiency of fatty glycerides over " straight "
mineral oils. The distinction was emphasised be-
tween the lubrication of fast-running shafts with a
large excess of oil, where the frictional values are a
function primarily of the oil viscosity, and the slow-
speed, high-bearing pressures where viscosity
measurements no longer assist in the choice of the
lubricant. In view of the fact that only those
liquids which "wet" a solid surface possess
lubricating powers in the generally accepted sense,
experimental work in the direction of capillary re-
lationships seemed to be indicated, and this, on
being undertaken, at once yielded results of great
value and interest. It was found that the inter-
facial tension against water of vegetable and animal
oils was very much lower than in the case of a
mineral oil, and that this lowering was due to the
slight content of free fatty acid in the fatty oils ; by
removing the free fatty acids from the saponifiable
oils the tension rises, and by adding free fatty
acids to the mineral oil the tension can be lowered.
It follows that if a substance be added to an oil
which brings about a lowering of interfacial ten-
sion, such addition will act favourably as far as
lubrication is concerned by preventing a rupture
of the liquid film and consequent direct contact be-
tween the metals. Mr. L. Archbutt concludes from
experiments which he has recently communicated
to the Physical Society that the addition of 1 per
cent, of free fatty acids to a mineral oil lowers the
frictional co-efficient to the same extent as does 60
per cent, of pure rape oil, and thus lends support to
the authors' contention that it is not the glyceride,
but the free fatty acids in a compounded oil which
improves its lubricating value. This principle of
making lubricating oils by adding to mineral oils
small quantities of fatty acids or substances which
lower the interfacial tension has been accepted by
the Patent Offices in all civilised countries.
In the second part of the paper the application
of the relevant physico-chemical principles was fur-
ther elaborated, and the reasons which influenced
the authors in the adoption of the term " germ
process " were explained. Various specifications of
oils suitable for different types of lubrication were
discussed and criticised, and a warning given
against the idea that the haphazard addition to
mineral oils of fatty acids of unknown origin and
composition would in all cases prove satisfactory.
In the ensuing discussion Messrs. Archbutt, Arnold
Philip, Southwell, Ormandy, Drummond, and Prof.
Brame took part, and a letter was read from Prof.
Donnan. Some of the speakers thought that the
adoption of the term " germ process " was some-
what unfortunate, as being likely to lead to mis-
understanding owing to its ambiguity.
MEETINGS OF OTHER SOCIETIES.
SOCIETY OF GLASS TECHNOLOGY.
The January meeting was held at Stourbridge on
the 21st, the president, Mr. S. N. Jenkinson,
occupying the chair. Dr. W. E. S. Turner, in an
address on " The Factory Inspection of Glassware,"
said that except in the cases of table ware and
optical glass there had never been any real attempt
at systematic inspection. Every article should be
carefully examined in the blank state before it was
passed on to be decorated ; a sound glass industry
could only be built up on quality. Dr. Travers
emphasised the need of selecting competent glass
experts as inspectors, and Mr. J. Northwood said
that in pre-war days much material was rejected
in order to keep Stourbridge ware up to the highest
standard of excellence on account of competition
from abroad ; it was possible that the standard
had declined during the war period.
Lieut.-Col. Thomas read a paper on " A Glass-
house Pot of Special Construction," and exhibited
an experimental pot of Stourbridge clay and a
separate crown showing a groove in which was an
asbestos rope. The object of making the pot in
two parts was to get a denser body and quicker
drying, as it was known that the life of a pot was
improved if the interior surface could be worked
upon when in a hard and toughened condition. On
the Continent it was the ordinary practice, with
pots which were made in moulds, to heat the inside
surface after it had become hard, but this was im-
possible in the case of covered pots because the
required condition of hardness and toughness was
not reached until after the crown had been put on.
The object of Ihe asbestos rope was to form a joint-
ing cushion between the pot and crown, thereby
preventing the entrance of dust or furnace gases ;
in practice it was found that the asbestos cushion
makes a thoroughly effective gas-tight and dust-
tight joint, and it could either be applied loose or
cemented into the joint with a fixative. The pot
exhibited had been made in a solid mould with
a core, the clay being brought into a suitable con-
dition and rammed into a dense body with a wooden
rammer during the process of manufacture. The
result was a much stronger and denser body than
the ordinary hand-built pot. In the discussion some
doubt was expressed as to whether the asbestos rope
would withstand for long the high temperature of
the furnace.
Dr. Turner also read a paper on " The Relative
Durabilities of Potash and Soda Glass for Artistic
and Table Ware."
SOCIETY OF PUBLIC ANALYSTS.
Dr. S. Rideal presided at the annual meeting,
held at Burlington House, W., on February 4, and
delivered an address. Officers and council for 1920
were then elected, Mr. Alfred Smetham becoming
president.
An ordinary meeting followed, at which Messrs.
F. S. Sinnatt and L. Slater read a. paper on " An
Investigation into the Composition of the Un-
saturated Hydrocarbons present in Coal Gas." The
authors have separated the bromine addition
products of the unsaturated hydrocarbons present
in coal gas in quantities sufficient to allow of a
separation of the more volatile compounds. Their
experiments show the percentage composition of
the unsaturated hydrocarbons to be : — Ethylene,
84 and 84"3 ; propylene, 13" 4 and 118; butylene,
1-75 and 2'35 ; amylene, 0-97 and 1*54.
In a contribution on " The Estimation of the
Available Oxygen in Sodium Perborate and in
Perborate Soap Solutions," Mr. H. Trickett defined
the optimum conditions for carrying out the volu-
REVIEW.
metric methods based on the use of permanganate
and potassium iodide. He also described a gas
volumetric method based on the reaction : —
NaB03 + CaOCl2 + H20 = NaH2B03+CaCl2+02,
which is stated to be as reliable as, and more rapid
than, the iodometric method, and which can be
directly applied to soap powder mixtures.
CORRESPONDENCE.
THE BRITISH OXYGEN INDUSTRY.
Sir, — In the recently-issued Report of the
Nitrogen Products Committee certain statements
are made on pages 57 and 58, obviously intended
to reflect on this company. As these statements
are entirely inaccurate and calculated to mislead
many people, I shall esteem it a favour if you will
afford me space to make the necessary corrections.
I will deal with the points seriatim : —
1. The Report says that "it appears from
information at the disposal of the Committee
that the recovery and utilisation of by-product
oxygen from nitrogen plants has been checked
by restrictive clauses in trade agreements."
There are not, as yet, any nitrogen plants in-
stalled in this country, and the only order for such
a plant was entrusted to us. It consisted of three
large units of the liquid-air type, destined for
the Committee's belated and unfortunate adven-
ture at Billingham. In the contract there is no
mention of any restriction on the use of the oxygen
residual. None was ever suggested or contemplated
by us. Even a royalty, to which we might have
been legally entitled, was not asked for, and the
contract for the plant was accepted on a basis of
10 per cent, profit on cost, a profit which we need
hardly say is never likely to be realised.
2. The Report states that " the oxygen and
liquid-air industries in this country cannot be
said to have enjoyed a free and unrestricted
development on a competitive basis, and the
prices hitherto prevailing for the compressed and
liquid products have not been conducive to their
employment to the fullest extent."
This company, established 34 years ago, was the
first successful commercial enterprise in oxygen,
and may justly claim to have founded the world's
present industry in that gas. Competition has
frequently been experienced by the company in the
course of its development, and will, no doubt, be
experienced again. Whether that will lead to a
freer and less restricted development than hitherto
is a matter for competent consideration in the light
of the following facts : —
Oxygen is a supply business analogous to elec-
tricity and coal gas. For cheap distribution it
has to be produced locally whenever the demand
is sufficient to yield an adequate return on the
capital involved. This company has steadily pur-
sued that policy. We have to-day oxygen factories
in all important industrial centres throughout the
country — 11 in operation, and others in hand. I
believe that no country is better supplied with
oxygen factories than England. I know, at any
rate, that in France and the United States of
America, where competition prevails to a marked
degree, the selling price of oxygen is higher than
it is here.
3. The Report states that " prior to the war
the selling price of oxygen to fairly large users
inclusive of the cost of compression into cylinders,
of hire of the latter, and of freight was of the
order of Id. per cubic foot, or, say, £4 per 1,000
cubic feet."
It is to be hoped that this statement is not a fair
specimen of the general degree of accuracy
throughout the Report. Prior to the war the
average selling price of oxygen in this country was
considerably less than half the figure quoted above.
This average includes not only industrial supplies
| in large quantities, but also the gas supplied in
i small cylinders for medical and entertainment pur-
poses. No charge is made for the hire of cylinders
for periods varying from a fortnight to a month,
but afterwards a small rent charge is made in order
to prevent their unreasonable detention. The
average cost of transport is only a few shillings per
1,000 cubic feet.
For the year ended March 31, 1919 (the last
audited record), the average increase on pre-war
figures in the cost of producing, compressing and
handling 1,000 cubic feet of oxygen was 8s. 6d.,
whilst the average increase in the selling price was
; less than half that amount. I think even Govern-
I ment officials must admit that there is not much
evidence of profiteering in these facts.
4. The Report states that " attempts have
been made in this country by lampmakers
(electric) to induce the liquid-air industry to take
up the commercial manufacture of argon, but so
far without success."
There is not a vestige of truth in this statement.
| This company has expended many thousands of
pounds in connexion with the production of argon.
Prior to the war we had conducted considerable
experimental work, and an argon producing plant
was in hand when war broke out. Owing partly
to war pressure and the paramount necessity for
giving precedence to oxygen supplies, but owing
even more to the absence of reasonable assistance
from the Government in the matter of labour and
material, our first plant was only started shortly
after the armistice. It has been in operation, as
required, ever since, and a second plant is now
being erected in another works. Our difficulty,
however, is to find a market for the gas.
I may add that, in addition to the above extracts,
there are further statements in this Report relat-
ing to oxygen and other gases with which we
entirely disagree, but, as these are put forward as
expressions of opinion rather than fact, I will
not trespass on your space with further criticism.
I desire, however, to add in conclusion that there
is no shortage of oxygen production in this country.
The trouble lies in the distribution of the gas, and
this is due entirely to the fact that the production
of oxygen cylinders was virtually stopped by the
Government during the war. This official action
was adopted to enable vast quantities of hydrogen
cylinders to be manufactured for air-ship develop-
ments which never materialised. Thousands of
these cylinders are now lying unused and
deteriorating in air dumps throughout the country,
whilst oxygen supplies are being starved and work
of national importance retarded for lack of
cylinders. This matter might well be investigated
by some competent and independent engineer of
recognised authority on behalf of the Government.
It would afford this company gratification to have
a similar investigation made regarding the oxygen
position before, during, and since the war. I
venture to predict that it would bring to light a
striking example of the harm which can be effected
by ignorant and prejudiced official interference
with a well-conducted, highly technical and respon-
sible industry. It would, I think, also disclose the
true source of misleading statements such as those
referred to in this letter. — I am, Sir, etc.,
The British Oxygen Company, Limited.
K. S. MtTBRAY,
Managing Director.
January 27, 1920.
Vol. XXXIX.. No. SJ
REVIEW.
THE POINTOLITE LAMP.
Sir, — In the current number of the Review
(Vol. 39, page 34 h), in your account of the joint
meeting of the Faraday, Royal Microscopic, Optical
and Photomicrographical Societies, I notice a state-
ment that the Pointolite lamp "is at present
hardly powerful enough for use with high magni-
fications, but larger types up to 4,000 c.p. have been
recently put on the market." Lest this discourage
or mislead anyone who is thinking of adopting
what is, in my opinion, the most perfect form of
illumination for photomicrography at present
obtainable, may I draw your attention to a paper
communicated to this meeting by Dr. R. E. Slade
and myself ? In this we describe the form of appara-
tus used by us for the rapid production of photo-
graphs at 2,000 magnification and employing a
Pointolite lamp of only 100 c.p. For all ordinary
high-power photomicrography this is quite suffi-
ciently intense — it is a matter of common consent
that a magnification of 2,000 is in most cases high
enough — and using practically monochromatic
green light our exposures are only from 2 to 10
seconds, quite short enough for convenience.
It should, moreover, be noted that the mere sub-
stitution of a higher candle-power Pointolite lamp
for a lower one does not, caeteris paribus, shorten
the exposure, as the extra power of the lamp is
due to an increase of size of the light source, the
intensity per unit area remaining the same. The
intensity of the projected image can be increased
only by the introduction into the condensing system
of a suitable lens, which, while reducing the size
of the image of the light source thrown on to the
object (this is permissible on account of the
increased size of the source), increases its intensity
and consequently that of the projected image. —
I am, Sir, etc.,
British Photographic G. I. Higson.
Research Association.
Feb. 5, 1920.
PERSONALIA.
We record with deep regret the death, on
February 1, in his seventy-ninth year, of Mr. C. E.
Groves, F.R.S., an original member of this Society.
Dr. Samuel Smiles, professor of organic chemistry
at Armstrong College, Newcastle-on-Tyne, has been
appointed to succeed Prof. A. W. Crossley as Daniell
professor of chemistry at King's College, London.
Mr. F. H. Carr has been elected to a seat on the
board of directors of The British Drug Houses, Ltd.
Mr. R. L. Frink, of Lancaster, Ohio, U.S.A., has
been appointed director of research by the council
of the British Glass Research Association.
Mr. A. V. Hill, F.R.S., lecturer in physiology
in the University of Cambridge, has been appointed
to the chair of physiology in the University of
Manchester.
Dr. Harold Hibbert, formerly a consulting
chemist in. Toronto, has been appointed assistant
professor of organic chemistry in the University of
Yale.
A gift of £20,000 has been made by Mr. S. B. Joel
and Mr. J. B. Joel to the Senate of London Univer-
sity for the endowment of a chair of physics, ten-
able at the Middlesex Hospital Medical School.
Dr. Charles Crowther, lately professor of agricul-
tural chemistry in the University of Leeds, has been
appointed director of the research department
recently established bv the Olvmpia Agricultural
Co., Ltd.
The post of chief librarian at the Patent Office
has been filled by the appointment of Mr. Allan
Gomme, formerly an assistant examiner of patents.
M. Metzner, lecturer in chemistry in the Univer-
sity of Dijon, has been appointed professor of
applied chemistry in the same University.
Prof. T. S. Vincent, professor of physiology and
bio-chemistry in the University of Manitoba since
1904, has been appointed to the University chair
of physiology in the Middlesex Hospital Medical
School. Dr. H. E. Roaf, lecturer at St. Mary's
Hospital Medical School, has received a similar
appointment at the London Hospital Medical
College.
The Council of the Institution of Mining and
Metallurgy has awarded its gold medal to Mr. H. L.
Sulman for his work on the separation of minerals
by floatation, the gold medal of the Consolidated
Goldfields of South Africa, Ltd., to Mr. W. H.
Goodchild, and the premium of forty guineas of
the same company to Dr. E. T. Mellor.
Dr. E. W. Smith, chief chemist to the City of
Birmingham Gas Department, has resigned his posi-
tion to become managing director of a new private
company that is to be formed to deal chiefly with
problems relating to fuel conservation. In this
work he will be associated with Sir Arthur Duckham
(chairman), Sir William Jones, and Mr. W. H.
Woodall. Dr. Smith will take over his new duties
on June 1, and Mr. T. F. E. Rhead, hitherto senior
chemist, will succeed him as chief chemist to the
Department.
NEWS AND NOTES.
FRANCE.
Trading with Germany. — The attempt on the part
of France to re-establish trade relations with Ger-
many has suffered a great set-back owing to the
measures adopted by the latter to counteract the
depreciation in the value of the mark. These
measures take the form of very strict orders to
customs officials not to allow any machinery or
chemical products to pass the frontier without levy-
ing an imposition equal to the difference between
the selling price of the material in Germany and the
price at which it is quoted in France. A small allow-
ance is, however, made to French buyers with a view-
to securing their orders, which otherwise would
most probably go to England or the United States.
It is obvious that such measures are not conducive
to a resumption of normal trade relations. More-
over, attention has been called to the poor quality
of the imported German articles, which compare
very unfavourably with those obtained before the
war. Unless such impedimenta as the above are
removed, it is anticipated that the interchange of
commodities between the two nations will soon
dwindle into insignificance.
Coal Production in 1919. — The publication of the
statistics of coal production for 1919 has caused
bitter disappointment in industrial circles. The pro-
duction is given at 19,537,843 metric tons (Lorraine
excluded), against 26,322,000 tons in 1918. In-
cluding Lorraine, the figure for 1919 is 21,863,453
tons. Although the disappointment is not shared
to the same extent by those who have followed the
industry from within, it iB generally agreed that the
position would have been better if certain measures
had been taken. For example, the miners working
in the south and centre of France might have been
retained there instead of being returned to their
homes in the devastated districts of northern
France, where production must be very restricted
for some time to come. Further, it is held that the
prisoners of war were released too Boon, and that
REVIEW.
the new law curtailing the hours of work was pre-
maturely applied. The criticism advanced in many
quarters that more use should he made of coal-
cutting machinery is negatived by the fact that the
nature of the French coal deposits, the thinness
and irregularity of the seams, does not admit of the
application of such machinery.
CANADA.
Industrial Water Power Development. — The census
of electric stations taken hy the Dominion Govern-
ment shows that over 1,700,000 h.-p. is derived in
Canada from water power at central stations,
whilst steam provides barely 180,000 h.-p. The
average development throughout the country
amounts to 276 h.-p. per 1000 of population, which
involves a saving of from 12 to 50 million tons of
coal, according to the efficiency allowed for in
making the comparison. Omitting water-power
resources at present remote from civilisation, the
grand total of the water-power supply of Canada is |
estimated, conservatively, at 18 to 20 million h.-p.
The developed water power is over 2,300,000 h.-p.,
nearly 500,000 of which is consumed in the paper
and pulp industries, while nearly 250,000 is deve-
loped exclusively for the electro-chemical, mining
and milling industries. These industries are now
drawing attention to the need of instituting some
large and comprehensive scheme for developing the
St. Lawrence River for water-power purposes.
BRITISH INDIA.
The Indian Chemical Service Committee. — In the
issue of this Journal for January 15 (p. 12 r), it
was stated that the Government of India was about
to constitute a committee to consider the creation
of a Chemical Service. Prof. J. F. Thorpe has
recently arrived in India to preside over the com-
mittee, and is now engaged in collecting the neces-
sary information and discussing the objects of the
proposal with the heads of local governments and
others. After spending some time in Delhi in con-
sultation with the Central Government, he is
making an extensive tour through India and
Burma, accompanied by Dr. J. L. Simonsen and
Mr. R. W. Davies. Dr. Simonsen was formerly
professor of chemistry at Madras University, and
later, chemical adviser to the Indian Munitions
Board ; he is now chemist to the Indian Forest De-
partment. Mr. Davies is a member of the Indian
Civil Service and is Director of Industries in
Madras. When the tour is completed early in
February they will proceed to Simla, to meet the
other members of the committee and draw up their
report. The other members will probably be Sir
P. C. Ray, to represent Indian chemists, Dr. J. J.
Sudborough, of the Indian Institute of Science at
Bangalore, Dr. Harrison, of the Agricultural Re-
search Institution at Pusa, to represent the agricul-
tural chemists, and Dr. Caldwell, professor of
chemistry at Patna, to represent the educational
chemists.
In a resolution, dated November 26, 1919, deal-
ing with this matter, the Government of India
draws attention to the unsatisfactory system, or
want of it, at present existing so far as scientific
officers are concerned. It is stated that the present
condition of affairs is even less satisfactory to the
Governments than to the officers. The terms of
reference of the Committee are : —
(1) To consider whether an All-India
Chemical Service is the best and most suitable
method of overcoming the difficulties and de-
ficiencies.
(2) In the event of the Committee approving
the principle of an All-India Service, to devise
terms of recruitment, employment, and organ-
isation ; to indicate the extent to which
chemists already in Government employ
should be included in that service ; and to sug-
gest what should be the relations of the pro-
posed organisation with the public and with
the departments of the Government of India
and of local governments.
(3) In particular to frame proposals for the
location, scope, and organisation of institutions
for chemical research.
The Industrial Commission suggested that the
Imperial research laboratories should be placed at
Dehra Dun, where the Forest Research Institution
is already situated, as well as the headquarters of
the Survey of India, and the choice will probably
lie between this station and Bangalore, where the
existing Indian Institute of Science could be taken
over, provided that the consent were obtained of the
trustees and of the Mysore Durbar. Neither of
these places is very central, but they possess the
advantage of fairly good climates.
Trade and Industry. — Two recent publications of
the Indian Government* give a considerable amount
of interesting information concerning recent
developments in Indian trade and industry, and as
they are well written and got up in a convenient
octavo form they should be procured by all inter-
ested in these subjects. The Industrial Handbook
is an enlarged and revised version of a booklet that
was issued in connexion with exhibitions that were
held in 1917-18, and consists of some 38 articles
written by those who have been engaged during the
last few years in organising trade and industry for
the supply of military requirements. Most of
them deal each with a separate industry and dis-
cuss not only the present position, but also the
prospects of future development. Some of the indus-
tries discussed have not yet been established in India
or are in very early state of development. The
manufacture of calcium carbide, for example, which
is dealt with by Dr. L. L. Fermor, has not been
started, and glue and gelatin manufacture, dis-
cussed by Dr. G. J. Fowler, practically does not
exist, as it is impeded by the absence of cheap
supplies of acid and of a demand for bone meal and
other phosphatic manures in the country. The
production and manufacture of lac, on the other
hand, are practically a monopoly of India, and
three articles are devoted to it. W. A. Fray-
mouth advocates the more general use of seed lac
instead of shellac, because it is not only cheaper,
but is not so liable to be adulterated. On the
other hand, E. C. Ansorge, who apparently reflects
the opinion of the Calcutta market, opposes this
change, and contends that the users in Europe
and America will not find seed lac so satisfactory
as the shellac and button lac usually exported from
India in the past. The most important industrial
development in India during the war was probably
that of the tanning industry, and there are three
articles dealing with the subject: — Hides, Tanning
and Leather, by A. C. McWatters; Researches on
Tanning Materials, by W. A. Fraymouth ; and
the Future of Tannin Extract, by J. A. Pilgrim.
Before the war the great bulk of Indian hides and
skins was exported in the raw state to Austria and
Germany. Now they are mostly sent in the partly-
tanned condition to England, and the Indian hides
have formed the principal source of supply of
leather for the uppers of boots for the "whole of the
Allied armies. Formerly a large proportion of the
hides was injured by faulty flaying; but of late
Government pressure has effected a considerable
improvement in this respect. Another peculiarly
Indian supply is jute, and the jute mills on the
Hooghlv above and below Calcutta form the most
highly-developed industry in the whole country.
• Industrial Handbook. Indian Munitions Board. 1919, price Es. 1-8
or 2s. 3d.
Handbook of Commercial Informat ion for India, by C; W. E. Cotton.
C.8., Collector of Customs, Calcutta, price. B. 1 or 2s.
Vo'. XXXIX.. No. 3.]
REVIEW.
During the war these have made very good profits.
The principal development has been the production
of a larger proportion of fabrics and a diminution
in the amount of fibre exported.
In the Handbook of Commercial Information the
same subjects are treated of amongst others, but
principally from the point of view of the export
trade. All the principal articles of Indian export
are briefly but clearly reviewed, and much useful
information is given about Indian ports and trade
centres and the general organisation of trade. The
statistical and other information contained in both
books is fully up-to-date.
UNITED STATES.
Synthesis of Maleic, Tartaric, Citric, Lactic, and
Succinic Acids. — At the meeting of the New York
Section of the American Chemical Society, on
January 9, Messrs. J. M. Weiss and C. R. Downs
described their new method of preparing maleic
acid by oxidising benzene vapour with air in pre-
sence of a catalyst. The authors believe that this
method will open up a new field for the use of
maleic acid in the preparation of dyes, medicinals,
and perfumes, and state that arrangements are
being made to manufacture such products on a large
scale. Starting from this acid, it is possible to pre-
pare tartaric acid (which, owing to the Prohibition
regime, can no longer be made from cream of
tartar), citric acid, lactic acid (which has lately
been used successfully as a feed for pigs), and suc-
cinic acid, which can be manufactured cheaply by
the new process.
New Method of .Manufacturing Phthalk Anhydride. —
In the November issue of the Journal of Industrial
and Engineering Chemistry, Mr. H. D. Gibbs
describes experiments on the oxidation of the
methyl group of toluene by subjecting mixtures of
oxygen and toluene and of atmospheric air and
toluene to contact with various catalysts at tem-
peratures ranging from the boiling-point of toluene
to about 550° C. The oxides of the metals of the
fifth and sixth groups of the periodic system were
found to be the most effective catalysts, vanadium
being the best and molybdenum the next best.
Similar reactions were applied to the manufacture
of phthalic anhydride from naphthalene (Gibbs and
Conover, Eng. Pats. 119,517 and 119,518; this J.,
1918, 684 a), and the conditions to obtain the
optimum yield were determined. The best labora-
tory results showed 82 per cent, of the theoretical
conversion. The phthalic anhydride produced is
remarkably pure, and is quite free from chlorine
or sulphur compounds which were common im-
purities in the phthalic anhydride formerly on the
market. The U.S. Department of Agriculture, in
whose laboratories the process was devised, has
renewed its offer to co-operate with chemical manu-
facturers for the pi; rpose of introducing the process
on a commercial sc.de.
Tentative Regulations for the Storage and Use of
Fuel Oils. — The Committee on Inflammable Liquids
of the National Fire Protection Association, meet-
ing at New York, has drafted a series of regulations
for the equipment, tankage, piping, heating, com-
bustion and feeding of oil fuel.
The flash point is to be not less than 150° F. (close
test). Tanks should be underground and con-
structed of galvanised steel or wrought iron, but
concrete may be permitted for heavy oils of 20°
Baume and below. Details relative to venting,
provision of the usual fittings, and setting are
given. For indoor storage the requirements are
more stringent and the capacity should be limited,
e.g., for ordinary buildings to 5000 galls. Piping,
valves, heaters and pumps are similarly treated,
and suggested specifications are evolved.
The American Petroleum Institute has tabled a
number of objections to the draft regulations ;
amongst others the flash point of 150° F. is con-
sidered too high so long as good venting is provided
for; 135° F. has been suggested as a reasonable
minimum. Further, it is put forward that so long
as the established factor of safety is observed there
should be no limit to the dimensions of a tank. The
Institute objects to the provision of embankments
round a tank which contains fuel oil, although for
crude oil they are advisable ; and it considers that
oil of lighter gravity than 20° B. may be stored
in concrete. — (Chem. and Met. Eng., l)ec. 24 — 31,
1919.)
American Oil Shales. — Motor transport in the
United States requires an ever-increasing amount
of fuel, and it is estimated that there would be
7,602,000 motor vehicles on the road at the end
of 1919, with a renewal demand of 1,000,000 cars
per annum.
Similarly, the conversion of shipping to oil-firing
both in the United States and in Great Britain
will necessitate vast amounts of liquid fuel. The
reserves of oil in the States, according to the
Bureau of Mines, constitute 60 per cent, of the
total underground supply, whilst production has
reached a maximum, and with a predicted demand
of 800,000,000 barrels in 1927 the whole known
underground resources will be exhausted in 1928.
The importance, therefore, of exploiting the
immense shale deposits is self-evident. In 1918
and in 1919 the Bureau of Mines reported on the
shale deposits of North-West Colorado. These
deposits are richer than those of Scotland, and it
is estimated that at least one barrel of oil will be
recovered per ton of shale, together with about
10 lb. of ammonium sulphate. The Colorado shales
are apparently several hundred feet in thickness,
and on a conservative basis it is reckoned that
110,000 barrels of oil would be produced per acre.
At the present time, however, the deposits are in-
accessible, and transport facilities would need to
be provided. Utah, Nevada and Wyoming all
possess valuable deposits. — (Brf. of Trade J.,
Jan. 29, 1920.)
Antimony in the U.S.A. in 1918. — The United States
imports antimony ore from China, Bolivia and
Mexico, and obtains also a small amount of liquated
antimony sulphide from China. During the early-
part of the war the high price stimulated home pro-
duction, ore carrying 2100 short tons of metal being
mined in 1915. The imports, however, greatly
increased, and consequently the price fell. By the
end of 1916 many of the American mines were
almost non-productive, but the entry of the United
States into the war gave them a temporary
stimulus. At the close of 1917 nearly all domestic
mines had ceased operations. In 1918 the price
varied from 14 cents a pound in January to 7 cents
in December, and the quantity in bonded ware-
houses dropped from ten million pounds to five
million pounds. Domestic producers could not
make a profit at the prevailing prices, and the
quantity of ore mined was only about 190 tons,
carrying about 50 tons of metal. There is reason
to believe that in October, 1919, there was about
a year's supply of antimony in stock for the world,
together with 1 rge supplies of antimonial lead and
other alloys. For this reason it is likely that
antimony mining will for the present be of little
importance. Prior to the war the American
market was largely controlled from London, but
now that Chinese and Japanese brands have become
so firmly established the American market is hardly
likely to return to the dominance of British firms.
During the war antimonial lead carrying 12 — 13
per cent, of antimony was employed in the manu-
facture of bullets. Antimony sulphide is almost
universally used as a constituent of primers in shells
and cartridges ; and in powder it is used in the
charges of some shells to produce a dense white
REVIEW
smoke on explosion for range-finding purposes. —
{U.S. Geol. Sure., Oct. 18, 1919.)
War Gas Investigations. — Bulletin 178 a, an
advance chapter from Bulletin 178, War Work
of the Bureau of Mines, Washington, is con-
cerned mainly with a statement of the organisation
and personnel of the various bodies concerned with
the investigation of war gas problems. The work
was undertaken initially by the Bureau of Mines in
February, 1917, and was transferred to the
Chemical Service of the Army in June, 1918. The
total sum allotted by the Army for war gas in-
vestigations during the year ended June 30, 1918,
was $2,212,000, and by the Navy $250,000.
The American gas mask is claimed to be the best
in existence, but the first masks shipped overseas
did not afford protection against ehloropicrin. The
soda lime manufactured in America is claimed to
be much superior to the English product. An
absorbent mixture for carbon monoxide, operative
largely through catalytic action, was introduced,
twenty grams of the absorbent affording efficient
protection for one hour in an atmosphere contain-
ing 1 per cent, of the gas. Of all the substances
tested for producing smoke clouds (including
titanium tetrachloride, zinc dust and carbon tetra-
chloride, silicon tetrachloride), phosphorus appears
to be the best, as, weight for weight, it possesses 40
per cent, more screening power than any
other material tried. At the signing of
the armistice, the United States was in
a position to manufacture poisonous ga6es
in quantity equal to the combined output of
France and England, and a plant with an output
of 200 tons of mustard gas per day was in course
of erection at that date. A satisfactory mustard-
gas detector was evolved, and also an impregnating
medium for protective clothing. Therapeutic re-
search showed that chlorine, phosgene, and chloro-
picrin are fundamentally alike in their toxic action.
Burns due to mustard gas can be prevented by
washing and scrubbing the skin with kerosene a
few minutes after exposure. Mustard gas is effec-
tive as a toxic agent in the dilution represented by
1 part in 12,500,000 parts of air. A new gas even
more effective has been developed.
The production of arsine, calcium and mag-
nesium arsenides, hydrofluoric acid and fluorides,
and nitrogen tetroxide for use in the new explosive
" anilite " was investigated. A novel method for
the removal of iron oxide from glass sand by the
use of phosgene has been introduced, and the re-
action has other possible applications. The work
of the Bureau also included mechanical, physio-
logical, therapeutic, pathological, pharmacological
and toxicological research.
GENERAL.
Report on the Benzol Road Test.— The Automobile
Association in its endeavour to promote the manu-
facture, distribution and use of indigenous motor
fuel carried out two important tests between August
and November, 1919. A 16 h.-p. Sunbeam car and a
4 h.-p. Triumph side-car combination were run
10,000 and 5,000 miles, respectively, under
engineering and chemical supervision, benzol being
the only fuel used. The standard benzol fulfilled
the following specification: — Sp. gr., 0-870 — 0-880 ;
distillation test, not less than 75% at 100° C, not
less than 90% at 120° C, and 100% at 125° C. ;
total sulphur, less than 0'40% ; water white in colour
and on being agitated with 90% sulphuric acid
during 5 minutes, the acid to show not more than
a ligbt brown colour; free from acid, alkali, sul-
phuretted hydrogen and water; freezing point
lower than 7° F. The test was carried out under
ordinary touring conditions, and all precautions
were taken to ensure a properly observed trial.
After the run the engines were dismantled, and the
bearing surfaces were found to be in good condi-
tion. In the case of the air-cooled Triumph engine,
the total carbon deposit on cylinder, piston, valves,
etc., was negligible. No physical effects were
observable on the lubricating properties of the oil
throughout the motor, and no benzol was detected
in the crank case. The analysis of the carbon
deposit is of interest :— Loss at 100° C, 2"0% ;
volatile matter, 397%; fixed carbon, 34-l%;
mineral matter, 24'2% ; oil extracted by solvent,
18-3%. Mineral matter : — SiO„ 18-6%; FeaO„
52-1% ; CuO, 01% ; S, 0"6% ; AlaO,> CaO, MgO and
undetermined, 28'6%.
" Giornale di Chimica Industrials" — We have re-
ceived Nos. 3 and 4 of this new .monthly journal,
which is published by the Societa di Chimica Indus-
triale, of Milan (ViaS. Paulo N. 10). Each number
contains original articles, critical reviews, abstracts
from foreign journals of recent work, more particu-
larly on physical chemistry, notes of commercial and
technical interest, and lists of Italian chemical
patents. Among the original articles is one on the
nitrogen problem as it affects the world in general
and Italy in particular, with statistics of produc-
tion; another on continuous filtration in vacuo;
also a detailed account of new machinery used in
industrial processes, and a valuable review of work
published on essential oils during the period 1914 —
1918, together with full details of new methods of
analysis and the physical and chemical character-
istics of various new oils. The price of the new
journal is 4.50 lire (3s. 7d.) for a single number, or
40 lire per annum to foreign subscribers.
Supply of Rock Phosphates. — The output of the
North African mines is divided by the French
Government between the different importing
nations. Thanks to the representations of the
Ministry of Agriculture the quantity originally
apportioned to this country for 1919 was increased
last spring to 247,600 tons. In September last
further negotiations with the French Government
resulted in increasing that quantity by another
30,000 tons. It seems probable that the supply for
1920 will at least be equal to that for 1919. If
labour should permit the United States to send
us the amount of rock expected, British agriculture
should be able to count on sufficient supplies to
satisfy the bulk of its requirements during the
present and coming seasons. — (Official.)
Fate of the Iron Foundries of Lorraine. — The com-
pulsory liquidation of all foundries formerly in
German possession has now been effected.
Thyssen's works at Hagendingen, for example,
among many others, has been sold for 150,000,000
francs (about £6,000,000) to the " Groupement de
Consommateurs de Produits Metallurgiques,"
formed by the union of 32 French industrial firms.
The sum of £4,500,000 was given by the " Partici-
pations Miniers et Metallurgiques d'Alsace-
Lorraine " for the Lothringer Huttenwerke at
Kneutingen.— (Z. angew. Chem., Dee. 12, 1919.)
Proposed Extension of the Life of German Patents. —
Germany has not yet introduced a law for prolong-
ing the period of patents. In the National Assembly
on November 25 last, a motion for extending the
periods of patents and designs was introduced by
one of the deputies, and was referred by the
Government to a special committee. The plan sug-
gested is to disregard altogether the period
between August 1, 1914, and July 31, 1919,
for patents which had not expired by July 31, 1914,
so that the period of a patent would be continued
directly from August 1, 1914, to August 1, 1919. —
(/. angew. Chem., Dec. 16, 1919.)
Sulphuric Acid and Alkali in Germany. — Users of
sulphuric acid complain that they are receiving
barely one-half of their necessary requirements.
The shortage is mainly due to the fact that the
sulphuric acid works in central Germany are
Vol. XXXIX., No. 3.J
REVIEW.
mostly lying idle owing to lack of coal; and the
production of sulphate of ammonia and of super-
phosphate is accordingly very restricted. As the
home supply of pyrites is inadequate recourse is
being taken to importations from abroad.
New maximum prices of sulphuric acid are as
follows : — Acid up to 80 per cent, monohydrate,
1482 marks per metric ton sulphur content
(formerly 816 ink.); over 80 per cent, up to 90 per
cent, (inclusive), 2820 mk. (1408 mk.); highly-con-
centrated acid over 92 per cent, monhydrate and
up to 40 per cent, anhydride, 1740 mk.
The position in the alkali industry has become
worse. Several of the biggest producers of caustic
soda, e.g., Fabrik Wiirselen in Rhineland (a branch
of the German Solvay-Werke A.-G., Bernburg),
have had to close down owing to lack of coal. Very
little hope is entertained of a speedy resumption.
— (Z. angew. Chem., Dec., 12, 16, 1919.)
Nitrogenous Fertilisers in Germany. — The total
possible output from existing plants is estimated at
500,000 tons of nitrogen, 60 per cent, of which could
be produced by the Haber-Bosch process, and 20 per
cent, each by the cyanamide works and the gas and
coke industries. In October, 1918, the industry had
so far recovered that 25,000 tons of nitrogen was
being delivered per month, when further progress
was interrupted by the revolution. The demand
for artificial nitrogenous fertilisers is very great,
since all farmers are now convinced of their im-
portance and value. With the co-operation of the
Government, the five leading producers of nitro-
genous fertilisers have formed a syndicate, the
object of which is not to make large profits, but to
increase output, to exercise control over prices,
and to secure fair distribution. Attached to this
syndicate is a committee on which both producers
and consumers are represented ; by mutual con-
cessions and adjustments between these it is hoped
that the German farmer will be able to obtain his
nitrogenous fertilisers three times cheaper than
if he imported them from abroad.
The 18 per cent, of the total nitrogen supplies
contributed by gas works before the war has now
sunk to 5 per cent. ; but these will continue to
manufacture sulphate of ammonia in order to make
full use of their plant. The shortage of sulphuric
acid is being relieved to some extent by the pro-
duction at gas works of a spent mass containing
up to 50 per cent, of sulphur, which modern com-
bustion furnaces are capable of burning direct to
sulphuric acid. Should the supply of sulphuric
acid fail absolutely, gas works can fall back on
the process introduced by the Badische Anilin- und
Sodafabrik by which ammonia is converted into
ammonium sulphate via gypsum. — (Z. angew.
Chem. Dec, 19, 1919.)
Competition (or the Swedish Saltpetre Market. — The
Svensk Handelstidning for November 5, 1919,
remarks that the fact that the German process of
atmospheric nitrogen fixation is economically
cheaper than that carried out by the Norsk Hydro
Company of Norway renders the nitrate question of
especial importance to Norway.
Immediately before the war Sweden imported
annually about 35,000 metric tons of nitrate, chiefly
from Chile. Norwegian saltpetre being subject to
an import duty of 15 per cent, was seldom seen on
the Swedish market, but this import duty has now
been removed, and it is anticipated that more Nor-
wegian material will be imported. The cyanamide
process of fixing atmospheric nitrogen, which was
amongst those experimented with in Sweden during
the war, appears to be capable of commercial ex-
ploitation in the country. The keenest competition
is anticipated between the Norwegian and Chilean
products. At present the Norwegian product costs
46 kronor per 100 kilo., free of import duty, the
Chilean 55 kr. per 100 kilo. (krona = ls. lid.). As
the former contains 13 per cent., and the latter
15 per cent, of nitrogen, the respective prices are
3'54 and 3'67 kronor per kilo, of nitrogen. Exten-
sive experiments in Germany, Denmark and Sweden
have shown that the Norwegian product is fully
up to expectations. — (Z. angexv. Chem,., Nov. 28,
1919.)
The Flax Fibre Industry in St. Helena. — The year
1918 proved a very successful one for the flax fibre
industry in St. Helena, 516 tons of fibre and 222
tons of tow, with a total value of £61,136, being
shipped during the year. Good profits were ob-
tained partly because of the low wage standard, and
partly because the colony was fortunate enough to
get its produce shipped while the high war prices
still prevailed. The average price paid for leaves
was 88s. per ton, as against 32s. 6d. per ton in 1915.
During the early part of the year an attempt was
made to obtain fibre from the stalks of wild ginger,
but the small yield — about 2 per cent, of fibre and
3 per cent, of tow — would not pay for milling in
normal times— (Bd. of Trade J., Dec. 25, 1919.)
Commercial Value of Palmetto Leaves. — The
palmetto tree, found extensively in Morocco, is of
considerable commercial value, as it yields fibre,
paper pulp, tannin, gallic acid, alcohol, fecula,
fuel, and cattle fodder. The fibre, under the name
of " vegetable hair," is used to replace esparto in
basket-making, etc., and the more costly American
sisal in ropes and sacking. Palmetto leaves can be
used for the manufacture of a paper pulp, which is
more easily produced than esparto, and which re-
quires only half the quantity of soda ; the low yield
— 28 per cent., against 40 for esparto — is compen-
sated for by the low cost of palmetto and economy
in production. The pulp is easily bleached, supple,
and fibrous; it also felts well and can be made into
very thin sheets, giving a good quality paper equal,
if not superior, to esparto paper. Before the war
50,000 to 60,000 tons of this pulp was exported from
Algeria.— (ltd. of Trade J., Jan. 1, 1920.).
The Anhinga Fibre Industry. — The Anhinga plant
is a native of the State of Para, Brazil, which is
said to be capable of producing 100,000 tons
annually. Anhinga is the raw material from which
linen paper is made, and by a chemical process it is
convertible into very fine white fibres which com-
pare with first-quality cotton. The fibre is per-
manent. The industry has to compete with that of
rubber, but abandoned sugar mills are being
utilised for the treatment of the fibre. One mill
already produces 600 kilo, daily. The price at
Para is 300 to 350 reis per kilo. (4Jd.— 5d. per lb.).
—(U.S. Com. Rep., Nov. 15, 1919.)
Sugar Cultivation in Siberia. — To meet the Siberian
demand for sugar ten large factories producing
annually 72,220 short tons would be needed. This
demand cannot at present be met, and importation
is undesirable because it would lead to a further
depreciation in the value of the rouble. The
organisation of the beet sugar industry has been
considered by the Association of Siberian En-
gineers, and three years' experiments have shown
that the sugar beet will grow in many places in
Siberia with high sugar content and of extremely
good quality. Near the village of Pavlovsk, in the
Barnaul district, 11,286 acres has been leased from
the Government for beet cultivation and sugar ex-
traction. State funds have been appropriated to
encourage the industry, and premiums on produc-
tion will be paid for several years. To the factory
in Pavlovsk the annual premium will amount to
over a million roubles. In consequence of this en-
couragement a joini^stock company, with a capital
of 10 million roubles, has been formed. (See also
this J., 1919, 378 h).— (U.S. Com. Rep., Nov. 19,
1919.)
Glauber's Salt in Siberian Lakes.— The supplies of
precipitated Glauber's salt in some of the Siberian
lakes are estimated to be : (1) The Great Mar-
mvshansk Lake, 2,600,000 short tons of crystalline
salt, Na2SO«.10HaO, and 397,210 short tons of
evaporated Glauber's salt; (2) Little Marymyshansk
Lake, 451,400 short tons of crystalline salt; (3) Lake
Tuskal (Minusinsk district), up to 1,805,500 tons
of crystalline salt; (4) Lake Varche (Minusinsk
district), up to 1,805,500 tons of preoipitated
crystalline salt, and an enormous quantity of
Glauber's salt in solution. — (U.S. Com. Mep.,
Nov. 17, 1919.)
The Iron Ore Deposits in South Russia. — The
British Economic Mission in South Russia reports
that the normal production of iron ore at the
Krivoy Rog Mines is about 400,000,000 pouds
yearly (62 pouds = 1 ton). In 1913 the output of
this region accounted for 69 per cent, of the total
Russian production. At present all mines are at a
standstill. Allowing for a reserve stock of 30,000,000
pouds, the stocks of iron ore in mines and factories
leave 100,000,000 pouds at the disposal of South
Russian factories, equivalent to four months' full
supply. Reckoning half-finished material in hand,
the factories are safeguarded for full-speed work
for eight months. It is estimated that with the
gradual reopening of factories existing stocks will
suffice for 1J to 2 years. Iron ore can at present
be exported from DolLnskaia to Nikolaeff, atnd
thence by sea.— (Bd. of Trade J., Nov. 27, 1919.)
The Chemical and Allied Industries ol Turkey. — In
normal times Turkey imports annually more than
£800,000 worth of chemicals, drugs, dyes, medicines
and tanning materials, over 40 per cent, of which
was derived from Prance and Germany. The only
large chemical works in Turkey is the Government
factory at Makrikoi, near Constantinople, produc-
ing such products as sulphuric acid, nitric acid,
alcohol and ether, in addition to munitions of war.
In Turkey, the manufacture of sulphuric acid, even
as a by-product, does not pay. The largest and only
modern lead smelter in the country is situated at
Balia-Karaidin, and has a normal annual output of
about 14,000 tons of metal. With this exception,
Turkey possesses no metallurgical establishments
worthy of mention. Sulphur is mined at Sparta,
and raw saltpetre is recovered from the soil at
Konia and Ca/esarea. There are two modern cement
factories, at Daridya and Eski-Hissar, producing
annually 80,000 tons of cement, equal to about two-
thirds of the annual domestic consumption, and
35,000 tons of hydraulic lime. It is anticipated that
Turkey will soon be able to produce sufficient
oement to meet home demands.
The ceramic industry of Turkey, which formerly
enjoyed considerable fame, is now in a state of
decay. Feeble attempts to revive the ancient art of
faience manufacture have not met with much
success. A number of glass factories has been dis-
mantled, and the manufacture of glass in the
country is being generally abandoned for economic
reasons.
Constantinople possesses three and Beirut one
modern gasworks. Two of the former are now idle.
The gasworks at Beirut also manufactures ice.
Raw phenol, tar and coke briquettes are recovered
or prepared in a very primitive manner at Dolma-
Baghtche. Carbon dioxide and oxygen are manu-
factured at Balat, the works being under German
management.
The oil industries are the most important
economically. Olive oil is produced on the south
coast of the Sea of Marmora, on the west coast of
Asia Minor, and in the district of Beirut in Syria.
The annual production of this oil is between 70,000
and 80.000 tons, and the exports are about 7000
tons per annum. At Constantinople, sesamum and
linseed oil are pressed' for soap making. The
annual production of sesame amounts to 45,000 tons
and that of sesamum oil 800 tons. In 1914, Turkey
imported 8000 tons of cottonseed oil. There are
two modern oil mills in the cotton growing district
of Adan Mersina and two others in Smyrna. One
of the latter has a productive capacity of 2800 tons
of oil, and has been purchased by a Hungarian
company. Hungarians are largely interested in
Turkish industrial ventures, and are given prefer-
ence over others. Linseed oil is imported to the
amount of 900 tons annually. Attar of roses is the
only essential oil prepared in large quantities. The
industry flourishes in the regions of Sparta and
Buldur and the vilayet of Brusa. The annual pro-
duction of rose oil is about 100,000 miskal
( = 1023 lb.). Amongst the oils distilled are those
of thyme, geranium, laurel, anise and orange
blossom.
While some soap is exported, chiefly to Egypt,
large quantities of oheap toilet soaps are imported
from Europe. The industry is carried on in
numerous establishments, generally very small, with
olive oil as the raw material. Syria produces about
20,000 tons of soap annually.
Valonia extract is manufactured in Smyrna, the
production of two very modern factories amounts?,
in peace time, to about 3000 tons of crystallised,
ground and liquid extract. Extract of liquorice is
manufactured at an English factory in Soke.
There is a modern tannery at Beikoz on the
Bosporus, employing more power than all the others
together. Smaller tanneries are located at Con-
stantinople, in Smyrna, Aleppo, Adar Basar, Diar-
bekir, Safranboli, and other places. In 1913 Turkey
exported between 6000 and 7000 tons of goatskins.
The thirteen large tanneries of the country pro-
duced about 1600 tons of sole leather and vachettes
and prepared between 700,000 and 800,000 sheep and
goat skins. The imports of leather and leather
goods comprised 4000 tons of sole and saddle
leather and more than 2000 tons of cattle hides,
calf skins, etc. Glue and bone meal are manufac-
tured in a German-owned factory at Jedicule.
Turkey possesses only one modern dyeing estab-
lishment, that of the Oriental Carpet Manufactur-
ing Co. (a British company) in Smyrna. Small
dyeing establishments occur throughout Asia
Minor. Synthetic dyes of German manufacture are
generally employed, but natural indigo still pre-
dominates in use over the artificial product.
Abortive attempts to establish glass, paper,
match and candle factories in the country are testi-
mony that the prospects for chemical industry in
the country are not encouraging. There are, how-
ever, good opportunities for such industries as will
utilise domestic materials. Among such may be
mentioned the manufacture of oil, drying of fruits,
canning of food, manufacture of alcohol, simple
textiles and building materials. Tanning and soap
making have an old tradition and should be pros-
perous.
The importations of chemical and allied produce
for 1911 — 1912 — the last year for which official
statistics are available — were as follows: —
Chemicals, colours, dyes, varnishes and tanning
materials. Total value £641,628. Derived mainly
from: Germany 207%, United Kingdom 16-8%,
Austria-Hungary 15'6%, France 13-6% Belgium
6-4%, Netherlands 5-6%, Italy 3-5%, U.S.A. 03%.
Drugs, medicines and perfumery. Total value
£273,383. France 36"9%, Germany 20-2%, Austria-
Hungary 131%, U.K. 12-0%, Italy 3"2%, Unifed
States 0-8%. Oils and fats. Value £1,857,300.
From Russia 331%, U.S.A. 24-2%, United Kingdom
6'5%, France 6*5%, Austria-Hungary S'5%, Nether-
lands 2"1%, Germany 1"8%, Belgium 1'3%, Italy
1-1%.— (Chem.-Z., through U.S. Com. Rep.,
Oct. 28, 1919.)
Vol. XXXIX., So. :;.]
61 B
GOVERNMENT ORDERS AND NOTICES.
Export Prohibitions. — The Board of Trade
(Licensing Section) announces that creosote oil
and anthracene oil (green oil) containing no sub-
stance suitable for making dyes and explosives, are
not included under the coal-tar, etc., heading in
the prohibited list.
Orders Cancelled. — The following orders have
been revoked by the Food Controller as from
February 1: — Oils, Oilcakes and Meals (Requisi-
tion) Order, 1917; Refined Vegetable Oils (Requisi-
tion) Order, 1917; Oils and Fate (Restriction)
Order, 1918; Margarine (Requisition) Order, 1918;
Margarine (Registration of Dealers) Order, 1918;
and Margarine (Cheese Returns) Order, 1918.
Census of Production in 1921. — The Board of
Trade has issued an order directing that a census
of production be taken in the year 1921. Among
the trades and industries scheduled are : — Coal
and ironstone mines under the Coal Mines Regula-
tions Act ; coke works at collieries ; oil shale mines
and shale oil works ; iron mines under the Metall-
iferous Mines Regulations Act and iron quarries ;
salt minee ; brine pits and salt works ; iron and steel
trades (smelting, rolling and founding) ; tinplate ;
galvanised sheets ; engineering trades (including
electrical engineering) ; copper, brass, lead, tin,
zinc, and other metals (except gold and silver
refining) ; cotton ; woollen and worsted ; jute, hemp
and linen ; bleaching, dyeing, printing and finish-
ing ; grain milling ; sugar and glucose ; brewing and
malting; spirit distilling; chemicals, coal tar pro-
ducts and drugs; seed-crushing; fertilisers; soap
and candle trades; paper; leather; brick and fire-
clay trades; china and earthenware; cement; gas
and electricity undertakings. Returns will not be
required from persons, companies or firms who do
not employ on the average more than five persons,
exclusive of officers of the company or members of
the firm, during the present year, provided that
signed declarations are made of the average number
employed.
Re-organisation of the Board of Trade. — A
detailed announcement has been circulated by the
Board of Trade concerning its re-organisation,
which has been proceeding since June last. The
duties of the Department are organised under two
joint permanent secretaries, Sir Sydney Chapman,
who deals with all questions affecting general
policy, and Mr. H. A. Payne (Controller), who
deals with administration and finance. Some of
the principal permanent departments are:
Industries and Manufactures: Mr. P. W. L.
Ashley (assistant secretary) ; Industrial Propertv
(including patent office) : Mr. W. Temple Frank*
(comptroller-general) ; and Power. Transport and
Economics: Mr. H. F. Carlill (assistant secretary).
Among the temporary departments are the Pro-
fiteering Act Department (controller — Capt. H.
Hincks), the Export Credits Department (manager
— Mr. L. A. Davis), and the Clearing Office for
Enemy Debts (controller — Mr. E. Spencer Grey).
There are two large departments which hold some-
what special relationship to the Board of Trade,
viz., the Department of Overseas Trade (Develop-
ment and Intelligence) under the joint control of
the Foreign Office and the Board of Trade, and the
Coal Mines Department, which is attached to, but
does not form part of, the Board of Trade. An
internal administrative council has also been estab-
lished, but this is quite distinct from and in no way
supersedes the Board of Trade Advisory council, on
which manufacturers, traders, and labour are
represented.
OFFICIAL TRADE INTELLIGENCE.
(From the Board of Trade Journal for January 22
and 29 and February 5.)
OPENINGS FOR BRITISH TRADE.
The following inquiries have been received at the
Department of Overseas Trade (Development and
Intelligence), 35, Old Queen Street, London,
S.W. 1, from firms, agents, or individuals who
desire to represent U.K. manufacturers or ex-
porters of the goods specified. British firms may
obtain the names and addresses of the persons or
firms referred to by applying to the Department
and quoting the specific reference number : —
MATERIALS.
South Africa
Belgium . .
Netherlands
,. and Colonies
Norway
I
Switzerland
Morocco
Asia Minor (Smyrna)
Syria
Dominican Republic
Mexico
Argentina
Chile" . . ! .'
Corrugated iron
Alcoholic beverages
Earthenware
Chinaware
Bristol board, tinfoil, celluloid . .
Round and flat bars, mild steel
sheets, galvanised flat and cor-
rugated sheets
Lubricating oils
Paper, ink, stationery (tender for)
Pottery, glass
Machinery and supplies for gold
mining, sugar and oil refining. .
Steel
Chemicals, drugs, oils, resins,
gums, white spirit
Rubber
Iron, steel, tinplate, copper, brass,
tin
Tinplate, tin solder
Coarse sea salt
Chemicals, ores, pharmaceutical
products . . . . . . , .
Lubricants, metal cleaners
Leather
Cement
Motor petrol
Chemicals
Tanning extracts
Iron sheets and bars, galvanised
iron, tin, paint . .
Soda_ caustic soda, potassium di-
chiomate
Metals, tinfoil, wire
Nickel, white metal, brass, copper,
aluminium
Porcelain, earthenware
Asbestos
Leather
Paper
Pulp, paint, oil, engine oil, grease,
red lead, lead, tin and zinc
plates, sugar (goods in demand)
Tool steel
Glasa
Copper sulphate, iron sulphate,
chemicals, naphthalene
Leather
Chemicals, perfumery, alcoholic
beverages
Chemicals for industrial purposes \
and for making dyes . .
Plant for distilling petroleum .. !
Wire, cement . . . .
Chemicals, drugs, disinfectants, J
tanning materials, perfumery j
raw materials . . . .
166
t
126, 127
• The Canadian Government Trade Commissioner, 73, Basinghall
Street, London, E.C. 2.
t The Department of Overseas Trade, 73, Basinghall Street,
London, E.C. 2.
Markets Sought.
A Canadian company desires to get into touch
with U.K. importers of sugar and syrup.
A Canadian firm manufacturing sulphur dioxide
(gas and liquid) desires to know the nature of the
British market.
A Canadian firm owning mica mines wishes to get
into touch with importers in the U.K. Inquiries
to the Canadian Government Trade Commissioner.
TARIFF, CUSTOMS, EXCISE.
Australia. — The import of goods from Germany,
Austria-Hungary, Turkey, and Bulgaria is pro-
hibited save with the consent of the Minister for
Trade and Customs as from January 14. On this
date a proclamation was also issued prohibiting the
exportation of goods from the Commonwealth to
former enemy countries.
Brazil. — The new Consular Invoice Regulations
are given in the issue for January 29.
British Honduras. — The export duty on intoxi-
cating liquors has been amended as from
November 1, 1919.
British India. — The import duty on opium im-
ported into the Punjab and the North West
Frontier Provinces is fixed, as from April 1, at
Rs.27.8.0. per seer.
The import and manufacture of such acetylene
as is declared to be "an explosive " is absolutely
prohibited as from December 6, 1919. The notifica-
tion defines the term "an explosive," and pre-
scribes the conditions to be fulfilled when acetylene
is stored in cylinders. The Notification may be
seen at the Department of Overseas Trade.
The complete Schedule of Valuations for import
duties with effect from January 1 is set out in the
issue for February 5.
Costa Bica. — Silver and silver coin may be im-
ported free of duty.
Denmark. — Among the articles the export of
which is still prohibited, except under licence, are
ammonia salts, benzine, eement, coal tar and pitch,
cocoa butter, colours (with some exceptions), explo-
sives and gunpowder and raw materials for their
manufacture (except glycerin), oil-cake, wood pitch,
glaBS vessels, calcined gypsum, hides, skins, leather,
lard, linseed oil, manures (natural and artificial),
margarine, vegtable oils, oil-seeds, oleo stock, petro-
leum, potash salts, shellac, Btarch, sugar (including
glucose), turpentine, vinegar, vitriol (copper and
iron), and yeast.
Ecuador. — A surtax has been levied on most im-
ports varying from one-half to ten centavos per
wilo., or 1 per cent, ad valorem, according to the
classification. Common soap, candles, petroleum,
and leather for boots are, inter alia, specially
exempted.
Finland. — The Currency Board decides all ques-
tions relating to import licences and importers
must satisfy the Board that they will not make
payment in Finnish marks.
Among the " articles of luxury " the import of
which is forbidden are arrowroot, tapioca, cocoa,
chocolate, glucose, starch syrup, paper manufac-
tures, certain kinds of manufactures of glass and
porcelain, perfumery, and calcium carbide.
French Indo-China. — The rates of duty leviable
on imports are subject to the same " coefficients of
increase " as those levied on the same class of goods
in France.
Germany. — Among the articles that may be im-
ported without licence are certain dyeing plants,
opium, certain vegetable fibres, Peruvian bark,
wood for pulp manufacture, charcoal, cork, que-
bracho wood, sumac, cutch, galls, valonia, camphor,
hides, skins, china clay, calcined magnesite, mica,
fluorspar, alabaster, marble, fuller's earth, lead,
iron, manganese, nickel and tin ores, solid asphalt,
simple chemicals, mercury and amalgams, alkali
metals, arsenic, uranium, iodine, phosphorus, am-
monia, tartar, calcium citrate, waste paper and
cardboard, certain glass wares, certain kinds of
iron and iron alloys.
The export of certain kinds of stones, mineral
substances, glass, glassware, and wares of iron and
iron alloys is permitted. The full text of this pro-
clamation is given in the issue for January 22.
Greece. — The import of calcium carbide, caustic-
soda and soda ash is prohibited as from Decem-
ber 25, 1919.
Japan (Corea). — The permission of the Governor-
General is required for the export of pulp, printing
paper, phosphate of lime, compound fertilisers,
nitrate of soda, and sulphate of ammonia.
Latvia. — The import of, infer alia, alcoholic
beverages, porcelain, polished glass, perfumery, and
toilet soap is prohibited.
Madagascar. — The import duty on certain kinds
of paper has been modified.
Mexico. — The export duty on henequen has been
increased to 8 per cent, ad valorem on the price
f.o.b. at Progreso, Yucatan, as from November 28.
Morocco. — The text of the Tariff Valuations may
be seen at the Department of Overseas Trade.
Poland. — Particulars of the new Customs Tariff
are given in the issue for January 29. Among the
articles exempted from customs duty are sugar,
condensed and dried milk, artificial fertilisers,
animal fats, certain kinds of glass, ammonium
nitrate and sulphate, common soap, and certain
kinds of paper. Borax and sulphuric acid may also
be exempted for one year by the Ministry of
Finance.
Portugal. — A translation of the Decree concern-
ing the control of imports and exports and exchange
operations is given in the issue for January 22.
Rumania. — An additional tax of 2 per cent, ad
valorem has been levied and is still in force on all
imports.
Sierra Leone. — An export duty of 3d. per lb. has
been levied on gum copal, and the import duty on
spirit has been increased.
Spain. — Among the articles the export of which
is prohibited are mineral fertilisers, alloys of
aluminium, tin or nickel, aluminium, sugaT,
sulphur, cardboard, raw hides and skins, iron
and steel waste, tin, cereals, metal waste,
nickel, nitrate of soda, paper (with some excep-
tions), petroleum, solid paraffin, potash and its salts
(with some exceptions), superphosphate, and sul-
phate of ammonia. Special export permits are
required for earth nuts, alum, malt, oils, tallow,
grease, lubricants (except oleine), tar and its
derivatives.
The prohibition of the export of esparto has been
suspended.
Sweden. — The suspension of the customs duties
on lard, oleo-maTgarine, dripping, and condensed
milk has been prolonged until May 31.
Export prohibitions have been removed from
graphite, carbon electrodes, salicylic acid, vegetable
tanning materials, chrome alum, chromic acid,
sodium and potassium chromates and dichromates.
Switzerland. — Among the articles the export of
which is now allowed under general export licence
are white arsenic, arsenic sulphide, chlorides of
barium, calcium and manganese, magnesium car-
bonate, sulphate and chloride, certain compounds
of antimony, sulphur chloride, bisulphite of lime,
liquefied gas, acetates of alumina and lime, phenate
of lime, nitrate of baryta, sulphate of lead, sul-
phide of iron, zinc powder, citric and tartaric
acids. Certain other chemicals may be exported
under general licence revocable at any time.
Tunis. — Export duties have been levied on esparto
and diss, and those on olive oil and hides and skins
have been increased.
Uruguay. — Imported fuel oil is subject to the
same special duties as coal, but in this case the duty
is to be increased by 40 per cent.
Vol XXXIX , No. 3 ;
REPORT
Minks and Quarries. General Report with
Statistics, 1918. By the Chief Inspector of
Mines. Part II.— Labour. [Cmd. 490— 6d.]
Part III.— Ouput. [Cmd. 531— 3d.] [H.M.
Stationery Office.']
Labour. — Of the total of 1,072,903 persons em-
ployed at mines and quarries in 1918, 807,086
worked underground, and 222.602 (including 11,761
females) above ground. Compared with the
previous year there was a net decrease of 12,568
workers. The following figures show the numbers
of workers, under and above ground, in some of the
chief mining industries: — Coal, 994,317; iron ore,
20,507 ; lead and zinc ores, 3,058 ; limestone, 12,972 ;
oil shale, 4,946; tin ore, 5,524. There were 83
explosions due to firedamp or coal dust, resulting
in 160 deaths, and 64 of these were caused by naked
lights. The death-rate per 1,000 persons employed
underground was 1'60 in 1918, and the average for
the past ten years 1"51.
The following suggestions are made for mitigat-
ing the loss of output in coal mines due to the
shorter hours of working: — (1) Increasing the
effective working time of the hewer at the face by
conveying him to and from work by mechanical
haulage ; (2) increased utilisation of the 6econd,
usually the upcast, shaft for the purpose of winding
coal or for lowering and raising workers ; (3) simul-
taneous decking of cages where cages with more
than one deck are installed: (4) extension of the
multiple shift system ; and (5) extension of the use
of mechanical coal-cutters, other labour-saving
devices, and conveyors.
To increase output, more machinery of the latest
type, especially in connexion with mechanical
auxiliary haulage, should be introduced, coal used
on the collieries should be economised, and electrical
machinery should replace the heavy coal-consuming
steam engines. The number of mechanical coal-
cutters in use in 1918 was 4,041, and the quantity
of mineral so cut 27,873,646 tons, as against 3,799
machines and 28,196,486 tons in the previous year.
The consumption of electricity by electric motors
was 965,367 h.-p., an increase of 5'66 per cent, over
1917, and the number of electrically driven coal-
cutting machines in use at the end of 1918 was
1,797, or 58 more than twelve months before.
Output. — Coal and Coke. — The most noteworthy
feature of the minerol output in the British Isles in
118 (see this J., 1919, 420 r) was the large decrease
in coal production, which fell nearly 21 million tons,
equal to about 9 per cent, of the 1917 output. The
total production of 227,748,654 tons was distributed
as follows: England, 159,419,825 tons; Wales,
36,346.610; Scotland, 31,890,218; and Ireland,
92.001 tons. Of this total the following quantities
were exported : —
As coal
915,921 tons coke, equal to
1,505,090 ,, manuf. fuel, equal to
Bunkers for ships, foreign trade
Tons..
31,752,904
1,526,535
1,354,581
8,756,476
Total ... 43,390,496
thus leaving 184,&58,158 tons for home consump-
tion, or 4"385 tons per head of the civil population.
The percentage of output shipped abroad Bhows a
slight decrease over 1917, viz., 191, against 196.
For the decade prior to the war exports averaged
over 30 per cent, of the output.
The avprage price of coal during the year was
20s. Hid., as compared with 16s. 8-7d. for 1917,
so that notwithstanding the fall in quantity, the
value of the output increased bv £30,000,000. The
total coal carbonised was 38,219,479 tons, yielding
7,945,055 tons of gas works coke, and 13,121,311
tons of oven coke (in 1917 39,300,504 tons of coal
were carbonised). The total number of coke-ovens
in operation was 16,292, of which 40"6 per cent,
was of the beehive type. The output of the briquet-
ting industry, which is practically confined to
South Wales, was greater both in quantity and
value, 1,855,689 tons of coal being used and
£2,990,552 worth of products obtained.
Copper. — The 1213 tons of ore raised yielded
only 179 tons of metal, showing a still further de-
cline in the quality of ore mined. During the year
the imports were 15,319 tons ore, 21,013 tons regu-
lus, and 205,651 tons metal, while over 7000 tons of
metal was exported. The average price of " Best
Selected " was £126 5s. Id. per ton.
Iron. — The statistics for the chief centres of pro-
duction are: —
County.
Quantity.
Price per ton
Under the Coal Mines Art
(average 30% of iron)—
Tons.
s. d.
Northampton
145,589
3 10
Stafford (North)
689,856
17 7
Yorka (X. Riding)
. . 4,544,135
9 7
Ayr
103,948
.. 22 8
Lanark
72,916
24 3
Renfrew . .
125,674
13 4
Under the Metalliferous Mine* Regit-
lotion Act —
Percent, of iron.
Cumberland
. . 1,230,572
60 41
Durham
15,039
39.00
Glamorgan
53,246
61.00
Lancashire
285,305
51.34
From Quarries—
Leicester
690,345
27.84
Lincoln
. . 3,226,404
24.66
Northampton
. . 2,439,403
31.96
Oxford and Rutland
634,112
30.91
This total is an increase of about 1 per cent, on the
previous year's figure.
m , . Tona-
Total ore from mines and quarries in the United
Kingdom 14,613,032
Foreign ore imported (chiefly from Spain) . . . . 6,581,728
Pyrites cinders 627,527
Total (less 160 tons exported)
21,822..12"
This total is an increase of about 1% on the pre-
vious year's figure.
Year
Works in operation
Furnaces built
Furnaces in blast .
Pig iron made
Ore used
Coal used
Coke used . .
Pig iron production.
1918
119
487
317
Tons.
9,107,384
22,544,064
2,606,840
11,286,680
118
487
318
Tons.
9,338,104
22,901,714
2,816.318
10,961,734
The average prices of pig-iron during 1918 were
Cleveland No. 3, £5 13s. 5d. ; all kinds of pig-iron
exported, £10 4s. 3d.
Iron Pyrites. — The 22,195 tons of pyrites mined
was supplemented by imports to the extent of
836,703 tons (mostly cupreous iron pyrites).
Lead. — The 14,784 tons of dressed ore yielded
10,909 tons of lead and 77,795 ounces of silver.
The mean monthly price of lead in 1918 was
£30 2s. 8d.
Manganese ore. — The North Wales mines have in-
creased their output to 17,456 tons (9.942 tons in
1917), but this quantity is small compared with the
365,606 tons imported.
Oil shale. — The Scotch shales continued to give
the same yields as in 1917, viz., 20 galls, of oil and
40 lb. of ammonium sulphate per ton of shale. The
average price at the mines was 9s. ll'ld. per ton
(8s. 25d. per ton in 1917).
Petroleum. — Imports showed a further large in-
crease from 826,895,771 galls. in 1917 to
1,324,495,125 galls, in 1918.
Mercury. — The quantity imported — 1,077,460 lb.
— was less than half that of the previous year. It
was valued at about 5s. 2d. per lb.
REVIEW.
Salt. — The amount of British salt (rock and
white) exported was 255,272 tons.
Stiver. — 79,645 ounces of silver was produced,
mostly from lead ores (q.v.). The average price of
standard silver in London was 47^d. per ounce.
Tin ores. — The average tin content of the ores
mined was 66'2, so that the 6377 tons should con-
tain 3954 tons of metal. The mean monthly price
of standard tin in London was £329 lis. 3d. (£237
in 1917).
Tungsten ores. — The total output (302 tons)
shows an increase on that of 1917 (241 tons). The
bulk (222 tons) was obtained from the Cornish
mines, where the dressed ore contained an average
of 60'2 per cent, of tungsten.
Zinc ores. — The output of 9025 tons was a con-
siderable increase on the previous year's figure of
7484. The yield of metal from the 9025 tons was
3245 tons. The mean monthly price of spelter re-
mained practically as in 1917, at £52 4s. per ton.
each into four fully-paid shares of 5s. each, of
which three are to be preferred ordinary and one
ordinary. The proposal to increase the capital to
£3,575,000 was also approved.
COMPANY NEWS.
VAN DEN BERGHS, LTD.
The twentieth ordinary general meeting of this
company was held in London on January 26, Sir
Mackworth Praed presiding. Since June 30, 1919,
the date of the last balance sheet, the company
has issued one million £1 " C " preference shares,
so that the capital of the company now stands at
£3,075,000. As it was not possible to raise money
in this country during the war, an issue was made
in Holland of £1,000,000 in 6 per cent, redeemable
notes. A susidiary company has issued to the
public abroad a sum of £1,400,000 in preference
shares, and another has issued £1,333,000, partly
for the conversion of the 6 per cent, notes, of which
about two-thirds has been exchanged. The parent
undertaking and its affiliated companies, therefore,
now have at their disposal a total capital of about
£6,250,000. They own nearly 40 factories in dif-
ferent parts of Europe, comprising margarine, con-
densed milk, soap, oil crushing, extracting, and
refining and hardening works and, in addition,
maintain control over several other businesses.
Organisations have been created and connexions
opened up all over the globe, notably on the West
Coast of -Africa, the Dutch East Indies, the Straits
Settlements, Ceylon, North and South America,
China and Japan, for the purpose of ensuring the
necessary supplies of raw materials. In view of
the diminished importation of butter, now about
1,000 tons per week compared with the pre-war
average of 4,000 to 5,000 tons, and of its high
price, and the unlikelihood of any radical change,
the future of the home margarine industry appears
to be assured for a long time to come. Competition
in the margarine trade is very keen and the per-
centage of profit on sales in this country is small,
the enormous expansion in turnover alone account-
ing for the increased general profits of the company.
Since the de-control, prices of raw materials have
steadily risen, and are now about three times those
prevailing before the war. The advance is to
some extent due to the abnormal rates of exchange,
but chiefly to the great and increasing world de-
mand for oils and fats. An innovation in the
method of shipping oil consists in the use of tank
steamers equipped with steam coils. The company
has received several such tank cargoes of about
8,000 tons each of coconut oil, and is now intro-
ducing into its factories tanking installations to
deal with any class of oil in almost any quantity.
At an extraordinary general meeting held subse-
quently, a resolution was passed authorising the
sub-division of the 625,000 ordinary shares of £1
BRITISH GLASS INDUSTRIES, LTD.
An extraordinary meeting was held in London on
January 28 to consider a resolution for increasing
the capital of the company to £2,000,000.
The chairman, Mr. C. Williamson-Milne, stated
that the additional capital was required for the
following objects: — (1) The acquisition of the con-
trolling interest in the ordinary shares of the
United Glass Bottle Manufacturers, Ltd., which
owns the entire share capital of the following com-
panies: — Cannington, Shaw, & Co., Ltd., St.
Helens; Nuttall & Co., Ltd., St. Helens; Robert
Candlish & Son, Ltd., Seaham; Alfred Alexander &
Co., Ltd., Hunslet, Leeds; Aire and Caulder Glass
Bottle Works (E. Breffit & Co., Ltd.), Castleford;
and Moore, Nettleford Co., Ltd ., Woolwich. The
company also owns 60 acres of ground at Charlton,
near Woolwich, upon which a very large factory is
being erected and where the latest automatic
machinery will be installed. Transport facilities
will be provided by water, rail, and a fleet of motor
lorries. (2) To purchase the major portion of the
share capital of Webb's Crystal Glass Co., Ltd.,
which will give it a controlling interest in the follow-
ing businesses: T. Webb & Son, Ltd., Dennis Glass
Works, Stourbridge; Edinburgh and Leith Flint
Glass Co., Edinburgh; Corbett & Co., Ltd., Tut-
bury, Staffordshire; Medway Glass Works, Ltd.,
Queenborough, Kent; Robert Johnson Lamp-blown
Glassware and Accessories Co., Ltd., London;
R. Johnston & Co., Ltd., London; and a substantial
or controlling share interest in the following: —
Samuel Pearson, Ltd., West Bromwich; E. M.
Patents, Ltd., London; and Phillips, Ltd., London.
The latter acquisition enables the company to instal
and use on favourable terms the semi-automatic
Empire machine. The output from these firms will
be considerably increased by the installation of
automatic machines and additional furnaces.
The company has sold its foreign patent rights,
and from this source alone a large sum in capital,
royalties and dividends is anticipated. The total
capital required to cover the acquisitions mentioned
above, to extend the company's works at Canning
Town, Queensborough and elsewhere, and to instal
improved automatic machinery is £2,800,000. Of
this sum £2,100,000 will be provided by the issue
of 600,000 new shares, which will be offered to
shareholders at £3 10s. per share. The remaining
200,000 shares have been taken firm by the Com-
mercial Bank of London at the same price. The
bank has been given an option to subscribe for a
further 50,000 shares on or before December 31
next at £5 per share. Baron H. de Rothschild has
joined the board.
The resolution authorising the increase of capital
was carried unanimously.
PAN DE AZUCAR NITRATE CO., LTD.
At the eighteenth annual general meeting held
in London on February 3, the chairman, the Hon.
H. C. Gibbs, referred to the great change which
had occurred in the nitrate position during the
last few months. The Association of Nitrate Pro-
ducers, formed in the early part of 1919, fixed the
selling prices at 10s. Id. for ordinary and 10s. 4d.
for refined, but up to the middle of September last
only some 2300 tons had been sold. At that time
the position looked very unfavourable. Many of
the oficinas had closed down, production was
reduced to 100,000 tons monthly, as compared with
a normal production of 250,000 tons; and stocks in
Chile had reached the enormous figure of 1J mil-
lion tons. The situation was rendered still worse
Vo XXXIX., No. 3]
REVIEW.
by the great shortage of tonnage. About the middle
of September last an effort was made to rehabilitate
the nitrate trade, and 750,000 tons of nitrate was
sold at 9s. over October — March, followed by further
sales at high prices. During the past four months
or so sales by the Association have amounted to
about 1J million tons for delivery up to and includ-
ing June at increasing prices up to 12s. 9Jd. per
quintal, and the officinaa are rapidly reopening. The
next tender sale by the Association is fixed for the
5th inst.. at which some 500.000 tons is being offered
;it minimum prices of 13s. 9d. for April — June and
13b. lid. for July — December, and doubtless some-
what higher prices than these will be obtained.
The policy of selling moderate amounts by tender
for delivery at comparatively near dates is cer-
tainly having the effect of raising prices, but in
view of the disquieting menace of the synthetic
product it is to be hoped that the Association has
in view some far-sighted scheme for the more per-
manent advantage of the industry.
During the vear ended June 30 last the companv
realised a profit of £9,300 (capital £110,000). A
dividend of 10 per cent, has been declared, and
£25,300 is carried forward, as against £27,000
'it in.
LEVER BROTHERS, LTD.
The Niger Company, Ltd., has announced that
the offer made by Lever Bros, to purchase the
ordinary shares in the Niger Co., at £6 10s. per
share, payable in ca6h on or before July 1 next,
has been accepted by over 75 per cent, of the shares,
and has therefore become definitive. It is stated
that the corporate existence and organisation of
the Niger Co. will continue. The authorised capita]
of this company is £3,000,000, of which £2,000,000
is in ordinary shares of £1 each, and £1,250,000 of
these have been subscribed and called up.
UNITED TURKEY RED CO., LTD.
At an extraordinary general meeting in Glasgow,
on Februarv 2, it was resolved to increase the share
rapital to £2,000,000 by the creation of 500,000
ordinary shares of £1 each, and to divide the
i listing £10 preference and ordinary shares into
shares of the same amount. It is intended to issue
forthwith 341,250 ordinary shares at paT, to be
offered in the first place to present holders on a
„hare-for-share basis.
TRADE NOTES.
FOREKiX.
Forthcoming Industrial Fairs. — Vantzig. — An inter-
national fair will be held from February 18 to 25.
Exhibitors may only show goods of which they
possess stocks, and which are ready for delivery.
Finland. — The Finnish Industries Fair has been
arranged to be held from June 27 to July 6 of this
year. Manufacturers and merchants are asked to
exhibit raw materials, semi-manufactured goods,
tools, and machinery required in Finnish industries,
but not manufactured in Finland. Full particulars
to be obtained at all Finnish Legations and Con-
sulates during February, and at the office of the
Fair: Finska Messan, Helsingfors.
Libau. — The exchange committee of Libau an-
nounces that it intends to set up a sample fair in
June next. The fair will be annual and inter-
national, .aid will include samples of raw materials,
manufactures, engines, etc.
Lyont. — The spring fair, to be held from March 1
to 15 next, will include exhibits of drugs and other
pharmaceutical products, disinfectants, laboratory
glassware, industrial chemicals, artificial fertilisers,
coal-tar dyes, and intermediates, dyeing and tan-
ning extracts, artificial silk, ceramic ware, and
photographic supplies. Applications should be
addressee! to Mr. J. A. Victor, 31, Budge Row,
London, E.C. 4.
Milan. — The international sample fair, to be
organised on the same lines as those of Lyons and
Brussels, will be held from April 12 to 27. Informa-
tion can be obtained at the Exhibitions Depart-
ment, Overseas Organisation, Federation of British
Industries, 39, St. James's Street, London, 8.W. 1.
Foreign Company News. — Denmark. — The spirit
works " Fortuna," in conjunction with " De Danske
Sprittabrike," has bought out all the remaining
Danish spirit companies, with one exception.
Official regulations and compulsory rationing have
reduced the demand both for potable and technical
spirit, but the consumption of yeast has increased.
(£. angew. Chem., Dec. 30, 1919.)
France. — The Societe Industrielle du Celluloid "
is about to float a loan of three million francs.
The capital of the Ardennes Phosphate Company
is to be increased from 400,000 to 1,000,000 francs,
for the extension of the works, workmen's houses,
and a railway siding.
During the last financial year the " Societe des
Produits Azotes " has made a net profit of 792,210
francs, a dividend being paid of 20 francs per old.
and lO francs per new, share. This company has
specialised in the production of nitrogenous fer-
tilisers.
The " Stearinerie et Savonnerie de Lyon " has
opened a new branch undertaking for the distilla-
tion glycerin and the manufacture of artificial
rubber. For this purpose the capital is being raised
from four to six million francs. — (Z. angew. ('hem.,
Dec. 26, 1919.)
The Cement Industry in China. — This industry has
reached the stage at which it is able to meet all
the home requirements at prices which defy foreign
imports. The largest firm, which is entirely Chinese,
is the Chee Hsin Cement Company, which has an
up-to-date works at Tcngshan in North China. The
output is about 600,000 barrels (375 lb. net) per
annum of grey cement, and this material is the
most popular on the Shanghai market. The same
firm controls a works at Hankow producing about
200,000 barrels per annum (" Pagoda " brand).
The Oreen Island Cement Company, near Hong
Kong, was for many years the chief cement under-
taking in China, but of recent years competition
from the North, difficulties of fuel supplies, and
freight charges have seriously affected its opera-
tions. Present quotations in Canadian currency
are: Green Island cement, $>5'75; Chee Hsin
cement, -¥4'6 per barrel. Japanese cement is not
quoted, as very little of it is being imported. — (Hull .
I>ept. Trade and Comm., Canada, Dec. 1, 1919.)
The French Chemical Market. — The tendency to-
wards scarcity of supply and enhanced prices still
continues. Even acids are difficult to obtain, and
the general outlook is accordingly serious. Phos-
phates have risen in price, those with a content of
58 — 63 per cent, being quoted at 0"95 trains per
unit, and those with 63 — 68 per cent, at 1*05 frs.
per unit. These prices are naturally imparting
some vigour to the mining of the phosphate deposits
in the French colonies. The prices of sodium salts
are at a very high level; crystallised sodium sul-
phide, for example, has risen from 10 to "."> frs.,
ami the crude salt is quoted at 135 frs. Ammonium
salts are in short supply and expensive, the car-
bonate having risen to 270 frs. Caustic potash is
quoted at 6S5 frs. Soap is in strong demand, owing
to the soap factories being held up by shortage of
coal.
REVIEW.
REVIEW.
Sewage Disposal. By L P. Kinnicutt, C.-E. A.
Winslow, and B. IT'. Pratt. Second edition,
re-written. Pp. xr». + 547. (New York: Jn.
Wiley nnd Sons, Inc.; London: Chapman and
Hall, Ltd. 1919.) Price 18s. 6d. net.
The first edition of this book appeared in 1910.
In the second edition fresh data are brought in,
and the chapters upon screening, sludge disposal
and chemical precipitation, together with the
Miles acid process, remodelled and expanded,
whilst there are additional chapters on two storey
tank treatment, activated sludge, general con-
siderations regarding design and operation of
sewage treatment plant, and disposal of excretal
wastes where a sewerage system does not exist.
Throughout the book the term " sewage treat>
nient " is used in preference to " sewage purifica-
tion," and .the forlner is doubtless the correct
term. Further, the use of the word purification
rather leads the layman to suppose that a liquid
which has undergone " purification " is innocuous.
It would appear doubtful whether in many cases
it is sufficient to treat sewage up to the extent
necessary to avoid nuisance and danger to health.
In this country, at all events, the treatment of
sewage should be carried sufficiently far to preserve
the amenities of river life, e.g., fish.
In the chapter upon composition of sewages one
would rather have expected to have found some
reference to the McGowan formula for ascertaining
tlic strengths of sewages, as some such standard is
most important in comparing results obtained at
different works. Chapter II., dealing with the
subject of dilution, is of marked interest, and
contains much useful information. Much of it is
derived from the work of Adeney, Letts and
Phelps, whilst the Chicago problem is discussed
and useful data given regarding self-purification
in the Desplaines and Illinois rivers.
Passing on, the authors deal with screening
methods, particular attention being focussed upon
fine screening, a subject which has hitherto
received but scant attention in this country, where
the rivers are, however, for the most part, of
comparatively small volume. Preliminary treat-
ment of sewage by sedimentation, chemical precipi-
tation, septic and two-storey tanks form the
subject matter of Chapters IV. to VII., and this
important section of sewage treatment is carefully
dealt with. The Miles acid system is described,
and data from the Dorr and Weston experiments
cited. '
Broad irrigation or sewage farming is fairly
comprehensively treated in Chapter VIII., and the
next chapter is devoted to the disposal of sewage
by intermittent filtration through sand. It should
he noted that what is termed " intermittent
filtration " in America refers to filtration areas
which treat sewage at a high rate per acre per
day, viz., 30,000 to 100,000 gallons per day, such
areas being rarely cropped. The section in this
chapter dealing with nitrification is well written
and carefully explained.
In the following chapter on contact beds, a
considerable amount of the information is naturally
derived from English sources, the reports of th«
1898 Sewage Commission being often Quoted.
After the adoption of contact beds by Manchester
in 1900 a number of installations was constructed
in the States. Dibdin slate beds also receive notice
in this chapter, and the de-nitrification process
devised by the late Professor Letts to meet the
special circumstances of the Belfast sewage
problem. A useful summary of the advantages and
disadvantages of the contact system concludes this
chapter. The authors next deal with the treatment
of sewage in trickling or percolating filters, and
the development of this type of filter is clearly
and concisely set out.
Chapter XII. is devoted to the comparatively
recent process of activated sludge, worked out by
Gilbert J. Fowler. The authors rightly point out
the difficulty — owing to limited experience — of
estimating the cost of the process, since the gross
cost depends so largely upon the balance between
the expense of sludge drying and de-watering and
the value of the fats and manurial constituents
recovered from the sludge.
The disposal of sewage sludge is carefully and
comprehensively handled, and it includes an
interesting section on the recovery of grease from
the sludge after treatment of the sewage by the
Miles process.
Three chapters follow upon " The disinfection of
sewage and sewage effluents," " Some general
considerations regarding the design and operation
of sewage treatment plants," and " The disposal
(if sewage and excretal wastes in the absence of a
sewerage system." The final chapter is concerned
with methods of testing sewage and sewage
effluents. With respect to the " Stan'dard of
Purity " (p. 510), an error requiring correction
occurs in the standard attributed to the Royal
Commission on Sewage Disposal (second paragraph,
line 6) — "30 parts per million of dissolved
oxygen " should read 20 parts.
A feature of the book is the list of references,
which, although by no means exhaustive as regards
the subject of sewage disposal, will be found very
useful by those desirous of seeking further
information on any particular point.
" Sewage Disposal " should be in the library of
all specialising in this subject.
G. Bertram Kershaw.
PUBLICATIONS RECEIVED.
The Chemistry and Technology of the Diazo-
Compoutjds. By J. C. Cain. Second edition.
Pp. xi.+199. (London: Edward Arnold, 1920.)
Price 12s. 6d.
The Manufacture of Intermediate Products for
Dyes. By J. C. Cain. Second edition, with
25 illustration!. Pp. 273. (London: Nacmillan
and Co., Ltd. 1919.) Price 10s.
A Class Book of Organic Chemistry. Vol. II.
By J. B. Coeten. Pp. 156. (London: Mac-
mill. in and Co., ltd. 1919.) Price 4s. 6d.
Service Chemistry. By the late V. B. Lewes and
.1. S. S. Brame. Being a short manual of
chemistry and metallurgy and their application
in the naval and military services. Pp. 576.
(London: Edward Arnold'. 1920.) Price 21s.
A Short Handbook of Oil Analysis. By A. H.
Gill. Revised ninth edition. Pp. 215. (Phila-
delphia and London: J. B. Lippincott Co.,
1919.) Price 10s. 6d.
Chemists' Manual of Non-Ferrous Alloys. By
J. R. Downie. Pp. 16^. (London: E. and
F. X. Spon; New York: Span and Chambcr-
lain, Ltd. 1920.1 Price 10s.
Limes and Cements : Their Nature, Manufacture,
and Use. An Elementary Treatise. By
E. A. Dancaster. Second edition, revised and
enlarged. Pp.220. (London: Crosby Lockwood
and Son. 1920.) Price :7s. 6d.
The Chemistry of Coal. By J. B. Robinson.
Pp. 96. (London: Gurney and Jackson, 1919.)
Price 3s. 6d.
Memorandum on Solid Lubricants. By T. C
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unit Industrial 'Research. Pp. 28 (London:
H.M. Stationery Office. 1920.)
Vol. XXXIX., No. 4.]
REVIEW
[February 28, 1920.
THE SAFETY LAMP AND ITS USE IN
CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
W. PAYMAN.
The danger of explosions due to the ignition of
mixtures of inflammable vapours and air was re-
cently described by the author in this Journal (1918,
406 b), and precautions to prevent such explosions
were also discussed. Any very volatile inflammable
liquid may give off sufficient vapour to cause the at-
mosphere above it to become capable of propagating
flame. A flame may therefore pass from an unpro-
tected light or flame more or less distant from the
inflammable liquid, and ignition and inflammation
of the latter would then follow. This important
fact is unfortunately little realised, it being too
commonly supposed that to cause a fire an unpro-
tected flame must actually come into contact with
the liquid. Thus naked lights are to be found
in use even where the risk is always present in its
most dangerous form.*
The obvious precautions to be taken in order
to prevent both explosions and fires wherever in-
flammable liquids are used are : (1) the use of some
form of safety lamp where artificial illumination is
required, and (2) the enforcing of rules similar
to those usual in coal mines or explosives factories
to prevent the introduction of any form of naked
light.
Such regulations should apply wherever a large
surface of inflammable liquid may be exposed to
the air, for example, in the preparation of dopes
and varnishes, in waterproofing and dry cleaning,
wherever inflammable products like rubber solu-
tions are prepared or used in quantity, and
wherever leakage may occur from plant or con-
tainers. The possibility of leakages is especially
serious where any of the industrial gases, such as
hydrogen, coal gas or producer gas are made, used
or stored in large. quantities. Protected lights
should also be used when inflammable dusts, such
■ as coal or flour dusts, are being ground. Per- ,
haps the most frequent cause of gaseous explosions
is the use of naked lights in the repair or cleaning
out of large holders which have been in use for
storing inflammable liquids. The following notes i
may be of service in choosing a suitable type of
safety lamp for use under such circumstances.
The chief use of the safety lamp has always been :
in the coal mining industry. It is just over a
hundred years since Sir Humphrey Davy first de-
scribed his wire-gauze safety lamp in a paper to the
Royal Society in 1818, " On the fire damp of coal
mines and on methods of lighting the mines so as
to prevent explosions." (See Davy's " Collected '
Works," Vol. VI.) The essential feature of the
Davy Lamp, the wire-gauze shield, is still the
means used to prevent the flame of an oil or spirit
lamp from igniting an explosive mixture outside
the lamp, though many improvements have been
added from time to time with a view to increase
the safety of the lamp and improve its lighting
power.
The safety lamps in use in the British Isles are
of two kinds, flame lamps and electric lamps, and
both types are available in the form of "porch"
lamps for general lighting, and hand-lamps for
workmen's use. The usual form of hand-lamp is
very strongly made to withstand hard usage, but
"deputies' lamps" of lighter construction are
also made. The kind of lamp which will be found
most useful will be largely a matter of individual
preference and requirements. The advantages of
* At the ioqueet on three men killed by an explosion on an oil
steamer at Birkenhead in September. 1018. it was stated that arti-
ficial light was neeessary for the work on which the men were engaged,
and that there was no regulation forbidding them to use naked
lights.
each type of lamp have been and are still the sub-
ject of much controversy, but the special claims
made for each type may be indicated.
j Electric lamps. — The electric lamp is convenient
in use, and is easily kept in order if electrical
energy is obtainable for re-charging, but the first
cost is rather high. The electric safety hand-lamp
usually consists of a 2-volt storage battery of an
" unspillable " type, and a small metallic filament
bulb. The former is surrounded by a strong case
of sheet steel or iron, and the latter by a thick
glass cover held in position by an extension of the
battery case, the joint being made flame-tight by
the insertion of asbestos or fibre washers. Trouble
is sometimes experienced from the' spilling of the
battery acid, the use of cases on the " unspillable
ink-bottle " principle not being altogether satis-
factory. It is claimed that the use of a solid
(" jelly ") electrolyte removes this source of trouble.
The average weight of the electric hand-lamp is
6 lb.
Flame lamps. — Oil and spirit limps differ only
in the construction of the oil vessel. That of the
spirit lamp is filled with cotton-wool, which is
first moistened with spirit, any excess being
drained off.
The spirits in general use are naphtha, colzaline
and benzoline. Paraffin, mineral colza (a higher
boiling-point fraction of petroleum), or mixtures
of these in various proportions, are used in the oil
lamp. Vegetable colza, or rape seed oil, is no
longer in use for miners' safety lamps, the objec-
tion to it being the rapidity with which the small
lamp wick begins to char when in use.
The oil vessel is usually made of brass, and is
provided with a " pricker " for adjusting and
trimming the wick, and an " electrical igniter " to
enable the lamp to be lit without being opened.
The flame is surrounded by a thick cylindrical heat-
resisting glass, and the two safety gauzes
(Marsaut type) rest on this. The inner gauze is
sometimes replaced by a metal chimney (Mueseler
type). The gauzes are protected by a metal bonnet
to which are attached four brass pillars which afford
partial protection to the glass. These pillars are
fastened at the base to a ring which screws on to
the oil vessel, and so keeps the gauzes and glass
in position. Flame-tight joints are made between
glass and metal by means of asbestos washers. The
older forms of lamp were without a bonnet, but
the bonnet may be regarded as essential in cnemi-
cal works, since a corrosive dust or liquid might
burn a hole through the wire gauzes, rendering
them no longer safe.
The average weight of the flame lamp is 3J lb.
Locking devices. — Both electric and oil lamps are
provided with special locking devices so that they
cannot be opened in a dangerous place. The
" magnetic lock " can only be operated by means
of a magnet. Some lamps are locked by means of
a lead rivet. A further protection is afforded in
some oil lamps by the " protector " device, con-
sisting of an automatic extinguisher which comes
into action as the oil vessel is unscrewed.
Testing of safety lamps. — Before any type of
safety lamp is approved by the Home Office for use
in coal mines samples are subjected to a series
of safety tests at the Government Testing 8tation
at Eskmeals.t
The tests are of two kinds, mechanical tests and
safety tests in explosive atmospheres. In the
mechanical tests the lamp is subjected to rough
treatment of a type likely to be met with in the
mines. The strength and heat-resisting power of
the glasses are also tested, and the lamp once lit
must give a certain minimum candle-power (all-
f Under Section 33 of the Coal Mines Act, 1911.
68 b
EEVIEW.
[Feb. 28, 1920.
round light) for a period of nine to ten hours.*
The lamps are tested in explosive mixtures of
methane-air and petrol-air, and so the tests can
be accepted as satisfactory for lamps to be used
near inflammable liquids, but not necessarily so
for gaseous mixtures containing hydrogen. (Pay-
man and Wheeler, Chem. Soc. Trans., 1919, 115, 36;
this J., 1919. 38, 126 a.)
The flame lamp as gas detector. — It is well known
that the flame lamp can be used as a " gas de-
tector." A lamp is sometimes lowered into large
containers before men are allowed to enter for
repairs etc., in order to make sure that the atmos-
phere contains sufficient oxygen to support breath-
ing. A more important use of the flame lamp is
the detection and rough estimation of inflammable
gas by the " cap " method. An experienced mine
fireman can readily detect slightly over one per
cent, of firedamp in mine aTr, and can estimate per-
centages above this without difficulty to within an
accuracy of about 05 per cent. This method is
applicable to any inflammable gas or vapour.
In testing for inflammable gas the flame is first
carefully drawn down until the yellow light almost
disappears. If any inflammable gas be present a
" cap " or " aureole," usually blue in colour, forms
abovo the lowered flame. The greater the per-
centage of inflammable gas present in the atmos-
phere the brighter and the more plainly does this
cap appear, and the larger does it become.
The height of cap with a given percentage of
inflammable gas will vary with different gases and
vapours, but it may be accepted that the effect of
each gas is inversely proportional to the percentage
of gas present in a " lower-limit mixture " of that
gas with. air. Thus with all gases the amount
necessary to give a large cap extending into the
gauze will be a little less than that required to
form a limit mixture. Evidently a limit mixture
would give an infinitely long cap. When testing
for " gas " under works conditions it will be only
necessary to know when the limit of inflammability
of the gas or vapour present is being approached ;
in a coal mine a much smaller proportion of inflam-
mable gas would be considered unsafe on account
of the presence of coal dust. The following
description! of the caps in firedamp-air mixtures
(limit 5'3 per cent.) will be of use for comparative
purposes if used in conjunction with the value for
the lower limit of inflammability of the vapour
under consideration (this J., 1918, 408 r) : —
1 per cent, methane. — Cap just visible round
edges of oil flame.
2 per cent, methane. — Blue cone visible above
oil flame, the upper tip being very indistinct.
3 per cent, methane. — Cap and tip quite plain,
about 3 cm. high from base to tip.
With higher percentages the tip rises rapidly into
the gauze until a percentage is at last reached when
the cap leaves the flame, which is extinguished,
and the methane continues to burn in the top of
the gauze. When the cap rises into the gauze the
lamp may become unsafe, and should be extin-
guished, not by blowing or jerking, but by gently
drawing down the wick and restricting the air
supply to the lamp by folding in a jacket or cap.
The largest caps are visible in artificial light,
but the low percentage caps either require a
darkened place of operation, or the lamp itself
must be suitably shaded.
Lamps are at present constructed to satisfy the
special requirements of the coal miner, but modi-
fications will at once suggest themselves for lamps
to be used in chemical works to increase their
lighting efficiency without in any way interfering
with their safety.
• See " Memorandum on the Testing of Safety Lamps." H.M.
Stationery Office. London. 191S.
t From the Home Office pamphlet." How to Test for Firedamp."
H.M. Stationery Office, London. 1912, which contains a diagram
showing the appearance of the caps.
THE INTERNATIONAL LABOUR
CONFERENCE AND THE EIGHT-HOUR
DAY.
STEPHEN MIALL.
The proceedings at Washington (this J., 1919,
4 b) were to some extent informal, because the In-
ternational Labour Office is a part of the League
of Nations, and the League of Nations did not
come into being until the ratification of the Treaty
of Peace. It was therefore necessary to hold a
purely formal conference in Paris to affirm the de-
cisions come to at Washington. This Paris con-
ference was held towards the end of January; the
convention on the eight-hour day is affirmed, and
the International Labour Office is now duly con-
stituted in accordance with the Treaty of Peace.
Monsieur Thomas has been appointed director, and
Mr. W. H. B. Butler deputy-director, of this office,
which will find temporary accommodation in
London. In all probability there will be a special
conference in June next, at Genoa, to deal with the
conditions of employment of seamen. Other sub-
jects are to be discussed in due course, and as soon
as a staff can be got together information will be
obtained from a number of countries in preparation
for the next annual conference, which may possibly
be held in Geneva in the early part of 1921.
The actual decisions of the International Labour
Conference at AVashington have received but scanty
attention from the Press, and some information on
the application of the eight-hour day may perhaps
not be out of place.
No question was so keenly disputed and so long
discussed as the choice between the eight-hour day
and the forty-eight-hour week, and countless pro-
positions and amendments on this topic were sub-
mitted. On several occasions it seemed that the
commission dealing with this subject was at a
deadlock, and Mr. Tom Shaw, M.P., the chairman,
had to exercise considerable patience and tact to
induce the members to frame a draft convention
which finally met with general acceptance. All .
concerned — and who is not? — should be grateful to
him for the skill with which he brought conflicting
views into some sort of harmony.
Articles 9, 10, 11, 12, and 13 of this Convention
do not apply to Great Britain ; the remaining
articles are as follows: —
1. For the purpose of this Convention, the term
"industrial undertaking" includes particularly:
(a) Mines, quarries, and other works for the ex-
traction of minerals from the earth.
(6) Industries in which articles are manufac-
tured, altered, cleaned, repaired, ornamented,
finished, adapted for sale, broken up or demolished,
or in which materials are transformed; including
shipbuilding and the generation, transformation,
and transmission of electricity or motive power of
any kind.
(c) Construction, reconstruction, maintenance,
repair, alteration, or demolition of any building,
railway, tramway, harbour, dock, pier, canal, in-
land waterway, road, tunnel, bridge, viaduct, sewer,
drain, well, telegraphic or telephonic installation,
electrical undertaking, gas work, waterwork or
other work of construction, as well as the pre-
paration for or laying the foundations of any such
work or structure.
((/) Transport of passengers or goods by road,
rail, sea or inland waterway, including the hand-
ling of goods at docks, quays, wharves or ware-
houses, but excluding transport by hand.
The provisions relative to transport by sea and
on inland waterways shall be determined by a
special conference dealing with employment at sea
and on inland waterways.
Vol. XXXIX., No. 4.J
REVIEW.
The competent authority in each country shall
define the line of division which separates industry
from commerce and agriculture.
2. The working hours of persons employed in any
public or private industrial undertaking or in any
branch thereof, other than an undertaking in
which only members of the same family are em-
ployed, shall not exceed eight in the day and forty-
eight in the week, with the exceptions hereinafter
provided for: —
(a) The provisions of this Convention shall not
apply to persons holding position of supervision or
management, nor to persons employed in a con-
fidential capacity.
(6) Where by law, custom, or agreement between
employers' and workers' organisations, or, where
no such organisations exist, between employers'
and workers' representatives, the hours of work on
one or more days of the week are less than eight,
the limit of eight hours may be exceeded on the re-
maining days of the week by the sanction of the
competent public authority, or by agreement be-
tween such organisations or representatives; pro-
vided, however, that in no case under the pro-
visions of this paragraph shall the daily limit of
eight hours be exceeded by more than one hour.
(c) Where persons are employed in shifts it shall
bo permissible to employ persons in excess of eight
hours in any one day and forty-eight hours in any
one week if the average number of hours over a
period of three weeks or less does not exceed eight
per day and forty-eight per week.
3. The limit of hours of work prescribed in
Article 2 may be exceeded in case of accident, actual
or threatened, or in case cf urgent work to be done
to machinery or plant, or in case of force majeure,
but only so far as may be necessary to avoid serious
interference with the ordinary working of the
undertaking.
4. The limit of hours of work prescribed in
Article 2 may also be exceeded in those processes
which are required by reason of the nature of the
process to be carried on continuously by a succession
of shifts, subject <o the condition that the working
hours shall not exceed fifty-six in the week on the
average. Such regulation of the hours of work
shall in no case affect any rest days which may be
secured by the national law to the workers in such
processes in compensation for the weekly rest day.
5. In exceptional cases where it is recognised
that the provisions of Article 2 cannot be applied,
but only in such cases, agreements between workers'
and employers' organisations concerning the daily
limit of work over a longer period of time may be
given the force of regulations if the Government,
to which these agreements shall be submitted, so
decides.
The average number of hours worked per week,
over the number of weeks covered by any such
agreement shall not exceed forty-eight.
6. Regulations made by public authority shall
determine for industrial undertakings :
(a) The permanent exceptions that may be
allowed in preparatory or complementary work
which must necessarily be carried on outside the
limits laid down for the general working of an
• -tablishment, or for certain classes of workers
whose work is essentially intermittent.
(6) The temporary exceptions that may be
allowed, so that establishments may deal with ex-
ceptional cases of pressure of work.
These regulations shall be made only after con-
sultation with the organisations of employers and
workers concerned, if any such organisations exist.
These regulations shall fix the maximum of addi-
tional hours in each instance, and the rate of pay
for overtime shall not be less than one and one-
quarter times the regular rate.
7. Each Government shall communicate to the
International Labour Office:
(a) A list of the processes which are classed as
being necessarily continuous in character under
Article 4;
(6) Full information as to working of the agree-
ments mentioned in Article 5; and
(c) Full information concerning the regulations
made under Article 6 and their application.
The International Labour Office shall make an
annual report thereon to the General Conference of
the International Labour Organisation.
8. In order to facilitate the enforcement of the
provisions of this Convention, every employer shall
be required :
(a) To notify by means of the posting of notices
in conspicuous places in the works or other suitable
place, or by such other method as may be approved
by the Government, the hours at which work begins
and ends, and where work is carried on by shifts
the hours at which each shift begins and ends.
These hours shall be so fixed that the duration of
the work shall not exceed the limits prescribed by
this Convention, and when so notified they shall not
be changed except with such notice and in such
manner as may be approved by the Government.
(6) To notify in the same way such rest intervals
accorded during the period of work as are not
reckoned as part of the working hours.
(c) To keep a record in the form prescribed by
law or regulation in each country of all additional
hours worked in pursuance of Articles 3 and 6 of
this Convention.
It shall be made an offence against the law to
employ any person outside the hours fixed in
accordance with paragraph (a), or during the in-
tervals fixed in accordance with paragraph (6).
14. The operation of the provisions of this Con-
vention may be suspended in any country by the
Government in the event of war or other emergency
endangering the national safety.
15. The formal ratifications of this Convention,
under the conditions set forth in Part XIII. of the
Treaty of Versailles of June 28, 1919, and of the
Treaty of St. Germain of September 10, 1919, shall
be communicated to the Secretary General of the
League of Nations for registration.
16. Each Member of the International Labour
Organisation which ratifies this Convention en-
gages to apply it to its colonies, protectorates, and
possessions which are not fully self-governing :
(a) Except where, owing to the local conditions,
its provisions are inapplicable ; or
(6) Subject to such modifications as may be
necessary to adapt its provisions to local condi-
tions.
Each Member shall notify to the International
Labour Office the action taken in respect of each of
its colonies, protectorates, and possessions which
are not fully self-governing.
17. As soon as the ratifications of two Members
of the International Labour Organisation have been
registered with the Secretariat, the Secretary
General of the League of Nations shall so notify
all the Members of the International Labour
Organisation.
18. This Convention shall come into force at the
date on which such notification is issued by tho
Secretary General of the League of Nations, and it
shall then be binding only upon those Members
which have registered their ratifications with tho
Secretariat. Thereafter this Convention will come
into force for any other Member at tho date on
which its ratification is registered with the Secre-
tariat.
19. Each Member which ratifies this Convention
agrees to bring its provisions into operation not
later than July 1, 1921, and to take such action as
may be necessary to make these provisions effective.
20. A Member which has ratified this Convention
may denounce it after the expiration of ten years
from the date on which the Convention first comes
A 2
REVIEWi
[Feb. 28, 1020.
into force, by an act communicated to the Secretary
General of the League of Nations for registration.
Such denunciation shall not take effect until cne
year after the date on which it is registered with
the Secretariat.
21. At least once in ten years the Governing
Body of the International Labour Office shall pre-
sent to the General Conference a report on the
working of this Convention, and shall consider tho
desirability of placing on the agenda of the Con-
ference the question of its revision or modification.
22. The French and English texts of this Con-
vention shall both be authentic.
NEWS FROM THE SECTIONS.
CANADA.
During the past two or three months many suc-
cessful meetings of the different local Branches of
the Canadian Section of the Society of Chemical
Industry have been held. Good attendances have
marked all the meetings, and the Society can be
said to be in a sound and healthy condition. The
increasingly large number of plant managers and
superintendents who attend the meetings is marked
evidence of the interest the management of
Canadian chemical industries is taking in the
transactions of the Society.
Ottawa.
The opening meeting, on December 18, took the
form of a dinner at the Chateau Laurier, when
the guest of honour was the Right Hon. Sir George
E. Foster, Minister of Trade and Commerce.
After the toast of the King had been honoured,
Dr. F. T. Shutt, chairman, referred to the success
achieved by the Branch during the previous session.
He alluded particularly to the initiative taken by
the Branch in the matter of re-classifying the
Government Chemical Service, which had been ap-
proved by all the chemists in the Dominion. The
official classification — based on an alphabetical
arrangement — was in every way most unsatis-
factory from the standpoint of the chemical ser-
vice. The special committee appointed by the
Ottawa Branch drew up a rational scheme, which
was duly presented to, and its adoption urged
upon, the Government and Civil Service Com-
mission (this J., 1919, 288 it). It was not accepted
as a whole, probably because its acceptance would
have entailed the wholesale reconstruction of the
official plan, but the committee was successful in
obtaining better terms for demists in the matter
of salaries. Unfortunately, the Government has
been losing a number of its most promising
younger chemists, and if this continues the service
will inevitably become a second-class one. There is
great need for disseminating among the public a
knowledge of the utility of the chemist's work. Dr.
Shutt also referred to his address as chairman a
year previously (this J., 1919, 117 k), in which he
had advocated the founding of a professional
organisation for Canadian chemists. This project
was now a fait accompli. The work of the Canadian
Institute of Chemistry will in no way interfere
with that of the Society of Chemical Industry.
The object of the former is to safeguard the in-
terests of chemists and raise the status of the pro-
fession throughout the Dominion, whereas the chief
function of the latter is to bring chemists together
for tho dissemination and interchange of chemical
knowledge.
Sir George Foster, in his address, referred to the
various activities of the Government service with
which he was actively connected and which were of
direct service to tho chemical world, and then, after
some badinage pointed at the chemist by reason
of his lineal descent from the alchemist, the
necromancer and soothsayer, and the evil one, he
dwelt at length on the benefits accruing from the
applications of chemistry to industrial life. He
emphasised the need for increased production and
its necessary counterpart — economy. " With the
exception of the United States, which is a wasteful
country too, Canada is probably one of the most
wasteful countries in the world," and he instanced
the enormous wastage that had characterised the
lumber industry in the past. A country's material
resources may be divided into two classes : those
which are exhaustible, e.g., coal and other mineral
wealth, and those which can be maintained always
if we deal with them in the right way, such as
agricultural products, fisheries, and livestock.
Science was needed to conserve both. The terrible
wastago of the late war would not be entirely in
vain if we remembered the lesson that business
must not he divorced from nationality. Whilst
the business man should be allowed as much free-
dom as possible, he, on his side, must recognise
that he owes a fealty to the nation which protects
him and within the borders of which he carries on
his activities. Under the old regime of interna-
tionalised commercialism, some of the most valuable
inventions and processes which were discovered in
Great Britain went over to the Germans; that must
never be allowed to happen again. The war has
not only shown up our weakness ; it has brought
the realisation that we have within the Empire
resources, genius and skill equal to those found
in any other country in the world.
On January 22, a paper on " Colloidal Fuels,"
written by Mr. L. W. Bates, was read by Mr.
Stansfield, chief engineering chemist of the Fuel
Testing Plant. It was shown that Mr. R. C.
Cantelo, of the Fuel Testing Division of the Mines
Branch, had carried out successfully some pre-
liminary investigations to ascertain whether car-
bonised lignite could be employed in place of pul-
verised coal.
Toronto.
At the December meeting Brig.-General C. H.
Mitchell, Dean of the Faculty of Applied Science
and Engineering of Toronto University, who has
recently returned from overseas service on the
Intelligence Service of the Allied Armies, was the
speaker, and delivered a very interesting address
on " The War and Reconstruction as Applied to
Chemical Industry." Deau Mitchell referred to
the war as a " chemical war," emphasising the im-
portant parts which chemists and chemicals had
played therein. He firmly believes that were
science and scientific men and management
allowed full sway, the Allied countries could retain
the trade which they have wrested from Germany
during the war.
Montreal.
In November " The Zinc and Lead Deposits of
Gaspe " were discussed, Mr. Beidleman's paper
being read by Mr. Alexander Gray. Geological re-
ports have shown that these ores are practically
free from iron, are of high grade, and equal to those
at Joplin, in Missouri, U.S.A. In the 50 acres
developed the sphalerite has a zinc content of from
62 to 65 per cent., with less than one-half per cent,
of iron.
A paper on " The Utilisation of Kelp " was given
by Mr. Ball in December. During the war the
Hercules Powder Co. developed the kelp industry
on the Pacific Coast.
On January 23, Mr. C. F. Bardorf, of the St.
Lawrence Sugar Refineries, gave a paper, " Notes
on Decolorising Blacks."
Tho Montreal Branch expects to hold a meeting
and to visit the large electro-chemical plants at
Shawinigan Falls, Quebec, in May next.
Vol. XXXIX., No. 4.J
REVIEW.
71b
NOTTINGHAM.
The meeting held on February 4 was opened by
the chairman (Mr. F. H. Carr) with a reference to
the death of Mr. F. J. R. Carulla on January 6,
1920. Mr. Archbutt, in a brief appreciation, alluded
to the valuable papers which Mr. Carulla had con-
tributed to the Iron and Steel Institute and other
societies. A series of papers was then read on
the analytical chemistry of iron and steel and of
pharmaceutical products.
The contribution by Messrs. H. Droop Richmond
and S. F. Hall consisted of a critical examination
of the Reichert-Polenske method of determining
soluble and insoluble acids in fats. The original
method was followed, but the times of distillation
were varied between 20 and 36 or 38 minutes. This
variation had no effect on either the soluble or in-
soluble acid numbers in the case of butter. In
the case of coconut oil the soluble acids were not
affected, but the insoluble acids showed a steady
decrease with increasing time of distillation.
The next contribution was by Mr. J. Davidson on
" The Nesbitt Absorption Bulb and ' Ascarite.' "
The special feature of the bulb is a stopper which
can be turned so as to close the contents (for weigh-
ing) or to permit the passage of oxygen carrying
carbon dioxide through the absorbent, through a
filter of glass wool, and then through a side tube
which is sealed at the bottom of the apparatus and
also to the neck in such a way that its communi-
cation with the exit is through a sunken portion of
the stopper. The absorbent material, called
" ascarite," consists of caustic soda deposited on
an inert material. It absorbs the water produced
by the primary reaction between the carbon dioxide
and alkali. Owing to the large surface and com-
plete absorption the oxygen can be passed over the
melted steel, etc. at the rate of 250 to 300 c.c. per
minute and a carbon combustion be completed in
6 to 10 minutes. A single filling suffices for over
250 combustions, and the weight of the apparatus
was said to be about 150 grms.
The next paper was read by Mr. A. E. Musgrave
on an improved nickel crucible for use in the de-
termination of sulphur in fuels by oxidation with
sodium peroxide.
Mr. B. Collitt then gave an account of the
standard analysed samples prepared by the Bureau
of Standards, U.S.A., and showed specimens of
these, including brasses, sugars, pure metals and
analytical reagents. He next described some of
the advantages of pure sodium oxalate as a
standard for permanganate. The " standard "
salt with certificate of analysis, if previously dried
at 105° C, has a total impurity of not more than
1 in 2,000. Details of experiments were given, the
results of which were in very close agreement with
those obtained with standard iron wire. In the
discussion, Mr. Archbutt emphasised the great
necessity for having standard samples of irons and
steels, and showed that in the case of brasses, etc.,
where it was possible for the analyst to standardise
his methods on known mixtures, the necessity was
not so great. The discordant results sometimes
obtained by chemists working on the same steels
might in reality all be correct, and the want of
agreement due to segregation in the metal.
The last paper was by Messrs. J. M. Wilkie and
J. Wain on the analysis of lead plaster. This is
the basis of nearly all the plaster masses of the
British Pharmacopoeia, and are made by digesting
lead oxide with olive oil on the water bath. The
usual method of analysis does not seem quite satis-
factory. In the method proposed, the preparation
is dissolved in glacial acetic acid, the fatty acids
are extracted with chloroform, and the lead
determined in the residual liquid. The authors
have not yet decided upon the best method of
estimating the lead, but they incline to Moser's
method, i.e., precipitation as iodate and determin-
ing iodometrically the excess of soluble iodate
added.
BRISTOL AND SOUTH WALES.
In the University College, Cardiff, on February
6, Mr. John Myers communicated a paper on
" The Bearing of Structure on the Breakdown of
Metals. Mr. W. R. Bird presided.
The author dealt with a number of industrial
failures and exhibited many photomicrographs,
including examples of ingot defects, piping and
non-metallic inclusions in steel blow-holes, films sur-
rounding grains, dross inclusions, and excessive
lead in yellow metals. Instances of the use of un-
suitable material were cited, and the great value
of Whiteley's method of etching (see J. Clev. Inst.
Eng., 1914) for investigating the earlier history of
heat-treated steels was emphasised, particularly for
the differentiation between forged and cast motor
parts. The importance of correct heat treatment
of steels was discussed and cajes of annealing
errors in tinplate practice were illustrated by
photographs of quenched and tempered alloy
steels where improper heat treatment had given
rise to failure.
At Bristol, on February 12, Mr. J. V. Watt read
a paper on " Cement." Following a brief historical
sketch, the author illustrated the great value of
cement to the world of to-day by quoting statistics
of production, the total annual world output being
about 30 million tons. He then dealt with the com-
position of the raw materials and the manufacture,
mentioning, among other points, the great influence
of fine grinding upon the value of the finished pro-
duct. Whereas a few years ago the required stan-
dard was a maximum of 10 per cent, residue on a
2500-mesh sieve, modern cement gives a residue of
about the same amount through 32,400 meshes to
the sq. inch. The tests employed for cements, in-
cluding chemical analysis, time of setting, fineness,
tensile strength, and soundness were described and
critically discussed. The error in the tensile
strength test which may arise if the results of the
" neat " test alone are relied upon was pointed
out, and the opinion expressed that this test should
be abolished, as has been done in many other
countries.
MANCHESTER.
Mr. John Allan took the chair at the meeting
held on February 6, when over 100 members and
visitors attended.
Messrs. F. S. Sinnatt and A. Grounds read a
paper on "A New Characteristic for Coal: The
Agglutination Curve," giving the results of an
investigation carried out under the auspices of the
Lancashire and Cheshire Coal Research Association.
When caking coal is mixed with a certain propor-
tion of a pulverised inert substance, such as sand
or anthracite, and the resulting mixture carbonised,
the coke does not form a coherent button if the
content of inert material exceeds a certain limit.
The limiting proportion of inert substance is a
measure of the agglutinating value of the coal.
The authors have found that the caking power of
the coal may be destroyed by a very small propor-
tion of inert material of a considerable degree of
fineness. Curves have been obtained showing the
proportion of inert material of varying degrees of
fineness a particular coal can sustain and still yield
a coherent coke. This curve varies in form for
different coals, and has been called the " agglutina-
tion curve." It is suggested that the form of curve
may be used for ascertaining the type of coke which
a coal will produce when carbonised. The authors
consider that pulverised electrode carbon is one of
the most convenient substances for use as the inert
substance when carrying out the test.
REVIEW.
The second paper, on the " Estimation of the
Nitro-group in Aromatic Organic Compounds,"
was by Drs. T. Callan, J. A. Henderson and Mr.
N. Stafford. Methods of estimating the nitro-
group in those compounds may be classified as
follows : — (1) Reduction of the nitro-group by excess
of a reducing agent (e.g., titanous or stannous
chloride), followed by a determination of this excess
with a suitable reagent. (2) Reduction of the nitro-
compound and subsequent titration of the aniino-
compound with standard sodium nitrite solution.
(3) Modifications of the Kjeldahl method. The
authors have found that although the methods of
the first class give good results in a very
large number of cases, yet with certain sub-
stances, e.g., a-nitronaphthalene and o-nitroanisole,
low and discordant results are obtained owing to
the formation of chlorinated amines. To avoid
chlorination the authors have successfully used
titanous sulphate in sulphuric acid solution in
place of titanous chloride in hydrochloric acid
solution. The other methods were also discussed.
EDINBURGH.
The fifth ordinary meeting of the Section was
held on February 11, with Dr. D. S. Jerdan in the
chair. Prof. James Walker read a paper on
" Modern Ideas of the Atom," in which he traced
the development of ideas regarding the structure
of the atom from the time of the Greek philosophers,
through the alchemists, Newton, and Dalton, down
to the modern views of J. J. Thomson, Rutherford
and Mosley, which he dealt with in detail. The
influence of the idea of valency on the develop-
ment of organic chemistry was also discussed.
It was intimated that the annual general meeting
would be held on March 9.
BIRMINGHAM.
A meeting was held on February 12, at the
University of Birmingham, with Dr. H. W.
Brownsdon in the chair. Dr. E. B. Maxted read a
paper on " Catalysis," dealing with it mainly from
the industrial standpoint. The importance of
catalysis in industry was dealt with, and it was
pointed out that new catalytic processes were
largely discovered by empirical methods, owing to
the absence of theoretical principles. In view of the
industrial use of impure materials, the study of
catalyst poisoning is almost of equal importance
to that of catalysis itself. A general theory
of catalysis that is applicable to every type of
reaction is probably an impossibility: Thus, the
selection of types of accelerating mechanism, each
involving separate theoretical principles, is ttie
necessary preliminary step to the prediction of the
degree of activity of a catalyst under definite con-
ditions. The application by Lewis of the quantum
theory of radiation to catalysis in general is an
advance in this direction.
A paper on " The Preparation of Cyanogen
Chloride on a Large Laboratory Scale," by Dr.
T. S. Price and Mr. S. J. Green, was taken as read.
were reviewed, and it was pointed out that the
price of oil must not be considered the only criterion
of its utility, as indirect economies, such as ease of
manipulation, speed and regularity of heating,
etc., played a predominating part in the advan-
tages achieved by the use of oil.
LIVERPOOL.
A meeting of this section was held on February
20, at the Adelphi Hotel, when a paper was read
by Mr. W. P. Dreaper on the use of oil fuel in
chemical works. The paper described work which
had been carried out during the war at H.M.
Factory, Sutton Oak, and reviewed the use of oil
fuel for such purposes as heating caustic soda pots,
or plant other than for steam generation. The
types of burners, muffles, and furnaces were de-
scribed in detail, and the merits of using com-
pressed air or steam to atomise the oil were dis-
cussed, particularly with mixtures of oils contain-
ing upwards of 70 per cent, of pitch. The economic
advantages of oil as against coal or producer gas
MEETINGS OF OTHER SOCIETIES.
SOCIETi' OF DYERS AND COLOURISTS.
A lecture entitled " From Munitions to Dye-
stuffs " was delivered by Dr. J. B. Oesch, of Leeds
University, to the West Riding Section on Feb-
ruary 5.
After describing the manner in which the dye-
making industry had been handicapped during the
war owing to the great demands made by the ex-
plosives industry on both chemists and plant, the
lecturer indicated the ways in which some of
the munitions of war and also the plant used in
their preparation can be utilised for the prepara-
tion of intermediates and some of the more modern
dyestuffs. Thus chlorine is used very largely in
the preparation of certain intermediates, and also
because of its beneficial effect on the shade and
fastness of such dyestuffs as the indanthrene
colours. Again, phosgene is used in large quan-
tities in the preparation of intermediates, which
are further transformed into the excellent direct
cotton dyes known as the benzo-fast dyes (of Bayer
and Co.). Other types of dyestuffs in the prepara-
tion of which phosgene plays an essential part are
the helindone series, and practically all types of
the triphenylmethane colouring matters.
The lecturer then described the rapid growth in
this country during the war of the " phenol " and
the " chloro-benzene " processes of making picric
acid; by converting this into picramic acid, and
subsequently coupling with various azo compon-
ents, the excellent series of mctachrome dyes
(Berlin Aniline Co.) results. Interest in TNT
centres mainly around the plant used in its manu-
facture, as the product itself cannot be used as a
dye. The plant, however, is easily adaptable for
the manufacture of most of the important inter-
mediates.
NATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF INDUSTRIAL
CHEMISTS.
The annual meeting was held at Middlesbrough,
on February 7, and among the more important
matters considered was the formation of a sub-
committee to formulate a policy concerning the
salaries and conditions of work of industrial
chemists and the regulation of the admission of
boys into the chemical profession. The rules for
admission were so altered as to admit students at
approved educational institutions to the associate-
ship; steps were taken to deal with the question of
the very serious overcrowding of the profession.
The Hon. Secretary's report states that the re-
gistration of the Association as a trade union was
a purely legal formality conferring certain rights
and privileges, and which did not in any way bind
it to the Labour Party or any other political organ-
isation; it emphasises the potentially important
rule of the brain worker in industry, and claims
for the association the unique distinction of being
the only organisation which includes within its
scope the totality of industrial chemists. Evidence
is adduced showing the influence of the Association
has already attained and the progress made. The
membership increased by 24 per cent, during 1919.
and now numbers well over 1,000. There are local
sections at Middlesbrough, Birmingham, Sheffield,
Newcastle, London, Glasgow, and Manchester, in
Vol. XXXIX., No. 4.]
REVIEW.
addition to a number of members at Scunthorpe
who prefer to remain unattached to any section.
Mr. A. J. C. Charlier, in his presidential address,
spoke of the serious harm which had been done by
the Ministry of Munitions in encouraging the so-
called intensive training whereby youths who had
undergone a three months' course of training at
certain colleges and universities were recognised by
the Government as " qualified chemists," and sent
into works as such. Extensive and careful investi-
gation had shown him that the best positions in the
industry were held by men who had had little or no
university training; academic training was of
secondary importance, the prime essentials being
a knowledge of engineering and a long practical
experience. On the other hand, there were thou-
sands of chemists who possess both academic and
" practical " qualifications and who were earning
lower wages than unskilled labourers. The Associa-
tion was doing its best to ameliorate their condi-
tions and prospects.
OIL AND COLOUR CHEMISTS ASSOCIATION.
At the February meeting, held on the 12th inst..
Dr. R. S. Morrell read a paper on " The Colloid
Chemistry of Varnishes and Paints."
In spite of the importance of the problems of sur-
faces it is surprising that the scientific study of
the colloids of varnishes and paints has been so
much neglected. The drying oils differ among
themselves as to emulsifying power, but no deter-
minations of their comparative drop numbers have
yet been published. From the writer's observations,
soya bean and linseed oil are more easily emulsified
than China wood oil ; and polymerised drying oils
emulsify less easily than linseed oil. The formation
of linoxyn is that of a gel of peroxides probably
polymerised (Morrell, J.C.S., 1918, 113, 111), and
is comparable with the behaviour of cyelopenta-
diene, which gives a dipolvmeride on exposure to
air. (Stobbe and Dunnhaupt, Ber., 1919, 53, 1436.)
In the changes occurring during the drying of
oils attention must be drawn to the surface action
of the metallic drier. The surface tension to air of
linseed oil, as determined by the writer by Magie's
method (Livingstone and Morgan, J. Amer. Chem.
Soc, 1911, vol. 33), is higher than that of a lead
drying oil, but lower than that of China wood oil
or thickened linseed oil. It is to be expected that
the lead soap would concentrate on the surface,
whereby its specific surface and its catalytic
activity would be increased. Partially oxidised
Tung oil showed almost the same value as that of
raw oil. The subject requires further investigation.
The permeability of a varnish to water and to salt
solutions has been examined by the writer (see also
Molteni, Oil and Col. Chem. Assoc., 1919, 2, 37,
and de Waele, loc. cit. 107). In the case of certain
varnishes the coatings are almost impermeable to
water. In salt solutions of normal strength the
permeability is reduced to a very low figure.
Metallic ions vary slightly in their inhibitory
power, but no definite evidence could be obtained
of anionic or kationic permeability. The kationic
permeability is still under investigation. The in-
fluence, of the percentage of linoxyn on the water-
absorbing properties of a film and the inhibitory
property of a linoxyn of polymerised oil are very
marked.
The so-called chalking of a film in water is
ascribed primarily to an emulsion of the water in a
dispersed medium of varnish or oil, but in the case
or BnellM to a disperse phase of the resin in water.
1 he milkiness or ehalkiness often disappears on re-
moval from the water except in the case of shellac,
where it is permanent. It seems to be dependent
on the nature of the metallic ion of the driers
present, and from preliminary experiments it
appears that the higher the valency of the metal of
the drier, the less the milkiness. It was found
that the drop numbers of water into an elastic
varnish wero less for water than for salt solutions;
the stronger the salt solution the larger the drop
number; moreover, varnishes with the lowest water
absorption power containing a high content of poly-
merised oil give a higher drop number than var-
nishes containing ordinary linseed oil. The study
of the surface tensions of varnishes and their films
requires full investigation. In the literature of oil
paints the application of the principles of colloid
chemistry is very scanty. Gardner (J. Ind. Eng.
Chem., 1916, 8, 794) discusses the opacity or hiding
power of a pigment as dependent on the fineness,
the refractive index of the pigment and medium
and the oil absorption of the pigment. The pheno-
menon of surface adsorption by certain lake bases
in the presence of colouring matters is of interest
and explains why highly colloid pigments are often
preferred. The livering of paints is connected with
the gelatinisation of the colloid resin, due to its re-
duction in acidity by the pigment; skinning would
appear to be caused by the oil acids acting on the
pigment (Ware and Christman, J. Ind. Eng. Chem.,
1916, 8, 879). Under suspensoil pigments the ad-
hesive and cementing properties increase with
approach to colloid form.
AUhough the properties of varnishes and of
paints are conditioned by the chemical composition
of the mixings, nevertheless the properties which
often decide between high and low-class articles or
between suitability and unfitness are rather to be
sought in the comparison of relationship of phases
and in changes of surface energy and adsorption.
THE CHEMICAL SOCIETY.
On February 19, at an ordinary meeting, Sir
J. J. Dobbie announced the names of those who had
been proposed by the Council to fill impending
vacancies. Prof. J. C. Philip has been nominated
to succeed Prof. S. Smiles as senior secretary, and
Dr. H. R. Le Sueur to become junior secretary.
Profs. J. B. Cohen and S. Smiles are nominated
vice-presidents, and the following are proposed as
new members of Council: — Prof. A. J. Allmand,
Dr. E. F. Armstrong, Mr. F. H. Carr and Prof.
J. T. Hewitt. It was also announced that the pro-
jected soiree to be held in March had fallen through
owing to lack of support; that H.M. the King had
granted the Society the supplemental charter
sought for; and that Miss Roscoe had presented to
the library the complete scientific correspondence
of the late Sir H. E. Roscoe.
The first paper was by Dr. S. B. Schrvver and
Mr. C. C. Wood on " A New Method" for the
Estimation of Methyl Alcohol." The method
consists in mixing the aqueous solution under in-
vestigation with equal volumes of solutions of
ammonium persulphate of varying concentrations,
and ascertaining the strength of solution which is
just sufficient to give no formaldehyde reaction.
For testing formaldehyde, Schryver's method with
phenylhydrazine hydrochloride, potassium ferri-
cyanide and hydrochloric acid was employed. For
estimating methyl alcohol in ethyl alcohol, the
solution of these in water was oxidised with insuffi-
cient ammonium persulphate, and the amount of
formaldehyde was determined colorimetrically, the
same formaldehyde test being employed. Methyl
alcohol in acetone can be estimated by a method
similar to that used for estimating the alcohol in
water, as there is preferential oxidation of this sub-
stance.
The second paper on " /3/8'-Dichlorethyl Sul-
phide," by Mr. C. S. Gibson and Sir William Pope,
was presented in abstract by the latter. The
authors prepared this compound by passing ethy-
lene into sulphur dichloride, at 50° C, with agita-
tion, and in presence of finely powdered absorbent
REVIEW.
[Feb. 28, 1920.
charcoal. This method was communicated to the
Chemical Warfare Department on January 16,
1918; although superior to methods previously
used, it is difficult to control, because the " mustard
gas " is rapidly acted upon by sulphur dichloride.
Dealing with the interaction between ethylene and
sulphur monochloride, Sir W. Pope quoted the
work of Spring and Lecrenier (Bull. Soc. Chim.,
1887 (2), 629), showing that Guthrie's product
yields /3-chlorethylsulphonic acid (convertible into
taurine) on oxidation, and hence its constitution
is CH2C1.CH„.S.S.CH2CH2C1. This and other
evidence refutes the contention of A. G. Green that
the substance produced at 30° C. is identical with
Guthrie's. The paper gives full details of the
preparation of pure /8/3'-dichlorethyl sulphide ; the
absorption of ethylene by the sulphurmonoehloride is
much accelerated by the initial presence of a little
of the finished product. Various constants were
determined, including the melting point (13 — 13'5°
C), density (P285), heat of combustion (743'3 Cal.),
refractive index, etc. The initial action of cone,
nitric acid is to convert it into the corresponding
sulphoxide, and this fact affords a ready method of
distinguishing Guthrie's disulphide from the mono-
sulphide. On treatment with bromine, the sul-
phoxide yields well-defined bromine addition pro-
ducts.
Prof. A. G. Green expressed the view that certain
differences of opinion which had arisen were in part
due to the ambiguity of the term "mustard gas" ; it
had been applied both to the monosulphide and to
the Levinstein and Guthrie products (which were
identical). The difficulty attending the fact that
different workers had obtained the same product
at widely differing temperatures disappeared when
it was realised that temperature was not the only
factor determining the course of the reaction, e.g.,
rate of reaction and absence of iron were equally
important. The monosulphide could be readily pre-
pared at 100° C. in the absence of iron, and work-
ing in this manner he had obtained a yield of
80 per cent, of pure distilled product. Sir Wm.
Pope's suggestion that the Guthrie product is a true
disulphide, C!H4Cl.S.S.C!HiCl, and differs from
the Levinstein product, which is regarded as a col-
loidal solution of sulphur in the monosulphide,
could not, in his opinion, bo maintained, since
whatever view is held as to the constitution of these
products, all the experimental facts support their
complete identity. The work of Spring did not
throw any light on the question at issue, as it
might be equally interpreted in favour of either
hypothesis.
haviour of solutions of dyestuffs, indicators, and
proteins. The authors have devised a modification
of the dew-point method by which measurements of
osmotic activity and " molecular weight " can be
carried out, free from the uncertainties of inter-
pretation of the results obtained for colloids by the
osmometer methods, and superseding the well-
known but erroneous data of Krafft.
THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
At the ordinary meeting held on February 12,
Sir J. J. Thomson presiding, Prof. S. Young com-
municated a paper by Dr. J. W. McBain and Mr.
C. S. Salmon on "Colloidal Electrolytes: Soap
Solutions and their Constitution." The authors
advance a comprehensive theory of soap solutions
which leads to a definition of colloidal electrolytes —
a class the members of which will probably prove
more numerous than acids and bases put together ;
they are salts in which one of the ions has been
replaced by an ionic micelle.
The ionic micelle in the case of soap exhibits an
equivalent conductivity equal to that of potassium
ion, and double that of the palmitate ion which it
has replaced. In concentrated solutions soaps exist
chiefly in colloidal form, together with sodium or
potassium ion, equivalent to the ionic micelle pre-
sent, whereas in dilute solution both undissociated
and dissociated soap are crystalloids of simple mole-
cular weight. In mixtures of soaps the tendency
is to form more micella?. Addition of electrolytes,
however, exerts opposing influences. The concep-
tion of the ionic micelle serves to explain the be-
NEWS AND NOTES.
FRANCE.
Proposed Nationalisation of the Coal Industry. — The
question of nationalising the coal mines is viewed
with mixed feelings in France. The general effect
of State control of the coal industry has been to
lower the quality of the product. Thus, in Borne
cases, the ash content of coal has increased from 15
to 30, and even to 40 per cent. Further, the
quality of the coal imported from Belgium, where
the industry is also State-controlled, has been so
poor that the French Government had to prohibit
the export of iron ore to Belgium until measures
were taken there to improve the quality of the coal.
In France it is felt that State control would, at any
rate, have the good effect of regulating prices; but,
on the whole, the opinion prevails that the complete
return to private enterprise would be the surest
moans of increasing production and lowering prices.
Metallurgy. — The continuous rise in the prices of
metals and the depreciation of the franc make it
imperative for France to restrict her metal importa-
tions as far as possible and to develop her native
resources. Raw metals could be imported instead of
refined ones, thereby utilising the great reserves of
water power in the production of* the electric
current necessary for metal-refining. Copper is a
case in point. In fact, two copper refineries are
now under construction, one by the Societe Electro-
metallurgique du Palais at Limoges, and the other
at Pauillac. It is estimated that they will produce
25,000 tons of electrolytic copper yearly. There is
scope for extension of the electrolytic production of
zinc; this process is about to be adopted by the
Societe de Penarroya, in the Pyrenees, to the treat-
ment of mixed ores of lead and zinc, which are fairly
abundant in France. The Compagnie des Metaux
will produce tin. In New Caledonia ferro-nickel
is now being made in the electric furnace, and a
separation process from iron is under contempla-
tion, so that pure nickel only may be sent to France.
The natural resources in regard to water power and
the steady development in the uses of the electric
furnace point to a great future for electro-metall-
urgy in France.
Prolongation of French Patent Rights. — By the
decree of August 14, 1914, the French Government
suspended patent rights and at the same time pro-
longed the periods laid down by the law for the
payment of fees and for the practical application
of the patents. In order to compensate those who
had been unable to work or profit from their inven-
tions during the war the Government, after some
tentative proposals, passed the law of October 8,
1919, the detailed application of which is prescribed
by the decree of November 8, 1919.
This law prolongs the life of patents provided
their owners can give proof that they have been
harmed by the war, and a court is established to
inquire into each demand for prolongation.
Patents rights that have expired since August 1,
1914, can be revived, but persons who have begun
to work patents that had lapsed since August 1,
1914, can continue working them in spite of the
prolongation of the patent rights. The payment
Vol XXS3X., No. 4.]
75 B
of delayed fees is also regulated, and, if good cause
can be shown, the payment may be reduced or even
cancelled. The substance of the first clause of the
law is that patentees who, owing to the war, have
been prevented from working their patents nor-
mally may, in the case of patents not expired
before August 1, 1914, or of those applied for or
granted before August 1, 1919, have their patent
rights prolonged. This applies to foreigners, even
former enemy subjects, as well as to Frenchmen.
The term " normal working " applies in the case of
lack of raw materials, labour, markets, and when
raw materials have been requisitioned for national
defence. It is laid down that, while those who have
suffered from the war have a right to compensation,
it must not be at the public expense.
The period by which the patent may be prolonged
i< calculated by taking into account the time during
which normal working has been suspended or hin-
dered. A supplementary and exceptional pro-
longation of one to three years is further provided
for those who have been serving with the Colours
tor more than two years and whose business has
been destroyed or disorganised by the war, if such
delay appears necessary for the reconstruction of
their business. The total prolongation may be as
much as eight years.
When a person has, in good faith, begun to work
a patent lapsed since August 1, 1914, in a " serious
and effective " manner, and provided that such
working took place before October 10, 1919, then he
cannot be proceeded against under the patent law,
which in this case recognises that he has a " per-
sonal ownership " in the patent. — (Chim. et lnd.,
■Jan., 1920.)
BRITISH INDIA.
The Indian Science Congress. — This year's Congress
was held in January at Nagpur under the pre-
sidency of Sir Prafulla Chandra Ray. The
presidential address dealt mainly with the position
and prospects of science in India. After pointing
out that the Indian is naturally more prone to
metaphysical speculation than to positive science,
Sir P. C. Ray sketched the early history of science
teaching in Bengal, emphasising the absolute de-
pendence of progress on a high development of
science. He deplored the want of education among
the people of India ; their illiteracy, he said, is
colossal, barely 3 per cent, of the whole population
receiving instruction in educational institutions.
It is therefore small wonder that new methods of
agriculture make very slow progress. The speaker
then criticised the methods used in filling scientific
posts in India. ■ " The scientific services of the
Government of India are posts of great value, pros-
pect and security ; they atford their holders unique
opportunities, rare and valuable materials, for
study and investigation. But with what studied
care the Indians are excluded from these services
will appear from the following table compiled from
a recent Government report." The table shows
195 European officers of the higher grade in 11
scientific services and only 18 Indians. The aver-
age pay of the Europeans is about Rs.1000, and
that of the Indians about half that amount. Sir
P. C. Ray also criticised adversely the methods of
filling professorial chairs in India, and especially
in Cdcutta University: "Either a raw, untried
graduate is brought out from England, or it auto-
matically falls to some senior man in the service
whose only title to the post is his seniority, which
often goes hand-in-hand with senility. In ninety-
nine cases out of a hundred the successor so chosen
has no original work to his credit, and may have
lost all touch with the progress of his subject.
Enormous facilities at his disposal thus remain
unused as long as he encumbers the post."
Sir P. C. Ray has been severely criticised for
using a scientific occasion for political purposes,
and it is pointed out that the low standard of the
Indian universities is sufficient in itself to prevent
the immediate " Indianisation of the scientific
departments." The principal obstacle to the
raising of the standard is the state of opinion in
the classes of the community which send their
sons to the university. These insist on giving
degrees for what in Europe would only be con-
sidered sufficient for matriculation. The intro-
duction of Indians has. moreover, been taking
place as rapidly as the supply of really good Indian
scientists will allow, and meets with little opposi-
tion from the Europeans, one reason for this being
that the scientific services are relatively so badly
paid that there is not much hope of getting good
men from. England in the future.
Among the papers read before the whole Congress
was one of great interest by Prof. C. V. Raman on
" Theories of Ferro-magnetism," which discussed
the constitution of the atom in the light of recent
researches ; and Dr. C. L. Bose, in an address
on " The Choice of Food," showed that the ordinary
diet of the Bengali is deficient in proteids, and to
this cause he ascribes largely their poor health and
physique.
UNITED STATES.
Nitrogen Fixation. — It is announced that the
General Chemical Co. of New York and the Solvay
Process Co. of Syracuse, N.Y., have jointly under-
taken the organisation of a new company, called
the Atmospheric Nitrogen Corporation, to develop
the nitrogen fixation processes. The capital of the
new undertaking is §5,000,000, and a plant is to be
erected at Syracuse at an estimated cost of
$ 1,000,000.
American Pottery in 1918. — The year 1918 was
unusual and difficult for American pottery manu-
facturers owing to restricted imports of raw
materials, shortage of labour, and the exceptional
demands of the military authorities. In few works
was the output more than 70 per cent, of the
capacity. The high wages actually prevented some
men from working full time. No extensive replace-
ment of men by women occurred.
The shortage of labour resulted in a great in-
crease in the amount of labour-saving machinery,
tunnel kilns, etc., employed, and made the year
1918 notable in this respect. Considerable interest
was aroused by the delivery to the White House for
the official use of the President of the United States
of a dinner service comprising 1,700 pieces of cream
and ivory china decorated with the Stars and
Stripes and the President's seal. This is the first
wholly American-made official dinner service.
The only pottery products the manufacture of
which was restricted by reductions in the use of
fuel were sanitary ware and stoneware other than
for chemical purposes. Many firms simplified their
output at the request of the Potters' War Service
Committee, and a conservative order was issued
limiting the number and variety of porcelain
articles to be manufactured during the war. Special
designs already prepared by any pottery were not
to be copied by others during the war. Each
manufacturer of vitrified china was restricted to
two shapes of ware for hotel use and one shape for
family use.
Every class of ware (except red earthenware) in-
creased in value, that of the china made in 1918
being four times as great as that made in 1908.
-The decrease in the total value of the red ware pro-
duced is attributed to the fuel restrictions on
florists, who are the chief users of this ware (for
flower-pots). Chemical pottery also increased both
in quantity and value.
The total value of the pottery imports in 1918 was
within 1 per cent, of that of 1917. Decorated
earthenware showed the largest increase — nearly
REVIEW.
[Feb. 28, 1920.
ten per cent. The value of the clay products ex-
ported in 1918 was 14 per cent, more than that of
1917. Of this 72 per cent, was brick and tile, 19
per cent, was pottery, and the remainder was un-
classified. Exports of firebricks and sanitary ware
had a total value in 1918 greater than in any pre-
vious year.
A vigorous attempt was made to use only
American clays, but little progress has yet been
made in this direction. {U.S. Geol. Surv., Nov.
12, 1919.)
American Gypsum in 1918. — Owing to the reduction
in building operations nearly 24 per cent, less
gypsum was mined in the United States in 1918
than in 1917, the output being less than any year
since 1909. The reduction was due solely to the
war. On the other hand the total value of the
gypsum produced in 1918 was greater than in any
previous year. This increase was confined to
Michigan, New York and Oklahoma.
The chief uses of gypsum reported in 1918 were
(a) as a retarder for Portland cement, (b) for laud
plaster, (c) for wall plaster and plaster of Paris,
(d) for Keene's cement, which is now made in twelve
States, (e) dental plaster, formerly made in six
States, but in 1918 by only one firm, (f) plate-glass
works, which use about 12,000 tons per annum, (g)
plaster board, tile blocks made by 28 plants in 1918,
as compared with 19 plants in 1917, (h) temporary
buildings erected by the U.S. Government for mili-
tary and civilian purposes, including 16,000 tons
of paste and 18,000,000 sq. ft. of plaster board used
by the Emergency Fleet Corporation and 8700 tons
of plaster, 1,658,374 sq. ft. of plaster board and
10,540 sq. ft. of gypsum wall board used by the
U.S. Housing Corporation, as well as large quan-
tities used by the War Department.
The decline of imported gypsum from 400,000 tons
in 1914 to 60,000 tons in 1918 was due solely to the
war. Almost all the imported material came from
Can id a.
The value of the plaster or wall board exported
in 1918 was nearly four times that exported in 1916.
Japan took a quantity equal in value to that of the
whole amount exported in 1916, the next largest
buyers being Cuba, Australia and Canada.
Among new uses of gypsum may be noted its
employment as an acid reagent in baking powder,
and as agricultural gypsum after a light crushing.
A list of the manufacturers of plaster and allied pro-
ducts is given in Mineral Resources of the United
States, 1918, II., 282— 298.— (U.S. Geol. Surv.,
Nov. 12, 1919.)
JAPAN.
The Camphor Industry.— The production of cam-
phor in Japan, especially in Formosa, has been
diminishing for the past few years in spite of the
strong efforts made by the Formosan Government-
General to counteract it. Producers of crude cam-
phor, who have suffered from labour shortage and
high wages, have been given relief by the increase
in the official purchasing prices. Refiners have
been induced to amalgamate their interests, but
results are not to be expected for some time. There
has recently been a boom in camphor, and the pre-
sent price is now far above the old level of 700 yen
(yen = 2s. 0£d.), being nearly three times the price
in October last; but even these high prices do not
affect the camphor trade.
The Japanese Monopoly Bureau has assumed the
equitable distribution of camphor in Japan, Europe
and the United States. Inevitably, however, the
share of each customer is smaller although his de-
mand is much bigger. The Japanese celluloid
manufacturers, who have recovered from the
effects of the armistice, in particular absorb an
enormous amount, but they, too, have to go short.
The export trade is also expanding; in fact the
increased demand is largely due to foreign orders.
The United States is the most important buyer.
England, British India and other countries are
also buying quite actively. Refiners are pressed
for supply, and any stock offered is quickly
absorbed. At present there is scarcely any floating
stock on the market.
The following table shows the production and
export of camphor for the period 1907 — 1917: —
Production-
Japan.
Formosa.
Camphor.
Camphor oil.
Camphor.
Camphor oil.
Kin.
Kin.
1907
746,729
959,316
3,780,227
4,314,620
1908
836,812
1,031,859
3,557,636
4,630,873
1909
832,271
1,143,454
3,538,108
8,870,254
1910
1,054,347
1,063,329
5,360,642
5,858,145
1911
1,103,058
1,845,403
4,509,412
5,306,044
1912
976,734
1,687,015
4,138,909
6,386,222
1913
995,934
1,691,152
4.580,577
5,704,354
1914
1,115,812
1,977,294
4,749,971
6,411,404
1915
1,600,815
3,001,421
4,620,182
6,881,232
1916
1,567,735
3,032,922
5,349,497
7,997,137
1917
938,652
1,853,382
3,185,139
6,003,975
Exportation.
Camphor.
Camphor oil.
Kin.
Yen.
Kin.
Yen.
1907
1908
1909
1910
1911
1912
1913
1914
1915
1916
1917
1918
1919
3,057,657
1,807,565
4,050,782
3,275,102
3,441,099
3,062,462
2,478,285
3,073,824
3,880,031
5,768,863
(Ist6mth3.)'
5,026,858
2,063,410
3,469,398
2,964,369
3,143,684
2,826,754
2,235.784
2,780,001
3.475,415
6,287,795
5,304,157
3,686,377
3,020,000
1,870,581
1,259,983
1,272,765
1,686,861
1,741,721
1,131,226
1,961,483
1,366,937
2,313,326
1,971,680
367,778
212,947
220,319
309,990
368,052
242,238
410,776
216,640
318,763
308.275
The average annual output of Japanese refined
camphor is 8 — 9 million kin, and that of crude
camphor oil is 3 — 4 million kin. The annual total
world demand in recent years has been 10 million
kin or more.
GENERAL.
Testing of Volumetric Glassware at the National
Physical Laboratory. — The manufacture of volumetric
scientific glassware is an industry which was
practically non-existent in this country before
the war, but latterly it has been developed to an
important extent, and it is clearly desirable that
it should remain as a permanent British asset. To
attain this it is most important that British-made
graduated apparatus should be of reliable accuracy.
With the growth of the industry in this country it
was felt that the scope of the work carried out at
the National Physical Laboratory should be
widened. Consequently, in co-operation with manu-
facturers and users of scientific glassware, a pam-
phlet was issued in July, 1918, containing regu-
lations relating to Class A tests, i.e., tests on
apparatus required to be of the highest accuracy
(this J., 1918, 301 r). A new building has just
been completed at the laboratory specially equipped
for dealing with this class of work on a large scale.
At the outset it was urged that in addition to the
tests already referred to provision should be made
for testing apparatus intended to possess only com-
mercial or Class B accuracy. Pending the settle-
ment of a permanent scheme for commercial testing
by the State, or by State-approved institutions, a
matter which is now under the consideration of
the Government, the National Physical Laboratory
is now prepared to undertake Class B tests at the
request of manufacturers and others, such tests
being carried out for the time being at Teddington.
Vol. XXXIX., Xo. 4.J
REVIEW.
It is hoped eventually to arrange for this work to
be done at local centres.
A full account of the tolerances allowed, methods
of test, details of construction, test fees, etc., iy
given in the new edition of the Laboratory Test -
Pamphlet relating to " Volumetric Tests on Scien-
tific Glassware," published in November, 1919.
Copies of this pamphlet, which was drawn up in
co-operation with both manufacturers and users
of volumetric apparatus, may be obtained free of
charge on application to The Director, The National
Physical Laboratory, Teddington, Middlesex.
Relations of the State to the Dye Industry. — The
Board of Directors of the Manchester Chamber of
Commerce has approved the following resolution,
which was passed by a special committee of the
Chamber appointed to consider the question of
supplies of dyeing materials: —
" This Committee considers that the Imports and
Exports Bill will not meet the requirements of
national safety and would be detrimental to re-
search and the development of industry."
' ' The Committee, in viewing the Imports and Ex-
ports Bill, has concentrated particularly on the
dye situation, and considers that the only satis-
factory way of firmly and permanently establishing
the dye-making industry in this country is for that
industry to be subsidised by the State.
" The Committee has endeavoured to look at the
problem from every angle of view, and in considera-
tion of the fact that plant such as that used in dye-
inaking is necessary for producing materials of
war, is of opinion that the Government should state
what amount of plant it desired to be kept in com-
mission for national safety.
" The Committee feels that subsidy will be the
means of rendering the dye industry the necessary
assistance to enable it to become permanently
established.
" Dye-making in this country, on account of the
merging of Messrs. British Dyes, Ltd., and Messrs.
Levinstein, Ltd., is so largely in the hands of this
one corporation that it nearly becomes a monopoly.
For this reason also the Committee considers that
a body of consumers ought to be appointed, who
should have monthly returns of all the dyes im-
ported into this country, so that they could review
the whole situation and, if necessary, bring
pressure to bear on the British Dyestuffs Corpora-
tion, Ltd., should that corporation not support the
consumer to the fullest extent.
" This information, which should also be avail-
able to the dye makers, would also be of great
assistance to the Government, who would thereby
be able to see if the money it gave in subsidy was
being wisely and energetically used.
" The Committee feels that the Board of Trade
should be interviewed on the whole question, and
how best to collect these returns.
" The following machinery is suggested as a
means to this end : —
"1. The Board of Trade to make it compulsory
that the exact particulars of price, etc., of all dye-
stuffs brought into this country are made in the
form of a monthly return for the Board of Trade.
" 2. That there should be a voluntary Committee
of Colour Users.
"3. That for the purposes of subsidy the Board
of Trade representative should take evidence when
necessary from the Committee suggested under
Clause 2.
" The Committee feels that there is only one
other possible way of fostering the dye industry;
that is by protection in the form of tariffs. Tariffs,
it submits, though helpful to the dye industry, do
not meet the requirements of national safety, as
the Government thereby would have no guarantee
that the necessary plant would be kept in com-
mission. Also tariffs are against the interests of
consumers of dyes.
" The Committee feels that any form of pro-
hibition or licence would be detrimental to the dye
users."
The Belgian Glass Industry. — The pre-war output
of plate glass was 2,800,000 square metres per
annum ; at present the production hardly exceeds
1,000,000 square metres. This industry did not
suffer under the German occupation to the same
extent as the metal and textile plants, and the
present reduced output is chiefly due to want of
raw materials and to labour troubles. Heavy sales,
however, have recently been made in England, and
the manufacturers hope to do increasing business
with the United States. The Belgian makers have
now formed a separate syndicate, and intend to
have no further connexion with the German
factories; before the war all the Continental
factories were in one ring.
The window-glass plants are now all in operation,
and the output is nearly half the pre-war figure.
Prices have so increased that with this small output
the value of the exports amounts to 10,000,000
francs per month, which is more than twice the
pre-war export. With the inere; sed production
costs, it is difficult to estimate what the price will
be when the normal output is resumed. During
manufacture breakage amounts to 6 per cent.,
made up of 2 in blowing, 3 in flattening, and 1 in
cutting (see also this J., 1919, 231 r).— {U.S. Com.
Sep., Nov. 21. 1919.)
Critical Position of the Norwegian Pyrites Industry. —
The development of the Norwegian pyrites industry
was formerly greatly assisted by low freights, cheap
wages and low production costs generally. After
the outbreak of war the mines were worked at very
high pressure, largely owing to the demands of
the Central Powers, but subsequent to the agree-
ment concluded with America exports fell off con-
siderably, Great Britain obtaining the greater part
of the supplies. The output of iron pyrites in 1915
was about 530,000 tons ; in 1916 it was from 200,000
— 300,000 tons, at which figure it has since
remained. Simultaneously with the decrease of
output the cost of production and freight charges
began to increase, and the latter factors have finally
led to the closing down of the mines. Norway's
chief competitor is Spain, whose output of pyrites
is ten times larger, so that the Norwegian produc-
tion exercises little influence upon the price of
pyrites in the world's markets. The daily wage of
the Spanish miner is 4 pesetas (3s. 2d.), while that
of the Norwegian is from 15 — 20 kroner (16s. lOJd.
to 22s. 6d.) [5s.— 6s. for Spain and 15s.— 20s. for
Norway are more correct figures. — Ed.] The out-
look for the Norwegian industrv is very unfavour-
able.—^, angew. Chem., Oct. 31, 1919.)
Chrome Ore Deposits in Asia Minor. — As Asia Minor
has never been scientifically surveyed but very little
reliable information is available. Mining methods
are extremely primitive, while bad roads and trans-
port facilities added to general insecurity have
prevented exploitation and development. The chief
districts where chrome mining has been carried on
are the provinces of Brusa, Smyrna, Adana and
Konia, but of the 40 mines for which concessions
have been granted only 18 have been worked. The
Germans have been interested in some of the Brusa
mines, and during the war obtained 5000 tons of
ore from this source. The Smyrna mines have been
worked for over 20 years. Specimens of ore taken
from different districts contain from 40 to 55 per
cent, of CrOj. It is estimated that available stocks
for shipment at present amount to about 20,000
tons. The latest figures published are for 1911 and
1913; in the former year the total exports were
17,000 tons, of which 46 per cent, went to United
States, 32 per cent, to France, 8 per cent, to Ger-
many, and 6j[ per cent, to Austria. In 1913 the
exports were 26,000 tons, of which 70 per cent,
was shipped to United States, 17 per cent, to
REVIEW.
France, and 11 per cent, to the Netherlands. —
(Bd. of Trade J., Jan. 29, 1920.)
Developments in German Electro-metallurgy and
Electro-chemistry during the War. — The progress of
electro-metallurgy was determined by three factors
— increase in production, improvement in quality,
and introduction of substitutes. The electric pro-
duction of pig iron was practically negligible
amongst the belligerents, but some progress was
made in Scandinavia, where furnaces up to 6,000
kw. are now working satisfactorily. Whether the
industry will acquire any importance in Central
Europe it is premature to discuss. Electro-steel
was produced in all countries in much larger quan-
tities, but the process has not been modified ; both
arc and induction furnaces are employed. The
shortage of ferro-manganese caused German steel
producers to introduce the use of calcium carbide
as a deoxidiser. It is considered likely that this
mode of working will be permanently retained, as
it gives satisfactory results with converter metal
containing a minimum of one per cent, of man-
ganese. Two plants, each with a monthly output
of 200 tons of electrolytic iron, were completed at
the time of the armistice. The process consists in
electrolysing a hot solution of ferrous chloride with
addition of hygroscopic salts ; the metal was
destined to be used as a substitute for the copper
guide-bands of projectiles.
The demand for copper was met by electrolytically
refining commandeered copper articles; existing re-
fineries were enlarged and new ones erected ; the
multiple cascade system was used. After the ex-
haustion of the copper reserves, brass ware was
melted down and blown in converters, the zinc
being recovered as oxide and the crude residual
copper (98 per cent.) cast into anodes. When brass
was no longer available, bronze (chiefly church
bells) was used as a source of copper. As tin
cannot be removed by converting, the alloy was
subjected to direct electrolysis. Considerable diffi-
culty was experienced owing to the production of
insoluble stannic acid ; most of this went into the
slime, but the liquors were cloudy, the anodes
became coated, and the resistance of the bath in-
creased considerably. These difficulties were over-
come by the use of special processes. Electro-
thermic plant and methods for the smelting and re-
fining of copper were not introduced during the
war.
Electrolytic or electro-hermic processes for the
production of zinc received much less attention
than in the United States, the combined retort
capacity of Germany and occupied Belgium being
very large. Tin was recovered from the anode
slime obtained in the electrolytic refining of copper,
using bronze anodes, as well as from old antifriction
metal. These materials were worked up in induc-
tion furnaces in two plants which proved a com-
plete success. Certain works introduced electro-
Ivtic for tin plating, which proved more economical
than the hot process. The process for the prepara-
tion of aluminium underwent no change, and
several new works started operations. In place of
French bauxite, deposits in various parts of
Austria and Huneary were opened up. The
problem of the purification of common clay does not
appear to have been completelv solved.
Tho electrolysis of alkali chloride solutions was
conducted on an enormously increased scale to
furnish chlorine used in gas warfare. A number
of electric furnaces was erected for supplying ferro-
silicon of various grades, partly for use in steel
manufacture, partly for the preparation of
hvdrogen for captive balloons. The requirements
of abrasives were, met bv artificial corundum fused
in electric furnaces. All the electrodes required in
the above industries were manufactured in Ger-
many, whereas before the war the entire supply had
been obtained from the United States. — (Schweiz.
Chem. Z., Nov. 12, 26, 1919.)
Graphic in 1918. — The Bales of American crystal-
line grarhite in the United States in 1918 were
larger th in ever before, the total amount being
6742 tons, with a value of £290,000, and showing
an increaie of 22 per cent, by weight and 33 per
cent, by vilue over 1917. Of this quantity 76 p ,*r
cent, by weight and 94 per cent, by value was flakv
graphite, the remainder being dust or low-grade
flake cont-' ining less than 50 per cent, of graphitic
carbon, /ll restrictions as to importing graphite
were reir yved on January 16, 1919, so that
American producers have to face keen competition
from Madagascar and Ceylon simultaneously with a
great reduction in the demand, especially for
crucib'^s.
Artifc 'ial graphite is chiefly manufactured by the
Acheson Graphite Co., at Niagara Falls; it may
replace natural graphite for all purposes except
crucibles. Ceylon graphite is best for this pur-
pose. Two important patents were granted in the
United States in 1918 (Nos. 1,289,578 and 1,289,996)
for the production of artificial graphite (a) from a
mixture of natural graphite, fused bauxite, and
clay, and (b) a similar method in which zirconia
is used instead of fused bauxite.
Specifications for graphite for crucibles require
85 — 90 per cent, of carbon, the particles passing
through 8(5 — 125-mesh sieves. G. D. Dab (Bureau of
Mines, War Min., Ind. Serv., 1918, 3) recommends
the following specification for No. 1 flake graphite :
At least 85 per cent, of carbon remaining after the
dried sample has been burned for 3 mins. at 800° C.
The particles should leave less than 3 per cent,
residue on a No. 35 standard screen, less than 65
per cent, on a No. 65 standard screen, and should
remain completely on a No. 100 screen. If it is re-
quired to have a graphite containing 90 per cent,
of carbon the cost is very greatly increased, as the
particles must be more finely ground.
For foundry use, amorphous graphite and dust
. are largely used, being cheaper than flake graphite.
The use of graphite as a lubricajit is increasing,
and that formerly employed in lead pencils is now
replaced largely by Mexican amorphous material.
Outside the United States the chief occurrences
of graphite are in Canada (3 per cent.), Mexico
(7 per cent.), Italy (12 per cent.), Spain 2 per cent.),
Ceylon (27 per cent.), Korea (6 per cent.), and
Madagascar (35 per cent, of world output). In
1913 Austria-Hungary produced 39 per cent, of the
world output of graphite, but as it was wholly
amorphous its value was low. The reserves in
Bohemia, Moravia, Lower Austria, and Styria are
still very large. Italy requires very little graphite
for its own use, and therefore exports to England,
France, and Germany. Immense deposits of
graphite were discovered in Rumania in 1918 ; they
lie on the south slope of the Carpathians at Baia de
Fier. The whole of the material obtained during
the next 73 years is to go to Germany and Austria.
The production of graphite in Spain showied con-
siderable development in 1918. The greater part
of the graphite used in the United Kingdom is im-
ported from Ceylon and Madagascar, both of which
countries increased their exports very largely
druing 1916-7, but they fell below the level of the
previous five years in 1918 owing to the scarcity of
shipping, and in the summer of 1918 the export of
graphite from Madagascar practically ceased.
A large nunjber of papers on graphite were pub-
lished in 1918; the more important of these are:
Ailing, H.L., The Adirondack graphite deposits:
New York State Mus. Bull, 199, Albany, 1918.
Bleininger, A. V., Notes on the crucible situation.
Metal Industry, Vol. 16, pp. 15—16, January, 1918.
Dub, G. D., Preparation of crucible graphite: Bur.
Mines War Min. Inv. Ser. 3, December, 1918.
Gillett, H. W. and Rhoads, A. E., Melting brass
Vol. XXXIX., Xo. 4]
REVIEW.
79 r
in a rocking electric furnace : Bur. Mines Bull.
171, 1918. Moses, F. G., Refining Alabama flake
graphite for crucible use: Bur. Mines War Min.
Inv. Ser. 8, December, 1918. Newland, D. H.,
The mining and quarrv industry of New York
State: Mus. Bull. 196, 1918. 'Prouty, W. P.
Alabama graphite in 1918: Eng. and Min. Jour.,
vol. 107, No. 4, pp. 194—195, 1919. Spearman,
Charles, The graphite industry: Canadian Min.
Jour., vol. 40, pp. 87—88, Feb. 12, 1919. Toronto
University, Department of Mining Engineering,
Preliminary report of an investigat. >n into the
concentration of graphite from some Ontario ores :
Canadian Min. Jour., Vol. 40. pp. 189—197, 1919.
Wilson, M. E., Graphite in Port Elmsley district,
Lanark County, Ontario: Canada Geol. Survey
Summary Report, 1917, pt. E., pp. 29 — 42, 1918.—
(TS. Geol. Survey, Oct. 20, 1919.)
PARLIAMENTARY NEWS.
HOUSE OF COMMONS.
yationalisation of Coal Mines.
In the debate on the Address, Mr. Brace moved,
on behalf of the Labour Party, an amendment
regretting the absence from the King's Speech of
any proposal to nationalise the coal mines on the
lines recommended by the Royal Commission on
the Coal Industry (1919). On a division the amend-
ment was negatived by 329 votes to 64.— (Feb. 11.)
Motor Fuel from Home Sources.
Sir Harry Brittain asked the Prime Minister if
the Government proposed to take steps to increase
the supply of motor fuel from home sources; if he
were aware that the output of benzol had decreased
from 30 million gallons per month at the time of
the armistice to less than 20 million gallons at
the present time; and if he would consider the
proposal that all benzol made in this country should
be handled by the National Benzol Association.
The Prime Minister replied that every encourage-
ment would be given to the home-production of
motor fuel; he was aware of the diminished output
of benzol ; and the question of the means of market-
ing benzol is hardly one in which the Government
can interfere. — (Feb. 12.)
Importation of German Potash.
In reply to Sir R. Cooper, Sir A. Geddes said
that no inport licences are required for the im-
portation into this country of potash from Ger-
many. Certain quantities of potash salts have been
received from Germany by H.M. Government as
part payment for food supplied to Germany. They
are taken over from the British Government by the
British Potash Co. for resale under the authority
of the Potash Distribution Committee, which was
set up to regulate the prices and conditions of sale.
Maximum prices to consumers have been fixed, and
the profits of the British Potash Co. are limited
to 1 per cent, of the gross turnover of the contract
plus one-third of any further profit, the remaining
two-thirds reverting to the Government. — (Feb. 16.)
Canals and Inland Waterways.
In answer to Mr. N. Chamberlain, Mr. Neal,
Parliamentary Secretary to the Ministry of Trans-
port, 6tated that the Minister of Transport pro-
poses to appoint a committee, of which he hopes
Mr. N. Chamberlain will be chairman, to consider
the practicability of developing canals and water-
ways, having regard to the present financial posi-
tion of the country. — (Feb. 16.)
Sugar-Beet Industry.
Asked by Lieut.-Col. W. Guinness if it were
proposed to reopen the factory at Cantley, Norfolk,
Sir A. Boscawen said that the Kelham Estate
(Notts) was selected as the most favourable spot
for experimenting to find out if the sugar-beet
industry can be made profitable in England. In
the present state of public funds the Government
is little likely to make further grants, and is not
disposed to purchase a factory, the design and
situation of which are, in its opinion, unsatisfac-
tory. Moreover, the machinery at Cantley is not
of the most efficient type. — (Feb. 16.)
Empire Cotton.
Sir A. Geddes informed Mr. Doyle that the Go-
vernment was fully alive to the importance of
developing the production of cotton within the
Empire, and it is giving earnest consideration to
the recommendations contained in the report of
the Empire Cotton Growing Committee. These
recommendations had met with widespread ap-
proval in Lancashire, and he hoped to announce
the Government's intentions at a very early date.*
—(Feb. 16.)
Oil-Borings in Derbyshire.
Sir H. Greenwood, in reply to Mr. Holmes, said
that in order to make a thorough test of the Derby-
shire district a chain of seven wlls was planned
covering a distance of about 20 miles. The
Hardstoft well has produced approximately 1,900
barrels of oil, and indications have been met with
in some of tne other borings. Work is proceeding.
—(Feb. 16.)
German Dyes.
Sir A. Geddes stated, in answer to Major
M'Kenzie Wood, that 6-50 tons of dyes have been
received in this country from Germany under the
Treaty of Peace, and practically the whole has been
allocated to users so far as possible on the basis of
their requirements. Distribution is now being
effected by the Central Importing Agency. The
prices charged for the dyes are based on the values
placed on them by the German manufacturers in
their stock lists, with allowances for the low Ger-
man exchange rates. The Committee of Dye Users
is responsible for the distribution. — (Feb. 16.)
Public Utility Companies {Capital Issues) Bill.
The second reading of this Bill was moved by
Mr. Bridgeman, who explained that it authorised
gas, waterworks, and certain other companies to
pay a higher rate of dividend or interest and issue
capital in excess of that permitted under the
original Act, subject to certain conditions ; thereby
saving expense to the companies in the matter of
private Bill legislation and also the time of the
House. The Bill was read a second time and com-
mitted to a Standing Committee. — (Feb. 18.)
Benzol Prices.
Replying to Sir H. Brittain, Mr. Bridgeman said
he had seen reports to the eft'eot that some pur-
chasers have been offering higher prices for crude
benzol than those arranged by the National Benzol
Association. The question whether the use of the
term " benzol " as a description of certain mixtures
is a " false trade description " under the Mer-
chandise Marks Act, 1887, is one for the courts and,
as at present advised, he was not prepared to
recommend legislation on the point. — (Feb. 19.)
Silver Coinage Bill.
Owing to the rise in the price of silver from under
30d. to about 88d. per ounce it is not possible to
mint British silver coins except at a loss, hence a
Bill has been introduced by the Chancellor of the
Exchequer to reduce the fineness of the silver from
925 to 500, i.e., when the Bill has been passed,
British silver coins will contain 500 instead of 925
parts of silver per thousand. ^__
• In an address to the Manchester Chamber of Commerce on
Feb 20. Sir A. Geddes announced that the Government had decided
to grant £10.000 a year for five years for this purpose.
80 b
REVIEW.
REPORT.
Report on the Conditions and Prospects of
Bkitish Trade in India at the Close of the
War. By H.M. Senior Trade Commissioner
in India and Ceylon. [Cmd. 442. 2s. net.
H.M. Stationery Office. 1919.]
The aim of this report of 148 pages is to impress
upon British manufacturers and exporters the re-
cent far-reaching changes in the import trade of
India. Many of these changes very considerably
weaken the British position in the Indian market,
and must be met by revised methods and organisa-
tion of trade. The report embraces five parts : —
Part I. surveys the present position. The Empire
as a whole during 1917 — 1918 increased its share
in the overseas trade of India from 53 to 57 per
cent, compared with the pre-war average; imports
from the United Kingdom fell by about 9 per cent.
In 1913 textiles were imported from the United
Kingdom to the value of £40,000,000, being 60 per
cent, of the whole. The value of imported
chemicals, drugs, etc., averaged Rs. 2, 12,73,000
during the years 1909—1914, Rs.3,50,87,000 in
1916-17, and Rs. 4,30,10,000 during 1917-18 (rupee
= ls. 4d.). For the same periods mineral oil im-
ports were valued at Rs.3,72,03,000, Rs.4,43,93,000,
and Rs. 3,64,07, 000 respectively. While importation
from the Central Powers has been eliminated,
Japan and America have enormously increased
their shipments to India. German trade with
India was based largely upon the German position
in the hides trade^, large establishments being
maintained chiefly on the profits derived from ex-
port trade in hides. It is remarked that in the
Indian market cheapness and outside appearance
are far more important than quality. Goods should
be quoted c.i.f. Indian port and not f.o.b. The re-
quirements of India demand minute attention. It
is anticipated that the United Kingdom will be
able shortly to supply the whole of India's require-
ments in the matter of dyes. In 1913 American
shipments to India were valued at about £3,000,000
(of which 50 per cent, consisted of mineral oils),
and in 1917—1918 at £7,876,000. Japan occupies
second place in India's import and export trade.
Her shipments to India were valued at over
£22,000,000 during 1918-19 compared with
£51,000,000 worth from the U.K. Before the war
Japan's share of India's import and export trade
was 2J per cent, and 7J per cent, respectively.
Japanese houses are now prominent as distributers
of imports in India. A patriotic combination of
Japanese interests operates favourably in further-
ing trade in the country and should be emulated by
British firms. An era of industrial expansion is
dawning for India, and there will presently be great
scope for British capitalists and industrialists to
-erect works in India. Preference is already shown
for goods made in the country. There is not the
same intensity of feeling against former enemy
States as there is among the Allies, and cheapness
alone decides whether British, American, or
German goods secure the market.
An appendix to Part I. details the value of trade
in various materials with the U.K., Germany,
Austria-Hungary, the U.S.A., and Japan for tho
period 1913—1919.
Part II. examines in detail changes in the
character, volume, and origin of Indian imports
during the years of war. Imports of cotton yarns
from the U.K. decreased from 37,836,092 lb., valued
at £2,378,346 in 1913—1914 to 9,611,527 lb., valued
at £2,238,057 in 1918—1919. During the same
period imports of this material from Japan in-
creased from 1,000,260 lb., valued at £92,771 to
27,280,386 lb., valued at £3,552,767. The output
of the Indian mills was practically stationary at
about 40,000,000 lb., valued at about £650,000,000.
Prior to the war the U.K. supplied about 60 per
cent, of India's requirements of iron and steel; in
1917 the share was about 51 per cent., and that of
the U.S.A. about 41 per cent. The following table
shows the imports of chemicals, excluding chemical
manures and medicines, during the war : —
Source.
1913-
1914-
1915-
1916-
1917-
1914.
1915.
1916.
1917.
1918.
£
£
£
£
£
United Kingdom
505,271
556,851
79'J,260
868,827
1,219,976
Germany..
S4.072
37,276
6,555
182
Italy
35,112
35,721
44,576
70,121
5,775
Japan
10,110
15,166
63,210
215,772
371,078
United States . .
1,862
10,641
28,098
56,589
195,595
Total for all coun-
tries
676,506
63 3,361
972,426
1,251,322
1,815,004
The total" imports of acids have declined from
78,435 cwt. in 1913—1914 to 6,876 cwt. in 1917—
1918, due principally to the manufacture of sul-
phuric acid in the country. Imports of bleaching
material have increased from 75,628 cwt. to 100,236
cwt., the supplies being now derived principally
from Japan, and imported soda compounds have
risen from 662,962 cwt. to 1,012,649 cwt. The U.K.
has well maintained its position in this trade.
Sulphur imports have increased from 126,541 cwt.
to 195,692 cwt., Japan supplying 95 per cent, of
India's requirements. Imports of calcium carbide
have fallen from 1000 tons to 640 tons per annum,
of which 37 tons only is derived from the United
Kingdom. Imports of potassium compounds have
fallen from 728 tons to 384 tons, the British share
falling to one-third of the pre-war amount. Im-
ports of disinfectants increased from 1,270 tons,
valued at £26,394 in 1913-14 to 1,570 tons, valued
at £67,415 in 1917-18. The total imports of drugs
and medicines (excluding chemicals and narcotics)
advanced from £780,490 to £889,210, but shipments
from the U.K. receded from £401,000 to £354,000.
The total imports of dyeing and tanning materials
fell from £943,000 worth in 1913—1914 to one-
third of that figure in 1915 — 1916, but rose to
£941,000 in 1917-18, and to £1,060,000 in 1918-19.
The following table shows the total importation of
coal-tar dyes (almost entirely alizarines and
anilines) : —
Countries
Quantities.
Value.
of con-
signment.
1916- 1917- ls)18- i 1916- 1 1917- i 1918-
1917. 1918. 1919. 1917. 1918. | 1919.
lb. lb. lb. £
£
£
United
Kingdom
610,436 1,580,200 2,697,907, 150,241
363,273
362,015
Switzerland
41,713 49,035 152,7531 12,562
14,540
60,852
U. States
372,354, 385,614 875,338 258,938
247,777
337,164
Other
countries
50,038 122,317 48,817 14,377
26,460
19,534
Total . .
1,074,541 2,137,166 3,774,815 436,118
652,050
779,565
Japanese competition is becoming serious in the
paint trade, particularly in white and red lead ; but
the soap import trade is almost exclusively in
British hands, 335,068 cwt. of the 351,944 cwt. of
soap imported in 1917-18 being derived from the
U.K. The only serious competitor is Japan, which
supplies toilet soaps. In tanned or dressed hides
and skins the British Empire holds a very strong
position, and in unwrought leather the U.K. sup-
plied in 1917-18 68 per cent., Australia 16 per cent.,
and the U.S.A. 10 per cent, of the imports. India's
normal imports of glass and glassware are valued
at £1,250,000, composed principally of cheap
bangles. The U.K. occupies a most favourable posi-
tion in regard to polishes, principally those used in
the leather and metal trades. Tho imports of coal,
coke, and patent fuel fell from 559,190 tons in
1913—1914 to 24,789 tons in 1917—1918. Of the
total imports of mineral oils, valued at £938,228 in
Vol. XXXIX., Xo. 4.]
REVIEW.
1917—1918 the share of the U.K. was £125,028 and
of the U.S.A. £672,618; the British share should be
increased.
Part III. deals with methods of representation
and distribution in India. A complete overhaul of
our agency and selling methods in India is impera-
tive. More and more reliance must be placed on
merchants' own distributing organisations in the
country rather than upon the local mercantile
agents. The subject is dealt with by individual
reference to the principal trades. Few suggestions
can be offered in regard to the heavy chemical
trade. British manufacturers of dyes are recom-
mended to follow the German system of sales;
offices and laboratories should be opened in Bombay,
and depots and Indian agencies established
throughout the market.
Part IV. recounts the development of Indian in-
dustries and its significance, reference being made
to the Indian Munitions Board, methods of
Government assistance of industry, availability of
capital, labour conditions and wages, and similar
topics. A mountain range of iron ore has re-
cently been discovered in Singbhum (Orissa). An
appendix details the production of metals in India
for 1901, 1905, and 1908 to 1918. Although the
import trade in several articles is bound to decline,
the general volume of our trade with India will
probably increase.
Part V. deals with the prospects for the sale of
Canadian produce and manufactures in India, more
especially lumber, canned goods, etc. The early
■dispatch of a commercial mission to the country is
strongly urged. The report includes a map of India
on the scale of 64 miles to the inch, showing rail-
ways open and under construction on March 31,
1918.
COMPANY NEWS.
GAS LIGHT AND COKE CO.
At the ordinary general meeting, held in London
on February 6, Mr. D. Milne Watson, the governor
of the company, said that the last year was a record
one so far as the output of gas (30,509,000 cub. ft.)
and income (about £9,850,000) were concerned.
The increased business does not benefit the share-
holders, as the dividend is fixed at 3 per cent, per
annumj the same as the previous year. After pay-
ing this dividend a balance of £323,971 will be
carried forward, showing a decrease of £56,773 on
the previous year. The cost of transporting the
coal in the company's own colliers during the last
six months averaged only 6s. 6d. per ton of coal
carried (inclusive), while owners are asking
freights of 12s. 9d. for large and 17s. for small boats
on the open market. The price of gas was in-
creased in October last to 4s. 8d., owing to the rise
of 6s. per ton in the cost of coal, but this price,
high as it seems, represents only an increase of
87 per cent, over the pre-war price, whereas the
chief costs have increased much more, e.g., coal
116%, oil 340%, freights 525%, and wages 145%.
The recent reduction of 10s. per ton in the price of
coal used to manufacture gas for domestic con-
sumption has enabled the company to make a
rebate of 7id. per 1,000 cub. ft. It should be noted
that though some 90 per cent, of the consumers use
gas for domestic and 10 per cent, for industrial
purposes, yet this differentiation in the price of
coal has the result that the sliding scale principle,
which was based on the price of the gas supplied to
the consumers as a general body, is now apparently
regulated by the price nominally charged to 10 per
■cent, of the consumers, i.e., to the industrial gas
users. Thus the sliding scale principle has been
virtually abandoned ; it is now of the utmost im-
portance to the gas industry that the sliding scales
or maximum prices should be revised. In spite of
the temporary relief afforded by the Temporary In-
creases of Charges Act of 1918, which enabled the
company to distribute a dividend of 3 per cent.,
the financial position of the company has been
steadily deteriorating. A deputation has recently
waited upon the President of the Board of Trade
to remind him of the promise, made in 1918, that,
after the war, the sliding scale would ho revised.
As a result the Government has promised to intro-
duce a public bill during the coming session to deal
with the financial position of the gas industry.
SOUTH METROPOLITAN GAS CO.
Dr. Charles Carpenter, chairman of the com-
pany, addressing the ordinary half-yearly meeting
on February 11, said that one of the greatest diffi-
culties of the business was the ever-growing cost of
labour. Taking the direct increases alone, the
labour bill had advanced by £1,000,000 per annum.
Although the extended use of labour-saving devices
and the sympathetic attitude of the employees
were an aid to efficiency, they did not, and would
not, balance the increased cost of labour. The ap-
lication of the method of purifying coal gas from
carbon bisulphide, which was worked out in 1913
(this J., 1914, 737; 1915, 9. J. Gas Lighting, 1914,
928), had to remain in abeyance during the war
period, but the scheme would shortly be introduced
in a simpler and more economical form than origin-
ally devised. Too much importance should not be
attached to the gratifying increase in the sales of
gas, as the delivery of solid fuel has of late been
very restricted and irregular.
An extraordinary general meeting followed at
which the Bill promoted by the company, now
before Parliament, was considered and approved.
The main object of the Bill is to enable the company
to sell gas on a heat unit basis (this J., 1919,
407 R, 414 r), and it also includes provisions for
enabling profits to be allocated on a new basis, viz.,
after payment of the authorised devidend, three-
fourths of the surplus to be allocated to reducing
the price of gas to consumers, and one-fourth to be
applied equally to increase the dividend to stock-
holders and to give the employees a co-partnership
bonus. It is also proposed to alter certain details
of the existing scheme for the election of repre-
sentatives of the employees upon the board of
management.
Brunner, Mond and Castner-Kellner Fusion.
— The proposed exchange of shares between these
companies has been ratified, over 85 per cent, of
the share interests in the Castner-Kellner Co. (ex-
clusive of the 250,000 ordinary shares already held
by Brunner, Mond and Co.) having approved of
the offer (this J., 1920, 21 r). The basis of ex-
change is two £1 ordinary Brunner, Mond shares
for one £1 ordinary share in the Castner-Kellner
Co.
OFFICIAL TRADE INTELLIGENCE.
(From the Board of Trade Journal for February 12
and 19.)
OPENINGS FOR BRITISH TRADE.
The following inquiries have been received at the
Department of Overseas Trade (Development and
Intelligence), 35, Old Queen Street, London,
S.W. 1, from firms, agents or individuals whodesiro
to represent U.K. manufacturers or exporters of
the goods specified. British firms may obtain the
82 r
REVIEW.
names and addresses of the persons or firms referred
to by applying to the Department and quoting the
specific reference number.
Locality of
MATERIALS.
Reference
firm or agent.
number.
Australia
Chemicals, dyes, essential oils.
tartaric acid, tartar, waxes . .
183
Glass paper, parchment, wax
paper
184
Proprietary articles in the paint.
ink. boot polish, soap, candle.
paper and rubber trades
186
do. & New Zealand
Oil. grease, twine
189
British India
Chemicals, dyes
232
do. & Persian Gulf
Oilmen's stores, perfumery
233
Canada
Castile soap
Fuller's earth products
Oleic acid for soap manufacture
t
No. 3 castor oil. vegetable oils.
for soap making
t
Egypt
Glass, china, aluminium. leather.
ink, printing paper
240
do. Palestine. Syria
Soap, water paint, linseed oil,
mineral oil, turpentine, glass.
paper, leather, steel
197a
Malta
Leather
198
New Zealand
Druggists' sundries
195
Belgium
Paint, varnish, asbestos, rubber
201
Oil-seeds and cake, rubber, wax.
lard, gums, tanning materials
204
Bulgaria
Sheet iron. tin. caustic soda.
sodium bicarbonate, chemicals.
drugs
243
do. & Turkey . .
243A
Czecl 10- Slovakia . .
Manila and sisal twines. .
244
France
Petroleum, lubricating oils, motor
207
Chemical manures
209
Tinplate
246
Greece
Soap, tinplate. iron sheets
210
Italy
Chemicals used in manufacture
of soap, glass, paper, dyes ;
perfumes and essences
213
248
do. & Latin Amer.
250
Switzerland
Oils. fats, grease, chemicals, drugs
Chemicals, lubricants, dyes, oils.
217
wax, leather, disinfectants . .
258
Sugar, crude rubber, certain
metals, technical linseed, coco*
nut, palm-kernel and ground
nut oils
259
Turkey
Hatches
218
United States
225
Argentina
Window glass
226A
Chile
Drugs, medicines
262
Cuba
Candles, soap, bottles, ink powder.
264
Panama Republic . .
Glass, china, earthenware, paper
229
• The High Commissioner for Canada. 19. Victoria Street. London,
t the Canadian Government Trade Commissioner. 73. Basinghall
Street. London. E.C. 2.
Market Sought.
A firm in Australia wishes to get into touch with
U.K. importers of vaeca gum and eucalyptus oil.
[187.]
TARIFF. CUSTOMS. EXCISE.
Australia. — Importation of goods from Czecho-
slovakia and other States formerly under the juris-
diction of Austria, as well as exports thereto, will
be allowed.
Belgium. — The export of linseed cake is no longer
subject to licence.
Egypt. — The import of sugar is prohibited,
except under licence, until January 31, 1921.
France. — The reduced rates of import duty on
certain kinds of paper and on cellulose pulp remain
in force until June 30.
France and Algeria. — The " coefficients of
increase " on certain kinds of iron and cardboard
have been reduced, and coefficients have been fixed
for bricks and other fireproof products, crucibles
and wares of graphite, and imitation silk.
France (Neio Caledonia). — The export duty of
5 per cent, ad valorem on hides, skins, copra and
mother-of-pearl shells continues until December 31.
Germany. — The export of candle-making
materials, candles, manufactures of wax, soap and
other manufactures of fat, oil or wax (except night
tapers of waxed thread), chemical and pharmaceu-
tical products, colours and dyes is prohibited,
except under licence.
Greece. — The import of alcohol and alcoholic
beverages (except in bottle) is prohibited until
December 31.
Hungary. — Among the articles exempted from
import licence are fish oil, seal oil, palm oil, tallow,
palmkernel oil, coconut oil, vegetable wax, stearin,
palmitin, oleic acid, cereeine, vaseline, lanoline,
axle grease, technical oils and fats (with some
exceptions), celluloid, galalith, certain ores,
gypsum, white chalk, lime, emery, colours, asbestos,
cement, cryolite, talc, magnesite, felspar, kaolin,
clay, slate, graphite, natural phosphates, camphor,
dyeing and tanning materials, tar (except lignite
and schist tar), pitch, rosin, bitumen, asphalt, tur-
pentine, gums, coal-tar oils, certain vegetable fibres,
paper, rubber, gutta-percha, hides, calf leather,
timber, cork, certain kinds of glass and glassware,
pottery, certain manufactures of iron, many
common metals, scientific instruments, many
chemicals, tar dyes, lac varnishes, candles, common
soap, matches, fertilisers, and glue stock.
Mexico. — Recent customs decisions affect
glycerin, fibres, and cotton 6eed.
Netherlands. — The export prohibition on leather
has been removed and that on certain classes of
paper re-imposed.
Neio Zealand. — The import of goods manufac-
tured or produced in any place which on August 4,
1914, was situated in Germany, Austria-Hungary,
Turkey or Bulgaria, is prohbited save with the
consent of the Minister of Customs. Alsace-
Lorraine is exempted from this Order-in-Council.
Nigeria. — The export duties on palm kernels and
on palmkernel oil are, respectively, £2 and £3 per
ton.
Peru. — The export' of unginned cotton, cotton
seed and cottonseed cake is prohibited except under
licence.
Spain. — The customs duty on kerosene has been
increased to 10 pesetas per 100 kilo.
Turkey. — The customs rigime and import and
export restictions applying to territories of the
former Ottoman Empire are given in the issue for
February 19.
GOVERNMENT ORDERS AND NOTICES.
EXPORT PROHIBITIONS.
The Board of Trade (Licensing Section) has
announced the removal from List A of Prohibited
Exports of linseed cake and meal (as from Feb-
ruary 19); and also that Privy Council licences,
granted before January 1, 1920, for the export of
" all coal-tar products, excluding finished dyestuffs,
hut including aniline oil and salts," are revoked as
from February 21, 1920.
Industrial Explosives. — Iceland has been added
to the list of countries to Which industrial explo-
sives and certain arms and munitions may be
exported under the Open General Licence granted
in January last (this J., 1920, 41 r). The pro-
hibited areas, exportation to which requires a
Specific Export Licence, include (1) the whole of
Africa except Algeria, Libya and the Union of
South Africa, together with adjacent islands,
(2) Transcaucasia, Persia, Gwadar, the Arabian
Peninsula, and former Turkish Possessions in Asia,
and (3) a maritime zone including the Red Sea, the
Gulf of Aden, the Persian Gulf, and the Sea of
Oman.
Vol. XXXIX., Xo. 4. J
TRADE NOTES.
BRITISH.
Nigeria in 1917. — The total value of the exports
from Nigeria in 1917, exclusive of specie, was
£8,602,486, and was higher than in any previous
year in the history of the colony. The exports in-
cluded rubber (878,281 lb.), tin ore (9,966 tons),
palm oil (74.619 tons), palm kernels (185,998 tons),
and groundnuts (50,334 tons).
Sixty-six tin mining companies continued
operations during the year, their nominal capital
being £5,717,407 and their working capital
£2,678,858. Gold mining operations were con-
tinued near Minna, in the Niger Province, and
2,865.7 oz. of gold, all alluvial, was won. The
general development of the Udi Colliery has been
very rapid, 83,405 tons of coal being mined.
The Director of Agriculture reported that great
developments are possible in the cultivation of
maize, cotton and groundnuts ; maize and ground-
nut seed were distributed as an initial step towards
the end of the year.
The season was a fair one for most crops except
cotton, which was a serious failure. With the ex-
ception of groundnuts and palm produce, crops for
export were restricted by the shortage of shipping
facilities.
The rubber market was not active, but satisfac-
tory prices were obtained. The methods of getting
the rubber are wasteful, and the industry is barely
profitable. Rubber tapping was again carried out
at the Government agricultural stations at Calabar
and Agege Para with a view to thinning out these
plantations. The cultivation of the sugar cane
makes progress on native plantations, approxi-
mated 150 acres being under cultivation. — (Col.
Bep.—Ann., No. 1008, Nov., 1919.)
Ashanti in 1918. — Exports from Ashanti in 1918
were valued at £1,292,736 as compared with
£1,378,706 in 1917, and included gold (£421,736),
cocoa (£360,000), kola (£360,000), rubber (£36,000),
and hides and skins (£20,000). Trade in general
decreased owing to low prices occasioned by a lack
of shipping facilities and by war restrictions. The
price of rubber was disappointing, the market
declining steadily throughout the year. The
amount of gold produced during the year was
99,278.85 oz., valued at £421,736, as compared with
116,456.36 oz., valued at £494,706 14s., in 1917 —
(Col. Hep.— Ann., No. 1012, Dec., 1919.)
FOREIGX.
Calcium Carbide Importation into China. — The
Canadian Government Trade Commissioner at
Shanghai states that the importation of calcium
carbide into China is probably about 300 tons per
annum, some 250 tons of this being imported by
one firm for use in acetylene-gas welding. Scarcely
any calcium carbide is used for lighting purposes
in China. — (Bull. Dept. Trade and Comm., Canada,
Dec. 29, 1919.)
Graphite Situation in Madagascar. — The demand for
graphite has decreased considerably, and most of
the' small mine3 have been compelled to shut down.
The larger undertakings are working on a reduced
scale, and in order to meet present competition are
producing higher grade material. The average
grade produced in 1917 was 80 — 82 per cent,
carbon ; to-day considerable quantities of 90 per
cent., and even higher, material are being mar-
keted. It is estimated that the 1919 production
will be about 6,000 tons, while a reliable authority
places the total stocks in the country at 25,000 tons.
The average price in July was 550 francs per metric
ton for 90 per cent, quality. The prospects are
not at all favourable, as the largest buyer of Mada-
gascar Hake has recently cancelled its contrasts. —
(U.S. Com. Hep., Nov. 21, 1919.)
OBITUARY.
CHARLES EDWARD GROVES.
By the death of Mr. C. E. Groves this Society
loses one of its original members. Groves was born
at Highgate in 1841, and was educated at Brixton
College and under Hofmann at the Royal College of
Chemistry. For many years he was lecturer in
Chemistry at Guy's Hospital, retiring in 1901. He.
took an active part in founding the Institute of
Chemistry, was secretary thereof until 1892, and
vice-president from 1892 to 1895. Twice he served
on the council of the Chemical Society, once as
vice-president, and was editor of the Journal from
1884 to 1899. He also edited Calvert's " Dyeing
and Calico Printing, two volumes of Chemical
Technology, two volumes of Miller's Chemistry,
and two volumes of Fresenius's Analysis. In these
capacities his knowledge of several languages stood
him in good stead.
Most of his research work was carried out in
conjunction with Dr. J. Stenhouse, and dealt with
organic substances; naphthol, orc.nol, gardenin,
berberine, erythrin, rocellinin, and Icacin all en-
gaged his attention. He exhibited specimens of
original substances at the Franco-British Exhibi-
tion in 1908. Chemists owe much to Groves for his
introduction of what is now an indispensable article
in every laboratory, the indiarubber cork; he also
originated the glass Liebig condenser. He gained
his F.R.S. in 1883, and was a regular attendant at
the meetings as well as at those of other scientific
societies. He was consulting chemist to the Thames
Conservancy for over twenty years, retiring in 1909.
For a few years longer he was able to maintain his
interest in scientific work and progress, but failing
health finally necessitated complete retirement,
and he died on February 1, at his home at Ken-
nington. Apart from his technical attainments,
Mr. Groves was a man of marked literary ability
and great personal charm.
Herbert F. Stephenson.
With deep regret we record the death, on
February 17, of Prof. J. Emerson Reynolds, who
served as president of this Society in 1891 — 1892.
REVIEW.
Ions, Electrons, and Ionising Radiations. By
J. A. Crowther. tp. i>i. + 276. (London:
Edward Arnold. 1919.) Price 12s. 6d. net.
The older philosophy taught that an impassable
gulf was fixed between the realm of physics and
that of chemistry. A physical change was defined
in the text-books of some twenty years ago as a
change in which the molecule of the substances in-
volved remained intact. In contradistinction, any
change accompanied by the production of new
atomic groupings was described as a chemical
change. Modern philosophy teaches that physics
and chemistry merge into one another, the gulf pre-
viously assumed to exist being bridged by the re-
cognition of physical chemistry as a transition sub-
ject. The reviewer would go further and contend
that chemistry and physics are one and indivisible.
Physical chemistry is not a kind of " No man's
land," but rather an "Everyman's land" — to
chemist and physicist impartially. The work under
review illustrates this contention. Physical
chemistry, as taught to chemists, is generally re-
garded as possessing a chemical bias. Nevertheless,
the tranformations mainly considered in such treat-
ment aro such as involve no destruction of the
molecule. The newer physical chemistry — that of
the electron — would, we think, be regarded as
REVIEW.
physical chemistry with a physical hias; hut,
curiously, it is concerned entirely with atomic and
Bub-atomic disintegrations.
The work under review is offered by the author
as an attempt to supply the student entering upon
the study of the " new Physics," with " the same
help and guidance which is already provided for him
in other branches of physics by numerous text-
books, elementary and advanced." The work is
not intended to be either a " popular " exposition
of the matter nor a compendious synopsis of the
whole subject. The author's previous book,
" Molecular Physics," and his distinguished contri-
butions to the growth of the subject, afford sufficient
guarantee of his ability to undertake the task. It
can at once be said that the author has succeeded
to a very considerable degree in presenting a concise
and clear account of the diverse phenomena con-
tained in the classic works on the subject. The text
embraces sixteen chapters, and among the subjects
treated are the phenomena attendant upon the
passage of a current through an ionised gas, the
characteristic properties of the gaseous ions, ionisa-
tion by collision, cathode, positive and X-ray?,
photo-electricity, radio-active changes, the electron
theory of matter and allied subjects. The author
starts out with the laudable intention of em-
phasising the underlying physical principles at the
expense of mathematical treatment of the subject,
wherever possible. In spite of this intention, the
reviewer is left with the impression that the useful-
ness of the work would be very considerably ex-
tended if it were found possible to curtail further
the mathematical treatment, additional experi-
mental details being substituted therefor.
A careful perusal of the work tempts the writer
to offer the following as amongst a number of minor
points which should receive attention when the
issue of a second edition of the work is being con-
sidered. It is incorrect to state, as on page 4,
" the ions were thus rendered visible . . . ." The
reader is left with the impression that the ions
themselves are made visible. On page 10, line 11,
the current should be 3'3xl0~15 amperes, and not
3'3xl0~16 amperes as given. On the same page,
dQ dv
equation (1) should read '= ~~dt= ~^<T'
minus sign is of no little importance in another con-
nexion. The introduction of A on page 19 is a
little obscuring, as subsequently in the paragraph
it is not used. Incidentally, it may be remarked
that this symbol \ is used in the work with the sepa-
rate significance of mean free path, wave length
and co-efficient of absorption — a literal Pooh Bah !
There appears to be some confusion of the symbols
v and v' in § 12. To speak of " complicated con-
stants," as on page 22, tempts one to enquire what
a constant really is. The reproductions of Wil-
son's photographs— Figs. 17 and 18 — could be con-
siderably improved. Occasional use is made of the
expression " sign of the point " as on page 70, when
what is meant is the sign of the charge on the point.
Fig. 62 would be improved by drawing in the re-
flected wave front. It is distinctly misleading to
speak, as on page 158, of the crystal diffraction
structure as the exact analogue of the ordinary
diffraction grating. The contrast between the two
is clearly seen from the fact that no path difference
is introduced in the case of regular reflection from
the ordinary diffraction grating. Among a num-
ber of minor points, we consider that the numerous
graphs illustrating the texts would be improved if
the significance and the scales of ordinates and
abscissae were inserted in every case. Reference
might also be made to the various sources whence
further details of the various researches might be
derived. The concluding paragraph of the text
leaves one with the impression that the develop-
ment of the subject waits upon the further develop-
ment of the quantum hypothesis before the prin-
ciples of the subject can be definitely laid down.
In the reviewer's opinion this is not so. The
fundamental principles can be, and indeed have
been, stated in Schott's " Electromagnetic Radia-
tion," without reference either to the quantum
hypothesis or the now " popular " Postulate of
Relativity. Parenthetically it may be remarked
that it appears that a strict application of the Pos-
tulate of Relativity excludes the possibility of a
mechanical explanation of the electron.
Wherein consists the importance of the subject
to the industrial chemist ? Principally, though
not entirely, in the matter of future supplies of
energy. However well the New York striker's
reply to the query as to the strikers' requirements,
" I don't know what we want, but we want it mighty
bad and we want it mighty quick," may epitomise
things generally at present, the immediate and in-
sistent demands of industrial chemistry can be stated
with no little precision. Chemical industry needs an
abundant and consequently cheap supply of readily
available energy. Atomic energy is certainly abun-
dant. The total heat emitted from one gram, of
radium emanation (see page 249) is 2'44xl0'
calories. Contrast with this the 3'8xl03 calories of
heat liberated in the formation of one gram of
water from its elements — the most energetic chemi-
cal reaction known. There are some — Sir Oliver
Lodge is among the prophets — who visualise a not
very distant future when atomic energy will be
available for the everyday purposes of industry.
Others regard the tapping of these almost inex-
haustible supplies as about as probable as the
importation of coal from the moon. The future
holds the solution. It can only be said that pro-
gress is being made, and that possibly we are on
the threshold of big discoveries. Chemical tech-
nologists need to be abreast of these possibilities.
and the present work is heartily recommended to
such as possess the necessary modicum of
mathematical training. J. S. G. Thomas.
PUBLICATIONS RECEIVED.
Chemistry fob Textile Students. By Barker
North, assisted by Norman Bland. Pp. 379.
Cambridge Technical Series. (Cambridge: The
University Press. 1920.) Price 30s.
A Text-Book of Quantitative Analysis. By A. C
Cumming and S. A. Kay. Third edition, re-
vised and enlarged. Pp. 416. (London:
Ourney and Jackson. 1920.) Price 12s. Gd.
The Mineralogy of the Rarer Metals. By E.
Cahen and W. O. Wootton. Second edition,
revised by E. Cahen. Pp. 246. (London :
C. Griffin and Co. 1920.) Price 10s. 6d.
Publications of the United States Bureau of
Mines. Department of the Interior. (TTa.tTi-
ington: Government Printing Office. 1919.)
Biography of Petroleum and Allied Sub-
stances in 1916. Bull. 165. By E. H.
Burroughs.
Recovery of Zinc from Low Gbade and Com-
plex Ores. Bull. 168. By D. A. Lyon and
O. C. Palston.
Illinois Mining Statutes Annotated. Bull. 169.
By J. W. Thompson.
Recent Developments in the Absorbtion Pro-
cess for Recovering Gasoline from
Natural Gas. Bull. 176. By W. D. Dykema.
The Decline and Ultimate Product of Oil
Wells: with Notes on the Valuation of Oil
Properties. Bull. 177. By C H. Bead.
Petroleum Investigations and Production of
Helium. By van H. Manning.
The Determination of Combustible Matter in
Silicate and Carbonate Rocks. By A. C.
Fieldner, W. A. Selvig and G. B. Taylor.
Vol. XXXIX.. No. 5.]
REVIEW
[MarcM5. 1920.
SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
COMMITTEES OF THE COUNCIL.
The Council of the Society recently approved a
schemo which had been prepared by the President,
Mr. John Gray, for the appointment of a number
of small standing committees with the object of
facilitating as much as possible the work of the
Council, and with a view to providing an appro-
priate series of such committees appointed annually
to which matters requiring special consideration
could be at once remitted. These committees will
report to the Council on all matters that are
remitted to them, and they will also submit for the
consideration of Council questions and recom-
mendations bearing on the subjects with which they
are particularly concerned. Each committee is
empowered to appoint such sub-committees as may
be thought desirable for the consideration of speci-
fic subjects, and may co-opt a number of members
of the Society whose special knowledge or experi-
ence it may bo considered desirable to benefit by in
connexion with any matter under discussion. The
President and Hon. Treasurer are ex officio
members of every committee, and the other mem-
bers are as follows : —
Finance Committee. — Massrs. C. C. Carpenter
(convener), E. F. Armstrong, J. L. Baker, E. V.
Evans, C. S. Garland, H. Levinstein, R. Messel,
W. F. Reid, and E. Thompson.
General Purposes Committee. — Messrs. S. Miall
(convener), C. C. Carpenter, F. H. Carr, W. R.
Hodgkinson, H. Louis, G. T. Morgan, L. Guy Rad-
cliffe, A. Ree, and E. Walls.
Publications Committee. — Messrs. E. V. Evans
(convener), E. F. Armstrong, W. J. A. Butterfield,
C. C. Carpenter, F. H. Carr, J. W. Hinchley,
\V. R. Hodgkinson, C. A. Keane, A. R. Ling,
R. Messel, W. F. Reid, and E. Thompson.
Transactions and Abstracts Sub-Committee. —
Messrs. J. L. Baker, E. R. Bolton, W. J. A. Butter-
field, C. C. Carpenter, F. H. Carr, C. F. Cross,
J. T. Dunn, E. V. Evans (chairman), J. W. Hinch-
ley, W. R. Hodgkinson, E. Grant Hooper, C. A.
Keane, A. R. Ling, H. Main, G. T. Morgan,
R. Messel, H. R. Procter, W. J. Rees, W. F. Reid,
Watson Smith, L. T. Thorne, and W. G. Wagner.
Review Sub-Committee. — Messrs. E. F. Arm-
strong, R. Brown, W. J. A. Butterfield, C. C. Car-
penter, E. V. Evans, C. A. Keane (chairman),
A. R. Ling, R. Messel, E. Thompson, and W. G.
Wagner.
Annual Beports Sub-Committee. — Messrs. W. J.
A. Butterfield, C. C. Carpenter, E. V. Evans
(chairman), W. R. Hodgkinson, E. G. Hooper,
A. R. Ling, and G. T. Morgan.
Literary and Libraries Committee. — Messrs.
W. J. A. Butterfield (convener), P. P. Bedson,
A. G. Bloxam, A. Holt, R. L. Mond, G. T. Morgan,
H. Talbot, J. Walker, and L. P. WiUon.
Government and Parliamentary Committee. —
Messrs. W. F. Reid (convener), J. L. Baker, W. A.
Bone, C. S. Garland, A. R. Ling, W. McD. Mackey,
S. Miall, A. Ree, and Sir Robt. Hadfield.
Technical, Research and Allied Societies Com-
mittee.— Messrs. C. A. Keane (convener), J. Allan,
P. P. Bedson, W. A. Bone, J. W. Cobb, J. W.
Hinchley, A. Holt, D. S. Jerdan, H. Levinstein,
H. Louis, F. R. O'Shaughnessy, and W. J. Rees.
The Finance Committee was initiated about two
3-ears ago on the suggestion of Prof. H. Louis (who
was then President) in order that matters of
finance might be considered and reported on before
being brought under the consideration of the
Council. Since its inception it has been under the
chairmanship of Dr. C. C. Carpenter, and the work
which it has done has been ot great service to the
Council, and has saved much time at Council
meetings. The General Purposes Committee is at
present engaged on the revision of the Society's
by-laws, and has also under consideration a number
of other matters of immediate impoitance to the
members of the Society.
The Publications Committee Teals with general
questions of policy relating to the Society's publica-
tions ; under it are three sub-committees, dealing
respectively with the Transactions and Abstracts,
the Review and the Annual Reports. The Literary
and Libraries Committee has at present under its
care the organisation of the Society's books and
periodicals, and also the very complete catalogue
of chemical journals in the various libraries
throughout the country which has been prepared
by Dr. A. Holt, of Liverpool. The Government and
Parliamentary Committee deals with Parliamentary
Bills, Government Orders and similar matters. The
Technical Research and Allied Societies Committee
nominates for the approval of Council representa-
tives of the Society on outside bodies; it also deals
with matters in which co-operation with allied
societies is desirable, and with research work car-
ried out under the auspices of the Society. Finally,
the Emergency Committee has been set up to deal
with matters of extreme urgency ; it consists of the
conveners of the above six committees, and is con-
vened by the General Secretary.
The following have been appointed representa-
tives of the Society on outside bodies : —
Federal Council for Pure and Applied Chemistry:
the President, Dr. C. A. Keane and Dr. S. Miall.
National Physical Laboratory (General Board) :
Dr. E. F. Armstrong and Prof. F. G. Donnan.
Conjoint Board of Scientific Societies: Dr. A,
Holt and Dr. C. A. Keane.
British Empire Sugar Research Association :
Mr. A. R. Ling and Mr. J. W. Macdonald.
Institute of Chemistry Standards Committee:
Dr. A. Holt, Mr. A. R. Ling and Mr. W. G.
Wagner.
British Association Fuel Economy Committee:
Mr. E. V. Evans.
Industrial Alcohol Joint Committee : Dr. E. F.
Armstrong and Mr. D. Lloyd Howard.
The British Dye Industry Committee of the
British Science Guild: Mr. E. V. Evans.
British Engineering Standards Association: —
Aircraft Sub-Committee on Chemicals: Prof. W. A.
Bone; Sub-Committee on Textiles: Mr. C. F. Cross;
and Sub-Committee on Dopes: Mr. J. F. Briggs.
The Imperial Mineral Resources Bureau: —
Lead, Silver, Zinc and Cadmium Sub-Committee:
Mr. H. M. Ridge. Aluminium, Magnesium, Po-
tassium and Sodium Sub-Committee: Dr. R. Selig-
man. Minor Metals Sub-Committee: Mr. W. G.
Wagner. Chemical Industries Sub-Committee: Sir
R. A. Hadfield, Bart. Publications and Libraries
Sub-Committee: Mr. W. J. A. Butterfield. Abs-
tracts Sub-Committee: Prof. H. Louis and Mr.
T. F. Burton.
REVIEW
ALCOHOL DENATURANTS.
SIR J.J. DOBBIE.
The object of denaturing is to prevent duty-free
spirit from being put to uses other than those
authorised. For this purpose the spirit must be
rendered impotable, and be so ear-marked that it
can be readily identified when mixed, even in small
proportion, with duty-paid alcohol.
The following are the chief conditions which a
denaturant should fulfil: —
1 . It should impart a taste or smell sufficiently
disagreeable to prevent the alcohol being
drunk even after dilution, sweetening, or
flavouring.
2. It should not be capable of being eliminated
easily by filtration, distillation or any other
process which can be readily applied, or
which is ordinarily used in manufacturing
operations.
3. It should be capable of being easily and cer-
tainly detected even when present only in
minute quantities.
4. It should mix readily with the alcohol and
produce a mixture of essentially the same
properties as undenatured alcohol and cap-
able of being used in the same way as unde-
natured alcohol in manufacturing processes.
5. Its cost should not materially add to the
price of denatured spirit as compared with
that of ordinary alcohol.
While many substances fulfil one or more of these
conditions, no single substance has yet been dis-
covered which fulfils them all satisfactorily. The
one which approaches most nearly to a perfect de-
naturant is crude methyl alcohol or wood naphtha,
which is used by all European countries, Canada
and other British Colonies. It has also been
adopted by the United States as the result of an
investigation by a Commission which visited and
inquired into the denaturing systems of the prin-
cipal European countries. Russia, Sweden, and
other countries have at different times offered
large money prizes for the discovery of a cheaper
or more suitable general denaturant, but nothing
has been suggested which would serve satisfactorily
as a substitute for wood naphtha. t
Wood naphtha only partially fulfils the first of
the above conditions, experience having shown that
its admixture with ethyl alcohol even to the extent
of 10 per cent, does not prevent the alcohol being
drunk.
On the other hand conditions 2 and 3 are effici-
ently fulfilled by wood napththa in virtue of the
comparative ease with which it can be detected
and of the difficulty of removing it except by
methods too expensive to be used for illegal puri-
fication. The presence of even a minute quantity
of wood naphtha enables the Revenue authorities to
follow the denatured alcohol through all the manu-
facturing operations.
The fourth and fifth conditions are mainly con-
cerned with the suitability of the denatured alcohol
for use in manufacturing operations.
As regards the fourth condition, wood naphtha is
generally a suitable denaturant. It mixes easily
with ordinary alcohol in all proportions, and the
denatured alcohol is, for the great majority of
purposes for which it is employed, just as useful
as the undenatured alcohol. As a solvent for gums
• Report drawn up for the Alcohol Motor Fuel Committee (see
this J., 1919. 250R), and published by permission of H.M. Petro-
leum Executive.
t The special committee appointed to Inquire into the Produc-
tion and Utilisation of Power- Alcohol in Australia, having reported
in favour of the use of the distillate obtained from coal tar oil at
a temperature of from 170° C. to 230' C. as a suitable denaturant.
experiments with this material are now being made at the Govern-
ment Laboratory.
and resins, in the preparation of varnishes, polishes,
stains, lacquers, paints, dyes, fats, and other similar
substances, in which over 75 per cent, of this spirit
is used, the denatured alcohol, is quite as efficient
as undenatured alcohol. With a few exceptions ths
same may be said of all large manufacturing opera-
tions in which alcohol is used.
Wood naphtha does not quite satisfactorily fulfil
the fifth condition, inasmuch as it renders the de-
natured alcohol slightly more costly than the pure
alcohol.
During the years immediately preceding the war
wood naphtha cost nearly twice as much per gallon
as ordinary alcohol exclusive of the duty. The price
of wood naphtha during these years varied from
2s. 6d. to 3s. per bulk gallon at a nominal strength
of somewhat over 60 o.p. In the years 1912, 1913,
and 1914 the prices were more uniform, varying only
from 2s. 7d. to 2s. 9d., and during the period from
1906 to March, 1915, the average price was 2s. 8d.
per gallon.
The tables overleaf give the prices of alcohol,
wood naphtha, industrial and mineralised methy-
lated spirits in London in the years stated, and the
amounts by which the cost of the latter spirits is
increased by denaturing.
It will be seen from these tables that the price
of alcohol gradually rose from lOd. a proof gallon
in 1906 to Is. 4d. in 1914. This was largely due
to the fall in the price of yeast, which, from 8d. per
pound or over in 1904, dropped to 3d. per pound in
1913.
It will also be observed that the price of industrial
methylated spirit for the years 1907 to 1914 in-
clusive is less than that of pure alcohol. This is
due principally to the fact that under the Revenue
Act, 1906, methylators receive a drawback of 3d.
per proof gallon (equal to nearly 5d. per gallon at
66 o.p.) on all alcohol used for making this kind of
denatured spirit. And since 1907 rebates amount-
ing to about Id. per proof gallon or over have been
given on all alcohol sold by the Spirit Association
to the Methylators' Association. The net cost of
95 per cent, alcohol used in making industrial
methylated spirit is thus about 6d. less than the
price of pure spirit.
Any manufacturer using this spirit can himself
become a methylator, and would then obtain the
Revenue drawback of 3d. per proof gallon on all the
alcohol he received, but it is doubtful if under pre-
sent conditions it would pay him to do so unless he
used at least from 1500 to 2000 galls, annually.
While wood naphtha, as has already been pointed
out, is an excellent ear-marking substance, it does
not impart a sufficiently nauseous character to
alcohol to render the alcohol impotable, and on this
account it is usually employed in conjunction with
some other denaturant, such as mineral naphtha
or pyridin, where the conditions under which the
alcohol is to be used do not admit of strict Revenue
supervision.
Thus in nearly all countries denatured alcohol is
divided into two main classes : —
1. Denatured alcohol for general use by the
public for burning, cleansing, household, and
minor manufacturing purposes.
2. Denatured alcohol for manufacturing pur-
poses on the large scale and for use generally
where the first variety is unsuitable.
1. Denatured alcohol for general use is commonly
mixed with a larger percentage of wood naphtha
than alcohol for manufacturing purposes, and in
addition contains a very small quantity of some
other substance to increase its nauseous character.
it is also often lightly coloured with an aniline dye.
In this country this alcohol, which is known as
" mineralised methylated spirit," contains 90 parts
of ordinary alcohol and 10 parts of wood naphtha,
with the addition of f of one per cent, of mineral
naphtha and sufficient dye to give it a violet tint.
Vol. XXXIX., No. 3.1
87 R
Practically the same mixture is used in France, the
United States, Canada and the other British
Colonies. Such a mixture becomes milky on dilu-
tion, and is so nauseous that it is almost undrink-
able even when sweetened or flavoured.
It is possible, therefore, to allow this alcohol to
be sold to the public in small quanties with very
little Revenue supervision. Practically the only
conditions are the possession by retailers of a licence
costing 10s. annually, and the observance by them
of some simple regulations as to the method by
which their supplies of spirit are obtained.
Under normal conditions this kind of methylated
spirit can be obtained by anyone in quantities not
■exceeding 4 gallons at a time from oil merchants,
grocers, or chemists as easily as petroleum, and
posed on the use of the spirit, and Revenue officers
must be allowed to visit all parts of the factory
where the spirit is used, and to take samples of the
spirit and products at any stage of the manufac-
ture.
Generally the Revenue regulations, together with
frequent inspection and sampling by the Revenue
officer and the ear-marking of the spirit by wood
naphtha, are relied on for prevention of any illegal
use of this spirit by the manufacturer or his work-
men. Manufacturing operations, which often in-
clude dilution, filtration, and redistillation, may
remove the nauseous character, but have practically
no effect on the methyl alcohol of the wood naphtha.
It is to be observed that the regulations which are
possible where the use of denatured alcohol is con-
I. — Mineralised methylated spirit.
Selling Price of Alcohol.
Average price
of wood naph-
tha per bulk
gallon.
Increase in
cost of dena-
tured spirit
due to mixture
with 10%wood
naphtha.
Cost per bulk
gall, of spirit
denatured with
10% of wood
naphtha.
Selling price
of mineralised
methylated
spirit (300
galls, or over).
Difference be-
tween columns
3 and 7.
Difference be-
tween cols.
Year.
Per proof
gallon.
Per bulk gal-
lon at 60 o.p.
91% alcohol.
6 and 7.
(1)
1906
1907
1909
1914
1919
(2)
lOd.
lljd.
Is. 2d.
Is. 4d.
4s. 6d.
(3)
Is. 4d. \
Is. 6Jd. !
Is. lOJd. [
2s. IJd. )
7s. 2Jd.
(4)
2s. 8d.
lis. 6d.
(6)
1-SOd.
l-36d.
0-96d.
0-64d.
5-lCd.
(6)
Is. 5}d.
Is. 7jd.
Is. lljd.
2s. 2}d.
7s. 7Jd.
(7)
Is. 7d.
Is. 9d.
2s. Id.
2s. 7d.
9s. 6d.
+ 3d.
+ 2}d.
+ 2»d.
+ 5jd.
+ 2s. 3Jd.
(9)
+ Ud.
+ Ud.
+ Ud.
+ 4}d.
+ ls. 10 Jd.
A comparison of Columns 5. 8 and 9 shows that, for the earlier years, the total increase of the cost of the methylated spirit
over that of an equal quantity of undenatured duty-free alcohol was approximately equally divided between (1) the increase due
to the admixture with the wood naphtha, and (2) the expense of mixing, storing, carriage and methyiator's profit given in Column 9.
II. — Industrial methylated spirit.
Selling price of alcohol.
Average
price of
wood
naphtha per
bulk gallon.
Increase in
cost of de-
natured spirit
due to mixture
with 5%
wood naphtha.
Cost per
bulk gallon
of spirit
denatured
with 6%
wood naphtha
Selling price
of industrial
methylated
spirit (300
gallons or over).
Difference
between
columns
4 and 8
Per proof
gallon.
Per bulk gallon at 66 o.p.
95% alcohol.
Difference
between
Year.
. Actual.
After allow-
ing for the
drawback of
5d. per gal-
lon from
1907 & after.
columns
7 and 8.
(1)
1906
1907
1909
1914
1919
(2)
lOd.
lljd.
Is. 2d.
Is. 4d.
4s. 6d.
(3)
Is. 4}d.
Is. 7d.
Is. Hid.
2s. 2jd.
7s. 5Jd.
(4)
Is. 4Jd.*\
Is. 2d.
Is. 6id.
Is. 9Jd. )
7s. Ofd.
(5)
2s. 8d.
lis. 6d.
(6)
0'77d.
0-90d.
0-68d.
0-52d.
2-66d.
(7)
Is. 5id.
Is. 3d.
Is. 7d.
Is. lOd.
7s. 3Jd.
(8)
Is. 6d.
Is. 4d.
Is. 9d.
2s. 2d.
8s. 7d.
(9)
+ Hd.
+ 2d.
+ 2|d.
+ 4Jd.
+ ls. 6Jd.
(10)
+ id.
+ Id.
+ 2d.
+ 4d;
+ ls. 3Jd;
7 he figures in Column 9 give the net increased cost of industrial methylated spirit over the cost of an equal quantity of unde-
natured alcohol, after allowing for the drawback of 5d. per gallon paid by the Excise since 1907 on all spirit used for making
this kind of denatured alcohol. The figures in column 10 give the amount charged by the methylators for mixing, storing, carriage,
and profit.
No drawback.
anyone can obtain larger quantities by special per-
mission of the Revenue authorities.
2. The denatured alcohol in general use in this
•country for manufacturing purposes is known as
" industrial methylated spirit." It contains 95
parts of alcohol and five parts of wood naphtha.
This mixture is not undrinkable when diluted,
sweetened or flavoured, and greater precautions
have to be taken by the Revenue authorities to pre-
vent its illegal use than are necessary in the case
of mineralised methylated spirit.
In the first place, any manufacturer who desires
to use it must make application to the Board of
Customs and Excise for permission, and must state
clearly the purpose or purposes for which it is to
be used, and give general details of the methods of
manufacture to be employed. A bond must usually
be given providing monetary penalties against
breaches of the general and special conditions im-
fined to a particular set of premises would be in-
applicable if the spirit could be obtained by any
one and used anywhere.
The proportion of wood naphtha used in different
countries for denaturing varies considerably, and
is related roughly to the amount of the Revenue tax
or duty on the undenatured alcohol.
Where the duty is high the admixture of very
small quantities of more or less denatured alcohol
with duty-paid alcohol will occasion a considerable
loss to the Revenue. Thus with the duty at 30s.
per proof gallon, as in the United Kingdom at the
present time, an admixture of less than 7 gallons
of 95 per cent, industrial methylated spirit ( = 10
gallons proof spirit approximately) with 90 gallons
of proof spirit would entail a Revenue loss of £15.
This proportion of denatured alcohol would give
less than 0-3 per cent, of methyl alcohol in the mix-
ture, which approaches the limit at which the ear-
b2
REVIEW.
marking substance can be easily and certainly
detected. A mixture of only 3 J gallons of industrial
methylated spirit with 95 gallons of duty-paid spirit
entails a Revenue loss of £7 10s., which cannot be
regarded as negligible. In this case the ear-marking
substance is only present in the mixture to the
extent of about 015 per cent., and the demonstra-
tion of the presence of so small an amount to the
satisfaction of a court of justice is not an easy
matter.
In Germany, where the tax on alcohol is only
about 3s. per proof gallon, it is obvious that the
Revenue is better protected by the smaller amounts
of wood naphtha prescribed (1 per cent, and 2 per
cent.) than the Revenue of this country, with the
tax of 30s., is by 5 per cent, and 10 per cent, of
the same denaturant. Besides, the manipulation
and partial purification of large quantities of de-
natured alcohol under German conditions is a much
more risky and costly proceeding than it would be
under British conditions. As a matter of fact, the
only fraud the German Revenue authorities have
to tear is the sale of denatured alcohol very slightly
purified and mixed with sweetening and flavouring
matters, whereas in the United Kingdom extensive
frauds have been carried out by mixing compara-
tively small percentages of methylated spirit with
duty-paid spirits. In one important case several
thousand gallons of duty-paid spirit were found to
have been mixed with from 3 to 10 per cent, of
methylated spirit.
CORRESPONDENCE.
THE DYESTUFF SITUATION.
Sir, — The present outcry by, amongst others, the
Manchester Chamber of Commerce, composed
largely of shippers and merchants, arises from the
fact that they are not able to get all their dyeing
requirements fulfilled; and they attribute this to
the present control. The dyestuff question is a very
complicated one and is understood by very few.
The fact is, that at the present moment there is a
world shortage of the more important raw and inter-
mediate materials for the manufacture of dyestuffs,
and until the supply is increased there will be a
world shortage of dyes. No alteration in the method
of protection of the industry in this country will
affect this fact. Owing to shortage of coal, labour,
and important raw materials, Germany is not in a
position to manufacture on a large scale. Her out-
put at this moment does not reach 20 per cent, of
her pre-war production. The Allies lay claim to
50 per cent, of her stocks, and to 25 per cent, of her
production, and such as remains is largely mort-
gaged ahead to neutrals.
The coal of this country is the richest in the
world in the materials for dyestuff manufacture,
and our extensive gas industry provides the means
for their extraction. It is esential for the dyestuff
industry that these should be retained in the coun-
try. To ensure this, control of exports is necessary.
Dissatisfaction is expressed in some quarters at
the slow development of the industry in this coun-
try, but in the opinion of the best informed, pro-
gress has been greater than could have been antici-
pated. Production of the full range of dyes de-
pends upon money, plant, experience and time.
It will take years before it is physically possible to
erect all the necessary plant, and the money in-
volved will run into very large sums. The training
of process men, research and works' chemists, judg-
ing by past experience, will proceed as quickly, or
more so, than the erection of plant. There is a
complaint that the British Dyestuffs Corporation
has concentrated on the common colours, zo the ex-
clusion of the finer colours; and yet we see that it
has produced a fairly full range of the vat colours
and alizarine wool colours, derived from anthra-
quinone, indigo and carbazol. The fact is that
there is no other country in the world so well sup-
plied with dyestuffs, in both quantity and variety,
as this country.
Again, the plea has been put forward that the
textile trades are suffering through the dyestuff
shortage. In answer to this one may state with
accuracy, certainly as regards the cotton trade and
probably also as regards the woollen trade, that
there is not at the present time, and will not be for
the next two or three years, one loom idle or one
piece less woven on account of lack of dyestuffs.
It is quite impossible for us to have all we want, but
with what we have, there is no country in the world
that can give greater variety or better results.
The true and permanent interest of the textile
trades is that this country should be independent in
the matter of dyestuff supply. To adopt any ex-
pedient that would jeopardise this main object
would in the end be disastrous. To achieve this
purpose, in my opinion, control, as exercised by the
Board of Trade, is necessary. This controlj as I
understand it, provides for the freest granting of
licences for such dyestuffs as are not made in this
country or are not made in sufficient quantity. It
also provides for importation of dyestuffs which are
made in this country, if the prices charged are, in-
the opinion of the Board of Trade, unreasonably
high. It also provides that all such dyestuffs must
be introduced through the Central Importing:
Agency. What it does prevent is the direct contact
between the British consumer and the German*
manufacturer. There is no question but that the
German firms, if they were able and willing to re-
lieve present necessities, would be able to impose-
conditions on users for the future, which wouldi
militate against our home industry.
As regards subsidy or tariff, I do not see why
these are necessarily alternative policies. There is
no reason why subsidies should not be granted
under control, but I think there is very little chance-
of any government, under existing financial con-
ditions, granting such a subsidy. And in regard
to tariffs, in the present world shortage they would
only serve as a check to imports, e.g., from Switzer-
land, which we cannot afford to lose ; they would
raise prices, and they would not materially hasten
the production of dyestuffs in this country.
The only true policy is : (1) To admit freely, from
any source, such dyestuffs as are not made in this
country, or not made in sufficient quantity. (2) To
exclude such dyestuffs as are made in abundant
quantity. (The very fact that a dyestuff is being
imported freely would be an incentive to the British
makers to supply that dyestuff). (3) Direct con-
tact between the British user and the German-
maker should be avoided.
Whilst regarding control as neeessary, I think
the present machinery might be improved. The-
necessity for dealing promptly with the applications
of some thousand or mpre users, needs a consider-
able permanent staff, both expert and clerical.
There should also be a permanent staff in Germany
in order to keep in close touch with the producers.
The work is done at present partly by the Central1
Importing Agency, partly by the Licensing Com-
mittee and the Sub-Licensing Committee, and
partly by the Colour Users' Association. Such
committees, composed of business men occupied
with other interests, are bound to move slowly.
What is required is a well-selected permanent staff
to act upon definite lines laid down by the Advisory-
Committee. — I am, Sir, etc.,
G. E. Burgess^
Walkdcn , Manchester.
February 25, 1920.
Vol. xxxrs.. No. 5.]
REVIEW.
NEWS FROM THE SECTIONS.
CANADA.
Ottawa Branch.
At the January meeting a memorandum was read
from Mr. A. Burton (Hon. Sec. of the Canadian
Section) suggesting that the Canadian Section be
reorganised so that the Toronto, Montreal, and
Ottawa Branches would become independent Sec-
tions, dealing directly with the parent Society in
London. It was also hoped that the Maritime
Chemical Society and the Manitoba Chemical
Society would form similar independent Sections.
Federal control of the affairs of the Society would
he vested in a Council consisting of the chairmen
and secretaries of the various Canadian sections.
This group would then elect its own officers and
thus form a representative body to take action in
matters of national interest to the chemical pro-
fession. The matter was referred to the Branch
Committee with a request that a report on the
subject be presented at the next meeting.
Toronto Branch.
On January 22 Mr. David Gilmour, president of
the Standard Chemical Co., who recently came to
Canada from England, where during the war he
occupied an important position at the large ex-
plosives works at Gretna, gave a description of the
operation of these works. The address was one of
the most successful ever heard at any meeting of
the Toronto Branch. Mr. Gilmour is sure to prove
of great assistance to the Society in Canada.
The different technical groups of the Toronto
Branch, each holding its own monthly meeting are
proving very successful. The Paint and Varnish
Industries Group, the Rubber Group, the Pharma-
ceutical and the Packing-House Groups have
arranged excellent programmes. At the meeting
of the Rubber Group, on January 30, Mr. C. W.
Drake, of the Westinghouse Company, read a paper
on " Electrical Applications to the Rubber In-
dustry," describing the different types of motor
and other installations for rubber plants. The dis-
cussions following these papers are, perhaps, the
best feature of the meetings, and many members
take advantage of the fact that they may ask any
questions of the speaker or express any ideas of
their own. An informal dinner always precedes
the reading of papers.
thickness of which does not exceed one-millionth
of a millimetre. The remarkable effect of small
quantities of free fatty acids on this type of fric-
tion was also considered (this J., 1920, 53 e).
NOTTINGHAM.
A meeting was held at Derby on February 16, by
invitation of the Derby Society of Engineers. Mr.
Price Abell, chairman, communicated a paper on
" Lubricants and Lubrication," by Mr. L.
Archbutt.
Friction between solid surfaces covered with a
continuous oil-film is entirely dependent on the vis-
cosity of the lubricant. At 40° C. large increases
of pressure increase the viscosity of a mineral oil
27 times and of castor oil 4'5 times. With mineral
oils rise of temperature causes the running to
become unsteady at a specific temperature, well
below 100° C, but vegetable oils show no change in
lubricating power at 75° C. Friction between two
metal surfaces bearing against one another with
heavy pressures at low speeds is affected to differ-
ent extents by different oils. The " Deeley "
machine measures accurately the static friction
between such solid surfaces under varying con-
ditions. The figures for " oiliness " so obtained
are much higher for vegetable and animal than for
mineral oils. There is no relation between " oili-
ness " and viscosity. It is supposed that a friction
surface is formed of an oil-metal compound, the
YORKSHIRE.
The second meeting of the session was held in
Leeds on "February 23, when a paper on " The
Analysis of Lime-Liquors " by Messrs. Atkin and
Palmer was read by Mr. Atkin. By way of intro-
duction the author enumerated the various constitu-
ents of a tanning lime-liquor, hydrates and sulphy-
drates of soda and calcium, ammonia, amines,
amino acids formed by the hydrolysis of the proteins
of the epidermis and hair, together with salts of
fatty acids produced by the further action of
amidases on the amino acids. A detailed account
was given of a method for determining the caustic
alkalinity, an important control test, as the swell-
ing of the pelt depends very largely on the concen-
tration of caustic alkali. The method was based
on the previous work of Bennett, and consists of
two titrations with addition of formaldehyde. The
chief point made by the authors was that Bennett
had overlooked the action of formaldehyde on the
the salts of the fatty acids present.
Dr. H. M. Dawson's paper on the "Recovery of
Phenol from Spent Liquors " was an account of
some work performed for the Ministry of Munitions
with the view to preventing loss of phenol during
manufacture at a time during the war when phenol
supplies were short. Both in the extraction from
tar oils and in the manufacture of synthetic phenol,
carbolic acid is obtained in the form of carbolate
(solution of sodium phenate), from which the phenol
can be recovered by treating with sulphuric acid.
The aqueous sodium sulphate layer which separates
contains up to 10 per cent, of phenol in solution.
Chemical methods, as well as adsorption methods
using charcoal, were tried for the recovery of this
phenol, but without success. Extraction with a
number of organic solvents was then attempted,
and the most efficient material found was cresylic
acid, which recovered about 75 per cent, from a
solution containing 10 grms. of phenol and 200 grms.
of sodium sulphate per litre.
EDINBURGH AND EAST OF SCOTLAND.
At an extra meeting, held on February 27, Dr.
D. S. Jerdan in the chair, Dr. G. H. Bailey, of the
Aluminium Co., Kinlochleven, read a paper on the
" Corrosion of Metals — Particularly Aluminium."
After discussing the unsuitability of the methods
used in the earlier investigations into the nature
of corrosion, the author described recent work and
gave details of the methods used in his own re-
searches on the corrosion of aluminium.
Air and most gases in the dry condition have, at
ordinary temperatures, no recognisable action on
aluminium, nor have water and most aqueous solu-
tions in the absence of air. Therefore in experi-
ments on corrosion the reagent under consideration
must be kept well aerated. When the rates of cor-
rosion produced by various strengths of typical
reagents are plotted on curves in logarithmic terms,
it is found that the actions of the various alkali
hydroxides appear as very nearly parallel lines. In
the case of ammonia and nitric, sulphuric, and
acetic acids the curve, after a certain concentra-
tion is reached, rises rapidly to a maximum and
then rapidly falls with further increase of the con-
centration until at a concentration approaching the
anhydrous condition it is evident that the action of
these substances on aluminium is practically nil.
Of the conditions affecting rate of corrosion with
the same concentration of reagent, physical condi-
tion is of comparatively minor importance, but the
presence of impurities has a much greater effect,
the rate of corrosion with pure aluminium being
much less when impurities, such as iron, are
present. The effect of difference of temperature
is also very considerable. The first effect of
increasing time of exposure of metal to a liquid
is an increase in the rate of corrosion, but this
is followed by a very marked decrease, which
is due to the formation on the surface of the metal
of a coating consisting chiefly of alumina and small
amounts of the oxides of iron and silicon. This re-
duction is more marked in the case of impure metal
because with such metal the rate of corrosion is
greater in the initial stages and consequently there
is more alumina formed and also more of the other
oxides. There should be a future for those alu-
minium alloys which show this property of self-
protection against corrosion combined with a
greater tensile strength than that of aluminium
itself.
LONDON.
A joint meeting cf this Section and of the Fara-
day Society was held at Burlington House on
March 1. The chair was occupied successively by
Mr. Julian L. Baker and Prof. A. W. Porter.
A paper entitled " The Properties of Powders "
by T. M. Lowry and F. C. Hemmings was read by
Dr. Lowry. The caking of salts and other crystal-
line powders is in general dependent on the pre-
sence of a solvent — usually water. The case of
ammonium nitrate has been studied in detail, and
a full description was given of the difficulties which
had been met with in dealing with this material.
Very hard caking follows the change of state which
ammonium nitrate undergoes at 32° C, but such
caking can be prevented if very special care is
taken to dry the salt thoroughly. Hard caking
also follows the mechanical disintegration of the
warm salt, and this, too, is probably connected
with the liberation of moisture resulting from
grinding. An interesting property of this salt is
the fact that in summer it absorbs moisture from
the atmosphere, while in winter, when the air is
drier, it loses it. When crystallised from alcohol,
ammonium nitrate shows out little tendency to
cake, while the caking due to mechanical working
is but slight when conditions are such as to favour
the escape of moisture from the powder. When
absolutely dry, ammonium nitrate does not cake.
Caking of sodium nitrate, when stored in bulk, can
be prevented by commercial drying, which is just
the treatment giving rise to the most serious caking
in the case of the ammonium salt. This difference
is probably due to the polymorphism of ammonium
nitrate. Potassium nitrate, which is less soluble
than the other two, cakes to a much smaller extent
during storage. Serious caking is met with in
other anhydrous compounds such as common salt,
soda ash, potassium chlorate, potassium per-
chlorate, citric acid and tartaric acid. In the last
four cases caking frequently accompanies or follows
the grinding of the dried crystals owing, in all
probability, to the liberation of traces of moisture;
this can be prevented by drying the compound dur-
ing or after grinding and packing in a dry con-
dition. Since it is difficult completely to dry
hydrated salts without decomposing them, they
must be dealt with in a different way. When these
are ground there is usually a slight loss in weight,
which is quickly recovered from the air, though this
is probably not sufficient to account for the caking
which occurs ; it is more probable that this is due
to recrystallisation following the disturbance of
the normal distribution of water on grinding.
Finally, the case of copper sulphate was dealt with,
and slides wero shown illustrating the contraction
and swelling which accompany loss and absorption
of moisture between various limits. The caking of
hydrated salts is, in general, preventable by the
presence of a small amount of a lower hydrate, since-
this serves to absorb the traces of moisture which
produce caking in the salt if fully hydrated.
The second paper was on " The Setting of
Dental Cements," by T. M. Lowry and S. Wilding.
Phenomena of caking or setting may be divided
into five classes : — I, which covers all the case*
described in the previous paper, includes cases of
recrystallisation of anhydrous or hydrated salt
without change of chemical composition ; II, com-
prises the formation of hydrates as met with in
the setting of plaster of Paris; III, the hydrolysis
of complex salts by water, as in the setting of
barium silicate and Portland cement ; rV, the
formation of new salts, such as the magnesium
oxy-oements and the zinc oxy-phosphate cements,
used in dentistry, and " silicate " cements in which
various silicates and salts of aluminium are con-
verted into phosphates by the action of an aqueous
solution of phosphoric acid sometimes saturated
with aluminium or zinc phosphates. V, amalgams
in which mercury takes the place of water. The
best of the amalgam-cements is that made by the
action of mercury on an alloy of silver and tin ;
Prof. J. W. McBain has shown that this is formed
by the replacement of the tin in the alloy by
mercury.
MEETINGS OF OTHER SOCIETIES.
SOCIETY OF GLASS TECHNOLOGY.
The thirty-second meeting of the Society was
held in Sheffield on February 18, Dr. M. W. Travers
presiding.
After the Chairman had handed to the Vice-
Chancellor a cheque in respect of the establishment
of the "Wood" Medal and Prize (this J., 1919r
11 r), Mr. E. B. Christmas read a paper on " The
Preservation of Glass-Furnace Refractories by
Water-Cooling," in which were described certain
water-cooling devices of the Blaw-Knox Co.,
U.S.A., which had been used successfully on steel-
melting furnaces. The principle of these is also
applicable to glass-making tanks, and their use
increased the life of the blocks, reduced the number
of hot settings and repairs, and improved the
working conditions of the tanks — in fact, the
introduction of such water-cooling devices would
diminish working and labour costs and lead to
increased production. The second paper, by Dr.
Travers, described in detail a glass furnace embody-
ing a new principle of gas-firing, which had been
found extremely efficient at the Dennis Glass Works
at Stourbridge.
The secretary announced that arrangements had
been made for the Society to visit the United States
in August and September next.
INSTITUTION OF PETROLEUM
TECHNOLOGISTS.
At the monthly meeting, held on February 17,
Sir Frederick Black, president, in the chair, a paper
was read by Dr. W. R. Ormandy entitled " Recent
Patents on Mixed Fuels."
Attention was drawn to the rapid increase in
motor traffic ; in America alone, during 1919, the
production of vehicles provided with liquid-fuel
engines was approximately 1,900,000, whilst the
demand for fuel amounted to 1,000,000,000 gallons,
representing about 15,000,000 tons of crude oil based
on the somewhat high yield of 20 per cent, petrol.
Examination of the Patent Office files during the
years 1913 — 1919 indicated that the attention of
inventors was being increasingly given to blends of
volatile fuels, alcohol being assumed to be a com-
ponent of the motor fuel of the future. It is well
Vol XXXIX. No. 5]
REVIEW.
known that commercial alcohol, containing 5 to 10
per cent, of water, requires a third liquid before it
will mix with the straight-run petrol distillate.
Fusel oil or a higher carbinol was suggested as
the menstruum in a 1913 patent. In the next year
ethyl ether was put forward as a means of increasing
the vapour tension of motor-alcohol, the more
volatile component being incorporated to the extent
of about 10 per cent. ; whilst later it was proposed
to increase the ether content to 40 or 60 per cent.
" Natalite " is approximately a 50 per cent, by
weight mixture of alcohol and ether, containing
ammonia or trimethylamine to overcome the alleged
tendency of alcohol to cause corrosion. Finally a
mixture of alcohol and ether diluted with 5 to 50 per
cent, of any suitable distilled hydrocarbon oil (No.
133,434) was recently covered.
A number of inventors has attempted to blend
liquid motor fuels with inflammable gases; methane,
acetylene, and hydrogen have been suggested.
The author criticised the granting of patents
which protect blends of inflammable volatile liquids
on the grounds that such blends are known to be
possible motor fuels by the chemist and engineer.
acid which contain both earboxyl and hydroxyl
groups. Exactly the reverse was found to hold with
the corresponding derivatives of the benzenoid
hydrocarbons. The interpretation of the results
has vet to be found.
THE ROYAL INSTITUTION.
The Friday Evening Discourse on February 27
was given by Mr. W. B. Hardy on " Problems of
Lubrication."
The lecturer started with a simple experiment
which had much interested and puzzled the late
Lords Kelvin and Rayleigh, namely, that a teacup
slides off its saucer much less readily after the
bottom has been wetted with water. The
phenomenon is not simpiy an effect of surface
tension. A common glass bottle was then made to
elide down a tilted glass plate, the lower half of
which had been wetted ; on reaching the moistened
surface the bottle came to rest. A similar experi-
ment was made with a plate of ebonite; in this case
the motion of the bottle was accelerated when it
reached the wetted surface. Using a plate of
different (unspecified) material, it was seen that the
bottle's motion was unaffected by the moisture. It
followed, therefore, that the statement, " once a
lubricant, always a lubricant " was not correct.
Mr. Hardy then experimented with a teacup and a
tilted glass plate which had been thoroughly
cleaned ; in this case the angle of inclination of the
plate had to be increased considerably before
motion occurred. The explanation was that
surfaces exposed to ordinary impure air became
coated with an imperceptible film of impurity, the
thickness of which is about one-250-millionth of an
inch, and which acts as a perfect lubricant. He-
then showed that a really clean glass bottle almost
refused to slip on an approximately clean glass
plate inclined at a certain angle, but that after the
plate had been rubbed with a reputably clean glass-
cloth motion at once ensued. A similar experiment
was performed with cup and saucer. Evidence was
then adduced that when two really clean glass
surfaces move over one another, in the absence of a
lubricant, slipping does not take place, but one
surface is actually torn away, the scratches being
alternately pits and plates. The difficulties attend-
ing experimentation with very clean surfaces and
the means of effectually purifying the surrounding
air — in order to prevent the deposition of the
lubricating film — were next described. In conclu-
sion, the lecturer indicated some remarkable results
he had obtained with solid lubricants acting
between glass and bismuth surfaces. It was found
that the lubricating power of the paraffinoid hydro-
carbons increased with increasing molecular
weight; that their acid derivatives lubricated
better; and the alcoholic derivatives better still,
the best lubricants of all being substances like lactic
THE INSTITUTE OF CHEMISTRY.
At the 42nd annual general meeting, held on
March 1, Sir Robert Robertson, vice-president,
presided, and read the address of the president,
Sir Herbert Jackson, who was absent through ill-
ness. Reference was made to the position of profes-
sional men under prevailing economic conditions.
Notwithstanding the limited number of appoint-
ments carrying reasonably high salaries, most of
the professions were attracting such a high pro-
portion of the educated youth of the country that
they were likely to be overcrowded. On the other
hand, the Government and the industries were be-
coming more aiive to the necessity of making
appointments for chemists more attractive to the
best qualified. The Institute was ready to help
them to secure suitable appointments and en-
deavoured to encourage the employment of the
competent. The situation was far more promising
than at the tim eof the armistice; over 530 chemists
whose names had been on the Appointments
Register had now no further need of this assistance.
The Institute had been in communication with
several of the Whitley Industrial Councils for in-
dustries on which chemistry had a bearing, and
although under the constitution of these Councils
no provision was made for the direct representation
of chemists, several were acting as employers*
representatives, and the Councils were prepared,
where occasion arose, to turn to the Institute for
assistance. The roll of the Institute now numbered
nearly 3000 fellows and associates and over 500
registered students. The Council was engaged in
work of reconstruction, remodelling the by-laws,
providing for district representation on the
Council, and revising the regulations for admis-
sion to the membership. It had taken up the ques-
tion of securing representation of chemistrv in the
Ministry of Health, and Sir William Tilden had
been appointed a member of the Council on Medical
and Allied Services, and Dr. J. F. Tocher chemist
to the Scottish Board of Health. Attention was
being given to the continued production by British
manufacturers of glass apparatus, chemical re-
agents and other laboratory requirements. Jointly
with the Institute of Metals a committee was en-
gaged on questions affecting the status and organ-
isation of chemists and metallurgists in the Navy,
Array and Air Force.
SOCIETY OF PUBLIC ANALYSTS.
A meeting was held on March 3 at the Chemical
Society's Rooms, Burlington House, Mr. A.
Smetham presiding.
Mr. C. A. Mitchell read a paper on the
" Detection of Finger-Prints on Documents." The
persistence of finger-prints was illustrated by means
of specimens 56 years old. The various methods of
detecting finger-prints on documents, viz., mechani-
cal, dyes, ink, chemical reagents, iodine vapour,
etc., were fully discussed. The persistence of stains
on paper, including blood finger-prints, was then-
dealt with. The paper contains a full bibliography
on the subject.
Mr. T. J. Ward, in his paper on "Photomicro-
graphy with Simple Apparatus," described methods
for obtaining low-power photomicrographs, and
demonstrated his apparatus for magnifications not
exceeding x40. Various methods of illumination
were also discussed.
REVIEW.
A "Note on the Solubilities of Theobromine"
was given by Mr. R. V. Wadsworth, in which the
solubilities of theobromine in most of the commoner
solvents were compared with solubilities given by
various authorities, great divergencies being found
in some cases.
NEWS AND NOTES.
THE CHEMICAL SOCIETY.
An ordinary meeting was held at Burlington
House, W., on March 4. Sir J. J. Dobbie, pre-
sident, announced the following nominations for
honorary and foreign membership:- — Messrs. W. D.
Bancroft, V. Grignard, Kamerlingh Onnes, E.
Paterno, P. Sabatier, J. B. Senderens, S. P.
Sorensen and G. Urbain.
The lecture to have been delivered by Mr. J. C.
Burnham was unavoidably postponed, and in its
stead papers were read by Prof. M. Chikashige, of
Kyoto, on " Ancient Oriental Chemistry and its
Allied Arts," and on the activation and adsorptive
capacity of sugar and wood charcoals by Prof.
H. B. Baker with Mr. R. M. Winter, and by Prof.
J. C. Philip with Mr. S. Dunnill and Miss O.
Workman.
Prof. Baker's paper dealt with the adsorption of
sulphuT dioxide by highly purified sugar charcoal.
It was found that the volume of gas adsorbed
increased with the duration of the previous
exposure to heat (at 900°— 1000° C.) of the char-
coal, e.g., the quantity adsorbed after 45J hours'
heat treatment was 3 times as great aB after 4
hours' preheating. The absolute specific gravity
also increased, viz., from 1"76 after 4 hours to 1'84
after 40 hours' treatment.
Prof. Philip's researches were concerned with the
adsorption of gases and of dissolved methylene blue
by preheated wood charcoals. The effect of heat
treatment was greatly to increase the adsorptive
capacity for gases, and the activation of the char-
coal was conditioned primarily by the decrease in
its bulk density during such treatment, the adsorp-
tive power increasing as the bulk density
diminished. The proportion of dye adsorbed from
solution was also a function of the duration of the
heat treatment, ranging, for charcoal made from
Japanese ash, from 0'6 per cent, for 1 hour to 52 peT
cent, for 42 hours. Under the same conditions the
adsorptive power of animal charcoal increased from
17'8 to 69'6 per cent, after 18 hours' treatment.
No correlation was found to be possible between the
adsorptive power and either the nitrogen content
or the inorganic-salt content of charcoal. Activa-
tion does not occur to any extent unless the tem-
perature of preheating reaches 800 — 850° C. The
authors also advanced a hypothesis to account for
the phenomena observed. In the discussion Capt.
Pratt referred to the very active charcoal obtained
in Germany by soaking it in a 12 per cent, solution
of zinc chloride prior to heat treatment ; attempts
to produce the same results here had failed, as the
carbonisation of the wood and the activation of the
charcoal had been attempted in one operation.
The annual meeting will be held on March 25.
Basic Slag. — A general discussion on " Basic
Slags : Their Production and Utilisation in Agri-
cultural and Other Industries " will be held under
the auspices of the Faradav Society, at Burlington
House, W., on March 23, from 7.30 to 10.30 p.m.
Prof. P. G. Donnan will preside, and the following,
amongst others, will read papers or take part in
the discussion : Sir Daniel Hall, Sir T. H. Middle-
ton, Dr. E. J. Russell, Prof. C. H. Desch, Prof.
D. A. Gilchrist, Dr. J. E. Stead, Mr. G. S. Robert-
Bon, and Mr W. S. Jones.
FRANCE.
Industrial Notes. — Chemicals. — The scarcity of
chemicals is growing daily more serious, and its
effects are becoming widespread. Thus the short
supply of sulphuric acid, due to transport diffi-
culties, is responsible for lack of superphosphates
which are much needed by farmers. Trade with
Germany offers no practical solution, because that
country is unable to supply many of the products
wanted, and it is also adopting obstructive tactics
by exacting payment in dollars, pounds, or Swiss
francs. Many sodium and potassium salts are un-
obtainable; in particular there is a great shortage
of sodium sulphide, which is much used in France,
and the price of which has risen phenomenally. In
view of the diminished importation of chemicals,
following the unfavourable rate of exchange, in-
creased attention is being given to promote and
control home production and distribution. With
these ends in view, an association of producers,
called L'Union des Fabricants de Produits
chimiques, is in course of formation. Interest is
also being aroused in the production of synthetic
nitrogenous products. The new processes of M. G.
Claude are being tested with great success at some
experimental works near Montereau, and patent
rights for the Haber process have been acquired
by the firm Kuhlmann, in conjunction with the
colliery companies at Lens and the Banque de Paris.
The construction of large factories for the produc-
tion of synthetic ammonia, nitric acid, etc., is
about to be taken in hand, and the capital to be in-
vested in these undertakings will amount to 50
million francs. Attention must also be drawn to
the formation of the Societe I'Hydroxyl, at Asnieres
(225, Quai Aulaguier), with a capital of 8 million
francs, to engage in the hardening of oils by hydro-
genation. It is an offshoot of La Societe l'Oxylithe,
and Lever Bros., Ltd. has an interest in it. In the
dye industry the chief event to be noted is the
amalgamation of " La Societe nationals des
Matieres Colorantes " with " La Societe des Color-
antes francais." The programme of the combine
includes the erection of a new factory to produce
aniline, and another to manufacture liquid chlorine,
caustic soda, calcium chloride, etc., by electrolysis.
Another new promotion is La Sociite Generate pour
la fabrication des couleurs et produits chimiques,
with a capital of 4,200,000 francs.
Petroleum. — The daily output of the new well at
Pechelbronn has risen from 30 to 60 tons, thus
bringing the total daily production in Alsace to 200
tons. Madagascar is also mentioned as a great
potential source of petroleum, and the creation of
a British company, The Majunga Oilfields of Mada-
gascar, Ltd., with a capital of £200,000, is
announced.
UNITED STATES.
Cost of Production of Helium. — The Committee of
Congress appointed to consider the industrial pro-
duction of helium at Fort Worth and Petrolia,
Texas, where plants were erected at a cost of over
$6,000,000, has reported against the method in use
owing to the heavy operating charges involved. It
is stated that the cost of manufacture of the helium
required to inflate a dirigible airship exceeds the
sum required to build the ship itself. The Com-
mittee recommends further investigation of other
possible methods before further expenditure is in-
curred.— (Board of Trade J., Mar. 4, 1920.)
The Alloy Research Association. — In connexion
with the February meeting of the American Insti-
tute of Mining and Metallurgical Engineers, the
Division of Research Extension of the National
Research Council will hold a meeting for the pur-
Vol. XXXIX, No. 5.]
REVIEW.
93i
pose of discussing problems which have been sug-
gested as suitable for the work of the proposed
Alloy Research Association. More than thirty-five
problems have been submitted, and these include
data on corrosion, comparative metal technology,
development of tests which do not involve the de-
struction of the sample, the physical and chemical
properties of pure metals and alloys, and the effect
of traces or small percentages of the rare elements
as well as those usually regarded as impurities.
Following the selection of a programme of work,
it is expected to make an early appeal to the in-
dustries to become members of the proposed
association.
The Massachusetts Institute of Technology. — As the
result of a campaign based upon a contract offered
to industries by the Massachusetts Institute of
Technology, 153 industries have subscribed
$1,081,875 in the form of retainer fees, for which
they will have the services of the Division of In-
dustrial Co-operation and Research of the Insti-
tute. The Institute agrees to permit the corpora-
tions to make use of its library, files, and plant,
to consult the members of the staff and faculty on
problems relating to the industries concerned, to
place at the disposal of these industries a record
of the qualifications and experiences of the alumni,
and to assist the companies in obtaining special
knowledge on any given subject. The companies
subscribing to the contracts will also be given the
first opportunity to secure the services of gradu-
ates in technology. The plan is unique, and its
development will be watched with interest.
Useful Publications. — We have received copies of
the first three numbers of the Bibliographic Series
prepared by Dr. Clarence J. West and issued by
Arthur D. Little, Inc., of Cambridge, Massachu-
setts, entitled respectively " Chemical Warfare,"
" The Production of Alcohol from Sulphite Waste
Liquors," and " Industrial Research." These book-
lets, which are intended primarily for the student,
contain useful references to all the articles, etc.,
which have appeared in recent years on the sub-
jects mentioned, and in two cases the biblio-
graphical portion is preceded by a short introduc-
tion of an informative character.
The Chemical Catalogue Co., Inc., of New York,
has arranged to publish a compendium of quanti-
tative analytical chemistry, which will include
every method to be found in chemical literature,
both English and foreign. The volume dealing with
inorganic chemistry will be published first.
BRITISH INDIA.
Chemistry at the Indian Science Congress. — The fol-
lowing are brief accounts of some of the papers read
before the Section of Chemistry : —
" The Perishing of Paper in Indian Libraries," by
J. J. Sudborough and Miss M. M. Mehta. A
number of books from various Indian libraries was
examined, and in many instances it was found that
after periods varying from a few decades to some
centuries the paper had become quite brittle and
destitute of strength, whereas copies of the same
works which had been kept in Europe were still
quite good. It was found that paper made from
esparto grass was particularly liable to deteriorate,
and the same probably applies to wood cellulose
paper, but this has not been in use for a sufficiently
long period to make it possible to express a definite
opinion. Some flax papers had also become very
weak, and apparently cotton papers were the best.
The sizing material also exerts a considerable in-
fluence, rosin having a very bad effect. Over-
bleaching causes the papers to become weak. The
deleterious action is apparently sometimes due to
bacteria and sometimes is entirely chemical. The
papers become acid owing to the formation of
organic acids. There is a proposal to provide the
more important libraries with refrigerated cham-
bers in which the valuable books can be kept.
" Studies in the Fermentation of Cellulose," by
G. J. Fowler and G. V. Joshi. Various cellulosic
materials were inoculated with mud from the bottom
of a septic tank, and the rate at which they were
broken down was observed. The gas given off con-
tains about 85 per cent, of methane, and it can be
collected and used for heating and lighting. The
principal product is acetic acid, and it was sug-
gested that this might be recovered. Raw cotton
and raw ligno-cellulose are attacked but slowly;
chemical wood pulp and hemi-celluloses much more
rapidly. Banana skins are readily fermented. The
optimum temperature is 35° C, and the liquid
should not be allowed to become too acid. The pre-
sence of salts of lead, copper, and zinc impedes
the fermentation.
" Some Fish Oils of the Madras Presidency," by
A. K. Menon. By far the most important Indian
fish oil from the commercial standpoint is that ob-
tained from the Indian " sardine " (Chipea longi-
ceps). The indigenous method of obtaining the oil
was to allow the fish to putrefy in earthenware
vessels or disused canoes, and naturally the oil was
of poor quality. Sir F. Nicholson, Honorary
Director of Fisheries, introduced, about ten years
ago, the method of boiling the fresh fish and skim-
ming off the oil, a further quantity being obtained
by pressing the residue. The yield of oil is about 10
per cent., and the solid remainder is used as guano.
The oil is used for leather, for making germicidal
soap and many other purposes, and is largely ex-
ported. Before the war much of it went to Germany
and Belgium. Two analyses of the skimmed
oils gave: Sp. gr. 09241, Cr9251 ; acid value L69,
5'63; saponification value 194'7, 195'4; iodine value
1726, 173-2; and refractive index 1-476, 1475.
Pressed oil: 0-9242, 361, 195-9, 165-5, and U474 re-
spectively. In a good year the quantity of the fish
caught amounts to 100,000 tons. There are other
fish oils, the production of which could be developed,
notably those from the livers of the shark and
skate.
" The Action of Alcohol on the Sulphates of
: Sodium," by G. S. Butler and H. B. Dunnicliff.
J On treating sodium bisulphate or nitre cake with
1 alcohol, sulphuric acid is dissolved, leaving as a
solid residue the compound Na2S04, NaHS04. If
some water be present a slow subsidiary reaction
takes place with the liberation of more sulphuric
acid and the formation of the normal sulphate.
On January 16 there was an excursion to the
Kandri manganese mine at Ramtek. The ore here
is of high quality, containing about 54% of man-
ganese, 7% of iron, and up to about 0'18% of phos-
phorus. Up to the present it has been obtained by
quarrying into the side of a hill, but preparations
are being made to work underground as well. This
district is one of the most important in the world
for the production of manganese ore.
SOUTH AFRICA.
Industrial Enterprises in the Union. — The following
notes on the new industries which are still spring-
ing up in all parts of the Union of South Africa
are culled from the latest Annual Report of the
General Manager of Railways.
Iron works. — The production of pig iron started
at Pretoria in July, 1918, and it has been definitely
established that the ore is capable of reduction.
The pig iron is of good quality. Production is still
on a comparatively small scale, but the extension
of the works and the installation of an up-to-date
steel-manufacturing plant are contemplated. An
encouraging report has been received regarding a
large deposit of iron ore situated about 10 miles
from Navar on the Indwe-Maclear line. Iron ore
94 b
REVIEW.
has also been found near Wolhuterskop, and again
in payable quantities in the Lydenburg district.
Leather and Tanning. — Much expansion has
taken place in the tanning industry. Four
additional factories have been opened at Port
Elizabeth for the manufacture of leather goods, and
extensions have been effected at Oudtshoorn. A
new boot factory has been completed at Great Brak
River, and the output is rapidly increasing. There
is also a tannery and boot factory at Somerset East,
and at Bedford a boot factory has commenced
operations in conjunction with the local tannery.
The tannery at King Williamstown dealt with
approximately 70,000 hides last year. The large
military contracts have ceased, and the factories
are now manufacturing for civil requirements.
Wattle Bark.— Large quantities of South African
tannin are now used in the local factories. Wattle
hark to the value of £287,220 was exported in 1918,
an increase of £67,787 as compared with 1910.
Factories established for the reduction of the bark
to tannin extract are doing increased business,
exports of bark extract being as follows:- — 1916
(when export commenced), £14,930; 1917, £49,520;
1918, £124,887. The value of hides and skins ex-
ported shows an increase of £1,000,000 compared
with 1910, notwithstanding the additional numbers
used in local manufactories. Exports of mohair
have also risen by £740,000 since 1910.
Minerals. — Gypsum is being consigned from
Riverton Road to the cement factories in increasing
quantities, the value of the 1918 output being
£7,000. The value of the tungsten production was
£3,647, as compared with £252 in 1916— the first
recorded output. Mica to the value of £1,681 was
exported to Great Britain, Japan, and America.
The 1918 output of iron pyrites was valued at
£7,000; production commenced in 1915, the output
for that year being valued at £939.
Tin. — The value of the tin produced in
1918 reached the record figure of £440,995, an
increase of £94,9779 compared with the previous
year. Tin ore and concentrates to the value of
£239,926 were exported to the Straits Settlements.
Corundum. — The value of the corundum exported
during the year amounted to £45,140, an increase
of £11,500 over the previous year. Exports were
mainly to Great Britain, America, Japan and East
Africa. Production started in 1912 with an output
valued at £659. The corundum deposits of the
Northern Transvaal are stated to be the largest
and most important in existence so far as is at
present known.
Asbestos. — The local supply is practically inex-
haustible, but scarcity of shipping has affected
the output and export of asbestos, though large
quantities were, nevertheless, shipped to the United
Kingdom, Australia, Japan, America, France and
East Africa, in the order named. The quality of
the fibre is such that it finds a ready market in
Europe, and there should be a considerable increase
in production when freight conditions improve.
The value of the 1918 output was £54,037.
Lime. — The production of lime continues to
increase, and the 1918 figures constitute a record.
The value of the output, during 1918 was £158,245,
an increase of £26,872 over the previous year.
Large quantities of lime are being sent to the gold
mines, to Rhodesia, to the sugar estates in Natal,
and to Lourenco Marques. An extensive deposit
of pure limestone, estimated to contain over
7,000,000 tons, is being opened up at Taungs.
Salt. — The output of salt in 1918 was valued
at £163,722, an increase of £53,156 over the pre-
vious year. The output would have been greater
but for the disorganisation of the industry during
the influenza epidemic.
Magnetite. — The 1918 output was valued at
£2,184 — a record production.
Arsenic. — The 1918 output of arsenic was valued
at £1,759, and is the first recorded output of this
mineral, which occurs in gold and tin mines in the
Union.
Nitrates and Potash. — It is stated that steps are
being taken to exploit extensive deposits of potas-
sium nitrate in the Prieska and adjoining districts.
The development of the undertaking will be
watched with interest, as the successful exploita-
tion of this commodity would be of inestimable
benefit to agriculture, to industry, and to the
country generally.
Considerable activity is taking place in the
Upington district in burning a bush called " Melk-
bosch," from which carbonate of potash is derived.
This bush is present in enormous quantities in the
the South-West Protectorate, and apart from the
value of the product the destruction of the plant
is said to benefit the soil. — (South African Mining
J., Jan. 17, 1920.)
GENERAL.
Dyestuff Purchases in Germany. — Since the judg-
ment in re Attorney-General v. Brown (this J.,
1919, 481 r) British dye-users have been in business
communication with German manufacturers, but
in view of the declared intention of the Govern-
ment to reimpose some form of control over im-
ports the Commission sent to Germany under the
auspices of the Colour Users' Association (this J.,
1920, 40 r) resolved to act on the assumption that
importation by individuals might be stopped at
any moment, and to adopt a policy of communal
buying and distribution. The Commission, which
was charged with the duties of investigating the '
dye situation in Germany and of buying such
stocks of colours as were not already ear-marked
for delivery to the Allies under the reparation
clauses of the Peace Treaty, has reported that
visible stocks of dyes are very small; and that,
with the exception of the large works situated in
the zone occupied by the British, dye manufacture
in Germany is practically at a standstill owing to
lack of coal and raw materials. Apparently French,
Italian, Belgian and American buyers have already
traversed the unoccupied areas with the object
of purchasing surplus supplies. The Commission
has succeeded in buying 140 tons of dyes, valued
at about £191,720, for immediate export to this
country, and arrangements have been made for
further and larger purchases in the near future,
subject to certain conditions in regard to delivery
and prices. The Commission has made urgent re-
presentations to the Board of Trade to expedite
the appropriation of the balance of " reparation "
dyes, as surplus stocks within the occupied areas
can only be released as and when corresponding
amounts of " reparation " dyes are delivered to
the Allies. Firmly convinced that a well-organised
plan of purchasing foreign dyes is the best method
of coping with the present and prospective short-
age, the Colour Users' Association intends to pur-
sue the policy of supervising collective buying
and equitable distribution, although its main
objects are to approach Government Departments
on behalf of colour users and to assist in building
up a valuable dye-making industry in this country.
Future of Chemical Warfare. — The following pas-
sages, bearing on the future of chemical warfare,
are taken from a memorandum issued by the Secre-
tary of State for War relating to the Army
Estimates for 1920-21 (Cmd. 565. 3d.): —
" Ro long as there is any danger of other nations
continuing these methods of warfare research and
experiment in chemical warfare must be pursued.
Research must not only be directed towards the
gases and apparatus likely to be employed in the
future, but also towards protection against all
possible gases. Training in the use of gas will be
confined to appropriate branches, but training in
defensive measures will include the whole Army.
Vol. XXXIX., No. 5.]
REVIEW.
95 b
" TVe must, unfortunately, continue our studies
of what is known as chemical warfare. No nation
has renounced the use of poison gases as the result
of the Peace Conference. There are nations whose
word we could not respect if they did renounce it.
It is essential to study the offensive side of the
chemical warfare if we are to be prepared for
defence. The great importance of adequate defen-
sive appliances arises from the fact that prepara-
tions for the offensive use of gas can be made in
peace time with great secrecy, and may have far-
reaching and even fatal results in the early stages
of a war.
" . . . . For these reasons it is necessary to
make adequate provision for research, experiment,
and design in connexion with war material. It
is equally necessary to avoid overlap, duplication
of effort and the setting up of military institutions
for scientific research which can better be done
by existing civil institutions. It is our policy to
farm out to civil scientific institutions, such as
the universities, the National Physical Laboratory,
the Imperial College of Science and Technology,
etc.. all pure research that can profitably be farmed
out. and, generally speaking, to restrict military
institutions to applied research and the prelimin-
ary design of apparatus. The question of overlap
has been dealt with bv an influential Committee,
under the presidency of Mr. Balfour, in connexion
with the Department of Scientific and Industrial
Research. This Committee has recommended, and
the Cabinet has approved, the establishment of
four Co-ordinating Boards in connexion with
research for the fighting services, for radio-
research, chemistry, physics and engineering.
The action of these Boards should lead to the de-
tection of overlap, where such exists, and its
elimination, and also to the dissemination of in-
formation."
Petroleum Production in Trinidad. — In Trinidad,
which has an area of 1862 sq. miles, the petroleum
indications are confined to the southern part of the
island. The oil beds occur in the Tertiary strata,
which are estimated to be from 6000 to 7000 ft.
thick. Though indications were known to exist for
many years previously, it was not till 1901 that
any oil was obtained by boring operations. By
December 31, 1918, however, the total number of
wells drilled in the colony amounted to 410, of which
236 are on Crown lands and 174 on private lands.
During 1918 twelve companies were engaged in
producing oil, the total output for that year being
72,872,398 imperial galls., as against 56,808,914 in
1917. The difficulty with oil production in Trini-
dad is that while wells produce encouragingly at
first, the production tends to fall off quickly, and
good " gushers " often become quickly choked with
sand. The chief reasons why Trinidad attracts
attention as a centre for the petroleum industry
are: — (1) The favourable indications of oil extend-
ing over long distances. (2) The favourable struc-
ture of the strata in which the oil sands are situ-
ated. (3) The satisfactory yields often obtained
from shallow wells drilled at widely separated
localities. (4) The proximity of the most promising
oil districts to the sea. (5) Trinidad's exceptional
geographical position with regard to the world's
markets and trade routes.
There is a good local market for petroleum, and
facilities are provided for bunkering vessels with
oil. So far no drilling has been carried below
3000 ft., but deeper drilling is said to have inter-
esting possibilities. The refineries in Trinidad at
present only produce fuel oil, petrol and kerosene,
and more refining equipment is needed. — (U.S.
Com. Hep., Dec. 27, 1919.)
Production of Emery Ore in the Levant. — The
Smyrna district and the Greek islands are the only
localities in the Levant where emery ore is pro-
duced. Before the war the Smyrna district had an
annual output of 50,000 to 60,000 tons, mostly con-
sisting of soft emery. In Greece there is an annual
output of from 12,000 to 15,000 tons. The Greek
ore is very hard and is mainly sold for the manu-
facture of emery wheels, while the Smyrna ore is
sold for polishing purposes. — (U.S. Coin. Rep.,
Nov. 24, 1919.)
Vegetable Oils in Palestine. — The chief vegetable
oils in Palestine are sesame and olive oils, both of
which were exported in moderate amounts before
the war, olive oil preponderating. The olive-oil
industry has suffered severely during the war, and
it is estimated that it will take 50 years to recover.
The oils are extracted by primitive methods, but
very little modern machinery is in use. — (U.S.
Com. Hep., Jan. 8, 1920.)
Measures Proposed for the Protection of the German
Aluminium Industry. — During the war there was a
great shortage of copper in Germany, and alu-
minium was used as a substitute to a considerable
extent (see this J., 1919, 418 r). The consumption
in 1904 was 2000 tons, and in 1913 10,000 tons ; at
the end of the war it was estimated at about 32,000
tons. Owing to the many factories erected during
the war Germany's production of aluminium in-
creased about forty-fold as compared with a three-
fold increase of the entire world production. The
following three firms, which were started in 1915-16,
own practically all the factories now in operation
in Germany: — The Erftwerk Aktien-Gessellschaft,
the Vereinigte Aluminiumwerke A.-G., and the Inn-
werk Bayerische Aluminium A.-G. There is now a
feeling that the German aluminium industry is
doomed to failure unless measures are taken to
protect it from foreign competition and unless a
way is found for maintaining the use of aluminium
as a substitute for copper. The difficulty arises
from the fact that copper can now be freely im-
ported and that Germany owns no aluminium ore
that can be operated profitably in competition with
foreign mines. The only German ore that occurs
in workable quantities yields about 15 to 20 per
cent, of aluminium as compared with the 25 to 30
per cent, yielded by bauxite in France and the
United States. Further, the possibility of import-
ing bauxite is very uncertain. In order to protect
the aluminium industry, therefore, it is proposed
that a company should be established which should
have a monopoly of the wholesale trade in imported
and home-produced copper and aluminium. This
firm, which might be called the State trading com-
pany for copper and aluminium, would be modelled
on the lines of the great German metal companies
which exercised a monopoly of the entire German
metal trade before the war. It would consists of an
amalgamation of all existing wholesale dealers and
importers of these metals, together with the alu-
minium and copper departments of firms of a more
general character. Anyone could import, but all
imports would have to be turned over to the com-
pany, upon clearance through the German customs.
Further, domestic aluminium and copper factories
would be allowed to deliver only to the State
trading company. The prices for imported and
domestic copper and aluminium would be fixed by
a semi-governmental committee at such a level
as to safeguard the industry. The domestic com-
mission and retail trade would not be interfered
with in any way. It might be necessary to levy
import duties on aluminium products, aluminium,
and copper, and it is estimated that a protective
duty of about 050 mark per kilo, for both products
would counterbalance the higher cost of production
in Germany (15 per cent, higher than the import
price for aluminium and about 7 per cent, higher
for copper). — (U.S. Com. Hep., Jan. 5, 1920.)
The Spanish Mineral Industry. — Spain is rich in
minerals, the output at the pit mouth in 1916 being
REVIEW.
some 44,295,204 tons, valued at 382,855,785 pesetas
(peseta = 9Jd.). The value of the industrial pro-
ducts derived from minerals was estimated at
578,000,000 pesetas in 1916 (the last year for which
complete statistics are available. Figures showing
the production of the various minerals and mineral
products in that year are given below : —
Description.
Tons.
Description.
Tons.
Soft coal
. 4,847,475
Sulphuric acid
140,788
Anthracite . .
. 268,087
Coal briquettes
555,975
Lignite
. 473,106
Iron ore briquettes . .
363,784
Asphalt
7,316
White lead
2,493
Mercury
19,960
Tar and pitch
19,211
Sulphur
46,923
Antimony
425
Copper
. 1,968,974
Asphalt
2,591
. 166,053
Arsenic acid
73
Tin ..
86
Quicksilver
795
Phosphorite . .
14,111
Sulphur
10,629
Iron
. 5,856,861
Benzol
1,644
Iron pyrites . .
. 953,678
Creosote
390
Manganese . .
14,178
Calcium carbide
19,511
Ochre
800
Natural cement
289,950
Silver
274
Portland cement
240,387
, 260,282
Zinc products
8,526
Argentiferous lead
7,370
Copper products
32,880
. 348,938
Iron and Bteel products
820,657
Wolfram
454
Coke
759,754
Graphite
1,240
Sulphate of ammonia .
1,710
Granite
1,658
Heavy oils
3,006
Bismuth
10
Naphthalene
173
Asbestos
83
Colours
6,377
140
Lead
147,407
Common salt
546,990
Caustic soda
19,940
Potassium chlorate . .
152
Sodium chlorate
152
Calcium chlorate
4,075
Copper sulphate
7,600
Sodium sulphate
10,100
Superphosphates
315,177
— (Bull. Dept. Trade and Comm., Canada, Dec. 8,
1919.)
Resources of Morocco. — Minerals. — Iron, copper,
zinc, and argentiferous lead have been shown to be
present. Manganese has been found in various
places between Djebel Narquechoum and Djebel
Masseur. The ore is generally found in thin, nearly
horizontal layers, from about 1 to 3 feet in thick-
ness, containing 50 per cent, of manganese and
free from sulphur and phosphorus. There is
another easily workable deposit at the Djebel Bon
Arfa, but owing to transport difficulties it has
not yet been touched. The deposits of iron seem
fairly important, especially those found at Beni-
Saf, near Oran, and at Ouenza. Near the Zaers
and Camp-Boulhaut, where important exploration
is being carried out, the ore is found in veins 3 to
6 feet thick running from north to south in old
calcareous soils, or in true sedimentary layers.
Copper mines have for many years been worked in
the Lower and Little Atlas. Recently, specimens
of ore containing 30 per cent, of copper were
found at Glaoua. The phosphates which occur
near El Botoudj, are not yet worked, but it is pro-
bable that they will become of prime importance
in the mineral wealth of Morocco on account of
their export value. They are found in veins of
varying thickness : from a few inches to about
25 feet. They extend all over the vast plateau
between Guisser and El Boroudj. The El Boroudj
deposit is estimated to contain roughly over one
million metric tons. Various other minerals are
found, such as salt, sometimes in large amounts,
as in the salt mountains of Souk-el-Arba at Zissa.
Gypsum is also common, and is sometimes of re-
markable purity. Slate has been found in a few
places south of Meknes in the Middle Atlas.
Fuel. — In Morocco, like all new countries, there
is wide scope for development. So far, however,
abundant supplies of coals do not seem to be pre-
sent, except for some good quality anthracite which
is said to exist near the Atlas Mountains. Peat
is probably present in greater quantities, especially
near the province of Oran. Timber is scarce in
Morocco; the forests are situated near the Atlas
Mountains and in the north-west. The wood is
mainly fig, pine, palm, eucalyptus, plane and aspen.
The natives mostly utilise charcoal obtained by
carbonising the wood in small heaps, and this
fuel is employed to obtain relatively high and
regular temperatures. Reliable information of
the existence of petroleum has been given in official
reports and by different missions. The north-east
and north-west regions and the neighbourhood of
the last spurs of the Middle Atlas appear to be
particularly favoured in this respect. Four oil
zones have been located in the north-east, one
of which — Sidi Brahim — might be worked and could
supply the north-eastern regions. In 1912 crude
petroleum was found at a depth of about 40 feet
at Oued-Mellah. In the miocene soils, which pre-
vail in the east of the Ouezzan-Fer road, the crude
liquid flows from the naphtha-impregnated sands,
and is workable at certain places. In 1918 geo-
logical experts came to the conclusion that work-
able petroleum deposits may exist in various locali-
ties such as : — North of Morocco, in the Gharb,
towards Absoua, and on the banks of the Sebou
and the Ouergha, at Tselfort, Zerhoun and in the
valley of the Tunaoucin, near Tuza.
Morocco could easily become an important pro-
ducer of alcohol, as the cultivation of cereals oc-
cupies a great part of its territory, but so far dis-
tilleries are practically non-existent. — (Rev. des
Prod. Chim., Nov. 15, 1919.)
PERSONALIA.
Mr. Arthur R. Ling has been appointed to the
Adrian Brown professorship of chemistry in the
University of Birmingham.
Sir James Dewar has been appointed correspond-
ing member of the French Academy of Sciences.
Mr. Hugh Ramage has been awarded the fel-
lowship diploma of the Royal College of Science for
Ireland.
The death is announced of Prof. Dr. H.
Fresenius, director of the Fresenius laboratory in
Wiesbaden, aged 73.
Dr. Stephen Miall has been appointed co-
secretary and treasurer of the Federal Council for
Pure and Applied Chemistry.
It is now reported (by the Z. angew. Chem.) that
Prof. R. Willstatter, of Munich, has declined the
offer of the chair of chemistry in the University of
Berlin.
The Senate of London University has appointed
Dr. Sidney Russ, president of the Rontgen Society,
to be the first Joel Professor of Physics at the
Middlesex Hospital Medical School.
Among the fifteen candidates recommended by
the council of the Royal Society for election to the
fellowship are Dr. E. F. Armstrong, Mr. A. Chaston
Chapman, Dr. T. R. Merton, and Prof. Robert
Robinson.
Dr. R. C. Maclaurin, president of the Mas-
sachusetts Institute of Technology, died on Janu-
ary 15 last at Cambridge, U.S.A. He was born
in Scotland in 1870 and graduated at Cambridge
University in 1897. After serving as professor of
mathematics in the University of New Zealand he
was appointed to the chair of mathematical physics
at Columbia University, N.Y., in 1907, which he
vacated two years later to become president of the
Massachusetts Institute. Dr. Maclaurin had just
completed the work of raising for the Institute a
$4,000,000 endowment fund, and this sum has been
supplemented by a donation of an equal amount by
Mr. G. Eastman, of the Eastman Kodak Co.
Vo>. XXXIX.. No. 5J
REVIEW.
REPORTS.
Report to the Board ok Trade of the Empire
Cotton Growing Committee. Pp. 74. [Cmd.
523. Is. 6d.] H.M. Stationery Office. 1920.
The Committee strongly advocates the establish-
ment of a central research institute to co-operate
with the British Cotton Industry Research Associa-
tion and to undertake the study of the life of the
cotton plant and the development of its lint. There
appear to be two main lines of investigation : The
effects of heredity, by which the constitution of the
cotton plant is determined and can be controlled ;
and the effects and limitations of environment,
such as the seasonal period available for growth,
the temperature, rainfall, and humidity and
the characteristics of the soil, also bacterial, fun-
goid and insect organisms. These researches would
further be divided into questions of purely local
and those of general importance. Such an institute
would compile and take charge of a seed index, and
should arrange for the propagation of all poten-
tially valuable strains of cotton and for the record-
ing of their agricultural and commercial properties.
The Committee emphasises the immediate import-
ance of greatly enlarging and strengthening the
Agricultural Departments of British Colonies and
Protectorates. In order to increase the supply of
trained scientific men financial provision should
be made at British universities for readerships in
plant physiology, plant genetics, mycology, and
entomology, also for research studentships. The
establishment of a bureau for the interchange of
knowledge of cotton growing and the publication
ot a quarterly review are also recommended.
The Governments of all cotton-growing areas in
the Empire should be advised to take full powers
for exercising strict control over all essential
matters connected with cotton-growing. This con-
trol would be most advantageously applied to the
production and distribution of seed and the pre-
servation of the purity of cultures. Suitable
measures against cotton pests should be taken on
a compulsory basis- Where it is possible and seems
desirable such Governments should be encouraged
to establish local associations of cotton growers to
advise on matters of general interest to the in-
dustry. It is recommended that the services of the
British Cotton Growing Association be engaged for
the purpose of marketing crops when desired by
the local Government, at any rate so long as the
industry is on an experimental scale.
Funds for the promotion of cotton growing in the
Empire should be drawn from the British
Treasury, the local revenues of the cotton-growing
areas, and from the cotton industry in proportions
allocated according to certain general principles to
be agreed upon.
Commenting on the local conditions in various
parts of the world, the Committee points out that
the almost total failure of the " Sea Island " crops
in Georgia and Florida, owing to the attacks of the
boll weevil, throws a heavier demand on the West
Indian growers. In Egypt there has been a con-
siderable falling off in production during the war,
and no steps should be neglected to make good this
decline. Measures were projected before the war
to remedy the unsatisfactory condition of parts of
the Delta as regards drainage and the control of
excess water. It is also of the utmost importance
that water should be available for the reclamation
and irrigation of the lands referred to as well as of
those farther north, which will be restored to cul-
tivation by the new drainage works. An adequate
supply of water is available in the White Nile, and
until this work is done the full advantage of ex-
penditure already incurred in the Northern Delta
cannot be obtained. The completion of this scheme
would provide for an increase in the production of
900,000 bales of 400 lb., equivalent to about 50 per
cent, of the 1914 production. The magnitude of
such a possible increase in the Egyptian crop over-
shadows the importance of what can be done in
Nigeria and Uganda, where some such figure as
100,000 bales may be expected as the result of de-
velopment work. A portion of the serious reduction
in the average yield of the Egyptian crop is due
to the devastations of the pink boll worm, and no
time should be lost in organising systematic
measures to combat this pest. Subject to the re-
quirements of Egypt, the irrigation works in the
Sudan offer a most promising return in the way of
development of cotton-growing areas. The pioneer
work in Mesopotamia, though on a very small scale,
is regarded as most encouraging. The results in
Uganda, Nigeria, and other African provinces show
considerable progress, but development is rather
waiting on transport facilities.
As regards India, what is chiefly required is art
improvement in quality, which can only be obtained
by systematic co-operation between the Agricul-
tural Departments and the cotton industry, with
the institution of research on selection and breed-
ing. This branch of the subject must go hand in
hand with work directed towards the improvement
of agricultural practice generally. Attention should
also be paid to the organisation of marketing con-
ditions and co-operative farming by small holders.
The formation of an East Indian Cotton Associa~
tion is recommended.
Manchester Steam Users' Association Memoran-
dum for 1918 — 1919. By C. E. Strometer,
Chief Engineer.
The first part of the report deals with fuel
economy, and includes a classification of the uses
to which fuel is put.
In high-temperature operations, gas works, metal
furnaces, etc., the advisability of recovering waste
heat, as in boilers, is dependent on the value of the
material in the furnace and on the space required'
around the furnace for handling gear. The waste-
i heat boiler must never jeopardise the process
proper. Where power is the main requirement an
efficient central station is probably the best.
In factories requiring power and also steam for
heating and boiling, a study of the relative propor-
tion of these two requirements is important. In
; the case where more steam is used for heating pur-
1 poses than can be supplied by power-producing
1 engines, advantage can be taken of the fact that
! when passing through the engine, steam only parts-
with the mechanical equivalent of heat for the
power produced, which may be taken at about
2"5 lb. of steam or J lb. of coal per IHP., all the
. exhaust steam being used for heating. The mutualJ
: advantage of combining works using power with.
I those requiring steam for heating is apparent.
Examples are given showing the application of this
| policy, and to what extent engine efficiency is vital:
To avoid the use of low-pressure distributing mains,
a high back-pressure may be put on the engine —
i which will be inefficient from a steam consumption
' point of view — provided that by so doing effective
I use can be made of the waste steam. This would
appear to be particularly suitable for isolated pro-
cesses requiring both power and steam heat ; it then
I becomes a question of deciding how the steam shall'
1 be used after being suitably deprived of its
mechanical energy before passing to the heating
! operation. The other alternative is to use low-
j pressure distributing mains, and from data ob-
tained from Fischer, which are quoted, it is shown
that the radiation losses in low-pressure mains are
not materially greater than in high-pressure mains,
provided that pipes of adequate size are employed.
! The diameters of the pipes should be in inverse
ratio to the squares of the steam pressures.
98 b
The author also reviews in detail the question of
the safety of cast-iron economisers and furnace
failures, his conclusions being often at variance
with those contained in the reports of the Board of
Trade.
COMPANY NEWS.
BRADFORD DYERS' ASSOCIATION, LTD.
The twenty-second annual meeting was held on
February 27, at Bradford. Mr. Milton S. Sharp
presided and delivered an address.
Whereas only 10 per cent, of the dyes required in
the country was manufactured at home before the
war, the production is now 25,000 tons, or 20 per
cent, above pre-war consumption. Exports of
dyed and printed textiles in 1919 were valued at
£181,990,350, while a total of 3,234 tons of aniline
dyes, worth £1,826,574, was imported. There is,
however, a lack of certain specific dyes, which is
hindering the establishment of the dyeing industry
on a firm footing, and British manufacturers should
devote special attention to this shortage. Although
grants in aid of the dye makers had been advocated,
they are inadvisable at the present time. Judging
from reports on the present condition of the German
dye industry, the makers still have time in which to
establish themselves on a sound basis. British dye-
makers have before them the most magnificent
opportunity ever offered to leaders of industry, and
it will be entirely their fault if they do not secure
within a measurable time, and throughout the
world, the position which was formerly held by
Germany. The best way to protect the industry is
not by imposing import duties, but by prohibiting
the importation of dyes except under licence. The
licensing authority must be able to act in the
promptest way and have full power to grant licences
not only for dyes which are not made here, but also
on account of inferior quality or higher price of the
British article.
The gross profits for the past year amount to
£911,252, and the sum available for distribution is
£707,051. The directors recommend the allocation
of £50,000 for workmen's superannuation, and the
payment of a dividend of 22J per cent, on the
ordinary shares, leaving £399,321 to be carried for-
ward. The increased profit over the previous year
of £155,197 is more than accounted for by fortuitous
amounts which are not due to the year's trading;
actually the profit was less than in 1918. The profits
from the American works for 1919 have not been in-
cluded as they are not yet available. The following
figures show the percentage of net profits on the
total capital employed during the past six vears : —
1913, 5-7; 1914, 4'9 ; 1915, 8; 1916, 11-6; 1917, 1P1 ;
1918, 77; and 1919, 101. The average for the last
five years is 9"7 per cent. The directors have sold
the works in Kingersheim, Alsace, to a large firm
with preponderating interests in the bleaching and
dyeing works in France.
CEREBOS, LTD.
At the annual meeting held at Newcastle-on-Tyne
on February 24, the chairman, Mr. W. H. Collins,
reported that in order to economise on transport
charges, the company had purchased the business
of the Middlewich Salt Co., Ltd.; it had also
acquired a second factory in France, and was about
to erect works in Toronto, Canada. Owing to the
great increase in the company's business, it had
been found necessary to make additions to plant
and machinery, and to enlarge buildings. For
these, and further developments, additional capital
would be required.
JOHN KNIGHT, LTD.
The annual meeting was held on February 27,
Mr. J. W. Hope presiding. The chairman said
that it was proposed to pay the profit-sharers
additional remuneration at the rate of 15 per cent,
on their present wages. After stating that the
liquid assets of the company amount to £574,426,
or about £5,000 more than the whole capital, he
dealt with Lord Leverhulme's offer to take over
the company, which would, however, preserve its
identity. Lever Brothers, and its subsidiary com-
pany, Associated Enterprises, Ltd., already held
just over one-third of the issued capital. The pro-
posal is to convert the £1 ordinary shares into pre-
ferred ordinary carrying a fixed cumulative pre-
ferential dividend of 25 per cent. ; to purchase all
the £1 deferred shares at £13 10s. each, and to
allot 10 votes per share to the deferred shareholders
as against one vote per share of the preferred
ordinary shareholders, the effect being to give a
majority of votes to the holders of deferred shares.
South Staffordshire Mond Gas Co. — The
annual report states that fuel supplies during the
year were short in quantity and of inferior quality,
and that owing to labour unrest and strikes (par-
ticularly the moulders' strike) 18 per cent, less gas
was sold than in 1918. The gross profit for the year
was £15,857 (compared with £18,232 in 1918), and
the net profit £7,374.
Electro-Bleach and By-Products, Ltd. — The
directors of this company have received an offer
from Messrs. Brunner, Mond & Co. to purchase
from the shareholders all their preference and
ordinary shares by allotment of one Brunner- Mond
share and 8s. for every two preference, and one
Brunner-Mond share and 3s. for every two ordinary
shares. The annual meeting of the Electro-Bleach
Co. has been postponed pending a decision, and
should the exchange be accepted the directors will
recommend final dividends of 7 per cent, on the
preference, and 14 per cent, on the ordinary shares.
The Brunner-Mond shares exchanged will be en-
titled to the same dividends as the existing
Brunner-Mond ordinary shares as from Jan. 1, 1920.
New Capital Issues. — British Cotton-Seed Pro-
ducts, Ltd., has recently issued 220,000 shares, of
which 150,000 shares were offered at par (£1). The
company was formed, inter alia, to acquire and
work under patent rights the Segundo cottonseed
and cottonseed hull defibr;itors.
British Cellulose and Chemical Manufacturing
(Parent) Co., Ltd.} is issuing 4,250,000 7J per cent,
cumulative participating preference shares of £1
each, of which H.M. Government is taking
£1,450,000, the remainder being offered to the
public at par. The shares are also entitled to
25 per cent, of the profits distributed in every year.
The authorised capital is £7,750,000, divided into
£4,250,000 in preference shares and £3,500,000 in
ordinary £1 shares, of which £2,300,000 has been
issued. The shares allotted to H.M. Government
are in liquidation of the advances, amounting to
£1,450,000, previously made to the company. It
is proposed that the old company be immediately
liquidated and the word "Parent" omitted from
the title. The company manufactures cellulose
acetate, calcium carbide and aspirin, and is about
to start producing artificial silk at the rate of
3 tons a day, the output to be increased to 9 tons
a day by the end of the year. The works are situ-
ated at Spondon, near Derby, and cover 200 of the
340 acres owned by the company. The Government
has appointed two directors on the board, and re-
serves the right to veto the creation of any deben-
tures or other charges which might rank in priority
to or pari passu with its shares. (See also this J.,
1919, 317 B.)
Vol. XXXIX., No. 5.]
REVIEW.
TRADE NOTES.
BRITISH.
British Guiana in 1918. — The total value of the
exports for 1918 was £3,524,798, representing a de-
crease of over 18 per cent, on the previous year's
figure. Among the exports were sugar (93,001
tons), coffee (4750 cwt.), copra (2487 cwt.), coco-
nut oil (30,6-50 galls.), citrate of lime (31 cwt.),
lime juice (12,996 galls, raw and 3,671 galls, con-
centrated), oil of limes (180 galls.), fish glue or
isinglass (5283 lb., value £321), gold (24,546 oz.),
diamonds (14,196 carats, value £29,575), rubber
(23,854 lb.), and balata (1,140,788 lb.).
Some 2000 acres are planted with cacao, of which
a large part of the production is utilised locally.
The planting of Para rubber has materially de-
creased, only 3980 acres being under cultivation as
compared with 5100 in 1917. Tapping experiments
at the Government experimental stations continue
to give satisfactory results, both as regards the yield
and the cost of collecting the rubber. The gold
production has decreased owing to labour difficul-
ties. Twenty-nine licences to explore and one
licence to prospect for mineral oil in the north-
western and Pomeroon districts have been granted.
So far no definite results have been recorded. — (Col.
Sep.— Ann., No. 1014, Dec, 1919.)
East Africa Protectorate in 1917-18. — The total ex-
port®, which, for customs purposes, include those of
the Uganda Protectorate, amounted to £1,543,104,
a rise of 20 per cent, over the previous year. Cotton
represents 46 per cent, of the total (combined)
value. Fibre, including sisal etc., valued at
£202,328, was shipped to the United Kingdom.
Coffee to the value of £124,268 (59,111 cwt.) was
exported. Other exports were carbonate of soda
(4688 tons, value £111,322), grain and oil seeds
(£2034), copra (19,285 cwt., value £18.599), and
rubber (1666 cwt., value £14,026). Sisal and flax
are being extensively cultivated owing to their
present high prices. All mining work has been
stopped owing to the shortage of European miners
and prospectors. Sugar-cane growing is being
taken up over a wide area of the protectorate and
promises very well. — (Col. Bep. — .-Inn., No. 1013,
Dec, 1919.)
Foreign Trade of the United Kingdom in 1913 and
1919. — The Board of Trade Journal for February 26
gives statistical tables dealing with the foreign
trade of this country in 1913 and 1919. The inflated
values of 1919 are reduced to the pre-war values of
1913, thus providing a basis of comparison. The
appended data are taken from these tables: —
Northern Territories of the Gold Coast in 1918. — The
dyeing of native cloths and cotton goods and the
smelting of iron ore give employment to the natives
in various parts of the Protectorate. Salt is pro-
duced by evaporation at Daboya, and the industry,
which remained normal during 1918, is in the hands
of the Addah traders.
Gold-bearing quartz and alluvial deposits have
been found in the neighbourhood of Wa and in the
Bole district. Extensive micaceous outcrops have
been discovered in the south-western portion of the
North-Eastern Province. Specimens of surface
mica have been sent to the Coast and have been
favourably reported upon. — (Col. Bep. — Ann., No.
1011, Nov., 1919.)
FOREIGN.
Increased Capitalisation of German Chemical Firms.
— The recent increases in the capitalisation of the
large German chemical undertakings afford
evidence of their determination to regain their
former ascendancy in the world's markets. These
increases follow on others which were undertaken
in 1917 (this J., 1918, 269 r), and they bring the
total capitalisation up to about £53,676,000 (at
normal exchange). The following table gives
particulars of the amounts of new and old stock
issued by the companies mentioned : —
Company.
Old
stock.
New stock,
ordinary.
New stock,
preferred.
Total.
BadJsehfl
F. Bayer & Co.
Hochst
Cassella A Co. . .
A.-G. Anilin
Fabrik
Oriesheim
Weiler-ter-Meer
Marks. ( Mark9.
ao.iino.noo 9ft.000.ft00
00.0110,000 i 90.000.000
00. 000. 000 9(1,000,000
45,000.000 45,000,000
33,000,000 I 33,000.000
if., (inn, nun 25.0oo.o0o
10,400,000 10,400,000
Marks.
72.000.000
72,000,000
72,000,000
36,000,000
26,000,000
20,000,000
8,320,000
Marks.
252,000.000
252.000.000
252,000,000
126,000.000
92,000,000
70,000,000
29,120,000
Total
383,400,000 '333,400,000
1
306,720,000
1073,520,000
— (U.S. Com. Bep., Dec. 31, 1919.)
Vegetable Oil Trade of Kobe (Japan). — The quanti-
ties and values of colza, coconut, and groundnut
oils shipped from the port of Kobe increased very
greatly in 1918, but trade in soya-bean oil was
much hindered by lack of shipping for transporting
the beans from Manchuria. Practically all the
groundnut oil shipped at Kobe comes from North
China. The following table gives the amounts of
oils exported from Kobe during 1917-1918: —
1917. 1918.
Rapeseed oil ... 17,585,000 lb. 25,268,129 lb.
Coconut oil ... 21.809,996 „ 36,510,831 „
Soya-bean oil ... 5,221,931 „ 4,975,932 „
— (U.S. Com. Bep. Suppl., Dec. 22, 1919.)
Imports.
Exports of foreign and colonial
Exports of United Kingdom
produce.
prod
ice.
Declared
Change
Change
Declared
Change
Change
Declared
Change
Change
val
ties.
in
in
quan-
tities.
values.
in
in
quan-
tities.
values.
in
average
values.
in
quan-
tities.
1913.
1919.
values.
1913. i 1919. 1 values.
1913.
1919.
Raw materials :
£1,000.
£1,000.
Per cent.
Per cent.
£1,000.
£1,000.
Per cent.
Per cent.
£1,000.
£1,000.
Per cent.
Per cent.
Coal, coke, and manu-
factured fuel
37
6
+ 2000
—946
3
—
—
—1000
53,660
92,298
+ 242-2
—49-7
7,433
11,986
26-9
—28-9
9
3
+ 2000
—88-9
411
320
+ 185-7
—72-7
Other metallic ores
Oil seeds, nuts, oils, fats,
and gums
10,197
12,365
+ 75-5
—30-9
564
474
+ 14-5
—26-6
130
66
+ 230 0
—84-6
41,577
131,281
+ 143-7
+ 29-6
5,670
11,095
+ 152-0
—22-4
4,468
14,359
+ 193-3
+ 9-6
Hides & undressed skins
15,067
29,613
+ 102-2
— 2-8
8,411 i 12,276
+ 118-6
—33-2
1,886
Paper-making materials
5,816
16,567
+ 2336
—14-6
298 6
+ 500 0
—99-7
958
Rubber
20,524
24,347
— 19-9
+ 48-1
14,837
14,021
— 28-6
+ 32-3
2,993
—58-6
Manufactured articles :
and colours
12,906
23.062
J- 156 5
—30-3
1,641
5,692
+ 163 8
+ 31-5
21,974
29,469
+ 13413
— 12-8
Earthenware and glass
4,546
3.620
+ 233-9
—76-2
196
45
+ 164-7
—91-3
5,213
+ 14311
—59-1
7,674
13,020
+ 215-9
—46-3
276
99
+ 175 0
—870
3,679
+ 24818
—67-0
Grand totals
768,735
1,631,902
+ 140-1
—11-6
109,575
164,322
+ 91-7
—21-8
411,368
881,843
- 177 1
— 4J-1
REVIEW.
[Mar. 15, 1920.
PARLIAMENTARY NEWS.
HOUSE OF COMMONS.
Imported Potash from Germany and Alsace.
Sir A. Geddes, answering Sir R. Cooper, said that
since the armistice the imports of potash from Ger-
many had been 19,280 tons (worth £323,727) for
agricultural use, and 4301 tons (worth £182,446) for
industrial use, while Alsace had supplied 37,25
tons worth £275,476) for agricultural and 100 tons
(worth £2250) for industrial use. The ruling prices
of potash in Germany, the material acquired by the
British Government in part payment for foodstuffs,
and the maximum prices (now £116 5s. per ton) fixed
for 88 — 90 per cent, caustic potash imported
through the Board of Trade, were also given. — (Feb.
23.)
Empire Cotton.
Replying to Mr. Chadwick, Lieut.-Col. Amery
said that 24 per cent, of the world's production of
cotton is contributed by the British Empire. Apart
from the small but valuable East Indian crop, the
production is almost entirely in tropical Africa. Of
late years the Uganda crop has fallen off, but a
large increase is expected. Every effort is made to
encourage cotton-growing, and special attention has
been given to the improvement of Colonial Agricul-
tural Departments. The Colonial Office is in close
touch with the Empire Cotton Growing Association.
—(Feb. 23.)
Sugar-Beet Industry.
Lieut.-Col. Guinness asked if the Board of Agri-
culture is aware that the Cantley sugar factory has
now been acquired by an English company, and is
being equipped with the most up-to-date machinery
in readiness to deal with this year's crop; and if
he would draw the ■ attention of East Anglian
farmers to the importance of this new industry.
Sir A. Boscawen said he would make inquiries.
—(Feb. 24.)
Gas Cylinders.
Mr. Kellaway, answering Mr. Alfred T. Davies,
said that a consignment of 16,000 gas cylinders was
sold to a Mr. Milligan in December last, and the
delivery under this contract is now nearing com-
pletion. There was no sale to any other buyer. —
(Feb. 24.)
Purchases of German Potash.
In reply to Sir R. Cooper, Mr. Bridgeman made
the following statement showing the amount of
German potash contracted for, together with the
different grades and prices per ton : —
60% muriate of potash
90-95% muriate of potash
90% sulphate of potash
Potash manure suits (minimum
content 30% K,0) . .
Tctal
Quantities Quantities
contracted received
for. in the
U.K.
to date.
Tons.
20.000
5.000
13,500
Prices
credited
to German
Govern-
ment f.a.s.
Rotterdam
The amount to be delivered at Rotterdam is about
two-thirds of the whole. The remainder is to be
delivered f.o.b. Hamburg at prices 5s. per ton lower
than those given above. — (Mar. 1.)
Sugar Imports.
Mr. Bridgeman informed Lieut.-Col. Archer-Shee
that the sugar imported during 1919 was: Refin-
foreign, 7'9 million cwt. ; refined in bond, 16'7 ; un-
refined, 6"1 ; total, 307 million cwt. The figure for
1914 was 33 6 million cwt.— (Mar. 2.)
British Cellulose and Manufacturing Co.
Numerous questions were put to Ministers con-
cerning the conversion of the prior lien charge held
by the Government into preference shares in the
reconstructed company (this issue, p. 98 r), em-
phasis being laid on the undesirability of the
Government holding share capital in companies en-
gaged in competitive manufacture. The action
taken was defended by Mr. Chamberlain and Mr.
Hope on the grounds that the arrangement made
afforded the best means of protecting the money
already invested and of preserving in this country
an industry of vital importance in war and of
great utility in peace. — (Mar. 1, 2, 3, 4, 8.)
OFFICIAL TRADE INTELLIGENCE.
(From the Board of Trade Journal for Feb. 26 and
March 4.)
OPENINGS FOR BRITISH TRADE.
The following inquiries have been received at the
Department of Overseas Trade (Development and
Intelligence), 35, Old Queen Street, London,
S.W. 1, from firms, agents, or individuals who de-
sire to represent U.K. manufacturers or exporters
of the goods specified. British firms may obtain the
names and addresses of the persons or firms referred
to by applying to the Department and quoting the
specific reference number.
Locality of
firm or agent.
MATERIALS.
Ceylon
Egypt
Belgium
Greece
Italy
Japan
Latin America . .
Mexico
Poland . .
Portugal
Spain . .
Argentina
Brazil . .
Chile ..
Heavy chemicals, pharmaceutical
preparations
Soap, perfumery, crockery
Leather, glass, china, earthenware . .
Toilet and laundry soap
Glass, china, potash, polishes, soap
(tender for)
China, glassware
Soap, druggists' sundries, glass,
crockery
Soap, candles, vegetable oils
Textiles, leather, skins
Dyes, metals
Chemicals, dyes, ammonium sul-
phate, pulp, paper
Chemicals, dyes, metals, manures . .
Chemicals, paints, colours, alkalis,
disinfectants
Heavy chemicals, potash, soda, in-
termediates and coal-tar products
Soap, perfumery, dyes, paint, var-
nish, chemicals, aluminium, cera-
mics, milk powder, ihina, porce-
lain, enamel (goods io demand) . .
Syrup
Leather, leather cloth, iron and steel
goods, oils, colours, paints, var-
nish, chemicals, drugs, enamels . .
Leather, sugar, glass beads, bottles,
tumblers (goods in demand)
Photographic materials
Chemicals, disinfectants
Artificial silk
Petroleum for Diesel motors (tender
for)
Cement, galvanised iron. oils, greases,
paints, rubber tubes and tyres . .
Calcium carbide, caustic soda, ce-
ment, oils, paints, varnish, gas oil
Chemicals, drugs, paper
266
292
293
294
295
270
299
275
282
2S5
276
281
302
303
304
An application has been received at the Department of Overseas
Trade for the names of manufacturers of water-gas pitch.
Market Sought. — A Canadian firm desires to get
into touch with U.K. importers of high-grade silica
and talc. Inquiries to the Canadian Government
Trade Commissioner, 73, Basinghall Street, London,
E.C. 2.
Vol XXXIX., No. 5.]
REVIEW.
101 B
TARIFF, CUSTOMS, EXCISE.
Australia. — The export of British and Australian
silver coin is prohibited save with the previous con-
Bent of the Minister for Trade and Customs.
Argentina. — It is proposed to amend the customs
duty on, inter alia, fine glassware, porcelain, red
lead, lead pipes, plates, ingots and bars, iron pipes,
columns and girders, earthenware pipes, cement,
cardboard, common glass, iron and steel bars, plates
and sheets, and artificial manures.
Belgium. — Certificates of origin and import
licences are no longer required for any goods ex-
cept, inter alia, colours with aniline base, copper
and its alloys, iron and steel, and photographic
materials, and then only in the case of (a) non-
German goods imported from Spain, Switzerland,
Luxemburg, Holland, Denmark, Sweden, Norway,
Poland, Czecho-Slovakia, and German Austria, and
(b) goods of German origin or coming from Ger-
many via one of the above-named countries.
Export licences are again required for gold,
silver, platinum, and earthenware tiles.
Brazil. — The regulations respecting consular in-
voices are set out in the issue for March 4.
The Budget Law for 1920 increases the customs
duties on porcelain, faience, linseed oil, and pre-
pared paints, and doubles the present statistical
tax.
Egypt. — The restrictions on the import of gold
have been cancelled as from January 29.
France.— The French Customs regime is now
applicable to the Saar basin.
Germany. — The export of paper, cardboard, and
manufactures thereof is prohibited except under
licence as from February 19.
Hungary. — In cases where the Customs duties are
paid in bank-note currency a supplementary duty
of 500 per cent, is levied.
Jugo-Slavia. — It is proposed further to restrict
the importation of " articles of luxury," including
perfumery and expensive soaps.
Mexico. — The export tax on copper has been
altered. British firms may consult the tariff at the
offices of the Department.
New Zealand. — The restrictions on trade with
Czecho-Slovakia, Poland, and the Serbo-Croat-
Slovene State have been removed.
The prohibition of the import of klepalo (cream
of tartar substitute), sanatogen. and of gas mantles
is revoked as from November 24, 1919.
Portugal. — Among the articles the import of
which is prohibited are alcoholic beverages, vinegar,
confectionery (except liquid glucose), ceramic pro-
ducts (with some exceptions), manufactured gold,
silver and lead, and writing inks.
Among the articles that may only be imported in
amounts to be fixed by the Minister of Finance are
tin, malt, yeast, chemicals, and substances for use
in medicine or perfumery.
TJnited States. — It is proposed to impose Customs
duties on graphite and all products containing
graphite advanced by manufacture beyond the
State of crude graphite.
REVIEWS.
Rat Poisons. — With regard to the propaganda
conducted by the Ministry of Agriculture for the
destruction of rats, it is announced that the
Treasury has sanctioned the establishment of a re-
search laboratory, and that a chemist is to be ap-
pointed to work in conjunction with the Ministry's
technical adviser. The work will include the dis-
covery of new poisons that are harmless to domestic
animals, as well as the improvement of existing
poisons. — (Offictal.)
A Theatise on Bbitish Mineral Oil. Foreword by
Sib Bovebton Redwood, Babt. Editor: J.
Abthub Geeenb. Pp. xii. + 233. (London:
Charles Griffin and Co., Ltd. 1919.) Price
21s. net.
The editor of this book was associated in the closing
years of the war with several of the contributors
to its pages (and others) in a vigorous attempt to
force the Government to extend the home produc-
tion of oil from shale, cannel, waste coal, etc. Ho
and most of his colleagues probably under-estimated
both the difficulties attendant on the starting of
new schemes at that juncture and the work actually
being carried out at the time by the Petroleum
Executive in collaboration with the shale-oil and
gas industries. Nevertheless, the activities of the
committee, of which he was honorary secretary,
renewed public interest in the revival of the old
coal-oil industry in this country. The possibilities
of reviving that industry had, indeed, been can-
vassed freely, often with more zeal than discretion,
in the years immediately preceding the outbreak
of war, but the latter held up progress in this
direction for the time being.
The revival in this country of the industry of
recovering oil-products from waste coal, etc., is
assured owing to the ever-increasing demand of the
transport agencies for motor spirit and heavy fuel
oil, and the concurrent rise in price of supplies
drawn from imported petroleum. The principles
on which oil-production from coal rests are tolerably
well comprehended by oil producers and experts.
Unfortunately, however, the confidence of the com-
mercial world in its prospects has been rudely
shaken by the lamentable failure of several of the
designers of plant for the so-called low temperature
distillation of coal to meet essential works' require-
ments. Among these requirements may be cited :
Facilities for the handling of material and for
mechanical operation, accessibility of the plant for
cleaning and renewals, and ease and reliability of
control. In the past also the limitations of any
one type of plant have too frequently been ignored;
no plant will distil satisfactorily all of the many
descriptions of waste coals, cannels, shales, etc.,
which are available for oil production, simply
because their physical characteristics are so widely
diverse. Only by close regard to these fundamental
considerations can the damage be retrieved which
has already been done to a potentially great
British industry by some of those who have aspired,
without the needful training or qualifications, to
be its pioneers.
This book will serve the useful purpose of in-
dicating many of the pitfalls which await the in-
ventors of processes for the "low temperature"
distillation of coal. On the whole, its contributors
appear to the writer to be over-sanguine of the
success of immediate and almost indiscriminate
application of these processes, though Dr. A. E.
Dunstan, who is responsible for the section on the
Products and their Chemical Nature, is reasonably
cautious. The first section of the book— on Raw
Material — by Mr. E. H. Cunningham-Craig, is
also quite authoritative on the geological Bide, but
contains errors in other respects, as, for instance,
when he writes: "Freshly cut peat contains
roughly 80 to 90 per cent, of water, and though
this can be reduced by air drying in the open to
60 or 65 per cent., further drying has to be dono
artificially." As a fact, hundreds of tons of
English peat blocks, which are merely air-dried,
are sold containing only 20 to 30 per cent, of water.
In other respects the information given in this
book about peat and its utilisation is very unsatis-
factory. As regards, cannels and oil shales, the
first section of the book forms a useful supplement
102 b
REVIEW.
to the very valuable memoir, prepared by Dr. A.
Strahan, the Director, which was published by the
Geological Survey in 1918, dealing with the lignites,
oil-shales, cannel coals, etc., of England and Wales.
Mr. Andrew Campbell is responsible for a short
section on refining, a subject on which, in relation
to shale oil, etc. — he has exceptional knowledge;
but in so far as the section refers to the refining of
crude oil from cannel, e°tc, the information given
appears to depend almost wholly on results obtained
with a five-gallon experimental still. The difficult
problem of the refining of crude oils from cannel
and " low temperature " coal distillation plants is
not really seriously tackled. Perhaps this is because
the pioneer producers of these oils (in recent years)
have generally disregarded the problems of the re-
finer, and have chosen their methods of production
without regard to his limitations. With the develop-
ment of the work of the Fuel Research Board and
of many private investigators, w-ho are proceeding
on more practical lines than their predecessors, it
may be anticipated that very shortly the refiner
may have a better opportunity of working up pro-
ducts from the crude oils derived from waste coals
and cannels. W. J. A. Butterfield.
Industrial Gases. By H. C. Greenwood. Pp.
xvii+371. (London: Bailliere, Tindall and Cox.
1919.) Price 12s. 6d. net.
The untimely death of Harold Greenwood is a
serious loss to our chemical industry. Always
modest and unassuming, he had reached that stage
of life when he was beginning to create out of the
knowledge which he had absorbed and assimilated.
Much of this knowledge will now be lost, but fortun-
ately that part of it relating to the industrial gases
has been preserved. This book was almost ready
for press when Greenwood died, and it now appears
with a foreword written by Dr. J. A. Harker, who
was his chief during the researches on the synthesis
of ammonia carried out for the Ministry of Muni-
tions, some of which have just been made public in
the report of the Nitrogen Products Committee.
The industrial use of gases is no longer restricted
to the gas industry. To-day hydrogen, oxygen and
carbon-dioxide aro of the greatest importance
technically, and the application of other gases
including even the rarest, such as helium, is con-
tinually increasing. The processes of gas manu-
facture are still in course of vigorous development,
and the author has found it preferable to avoid any
very detailed treatment of the various processses
involved, and to deal in the main with general
principles, special attention being paid to the ques-
tion of gaseous equilibria. In consequence a fair
amount of mathematics is introduced, but the treat-
ment is so clear that the reader should have no
difficulty in following it. A valuable feature is the
frequent use of tables of reference data in the form
required for immediate use in technical practice.
The book is divided into three parts, dealing with
the gases of the atmosphere, sundry other gases,
and gaseous fuels. These are preceded by an intro-
duction in which the fundamental physical and
physico-chemical principles forming the basis of
technical gas reactions are outlined. This section
is most ably written, and for a long time to come
should prove to be the standard work on the
subject.
The section on air involves the consideration of
the various methods for its liquefaction, an achieve-
ment which not so many years ago was but a
scientific curiosity, whereas in the near future a
liquid air plant may become a commonplace in the
chemical works. Oxygen gas is in the main ab-
sorbed by the welding and metal-cutting industries
— about 90 per cent, of the present production,
according to the author. It is safe to predict
that it will find a more extended application in
chemical industry when catalytic oxidation has
been further developed. Such processes as the oxi-
dation of aldehyde to acetic acid in presence of
manganese are far easier to work with oxygen than
with air. Nitrogen, so inert in itself and so active
in combination, is the mystery gas of the future and
the most fashionable gas to-day. Accordingly we
may expect much progress to be made in the know-
ledge of its behaviour and technical application.
This is clearly indicated in the book.
When the Swedish savant Cleve discovered the
mineral named after him from which Ramsay in
1894 obtained helium (Lockyer's helium it should be
called in justice to the editor of Nature, who dis-
covered its " line " in the solar spectrum), it was
little thought that America, amongst its many
wonders, would prove to possess a natural gas con-
taining up to 1 per cent, of helium (Cottrell, this
J., 1919, 121 t), and that it would be proposed to
isolate enough of this gas to inflate a Zeppelin I
Chemistry has few more fascinating romances.
Of the miscellaneous gases hydrogen is the most
attractive and occupies by far the largest section
of the book. Its uses are numerous and varied, the
most important being aeronautical, fat hydrogena-
tion, and synthetic ammonia. A variety of rival
processes for its manufacture has been suggested,
many are in practical operation, and the technical
and patent literature on the subject is very large.
Greenwood had made a special study of this subject
and writes therefore with a critical knowledge such
as few others outside the industry possess.
Hydrogen is made in quantity to-day at a price
considerably less than is charged for town's gas,
and so much is already known of its behaviour that
the way is clear for its further immediate applica-
tion in many directions. The other gases considered
are carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, and the oxides
of sulphur and nitrogen.
The subject of gaseous fuels usually suffices for a
book to itself, but the author devotes some 60 pages
to it, in which a very clear and concise summary
is presented. Throughout the work there is every
evidence of thoroughness, and Greenwood's book
will provide stimulus to many to come after him,
so that his life'6 work will not have been in vain.
E. F. Armstrong.
Memorandum on Solid Lubricants. By T. C.
Thomsen and L. Archbutt. Department of
Scientific and Industrial Besearch. Pp. 28.
(London: H..M. Stationery Office. 1920.)
Any addition to our scanty and scattered litera-
ture on lubricants is welcome, even though it be a
co-ordination of results which have long been known
to some of us. The subject of solid lubricants is pre-
sented very clearly in this memorandum, but, un-
fortunately, no serious attempt has been made to
express a decided opinion upon their value. It
must, however, be borne in mind that the memoran-
dum has been compiled to satisfy a demand and not
to stimulate the use of such lubricants.
Among the solid lubricants graphite, talo, mica,
sulphur, and white lead are mentioned, but subse-
quently it is stated that some of these are often
used to cure hot bearings; they act less as lubri-
cants than as mild abrasives. With properly lubri-
cated bearings the chief advantage of using a solid
lubricant is apparently the effect on the friction at
the moment of starting. Flaked graphite is stated
to build up a surface on very rough bearings, but
it may be detrimental where small clearances exist.
Colloidal graphite would appear to be a useful solid
lubricant were it not for the fact that it is very
susceptible to the flocculating action of electrolytes ;
in fact, less than 0"1 per cent, of free fatty acids is
sufficient to precipitate it. Nevertheless, it has its
own sphere of usefulness. E. A. Evans.
Vol. XXXIX., No. 6.]
REVIEW
[March 31, 1920.
THE PRESENT POSITION OF THE
TUNGSTEN INDUSTRY.
J. L. F. VOGEL.
It is difficult to review the present position of
the tungsten industry without somewhat detailed
reference to its history, both under war conditions
and in the period immediately preceding the war.
Uses for Tungsten. — By far the greater part of
the tungsten consumed before and during the war
was by high-speed steel makers, whose object is to
obtain an alloy steel, 'which is not only strong and
hard, but which also retains these properties at
high temperatures. The aggregate tonnage con-
sumed for lamp filaments, contact points, X-ray
targets and as wire is quite insignificant, and
although it has materially increased since 1914, it
still has little bearing on consumption. As regards
the alloy steel containing tungsten, despite the
competition of molybdenum steel and such alloys as
stcllite, there is little, if any, evidence of the
replacement of tungsten alloy steel to any extent
by other alloys for general use as high-speed steel.
Tungsten steel has been adopted for purposes other
than cutting, as, for instance, exhaust valves for
internal combustion motors, and there is a con-
siderable consumption of steel oontaining a low
percentage of tungsten for magnets and hacksaws.
Speaking generally, however, it may be said that
the uses of tungsten have only expanded to a
limited extent, and that the consumption is still
essentially dependent upon the demand for high-
speed steel.
Raw Material. — The production of tungsten
naturally depends upon the supplies of ore, i.e.,
upon the minerals containing tungsten trioxide
(W03) combined with the oxides of iron and /or
manganese or of calcium, and a review of the ore
situation is essential to a correct diagnosis of the
position of the industry to-day.
Tungsten ores in pre-war days were derived
mainly from the United States, South America,
Portugal, Burma and Australia, and the supply
and demand had gradually risen from a low figure
to some 10,000 tons of concentrates per annum,
equivalent to, say, 4000 tons of metallic tungsten.
Under war conditions, demand almost immediately
overtook and passed supply when plants were
ready to produce tungsten powder and ferro-
tungsten. Strenuous exertions were taken to aug-
ment production, and these met with such success
that by 1918 the output of concentrates exceeded
the demand. The increased production was
specially noticeable in the United States and
Burma, while China came into the market with a
fresh and entirely unexpected production. The
output for 1918 was roughly 25,000 tons, or 2J
times the pre-war consumption.
High-speed Steel. — As it has been shown that the
ultimate consumption of tungsten is mainly con-
fined to the manufacturers of high-speed steel some
consideration must be given to this product.
Before the war competition between different
high-speed steel makers had gradually led to in-
creasing percentages of tungsten being employed
whereby better quality could be imparted to the
steel. Under war conditions high-speed steel was
standardised with 14 and 18 per cent, tungsten con-
tents. On the other hand, high-speed steel is not
consumed at all completely in use, and every engi-
neering works accumulates rapidly a stock of scrap
in the form of broken tools, or tools which have
lost just sufficient of their size by grinding to
render them useless for accurate work. During
the war period every effort was made to collect
scrap and return it to the steel makers for re-melt-
ing, but the clean-up after the war disclosed a very
great deal more scrap than was ever thought to
exist. There were, further, large stocks of many
special sections and sizes used in the manufacture
of munitions which were no longer saleable.
The conditions ruling at the date of the Armis-
tice may be summarised as follows : —
1. Supplies of ore concentrates were in excess of
the current demand and commitments under firm
contracts for very considerable additional tonnage
were in force.
2. There were large stocks of manufactured and
scrap high-speed steel.
3. The demand for high-speed steel bv engineers
at once dropped and sales were reduced to a
minimum.
4. Prices for wolfram concentrates, tungsten
powder, ferro-tungsten and high-speed steel at once
became nominal.
The Manufacture of Tungsten and Ferro-Tung-
sten. — From a technical point ul view the war had
effected radical changes. Op to 1914 the bulk of
the wolfram was smelted into tungsten powder in
Germany, and at the outbreak of hostilities ore
supplies were far in excess of the smelting capa-
city of the Allied countries. By the middle of
1915 this defect had been made good. In England
the question of manufacture of tungsten powder
or fcrro-tungsben was the subject of close investiga-
tion. Many of the makers of the best brands of
high-speed steel were satisfied that the quality of
their products could only be maintained by employ-
ing tungsten powder ai least as good as that pre-
viously imported from Germany. On the other
hand, improved method-; of manufacture of ferro-
tungsten offered advantages in many respeots. The
problem was solved eventually in the only rational
way — by the erection of factories for making both
products. Four works were established initially
for powder and five for the ferro-alloy manufac-
ture, and the bulk of the tungsten made during
the war came from these. Once the factories were
running — that is, in the spring and summer of
1915 — the ore situation became acute, and the
Government commandeered ore supplies and dis-
tributed them. The quantity of ore available, how-
ever, sufficed only to maintain outputs of 50 — 60
per cent, of the maximum in each factory.
The processes employed in the different works
were not made public, but collated information
obtained by the Ministry of Munitions showed that
a very high standard of efficiency was attained
throughout. The quality of the product was equally
high, and this was specially noticeable in view of
the great variety of tungsten ores employed and the
low grade of a considerable proportion of these.
Pre-war tungsten powder from Germany averaged
some 97'0 — 97'5 per cent., while the standard
British metal assayed 980 — 99'0 per cent. Ferro-
tungsten was confined to a very stiff specification
in respect of impurities and this was met by the
makers generally, although the best ores had to be
set aside for their use.
It may be generally stated that an industry
which had developed for twenty years in Germany
was more than equalled in efficiency and quality of
product in two years by British firms, working
under all the difficulties of war conditions. During
the war ferro-tungsten plants were gradually put
down by other Allied countries, which sufficed to
satisfy domestic consumption in Japan, France,
Italy and the United States. The British plants,
however, were designed primarily to supply the
needs of all the Allies, so at the date of the armis-
tice the manufacturing capacity of Great Br'tain
was in excess almost of the world's normal demand
and far in excess of the home requirements.
Ore Production since the Armistice. — The cost of
producing ore rose gradually, as it was influenced
REVIEW.
by the price of silver, which is the basis of ex-
change in most of the ore-producing countries.
This rise became excessive when silver became a
free market and hence there followed a period
during which costs of mining and transporting ore
concentrates to the market grew higher and
higher, while accumulated surplus stocks of ore
and scrap high-speed steel became available in
sufficient quantities to meet demands for an ex-
tended period. These stocks were held largely in
the United Kingdom and in the United States; as
it was found desirable to liquidate them to a con-
siderable extent, prices naturally fell and very
soon dropped below the increasing costs of produc-
tion. Many mines, in consequence, closed down
after completing their existing contracts at war-
time prices. The steady fall in ore prices and the
absorption of scrap eventually reduced the cost of
production of high-speed steel to a figure that
made the re-stocking of stores of this material
economically possible. Further, the demands of
the engineering trade for sizes of bar suitable for
reconstruction work, motor car manufacturing,
etd., began to be felt in the autumn of 1919, as
well as a demand from the enemy countries, whose
stocks were entirely depleted, though this trade
was hampered by the heavy fall in exchange.
The future of the industry can now be discussed
on the basis of this information, but, like all esti-
mates of the future of industries, it is deeply
obscured by unknown factors.
Consumption. — Once depleted stocks of suitable
sizes and sections of high-speed steel have been
manufactured and distributed it is probable that
the normal consumption will settle down to some-
thing between the war and pre-war rates; in terms
of ore concentrates consumed these were, say,
20,000 and 10,000 tons, respectively.
In view of the almost complete scrapping of old
machine tools, it is reasonable to assume a post-war
normal consumption of some 15,000 to 16,000 tons
of ore concentrates with a gradually rising ten-
dency. How soon this normal consumption will
begin to operate, it is difficult to estimate, but
probably from 1921 onwards, demand and supply
will run more or less together.
Ore Supplies. — On the above estimate of con-
sumption, the ore supplies already in existence are
likely to govern the market for a considerable
period, when taking into account the wolfram which
will be mined in any case in conjunction with tin,
the demand and price for which will ensure active
production. Once stocks are absorbed or reduced
to a low figure, the cost of ore concentrates must
be governed by costs of mining fresh supplies, and
these, owing to the movements of exchange, are
at present greatly in excess of the current market
price of stocks. Assuming, as is reasonable, that
silver and gold are unlikely to fall to pre-war values
within say two years, it is probable that the price
of freshly-produced ore concentrates will rise to an
extent which will correspond with exchange.
Taking actual figures, the pre-war and current
prices for ore concentrates are approximately 30s.
per unit, and it is improbable that ait the present
exchange rates, production to satisfy the full
demand will be possible under 45s. to 50s., but these
figures will not come in force until stocks have
disappeared.
Manufacture of Tungsten and Ferro-Tungsten. —
As has been shown, even under the stress of war
conditions the British makers of tungsten powder
and ferro-tungsten entered on their task deter-
mined to place these industries on a permanent
footing. Quality of product was recognised as an
essential, and the standard production of this
country has proved to be superior to that previously
obtainable anywhere. Scientific research has gone
hand in hand with, manufacture, and British manu-
facturers might be able to compete with their
former rivals, but, of course, the fabulous decrease
in money values of continental currency gives
advantages in costs of manufacture which are not
easily countered.
It has been accepted as a matter of policy that
the industry is essential as a safeguard and it is
included in the " key " industries which may be
protected if necessity arises. Whether such neces-
sity will arise is difficult to forecast, but present
indications favour the view that by foresight and
precaution in erecting the factories, providing for
ore supplies and establishing a high grade of
product, the industry can look after itself against
fair competition, but not against dumping.
It must be remembered, however, that fuel and
labour both directly and indirectly govern costs of
manufacture and that if the latter exceed a certain
limit foreign competition cannot be met.
THE IMPORTS AND EXPORTS
REGULATION BILL.
The Bill to regulate imports and exports (this J.,
1919, 459 r), which was introduced into the House
of Commons during the past Session and tem-
porarily withdrawn, has been considered and re-
ported upon by a committee of the Association of
British Chemical Manufacturers. The report of
the committee has been adopted by the Council of
the Association and forwarded to the Board of
Trade. The following are the main provisions : —
The committee recognises that there are three
classes of industry which have to be considered at
the present moment, when the Government has to
safeguard the country against the lack of material
necessary for war purposes : —
(1) Industries which during the war spent their
own capital, at the urgent request of the Govern-
ment, to make, or increase their make of, war
material, and now for various reasons find their
capital unremunerative.
(2) Those industries, commonly called " key in-
dustries," necessary for the prosecution of a future
war, which are non-existent or not sufficiently
strong to stand by themselves without some form of
protection.
(3) Industries which do net exist or do not cover
home requirements, which are unnecessary for war
purposes, and therefore cannot be called "' key in-
dustries," in cases where ample cheap supplies can
be imported.
The committee has confined its attention to the
industries under the second heading, and has con-
sidered the following methods by which the Govern-
ment might possibly deal with the present situa-
tion : —
Free Imports. — In view of the strong political
opposition which has' developed against the Bill,
the committee recognises that it may be deemed ad-
visable for the Government to abandon all attempts
to deal with dumping and the protection of key
industries. This would have the advantage of free-
ing the chemical industry in so far as it is covered
by the Second Schedule of the Bill, from all Govern-
ment interference in manufacturers' businesses,
and in particular from the inquiries which would
inevitably be made into the ownership, manage-
ment, control, costs, prices, and profits of any
person engaged in the manufacture or sale of the
articles in the schedule.
It is understood that, so far as the question of
dumping is concerned, this is not going to be dealt
with in the Bill about to be submitted ; but there is
an immediate need for dealing with the principle of
fostering key industries.
Vol. XXXIX., No. 6.]
105 b
Licensing and Grants-in-Aid. — Although the
method of licensing as recently carried out results
in delays and is apt to be irritating to the importer
and user, it does not entail some of the disadvan-
tages which are common to other forms of protec-
tion. -After giving full consideration to the views
of the various Groups of the Association, the com-
mittee recommends that the Government should be
asked to adopt this system combined with loans and
grants-in-aid, with this modification — namely, that
it should be understood that licences to import
chemicals should be freely granted as of right, un-
less and until the manufacturer of such chemical
has shown cause why the particular chemical
should not be admitted in unrestricted quantities.
The principle of grants-in-aid has been recognised
by the Government, not only during the war, but is
to continue after the war in the case of the dye
industry.
Tariff. — The arguments for and against protec-
tion by means of a tariff are too well known to need
recapitulation. The committee feels that while
this method has the advantage of simplicity, in the
present state of public opinion it would be impos-
sible to adopt it.
Licensing plus a Tariff Fee. — The committee has
given very careful consideration to the possibility
of instituting a system of licensing by which an im-
porter would be assured of obtaining a licence,
thereby eliminating the uncertainty of the present
system of licensing, but by which he would be
charged a substantial fee, which could vary with
each article and which would be based on the
difference in price between the foreign-made
article and that of British manufacture.
This method has some attractive features, of
which the removal of the uncertainty whether a
licence would be granted or not is the chief. In
effect it is an easily varied tariff under another
name. Its disadvantages are that it would be
opposed politically as a tariff, and that the House
of Commons would inevitably decline to place what
amounts to the power of taxation in the hands of
any other body than itself. The committee does
not therefore recommend it.
State Purchase and Sale Bureau. — The committee
has given consideration to the suggestion of setting
up a State Purchase and Sale Bureau as a method
of dealing with the present difficulties. In essence
the proposal is that both the purchase and sale of
articles the manufacture of which is to be regarded
as a " key " industry should be made through a cen-
tral bureau, in which the Government should be in-
terested, but in which the preponderating influence
should be that of commercial men. The difficulty
in adopting this method is that it would entail the
setting up of a special and rather expensive
organisation which would depend for its success
upon obtaining the services of a number of experts,
who would have to be independent of any interested
firm. It is not thought that such experts are at
present available, and the committee does not there-
fore recommend this course.
The committee also recommends a revision of the
list of goods, specified in Schedule II. of the Bill,
the importation of which may be prohibited (see
this J., 1919, 314 h). The suggested alterations
refer more to the mode of classification of the goods
than to their nature. The addition of " wood
charcoal and hardwood tar (excepting fine decolor-
ising carbon) " is recommended, the heading " ana-
lytical reagents " is extended to cover research
chemicals; further, in lieu of, or in addition to,
certain specified organic chemicals, the generic
terms synthetic acids, alcohols, aldehydes, esters,
ethers, and ketones are substituted. It is also sug-
gested to alter " cerium fluoride and fluorides of
other rare earth metals " to " compounds of cerium
and other rare earth metals."
CANDLENUT OILS IN THE PAINT
AND VARNISH INDUSTRY.
Of the many new raw materials periodically
brought to the notice of the paint and varnish
industry, and of which the advent on the market in
commercial quantities seems to hold out promise, the
lumbang oils Aleurites moluccana and A. trisperma
would appear to be of considerable interest as
alternatives to linseed oil. Attention has been
drawn to the value of the lumbang oils in a recent
article in The Tunes (Trade Supplement, Dec. 27,
1919), whilst H. A. Gardner (Circ. No. 75, Paint
Manufacturers' Assoc, U.S.A., Oct., 1919; thia
J., 1919, 952 a) has published for the first time the
constants of " soft lumbang " oil, A. trisperma. A
third variety of candlenut oil, which is apparently
to be the generic name for the lumbang oils, is
obtained from the nuts of a tree (A. triloba) grow-
ing in Hong Kong, and is known locally in India
as " Kekuna oil." This variety has been described
(this J., 1901, 642), but its constants appear to
demand its classification among the semi-drying
oils, and it would therefore be of little value to
the paint manufacturer. The commonest and most
abundant of the drying lumbang oils is that from
lumbang bato (A. moluccana), which occurs both as
a native and semi-cultivated tree from India to
Polynesia. Lumbang banucalag (A. trisperma) is
confined to the Philippines, and is less common
than lumbang bato.
The results of a series of practical tests by the
Bureau of Science, Manila, show that the behaviour
of the lumbang oils on drying is comparable with
that of linseed oil. Gardner (loc. cit.) also shows
what he claims to be many points of resemblance
between soft lumbang oil and linseed oil, but states
that when spread on glass the film yielded has
the characteristic opaque, crystalline appearance
of dried tung oil, which is, however, inhibited by
addition of 10 per cent, of lead-manganese drier,
when a perfectly clear film is obtained in 14 hours.
This latter point Gardner adduces as a distinction
from tung oil, but he is inaccurate in this respect,
as the formation of a matt crystalline film in tung
oil can be similarly inhibited by the addition of
suitable driers or by controlling the nature of the
surrounding atmosphere and incident light during
exposure.
From their behaviour in practice and the nature
of the published constants, it would appear that
both common candlenut oil and soft lumbang oil
are to be classed among the foremost members of
the drying oils, whilst in the absence of more in-
formation concerning the characteristic gly-
cerides of these oils it is highly probable that they
are to be placed in the sub-class of China wood
or tung oil, whioh also includes Japanese wood oil
and the oiticica oil described recently by Bolton
and Revie (Analyst, 1918, 43, 251—4; this J.,
1918, 37, 15, 430 a). A determination of the bromine
thermal value and a correlation of this value with
the iodine value would be a useful criterion of the
possible inclusion of the lumbang oils into the sub-
group occupied by tung oil, since the latter shows
a great divergence from other drying oils in the
value of the factor necessary to relate the bromine
thermal values with their iodine values.
Since the main use for tung oil in the varnish
industry is in conjunction with linseed oil, the
function of which is to mitigate the otherwise un-
controllable gelatinisation of the pure oil during
heat treatment, the use of pure soft lumbang oil
as a varnish oil would seem to be indicated ; a dis-
tinct increase in its viscosity occurs after heating
to 280° C. for 15 minutes, a change which has no
counterpart in the case of linseed oil under the
same conditions.
a2
106 e
REVIEW.
Mar. 31, 1920.
It remains to be seen whether the stimulated pro-
duction of lumbang oils referred to will have any
result in the placing of these oils on the English
market, especially in view of the fact that the
United States is a great consumer of oils which
show any promise of serving as linseed oil sub-
stitutes." The output of menhaden oil in the United
States, which is practically all absorbed in that
country as a drying oil in certain industries, may
be quoted as a comparable case.
PETROLEUM ECONOMICS
The following extracts are taken from a paper
on " The Economics of the Petroleum Industry,"
read by Mr. R. S. Dickie at the Imperial College
of Science and Technology on March 4, 1920.
In certain respects the winning of petroleum from
the earth and its conversion into manufactured pro-
ducts differs from any other undertaking. A com-
pany which produces and refines petroleum has
always to face an uncertain source of supply which
may one month exceed the storage and refining
facilities and a few months later may make it
difficult to keep its refinery employed. It is, per-
haps, owing to this uncertainty that oil companies
have combined the operations of the production of
the crude with its refining and distribution, thereby
differing from most industries in which the winning
of the raw material, its manufacture, and the dis-
tribution of the finished product are almost invari-
ably in different hands.
The British petroleum industry may be said to
date from 1847, when James Young of Kelly com-
menced distilling petroleum from the coal measures
of Alfreton in Derbyshire. As the supply of oil
soon gave out, Young tried to imitate artificially
what he believed to be the natural process. He
argued that the oil was produced by subterrannean
distillation of bituminous minerals, and by experi-
ment discovered that cannels and shales when sub-
jected to distillation yielded a product similar to
natural petroleum. His attention was then directed
to the Boghead coal of Scotland, and in 1850 he
there erected the first works of what was later to
become the Scottish mineral oil industry. By 1871
there were 51 works in operation, and the price of
kerosene, which had been 2s. 6d. per gall, during
the currency of Young's patent, had dropped to
Is. 6d. There were at one time and another 116
works engaged in distilling Scotch shale. The
industry had probably reached its zenith in the
'seventies, after which time the development of the
American and Russian oilfields began to affect
prices. Each fall in price was countered by the
adoption of cheaper methods of handling and dis-
tilling the shale by improved plant and by the
working up of neglected by-products. Evidence
of this appears from the cost of the raw material
being reduced from 5s. Id. per ton in the 'sixties
to 2s. 7d. in 1882 and 2s. in 1897, while the expense
of distilling and refining fell from 5s. 7d. per ton
to 3s. 7d. in 1882 and just under 2s. in 1897. Dur-
ing the same period 'the output of shale rose from
one million tons per annum in 1880 to 3 million
tons in an attempt to reduce the incidence of fixed
costs by increasing the aggregate upon which the
same would be chargeable. Evidence of the rigour
of the fight appears from the number of companies
which went into liquidation. In 1880 the number
of companies had been reduced to 19, in 1895 to 12,
and when the curtain was rung down last autumn
only four companies remained to be acquired by the
Anglo-Persian Oil Co.
Having thus briefly considered the genesis of the
British petroleum industry we may now see what
it has grown to. In 1919 there were 360 British
companies with paid-up capitals amounting to 170
millions sterling. These figures refer only to the
nominal capitals, but if we take the market valua-
tions of all the companies it would amount to much
larger figures. The market valuation of four of the
largest companies amounts to over 300 millions.
Lest these figures should give too rosy a view of
the prosperity of the industry, it should be noted
that within the last ten years nearly 500 companies
have gone into liquidation.
The areas in which British companies are oper-
ating include the following: — Algeria, United
States, Turkey, Bulgaria, the Dutch Indies,
Ecuador, Egypt, Russia, Mexico, Persia, Rumania,
Assam, the Punjab, Burma, Trinidad, Bolivia,
Canada, Austria, Borneo, British Guinea, New
Zealand, South Africa, Syria, Colombia, Australia,
Cuba, Cyprus and Arenezuela.
It is the experience of a large and successful
corporation that on an average only one out of
six areas which have surface indications and which
have been favourably reported on by their geological
advisers proves a successful commercial proposition.
As it is generally at this stage in the development
of a property that the public becomes interested, it
is desirable that we should recognise the distinction
between an area believed to be oil-bearing and one
which through sound preliminary work has
advanced to a commercial proposition. In the latter
case it will have been ascertained that the depth of
the oil sands is not too great for profitable drilling,
that the yield per well is satisfactory, that the oil
is of good quality, free from excessive sulphur com-
pounds, that it is not emulsified, and that transpor-
tation problems are not too difficult. As a rule
the testing and development stages of an oil area
proceed together, and though it may be possible
as a temporary measure for the output of the test
wells to be disposed of in its crude state to some
third party, it is important that a comprehensive
policy for its refining and distribution should be
proceeded with at the earliest moment if the com-
pany owning the property is to make the most of its
resources.
It is a very striking economic fact that it has been
the refining and distribution of oil products that
has been the most remunerative, and not the win-
ning of the crude oil. The Standard Oil Company
was always more interested in the manufacture and
distribution of the products of petroleum than in
the production of the crude,
The cost of sinking wells varies within very wide
limits. Owing to the advance in the prices of all
structural and drilling plant it is impassible to give
absolute figures which would have any value, but
relative pre-war figures have a degree of interest.
From 3s. per foot for the easily drilled wells of
Ontario to 50s. per foot for the Coalinga field of
California gives a range which probably includes the
extreme limits. It is common knowledge that the
productivity of an oil well declines steadily from
the time the oil is first struck. What is not so
generally known is that for every producing sand
there is a more or less definite period at which the
decline becomes more gradual which is known as
the time of " settling." The determination of this
period is of importance as it enables production to
be averaged more successfully than is possible when
dependent on the varying yields of wells in their
initial stages.
Crude oils are generally classified as " asphaltic,"
"paraffin," or "mixed." The best instances of
asphaltic crudes are the Mexican and Californian
petroleums. Pennsylvania probably furnishes the
purest " paraffin base " oil, and examples of the
mixed are found in the Mid-Continent fields. The
processes which the refiner makes use of in the
separation of his products are: — distillation,
refrigeration, filtration, " sweating," and chemical
treatment. The distillation mav be " destructive "
Vol. XXXIX.. No. 6.]
when heat alone is applied to the still and when
the distillation products are considerably altered
from the forms in which they occur in the crude,
or by the injection of steam into the still itself the
distillation may proceed at reduced pressure, in
which case the intention is to separate the products
without altering their character. Distillation under
vacuum was once a common practice, but is now dis-
carded in up-to-date refineries, as the same results
can be obtained by the use of outside firing and
internal steam at less cost. Refrigeration is made
use of in the treatment of "paraffin base " oils to
effect the separation of the paraffin was. The
sweating process consists in subjecting the crude
was which still contains a proportion of oil
to the influence of a gradually increased tem-
perature— the was in the form of a cake or
block being meantime supported on a perforated
surface or on an inclined plane. As the tem-
perature rises the oil and the lower melting
point wases become liquid and drip through the
perforations or down the sloping surface leaving the
pure was behind. Chemical treatment generally
consists in washing the distillates with a small per-
centage of sulphuric acid, separating the so-called
'■ acid tar " which sinks to the bottom of the vessel
and then adding a solution of caustic soda. The
effect from the refiner's point of view is to improve
the colour of lubricating oils and to improve both
the colour and the burning qualities of illuminating
oils. The esact chemical action which takes place
is still obscure. The acid combines with the un-
saturated hydrocarbons, with the osygenated
bodies, and with some of the sulphur compounds,
but it is probable that its action is more comples
than these combinations alone would imply. De-
colorisation by filtration through animal charcoal,
fullers' earth or bausite completes the refining
operations in general use, but there are a number
of patented processes which have come to the front
in the last few years which are already having a
marked effect on the economic situation, and which
may be expected to be of even greater importance
when their advantages are more generally known.
First among these come the various " cracking "
processes. " Cracking " consists essentially in the
subjection of oils of high molecular weight to rela-
tively high temperatures and pressures which cause
their decomposition into hydrocarbons of lower
molecular weight and lower boiling-points. This
reaction has been known to refiners for many years,
and use has been constantly made of it when it was
desired to obtain a high yield of kerosene. Its
application to the manufacture of petrol is more
recent. Already the literature of the subject is
voluminous, and the number of patented processes
shows the practical interest in the subject. Many of
these processes are beyond the experimental stage.
and some have been turning out millions of gallons
of petrol within the last two years.
Another process which deserves attention is that
of Edeleanu, who substitutes the solvent action
of liquid sulphur dioxide for the usual acid treat-
ment. The separation of the unsaturated hydro-
carbons is very complete, and they are obtained in a
form which makes their conversion into useful by-
products more readily possible than from the sul-
phuric acid sludge.
The cost of chemical treatment varies within
extremely wide limits. It is high in those crudes
which contain excessive unsaturated hydrocarbons
and in making those products in which the market
demands a pale colour. It is always a considerable
and in some cases an avoidable expense. There
seems no special reason, for instance, why lubri-
cating oils should, except for some special purpose,
be pab> in colour, and the consumer would there-
tor.- seem to be paying for an operation which some
authorities hold is not only unnecessarv but per-
trimental to the product.
The standardisation and distribution of products
still leaves much to be desired. We know more
about the negative characteristics which are un-
desirable in commercial oil products than about
those positive qualities upon which their usefulness
depends. In lubrication, for instance, if we knew
more about the physical and chemical properties
of the higher hydrocarbons we might build up a
lubricant for a specific purpose which might be
more efficient and economical than any arbitrary
mixture. Similarly with motor fuel," we might
blend proportions of benzol, selected hydrocarbons
with petroleum, and even alcohol to make the ideal
fuel, and with a standard quality to reckon on the
motor manufacturers would doubtless respond with
more perfect carburation and cheaper running
costs. As has been said already, the distribution
of products to be economical must be in bulk.
Containers always mean avoidable expense, and
the price of the petrol has to be sufficient to re-
cover the original cost of the container based upon
its probable life. Throughout America the supply
of motor spirit is invariably in bulk, and in some
cases it is possible to go to an automatic machine.
place the end of a flesible pipe which is attached to
it in the tank of the car, and on dropping the pre-
scribed coins in their appropriate slots obtain a
supply of petrol which is visibly measured in a glass
vessel. It is satisfactory to note that this method
is now being introduced into this country.
As indicating the estreme range of economic pro-
duction of petroleum, the following two facts may
be quoted : The greatest producing well the world
has ever known, the Potrero del Llano No. 4, of the
Mexican Eagle Oil Co., was completed on December
26, 1910, at 1912 ft. It ran wild for 90 days, flow-
ing during that period at the rate of 100,000
barrels per day. In the eight years of its life
before it turned to salt water it was credited with a
production of 100 million barrels.
By the perfection of multiple pumping it is pos-
sible to work at a profit certain wells in Pennsyl-
vania yielding only half a barrel of crude oil per
dav.
NEWS FROM THE SECTIONS.
GLASGOW.
A meeting was held in the Royal Technical
College, Glasgow, on February 24, with Mr. Quintin
Moore in the chair. Mr. J. G. Roberts, of Messrs.
Shanks and Co., Barrhead, read a paper on "The
Manufacture of Porcelain."
After a brief sketch of the history and develop-
ment of pottery and porcelain, the materials used
and the process of manufacture were described. The
composition and characteristics of the various types
of porcelain were contrasted, and lantern slides of
micro-sections of laboratory porcelain, lent by Dr.
W. T. Gordon, of King's College, London, were ex-
hibited. These slides showed marked differences in
the extent and character of the sillimanite crystals,
and the lecturer said that the problem of the labora-
tory porcelain maker consisted in obtaining the
right amount of the right kind of crystallisation in
the sillimanite.
At an informal meeting of the Section held in the
City Business Club Room, Glasgow, on February 11,
Mr. J. G. Roberts gave a demonstration of the
casting of pottery ware in plaster of Paris moulds.
A small bowl was made, and Mr. Roberts explained
the method of manufacture, the principle involved,
and the ways in which the mould and the *' slip
poured into it could be adapted to the making of
different articles. Both plastic and non-plastic
material could be used for the " slip.'' The scope of
the process was indicated by drawings of chemical
ware of remarkable size manufactured bv Messrs.
Shanks
*3
103 B
REVIEW.
[Mar. 31, 1920.
Mr. W. A. Walmsley, who came to Glasgow last
year to take charge of the Chemical By-product De-
partment of the Corporation Gas Works, gave a
" Sketch of the Manufacture of Sulphuric Acid by
the Chamber Process with particular reference to
Spent Oxide." The author dealt with the sulphur-
bearing raw materials used in the manufacture of
sulphuric acid, the origin of the spent oxide,
burners and the burner house, types of furnaces,
methods of feeding, with a comparison of mechanical
and hand-firing, damper arrangements and their
use in stabilising the condition of the plant, Glover
towers, and all the methods of control which lead to
the efficient handling of the plant used in the manu-
facture of sulphuric acid.
NEWCASTLE.
" A Comparative Method of Determining the
Heat of Carbonisation of Coal " was the subject of
the paper read by Mr. G. Weyman at the meeting
held on March 3, Prof. B. Phillips Bedson presiding.
Observations on the carbonisation of coal in con-
tinuous vertical retorts have shown that under the
same conditions certain coals can be carbonised very
much more rapidly than others, and that this varia-
tion may make a difference of 25 to 30 per cent,
in the capacity of a carbonising plant. The coals
which give a slow rate of carbonisation are those of
the highly-coking bituminous type. The fact that
this system affords an improved means of distin-
guishing coals is really a point in its favour,
although it has been detrimental to its introduction.
The method of comparing the carbonising pro-
perties of coals devised by the author consists
essentially in plunging a known weight of coal into
a calorimeter at known temperature, the source of
heat being a known weight of molten copper. The
yield of gas is taken as the criterion of the amount
of carbonisation which takes place. Results were
given illustrating the effects of varying the amount
of coal and copper taken, and the method was
claimed to be consistent. Investigation of six differ-
ent coals showed that the heat quantities required
to effect carbonisation varied very considerably,
and the results obtained were compared with the
behaviour of the coals in practice. The difference in
the carbonising properties of the different coals is
considered to be due mainly to secondary decom-
position of the tarry matter first formed, which is
larger in amount and more dense in the case of the
bituminous coals.
The second paper was by Capt. P. S. Sinnatt on
" A New Characteristic for Coal — The Agglutina-
ting Curve," which was recently read before the
Manchester Section (this J., 1920, 71 e).
On March 6, the Section visited the works of
The International Paint and Composition Co., Ltd.,
on the kind invitation of the directors; and on
March 18 the President and General Secretary were
entertained at dinner by the Committee of the
Section.
MANCHESTER.
At the Grand Hotel, Manchester, on March 5,
Mr. J. Allan presiding, a paper on " Some Causes of
Ropiness in Bread " was read by Mr. James Grant.
The author gave an account of the troubles of the
housewife who baked her own bread in the days
when stone-milled flour was in use. Ropiness in
the mid-Victorian period was of common occurrence
and known as " string mould," owing to the appear-
ance of the bread when broken and pulled asunder.
German and French bacteriologists found that
string mould was intimately associated with potato
disease, which, in turn, was caused by the presence
of Bacillus mesentericus fuscus in the soil. Some
fifteen years ago the author investigated numerous
cases of bread disease, and found that the proteus
group of bacteria was sometimes the cause of the
trouble. Dr. D. J. Lloyd, of Cambridge, has re-
cently discovered that at least four groups of the
B. mesentericus are concerned in ropiness. Lately
the lecturer had an opportunity of studying the
question from the aspect of the influence of the
nature of crops on the development of ropiness in
wheaten bread. The results showed clearly that
wheat destined to be used for bread making should
not be grown on land previously under potatoes (cf.
this J., 1906, 350. 1917, 697).
In a paper on ' ' The Neutral Hydrolysis of Gun-
cotton, "with a note on the Alkaline Hydrolysis of
Guncotton," Prof. E. Knecht and Capt. B. R.
Bostock described the effects of heating gun-
cotton with water and with caustic soda. Heated
with water under pressure, guncotton goes com-
pletely into solution at 190° C, the bulk of the
nitrogen being given off as nitrous oxide, but
ammonia and hydrocyanic acid are also formed.
When guncotton is dissolved in warm caustic soda,
65 per cent, of the nitric acid is reduced to nitrous
acid. This figure is about 17 per cent, lower than
that found by Tor Carlson, but probably the dis-
crepancy can be accounted for by the different ex-
perimental conditions.
EDINBURGH AND EAST OF SCOTLAND.
On March 9, Mr. C. Norman Kemp gave a paper
on the production and uses of X-rays and some
account of their recent applications to the ex-
amination of materials.
After a rapid historical survey, the lecturer
described modern apparatus and recent improve-
ments in methods and technique. The various
commercial uses to which X-rays are being put
were enumerated, and the examination of a great
variety of materials, including metals, alloys,
electric cables, castings, wooden aeroplane parts,
reinforced concrete, were described in greater
detail ; also some applications to chemical analysis.
The lecturer specially emphasised the fact that all
materials, according to their density, are more or
less transparent to X-rays, and illustrated
this with an X-ray photograph of an oil painting
which showed the main outlines of the subject as
revealed by the varying densities of the pigments
employed. In conclusion the methods employed in
research and the lines of probable future develop-
ment were indicated.
Mrs. Norman Kemp also gave a short paper on
some points of chemical interest in connexion with
the application of X-rays to medicine and surgery.
Absorption and deposition of mineral matter as
exemplified in bone in health and injury were
noted. In the examination of the digestive system
the relative values of bismuth and barium salts and
other compounds relatively opaque to the rays were
mentioned, and some account of the various salts
used in injection media for radiographic purposes
was given. The increasing use of X-rays in the
examination of the teeth was also referred to.
At the annual meeting, held on the same
occasion, the following new members of the local
committee were elected: — Messrs. C. N. Kemp,
Robert Bruce, J. F. Tocher, A. Tait, and W. T. H.
Williamson, in place of Messrs. J. Hendrick
B. D. W. Luff, A. Middlemas, B. D. Porritt and
J. Walker, who now retire. The report of the hon.
secretary records the holding of seven meetings
and the reading of eleven papers and notes. The
average attendance was 40. Starting the session
with 136 members, the Section has lost 2 and
gained 25 members, bringing the total now to 159.
Allusion is made to the recent visit of the Pre-
sident, and to the importance of recruiting new
members.
Vol. XXXIX., Xo. 6.]
REVIEW.
109 r
CANADA.
Ottawa Branch.
" Chemical Patents " was the subject of a very
interesting address given before the Ottawa Branch
at its February meeting by Mr. A. E. MacRae,
Examiner in the Chemical and Metallurgical Divi-
sion of the Patent Office at Ottawa. Mr. ^IacRae
traced the development of chemical patents, and
showed that of the first eighteen patents granted
in England twelve were for chemical products. He
described some of the features of the Canadian
Patent Office, and emphasised the point that it
better facilities were provided much more could be
accomplished. In this connexion the speaker sug-
gested that the fees collected by the Patent Office
should not be regarded as a source of revenue for
the country, but that they should be diverted to
defray expenditures made for the improvement of
the service. The patentee, said Mr. MacRae.
should be regarded as a creator of national wealth.
In the ensuing discussion many interesting points
were raised, chief among which was the question of
whether patents should be granted for chemical
products or only for the process by which any newly
discovered chemical product is made, the majority
of those present inclining to the latter view.
It was intimated at the meeting that Bill 76.
which is intended to permit the manufacture and
sale of alcohol for industrial purposes duty free,
would be introduced again in the coming session of
Parliament, and a committee, consisting of Dr.
A. E. Macintyre and Messrs. E. A. Thomson and
S. J. Cook, was appointed to take whatever steps
might be desirable on the part of the Ottawa
Branch towards facilitating the progress of this
very important measure.
At a " lecture '" meeting held on February 5. a
kinematograph film depicting the operations of a
modern by-product coke plant, lent by the Koppers
Co. of Pittsburgh, was exhibited. The interest of
the film was much enhanced by a preliminary ex-
position of the plant by Mr. E. Stansfield. chief
engineering chemist of the Fuel Testing Division
of the Mines Branch. Following this exhibition
Mr. F. J. Kennedy, of Montreal, gave an illus-
trated account of modern methods of town gas
manufacture.
MEETINGS OF OTHER SOCIETIES.
THE PHYSICAL SOCIETY.
At the meeting held on March 12 last a paper
was read by Mr. J. S. G. Thomas on " A directional
hot-wire anemometer of high sensitivity, particu-
larly suitable for the investigation of low rates of
flow of gases."
The directional type of anemometer comprises
two fine platinum wires of about O'l mm. diam.
inserted transversely, in close juxtaposition, in the
main in which the flow of gas occurs. The wires
constitute two arms of a Wheatstone bridge in
which a constant current of about 1 ampere is
maintained. With passage of the stream of gas
over the heated wires in one direction the "down-
Stream " wire is subjected to less cooling action
than the " upstream " wire, and the indicator is
deflected in one direction. With reversal of the
direction of flow of the gas current the roles of
" upstream " and " downstream " wires are inter-
changed with a reversal of the direction of deflec-
tion of the indicator. The device affords a clear
indication of the direction of flow, and is designed
more particularly for use in mains in which certain
operations, such as the injection of oil, are carried
out or suspended according to the direction of flow
of gas in the main. The author finds that such
directional anemometers are of extreme sensitive-
ness ai low velocities — up to 5 cm. per sec. or so —
possessing in this region of low velocities a sensitive-
ness about 9 times as great as the Morris tvpe of
hot-wire instrument (this J., 1918, 165 t). this is
due to the fact that the " downstream " wire, when
immersed in a stream of such low velocity, far from
being cooled by the stream, is heated bv the hot
current of gas transported by the stream" from the
"upstream" wire. Moreover, the "upstream"
wire experiences an increased cooling effect due to
the free convection current set up by the second
heated wire in its vicinity.
THE INSTITUTE OF METALS.
The Spring Meeting of the Institute of Metals
was held in London on March 11 and 12. Eng.
Vice-Admiral Sir George Goodwin presided, and in
his presidential address reviewed the progress of
the Navy with special reference to its metallurgical
aspects, indicating the nature of the problems
which have still to be solved. He described difficul-
ties which have arisen in connexion with turbine
blading, condenser tubes, propellers and many
other applications of non-ferrous metals, and his
address was an appeal for greater co-operation
between engineers and metallurgists, and for the
education of each in the fundamental principles of
the science of the other.
Two papers on corrosion were presented at this
meeting, the first being the Fifth Report of the
Corrosion Committee of the Institute. This deals
with the corrosion of condenser tubes (mainly 70:30
brass) and is a study of the practical problems of
corrosion in condensers under service conditions,
employing either fresh or sea-water. It is divided
into four sections. The first deals with the
"diagnosis of condenser tube corrosion"; the
second deals with the structure of condenser tubes,
with particular reference to the surface layer; in
the third section, the five main types of condenser
tube corrosion are considered separately in detail,
while the fourth section contains an account of
preliminary work on the electrolytic protection of
condenser tubes. An interesting feature of the
report is the study of the so-called " dezincifica-
tion " of condenser tubes. It is shown that this
is not really selective removal of the zinc by direct
solution in the corroding medium, but that the
brass is dissolved completely and the copper subse-
quently re-deposited.
A paper by Dr. R. Seligman and Mr. P. Williams,
on the action of hard industrial waters on
aluminium, described the different forms of corro-
sion to which this metal is liable, and differentiate-
between general superficial attack, or "etching.
and localised deep attack, or " pitting." They con-
clude that pitting, which is the harmful form of
attack, is facilitated by the action of hydrogen per-
oxide produced during corrosion, which is only
retained in contact with the metal where mechanical
imperfections exist. They also discuss methods for
prevention of corrosion.
Mr. N. J. Maclean described methods of casting
" high-tensile brass." The object was to obtain
sand castings having a strength of 20 tons per
sq. in., a result which was achieved by careful con-
trol of pouring temperature and zinc content, and
by the use of a special hardener containing copper,
nickel and iron. Messrs. H. Moore and S. Beckin-
sale described experiments to determine the tem-
perature range within which the internal stresses
in cold-worked 70:30 brass may be removed without
serious reduction in the hardness. A paper by
Dr. W. Rosenhain, Mr. J. L. Haughton and Miss
K. Bingham described the constitution and
mechanical properties of alloys of zinc containing
from 0—10 per cent, copper and 0 — lo per cent,
aluminium. The constitution was described bv the
REVIEW.
aid of a "(ternary model." The rolling properties
of these alloys were carefully studied and also the
mechanical properties of the rolled metal. This
latter presents a number of anomalies, in that, over
a wide range of composition, the metal is very
ductile if deformed slowly, but very brittle if de-
formed rapidly. After storing, or after annealing
at 100° C. for some hours, the metal is brittle under
all conditions. An explanation of these properties
was given using the " amorphous metal hypo-
thesis." An interesting paper by A. C. Vivian
described a series of tin-phosphorus alloys; two
compounds Sn4P3 and Sn3P<, and three eutectics
were identified. Alloys containing more than 8 per
cent, of phosphorus were unstable, when molten,
at atmospheric pressure, and had to be made under
pressure. The author gives a temperature-concen-
tration diagram of the alloys, but in the absence of
any consideration of the quantitative effect of
pressure on the alloys this is of very doubtful value.
Three papers on copper were presented. Two of
these, by Messrs. W. E. Alkins and by P. Johnson,
dealt with the phenomenon, recently discovered,
that at a certain stage in the cold-rolling or draw-
ing of copper, a range occurs, at about 50 per cent,
reduction in thickness, over which an increase in the
amount of reduction is accompanied by a very small
increase in hardness. This " critical point " has
also now been detected by measurements of tensile
strength, elongation, specific gravity, and lateral
spread during rolling. No adequate explanation
of the phenomenon has yet been given ; Johnson
suggests that " the crystal grains are forced by the
rolling into a homotropic arrangement in which
slip can occur more smoothly and readily under
tensional forces over the critical range than at
other stages of deformation."
Mr. J. L. Haughton read a paper on the study
of thermal electro-motive force as an aid to the
investigation of the constitution of alloy systems.
This method of study is a useful adjunct to the
methods of thermal and microscopic analysis, but
the author's results suggest that considerable care
is required in arriving at a correct interpretation
of the results obtained. It is shown that the
manner of the arrangement of the constituents of
an .alloy can have an influence on the thermal
electro-motive force developed under any given
conditions. For example, in the case of composite
copper and nickel rods, the e.m.f. against iron is
nearly 50 per cent, greater when the rod is built
up of small discs of the two metals in series with
one another, than when it takes the form of a
bundle of parallel strips.
Other papers presented at the meeting were: —
" Notes on the Effect of Hydrogen on Copper," by
AV. C. Hothersall and E. L. Rhead ; " Idiomorphic
Crystals of Electro-deposited Copper," by W. E.
Hughes; " A Model for Representing the Constitu-
tion of Ternary Alloys," by W. Rosenhain; and
" The Etching of Zinc," by H. H. Hayes.
NATIONAL UNION OF SCIENTIFIC
WORKERS.
The half-yearly meeting of the Council was held
at University College, London, on March 6. Mr.
G. S. Baker, chairman, reported that the rapid
growth of the Union had necessitated the appoint-
ment of a full-time secretary, and that Major A. G.
Church had been appointed to fill that office. Since
November last two branches had been formed and
several were in process of formation. The report
of the Research Committee outlined the function
of this body and that of the Research Council
shortly to be constituted; they will consider how
industry and public administration can be kept in
close touch with the development of scientific know-
ledge, and ensure that the views and conditions of
employment of scientific workers shall receive con-
sideration from all bodies bringing forward any
schemes for research in science or for the adminis-
tration of research.
In presenting the report of the committee on
patent rights, Mr. A. A. Griffith emphasised the
need for safeguarding the reputation of scientific-
workers in regard to rights of publication and
authorship, " the only satisfactory way of
remunerating salaried inventors is to pay them
adequate salaries ; a salaried inventor receiving an
adequate salary should have no claim whatever to
any extra payment because his work proves unex-
pectedly remunerative." The Council passed a
resolution " protesting strongly against the differ-
ential treatment of men and women as regards the
method of recruitment to the Civil Service and the
salary scales offered therein as recommended by the
Reorganisation Sub-committee of the Civil Service
National Whitley Council.''
THE CHEMICAL SOCIETY.
Four papers were presented at the meeting held
on March 18. Dr. H. E. Fierz gave an account of
recent work on the electrolytic reduction of nitro-
naphthalene sulphonic acids; the naphthylamine
sulphonic acids of Erdmann, Laurent and Koch
were produced electrolytic-ally, but Cleve's acid was
not obtained, the reduction ceasing at the hydroxyl-
amine stage.
A paper on the use of 1:2 dichlorvinylethyl ether
for the, production of chloracetates and acid
chlorides by Prof. H. Crompton and Miss P. L.
Vanderstichele was presented by the latter. The
reactions of this other with alcohols, phenols and
acids are of two kinds: —
-CH„Cl.CO„R + EtCl a)
CHCl:CCl(OEt) + ROH
^CH2Cl.C02Et+RCl (2)
Both of these changes occur with the alcohols, but
(1) predominates in all cases, except that of methyl
alcohol. The phenols examined reacted entirely
in accordance with (1), and the organic acids almost
entirely in accordance with (2). These reactions
occur usually with readiness, sometimes even with
violence, when the two substances are heated to-
gether, and in many cases are almost quantitative.
Mr. W. E. Garner followed with an account of an
electronic theory of isomerism based on the hypo-
theses of Bohr and Ramsay that the valency elec-
trons rotate around the lines joining the centres
of the atoms in chemical combination, thereby
developing a north-seeking pole on one atom and
a south-sec-king pole on the other. It follows there-
fore that in any compound there are equal numbers
of north and south valencies. The author assumes
that in organic compounds the carbon atom
possesses two north and two south valencies, oxygen
one north and one south, and the hydrogen atom
may have either a north or a south valency ; also that
the carbon atoms are arranged in an alternating
manner throughout the crystal, and that this
arrangement persists in the liquid condition. These
assumptions indicate a new type of isomerism due
to the distribution of the north and south valencies
about one arrangement of the atoms in space, and
it is suggested that the isomerism shown by cin-
namic, malic and glutaconic acids, and by o, /3 and 7
sugars is of this type. On this theory an electro-
magnetic field forms the " atmosphere " of all
molecules. It is thus conceivable that the
phenomena of racemisation, Walden inversion,
asymmetric synthesis and mutarotation are due to-
electronic changes rather than to a movement of the
groups. An explanation was also given of the
alternation in melting points of the homologous
series.
Vol. XXXIX., Xo. 6.1
REVIEW.
Ill B
The hist paper was on the composition of sal-
varsan by Prof. F. L. Pyman and Mr. R. G.
Faxgher. The latter dealt in the first instance with
the question of the nature and amount of eombined
solvent present in the commercial product, and
showed that the retained solvent consists almost
entirely of water, the percentage of methyl alcohol
found varying from nil to 1'4. In connexion with
the presence of sulphur in the British and German
products, the amount of which was usually 1 — 2
per cent., the authors have found that at least a.
portion of it is present in acidic form, most probably
as a sulphaminic acid, and evidence was given show-
ing that a portion of the remainder was attached
to arsenic. The hist section of the paper dealt with
the preparation of pure diamino-dihydroxy-arseno-
benzene dihvdroehloride, the most satisfactory
process being the reduction of 3-amino-4-hydroxy-
phenylarsenic acid with phosphorous acid. It is
interesting to record that a specimen of this pure
material tested by the Medical Research Committee
proved to be more than normally toxic.
NEWS AND NOTES
AUSTRALIA.
New South Wales Government Paper Plant. — The
Xew South AVales Government intends to undertake
almost immediately experiments in the manufac-
ture of paper from local timbers. A committee,
consisting of Mr. W. A. Gullick (Government
Printer), Messrs. R. T. Baker and H. G. Smith (of
the Sydney Technical College), and two other
Oovernment officers, is now arranging for the intro-
duction of a plant into New South AVales. This
action has been taken in consequence of the satis-
factory reports received from Canada of laboratory
tests on the suitability of selected Australian
timbers. — (Sciencp and Industry, Dec., 1919.)
Australian Sandalwood Oil. — It has been found that
a marked chemical difference exists between the
oil derived from Western Australian sandalwood
and that obtained from Indian sandalwood. Re-
cent research shows that the oil from the West
Australian tree does not contain santalol, but a
nearly related chemical compound. Medical prac-
titioners who have used the Australian oil consider
that it is quite equal to the true sandalwood oil
without possessing the deleterious effects of the
latter. The Western Australian Committee of the
Institute of Science and Industry has referred the
matter to the Institute with a view to having com-
plete tests made as to the chemical and therapeutic
properties of the oil, in order that action might
be taken to have the Australian product inserted
in the British Pharmacopoeia. — (Science mid In-
dustry, !>••<■., 1919.)
The Castor Oil Plant in New South Wales.— An
interesting account of experiments and experiences
in the cultivation and testing of seeds of the castor
oil plant was given by Messrs. E. Chiel and A. R.
Penfold at a recent meeting in Sydney of the indus-
trial section of the Royal Society. Two distinct
forms of the plant are found naturalised in New
South Wales, and. in addition, there are at least
tour varieties under cultivation. The oil from the
seeds grown in New South Wales was found to
average 50 per cent, by weight of the seeds, and
the analytical figures showed it to be useful for all
such purposes as lubrication, leather dressing,
dyeing and medicine. In view of the importance
of these facts and of the high price obtainable for
the oil it was suggested that experiments should be
conducted on a much larger scale. — (Hardware and
\tachint i ii. Jin, . 1920.)
Mineral Output oi Tasmania in 1918'. — The report
of the Secretary Mines, Tasmania, gives the fol-
lowing figures for the mineral output in 1918, those
for 1917 being placed in brackets : —Gold,
10,529 oz. a-1,496), silver-lead .hc 7211 tons
(95761; blister copper, 5559 tons (5845); copper ore,
444 tons (771); tin ore, 2256 tons (2637); wolfram,
155 tons (172); osmiridium, 1607 oz. (332); zinc,
3822 tons (48); scheelite, 216 tons (69); coal, 60,163
tons' (63,412).— (U.S. Com. Hep.. Jan. 26, 1920.)
New Copper-Bearing Areas of Northern Territory. —
The Director of Mines has reported that extensive
areas of copper formations occur about three miles
south of the Queensland border and about sixty
miles south of the shores of the Gulf of Carpen-
taria. Work carried out has shown that copper
can be obtained 54 ft. from the surface, mining
being easy as the rock is soft. Most of the copper
occurs in irregular deposits. One area has already
produced about 100 tons of 35 per cent, shipping
ore, and probably 2000 tons of ore with 7 — 10 per
cent, of copper. The economic exploitation of these
deposits will depend on the erectio.i of a treatment
plant near the mines. — (Bd. of Trade. ./., Mar. 11,
1920.)
NEW ZEALAND.
Condensed, Evaporated and Powdered Milk. — Fair
quantities of powdered and condensed milk are
manufactured in New Zealand, e.g., in 1917 — 18,
2950 long tons, and in 1918—19, 3225 long tons, of
dried milk were produced. Several new milk fac-
tories are being erected, and one plant is expected
to turn out 5000 lb. of dried milk daily. There is
only one large factory in New Zealand manufac-
turing sweetened and unsweetened condensed milk ;
in 1918 its output was 6,205,400 lb. As New Zea-
land is an important dairy country, many more con-
densed milk factories will probably be erected to
utilise the skimmed and surplus milk, and this
industry w ill expand as soon as the price of machin-
ery is reduced. — (U.S. Com. Hep., Nov. 26, 1919.)
BRITISH INDIA.
Chemical Industry in Bengal. — As a commercial
centre Calcutta possesses many advantages. It
lies in the very fertile country of Bengal which has
an extensive system of natural waterways as well
as some canals and a number of railways. Two of
the railways connect Calcutta with the principal
coalfield of India, which lies partly in Bengal and
partly in the neighbouring province of Crissa. The
great jute industry is concentrated mound Cal-
cutta and finds its outlet from that port, as also
does the tea industry of Assam. Although there is
a large class of well-educated and intelligent Ben-
galis, many of the industries before the war were
on a small scale and mostly in the hands of British
firms, the trade consisting almost entirely in the
export of raw materials and the import of manu-
factured goods. This applied especially to the
chemical industries, which were handicapped by
the absence of sulphur ores, sulphuric acid being
made from imported sulphur. The opening up of
the zinc-lead mines in Burma will alter this, and
soda is now being imported from East Africa by
the Magadi Soda Co.. which converts part of it into
caustic soda at a factory near Calcutta.
The most important chemical works are those of
Waldie and Co., but there are also many small fac-
tories, mainly for the manufacture of drugs, for
which there is a very large demand. Some of these
have been started recently by Indians. One of the
most remarkable of the chemical enterprises is the
Bengal Chemical and Pharmaceutical Works, Ltd.,
which was started some 19 years ago by Prof, (now
Sir) P. C. Ray. Although the output was very
small until recently, this firm showed great enter-
prise in taking up new branches of manufacture,
112 B
REVIEW.
[Mar. 31, 1920.
such as making chemical balances and other
accurate scientific instruments, and gas-making in-
stallations for laboratories. At present about a
thousand workers are employed and some twenty
chemists, all Indians and graduates of Calcutta
University. A larger factory is being erected on
the river-bank.
Although shares in existing companies are in
many instances practically unsaleable, the flotation
of new companies continues on a larp;e scale. In
October last, 92 companies were registered, with an
aggregate authorised capital equivalent, at the
current rate of exchange, to about £60,000,000.
During this month there were floated two tanning
companies, a paint works, a cement company,
thirteen companies for cotton and jute mills,
presses, etc., eight coal-mining undertakings, and
two other mining companies.
Mineral Production in 1918. — Although there was
an increase of £2,500,000, or 18 per cent., in the
value of the total mineral production over that for
1917, these figures must necessarily be viewed in the
light of the higher costs of production, otherwise
it is not possible to obtain a true indication of the
state of the industry. The number of mineral con-
cessions granted during the year amounted to 719,
as against 574 in the preceding year, and most of
this increase was due to prospecting activity in
Lower Burma.
The output of chromite increased by more than
100 per cent. ; this was partly owing to increased
production in Baluchistan, but chiefly to the rapid
development of a new mine in Mysore. Baluchis-
tan produced 22,944 tons, Behar and Orissa 1,085
tons, and Mysore 33,740 tons. In 1917 Mysore pro-
duced only 8,316 tons.
There was an increase in the coal production of
over 2£ million tons. With the exception of Assam
and Hyderabad, all the Indian provinces shared in
this increase. The pit mouth value increased
everywhere except in the North-West Frontier
Province. Exports of coal fell to 74,335 tons, com-
pared with 407,078 tons in 1917, while imports in-
creased from 43,788 tons in 1917 to 53,202 tons.
These figures do not include coke and patent fuel,
of which the quantities dealt with were small.
The output of copper ore in Singhbhum fell from
20,108 tons in 1917 to only 3,619 tons. Smelting
operations were begun at the Rakha Mines, where
13'16 tons of blister copper was produced.
There was a decrease of 38,175 oz. in the output
of gold. All provinces shared in the decrease,
which was greatest in the Mysore fields. The total
output was 536,118-32 oz.
The output of iron ore rose considerably. The
Tata Iron and Steel Co. produced 198,064 tons of
pig-iron and 130,043 tons of steel, including rails,
while the Bengal Iron and Steel Co. produced
49,348 tons of pig-iron, 12,114 tons of ferro-man-
ganese, and 21,776 tons of cast-iron castings. In
the Central Provinces the number of furnaces in
operation declined from 312 to 232.
Although there was a decrease in the amount of
ore and slag produced at the Bawdwin Mines, the
amount of metal extracted was greater than in the
previous year 1917, the total output being 19,074
tons, as against 16,962 tons. The quantity of
silver extracted rose from 1,580,557 to 1,970,614 oz.
The output of manganese ore fell from about
591,000 tons to 518,000 tons. As usual, 80 per cent,
of the production came from the Central Provinces.
About 315,000 tons was exported, and considerable
stocks were held in the country at the end of the
year.
There was an increase of about 4 million gallons
in the output of petroleum, the total production
being 286,585,011 galls. The chief increases were
in Burma ; over 26 million galls, from the Yenang-
yaung field, 1§ million from Minbu, and 2£ million
from the Badarpur field in Assam. For the first
time the Chindwin field showed an output, amount-
ing to nearly 500,000 galls. The output from the
Singh field fell by about 24£ million galls. Imports
of kerosene oil decreased by over 30 per cent., and
amounted to only 21,768,176 galls. ; and exports of
paraffin wax rose from 438,888 cwt. to 508,964 cwt.
In addition to the output of -silver at Bawdwin,
a small quantity (1,169 oz.> was produced from the
Anantapur gold mine in Madras. The total
Indian production of silver was 1,971,783 oz.
There was a small increase in the output of tin
ore, which rose from 13,321 cwt. in 1917 to 15,607
cwt. in 1918. The whole of the ore came from
Lower Burma, and nearly half of it from the
Southern Shan States. Mergui produced 2,000
cwt. of block tin. The imports of tin fell from
28,180 cwt. in 1917 to 24,596 cwt. in 1918. Prac-
tically the whole of the tin imported came from the
Straits Settlements.
There was a slight decrease in the output of
wolfram, which fell from 4,542 tons to 4,431 tons;
as usual, most of this ore came from Tavov. —
(Geol. Sure. India. Vol. 50, Ft. 3.)
CANADA.
Quebec Asbestos Fields. — The province of Quebec
is the world's chief source of asbestos, as it pro-
vides 85 per cent, of the total output. The work-
able deposits extend over a length of 23 miles, with
a width varying from 100 to 6,000 ft. The pro-
duction in 1917 (see J., 1919, 25 k) was 153,781 tons,
valued at £1,446,815.— (Official.)
Zinc Output. — It has been stated that the zinc
output of Canada could be increased to supply one-
tenth of the world's demands, estimated at over one
million tons a year (see J.., 1919, 164 b). A 10,000-
ton concentrator is being erected at Kimberley,
British Columbia, to handle the production from
the Sullivan mine ; this unit will probably be ex-
tended to give an output of 20,000 tons a day,
and, when finished, will be the largest zinc
concentrating plant on the continent. — (Official.)
The Coal Industry in Alberta. — The Hon. Charles
Stewart, Premier of Alberta, in an address to the
members of the Calgary Board of Trade, announced
the immediate formation of a commission to develop
and protect the coal-mining industry of Alberta.
This commission will strive to form a real under-
standing between miners and operators, increase
markets and develop the industry in general. It
will be representative of the Government, miners,
and operators, and will have sufficient authority to
making its ridings effective. — (Canad. Mining J..
Jan. 23, 1920.)
FRANCE.
Alcohol Production. — The following comparison of
production, imports and exports, of alcohol in
France for the years 1919 and 1918, is published
by the Finance Minister : —
1919. 1918.
Total production (hectolitres) 821,216 831,758
Imports ( „ ) 693,493 677,136
Exports ( ,, ) 198,234 102,598
—(Journal Officiel, Jan. 24, 1920.)
JAPAN.
The Glass-Making Industry.— During 1918, 240 new
glass factories, employing 3,236 hands, were started
in Japan. The Japanese output of glass has in-
creased from a value of about 7 million yen (yen
= 2s. 0Jd.) in 1914 to 27,360,000 yen in 1917, and
41,924,000 ven in 1918.— (Oil, Paint and Drua
Hep., Feb. 9, 1920.)
The Caffeine Combine. — The caffeine manufac-
turers of Japan have combined to form a company
known as the Mippon Caffeine Co., Ltd., with a
capital of 1 million yen, the intention being to
obtain a monopoly of caffeine in the world market
VoL XXXIX., No. C]
REVIEW.
113 b
by taking advantage of the position of Japan in
the tea trade. The yearly output is now under
50,000 lb., but it is expected soon to exceed that
figure.— (Oil, Paint and Drug Rep., Jan. 12. 1920.)
SOUTH AFRICA.
Mining in Swaziland. — The output of cassiterite tin
in 1918-19 was 480 tons, valued at £76,870, as com-
pared with 511 tons, valued at £60,211 in 1917-18.
As in the previous year, there was no output of
gold.— {Col. Hep. Ann., No. 1020, Feb. 1920.)
Discovery of Hxmatite. — A haematite deposit of ',
great promise has been discovered in the Rusten-
burg district. The ore contains roughly 90 per
oent. of haematite, only about 2 per cent, of silica,
and a small percentage of phosphorus, low enough
for the ore to be classed as a Bessemer ore. It is at
present impossible to estimate what quantities of
ore may be present, but one outcrop shows bands of
haematite with a collective thickness of 42 ft., which
persist for over two miles. — (S. African J. Intl.,
Dec., 1919.)
UNITED STATES.
American Chemical Society. — The Spring Meeting
will be held at St. Louis from April 12 to 17 inclu-
sive. Among the subjects to be discussed are the
confiscation of German-owned American patents,
the American patent laws, the development of the
Chemical Warfare Service, and the dye industry.
The proposal to put an embargo on certain foreign
dyes has been held up in Congress on account of
the prior claims to co"*ideration of the Peace
Treaty.
Research on Oil Shales.— lue sum of $10,000 is to \
be spent in investigating the oil shales in the
State of Colorado. The work will be undertaken
by the Bureau of Mines in the laboratories of the
University of Colorado, and will be directed
towards developing commercial processes for
retorting the shale and refining the crude oil ob- I
tained. The results will be published.
Syrup from Home-grown Sugar-Beets. — From time I
to time directions have been issued for the pre-
paration of table syrups at home from garden-
grown sugar-beets, but results have usually been
unsatisfactory. The compound that is responsible
for the objectionable flavour has not yet been
identified, but the latest experiments indicate that
if all green portions are removed from that part
of the beet usually above the ground a very satis-
factory syrup can be produced, and that the flavour
and colour are improved if fully-ripened beets are
used. It has been suggested to use the syrup
as a diluent for maple and other strongly-flavoured
syrups.
Mineral Output of Alaska in 1919. — The value of the
mineral output of Alaska for 1919 was less than half
that of 1916, largely owing to th,e fall in the price
of copper. Eight copper mines were worked in
1919, producing some 44,800,000 lb., as against
69.225.000 'lb. in 1918. The gold output has
declined from a value of $16,700,000 in 1916 to
$9,000,000 in 1919. As by-products to gold and
silver mining, 590,000 oz. of silver and 800 tons of
lead were mined during the year. — (Bti. of Trade J.,
Feb. 26, 1920.)
Zinc and Copper Production in 1919. — Some 450,000
tons of zinc were produced in the United States in
1919, as compared with 517.927 tons in 1918. In
November, 1919, 100,800 out of a total of 158,000
retorts wore in operation, against 82,000 out of
159,000 available on June 30, 1919. In the same
year about 275 million lb. of copper was exported,
representing 15 per cent, of the production,
against a normal figure of 65 per cent. Forty per
oent. of this amount went to Japan, which had pre-
viously never taken more than 2J per cent., while
14 per cent, went to Britain, Germany, Holland,
Sweden and Denmark. — (Hoard of Trade J., Mar.
4, 1920.)
The Dye Imports Bill. — The new section which has
been introduced into the Bill regulating the im-
ports of dyestuffs into the United States provides
that no article on the dutiable list Khali be imported
unless the Tariff Commission shall determine that
sucli article, or an efficient substitute, is not
obtainable in the United States on reasonable terms
as to quality, price, and delivery, and that the
article is required for use by an actual consumer in
the country. The final working of the Bill is still
uncertain, as changes are suggested. It is proposed
to frame the Bill in such a way as to protect the
home producer and to prevent any consumer from
obtaining supplies for more than six months, and
to hinder the accumulation of more than six
months' supply for the countrv as a whole. —
(Chem. and Met. Eng.. Feb. 11, 1920.)
Petroleum Investigations and Helium Production. —
Bulletin 178 C, an advance chapter from Bulletin
178, War Work of the Bureau of Mines, Washing-
ton, details the activities of the American authori-
ties in connexion with supplies of petroleum and
helium during the latter period of the war. An
investigation of the suitability of fuels for fighting
aeroplanes led to the conclusion that the best was
that composed of 70 per cent, cyclohexane and 30
per cent, benzol (so-called " hecter "), which when
used in a high-compression motor, gave an aero-
plane an additional thousand feet of " ceiling."
The oilfields of the United States were carefully
surveyed and monthly statistics of the refining
industry compiled. An investigation was under-
taken as to the possibiIit3' of increasing the pro-
duction of oil in California by promiscuous drilling
and by drilling at selected stations. A plant for
the distillation of oil shales is being erected at Elko,
Nevada. The output of oil from the Cushingfield,
Oklahoma, was considerably increased by excluding
water from the wells by cement. Investigation
showed that practically all American distillates and
some residuum fuel oils conform to the viscosity
specification of the British Admiralty. Various
preparations, alleged to increase the efficiency of
gasoline were found to be worthless. The Swan
process for recovery of waste crank-case oils was
favourably reported upon and was adopted by the
French Gocernment. Oils from the Humble field,
Texas, were found to be suitable for the manu-
facture of gasolene by cracking processes. The
Bureau, amongst its numerous activities, investi-
gated petroleum facilities in France, examined the
efficiency of recovery of gasolene from natural gas,
supplied information concerning economy in the
use of oil fuels, took a census of oil-well casing, was
responsible for the inspection of overseas ship-
ments of gasoline, drew up a valuation of oil pro-
perties in the Naval Petroleum Reserves, and
assisted in prospecting for oil in the British Isles.
The large-scale production of helium is one of
the outstanding scientific achievements of the war
period. Mixtures of hydrogen and helium in
certain proportions, as well as helium alone, can
be used with perfect safety in lighter-than-air craft.
Towards the end of 1917 it was decided to erect ex-
perimental plants, working the systems of Linde,
Claude, Norton, and Lacy for the production of
helium from natural gas. The Lacy system was
dropped later. In the Norton process three ex-
pansion engines are used, liquid is throttled, and
heat interchanger and fractionating still are of new
design. It represents the latest practicable
development in liquefying and separating gases.
The cost of " Argon " Plant No. 3, operating the
Norton process, which was completed October 1,
1918, was $148,398. The estimated production of
helium was 30,000 cub. ft. per day. Plant No. 1
REVIEW.
(Linde) tost §24-3,000, and Plant Xo. 2 (Air Re-
duction) §13-5,000. Their respective capacities
were .5000 and 3000 cub. ft. per day. Altogether
200,000 cub. ft. of helium of 92.5 per cent, purity
was produced by Plants 1 and 2. It is anticipated
that helium of the highest purity will be produced
by Plant No. 3 on a large scale very shortly. Plant
1 is now dismantled. Further experimental work
i- to be carried out on Plant Xo. 3, a fund of
$100,000 having been made available for the pur-
pose. Helium, which in pre-war days cost about
§2,000 per cub. ft. to produce, can now be pro-
duced on the large scale at an approximate cost of
§07 per cub. ft.
GEXEHAL.
Research and the Non-Ferrous Metals Industry. — A
research association for the non-ferrous metal in-
dustry has been formed which will be registered as a
limited liability company, working without profit,
and with a nominal guarantee from members in
place of shares. It is incorporated as " The British
Non-Ferrous Metals Research Association." and its
province includes all the non-ferrous metal
industries throughout the country.
All British firms who are engaged in any branch
of the non-ferrous metals industry, whether pro-
ducers, manufacturers, or users, are invited to
join the Association, and thus to become eligible for
benefits resulting from its scientific investigations.
Xon-British firms will be excluded from member-
ship. The members of the Association will pay an
annual subscription based upon the capital em-
ployed in the business, except where a firm's
capital is partly employed in other than non-ferrous
metal work, in which case the firm's subscription
will be specially assessed. The minimum annual
subscription is £25 and the maximum annual
subscription £200 (for the first year).
It is intended at an early date to obtain suitable
quarters in Birmingham for housing an informa-
tion bureau, and later to establish branches in
various other centres. In the near future a pro-
gramme of research will be drawn up, primary
attention being given to the more urgent needs of
the industry. At the outset, the Association will
not set up its own laboratories, but will utilise
existing institutions, such as the Xational Physical
Laboratory and the Universities. If the work of
the Association is to be efficiently carried out, and
is to be of practical value to the industry, it must
be well financed and fully equipped. General sup-
port is necessary if the full measure of Government
aid is to be obtained, and it is hoped that all firms
in the non-ferrous metal industry will become mem-
bers. The Council of the Association is well repre-
sentative of the non-ferrous metal industry. The
chairman is Mr. Thomas Bolton, of Messrs. Thomas
Bolton and Co. ; vice-chairman, Mr. Fredk. Tomlin
son (The Broughton Copper Co.); and the secre-
tary, Mr. Ernest A. Smith, with temporary offices
;it 30. Paradise Street, Birmingham.
Chemical Engineering.— Speaking at University
College, London, on March 12, on the occasion of the
formal inspection of the new laboratories by Prince
Arthur of Connaught, Lord Moulton compared the
relationship between the chemist and the chemical
engineer with that of the mathematician to the
mechanical engineer. The passage from the world
of idealities to the world of practice was a difficult
one involving the exercise of peculiar knowledge,
experience and talent-.. Successful change of scale
was the secret of chemical engineering. It was very
difricult to roast a whole ox satisfactorily, but easy
enough to cook a single joint. The war had given
a stimulus to chemical engineering in this country
where it had been previously neglected : it was not
knowledge of chemistry that we lacked, but prac-
tical experience of its application. Lord Moulton
also emphasised the necessity of familiarising
students at College with large scale chemical opera-
tions, and in this connexion referred to the grant
of £25,000 by the Ramsay Memorial Committee for
the erection of chemical engineering laboratories at
University College. Prof. F. G. Donnan, who also
spoke, stated that in addition to the sum mentioned
another £50,000 was required for the completion of
the building and its equipment.
The Dve Industry. — In the issue of The Glasgow
Herald for February 28, Prof. H. E. Armstrong
deplores the lack of progress in dye manufacture
since the conclusion of hostilities, which he ascribes
mainly to the impossibility of obtaining plant owing
to dissensions in the engineering trades. Hence
the demands of the textile trades are likely to re-
main unsatisfied for some time to come. State-
ments to the effect that the bulk of the supplies —
some 80 per cent. — is being produced at home are
misleading; even including the dyes imported from
Switzerland made from home intermediates, pro-
bably not one-half of the demand has been met in
point of quantity, and only a small percentage in
point of colour, shade and fastness. The failure
of the Government to introduce protection, the
Sankey judgment, and the complete breakdown of
the Board of Trade's scheme to regulate imports
have led to a state of chaos. Meanwhile, America
is advancing. It is obvious that some form of pro-
tection is necessary, but manufacturers must not be
granted any " soft options " ; the views of users and
producers, still more, those of agents, will always be
difficult to reconcile. The industry can never
prosper under present management, and the past
impotency of the users in face of the producers is
lamentable. Equally deplorable is the lack of any
organisation either in the dyestuff or the fine
chemical branches, in both of which — the latter
especially — aloofness rather than co-onrration is the
order of the day. The future of the industry lies
in the provision of the right type of men as leaders
— such men as we have had in the heavy chemical
trade, but never in the organic, where the Germans
have beaten us out and out. The recent withdrawal
of the professoriate from academic to industrial
service must entail most serious consequences, for
the manufacture of organic chemists is of far
greater importance than that of dyestuffs. It is
regrettable that so much of the work now being
done merely involves the interpretation of German
patents and not original investigation. Instead of
spending time in copying, we should be seeking to
move forward. This is not being done sufficiently,
and the prospects of the industry are therefore
gloomy.
German Remarks on the Claude Synthetic Ammonia
Process. — Editorial remarks on the Claude process
(this J., 1920, 40 r) in " Die Chemische Industrie "
Tor March 3, point out that the successful experi-
ments recorded were obviously only laboratory tests.
The extraordinary difficulties at tending the synthesis
of ammonia at 1-50 to 200 atmospheres pressure,
particularly in regard to the question of plant, were
only overcome in Germany after long years of work,
and it would appear at least doubtful if the utilisa-
tion of 1.000 atmospheres' pressure, which must in-
crease the difficulties to an enormous extent and
also introduce new complications, will be carried
through on a technical scale. The use of very high
pressures is covered by the patents taken out by
Haber and the Badische Company, and the advan-
tages of using small reaction vessels were well
known to them.
Discovery of Siher Ore in Spain. — New and valuable
silver ore deposits have been discovered in the
province of Almeria, of which the most important
is that found in Sierra Alhamilla (32 km. from
Almeria). The argentiferous mineral is antimony
sulphide, and it occurs at a depth of 65 m. The
silver content runs 108 kg. to the ton, and the
Vol. XXXIX, Xo. 6.]
REVIEW.
deposit covers over 2 sq. km. — (Z. angew. Chem.,
Jan. 30, 1920.)
The Manganese Industry of Georgia. — The Georgian
manganese deposits are situated in the Caucasus,
near Tchiaturi. in the valley of the River Kvirila,
where they cover an area of some 400 square miles.
About 200 million tons is said to be available for
exploitation. The total output from 1904 to 1913
was 0,303.706 tons of ore, compared with 954,645
tons in 1913. In 1906 the number of mines worked
was 443. The ore, which is remarkably free from
undesirable constituents, contains from 49'31 —
51.50 per cent, of metallic manganese, from 6"'80 —
10'55 per cent, of moisture and from 829 — 10'42
per cent, of silica. — (Russo-Brit. Chamb. Com. J.,
Feb., 1920.)
Finnish Industries. — During 1918 Finland exported
29.415 and 23.990 short tons of wet and dry pulp,
the total value of paper pulp and paper exported
being £2,436,777, a decrease of over £7,000,000
compared with 1916. Wood alcohol, turpentine,
rosin and ammonium sulphate are recovered as by-
products from the chemical-pulp mills. Large
<tocks of timber and pulp are now in hand, and the
industry has a promising future. Copper pyrites,
iron pyrites, magnetite, galena, and molybdenite
ores occur in Finland. The iron ore mined (see J.,
1919, 27n) is not of the best quality, but about
350,000 tons of pig-iron was produced in 1915.
Large deposits of iron ore are said to occur in Lap-
land. At Outokumpu there are copper deposits con-
taining about 6 to 8 million tons of ore in sight,
with 4 per cent, of copper and 27 per cent, of sul-
phur. In spite of the necessity to import all its raw
materials, the Finnish glass industry has developed
rapidly; the value of the output in 1912 and 1913
was about £200.000.— {U.S. Com. Rep. Suppl.,
Dec. 20, 1919.)
Petroleum Production in Mexico. — In 1918 the
Mexican output of petroleum was 63,828,836 bar-
rels ;the output for 1919 was estimated at 80 million
barrels, an increase of 20 per cent. This output is
said to be only 10 per cent, of the potential pro-
duction, 1,800,000 barrels per day. In the petro-
leum district tanks are available with a storage
capacity of 48 million barrels. The total capacity
of the existing petroleum refining plants in Mexico
is 90,000 barrels dailv. (U.S. Com. Rep., Jan. 21,
1920.)
The Sugar Industry in Paraguay. — The growth of
sugar cane in Paraguay is confined to the neigh-
bourhood of sugar refineries in northern and eastern
Cordillera and a part of the Chaco. About 7,750
hectares was planted up in 1919 ; the production in
1918 was 387,500,000 kilo., and in 1919 about
400,000,000 kilo. In 1918 there were produced
561,820 kilo, of refined sugar, 180,121 litres of rum,
51,500 litres of industrial alcohol, and 325,900 litres
of rectified alcohol. Imports of sugar during 1918
were 2,300,458 kilo., and exports 360 kilo.— (U.S.
Com. Rep., Nov. 15, 1919.)
Brazilian Iron Ore.— It is estimated that there are
some 2,000,000,000 tons of hfematite in the State of
Minas Geraes, in the district between Itabira do
Campo and Serro. This ore assays 69'2 per cent,
of iron, 0-018 per cent, of sulphur, and 0009 per
cent, of phosphorus. There are also enormous quan-
tities of " jacutinga " ore, which contains 52 per
cent, of iron with a very small proportion of phos-
phorus and sulphur. As the Brazilian ore necessi-
tates the use of a high-grade coke for smelting pur-
poses, which would have to be imported, it is con-
sidered expedient to export the ore to Europe.
The Itabira Tron Ore Co., an important English
company, which has in the famous Pico de Cane
alone a minimum of 18,000,000 tons of haematite of
the very best quality, proposes to extend its railway
to Itabira, and to establish a fleet of steamers, with
automatic discharge, designed especially for the
ocean transportation of ore. Such steamers could
return from England loaded with coal at low rates.
(U.S. Com. Rep., Jan. 23, 1920.)
Coconuts in Tropical America. — The coconut palm
which -rews wild in nuii.v tropical countries is
utilised in many ways by the natives. The meat
of the nut is eaten raw or cooked, and the liquid
is a refreshing drink; the sap of the flower buds
is drunk, and is highly intoxicating when fer-
mented; the nut husk is used for fuel, and its
fibres make rope, matting and brushes; the shell
is also used for fuel and for household utensils;
whilst the leaves and wood of the palm furnish
mats, thatching and timber.
Whole nuts, dried meat or copra, and oil are ex-
ported to Europe and the United States. The oil
serves for making soap, candles and butter sub-
stitutes ; and the remaining copra-cake for cattle
and chicken food, and as a fertiliser.
The Far East provides the bulk of coconut pro-
ducts, but cultivation also, takes place in the follow-
ing regions of Tropical America : Trinidad, Tobago,
Jamaica, Porto Rico, Dominican Republic, Haiti,
Panama, Costa Rica, Nicaragua, Honduras, Guate-
mala, British Honduras, and in the following South
America countries: Brazil, Colombia, British
Guiana, and Venezuela. There has, however, been
little scientific cultivation in most of these regions;
for, although ultimately very profitable, coconut
cultivation involves large capital outlay and a long
wait for returns. The British Government has
encouraged cultivation in Trinidad, Tobago, and
Jamaica, where the industry has become important,
and there are plantations belonging to United
States' companies in Central America and the West
Indies. Trinidad has 27,000 acres planted with
coconuts; two-thirds of the trees is bearing, and
17,355,712 nuts was exported in 1917. In the same
year Jamaica, with 35,000 acres under cultivation,
exported 27,000,000 nuts. Coconut production in
Panama is becoming important, and the nuts are
among the finest in the world.
Cohune nuts are exported from Honduras and
British Honduras. These are similar to, but
smaller than, coconuts, and yield an edible oil of
good quality. The best cohune district in British
Honduras is 75 to 100 miles from the sea. The
annual production is at the rate of 25 tons per
1000 acres, or 50,000 tons per annum ; but only
about a quarter can be used commercially owing
to inaccessibility, and transport and labour diffi-
culties. Cohune nuts grow wild in the swamps of
the Nicaraguan coast, and to an altitude of 1500 ft.
on the south shore of Guatemala; but this product
is little exploited in these regions. Cohune nuts
are very common on the Pacific coast of Costa
Rica.
In Brazil there is no scientific development of
coconut growing, although the nuts compare well
in size with those of other countries. Modern
methods of cultivation would create a profitable
industry. There are a few coconut groves in
Colombia ; but coconuts are the chief source of
wealth of the islands of San Andres and Proyi-
dencia. British Guiana is climatically suited for
raising coconuts, and increased attention is being
given to the industry. Coconuts are produced on
the Venezuelan coast, and the towns of Guanta
and Cumana have oil and soap industries. The
natives of Margarita Island make coconut oil and
butter, and fatten pigs and stock on the residue
" poonac." Mexico exports very few coconuts at
present, the wild groves on the Atlantic and Pacific
coasts having been injured by soldiers and bandits;
whilst the disturbed condition of the country has
prevented cultivation. There are also groves of
" coquitos " (little coconuts), which are gathered
in the winter and used in local soap factories.
Coquito nuts are abundant in Vera Cruz, but
revolutionary conditions interfere with their col-
lection.— <U '.S. Com. Rep., Nov. 18, 1919.)
116 b
[Mar. 31, :
The Chinese Indigo Crop. — The new indigo crop is
expected to be a record one, as reports from the
Hohan and Tungsuhsien districts are very opti-
mistic. A group of merchants has recently formed
a syndicate for the erection of a dye factory, and
as the Department for Agriculture and Commerce
has undertaken to lend active assistance for a term
of three years it is hoped that the industry will re-
vive.— {Kelly's Month. Tr. Bev., Feb. 1920.)
Sugar Supplies in Holland. — The total quantity of
beet sugar produced in October and November
amounts to 179.654 tons, as compared with 101,711
tons for the same period in 1918 and 148,055 tons
in 1917. The estimated production for 1919 is 190 —
195,000 tons, equal to 175,000 tons of refined sugar,
while the consumption for 1919 is estimated at
179,000 tons.
Sugar imports in 1919 amounted to 33,349 tons
of raw cane from January 1 to September 30. Ex-
ports during the same period amounted to 14,000
tons of refined cane, 2,831 raw beet, and 2,345 tons
of raw cane.— (Bd. of Trade J., Jan. 20, 1920.)
The Oil-seed Industry in Egypt. — The chief olea-
ginous product of Egypt and the Anglo-Egyptian
Sudan is cotton seed. The exportation of peanuts
and sesame is limited to adjacent territory and is
not important. The preparation and grading of
these products is not carried on in Egypt; they are
either dealt with in sacks or, in the case of cotton
seed, shipped in bulk. Ginners in the country
maintain their own warehouses. The only crushing
of commercial importance is limited to cotton seed,
and this is maintained solely for the purpose of
supplying local needs. Only a small proportion of
the oil produced is exported and, normally, none of
the cake is consumed locally. In 1913 some 11,150
metric tons of oil and 63,000 tons of cake were pro-
duced. The Egyptian oil mills are equipped with
modern machinery and produce an oil of good
quality— (U.S. Com. Bep., Jan. 3, 1920.)
PARLIAMENTARY NEWS.
PERSONALIA.
Sir Robert Home has succeeded Sir Auckland
Geddes as President of the Board of Trade.
Mr. J. H. West has been appointed lecturer in
chemical engineering at the Imperial College of
Science and Technology.
Dr. M. Mayer, of the Auer Co. in Berlin, has
been appointed to the chair of chemistry in the
Karlsruhe Technical High School.
It is announced that Prof. v. Rontgen, now 75
years of age, will definitely retire from the director-
ship of the Physical Institute in Munich at the end
of the current term.
Dr. Edgar F. Smith, who has made notable con-
tributions to electrolytic analysis and the analysis
of minerals, has tendered his resignation as provost
of the University of Pennsylvania-
Mr. C. T. Heycock has been appointed president
of Section B (Chemistry) of the British Association
for the Advancement of Science. The Association
will meet this year at Cardiff, from August 24 to 28.
Dr. D. S. Pratt, formerly assistant^director of
the Mellon Institute in the University of Pitts-
burgh, died on January 28. His chief work was on
phthalic acid derivatives, and he was a recognised
authority on the chemistry of tropical products.
The deaith occurred on February 27 last of Dr.
C. A. von Martius, in his eighty-third year. The
deceased was one of the founders of the German
coal-tar dye industry and a director of the Aktien-
Gesellschaft fvir Anilin-Fabrikation in Berlin.
HOUSE OF COMMONS.
British Dyes.
On a supplementary vote in Committee of Supply,
Mr. Bridgeman replied to various questions and
criticisms relating to the formation of British
Dyestuffs Corporation, Ltd. He denied that this
company had any monopoly, and stated that other
firms were receiving State assistance on equally
fair terms. When Levinstein, Ltd., was taken
over by the Corporation the purchase price was
settled by an independent accountant. The dye-
making industry had to be supported on account of
its vital importance in time of war. — (Mar. 8.)
Incandescent Gas Mantles.
In reply to Lieut. -Colonel Sir J. Griffiths, Mr.
Bridgeman said that prior to the Sankey judgment
the importation of incandescent gas mantles was
prohibited. From then up to the end of February
the value of imported gas mantles was approxi-
mately £26,000, those coming directly from
Germany being valued at about £5,000. The value
of gas mantles imported into this country from
Germany in 1913 was about £250,000.— (Mar. 15.)
Sugar Imports.
Answering Captain Sir B. Stanier, Mr. Bridge-
man gave the total quantity of sugar imported
into the United "Kingdom during 1919 as 31,949,000
cwt., valued at £53,962,000.— (Mar. 24.)
German Potash Supplies.
In reply to Sir R. Cooper, Mr. Bridgeman said
that the gross turnover of the contract for potash
supplies entered into between the Government and
Germany, on which the British Potash Co., Ltd.,
is entitled to 1 per cent, profit, is about £980,000.
No further profits have been received by the com-
pany, whose contract, owing to strikes at Rotter-
dam and Hamburg, has been rendered less re-
munerative. The average cost per ton, including
bagging, of German potash salts c.i.f. at the chief
port in the United Kingdom has been : Muriate
(80%), £19 13s. Id.; muriate (90— 95%), £21 8s. 8d.;
sulphate (90%), £22 3s. lid.; manure salts (30%),
£11 13s. Id. The muriate is calculated on an 80
per cent, basis. — (Mar. 24.)
German Dyestvff Supplies.
Replying to a series of questions put by Mr.
Raffan, Mr. Bridgeman said that the method of
distributing the German " reparation " dyestuffs
was adopted on the advice of the Colour Users'
Association. It was decided that the dyestuffs were
to be allocated at fixed prices according to propor-
tionate requirements rather than sold by auction, so
that the smaller consumers should receive a share,
and that allocations should be made to consumers
only. The proceeds from the sale are credited to
the Reparation Fund under the Peace Treaty, and
it was not desirable that the prices charged in this
country should be higher than those charged in
other countries. The Colour Users' Association
prepared a statement as to the requirements of
its members, without reference to the possible
supplies from Germany. Public notice was given
to enable consumers not members of the Association
to state their requirements. No preferential treat-
ment in respect of notification of the German d es
available or their allocation was given to the Brad-
ford Dyers' Association or the Calico Printers'
Association. The question of the desirability of
modifying the arrangements in respect of future
consignments was under consideration. — (Mar. 24.)
V0LXXXLX..N0. 6]
REVIEW.
117 B
OFFICIAL TRADE INTELLIGENCE.
(From the Board of Trade Journal for March 11
and 18.)
OPENINGS FOR BRITISH TRADE.
The following inquiries have heen received at the
Department of Overseas Trade (Development and
Intelligence), 35, Old Queen Street, London, S.W. 1,
from firms, agents, or individuals who desire to re-
present U.K. manufacturers or exporters of the
goods specified. British firms may obtain the names
and addresses of the persons or firms referred to by
applying to the Department and quoting the
specific reference number.
Locality of
firm or agent.
MATERIALS.
British West Indies
Canada
Syria . .
Persia
Japan . .
Dominican Republic
Mexico . .
Argentina, Uruguay
Paraguay
Peru, Ecuador,
Bolivia . .
Glassware
Glass, earthenware, paper
Soap, perfumes, medicines
Soap, druggists' sundries
Hides, leather
Chemicals, soap, glass, etc.
Optical glass
Coconut and blown rapeseed oils
Tallow for soap making
Art ilicial silk from viscose
Oils, paints (tender for)
Dyes, photographic requisites . .
Edible oils
Chemicals, colours, varnishes
Tinplate
Linseed oil, waxes, borax, alum,
soda, lithopone
Chemicals, pharmaceutical pro-
ducts
Paints, varnishes, wax cloth
ch.mirals, minerals, metals ,
Hides, skins, leather, china clay . .
Drugs
Linseed oil . .
Chemicals, metals, hides, skins,
leather
Condensed milk, oils
Iron rods for ferro-concrete work
Cement, earthenware, corrugated
" iron sheets, iron rods, brass,
copper, tinplate, sugar, mineral
oils
Dyes, glass, porcelain
Drugs
Asphalt, pitch, glass, paint, etc.. .
Glass, erockery, galvanised corru-
gated sheets
Glass, earthenware
Heavy chemicals, metals, candles,
washing soap, laundry blue . .
China, earthenware, chemicals,
linseed oil, caustic soda. .
32S
359
318
320
322
t
t
:
t
tm
333
334
335
337
I 379a
383
384
381a
385
• The High Commissioner for Australia, Australia House, Strand,
London, W.C. 2. . „ „ „
t The High Commissioner for Canada, 19, Victoria Street, S.W. 1.
{The Canadian Government Trade Commissioner, 73, Basinghal 1
Street, London, E.C. 2.
•• Sir A. L. Webb, K.C.M.G., Queen Anne's Chambers, Broadway
Westminster, S.W. 1.
TARIFF. CUSTOMS. EXCISE.
Australia. — Trade is now permitted with Czecho-
slovakia and other parts of the former Austro-Hun-
garian Empire (except Hungary).
Brazil. — The export of sugar is prohibited.
Canada. — The prohibition of the import of in-
toxicating liquors has been removed as from
January 1.
Denmark. — The importation of certain kinds of
sugar is permitted only under licence.
The export of all alkalis, including ammonia,
potash and soda, and all salts thereof, potash fer-
tilisers, chloride of lime, and saltpetre is prohibited
as from February 27.
Finland. — The "Import Free List" has been
cancelled and practically all foreign goods will re-
quire import licences, but goods purchased before
January 20 and already paid for are exempted from
this requirement.
France. — The export of coal tar and products
obtained directly therefrom by distillation, and of
raw hides, horse and calf skins prepared, tanned,
tawed, or curried, is prohibited as from March 2.
France and, Algeria. — The " Coefficients of In-
crease " applicable to chemical products have been
modified as from February 26. The full list of the
modifications is given in the issue for March 18.
Gambia. — The import duty on spirits has been
amended .
Germany. — The export of aluminium, lead, zinc,
Britannia metal, copper, nickel, alloys and wares
thereof is prohibited except under licence as from
February 25. Exceptions to this proclamation in-
clude aluminium foil, printing and stereotype
plates, imitation gold leaf, and some wares of the
above metals.
Among the articles that may be imported without
licence are vegetable fibres, raw cocoa, rubber, gutta
percha, balata, asbestos, waste paper, certain kinds
of glass, books in all languages, newspapers, etc.
The import duties on petroleum, lignite tar oil,
turf oil, schist oil, other mineral oils, mineral wax,
cartgrease, lubricants, tinplate and certain wares
of aluminium, tin, copper, and nickel, and glue have
been re-imposed.
Gold Coast. — The import duties on the various
classes of spirits have been increased as from
January 16.
Johore. — The import duties on alcoholic bever-
ages have been revised as from February 1.
Netherlands. — Export prohibitions have been
temporarily raised from, inter alia, phosphatic
fodder lime, certain nuts and fruits, oil-seeds,
certain metal by-products and scientific instruments
(except those made of platinum).
Seychelles. — All goods not otherwise charged with
duty or specially exempted are liable to an ad
valorem duty of 15 per cent.
Spain. — The new " Minimum " Tariff rates on
coal tar dyes are (pesetas per kg.) : Dyes derived
from coal tar in powder or crystals, 4; dyes derived
from coal tar in paste or liquid, 2 ; thiocarbon, 4.
Switzerland. — Among the articles the export of
which is covered by General Export Licence are salt-
petre (not purified), certain kinds of paper and
cardboard, certain manufactures of rubber, clay,
raw mineral earths, cryolite, magnesite, steatite,
pumice, certain manufactures of glass and of iron,
copper, bronze, zinc and tin, mercury, perfumery,
sulphuric acid, oleum, tartrates, carbon bisulphide
and other chemicals, albumen, dyewoods, certain
colours, polishes, lubricating grease, vanilla, casein,
and certain vegetable textile materials.
The export of saccharin is no longer covered by
General Export Licence.
West Africa. — The special restrictions on the im-
port of all spirits (except trade spirits, which are
prohibited) have been withdrawn.
GOVERNMENT ORDERS AND NOTICES
PATENTS AND DESIGNS ACTS, 1907 AND 1919.
The President of the Board of Trade has issued
(March 15) an Order that Sections I. and II. of the
Patents and Designs Act. 1919, shall come into
operation on April 1, 1920.
[These Sections provide for the prevention of
' abuse of monopoly rights in case the patented
invention is not being worked in the United
Kingdom on a commercial scale, by authorising
the Comptroller to endorse the patent as a
" licence of right," and thereby allowing others
to work it under certain conditions.]
By an Order in Council of March 11, the provisions
of Section 91 of the Patents and Designs Act, 1907,
REVIEW.
as amended by the two similar Acts of 1914 and
1919, are made to apply to Czecho-Slovakia, as from
October 20, 1919, as that country has now acceded
to the International Convention and Protocol for
the protection of industrial property.
BASIC SLAG.
On account of the increased cost of production
and transport, the Minister of Agriculture and
Fisheries has authorised makers of basic slag to
withdraw the rebates of 2s., 3s., and 4s. per ton pre-
viously allowed for deliveries made from March to
April. The agreed maximum prices for ground
basic slag delivered in the months in question re-
main the same as those ruling from September 1,
1919, to February 29, 1920. In all other respects
the prices and conditions of sale already announced
remain in force until May 31, 1920.
COMPANY NEWS.
LEVER BROTHERS, LTD.
At the twenty-sixth annual general meeting,
held at Port Sunlight on March 11, Lord Lever-
hulme, the chairman, referred to the widened
scope of the company, which had now over 100
associated companies and an authorised capital of
£100,000,000. During the past year the following
cpmpannes had been taken over: — Joseph Crosfield
and Sons, Ltd., Wm. Gossage and Sons, Ltd.,
Price's Patent Candle Co., Ltd., John Knight,
Ltd., The Niger Co., Ltd., and the Southern
Whaling Co., Ltd. Replying to the charge of pro-
fiteering, he said that they had to carry enormous
stocks of raw material, and consequently must
follow market prices. The policy of selling for
export at prices above those ruling at home was
unbusinesslike and impossible. That no excessive
profits had been made was shown by the fact that
the dividend paid to the ordinary shareholders and
co-partners, including the amount carried to the
special reserve, was less than 2£ per cent, on the
turnover. The value of soap exported from the
United Kingdom last year was £8,500,000; the
company had always maintained the supply neces-
sary for the home trade, and the surplus only had
been exported. An idea of the extent to which
prices of raw material had risen could be gained
from the following figures for June, 1914, and
December, 1919, respectively: — Tallow, £33 and
£101 per ton; artificial tallow, £26 14s. and £95;
cotton oil, £28 19s. and £99 15s. ; palm oil, £28 and
£90; resin, £14 and £67; kernel oil, which was
£40 9s. 6d. a ton in 1914, was taken for margarine
manufacture — for which it is unsuitable — and an
inferior oil at £97 took its place. THe_profits on
soaps based on the market prices for raw materials
had all diminished, e.y., laundry soap from 10"83
to 634 per cent., "Lux" f rom' 24"8 to 18'38 per
cent. The policy pursued for over 30 years had
been to make the profits of the company indepen-
dent of those made at Port Sunlight. At the
present time, if these works were closed down the
shareholders in Lever Bros, would suffer no incon-
venience or loss. The profits supplied by con-
nexions in Africa, America, Oceania and elsewhere,
had made the company secure in any industrial
dispute, or even war, in any part of the United
Kingdom or elsewhere. The company had intended
to introduce the six-hour day, but opposition from
the trade unions had stood in the way. Owing to
the enormously increased volume of business, the
estimated profits of the company, with those of
associated companies, for 1920 were approximated
£3,375,000 ; last year they realised £2,500,000. On
December 31 last the market value of the stocks
was over £16,000,000.
BENZOL MANUFACTURERS, LTD.
An adjourned extraordinary general meeting was
held on March 3 to consider a resolution for the
sale of Mitcham Benzol Refinery for 60,000
ordinary shares of £1 each in Benzol and By-
I Products, Ltd. As the company already owns the
i Crigglestone Colliery and Coke Oven Works, near
Wakefield, it will be in a position to manufacture
motor spirit from start to finish. The capital will
be £700,000, divided into 350,000 ordinary shares
and 350,000 10 per cent, cumulative preference
shares, each of £1, and 336,000 of the latter will be
offered to the public. The resolution was carried
unanimously.
BORAX CONSOLIDATED, LTD.
The twenty-second ordinary general meeting was
held on March 11, {the chairman, the Earl of
Chichester, presiding. The chairman said that
the company's mines in Asia Minor had been
handed over by the Turkish Government in good
order, except in regard to certain plant, for which
a claim had been lodged. These mines were now
producing on a diminished scale owing to shortage
of miners. The company's very extensive mines
and deposits in North and South America had been
developed ahead of requirements during the war,
and at present there was a larger amount of ore
in sight than at any previous period. Trade
demands had been very heavy during the second
half of the past year. There had been great diffi-
culty in supplying to the associated refiners
adequate supplies of raw material, and in obtaining
coal, soda, etc., for the Continental works. Condi-
tions are now improving; new uses had been found
for borax ; and prospects were bright. The net
profits for the' past year were £442,023, which
represented 8 per cent, on the total issued capital,
including debentures and the carry forward
(£5,370,000). Dividends paid and payable for the
year were 6 per cent, on the preference shares and
15 per cent, on the ordinary shares. The reserves
now amount to £762,000, and the carrv forward is
£103,347.
LEGAL INTELLIGENCE.
Liability for Damages due tc an Explosion.
Belvedere Fish Guano Co., Ltd., v. Bainham
Chemical Works, Ltd. Ind, Coope and Co.,
Ltd., v. same.
Judgment was delivered by the Court of Appeal
concerning the liability for damages to the premises
of the two plaintiff companies caused by an ex-
plosion of dinitrophenol at the Rainham Chemical
Works. Lord Justice Scrutton had held that the
defendant company was liable (this J., 1919, 294r).
This company claimed to be free from liability as it
was acting under the instructions of the Ministry
of Munitions.
The Master of the Rolls held that the question
was one of personal liability. Messrs. Feldman and
Partridge had introduced the manufacture of the
explosive, and had made an agreement with the
Ministry of Munitions; they had leased a site upon
which the manufacture was afterwards carried on ;
the company formed subsequently had entered into
occupation as agents for the lessees; and Messrs.
Feldman and Partridge were governing directors of
the company with absolute security and permanent
power. They were therefore personally responsible,
and the appeal must be dismissed.
Lord Justice Atkin concurred, and Lord Justice
Younger dissented. The appeal was dismissed with
costs.
Vol. XXXIX., No. 6 )
REVIEW
119 R
TRADE NOTES.
BRITISH.
The British Industries Fair, 1920.— The three sec-
tions of this Fair, held respectively at London, Bir-
mingham, and Glasgow, were opened to trade
buyers from February 26 to March 5, inclusive.
The very spacious accommodation afforded by the
Crystal Palace was well utilised, over 1,100 firms
exhibiting, and about 150,000 visitors attending.
According to all reports, the aims of the organisers
were well fulfilled. As previously stated, the
purely chemical exhibits were confined to the
Glasgow section, and in London the chief point of
interest to chemists was the display of scientific-
glassware. A comparison of the goods of this de-
scription shown during the past five years leaves no
doubt that their variety has been increased, and
that their form has undergone a continuous im-
provement. The National Physical Laboratory
opened an inquiry bureau and exhibited thermo-
meters, etc. It was interesting to hear that no
fewer than 30,000 — 35,000 clinical thermometers
are now being tested weekly at the Laboratory, and
that the percentage of rejections had fallen from
6 — 8 to 2i since the enactment of the Clinical
Thermometer Order; also that the number of tests
of Class A (precision) volumetric glassware is 600 —
800 per week, and of the Class B ware 6000—8000
per week.
The Birmingham section of the Fair was mainly
devoted to engineering tools and appliances and
examples of practically every class of metals, alloys,
and metallurgical inventions for industrial pur-
poses. Several firms made a special feature of
such products as pure nickel and nickel laboratory
ware, nickel and other metallic salts used as cata-
lysts, and copper, arsenic, and other compounds
used as insecticides and disinfectants. To the
metallurgist the Fair was of very great interest for
every class of metal and alloy, both ferrous and
non-ferrous, for engineering and technical work
was exhibited, with innumerable examples of their
application to engineering operations. The heat-
ing and lighting and power sections showed the
applications of town gas and suction gas, petrol,
and paraffin. The portable lamps furnishing high-
temperature flames which may be used for chemical
and technical work were noteworthy, and a number
of gas-heated muffles and furnaces for the heat
treatment of metals was also exhibited. The indus-
trial laboratory of the Birmingham Gas Depart-
ment had a large.stand exhibiting these appliances.
A number of stands contained the wares of varnish
and paint manufacturers and oil and colourmen,
with modern devices for their application in various
industries. Some, as, for instance, the anti-rust
compositions figuring under various trade names,
had a distinct interest for the chemist. There were
also some exhibits of explosives for use in mining
and agricultural work.
In the section of the Fair held at Glasgow,
textiles and clothing occupied the greater part
of the space, and the portion allocated to
chemicals was not very extensive. Good displays
were made by the leading dye manufacturers,
especially by The British Dyestuffs Corporation
and by Scottish Dyes, Ltd. The range of dyes, in-
cluding vat colours, shown at these two stands was
very considerable, and proved that good progress
bad been made within the last year or so in the
production of the shades most in demand, although
the range is far from equalling that which was
available before the war. Various intermediates
and products of medicinal value were shown at the
same stands. A very striking exhibit of dyed
fabrics was shown by Messrs. Morton, of Carlisle,
the dyes employed being those manufactured bv
Scottish Dyes. Ltd.
Apart from dyes, the chemical section contained
little that iras novel or remarkable. The by-
product-, of coal were shown by several firms, and
the alkali trade was also represented, but the ex-
hibits were on conventional lines. Fine chemicals
received little attention. On the whole, the
picture of the British chemical industry presented
was a disappointing one, and it is to be hoped thai
another year will see a more representative collec-
tion. Domestic products, such as prepared food-
stuffs, polishes, disinfectants, cleansing agents,
etc.. were both numerous and varied, and it was
evident that great pains had been taken to make
them known to the public as well as to the trade.
Such products, however, are usually disguised
under trade names, without indication of their
chemical character, so that they are of little direct
interest to the chemist.
FOREIGN.
The Oilseeds and Vegetable Oil Market in Holland. —
In 1917 imported oilseeds were valued at about
£3,577,656, and vegetable oils at about £4,153,465,
and exports were valued at £319,069 and £85,784
respectively. The only increase over the 1914
figures was in the imports of vegetable oils, which
was to make up for the deficit in home production.
The production of vegetable oils in the Nether-
lands is a very important industry, oil-milling being
intimately connected with many basic industries of
the country. The principal raw materials consumed
are linseed, rapeseed, and imported copra, palm
kernels, groundnuts and soya beans. Rotterdam is
the chief port of entry for oilseeds and vegetable
oils. Groundnuts are imported chiefly from West
Africa, and linseed comes principally from Argen-
tina. In 1919 the East Indies supplied Holland
with 509 per cent, and Great Britain with 49" 1 per
cent, of the copra imported. The entire importation
of soya beans in 1917 was supplied by the Dutch
East Indies. Many supplies, however, are not im-
ported direct, but through Belgium, Great Britain,
Hamburg, etc., and even in the case of direct im-
portation the source may vary from year to year.
The following table shows the imports of oilseeds
into the Netherlands for the first six months of
1914 and 1919: —
Oilseeds.
Copra
Linseed
Palmnuts
Groundnuts
Rapeseed
Soya beans
The chief centre of the oil-milling industry is
in the Zaanland district, within easy access of
Amsterdam and the North Sea Canal. In the
Netherlands there are 63 factories manufacturing
linseed oil, with linseed cake and meal as by-pro-
ducts. The Dutch export trade in vegetable oils
has declined considerably, as will be seen from the
following table : —
Jan. -June.
Jan. -June,
1914
1919
metric tons.
metric tons.
55.536
1.857
168.512
. 11,838
38,340
4.575
59,114
7.195
14.083
832
14.463
—
Jan. -June.
Jan .-June
Vegetable oils.
1914
1919
metric tons
metric tons
1,175
3,829
Cottonseed
30
3.558
Linseed
16.436
2.737
Olive
611
12
Palmnut
4.15S
—
Patent . .
177
1
Groundnut
4.491
31
Rapeseed
162
2.040
Sesame
108
2
1.229
1,452
Other oils
133
2,336
The oil-milling industry and the trade i.i vege-
table oils were in a condition of stagnation at the
beginning of 1919, but by April shipments of oil-
seeds or vegetable oils began to arrive in con-
siderable quantities. Trade for the first six months
REVIEW.
of 1919, however, while not equal to that for the
corresponding period of 1914, showed every sign of
vigorous revival— (U.S. Com. Sep., Dec. 29, 1919.)
Chemical Trade in Argentina. — Generally speaking,
before the war all heavy chemicals were imported
from Europe, hut during and sinc-e the war the
United States has supplied the hulk of the require-
ments. Caustic soda (76%) is now supplied en-
tirely from the United States to the extent of 8000
tons per annum; on the other hand, the consumers
of soda ash show a preference for the European
product, and about 50,000 tons is consumed
annually. The chloride of lime market has re-
cently dropped owing to excessive supplies; for
this product strong packages (drums or casks) are
essential. The chief demand in silicate of soda
(annual consumption 4000—5000 tons) is for the
European product of 140° Tw. Sulphur is now
supplied entirely hy the United States to the
extent of 20.000 tons per annum. Rosin is all sup-
plied bv America, but as this material is used for
soap making, it has to compete against home-
produced animal fats, and manufacturers cease to
use rosin when the price exceeds $20 per 100 kg.
In a similar manner the demand for paraffin wax
depends on the price of stearin, the candle maker
substituting one for the other according to price.
The demand is estimated at about 7000 tons yearly,
the qualities required being those of 118 — 125°
melting point for winter and 125 — 132° for summer
use. About 3000 tons of white arsenic is imported
annually and used chiefly as an insecticide; the
product must be of high purity and packed in small
containers. At present the market is overstocked
with acetic acid and chlorate and bichromate of
potash. There is a great scarcity of sulphuric acid,
and this material requires special care in transit.
In pharmaceutical drugs and dyes the United States
at present holds the bulk of the markets, but
German agents have started taking orders for
dyes, in many cases at prices 50 per cent, below the
American quotations.— (U.S. Com. Rep., Feb. 2.
1920.)
The Groundnut Industry of China— According to
H.M. Commercial Counsellor in Shanghai, the
export of groundnuts from China is a compara-
tively new trade. Before the war the oil was chiefly
shipped to Shanghai, Canton and Hongkong, but
now it is being largely sent to Dairen and Japan
for re-shipment. Tsingtao is the principal point
for the collection of groundnut oil for export. In
1913 Tsingtao exported 19,616,300 lb. of the oil,
while the exports were 31,193,953 lb. in 1915, and
about 80,959,391 lb. in 1918. The oil is generally
ground at the places of production and brought to
Tsingtao in waterproof baskets containing 160 lb.
each. The price averages about 12 Haikwan tails
per picul (133J lb.).
The largest groundnut-producing district in
China is Shantung, which has an estimated produc-
tion of about 500,000,000 lb. of nuts every year.
Some 266,000,000 lb. of shelled and unshelled nuts
are exported yearly by this district in addition to
the quantity- 'mentioned above. Tientsin exported
7000 tons of shelled and 1620 tons of unshelled
groundnuts in 1917. The nuts grown in the Luan-
chou districts (Luan River) are said to be superior
in quality to those grown elsewhere in Asia. They
are found in nearly every part of China, and con-
tain about 46 per cent, of oil.
Before the war the bulk of the shipments went
to Europe, more particularly France, but in 1918
over 80 per cent, of the total exports went to
Japan and the United States. Cheap and almost
unlimited supplies of this Chinese product are
available, and the Mitsui Company, a Japanese
firm, has a special fleet of ships which carry it
from Taingato to Japan and other countries. —
(Bd. of Trade J., Jan. 29, 1920.)
New Maximum Prices for Nitrogenous Fertilisers in
Germany. — Since the last maximum prices were
fixed, on October 1, 1919, all the items determining
the production costs of artificial nitrogenous fer-
tilisers have more than doubled in price, and it has
therefore been found necessary to raise prices so
that the consumer will have to pay from 10'70 — 15
marks per kilogram of nitrogen, according to the
nature of the fertiliser. On the other hand, the in-
creased charges which have recently obtained for
mixing and for certain added materials (e.g., bone-
meal, gypsum, lime) will be discontinued. The
agricultural interests recognise the need for the
revised prices, but they have succeeded in imposing
the condition that the prices of agricultural pro-
ducts must in due season be raised proportionately.
—(Chem. Ind., Mar. 10, 1920.)
The Italian Soap Trade in 1919. — Owing to the acute
shortage of raw materials, the Italian soap makers
were unable to take full advantage of the 6oap
famine in Central Europe or of the general in-
creased demand. English competition was keen,
for the English soapmakers were in a better posi-
tion in regard to raw materials, export facilities,
and Government restrictions. Other difficulties
faced by the Italian soap trade were the appear-
ance of a great crowd of speculators on the market
and adverse rates of exchange. Between the be-
ginning and end of 1919 there was a difference of
about 10 lire per £1 sterling, representing an addi-
tion of 20 per cent, to the cost of goods. Prices of
raw material and of coal rose to an enormous extent,
and rosin in particular was almost unobtainable.
Notwithstanding the adverse conditions, the Italian
industry, on the whole, has developed satisfactorily
during the last few years, and increased attention
has been given to scientific research. — (L'lndus.
Sap., Jan. 31, 1920.)
Foreign Company News. — United States. — The
authorised capital of chemical companies organised
during 1919 in the United States amounted to
$112,173,000, as compared with $65,565,000 in 1915,
$146,160,000 in 1917, and $73,403,000 in 1918.
It is announced that sixteen paint and varnish
companies have amalgamated under the title of the
" Glidden Company." This company, which pos-
! sesses plants in Canada and many parts of America,
i has its headquarters at Reading, Pennsvlvania, and
will be capitalised with $7,500,000 of*7 per cent.
preferred, and 360,000 shares of common stock. —
I (Bd. of Trade J., Mar. 4, 1920.)
France. — The Society Commereiale des Potasses
d 'Alsace-Lorraine has taken the place of the
: Bureau de Vente de la Potasse d'Alsace (sales
bureau for Alsatian potash). The company has
' offices at Mulhouse and will sell the potash minerals
1 extracted from its mines or the salts produced
in its factories.— (Bd. of Trade J., Mar. 4, 1920.)
Norway. — A new company, the Norske Molybden-
produkter, A/S. (Norwegian Molybdenum Pro-
| ducts Co.), is about to be formed with a maximum
! capital of 500,000 kroner (£26,800). The objects
are, to deal in molybdenum raw products, to pro-
; duce and sell molybdenum and its products, and to
| carry on experiments for the advancement of the.
industry in Norwav. — (U.S. Com. Rep., Jan. 27,
1920.)
Germany. — The Vereinigte Ultramarinfabriken
A.-G., formerly Leverkus, Zeitner and Co., in
Cologne, has at various times since the revolution
been compelled to work at a loss. An agreement
has been made with the firm of Fr. Bayer, in Lever-
kusen, by which the latter will take over the land
and buildings of the ultramarine works, which, how-
ever, will continue to manufacture for a limited
period. The company reports a net profit of
681,146 marks and a dividend of 10 per cent. — (Z.
ongeir. Chem., Dec. 12, 1919.)
Vol. XXXIX., No. 6.]
REVIEW.
1-1 B
The German firm of Stinnes has recently pur-
chased two large cellulose factories at Konigsberg,
the Nordeutsche Zellulosefabrik for 12 million
marks, and <the Konigsberger Zellstoffabrik for 23
million marks. The two factories consume nearly
half a million tons of wood yearly, and their pur-
chase by the Stinnes group is expected to create a
new situation in Prussian shipping. — (U.S. Com.
Bep., Feb. 10, 1920.)
REVIEW.
REPORT.
Extract from the Annual Report of the Local
Govern ment Board. Report on the Work of
Inspectors of Foods for the Year 1918-19.
By A. W. J. Macfadden. (London: H.M.
Stationery Office, 1920.) Price 3d.
The work of inspectors of foods during the year
was concerned mainly with the supervision of con-
ditions under which food for the Armies was being
manufactured and also with a number of special
questions arising out of the abnormal conditions of
food supply and distribution. Complaints as to the
soundness and wholesomeness of imported frozen
meat were investigated, and it was found that,
although the appearance of the meat was sometimes
even repulsive and suggestive of wasting disease,
it was generally passable as sound ; a good deal of
the meat was dirty on the surface and had suffered
from rough handling and conveyance in unsuitable
wagons. With regard to unsuitable methods of
conveying meat by rail, it is suggested that the rail-
way companies, in their plans for replacing wastage
in rolling stock, should give full consideration to
the construction of vans for the conveyance of
perishable foods. The liability of certain articles
used in the preparation of food to become con-
taminated with arsenic has been kept under ob-
servation, but cases of arsenical contamination were
not met with during the year. A case of con-
tamination of self-raising flour with antimony was
reported from Manchester, the introduction of the
antimony appeared to be due to simple accident.
Two matters calling for re/orm are dealt with at
some length, these being the inspection of home-
killed meat and the supervision of places where food
is prepared or kept for sale for human consumption.
The position in regard to the inspection of home-
killed meat is, from the public health point of view,
most unsatisfactory ; the remedy seems to be the
compulsory closing of private slaughterhouses and
the provision of public abattoirs, together with a
number of skilled inspectors sufficient to inspect
thoroughly both before and after slaughter every
animal brought to be killed. Compulsory inspec-
tion would almost certainly entail the marking of
meat which has been passed by the inspector, and
this would be a safeguard to the retailer and the
buyer. Evidence collected during the period of the
war as to the sanitary conditions of food-preparing
places showed that whilst in a number of the larger
factories the conditions were satisfactory, in many
others the opposite was the case ; a very large pro-
portion of the smaller factories was unsatisfactory
in the extreme as regards structure, situation,
cleanliness, etc. The firms who showed the least
care in the cleanliness of their methods and pre-
mises were as a rule those who paid least attention
to the soundness and wholesomeness of the materials
they used. Proper regulation of places where food
is prepared for sale has become a matter of in-
creasing urgency.
The report also deals with problems relating to
dietetics and nutrition; the significance of certain
accessory substances (vitamines) in foodstuffs is dis-
cussed and the need for further organised research
is emphasised.
The Preparation of Organic Compounds. By
E. de Barry Barnett. Second edition, with 54
illustrations. Fp. it'. + 273. (London: J. and
A. Churchill. 1920.) Price 10s. net.
The publication of a second edition of this book
at a short interval after the first indicates that the
plan of the book commends itself to many teachers
of organic chemistry. A short theoretical discussion
of the general methods of preparation of the differ-
ent classes of compounds precedes the description
of the laboratory details for the preparation of the
example chosen as typical of its class. In this way
the student is not allowed to regard preparations
merely as exercises in manipulation.
Excellent as are several features of the book, it
has several defects, is not always accurate, and is
misleading on a few points. The reader soon gains
the impression that it is largely a compiled trans-
lation from German literature. In the preface the
author acknowledges his indebtedness to some ex-
cellent pre-war German text-books , but his admira-
tion for these is no excuse for following them when
improvements in method or adaptations to present-
day conditions would readily occur to the ex-
perienced teacher of organic chemistry. For
example, a method as given by the author of pre-
paring p-nitrosophenol, which involves the use of
glacial acetic acid, ether, and potassium nitrite; or,
again, a method of preparation of a ketone by dis-
tillation of the barium salts of the appropriate
fatty acids (instead of Senderen's method of the
catalytic decomposition of the mixed acids them-
selves) would not be chosen by a modern exponent
of organic chemistry, keen on economies in time
and expense !
Most of the references are to the earlier German
literature, very few to English or French sources.
Thus, it is curious to find that the index under
" Grignard's reaction " refers the reader (i.) to an
English textbook on practical organic chemistry,
and (ii.) to papers in the publications of the German
Chemical Society.
It is a pity that the author has not followed in a
systematic manner the nomenclature adopted in the
publications of the English Chemical Society, thus
he might have avoided the haphazard alternative
use of " ethoxide " and " ethvlate," "xylol," and
"xylene," and the use of such names as " pheno-
lates," " phenolcarboxylic," " cyclohexanole,"
" mannitol dibenzoate," etc., whilst most readers
will regard as crude and inelegant such translations
from the German as " splits out" (in reference to
condensations), " steam-volatile," etc.
The author states that German patent specifica-
tions are more accessible than the English, and
therefore gives the references to D.R.P., but this
cannot be taken as an excuse for the omission of im-
proved methods described only in E.P. More atten-
tion should have been given in parts of the book to
the theoretical points involved, so that the student
could not be misled, as he might easily be, for
example, in the description of the mentnenes and
menthone.
Books of this type would be far more stimulating
to the student if he were encouraged to consider
the effect of a variation in the conditions laid down
for certain of the preparations, as, for example, the
different proportion of the ortho and para iso-
merides obtained in the nitration of phenol by an
alteration in the temperature of the nitration or in
the concentration of a reagent. Attention to these
points would (in the event of a third edition being
required) make the book one which, when its need-
less excess of Germanic flavour has been removed,
could be recommended to all advanced students of
organic chemistry.
Robert H. Pickard.
REVIEW.
[Mar. 31, 1920.
OBITUARY.
PUBLICATIONS RECEIVED.
JAMES EMERSON REYNOLDS.
James Emerson Reynolds, who died suddenly
on February 17, at his residence in London, was
born at Booterstown, Co. Dublin, in 1844. Destined
for the medical profession, he became a licentiate of
the Royal College of Physicians and Surgeons of
Edinburgh, 1865. Although his great desire was
to devote himself entirely to chemistry, he prac-
tised medicine for a short time. His chance, how-
ever, soon came, for in 1867 he was appointed
" Keeper of Minerals " at the National Museum in
Dublin, and in the following year Analyst to the
Royal Dublin Society. His first important contri-
bution to chemistry was made in 1869, when he
isolated thiocarbamide, the sulphur analogue of
urea; this was a notable discovery at the time,
since previous investigators, including Liebig and
Hofmann, had been unsuccessful in their attempts
to obtain the compound. In 1871 he described an
interesting colloidal compound of mercury and
acetone, the formation of which constitutes the
basis of a delicate reaction for detecting the
latter.
In 1873 he became professor of chemistry at the
Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland, and in 1875
he was elected to succeed the late Dr. Apjohn in
the chair of chemistry in the University of Dublin,
a position which he held for twenty-eight years. He
soon established for himself a high reputation as a
teacher and lecturer. His lectures, which were pro-
fusely illustrated with convincing experiments, were
always appreciated by his students. Reynolds was
a pioneer in introducing quantitative experiments
in the early training of the student of chemistry,
and the first volume of his well-known " Experi-
mental Chemistry for Junior Students " (published
in four small volumes) was an original work in this
respect.
Whilst much of his time was taken up by his pro-
fessorial duties, he continued his researches; he
prepared beryllium and investigated its specific
heat, and in 1885 he commenced investigations on
derivatives of silicon, containing the element in
union with nitrogen. Several interesting new com-
pounds were described in a series of over a dozen
papers published in the Transactions of the
Chemical Society up to 1909. In his last contribu-
tion to chemistry, published in the Proceedings of
the Royal Society, 1913, he described the synthesis
of the mineral anorthite CaALSi,08, which was pre-
pared by the combined action of oxygen and steam
at a high temperature on the synthetic compound
Ca(SiAl)3, a silicon-aluminium analogue of calcium
cyanide. He always held the view that in nature
aluminium appeared to play a role to silicon in
the mineral kingdom similar to that of nitrogen to
carbon in the organic world. He left Dublin in
1903, and went to reside in London.
Reynolds served as president of this Society in
1891 — 1892, in which capacity he presided over the
only annual meeting of the Society held in Ireland.
This meeting was held in Dublin in 1892, and all
who were privileged to attend it will long remember
the important address given by Prof. Reynolds and
the exceptional welcome and hospitality accorded to
the members of the Society.
He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in
1880, served as president of the Chemical Society in
1901 — 1903, and president of the Chemical Section
of the British Association at Nottingham in 1893.
He was an honorary M.D. (1880) and Sc.D. (1891)
of Dublin University. He married in 1875 a daugh-
ter of Canon Finlayson, of Dublin, and has left two
children.
E. A. Werner.
The Chemistry of Coal. By J. B. Robertson.
Pp.96. (London: Gurney and Jackson, 1919.)
Price 3s. 6d.
Fuel Production and Utilisation. By H. S.
Taylor. Pp. xiv. + 297. (London: Bailliere,
Tindall and Cox. 1920.) Price 10s. 6d.
Laboratory Manual of Elementary Colloid
Chemistry. By E. Hatschek. Pp. 135.
(London: J. and A. Churchill. 1920.) Price
6s. 6d.
Industrial Organic Analysis. By P. S. Arup.
Second edition revised and enlarged. Pp.
xi.+471. (London: J. and A. Churchill. 1920.)
Price 12s. 6d.
Quantitative Analysis in Theory and Practice.
By P. W. Robertson and D. H. Burleigh.
Pp. 63. (London: Edward Arnold. 1920.)
Price 4s. Qd.
Quantitative Analysis by Electrolysis. By
Alex. Classen and H. Cloeren. Beyised, re-
arranged and enlarged English edition, by
W. T. Hall. Pp. xiii.+346. (New York: J.
Wiley and Sons, Inc.; London: Chapman and
Hall.; Ltd., 1919.) Price 17s. 6d.
Molinari's Chemisty. Volume I : Inorganic.
Second edition, translated from the fourth
revised and amplified Italian edition by T. H.
Pope. Pp. xix + 876, u'ith 328 illustrations and
2 plates. (London: J. and A. Churchill. 1920.)
Price £2 2s.
The Photographic Researches of F. Hurter and
V. C. Driffield. Memorial volume edited by
W. B. Ferguson. Pp. xii.+374. (London:
Boyal Photographic Society of Great Britain.
1920). Price 25s.
Progres de la Chimie en 1918. Traduction
francaise autorisee des " Annual Beports on the
Progress of Chemistry for 1918, issued by the
Chemical Society." Publiee sous la direction de
A. Kling. Pp. 321. (Paris: Gauthier-Villars
et Cie. 1920.) Price 15 francs+50%.
Ueber die Kontrolle und Herstellung von Sac-
charin. By Oskar Beyer. Pp. 141, with 12
illustrations. (Zurich: llaschcr <{■ Cie. 1918.)
The Technical Inspection Association Gazette.
Vol. I., No. 1. December, 1919. (London: 44,
Bedford Bow, W.C. 1.)
Directory of Danish Exporters, Importers, and
Various Other Firms. Pp. 166. (Copen-
hagen: Sylvester Hvid. 1919.)
The Chemical Age: Volume I., June — December,
1919. Pp. xi. + 750. (London: Benn Brothers,
Ltd. 1919.) Price 15s.
Publications of the United States Bureau of
Mines. Department of the Interior. (Wash-
ington: Government Printing Office. 1919-20.)
Burning Steam Sizes of Anthracite, with or
without Admixture of Soft Coal. Eeprint
of Engineering Bull. No. 5.
Motor Gasoline Properties, Laboratory
Methods of Testing and Practical Speci-
fications. By E. W. Dean.
War Gas Investigations. By van H. Manning.
Vitiation of Garage Air by Automobile
Exhaust Gases. By G. A. Burrell and
A. W. Gauger.
Publications of the United States Geological
Survey. Department of the Interior.
(Washington: Govt. Printing Office. 1919.)
Fluorspar and Cryolite in 1918. By R. F.
Burchard.
Gold, Silver, Copper, Lead and Zinc in the
Eastern States in 1918. By J, M. Hill.
Silicia in 1918. By F. J. Catz.
Vol. XXXIX., No. 7]
REVIEW
(April 1 5, 1920.
THE POSITION OF SCIENTIFIC
SOCIETIES.
H. DROOP RICHMOND AND J. M. WDLKIE.
During the past five years not only has production
been diminished, but a considerable proportion of
the world's wealth has been sunk in the war, with
the result that there is general financial stringency.
Currency has been depreciated, and the financial
position of the many is worse than it was in 1914.
Scientific societies are feeling a financial pinch, ajid
it is an open secret that this is having the closest
consideration of the various governing bodies.
Broadly speaking, the bulk of the expenses of a
scientific society is due to the dissemination of
knowledge of the science which it promotes, chiefly
in the form of publications which, apart from the
subsidy from the society, are not usually self-sup-
porting. Perhaps this is more true of chemistry
than of any other science ; and the science of
chemistry has probably more institutions promoting
special branches, with more separate publications,
than any other. Hence persons interested in
chemistry generally find it necessary to support a.
number of societies, and thus receive a variety of
publications.
It is an unfortunate fact that the objects of the
societies to some extent overlap, and that their
publications therefore cover much of the same
ground ; it is quite common for a chemist to receive
four or five separate journals and to find the same
papers or abstracts in each of them. It is also true
that many chemists belong to a society because it
includes a special branch, and that the society's
journal may contain much matter which interests
them but little.
The effect of the war has not been the same on all
chemical institutions. Some societies have taken
advantage of the decreased productivity of chemical
literature to curtail their publications and to effect
economies; others have increased their activities,
developed in new directions, and while in many
cases doing useful work, have used up their avail-
able funds. The result is that while all institutions
are feeling the financial stringency, some can only
be saved from pecuniary difficulties either by an im-
mediate curtailment of their activities or of the
privileges of members, or by a very substantial in-
crease of the subscription. From private inquiry it
appears that most chemists are receiving incomes
about 25 to 30 per cent, above pre-war rates, and
as the cost of living has more than doubled, it
follows that chemists in general are ordering their
expenses so as to effect considerable economies in
their mode of life. If this is the position of the con-
stituent members of the chemical institutions, the
institutions themselves must follow suit, i.e., they
cannot increase their subscription by more than 30
per cent, without risking a marked fall in member-
ship, and economies must be effected. It is to be
hoped that the governing bodies will put the posi-
tion before the membership.
Several new societies have come into existence
since the commencement of the war; for instance,
the agitation which culminated in the arrangement
entered into by the Institute of Chemistry with the
British Association of Chemists resulted directly or
indirectly in the formation of at least two new
bodies, and other societies have sprung into being.
Ihis has resulted in increased expenditure on the
part of many chemists who had not been connected
previously with any scientific or professional organ-
isation and partly at least accounts for the fact
that the increase of membership of the older
societies has been small in comparison with the in-
crease of persons having chemical interests.
To turn from the general to the particular, there
is a marked upward tendency in the expenses of alt
chemical institutions. So far the only one which
has increased its subscription materially is the"
Institute of Chemistry, which has doubled it for
fellows and students, and advanced it by 50 per
cent, for associates; us a very large number of tlitf
fellows also belong to other chemical institutions,
this doubling of the subscription represents,
roughly, about 15 to 20 per cent, of the total
chemical subscriptions. This increase is within the
limit of 25 to 30 per cent., above which resignations
are sure to follow, and if another society follows
suit the limit will be reached or passed, and the
effect will probably be most keenly felt by the
society making a substantial increase.
It may be pointed out that the de facto increases
in the subscriptions to certain societies do not con-
stitute an argument in favour of increasing those
to others, but the reverse, for, to use a colloquialism,
" the pitch is already queered."
A further point for consideration is that the
strength of a society lies in its young members, and
there are many young men, and in the near future
there will be many more, who are 3ntering the field
of chemistry with small reserves, and high rates of
subscription will tend to hinder their absorption
into the chemical institutions, to the detriment of
both ; for advantages of membership are largely
social and mutual to old and young alike, and the
society habit, if encouraged when young, makes for
strength and by widening the outlook helps to
prevent " blind alley" troubles.
It does not appear that any rise exceeding 30 per
cent, is necessary, for there is ample room for
economy by a closer union of societies, which, in
addition to attracting new members, although they
have different objects, have yet the same broad
basis of the advancement of chemistry. Indeed,
many steps in this direction have been taken
already. A Federal Council is in existence, and,
though little is heard of its activities, is doubtless
working to this end; it can and must be "speeded
up. An arrangement exists between some societies
with regard to the pooling of abstracts, but this is
only carried out in a halting and tentative manner;
it is probably only the beginning of a joint publica-
tion of abstracts, possibly including all the English-
speaking societies. Further economies could be
effected by a joint secretariat and a joint list of
members which would have a commercial value as a
chemical directory, and might even pay for its
publication.
Action must, however, be taken soon, and the
membership at large must be consulted, preferably
by joint local meetings organised by the local sec-
tions of the Society of Chemical Industry, of the
Institute of Chemistry or other localised bodies open
to members of all the chemical institutions, and in
the meantime individual societies will be wise to
stay their hand.
Such a union as that outlined above might be
established on the following broad general lines: —
1. Each institution to preserve its autonomy, and
to be responsible for the publication of its own
transactions. The subscriptions to be as small as
possible.
2. A joint journal of abstracts to be published,
which may be purchased by the members of any of
the joint societies at a price just covering expenses.
3. A joint ephemeral journal, if such is considered
necessary by the membership, to be published on the
same lines.
4. Advantage to be taken of the local sections of
sonie societies to make them local sections of all,
joint meetings of all chemists interested being held.
5. One central office and one secretarial staff to
transact the routine business of all the societies.
This would be the seat of the Federal Council.
CANTOR LECTURES ON CELLULOSE
C. F. CROSS.
The Lecturer reviewed the present position of
the chemistry and industrial application of cellu-
lose in the light of his experience in this field, ex-
tending over 40 years, with illustrative examples
drawn from his personal researches in the many
branches of the subject. The lectures, three in
number, were classified as follows: — I. Compound
celluloses (natural raw materials), their chemistry,
natural history and special technology. II. Cellu-
lose industries, including the industries of plastic
cellulose. III. Constitutional and speculative dis-
cussion. .
I. It will be remembered that the lecturer s high
reputation in the field of cellulose research had its
origin in work published in 1880 on the " Chemis-
try of Bast Fibres," in collaboration with E. J.
Bevan. In this work the jute fibre played the part
of prototype for the whole class of lignocelluloses,
and this fibre, as a type, has possessed a particular
fascination in many subsequent researches, on
account of its chemical homogeneity and strict con-
formity. On the experimental foundation laid in
those researches the modern knowledge of the
chemistry of wood has been built up. This earls-
work brought the lecturer in touch with the techno-
logical problems of the jute industry and led to the
study and elucidation of the peculiar form of bac-
terial attack, known in the jute trade as "heart
damage," which later was recognised as a disease
common to lignocelluloses as a group.
The lignocelluloses were originally formulated by
Cross and Bevan as chemically combined compound
celluloses (ester-like compounds of cellulose with
lignone or lignic acid). Later, Wislicenus ex-
pounded a theory of interpenetrating colloidal gel-
formation, which was accepted perhaps a little too
hastily, and the probability is that the compound
ester view will have to be restored as affording the
better explanation of the facts. The lignocellulose
type is not confined to pronounced lignocelluloses,
such as jute and woody fibre. Cross and Bevan's
researches on the bast fibres (1880) indicated the
presence of the lignone complex in esparto grass.
Unpublished researches in recent years have made
it apparent that the proportion of this lignone (or
lignic acid) complex in esparto is relatively large,
but that it is not associated with the cellulose fibre.
Esparto may be described as a structure of cellu-
lose fibres surrounded by or embedded in a readily
hydrolysable ligno-pentosan, that is, an ester-like
compound of lignone and pentosan. Allusion was
made by the lecturer to a soluble constituent in
the juice of white currants which could be regarded
as an analogous compound of lignone with a liemi-
cellulose. Thus we are provided by Nature with
a whole range of materials of ligno-cellulose type,
in which the lignone is associated with cellulose
proper, hemicelluloses or pentosans, the investiga-
tion of which opens up an important field.
Of the other classes of compound celluloses we
may admit that the so-called pectooelluloses are
probably not compounds, but merely associated
deposits of celluloses with hemicelluloses. On the
other hand, the ester-like nature of the little-
studied cutooelluloses has recently been confirmed
by the researches of Cross and Bevan on Raffia (J.
Soc. Dyers and Co., 1919, 35, 70). These investiga-
tions only point the way to the exploration of what
is, experimentally, a very difficult subject, but they
suffice to emphasise the fact that the formation of
esters of cellulose with the higher fatty acids is not
outside the range of practical possibility and to
suggest the valuable industrial potentialities of a
synthetic cutocellulose.
• Delivered hefore the Koyal Society of Arts. Feb.-March. 1920.
II. The scientific foundations of the cotton-
spinning industry are being systematically investi-
gated by W. L. Balls, and the influence of the
various "physical factors has been studied by exact
methods. The development of the artificial silk
and cellulose ester industries, with which the lec-
turer has been brilliantly identified since their in-
ception, was discussed. By a treatment analogous
to the viscose reaction, under conditions which pre-
clude the formation of definitely soluble xantho-
genic esters, it has been possible to obtain in the
fibrous celluloses extreme but controllable hydration
effects which exaggerate all the minute structural
details of the fibre. This treatment has been applied
both to scientific investigations and to the produc-
tion of new technical effects in the textile and
paper-making industries.
III. In this lecture the constitutional theories
developed by the lecturer in recent years were dis-
cussed, the organised colloids being conceived as
of the order of liquid systems with extremely small
and labile ultimate constituent groups. Some may
find it difficult to accept the physical and colloidal
methods of speculative constitutional research as
effective substitutes for the older chemical methods.
A system which is infinitely labile is not a system at
all, and it is open to question whether some of the
colloidal theories which have been woven around
the constitution of cellulose have not tended to
sterilise rather than fertilise by substituting words
for deeds. Be that as it may, it is certain that a
vast amount of objective research is necessary before
any profound modification of the older conceptions
is really called for. Such objective research on the
physical side is being prosecuted by S. J. Lewis,
and the data thus accumulated cannot fail to be of
the utmost value both to the technical investigator
and to an understanding of the physics common to
the colloidal state in general. Constitutional de-
ductions as to the chemical structure of cellulose in
particular should, however, not be hastily drawn
from them. Cellulose as a chemical individual or
complex is one thing, but cellulose as a colloid, ex-
hibiting the phenomena of hydration, adsorption
and interpenetration, may share its physical pro-
perties with other organic aqueous colloids quite
different in chemical structure.
J. F. Briggs.
THE COMPLETE GASIFICATION OF
COAL.
Recognised authorities consider that a cheaper
town gas can only be produced by converting a
higher proportion of the original energy of the
coal into gaseous form. "With present facilities com-
plete gasification of the coal may be effected by first
carbonising the coal in retorts and then converting
the remaining 10 cwt. of coke into blue water gas.
Assuming that 1 ton of coal containing 31 million
B.Th.U. vields: —
B.Th.I*. B.Th.¥.
(a) 13,000 cb. ft. coal gas at 520 = 6,760,000
(b) 18,600 cb. ft. blue gas at 280 = 5,208,000
31,600 cb. ft. mixed gas at 378 = 11,968,000
it i- seen that 38'6 per cent, of the original energy
is converted into gaseous energy. Such a two-stage
process involves losses due to the consumption of
4 cwt. of coke per ton of coal for heating the retorts,
to the loss of the sensible heat of coke leaving the
retorts, to the formation of breeze during the
handling of coke, and to the consumption of coke
during the operation of "blowing" in the water-
gas plant.
At the present time there is a considerable choice
of plants both of German and of British origin de-
Vol. XXXIX., No. 7.1
REVIEW.
125 b
signed to effect the complete gasification of coal in
one stage whereby much loss is avoided. It is
generally accepted that by this means it is possible
to obtain 60,000 cb. ft. of gas per ton of coal, but
ir is preferred to assume that one ton of coal will
yield 50,000 cb. ft. of 375 B.Th.U. = 18,750,000
B.Th.U. This represents a recovery of 60 per cent.
of the original energy in gaseous form, or an addi-
tional 6,782,000 B.Th.U. when compared with the
two-stage process. The average percentage com-
position by volume of this " complete " gas is as fol-
lows : Hydrogen 50, carbon monoxide 35, methane
7, unsaturated hydrocarbons 1, carbon dioxide 3'5,
and nitrogen 3'5. The incombustible constituents
amount to less than half of the lowest proportion
suggested in the Report of the Fuel Research Board,
and it is considered that there should be little diffi-
culty in overcoming objections to a comparatively
high percentage of carbon monoxide.
The product of complete gasification is of a lower
calorific value than that which will be generally
supplied in the near future, but when the principle
of supplying a low-grade gas has become established
there should be little opposition to the general
provision of a gas of 375 B.Th.U. The general intro-
duction of the system will take time because of the
capital at present invested in retort benches and
water-gas plants, but most gas undertakings require
an immediate increase of productive capacity.
" Complete "gas,because of its higher calorific value,
is a more desirable diluent for straight coal gas
than is blue water gas. Furthermore, the process
entails probably only 20 per cent, of the labour in-
volved in coal gas manufacture. Doubt has arisen
in connexion with the quality of "complete" gas
actually obtained in practice, as in at least one case
it has been found that the quality depreciated dur-
ing after-treatment owing to the condensation of
the more valuable constituents. The " Tetragas "
system is designed to obviate such depreciation.
The gas produced is most suitable for industrial
heating operations owing to its higher flame tem-
perature when compared with straight coal gas and
to the increased radiation from the combustion of
carbon monoxide. Much depends upon the cost of ,
the gas, but it is concluded that the adoption of
the principle of complete gasification represents the i
only possibility of selling gas at a pre-war rate ex-
§ressed upon a volume basis. — (Times Engin.
uppl.. Mar., 1920.)
CONTROL OF PLANT OUTPUT.
The output required from a plant will, in general,
depend on the demand for the particular product
and on existing stocks. In some chemical opera-
tions, however, it is not an easy matter to fix the
demand for an intermediate product in a multi-
stage process, since the required output depends on
the work in succeeding stages, and not merely on
the demand for the finished product In such
cases of " linked " productions, it is often difficult
for a manager to control manufacture in such a
way as to keep the various operations in balance,
and so ensure a tteady output, week in and week
out, from all the plants concerned.
A good example of this type of "linked" pro-
duction is furnished by the manufacture of an
explosive, such as TNT, guncotton, or nitro-
glycerin. For any of these products there will be
required at least six or seven distinct plants, and
the object of control will be : —
(a) To obtain a steady output from each
plant, and so avoid spasmodic working, which
is bad both for plant and labour.
(b) To get an output corresponding with tho
required output of finished product.
(r) To maintain constant the stocks of inter-
mediate products which previous practice has
shown to be essential for smooth running.
A satisfactory method of effecting the desired
1 control is illustrated below by reference to the
manufacture of TNT.
The first objective is to establish tho work of each
plant in terms of final product. In the case of
TNT manufacture, the plants involved will be
! nitric acid retorts, oleum plant, concentrators,
denitrators, mixing plant, MNT nitrators, TNT
nitrators (for simplification the plants for toluene
■ and TNT purification are here omitted). The
capacity and efficiency of all these plants must
bo known, and with this information the "flow"
of materials can be calculated for (say) 100 tons of
TNT. It is convenient to set forth this information
| in the form of a chart as shown overleaf. From this
" Flow Chart " a daily (or weekly) programme can
be mapped out for each plant depending on the
required output of TNT.
After fixing the daily work of each plant, it is
necessary to get a daily return from each, showing
■ the work done and the stocks of intermediate pro-
' ducts. It is very convenient to have these returns
i made on the type of form given in the illustration,
since they suggest at once to the manager the most
important items of information. In the " Stock
I Sheet " each column will represent the maximum
storage capacity for each kind of acid, and the
actual, stock can be shaded in as shown. The plant
productions are recorded on a somewhat simliar
type of form. This is so arranged that a horizontal
line through a given weekly production of TNT
marks off on the vertical columns the daily figure
required from the particular plant for this weekly
production of TNT (the figures are derived from tho
" Flow Chart "). Thus for normal working the
ends of the shaded parts of the columns, represent-
ing the day's work, should approximate to a hori-
zontal line, and any deviation from this would
direct attention at once to abnormal working.
The daily production form alone is not sufficient
to enable the production to be carefully watched
over a period of some weeks, because a daily fluctua-
tion in output may in some cases be unavoidable.
To keep track, therefore, of these fluctuations, the
excess (or deficit) should be noted and converted to
equivalent tons of TNT. The excess (or deficit) is
then added to the excess (or deficit) from the prev-
ious days' working, so that the over — or under — ■
production to date for each plant can be noted. It
is convenient to have these figures plotted as shown
on page 127, where a production of sulphur trioxide
is given for a period of three weeks. A similar graph
would be made for each plant operation shown in
the production form. A glance at these graphs
(easily constructed by any girl clerk) will inform
the manager each day, not only what parts of th-3
factory are out of balance, but the amount -f
" boosting " or "checking " that may be necessary.
It will be clear that the success or failure of the
method depends on whether the "Flow Chart"
represents the actual working conditions of the
plants involved; hence c:.re must be taken in its
construction, and any departure from previous
practice which this chart standardises must be
stopped or the chart amended accordingly.
With slight modifications, the method here out-
lined could be extended to the control of many
chemical operations, but it will be evident that its
main value lies in its application to multi-stage
processes on a large scale. With 6Uch processes it
is clear that only by some such method as that hero
described will the manager be able, with the mini-
mum expenditure of time and energy, to compre-
hend daily the production position, and so control
output effectively.
a2
126 »
Vol. XXXIX., No. 7.]
REVIEW.
127 b
Daily Record of Plant Productions.
'For 24 hours ending 6am. jg..
TONS
TNT
PER WEEK
500 ~
400 '
300 ~
ZOO "
iOO ~
370
296
222
148
14
DENITRATORS. OLEUM CONCENTRATORS RETORTS. MIXERS. NITRATORS
TREATED. PRODUCED. PRODUCED. PRODUCED. PRODUCED. PRODUCED PRODUCED
TNTS%$MNT HN03 DNA S03 CcncSA HN03 m"£$HNT TNT MNT
I/O"
IOO
so
60
4-0
20
475
380
283
ISO
66
44
95 22
WO
240
180
120
60
10
56
42
2S
14
350
280
2/0
140
70
120
96
72
48
24
171
37
43
28
14
42
34
25
17
8
TONNAGE
Daily Stock Sheet. TNT Acids.
6. am ..
<9
4500
3600
2700
J800
SPENT ACID
TNT MNT
IOOO\
.
800\
600\
4001
SU LP MURK ACID
DNA Cone 98-6'i cleum
1750 n 1200
44QOV 9
105oY 720
Q00& 200§
600m 48Q
I
M 480$ 400m 320%
1
i 240M 20QW 160 I
i i I
NITRIC ACID
Weak Strong
4on
MIXED ACID
THT MNT
24ft
16l
3m 8\
800
600
640 P 480
I
<Sfl| 360
I 240%
1 I
6 on mot
I i
2500 700
TONNAGE
780 450 770 350
25
620 300
Production Record. From to
Plant Operation. SOj Product/on
DATE
7 8 9 10 H 12 13 14 15 18 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
REVIEW.
[April 15. 1920.
NEWS FROM THE SECTIONS.
CANADA.
Toronto Branch.
A very successful meeting was held at the
Engineers' Club, Toronto, on February 20. Prof.
E. G. R. Ardagh presided, and the subjects discussed
included oleomargarine, a proposed exhibition of
chemical products, the relation of undergraduates
at Toronto University to the Branch, and the ques-
tion of publicity in connexion with the Society.
The Order-in-Council, enacted during the war,
authorising the importation, manufacture and sale
of oleomargarine terminates in September next, and
Canadian manufacturers are now urging its con-
tinuance on a permanent basis. This was also prac-
tically the unanimous opinion of the meeting. Mr.
J. R. Donald urged that the Society should petition
Parliament, and it was decided that the executive
committee should consider the matter and report to
the next meeting.
Canadian chemicai manufacturers and makers of
laboratory supplies are discussing the desirability
of holding an exhibition on the lines of the suc-
cessful expositions held in New York and Chicago.
The occasion of the Canadian National Exhibition
held yearly in Toronto would be eminently suitable,
and it is hoped that the project will materialise in
1921. There is also a desire to have a display, if
only a modest one, at the forthcoming joint meeting
of the Society of Chemical Industry and the Con-
vention of Canadian Chemists at Toronto in May.
A small committee was formed to consider and
report on the question of publicity and the relations
of the Society to the daily press. On the subject of
undergraduates, it was suggested that efforts should
be made to interest the student in the Society
during his first year.
MANCHESTER.
On March 25, in the Rooms of the Manchester
Literary and Philosophical Society, Mr. E. L.
Rhead read a paper on " Non-ferrous Metals Used
in Chemical Plant."
Attention was first directed to the subject of
heterogeneity of structure and properties caused by
the presence of impurities or by changes during
solidification, mechanical treatment, or the effects
of heat. The variations in behaviour of metals
under similar conditions were traced to such causes,
and the manner in which these differences were
accentuated, diminished, and overcome were de-
scribed. The troubles arising from the use of un-
suitable lead and of lead containing oxide were in-
dicated and insistence laid on the use of pure lead
for acid work. Specimens showing the crystalline
character of this metal, the manner in which anti-
mony and copper separate completely from it, and
samples showing corrosion due to local impurities
were exhibited.
The corrosion of copper and copper alloys and the
influence of variation in their physical properties
were next discussed. It was shown that metal in-
ternally stressed, such as hard-rolled sheets or hard-
drawn tubes, and subsequently imperfectly an-
nealed, was more readily attacked and more liable
to '• season cracking/' and it was suggested that
the latter trouble arose from unequal stresses de-
veloped in the material by inequalities, and varia-
tion in the rates of flow. Attention was directed
to the low elastic limit of copper and brass,
materials which were unsuitable for valve seats for
high-pressure and superheated steam, and for
which nickel and nickel alloys could be usefully
substituted. In connexion with copper alloys,
reference was made to the " water line " corrosion
of materials immersed to a small or great extent in
corroding liquids, and it was suggested that the
difference in the amount of corrosion occurring in
these two cases might be due to electrical condi-
tions produced by the "gas contact" at the sur-
face. Corrosion due to contact between metal and
other solid matter and accompanied by liberation of
gases was also discussed. Finally, the author dealt
with the resistance of aluminium to corrosion :
■' flaky " erosion due to physical differences and
corrosion beginning with minute spots uniformly
disseminated were referred to. and figures relating
to the resistance of the metal to nitric acid and
ammonia were given.
BIRMINGHAM.
The meeting held on March 11, with Mr. L. P.
Wilson in the chair, was devoted to the reading and
discussion of four papers on catalysis.
Dealing with " Catalysis Applied to the Oxidation
of Oils," Dr. R. S. Morrell reviewed the literature
of siccatives, and in connexion with the theory of
drying emphasised the necessity for considering the
interfacial tensions of drying-oil films to air, water
and nitrogen. Measurements of surface tension of
metallic drying oils had shown that lead differed
markedly from cobalt and manganese, and these
differences were best explained by Gibb's Rule.
Mr. A. W. Knapp, in his paper on " Catalv-ns
Applied to Oil Hardening." reviewed the work of
the past 15 vears directed to discovering the most
active form to be given to the nickel catalyst and
the most suitable apparatus for effective contact.
He had found that hardening could be performed by
passing hydrogen through a solution of colloidal
platinum or palladium made into an emulsion with
fnt with the aid of gum arabic. This process was
unsuitable for commercial use, but a great improve-
ment was effected by precipitating these metals on
metallic magnesium, which was superior to the
oxide. The author questioned the wholesomeness
of some of the hardened fats which the public had
been consuming.
Mr. L. P. Wilson spoke on catalysis in the oxida-
tion of cellulose in the manufacture of artificial silk
by the viscose process. The catalysts used were
generally oxides or hydroxides of metals with two
valencies (e.g., Fe, Ni, Co, Ce, Va, or Mn). Lead
had a negative value, but used in conjunction with
manganese, the effect of the latter was increased.
A paper on "Catalysis Applied to Vulcanisation"
was read by Dr. D. F. Twiss and Mr. S. A. Brazier.
A meeting was also held on March 25, at which
Dr. A. Slator read a paper on "An Apparatus for
Estimating Carbon Dioxide." This apparatus was
originally devised to measure the carbon dioxide
formed when sugars *e fermented by yeast, but
was found later to be generally applicable. The
carbon dioxide is liberated in a distilling flask which
is fitted with a trap and connected to a condenser
through which the gas is delivered into standardised
baryta solution. The apparatus can be exhausted,
and the residual gas is eliminated by boiling the
contents of the flask. The author indicated the
possibility of estimating sugars by alcoholic fer-
mentation on the lines of the above method.
Colonel J. G. Wright, of Toronto, contributed a
paper on the dehydration of milk, in which he
described the process devised by Dr. S. M. Dick.
of Minneapolis, U.S.A., by which the milk is not
subjected to a temperature higher than 71° C. The
milk powder obtained is stated to be quite soluble,
to be free from any "cooked" taste when redis-
solved, and to keep indefinitely.
The annual meeting was held during the evening.
The following were elected members of the Local
Committee: Prof. G. T. Morgan, Dr. T. J. Mur-
ray, and Messrs. H. J. Alcock, E. C. Rossiter and
H Silvester, in place of the retiring members,
Messrs. F. H. Alcock, G. D. Fitzpatrick, F. C.
Lantsberrv, W. J. Pickering and Dr. E. W. Smith.
Vol. XXXIX.. Xo. 7.1
REVIEW.
NOTTINGHAM.
At the meeting held on March 12, with Major
S. R. Trotman in the chair, Prof. F. S. Kipping
gave an account of his work, hegun over 20 years
ago, on the preparation of compounds containing
an asymmetric silicon atom resoluble into optically
active enantiomorphs.
Attempts directed to the preparation of deriva-
tives of triphenylsilicane were not successful. The
condensation of alcohols and phenols with silicon
tetrachloride produced compounds containing an
asymmetric silicon atom, which, however, were
very unstable. In 1903 the author discovered that
silicon tetrachloride would react with Grignard
reagent giving compounds of the type R1R,R3SiCl,
but attempts to resolve these were unsuccessful.
The further replacement of the chlorine atom by
benzyl and the sulphonation of this compound gave
a product containing two asymmetric silicon atoms
which was resolved by means of the dextro-methyl-
hydrindonium salt. Finally, by the use of chlorsul-
phonic acid, the compounds benzylmethylethyl-
propylsilicane sulphonic acid and dibenzylethyl-
propylsilicane monosulphonic acid were prepared,
both of which gave well-crystallised salts with
optically active bases. The latter compound was
resolved into its optical antipodes by the aid of its
brucine salt. An interesting class of compounds
prepared in the course of these researches was the
condensation products of the silicols R,.Si(OH). a
further 6tudy of which, and also of the so-called
siliconic acids, would doubtless throw considerable
light on the structure of the silicic acids.
In replying to the discussion, Prof. Kipping
mentioned that the first optically active silicon
compound was only prepared after four years' work.
AMERICA.
The annual meeting was held in New York on
March 20. Mr. Sumner E. Church was elected
chairman, and the vacancies on the Committee
caused by the retirement of Messrs. T. R Wagner.
J. Teeple, H. S. Miner, C W. Nicholls and T. R.
Duggan were filled by the election of Messrs. C. E.
Sholes (retiring chairman'!. H. J. McKee, H. R.
Bishop, W. Cohoe, D. D. Jackson and H. G.
Carroll.
GLASGOW.
The Section held a dinner on March 16 in honour
of Professor C. H. Desch and Mrs. Desch, who are
leaving Glasgow for Sheffield, where the former has
been appointed professor of metallurgy. Speeches
were made by Mr. Quintin Moore i chairman).
Professor J. J. Henderson, and Mr. D. A.
MacCullum, who voiced the general regret that the
Section was losing its vice-chairman and the Uni-
versity two distinguished teachers and research
chemists. Mrs. Desch, who is a Fellow of the
Institute of Chemistry, gave lectnres on chemistry
at the University during the period of the war.
The hon. secretary's report, read at the annual
meeting held on March 31, comments on the success
of the meeting held at Derby, and on that held on
March 11 (cf. $.), and suggests that a lecture on
some definite achievement in pure chemistry might
be made an annual event. All the meetings were
well attended, but it is a matter for regret that the
number of papers dealing with research work is not
commensurate with the growth in membership.
In moving the adoption of the report Mr. Rich-
mond referred to the honours recently conferred
on members of the Section, viz., Mr. F. H. Carr
(chairman), Dr. W. J. Bowis and Mr. M. M. Bar-
rowcliff (cf. p. 134 k). When Sir Jesse Boot offered
the resources of his works to the Government, Mr.
Carr was put in charge of operations, which in-
cluded the preparation of gas-mask fillings, work
on poison gases and the manufacture of saccharin.
The production of sterilising tablets in amount suffi-
cient to meet the Government demand was effected
in four days of the most strenuous work. Reference
was also made to the distinguished services of Major
S. R. Trotman. The results of the election of the
Officers and Committee were announced as fol-
lows:— Mr. J. H. Dunford succeeds Mr. Carr as
chairman, Mr. J. T. Wood becomes a vice-chairman,
and the new members of Committee are Messrs.
D. J. Law, A. G. C. Paterson, A. D. Powell,
E. B. R. Prideaux. H. D. Richmond and J. White.
Mr. J. T. Wood then gave an account of the
applications of chemistry in tanning. The stretch-
ing of hides referred to in the Iliad gave results
similar to those of the present-day oil tanning. The
empirical methods of this ancient industry were
founded on a chemistry more complex perhaps than
any other. The chrome tanning process was then
described, with various improvements, such as the
use of sulphur dioxide instead of glucose as a re-
ducing agent, introduced by Procter. The forma-
tion of gelatin tannate etc. could be well explained
by the useful generalisations of colloid chemistry.
Silica- and stannate-tanned leathers had been
similarly produced.
BRISTOL AND SOUTH WALES.
The annual meeting of the section was held on
March 2-5, at the University, Bristol. Mr. E. Walls,
chairman, presided. The following changes were
made in the composition of the local executive: —
Vice-chairman, Dr. C. M. Thompson; Committee:
Messrs. W. R. Bird, H. E. Cox (hon. sec. of the
South Wales sub-committee), J. H. Duncan, V. F.
Eberle, and R. Robertson, in place of the retiring
members, Messrs. L. J. Davies, J. M. Dodds, E. C.
Evans, G. H. Hedley, and C. M. Thompson. There
are now over 200 members on the roll of the section.
Following the business meeting, Prof. F. E.
Francis gave an account of " Some Chemical
Curiosities of the War," in which he dealt with
recent applications of helium, argon, lethal and
lachrymatory gases, catalysts, titanium and silicon
chlorides for smoke screens, glycerin from sugar,
acetone from carbide, etc.
MEETINGS OF OTHER SOCIETIES.
ROYAL SOCIETY OF ARTS.
A paper was read on March 24 by Mr. L. Gaster
on " Industrial Lighting and its Relation to Effi-
ciency." The connexion of proper lighting with in-
creased output and better conditions of labour was
shown, as well as its influence on the prevention of
industrial accidents. An interesting experiment on
improved lighting in Chicago was quoted, which
was conducted with a large number of works em-
bracing a wide variety of industries. The experi-
ment included three periods: — (1) ordinary light-
ing; (2) improved lighting; (3) reversal to ordinary
lighting. The results showed that, on a conserva-
tive estimate, an increased cost of lighting amount-
ing to not more than 5 per cent, of the pay roll
would lead to an increased production of quite 15
per cent. The small cost of installing good lighting
was illustrated by the fact that in one case the light-
ing installation had cost only 3 per cent, of the
entire first cost of the works. In conclusion, the
speaker said that though Great Britain haa been
the pioneer in industrial lighting, as in the Safety
First movement, she had fallen somewhat to the
rear, and expressed the hope that the lead formerly
held would be regained.
REVIEW.
[April 15. 1920.
THE CHEMICAL SOCIETY.
The presidential address was delivered on March
25 by Sir James J. Dobbie on the occasion of the
annual meeting of the Society.
One of the most significant consequences of the
war is the recognition by Government that it is the
duty of the State to intervene in the development
and protection of " key " industries, and the
closing words of the Report of the Nitrogen Pro-
ducts Committee that, " as far as the United King-
dom is concerned, nitrogen fixaton and allied pro-
cesses will constitute a new " key " industry," are
of enormous importance to our country.
The speaker described the main facts relating to
the supply and disposal of the chief industrial
nitrogen compounds in England and Germany both
before and during the war (this J., 1920, 25 r), and,
in referring to the critical condition in regard to
supplies of these compounds which this country ex-
perienced in 1916—1917, and the means taken to
alleviate it, said that the scientific and technical
work of the Nitrogen Products Committee would
form a lasting memorial to the skill and energy of
the chemists and physicists who took part in it.
The question of having at our disposal abundant
supplies of nitrogen products is also of great import-
ance in times of peace, notably for agricultural pur-
poses, and there is urgent need for exploiting the
industrial possibilities of a cheap and abundant
supply of synthetic ammonia. The Solvay process,
for example, is stated to be already in operation in
Germany in association with the Haber process;
and increased production of atmospheric nitrogen
will lead to developments in the use of the oxygen
and rarer elements of the air. Many branches of
the nitrogen problem still call for investigation both
in connexion with the by-product and the synthetic
industries; for example, low-temperature carbonisa-
tion (now under investigation by the Fuel Research
Board), the utilisation of by-products obtained at
electric power stations in the treatment of coal for
recovery of ammonia, and the Hausser process, by
which the heat of explosion of a mixture of combus-
tible gas and air is used to effect the union of nitro-
gen and oxygen. It is satisfactory to note that the.
syndicate which is taking over the undeveloped
nitrogen works at Billingham-on-Tees has also taken
over the section of the staff engaged on the syn-
thetic ammonia problem, and that important nitro-
gen fixation schemes are in course of development in
Egypt, South Africa, Canada, Newfoundland, the
West Indies, New Zealand, Ceylon, and India.
Our past attitude towards the nitrogen problem
illustrates a defect in our attitude towards such
problems generally. Where our individual interests
are not affected we are prone to be indifferent to
and to overlook developments in other countries
which in their results may be of vital importance to
us as a nation. Hence it was that before the war
no consideration whatever was given to the national
aspects of the nitrogen question either in peace or
war conditions, and that no precautions were taken
against the more obvious dangers.
In the course of its long inquiry the Nitrogen
Products Comittee experienced great difficulty in
obtaining accurate statistical and other informa-
tion, and in some cases no data whatever were pro-
curable ; therefore the Committee's recommendation
that annual statistics of the nitrogen and other
industries should be officially collected and pub-
lished was worthy of the strongest support. At the
beginning of the war, too, we possessed no adequate
account of the state of the nitrogen industries on
the Continent, and it is urgently desirable that
means should be devised of keeping the departments
concerned with the technical and scientific work of
the nation in close touch with developments abroad.
Like the citizens of " The New Atlantis," we, too,
have need of "merchants of light" who will
journey into foreign countries and bring back
"books and abstracts and patterns of experiments
of all other parts."
THE FARADAY SOCIETY.
The general discussion, held on March 23, on
" Basic Slags : Their Production and Utilisation in
Agriculture and other Industries " was noteworthy
inasmuch as it brought together chemists, steel-
makers and agriculturists on a common platform.
Prof. F. G. Donnan occupied the chair.
The question of obtaining adequate supplies of
basic slag has of late assumed increased importance
owing to the practical supersession of the Bessemer
process of steel manufacture by the open-hearth
basic process, which furnishes a poorer slag. Dr.
E. J. Russell classified the types of slag now in
use into (1) Bessemer slag, containing about 20%
of P205, (2) open-hearth basic slag with 7 — 14%
P2Os, and (3) open-hearth basic slag into the pro-
duction of which calcium fluoride had entered, with
7 — X0% P,05. Allowing for their different P205-
contents, (1) and (2) are of equal value in agricul-
ture, but (3) has proved to be less effective. The
phosphoric content was, probably, rightly assumed to
be the most effective component, but there is scope
for inquiry in regard to the action of calcium, man-
ganese, and iron ; the silico-phosphate, presumably
present, may have more value than the normal
phosphate alone. Home agriculture requires from
300,000 to 400,000 tons of Bessemer slag annually,
and its provision was of vital importance. To
the steelmaker basic slag was a by-product, yet
it might prove to his advantage to improve its
quality. The phosphorus content might be in-
creased by enriching the pig-iron, by fractionating
the slag (probably the best method), or by adding
ground mineral phosphate to the molten slag. A
further problem was to increase the availability of
the phosphorus content of fluorspar slags.
Dr. J. E. Stead said that he did not see how the
solubility of the fluorspar slags could be improved :
mineral phosphate might advantageously be ground
with the basic slag, but there was apparently no
practicable method of incorporating the mineral
with the molten slag so as to produce a homogeneous
mixture. Mr. D. Sillars said that in Germany
mineral phosphate was blown by an air blast into
the liquid slag, and that the use of fluorspar could
be obviated by reducing the sulphur in the fuel.
Sir T. H. Middleton dealt with basic slag from
the national standpoint. He showed its value for
the improvement of grassland and the bearing of
this upon the increase of the area of tillage land and
on our supply of home-grown food. In a p'&per on
" A Comparison of the Effect of Various Types of
Ope.n-hcarth Basic Slags on Grassland," Mr. G. S.
Robertson maintained the inadequacy of the official
citric acid solubility test ; important differences
might exist between two slags of this type showing
the same solubility. Therefore extended field trials
should be undertaken to compare the fertilising
values of the different slags.
A paper on the " Solubility of Basic Slags," by
Dr. Stead with Messrs. F. Bainbridge and E. W.
Jackson, showed that the low citric solubility of
fluorspar slags was due to the formation of artificial
apatite. Mr. D. Sillars contributed a paper con-
taining a useful description and comparison of the
Bessemer and basic open-hearth processes from the
point of view of the nature of the basic slag pro-
duced. He and other representatives of the steel-
makers took a prominent part in the discussion.
Willingness to co-operate with agricultural inter-
ests was expressed by all, but no definite practical
proposal was made. It was, however, agreed to
form a committee, under the crgis of the Ministry
of Agriculture, to bring together representatives of
the interests concerned.
Vol XXXII.. No. :.]
REVIEW.
131 a
NEWS AND NOTES.
UNITED states.
Research on Vitamines. — The Committee on Food
and Nutrition, Division of Biology and Agricul-
ture, of the National Research Council, has planned
a very extensive programme of work in which the
investigation of the vitamine content of various
foods is prominent. It is understood that the work
will cover foods of all classes and also experiments on
the effect of heat upon these accessory substances.
The comparison of the vitamine content of commer-
cial canned foods, home-canned foods, and home-
cooked foods will be of especial interest.
Yeast-Foods. — Experiments have been conducted
on so-called yeast-foods with the following results
in the case of one of the better known prepara-
tions. In making 1000 loaves, each weighing
1*5 lb., 4'92 lb. of the stimulant was used, and the
quantities of the individual constituents were: —
Calcium sulphate 1"23 lb., ammonium chloride
0-43 lb., potassium bromate 001 lb., 6odium
chloride 1"23 lb., flour T97 lb. The savings recorded
were as follows: — Flour 9"5 lb., sugar 4-19 lb., salt
1-19 lb., yeast 5'80 lb., shortening 0"41 lb. It
appears that the character of the gluten is also
changed, enabling bread of better appearance to
be made from low-grade flours and without affect-
ing nutritive qualities.
Milk-Containers. — In view of the probability that
glass bottles will become more costly owing to
labour and fuel conditions, efforts to produce a
container from waste paper and wood pulp have
been increased. A new process which blows the
pulp upon the form and then dries it by blowing
through air heated to 600° F., is stated to produce
a good container at a low cost. One dollar's
worth of ground wood pulp will produce 2133 one-
pint bottles at a manufacturing cost lower than
that of collecting and washing glass bottles.
There are still some problems to be solved in con-
nexion with proofing the container with material
that will resist oils, fats, and water without im-
parting a disagreeable flavour and being at the same
time cheap and easy to apply.
The American Ceramic Society. — During the recent
meeting of the American Ceramic Society 131 papers
were presented, many of which contained results of
scientific value. In several of the discussions the
point was brought out that the value of scientific
investigation is now becoming more and more appre-
ciated in this industry, which is evidenced by the
way in which many firms have set up their own
scientific organisations. It is, however, recognised
that there is place for co-operative effort, and the
Glass Division of the Society has appointed a com-
mittee to co-operate with the National Research
Council for the purpose of selecting subjects for
investigation, inquiring into facilities available for
the work, selecting suitable personnel, and elabora-
ting a sound scheme of finance.
Corrosion of Hot-water Pipes. — It has been found
that the corrosion of pipes in hot-water heating
systems is due to the free oxygen present. In
systems provided with storage tanks containing
expanded steel lathing or metal plates, or those that
have open heaters where gases can escape, no corro-
sion has been found after many years of service.
The advice formerly given in regard to wash-out
systems, to replace the water occasionally, is now
being superseded by directions merely to draw off
any accumulated sediment and introduce fresh
water only when necessary. Corrosion on the plates
of steam turbines has been retarded or stopped by
the use of heavy paraffin base oil which forms a
protective coating.
Use of Buttermilk in Bread. — A method has been
devised for condensing buttermilk into a semi-solid
smooth paste having a high nutritive value. Used
in bread-making, it gives a loaf of increased food
value and with an agreeable flavour ; also the lactose
combines with the dextrine to make a delicious
brown crust, which appears at a comparatively low
baking temperature.
Wood-Alcohol Poisoning. — Following the enactment
of prohibition legislation, the occurrence of a large
number of cases of wood-alcohol poisoning has given
rise to the passing of many measures designed to
protect the public. In one State, manufacturers,
distributors, and dealers in alcoholic preparations
not recognised by the Pharmacopoeia or the
National Formulary must satisfy the State Depart-
ment of Health that the preparations do not contain
wood alcohol; and the Attorney-General's Depart-
ment is empowered to place an embargo on all non-
official preparations containing alcohol, unless the
authorities are satisfied that 10 wood alcohol is
present. The situation is of interest to chemists,
since at the present price of wood alcohol (two or
three times that of denatured alcohol) it is evident
that the usual source of wood-alcohol poisoning
is the denaturing substance in denatured alcohol,
and it is feared that unless poisoning can be les-
sened by co-operative effort, legislation may be
enacted which will be detrimental to chemical
interests. The high cost of methyl alcohol is due
to the demand for it in the dye industry.
BRITISH INDIA.
The Indigo Industry. — The revival of the indigo
industry in India is the subject of a communication
from Prof. II. E. Armstrong to The Times of
April 8. Recent progress has been so substantial
that success appears to be assured. Lack of union
among the planters should cease now that an Indigo
Planters' Co-operative Association has been esta-
blished with the main object of effecting the neces-
sary centralisation of the final stages of manufac-
ture. From information supplied by Mr. W. A.
Davis, Indigo Research Chemist at Pusa, it appears
that the decline in fertility of the indigo estates is
in process of being arrested by increased application
of phosphatic manures, and that the supply of the
latter will be much improved as the projected in-
creased production of sulphuric acid materialises.
Valuable data have been obtained on the effect of
different conditions of growth on the percentage of
potential colouring matter in the plant, and on the
extraction process; as the latter becomes under-
stood, the output should be increased by a maxi-
mum of 50 per cent. Prof. Armstrong reiterates
his conviction that natural indigo is much superior
to synthetic indigotin — as a vintage wine is superior
to manufactured alcohol — and in support states
that extended trials on a practical scale made by
Messrs. G. Garrett and Sons have recently shown
that the depth of shade produced with the natural
paste is from 5 to 20 per cent, deeper than when
dyed with indigotin. Indian indigo has been in
great demand of late for Japan and at prices above
those which ruled in the old prosperous days, but it
cannot compete with synthetic indigotin in the
English market owing to loss on exchange and high
freight charges. There is no doubt that for many
years the Eastern market will absorb the whole of
the Indian output. In 1913 Germany and Switzer-
land exported to Cbina the equivalent of 9000 tons
of 60 per cent, indigotin indigo: last year India
produced only 600 tons of this grade, and even when
the industry was at its highest the average produc-
tion was only about 7,000 tons per annum.
REVIEW.
[April 15, 1020.
SOUTH AFRICA.
New Pig-iron Industry in Northern Natal. — A new
plant is being erected at Newcastle, Natal,
which will have an output of from 100 — 120 tons
of pig-iron every 24 hours. The ore is either
haematite or magnetite, and contains from 50 — 65
per cent, of metallic iron ; it is obtainable within
a radius of 50 or 60 miles. Production is expected
to begin in April or May of this year. — (U.S. Com.
Be.p., Feb. 28, 1920.)
Coal Exports. — The quantity of coal exported from
the Union in 1919 was 1,208,000 short tons, valued
at £1,033,000, compared with 856,000 short tons,
worth £337,000, in 1913. There was a decrease in
the amount of bunker coal shipped, viz., 1,276,000
as against 1,452,000 short tons in 1913, the cor-
responding values being £1,906,000 and £1,502,000.
During the past year new markets have been found
for South African coal, notably Argentina,
Uruguay, British East Indies and Egypt. On the
other hand, consignments to Portugese East Africa
fell off considerably.— (Official.)
FRANCE.
Artificial Silk Manufacture. — The world's production
of artificial silk rose from 2000 metric tons in 1902
to 5000 tons in 1906 and 8000 in 1914. The produc-
tion in Germany is estimated at 5 tons daily, and
that of France, as soon as certain new installations
are completed, will show a capacity of 4 tons per
day. Lack of fuel and transport are more serious
obstacles to the recovery of the industry than short-
age of raw materials. A certain amount of viscose
silk was used for war purposes, including sacks for
explosives and gas-mask fabrics. In the years before
the war the development of the artificial silk indus-
try had no injurious effect upon that of real silk,
which showed a correlative expansion. At Lyon a
product known as silk cellulose is being manufac-
tured by an entirely new process (U.S. Pat.
1,184,820). This new product has a brilliancy com-
parable with that of schappe silk, and its proper-
ties are closer to those of natural silk than any of
the older artificial silks. The new silk, moreover,
can be spun into threads considerably finer than
those of ordinary artificial silk, and is particularly
suitable for the manufacture of velvets. It is stated
that the structure of the wood fibre is preserved,
and the regular geometric form of the elements con-
tributes greatly to the strength and durability of
the fabric. A demand for the lowering of the im-
port duty on artificial silk (15 fr. per kg.) in
France has been rejected, because it is considered
that owing to the shortage in all countries of the
world at the present time a lowering of the duty
would not materially increase importation. — (U.S.
Com. Sep., Feb. 14, 1920).
GENERAL.
Report of the Tropical Agricultural Committee. — The
committee appointed by the Secretary of State for
the Colonies to consider the desirability of establish-
ing a Tropical Agricultural College in the British
West Indies has reported that, as a matter of
Imperial concern, steps should at once be taken in
this direction. The importance is shown of provid-
ing instruction in the principles of agriculture and
the cultivation and preparation of tropical produce,
so much of which constitutes the raw material
employed in the mother country. Equal import
ance is assigned to the need of full provision for the
prosecution of research and for the training of
scientific investigators in tropical agriculture.
The Committee further recommends that the
College be established in Trinidad, as this island
possesses a wide variety of industries and is of easy
access: and that it should be incorporated in the
United Kingdom as a company limited by guaran-
tee, prior to the grant of a Royal Charter. The
subjects taught at the College should include agri-
cultural and organic chemistry, sugar technology
and agricultural engineering and physics, as well
as the usual agricultural subjects. Provision should
be made for a school of sugar technology equipped
with a small but complete plant on a working scale,
and an oil technology branch might be added if
Trinidad be selected. In the event of Trinidad and
the Windward and Leeward Islands being unable
to provide adequate support for the projected
institution, it is proposed to reconsider the claims
of Jamaica.
Chemical Research in the Sudan. — Throughout the
difficult period of the last five years scientific
work has been carried on in the Anglo-Egyptian
Sudan at the Wellcome Tropical Research Labora-
tories at Khartoum, which, built by the Sudan
Government in 1903 — 4 and equipped by the
generosity of Mr. H. S. Wellcome, have proved to
be a real centre of scientific research in Central
Africa. Much of the work done has been bacterio-
logical, and both the first director, Dr. Andrew
Balfour, and his successor, Dr. A. J. Chalmers,
whose retirement in March will be a great loss to
the laboratories, have produced a steady stream
of valuable scientific contributions. The chemical
section was from its beginning presided over by
the late Dr. W. Beam, whose death in April last
at the age of 55 was deeply regretted. Dr. Beam
devoted most of his time to research work on
chemical matters of local interest, much of which
is published in the reports of the Wellcome Labora-
tories. Since 1911, however, the work has appeared
in various other publications : his last paper — on
the estimation of small quantities of antimony
(Beam and Freak) — appeared in the Analyst for
1919. Dr. Beam has been succeeded by Dr. A. F.
Joseph, formerly professor of chemistry at the
Ceylon Medical College, from whom will be found
a contribution on the important subject of the
Nile Sudd in another part of this issue (p. 91 t).
With easier times ahead it is to be hoped that the
great development of the Sudan which is expected
to take place will be accompanied by a correspond-
ing growth in its scientific exploration.
The Alsatian Potash Industry. — Since the armistice
the output of the potash mines in Alsace has in-
creased by over 300 per cent. In 1913 approxi-
mately 696,000 metric tons was produced, and in
November last the output was 74,484 tons. From
January to November, 1919, the average produc-
tion per miner rose from 0'933 to 1'48 tons per day,
and the a'verage daily wage varied from 22 to 23
franca. The estimated production of crude potash
during 1920 is 1,320,000 tons ( = about 220,000 tons
K20), 2,040,000 tons for 1921, and 2,340,000 tons
for 1922. The transport crisis has much hindered
the exportation, the only economical way at present
being to ship by rail to Strasbourg, and thence by
barge to Rotterdam or Antwerp. Since May, 1919,
some 100,000 tons of potash of various grades have
been shipped to the United States. There have
been rumours of a possible understanding between
the German and French potash interests respecting
the control of sales and prices, but such an under-
standing would meet with much opposition. — (U.S.
Com. lie p., Feb. 20, 1920.)
The Potash Situation in Germany. — The Potash
Syndicate has officially notified that the production
iti 1919 was 8'6 million double cwt. (860,000 metric
tons) of pure potash (K20), of which about 6'2 mil-
lions was consumed in Germany. These figures
compare with 11 millions and 5'3 millions, respec-
tively, in 1913. The home demand exceeds 10 mil-
lion double cwt., and as the demand from abroad is
at least equal to this the Syndicate is compelled
to turn down many foreign orders. Owing to coal
shortage about one-half of the mines is lying idle,
and added to this there is a shortage of railway
Vol. XXXIX.. No. 7]
REVIEW.
trucks. Recently barges with a combined freight-
space of 40,000 tons had to return empty from
Hanover to the Rhine because there were no trucks
available to convey potash salts to them. Agricul-
ture in East Germany is, in particular, suffering
from these conditions. The Syndicate is of the
opinion that the only hope of improvement lies in
abandoning the 8-hour day and the paying of wages
by time-rate to workers in the transport services
and factories where locomotives and railway
material are turned out. — (fihem. Ind., Feb. 5,
1920.)
Potash Felspar in Norway. — In a recent address
Mr. A. Holter, a Norwegian engineer, referred to
the suggestion that a material containing a higher
percentage of potash, e.g., potash felspar, should
be used in the manufacture of cement. Norway, he
pointed out, has abundant supplies of this felspar,
and the quantity hitherto exported has not ex-
ceeded 30,000 tons — 40,000 tons a year, including
the higher grade sorted felspar, the supply of
which is limited. Millions of tons of impure felspar
lying near the seaboard remain to be exploited,
and Mr. Holter is of the opinion that much of the
first-grade rock can and will be used by the cement
industry, thus opening up prospects of a big export
trade in the second-grade material. Tests carried
out by a Norwegian company have shown that the
raw material gives an excellent cement. If in the
near future the entire Norwegian cement industry
attains an output of 2'5 — 3 million barrels per
annum, and if the native felspar be utilised by all
the works, then the production of potash would
practicallv cover the country's requirements. —
(Xororwegian Trade Review, 1919, 4, 63—66.)
Wage Rates in the Danish Chemical Industry. — The
following table gives the wages paid in ore (100 ore
= ls. ljd.) per hour in the Danish chemical
industry : —
1914. April-June, 1919.
Dyeing improvers ... — ... 141'8
Oilmill „ ... 58-4 ... 145-5
Oilmill hands 43"4 ... 120'4
Rubber workers ... — ... 125'4
Male hands — ... 73'4
Female ,,_ 50t> ... 125-5
Sulphuric acid workers 46'6 ... 11S'9
Hands in other trades 27-8 ... 69T
Wages have not risen to the same extent as in other
countries, so that labour in the Danish chemical
industry is comparatively cheap. — (Z. angew.
Chern., Jan. 2, 1920.)
Wage Rates in the German Chemical Industry. — The
Reichsarbeitblatt for December, 1919, gives the
wages paid per hour in the German chemical
industry as follows: —
Dec.
1914 1917 1918 1918
' Pf. Pf. Pf. Pf.
Locksmiths 47 68 85 155
Artisans in building trade ... 45 64 77 130
Boiler foremen and machinists 42 56 69 127
Foremen 42 54 67 124
Laboratory hands 38 56 69 118
Outdoor workers 34 48 67* 113
Juvenile workers ... ... — 42 52£ 65
Female workers — 37* 45* 80
—(Chem. Ind., Jan. 27, 1920.)
The Bohemian Glass Industry. — Of the 129 glass
factories in the former Empire of Austria-Hungary
103 are located in Czecho-Slovakia, and for the
nine months ended October 31, 1919, the exports of
glass from this new republic amounted to 17 million
kronen (krone = 10d.). An official report states
that the industry has been revived with great diffi-
culty, the chief obstacle being shortage of coal and
raw materials. Owing to these causes, most of the
factories are only working single shifts. The in-
dustry was also threatened with foreign competi-
tion, but by prompt attention to the export trade,
the Bohemian glass makers have retained most of
their old markets, and at the present time the entire
outputs are sold for a long time ahead. — (U.S. Com.
Rep., Jan. 31, 1920.)
Graphite Productiom in German Austria. — Both in
Germany and Austria there was a great shortage of
graphite during the war. As only flake graphite
is suitable for making graphite crucibles, the
deposits in South Bohemia and Lower Austria
alone were of any use. According to Bergbau vnd
Iliitte, the quartz-glass crucibles used as substi-
tutes were not satisfactory. Before the war the
production of flake graphite was much neglected,
practically the whole demand being satisfied from
Ceylon and Madagascar. Latterly the home pro-
duction and manufacture of graphite products
have been so much developed that it is believed that
the country is now independent of imported
material. Among the localities where graphite
mining has been developed since 1914 are Hengst-
berg (near Korning, in Lower Austria), Oetz (near
Spitz, on the Danube), the neighbourhood of Waid-
hofen, etc.— (Schweiz. Chem.-Z., Feb. 25, 1920.)
The Carbide Industry in Norway. — The Norwegian
carbide industry, which was greatly developed
during the war, has of late suffered a serious set-
back. At the present time it is undergoing a crisis;
many factories have had either to reduce their out-
put or to close down, and it is feared that some of
the producing companies will go into liquidation. —
(Schweiz. Chem.-Z., Feb. 16, 1920.)
The Carbide Industry in Bavaria. — With the excep-
tion of a small factory in Freyung vor dem Walde,
which was enlarged during the war to a capacity
of 6000 tons of carbide, the Bavarian industry is
confined to two works, both the property of the
Bavarian Nitrogen Works Co. One of these, which
already before the war had an annual output
capacity of 15,000 tons, is supplied with power
from its own water power installation at Tacher-
ting a.d. Alz. These works have recently been ex-
tended to utilise an additional 24,000 h.-p., and to
produce a further 50,000 tons per annum. The
works of the Wacker Co. has at present only one
carbide furnace; it obtains its 4000 h.-p. from
Austria, and is planning to use an additional 36,000
h.-p., which, however, will not be available for two
or three years. The carbide produced at this
factory is used for making acetone, acetic acid,
alcohol, etc., while the output from the larger
works above mentioned is utilised solely for con-
version into cyanamide at the company's plant in
Trostberg.— (Schweiz. Chem.-Z., Feb. 16, 1920.)
Electricity Supply Undertakings in Germany. — A law
was passed in December last to provide for the
division of the whole country into districts, each
being provided with a board under Government con-
trol. All plants used for generating or distributing
electricity will be controlled by these boards,
save such as belong to companies which generate
the electricity mainly or wholly for their own
use. Plants with a capacity of 5,000 kw. or more
are affected, and those in course of development
may be taken over if so desired by the owners,
the' indemnity to be based either on the running
costs or on the income over an average of the
three years before the war. In case of appeal, a
court of arbitrators is to be appointed, the final
court of appeal being the Supreme Court of the
Finance Ministry. — (Mitt. Rcichb. d. Techn.,
Dec. 27, 1919.)
Magaesite snd Talc Deposits in Manchuria. — It is
reported that the magnesite and talc deposits in
Manchuria are very extensive and have great
potential value. All the deposits are situated be-
tween 3 — 10 miles of the South Manchurian Rail-
134 r
REVIEW.
way and are mostly under Japanese control. The
talc is said to compare favourably with the high-
grade French product. — (U.S. Com. Rev., Jan.,
20, 1920.)
Sulphur Production in Germany. — Before the war
the supply of sulphuric acid in Germany was almost
exclusively derived from sulphur contained in im-
ported pyrites, but some was obtained from the
gases evolved in the roasting of zinc and lead ores.
The sulphur dioxide obtained from the zinc
smelters, by burning sulphur, and from spent oxide,
was employed principally in the cellulose and sugar
industries. When foreign supplies were cut off at
the outbreak of war attention was turned to home
sources, and large deposits of pyrites, more particu-
larly those occurring at Messen, were reopened;
spent oxide was utilised more efficiently; use was
made of substances like kieserite and gypsum; and
the production of sulphur dioxide from kieserite by
heating it with coal in revolving furnaces was
undertaken by the Griesheim-Elektron company. In
1915, when peace still seemed distant, much atten-
tion had to be given to the provision of elementary
sulphur, the pre-war consumption of which was
about 45,000 tons per annum. Deposits of native
sulphur are scarce in Germany, and although some
occur in the districts of Rybnick and Ratibor, these
contain barely 10 per cent, of sulphur, and the tech-
nique of treatment has not been developed. The
problem was solved by reducing gypsum to calcium
sulphide and burning the hydrogen sulphide ob-
tained from this to sulphur and water. The cal-
cium sulphide was converted to hydrogen sulphide
with magnesium chloride liquor, as discovered by
Schaffner and Helbig. The manufacture was
undertaken by Sulfur G.m.b.H. on the property of
a disused cement works near Walbeck, and by the
Deutsche Claus-Schwefel-Gesellschaft at Bernburg,
both of which obtained magnesium chloride from
neighbouring potash works. Operations were com-
menced in January, 1917, and by the end of the year
were working smoothly. The output of the Bernburg
factory is now 30 tons a day. The process of produc-
tion from anhydrite is as follows : The mineral is
broken up, dried, mixed with dry coal, and heated
in a revolving furnace to about 1100° C. After
cooling, the product, containing about 70 per cent,
calcium sulphide, is ground up and treated with
magnesium chloride liquor, the whole being heated
with live steam. The hydrogen sulphide evolved is
passed to a gasometer, mixed with air, and then
passed downwards through four large Claus fur-
naces, containing bauxite as contact material. The
sulphur obtained is of 99'95 per cent, purity. The
waste gases are passed into a cold dust chamber,
where more sulphur is deposited. The spent liquor
containing calcium chloride and magnesium hydrate
is pumped into large reservoirs, and after settling
the clear solution is run off (cf . this J., 1919, 285 b)
Up to the end of 1919, 22,300 tons of elementary
sulphur had been produced by this process. The
plants are still in operation, as the sulphur so ob-
tained is cheaper than the imported article.
Attempts are now being made to improve effi-
ciencies ; at present the yield of calcium sulphide is
barely 60 per cent, of the theoretical, but this
could be much improved by the use of plant specially
built for the purpose; in fact, a 90 per cent, yield
should be attainable ; and, further, it is considered
possible that in course of time the cost of produc-
tion of sulphur by this process will be on a level with
that of its production from the native element. The
" Badische " company attempted to produce sul-
phur from gypsum by reducing the sulphur dioxide
liberated from it with carbon monoxide, both
reactions proceeding simultaneously in a blast fur-
nace. Practically no output was obtained from a
plant erected to produce about 5.000 tons a month.
— (Z. angeu\ Chem., Mar. 2, 1920.)
PERSONALIA.
Mr. B. D. Porritt, chief chemist to the North
British Rubber Co., has been appointed director of
research by The Research Association of British
Rubber and Tyre Manufacturers.
Mr. C. L. Claremont has been appointed by the
Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries chemist for
research work in connexion with the Rats and Mice
(Destruction) Act, 1919.
The following are among the announcements of
appointments to or promotions in the Order of the
British Empire (Civil Division): —
Knight Grand Cross (G.BE.): Prof. A. E.
Shipley (Vice-Chancellor of Cambridge University).
Knight Commanders (K.B.E.) : Mr. R. W. Cohen
(Petroleum Adviser to the War Office); Dr. S. F.
Harmer (Director of the Natural History Depart-
ments, British Museum); Mr. A. Mansfield (Direc-
tor of Oils and Fats, Ministry of Food); Dr. J. E.
Petavel (Director, National Physical Laboratory).
Commanders (C.B.E.): Mr. G. S. Albright
(Messrs. Albright and Wilson, Ltd.); Mr. D. H.
Baird (Messrs. Baird and Tatlock (London), Ltd.);
Mr. J.C.Burnham (Superintendent, H.M. Factory,
Gretna*) ; Prof. H. L. Callendar (Professor of
Physics, Imperial College); Dr. C. C. Carpenter
(Chairman, South Metropolitan Gas Co.) ; Mr.
F. H. Carr (British Drug Houses, Ltd.); Capt.
A. P. H. Desborough (Superintendent, R.N. Cor-
dite Factory, Holton Heath); Prof. F. G. Donnan
(Munitions Inventions Panel*) ; Prof. P. F. Frank-
land (Deputy Inspector of High Explosives*) ; Mr.
W. Gavin (late Director of Flax Production) ; Prof.
J. C. Irvine (Chemical Warfare Research Com-
mittee*) ; Mr. J. G. Lawn (late Professor, Johannes-
burg School of Mines*) ; Mr. Michael Longridge
(Munitions Inventions Panel*) ; Dr. T. M. Lowry
(Drdnance Committee*) ; Mr. W. Macnab (Tech-
nical Adviser, Explosives Supply Dept.*) ; Dr. R. A.
O'Brien (Director, Wellcome Physiological Re-
search Laboratories); Mr. G. Stubbs (Government
Laboratory) ; Mr. W. J. U. Woolcock (Association of
British Chemical Manufacturers).
Officers (O.B.E.): Mr. C. E. Alexander (Director,
United Glass Bottle Manufacturers, Ltd.); Mr.
P. R. Allen (Castner-Kellner Alkali Co., Ltd.); Mr.
H. J. Bailey (Technical Adviser, Acids Section, Ex-
plosives Supply Dept.*); Mr. W. R. Barclay (Tech-
nical Adviser, Non-Ferrous Metals Dept.*) ; Mr. E.
Batty (Assistant Controller, Optical, Glassware and
Potash Dept.*) ; Mr. 10. Bury (Skinningrove Iron
Co., Ltd.); Mr. E. R. Deacon (^Research Chemist,
Woolwich Arsenal); Mr. W. P. Dreaper (Superin-
tendent, H.M. Factory, Ellesmere Port*); Mr. E.V.
Evans(Chief Chemist, South Metropolitan Gas Co.) ;
Dr. J. J. Fox (Government Laboratory) ; Mr. T. E.
Gardner (Director, West Riding Chemical Co.) ; Mr.
W. H. Gibson (Royal Arsenal, Woolwich); Dr. F. H.
Hatch (Iron and Steel Production Dept.*); Mr.
J. C. W. Humfrey (Chief Analyst, Sheffield Labora-
tory*); Mr. H. Johnson (General Manager, Cour-
taulds, Ltd.) ; Mr. F. W. Jones (Chemist and Con-
sultant on Explosives*); Mr. T. E. Lescher (Hon.
Sec. The Drug Club) ; Prof. G. T. Morgan (Chemical
Warfare Dept.*); Dr. J. E. Myers (Chemical War-
fare Dept.*); Mr. G. H. Perry (Director of
Chemical Division, Inspection Dept.*); Mr. R. B.
Pilcher (Registrar, Institute of Chemistry) ; Mr.
O. F. A. Sandberg (Steel Expert, Inspection
Dept.*) ; Mr. C. Simmonds (Govt. Laboratory) ; Mr.
J. Kent Smith (Technical Director, Kent Smith,
Ltd., Sheffield); Dr. H. Lloyd Snape (War Pensions
Advisory Committee); Mr. H. Stephens CChemical
Warfare Dept.*); Mr. H. B. Stevens (Manager,
• Ministry of Munitions.
Vol. XXXIX., No. 7.]
REVIEW.
135 r
J. Bell, Hills and Lucas, Ltd.) ; Mr. C. E. Stromeyer
(Manchester Steam Users' Association); Mr. C. D.
Svkes (Works Manager, Albright and Wilson,
Ltd.); Mr. P. Tainsh (Explosives Supply Dept.*);
Mr. A. W. Tangye (Chemist, Brunner, Mond and
Co., Ltd.); Mr. Thorpe Whitaker (Adviser to Dves
Dept., Board of Trade) ; Mr. T. J. Underhill (In-
spector, Victualling Stores, Deptford).
Members (M.B.E.): Mr. C. W. Bailey (Chief
Chemist, H.M. Factory, Langwith*); Mr. M.
Barrowcloff (Boot's Pure Drug Stores, Ltd.) ; Mr.
D. Burton (Chemist, High Explosives Inspection
Dept.*); Dr. H. T. Calvert (Explosives Supply
Dept.*); Mr. A. S. Cobden (Chief Accountant,
H.M. Factory, Oldbury*) ; Mr. J. S. Dick (R«-
search Chemist, Woodwich Arsenal) ; Mr. P. V.
Dupre (scientific services to various Govt. Depts.) ;
Mr. W. B. Edwards and Mr. A. E. Garland (Prin-
cipal Assistant Chemists, Directorate of Chemical
Inspection*); Mr. A. T. Etheridge, Mr. A. Forster,
and Mr. R. Genders (Research Chemists, Woolwich
Arsenal) ; Mr. K. C. D. Hickman (Research
Chemist, Chemist Projectile Laboratory*) ; Mr.
H. J. Hodsman, High Explosives Inspection
Dept.*) ; Mr. W. C. Hothersall (Research Chemist,
Wohvich Arsenal); Mr. J. P. Millington (Censor,
War Office); Mr. L. Orange (Explosives Supplv
Dept.*) ; Mr. C. J. Peddle (Derby Crown Glass Co.",
Ltd.); Dr. H. E. WTatts (Explosives Supply Dept.*).
PARLIAMENTARY NEWS.
Protection of Special Industries Act, 1920.
A Bill was introduced in the House of Lords,
and read a first time, on March 17, which is de-
signed " to prevent dumping and to establish a
Special Industries Council to advise as to the pro-
motion and assistance of Special Industries." It
may be briefly summarised as follows : — When the
prices charged for goods imported into the United
Kingdom are less than those current in the country
of origin, the importation of such goods may be
prohibited by order of the Board of Trade. Any
such order shall be laid before Parliament within
one month after it is made. A council, known
as the Special Industries Council, shall be estab-
lished to advise the Board of Trade as to the
measures needed to promote and assist such special
industries. " Special industries " are defined as
those supplying commodities which are essential
to the national safety, as being absolutely indis-
pensable to important industries carried on in the
United Kingdom, and which are entirely or mainly
supplied from abroad. They include the production
or manufacture of synthetic dyes and drugs, spelter,
tungsten, magnetos, optical and chemical glass,
illuminating glassware, scientific and optical in-
struments, hosiery needles, and thorium nitrate.
The Council will consist of five to nine persona of
commercial and industrial experience, who will be
appointed by the President of the Board of Trade.
The duty of the Council will be to watch the course
of industrial development and, in consultation with
any Government department interested, advise the
Board as to the promotion and assistance of any
" special industry." It may examine any pro-
posals to this effect and advise the Board what steps
should be taken and on what terms assistance should
be given. A detailed report of the proceedings of
the Council has to be presented to Parliament each
year. Any application to the Board for State assist-
ance for a special industry shall be laid before the
Council, together with any information in the
possession of the Board regarding such industry,
and the Board may require any firm or persons
engaged in that industry to furnish information.
COMPANY NEWS.
COURTAULDS, LTD.
The seventh ordinary general meeting was held
in London on March 27. Mr. H. G. Tetley, chair-
man, said that the company had been unable to ex-
pand during the war, and that all it could do was to
purchase some existing factories. Latterlv, how-
ever, several of the factories had been enla'rged, a
new one had been laid down at Nuneaton, and a 6ite
for another had been acquired from the United
Alkali Co. at Flint, where a very large new works
is to be erected forthwith. Although the British
market had been supplied with artificial silk yarn
at prices very much below those obtaining in any
other country, the net profits (£2,280,861) had been
entirely satisfactory, but nearly one-half of these
had been derived from the company's holding in the
Viscose Co. in America. That company had been
very successful; it had commenced the erection of a
third factory, which should soon reach the pro-
ducing stage. No entirely satisfactory solution of
dealing with this holding had been found, and it
therefore remains an unvaluea asset. The directors
preferred not to place a valuation on these shares ;
they were included in the balance-sheet at par
value, viz., 9$ million dollars; a few years ago they
were valued at 3| times par, and since then great
progress had been made. A final dividend of 4s.
per share, free of tax, on the increased capital
(£4,000,000; cf. this J., 1919, 464 r) was passed,
£500,000 was placed to reserve account, and
£229,077 carried forward.
BRITISH ALUMINIUM CO., LTD.
Extraordinary and ordinary general meetings
were held in London on March 30. At the former it
was resolved to increase the company's capital to
£1,500,000 by the creation of 500,000 new £1
ordinary shares, and to capitalise part of the reserve
account by paying up in full at par 400,414 ordinary
shares and distributing them among existing
holders at the rate of two new shares for three old.
Addressing the ordinary general meeting, the
chairman, Mr. A. W. Tait, reported a gross profit
for the past year of £348,108 and a trading profit of
£292,327, compared with £420,426 and £351,697 re-
spectively, for 1918. The diminution in profits was
due mainly to the stoppage of all war work. For
about nine months after the armistice the demand
for aluminium had been almost negligible, and
hence production had to be curtailed. Since then
the demand had increased steadily and at the
present time the works were producing at full
capacity. During 1919 a large proportion of the
sales made was on Government account and at a
nominal profit, but towards the end of the year,
when the Government terminated its agreement
with the producers, the company purchased the
whole of the balance of stock in its hands. Now that
the industry had returned in a large measure to its
ordinary business, prospects were good, and in par-
ticular the demands of the motor and electrical
trades were in excess of pre-war requirements.
Although the productive capacity of the industry
was much increased during the war, especially in
America and Norway, it was probable that the in-
creased output would be rapidly absorbed, and that
further developments would be required. At the
moment the situation was not clear, as in France
the industry was short of coal, and in Switzerland
of coal and bauxite. The large works erected in
Germany during the war depended entirely upon
the generation of electricity with brown coal, and it
was considered unlikely that they could be econo-
mically run in normal times. The company would not
proceed with its water-power scheme in this country
[April 15. 1920.
until the Government had declared its policy
on hydro-electric development. The company's
power scheme at Orsieres, in Switzerland, had not
been proceeded with during the war, but work had
been resumed in 1919. It was, however, not pro-
posed to incur any large expenditure until condi-
tions regarding labour, materials, and transport on
the Continent had become more settled.
Costs of production had risen considerably during
the past year, and there had been difficulty in ob-
taining essential raw materials, especially bauxite.
The levy of an export tax on' this material, now
being considered by the French Government, would
impose a serious handicap on the industry in this
country, but it would lead to the development of
home and Empire resources of this mineral.
The chairman then reviewed the company's
financial position. The reserve account at De-
cember 31 stood at £520,414 (now to be reduced to
£120.000 by the bonus distribution), the deprecia-
tion reserve account at £500,000, and stocks of
metal, etc. at £285,664. Debentures and debenture
stock stood at £1,358,879. The total dividend on
the ordinary shares for the year is 10 per cent.
TRADE NOTES.
THE SALT UNION, LTD.
The directors' report for 1919 states that the
export trade materially revived during that year,
but both the coastwise and the inland home trade
were handicapped by bad transport conditions. The
company has acquired the existing salt works and
brine supply of Messrs. Board and Co., in Somerset-
shire. Progress with the big power station of the
Mersey Power Co. (a subsidiary company) has been
slow owing to labour difficulties. The net profit for
the year was £302,781, on an issued capital of
£1,400,000 (debentures £1,200,000), which, with the
balance brought in, allows of a dividend of 15 per
cent, on the ordinary shares, and leaves £24,007 to
be carried forward.
At the annual meeting, held on March 19, in
Liverpool, the chairman, Mr. G. H. Cox, referred to
expected competition from Germany. That country
has large supplies of crushed rock salt ready for
shipment from Hamburg, which is on offer at
moderate rates. German salt is already on sale at
the Scotch fishing centres and in Manchester, and
as it consists of a crushed white rock which requires
no coal for its production, competition from this
source is formidable, not only here, but in other
parts of the world. A fully equipped research de-
partment, under Dr. W. E. Gibbs, has been esta-
blished, and laboratories are under erection.
UNTTED GLASS BOTTLE MANUFACTURERS,
LTD.
At the annual meeting, held on March 31, Mr.
E. F. Oldham, the chairman, said that the policy
of the company was to continue to instal Owens
machines in its factories, and no fewer than 12 or
18 of these machines were to be put into the new
works now under erection at Charlton. Owing to
the necessity for all bottle-manufacturing firms to
preserve a united policy and to promote economy in
production, the company had sold practically all its
ordinary shares to British Glass Industries, Ltd.,
at £3 10s. per share.
The gross profit for 1919 was £133.864, and the
net profit £96,023. The ordinary shares received a
total dividend of 30 per cent, less tax, and the
carrv-forward is £45,897. The issued ordinary
capital is £417,530, and the reserves total £160,000.
Brfnnf.r, Mond and Co. and Electro-Bleach
and By-Products Fttsion. — It has been officially
announced that the proposed exchange of shares
between these companies has been ratified (this J.,
1920, 98 r).
BRITISH.
Opportunities for British Manufacturers in Canada. —
A correspondent in Toronto asks us to draw the
attention of British chemical manufacturers and of
makers of scientific instruments and laboratory
ware to the urgent desirability of placing their
Canadian business in the hands of agents in
Canada. The practice almost invariably followed
has been, and is, to establish agents in New York
City to handle both American and Canadian busi-
ness. Always a mistake, he states, such a policy is
at the present time inconceivably bad, in view of
the adverse rates of exchange; a Canadian pur-
chaser of a British article must buy it in New York
and pay for it in American dollars. The policy of
establishing Canadian agencies in Canada is being
adopted by American firms, and before the war it
was always followed by the Germans. He hopes
that the scales will soon fall from the eyes of
British producers.
Canadian Trade in 1920. — During 1920, Canada
imported goods to the value of f 970,773,307, an
increase of $47,652,259 over 1919. The imports
were derived chiefly from the United States (78%),
United Kingdom (10%), British Colonies and Posses-
sions (4%), and Cuba (1%). Chemicals to the value
of $19,402,070 were imported, a decrease of over
14 million dollars compared with the previous year.
Other imports, expressed in millions of dollars, in-
cluded : — Coal 59, iron and steel 151'7, brass 4"5,
copper 7'3, tin 10'6, paints, colours and varnishes
42, paper 9'4, rubber 14"3, and soap 1'3.
The total exports in 1920 were valued at
$1,291,013,187, an increase of $21,694,843 over 1919.
The exports were directed to the following coun-
tries : — United Kingdom (39%), United States
(35%), British Colonies and Possessions (6%),
France (5%), and other countries (15%). The ex-
ports included the following goods, the values of
which are given in millions of dollars: — Explosives
23-4, aluminium (7668 tons) 46, asbestos (143,103
tons) 9'9, copper 12'5, gold 5'7, iron and steel 64'8,
nickel (19,081 tons) 7'5, silver (14,000,00 oz.) 15-4,
paper 60'7, rubber 101, wood (unmanufactured)
97-2, and wood pulp (7'3 million tons) 38-3.— (Bull.
Dept. Trade and Com., Canada, Mar. 8. 1920.)
Jamaica in 1918. — On the whole the agricultural
situation during 1918 was satisfactory, although
crop production was restricted by the drought.
Both imports and exports increased in value,
though not in quantity. The United States sup-
plied 67'6 per cent, of the imports, while the share
of the United Kingdom has decreased to 161 per
cent, (see J. 1919, 216 r). The exports taken by
the United Kingdom and the United States
amounted to 50'2 and 23'3 per cent., respectively.
The exports of sugar fell to 26,000 tons, a decrease
of 6,000 tons on the previous year, but every effort
is being made to obtain a greatly increased output.
The exports of coconuts in 1918 was 22 million, as
against SO million in 1917, owing to the effect of
the hurricane in that year. Logwood and its
extracts shrank in value from £540,000 to £400,000.
The citrus trade had a moderate success, orange oil
still being in demand. Pimento was in firm demand
at increased prices. A species of wild pimento
(Anomis Jamaiccnsis) has been found to yield an
essential oil quite distinct from pimento oil or bay
rum oil, and its commercial possibilities are bein^'
investigated. Plantations of sisal are being estab-
lished on poor land of small value. The Government
Laboratory dealt with 1234 samples during the
year, as against 1198 in 1917. — (Col. Bep. — Ann.,
No. 1024, Feb., 1920.)
Vol. XXXIX., No. 7.]
REVIEW.
137 K
OFFICIAL TRADE INTELLIGENCE.
{From the Board of Trail,- Journal for March 25
and April 1.)
OPENINGS FOR BRITISH TRADE.
The following inquiries have been received at the
Department of Overseas Trade (Development and
Intelligence), 35, Old Queen Street, London, S.W. 1,
from firms, agents, or individuals who desire to re-
present U.K. manufacturers or exporters of the
goods specified. British firms may obtain the names
and addresses of the persons or firms referred to by
applying to the Department and quoting the
specific reference number : —
Locality of
firm or agent.
MATERIALS.
Australia . .
British India
Canada
South West Africa
Belgium . .
Czechoslovakia . .
Denmark
France
Germany
Greece
Hungary
Smyrna
Syria
Turkey
United State
Brazil
Cuba
Mexico
Philippine Islands.
Imitation leather 386
Chemicals, dyes, metals . . . . 1134
Essential oils, oxalic acid, citric
acid, tartaric acid, cream of
tartar, gelatin, gums . . . . 435
Mirror glass »
Blue annealed steel sheets, spelter *
Leather 3S9
Glass, china, crockery . . . . 391
, Chemicals, drugs, oils, paint,
varnish, gums, dyes . . . . 392
1 Carbon blocks . . . . . . •
; Leather, leather belting, wire.
brass and bronze netting .. 395
Weldless steel tubes . . . . 442
Oils, leather . . . . . . 443
Chemicals . . . . . . . . , 402
Drugs 404
, Chemicals 447. 443
Chemicals for dyeing industry . . 448a
Pig iron 405
Paper, cardboard 406
Cotton, rubber and balata . . ' 407
Mica, micanite. vulcanised fibre. . ( 408
Square and round iron bars, iron
sheets and plates, galvanised
sheets and wire, zinc sheets,
tinplate . . . . . . . . , 451
Black steel sheets 41(1
Textiles 412
.Chemicals . . . . . . . . 453
Textiles 416
Chemicals, textiles .. .. 418
Heavy chemicals . . 454
Drugs, sugar, edible oils, oil seeds,
tallow, turpentine, resin . . 455
Pig iron 456
Tinplate 459
Alizarine 420
Textiles 419
Chemicals, paint, manures . . 422
Heavy chemicals, tanning materials 426
Galvanised iron . . . . . . 463
Textiles 428
Chemicals, drugs, textiles . . . . 429
Earthenware, china . . . . 430
Silicate of soda, materials for soap
making 465
Glass, china, porcelain . . . . 462
73, Basinghall
Markets Sought.
A firm in British Columbia desires to get into
touch with importers of theobromine in the U.K.
A firm at Vancouver wishes to hear from U.K.
firms interested in molybdenum properties in
Canada. [Inquiries to the High Commissioner for
Canada, 19, Victoria Street, London, S.W. 1.]
A_ resident in Vilna wishes to get into touch with
U.K. importers of wood pulp and timber. [402a.]
TARIFF. CUSTOMS, EXCISE.
Australia. — The various prohibitions of import at
present in force will be removed on May 19.
The export of trade spirit is prohibited save with
the consent of the Minister for Trade and Customs
as from January 21.
Belgium. — The export of newsprint paper is pro-
hibited.
Brazil. — The regulations respecting consular in-
voices may be seen at the Department of Overseas
Trade.
France 'Madagascar).— An export duty of 3 per
cent, ad valorem has been levied on, infer alia
corundum, graphite, guano, hides, lard, rock-
crystal, rubber, tallow, vanilla, animal wax, and
certain kinds of wood.
Greece.— Among the articles affected by the new
customs tariff modifications are margarine, timber
tanning materials, dye woods, ochres, tin, medica-
ments, solid metallic colours, toilet soap, benzine,
compressed gases, condensed milk, sole leather]
sugar, alcohol, alcoholic beverages, earthenware
faience, articles of silver, gold and platinum, paper'
cardboard, and petroleum.
Latvia. — The ad valorem rates of import duty for
the various classes of goods is set out in the issue for
March 25. Among the articles on the " free " list
are sugar and ores.
i A special import licence is required for, inter
alia, alcoholic beverages, articles of gold and silver,
cut glass, Dresden china, perfumery, toilet soap'
and patent leather.
A special licence is required for the export of all
goods and the export of flax and linseed is reserved
to the Government.
Lithuania.— Among the articles the import of
which is free are fertilisers, raw hides, animal fats
metal and mineral ores, edible vegetable oils raw
rubber, and salt.
The ad valorem duty on other goods varies from 5
to 25 per cent., and in some cases importation is
permitted only with the consent of the Ministry of
Commerce and Industry.
Morocco (French Zone).— Subject to an ad
valorem duty, certain kinds of goods may be im-
ported from Germany for a period of six months
ending July 20. Among the articles affected are
alimentary products, building materials, glass,
china, and earthenware.
The consumption duties on sugar and alcohol have
been increased as from March 7.
Netherlands.— Export prohibitions have been
temporarily raised from animal glue, antimony
lead, lead alloys, platinum, zinc, tin, tin alloys'
and paper. '
New Zealand.— The export of preserved, con-
densed, and dried milk is prohibited save with the
consent of the Minister of Customs, as from
January 19.
Persia.— The new customs duties affect textile
materials, alcoholic beverages, skins, leather
window glass, bottles, salts of soda, chloride of lime'
certain metals, drugs, dyes, soap, and manufactures
or paper and rubber.
Switzerland. — The proposed new customs duties
are to be of a temporary character pending the de-
finite revision of the tariff. The changes fall into
two classes — (1) the imposition of duties on articles
which are now free of duty and (2) an increase of
existing duties.
Turkey.— Export prohibitions are still in force in
the case of, inter alia, starch, salt, olive oil, sugar
confectionery, raw hides, sulphur, locally manufac-
tured soap, window glass, colours, cement, plaster
lime, lead, iron, tin, zinc, nickel, silver, geld, petro-
leum, benzine, compounds of quinine, aspirin, and
neo-salvarsan. ,
GOVERNMENT ORDERS AND NOTICES.
PnornniTEn Exports.— The Board of Trade
(Licensing Section) has notified the removal from
List. A of Prohibited Exports of the following goods,
as from March 25 last: — Soaps, ointments, tooth
powders, disinfectants, containing not more than
10 per cent, coal tar derivatives.
REVIEW.
REVIEWS.
The Dyeing Industry. Being a third edition of
" Dyeing in Germany and America." By S. H.
Higgins. Pp. 189. (Manchester: The Univer-
sity Press; London: Chapman and Hall, Ltd.,
1919.) Price 8s. 6d. net.
The original edition of this book was a report to
the electors of the Gartside Scholarship of a tour to
some of the dye works in Germany and America
undertaken by the author. The work has been en-
larged, in the present edition, by the addition of
articles on special subjects in which the author has
been personally interested, by a resume of recent
patent literature, and by chapters devoted to
colour production. The result is a book for which
we cannot help thinking a more appropriate title
might have been found, for it is impossible to
regard it as a well-proportioned account of the
dyeing industry as a whole since it is devoted
almost exclusively to the dyeing, bleaching and
finishing of cotton ; and within this scope it is
rather in connexion with special processes that the
work is of value alid interest. As regards Germany
and America it is clear that the facilities given to
the author to visit works were somewhat restricted.
His descriptions of special machinery are far from
clear or adequate, and would have been much
assisted by drawings. A good account of the
general conditions of the cotton-dyeing industry
in America is given together with interesting de-
tails of the state and position of labour. In the
chapter on Instruction in Dyeing, the author gives
the impression of being more at home with his
subject, and his comparative criticisms in this con-
nexion stand in marked contrast with the rest of
the work; but his satisfaction with the position of
scientific and technical knowledge in England as
compared with that in foreign countries is based
on observations on the cotton industry alone. In
silk-dyeing and weighting, in the dyeing of wool
and fabrics made of mixed materials, the author
would have found evidence of a very different
character, but with these branches of the dyeing
industry he does not deal. The author's account
of progress of the industry during the war period
consists of a series of short abstracts of the patents
taken out during that period. It is to be regretted
that no attempt is made to distinguish those pro-
cesses which have proved of practical value on a
commercial scale.
The last third of the book is taken up with a
general account of colour-production, including
details of the organisation of German works
visited by the author, followed by an account of
the consequences of the war in connexion with the
supply of dyestuffs in England, America, France
and Japan, and the steps taken in those countries
to meet the difficulties.
The quality of the author's style and manner of
reasoning may be illustrated by the following
quotation: — "Cotton, unlike wool, does not grow
on the back of an animal, and therefore cannot
have the value of wool as a clothing material."
It will be seen that this book is of very doubtful
value either to the dyer or the general reader,
not because the author is not possessed of valuable
information, but because he has compiled the book
by putting together notes and reflections con-
nected with the subject, made at widely different
times, with little attempt at rational arrangement
or sense of proportion. The more recent portions
of the book reveal a greater experience and riper
judgment which might well have been employed in
remodelling the whole work. A misprint on page
44, line 2, requires correction.
B. Leech.
Laboratory Manual of Elementary Colloid
Chemistry. By Emil Hatschek. With 20
illustrations. Pp. viii. + 135. (London:
J. and A. Churchill. 1920.) Price 6s. 6d. net.
Although there now exists a number of text-books
dealing with the properties of colloids, in which
also the methods employed for their preparation
and investigation are described, students have to
some extent been handicapped by lack of suitable
laboratory manuals dealing with colloid chemistry.
It is of undeniable importance that all our students
of chemistry should now gain some knowledge of
colloid chemistry in view of the continuous develop-
ments in this domain; and although lecture courses
on colloid chemistry are no doubt frequently given
in our leading universities, familiarity with the
properties of colloids can, of course, only be ob-
tained by practical experimental work by the
student himself. It has therefore been the aim of
the author to supply the student with a suitable
laboratory manual containing " accurate and very
detailed directions for carrying out the funda-
mental operations, for making a number of repre-
sentative preparations, and for examining them by
the standard methods." From the large amount
of material available, the author has made a very
satisfactory selection, and his book will deservedly
find use in a large number of laboratories. At the
present time it is not only the student who needs
help but also the teacher, and many teachers of
chemistry will welcome the guidance which a book
by so well-known a worker and so experienced a
teacher in this field affords. Mr. Hatschek has done
his work well, and although his laboratory guide
will doubtless undergo a process of evolution as
experience extends, all teachers will be grateful for
the help which they will derive from the pioneer
work before us.
Alexander Findlay.
PUBLICATIONS RECEIVED.
Principles of Metallography. By R. S. Williams.
Pp. 158, with 75 figures. (New York: McGraw-
Hill Book Company; London: Hill Publishing
Company, Ltd. 1920.) Price 12s.
Cement. By B. Blount, assisted by W. H. Wood-
cock and H. J. Gillett. (Monographs on In-
dustrial Chemistry, edited by Sir E. Thorpe.)
Pp. 284. (London: Longmans, Green and Co.
1920.) Price 18s.
A Test-Book of Inorganic Chemistry. Vol. IX.,
Part I.: Cobalt, Nickel and the Elements of the
Platinum Group. By Dr. J. N. Friend.
Pp. xvii.+367. (London: Charles Griffin and
Co. 1920.) Price 18s.
Handbook of Commercial Information for India.
By C. W. E. Cotton. Pp. 383. (Calcutta:
Superintendent Government Printing India.
1919.)
The Chemical Industries of German Rhineland.
.4 Su7nmary of the Beport of the British Chemi-
cal Mission on Chemical Factories in the
Occupied Area of Germany. Pp. 29. (London:
Association of British Chemical Manufacturers.
1920.)
The Development of the Atomic Theory. By
A. N. Meldrum. Pp. 13. (Oxford University
Press. 1920.) Price Is. Qd.
Ministerio da Agricultura, Industria e Commer-
cio, Servico Geologico e Mineralogico do
Brasil. Regioes Carboniferas dos Estados do
Sul. By E. P. de Oliveira. (Bio de Janeiro:
Imprensa Nacional. 1918.)
Vol. XXXIX., No. 8.)
REVIEW
[April 30, 1920.
NITROGEN FIXATION — A "KEY"
INDUSTRY.
It is at last possible to state authoritatively that
the fixation of atmospheric nitrogen is about to be
undertaken in earnest, under such conditions and
auspices as will ensure its immediate and vigorous
prosecution on a scale commensurate- with its
supreme importance for the safety of the country in
war and its prosperity in peace.
A syndicate comprising Messrs. Brunner, Mond
and Co., Ltd., and Explosives Trades, Ltd., has
purchased the extensive site at Billingham-on-Tees,
in the county of Durham, acquired by the Govern-
ment during the war for the purpose of building
thereon a nitrogen fixation factory. Nothing was,
however, accomplished on the site itself beyond the
erection of one or two stores and the laying out of a
road, but a considerable quantity of material was
ordered, and all of it that can be utilised has been
taken over by the Syndicate. Meanwhile, to save
time, a special staff of engineers and chemists has
been engaged for some months in designing the
details and general arrangements of the proposed
plant and in working out the many difficult prob-
lems inherent in the process.
Of the several fixation methods now known the
Syndicate has selected that which consists essen-
tially in the manufacture of ammonia by the com-
bination of nitrogen and hydrogen at a high tern- i
perature under pressure. The ammonia thus
formed will be converted to the extent required into
nitric acid and (or) nitrates. The process de-
veloped so successfully in Germany shortly before
the war is based upon the same principle ; without
it the Germans could not have supplied themselves
with explosives, and, indeed, would never have
dared to declare war.
Messrs. Brunner, Mond and Co. were requested
by the Government to undertake the formation of a
syndicate for the fixation of atmospheric nitrogen
as a result of observations of the firm's capabilities,
initiative, and methods, which the High Explosives
Department, under Lord Moulton, had ample
opportunities of making during the war. For-
tunately for the country, Lord Moulton realised at
a very early stage that we could only supply our-
selves with sufficient high explosives by adopting
ammonium nitrate as their chief constituent, and
so fully was his foresight justified that during most
of the war the quantity of ammonium nitrate used
for the purpose was considerably more than one-
half of the total weight of high explosives made.
The manufacture of ammonium nitrate had, how-
ever, to be built up from the beginning, as the
output previous to the war was exceedingly small,
and the method used quite inapplicable during hos-
tilities. Messrs. Brunner, Mond and Co. under-
took the task, and devised several entirely new
methods, as well as special plant and apparatus, for
the immense output required, amounting to hun-
dreds of tons per day; but it was all made from im-
ported nitrate.
The excellent report of the Nitrogen Products
Committee demonstrates very clearly the very great
danger to which we are exposed so long as we are
dep3ndent upon a foreign and far-distant country
for our power to manufacture explosives in appre-
ciable quantity, as we must be until the atmospheric
nitrogen fixation industry is established in Eng-
land. Nitric acid enters into the composition of
nearly all the explosives used in modern warfare,
and some form of " fixed nitrogen " is required for
their manufacture. This acid together with am-
monia are the essential raw materials. The normal
output of ammonia in this country is quite in-
s.ifficient to supply the enormous demand for ex-
plosives in modern warfare; moreover, it is (as
ammonium sulphate) by far the most important fer-
tiliser we produce, and to the extent to which it is
used for explosives it is diverted from agriculture
just at the time when it is imperative to increase
the home-grown food supply to the utmost extent.
Hence we are thrown back upon " nitrates," which
mean in practice the natural deposits of nitrate of
soda in Chile. By the most strenuous exertions we
succeeded in importing sufficient nitrate from Chile
throughout the war; otherwise we could not have
continued the struggle. If for any reason the
Chilean nitrate supply had been cut off, either by
the action of the Chilean Government, or because
we could not provide or protect the ships carrying
it to our shores, our position would have been
desperate.
So far as the importation of nitrates is concerned
that was precisely the plight of Germany. Our
blockade stopped all imports, and the stocks of
nitrate in the country were soon exhausted. The
Germans had, however, developed the fixation of
nitrogen from the air to such an extent before the
war that it was a comparatively simple matter for
them to increase the output during the war, and
thus make themselves independent of outside
sources of supply.
The overwhelming necessity for establishing
nitrogen fixation within our own borders is proved
beyond all question. Until that is done we shall re-
main in a position of the greatest insecurity.
In the case of a material not required in peace,
but consumed in enormous quantities during war,
it is always a very difficult and precarious matter
to make suitable and efficient provision beforehand
for its production in an emergency. Unused plant
perishes or becomes obsolete, and workers skilled in
the art are lacking. This consideration does not
apply to nitrogen fixation, because its products,
ammonia compounds and nitrates, are indispensable
in times of peace as fertilisers for agriculture.
Hence it can be worked continuously and on an
economic basis, and should eventually enable
l us to dispense with the large importations of
nitrate of soda at present required for agricultural
, purposes, a position which Germany has already
attained.
There are special provisions in the Treaty of
! Peace applicable to matters affecting the security of
1 the country, and of these nitrogen fixation ranks
| second to none in vital importance.
CHEMICAL WARFARE.
One of the most striking contrasts between the
late war and those which preceded it is the rapid
development of scientific and mechanical methods
of warfare, which resulted from the concentration
of most of the scientists and engineers of the world
on war problems. Of the new developments none
was more far reaching in its effects on land than
the introduction of gas and smoke, and on the sea
smoke played an important part in naval tactics.
Gas was employed during the war in two ways, in
cylinders and in projectiles, and both of these
methods were introduced by the Germans almost
simultaneously in April, 1915. The reasons given
for introducing gas into warfare were:- — (1) the
enemy lacked sufficient supplies of high explosives,
(2) he had found that preliminary bombardments
with H.E. and shrapnel failed to guarantee the
success of an infantry attack; but there is little
doubt that the surprise effect of a use of a lethal gas
• From a paper read by Brigadier-General H. Hartley before
Section B (ChemlBtry) of the British Association for the
Advancement of Science.
a2
REVIEW;
contrary to the Hague Convention formed another
and more powerful reason.
Use of cloud gas. — The first cylinder attack was
made by means of chlorine on April 22, 1915, against
the French on a frontage of about four miles in the
north of the Ypres salient. It was a great oppor-
tunity for a decisive stroke, but the Germans failed
to take advantage of it. The quantity of gas used
was too small to make it effective to a great dis-
tance, the front of discharge was comparatively
short, and the Germans failed to exploit the partial
success they gained. In December, 1915, a more
formidable attack was made to the N.E. of the
Ypres salient with a mixture of phosgene and
chlorine, and a much higher concentration of gas
was obtained. However, our troops were adequately
protected, and only those who were surprised or
who failed to adjust their respirators properly be-
came casualties. Five similar cloud attacks took
place in 1916, each consisting of a short discharge of
a very high concentration, so as to obtain the maxi-
mum effect of surprise. No serious attempt was
made to follow up any of these later discharges with
an infantry attack. The last German cloud attack
on the British front was on August 8, 1916.
Immediately after the first use of gas in April,
1915, steps were taken for effective reprisals on
our part. Special Companies R.E. were formed which
consisted largely of chemists who were specially en-
listed as corporals for this purpose. After seven
weeks' training in France they carried out our first
gas attack with chlorine cylinders at Loos on Sep-
tember 25, 1915. By the end of the war the Special
Brigade R.E. had carried out 768 gas operations in
which 5,700 tons of gas was liberated. Twenty-five
per cent, of these operations were cloud discharges,
the remainder being trench mortar or projector
attacks. In addition, the units of the Brigade were
frequently employed in producing smoke clouds,
which played an important part in infantry attacks.
Abundant evidence exists both in captured docu-
ments and in prisoners' statements of the heavy
casualties and loss of morale which the enemy
suffered as a result of the operations of this
Brigade, and their enterprise and gallantry were re-
peatedly mentioned in despatches by the Com-
mander-in-Chief.
Use of yas projectiles. — As the wind was usually
unfavourable for the German use of cloud gas, their
efforts were mainly directed to the development of
the gas shell. Employed in this way gas is a much
more flexible weapon than in cylinders, as its use is
far more independent of atmospheric conditions and
a much wider range of substances can be used, with
properties suited to different tactical purposes. Cer-
tain little-known organic compounds were selected
as being most suitable, and thanks to the technical
resources of the German dye industry, a monthly
output was soon obtained amounting to several
hundred tons of organic derivatives, which prior
to the war had only been prepared in small quan-
tities in the laboratory.
The gas shells first used by the enemy on the
British front contained crude brominated xylene
or brominated aliphatic ketones, both useful as
lachrymatories but without toxic value. In 1916
the toxic chlormethyl chlorofomate was used
against us in large quantities during the battle
of the Somme. Later this was replaced by tri-
chlormethyl chloroformate ; a similar liquid, which
was used until the end of the war, was the well-
known Green Cross shell filling. The use of phos-
gene in trench mortar bombs also began in 1916.
In April, 1917, during the Arras battle, a variant
of the Green Cross filling appeared containing 50
per cent of chloropicrin, a lachrymator with
asphyxiant properties against which the use of the
box respirator was found to be quite effective.
In July, 1917, Yellow Cross and Blue Cross gas
shells (so named after their markings) were intro-
duced, each of which had novel properties. Yellow
Cross shell contained " Mustard Gas," which proved
a most effective battle gas. Owing to its slight smell
it is not easily detected, and, although it produces
no immediate sensations of discomfort, exposure to
a very low concentration is sufficient to put a man
out of action owing to the effects of gas on the
eyes and the lungs; serious blisters are produced
either by splashes of the liquid or contact with any
objects contaminated with it. Blue Cross shell con-
tained bottles of diphenylchlorarsine, which when
finely divided causes sneezing, irritation of the nose
and throat, nausea and intense pain ; this shell
failed almost entirely to achieve its object, and in
1918 diphenylcyanoarsine was substituted for it, but
without any noticeable change in efficiency. It is
probable that favourable results had been obtained
with these substances in the laboratory, which could
not be reproduced under field conditions. The
failure of the Blue Cross shell, many millions of
which were fired, is a striking proof of the necessity
of having an experimental station at which
thorough field trials of any new developments can
be carried out before these are put into service use.
Two other substances were used in large quanti-
ties by the enemy, phenylcarbylamine chloride, a
strong lachrymator, first used in September, 1917,
and dichlorethyl arsine, first used early in 1918,
which caused irritation of the nose and throat, head-
ache, and temporary loss of feeling in the extremi-
ties.
Thus by the beginning of 1918 the Germans had a
number of different gas shells which could be divided
into two main classes from the point of view of their
tactical employment : — (a) Those containing liquids
such as dichlorethyl sulphide which persist for long
periods in the soil and could therefore only be used
on ground which it was not intended to attack or
occupy ; (6) those containing relatively volatile
liquids such as trichlormethyl chloroformate or
ethyl dichlorarsine, or solids such as diphenyl-
chlorarsine, which could be used immediately before
an attack.
In his preparation for the offensive of March,
1918, the enemy relied to a considerable extent on
the use of gas projectiles,* which had never been
used before in such large numbers. Ninety per cent,
of the ammunition allotted for some purposes con-
tained gas, and it was estimated that several million
rounds of gas shell were fired on March 21. From
that date until the end of the war a large propor-
tion of gas shells was used by the enemy in all offen-
sive and defensive operations.
Gas shells and trench mortar bombs containing
lachrymators were first used by the British during
the battle of the Somme, but it was not until the
battle of Arras in April, 1917, that our supplies of
gas shell were sufficient to make them effective.
From this date largo quantities both of lachry-
matory and of lethal shell were used with ever-
increasing success, as was shown by numerous cap-
tured documents and by prisoners' statements.
" Mustard Gas " was first used by us in Septem-
ber, 1918, in the successful attack on the Hinden-
berg line. The French had used it three months
earlier, and the results obtained showed that the
enemy was taken completely by surprise and suf-
fered heavy casualties. Apparently the Germans
had not thought it possible that the technical
resources of the Allies would be capable of produc-
ing this substance in large quantities in so short a
time, and their first idea was that the French had
filled shells with liquid taken from their "blinds."
Examination in the laboratory showed that it had
been made by a new method, and at the date of the
armistice they were considering the possibility of
adopting the Allies' method of manufacture.
In October, 1916, the " Livens Projector," a new
type of trench mortar for firing gas bombs, invented
by Major W. H. Livens, was used for the first time,
Vol XXX1X..N0.8.)
141 R
and in 1917 it developed into one of the deadliest
weapons of trench warfare. By means of the " pro-
jector " large numbers of bombs containing 50 per
cent, of their weight of gas could be fired simultane-
ously on to important targets, producing very high
concentrations of gas without any warning beyond
the flash and noise of the discharge and the burst-
ing of the bombs.
Offensive Research. — The foregoing sketch of the
development of gas warfare gives some indication
of the urgency and importance of the problems with
which British chemists were confronted in 1915.
Their solution on the offensive side required a
research organisation for studying the toxic pro-
perties of known substances and for producing new
ones that were likely to be more effective, for de-
vising means for their employment and for testing
their value under field conditions, and for working
out methods of production on a large scale.
Offensive research was carried out originally
under the advice of the Scientific Advisory Com-
mittee and later of the Chemical Advisory Com-
mittee of the Ministry of Munitions, while defensive
research was done in the Anti-Gas Department of
the War Office. This separation of offensive and
defensive research was unfortunate, as many of the
problems were common to both sections. In
October, 1917, the two organisations were united in
the Chemical Warfare Department of the Ministry
of Munitions. The department was expanded
rapidly to meet the increasing demands on it.
and at the date of the armistice it employed 189
research chemists, in addition to a large number
of chemists who were giving part of their time to
chemical warfare problems.
Laboratory researches on the offensive side were
carried out mainly in the Universities, and we owe
much to the professors and their assistants for their
patriotic devotion to work which was never pleasant
and usually involved considerable risks.
The manufacturing situation was difficult owing
to the lack of suitable plant and of technical
resources. In April, 1915, there was only one plant
in the country producing liquid chlorine, with an
output of seven tons a week. But the energy of the
manufacturers enabled our first gas attack to be
made in September, 1915, and by December 31, 860
tons of gas had been sent to France. Subsequently
the production increased continuously, the output
of gas in each year being: — 1915, 860 tons; 1916,
5150 tons: 1917, 18,500 tons; 1918 (ten months),
15,500 tons.
Defensive research. — The defensive problems of
gas warfare were of even greater importance than
the offensive, for, although the nation which has
the better gas possesses an advantage over its
opponent, it is not necessarily overwhelming. While
if troops are equipped with a respirator that fails
to give protection in a gas attack, the situation of
April, 1915, is repeated and offers an opportunity
that might easily be made decisive. It is hard
therefore to over-estimate the value of the work
of the Anti-Gas Department. Fifty-five million
respirators were produced by the department, and
of these nineteen millions were box respirators.
Speed is essential in gas warfare either to
avoid or to effect surprise, and it is fortunate
that, so far as defensive appliances were con-
cerned, research, design, inspection, and manu-
facture were all under one department. The
respirator sent to France within a few days
of the first gas attack (a wad of cotton wool
which was to be dipped in a solution of sodium
thiosulphate and sodium carbonate). gave protection
for a few minutes against concentrations of chlorine
of the order of 1 part in 10,000 parts of air. The
latest type of box respirator, adopted in August,
1917, and called the " N.C. Container," when new
protects its wearer for upwards of half-an-hour
against 1 part of phosgene in 100 parts of air.
TANK WAGON AND STORAGE
TANK CHARTS.
E. G. WHEELER.
The usual construction of storage tanks is that
of a cylindrical body with " dished " ends, and the
general plan at present in use for the determination
of the liquid contained at any given depth is either
to calibrate each tank with known volumes of liquid
at the observed depth or to read from tables com-
piled for cylindrical tanks with flat ends; the former
involves considerable labour, and probable in-
accuracy, whilst the latter makes no allowance for
the "dished " ends. By means of these charts it
is possible, after effecting three simple movements
on the diagram, to read off the required gallonage
accurately and directly; calculation of any kind i-
thus completely obviated.
The charts have been constructed for the deter-
mination of the volumes of liquid contained in a
storage tank, from the observation of the depth of
liquid and the internal dimensionc of the tank.
The internal dimensions of the tank have been
specified thus (see fig. 1) : —
Cylindrical length (AB) = 11.
Overall length (CD) = 1,.
Diameter (EF)=d~
Depth of liquid (GH)=h.
Fig. 1.
The formula for calculating the volume of liquid
in a storage tank at any given depth is obtained
thus : —
The volume of -the cylindrical portion of the tank
for a depth of liquid h is : —
,. . , f2\/h(d-h)7
dMjsin-i,^ g 'j l,(d-2h)v/h(d-h)
V= —j— a"
The volume of the end sections of the tank is
obtained by the application of the integral calculus
to a horizontal section of thickness dz at a distance
z below the axis of the tank (see fig. 2).
The volume of liquid (V) in a storage tank at a
depth h is thus found to be: —
V=F(l„l„d>h,) =
l1(d-2h)Vn("d-h) ,
2
{d»4-(I.-l1)»},ni
" 192(1,-1,)*
d»ll8in-i{W-h'j
{d2-(li!-l1)2!fd-2h)\'h(d-hj
G (1,-1,)
+ i
("2Vh(d-h)idM-jli-l1)n "1
LdVfd'-fli-lJV + lftfli-liWd-bU
{d2-(l8-l1)«f[{d»-|-(la-l1)=!2 + 2ds(l3-ll)2] . .
192(1,-1,)*
( 2Vh(d-h) |
A3
REVIEW.
[April 30. 1920.
The use of of a parameter for showing the change
of a function containing two variables has been
developed by the author for the graphical represen-
tation by rectangular co-ordinates in one plane
of a function containing any number of variables.
The method has been applied to the variation of
the stem correction of a thermometer, a function
which contains three variables— the first unexposed
reading, the auxiliary temperature, and the tem-
perature of the bulb. (See Wheeler, J. S.C.I. , 35,
23, 1198—1200.)
Fig. 2.
The application to the case of four variables is
exemplified in the determination of the cubical con-
tents of a tank with the dimensions 1^ 12, d, at any
depth of liquid h.
The general case of the development of the func-
tion
V = F (1„ 12, d, h,)
for the plotting of the curves is as follows : —
Give suitable numerical values to d and h
Then V = F (1„ L,,).
Plot parameters of V, with \1 and 12 as rectangular
co-ordinates.
Set out d on the axis of 12 so that the scales have
the relation d = ml2 + n
Then V2= f| lt, ^?,d, }
Plot parameters of V2 with 1, and d aB rectangular
co-ordinates.
Set out h on the axis of 12 so that the scales have
the relation h = m, l2 + n,.
ThenV.^^/^f^r^")^]
Plot parameters of V, with 1; and h as rectangular
co-ordinates.
The expressions obtained for the parameters of
V,, V,, and Vs become increasingly complicated,
while the plotting of these parameters has involved
the solution of some thousands of cubic equations,
in connexion with which I have to acknowledge my
indebtedness to Dr. G. N. Watson, professor of
mathematics in the University of Birmingham, who
has carried out, practically in toto, the substitution
of numerical values and the solution of the resulting
equations.
By reference to fig. 3 — a reduced section of one
of the charts — the method of use can be readily
observed. A given storage tank has the dimen-
sions : —
1,=25' 4", 13 = 27' 10", d = 8' 3-5",
and was found to contain 6' 67" of liquid.
Find the point of intersection of the ordinate of
11 = 25' 4" and the abscissa of L = 27' 10" (A), then
move parallel to the short dash lines to the junction
with the abscissa of d = 8' 3"5" (B), then move
parallel to the long dash lines to the junction with
the abscissa of h = 6' 6"7" (C), when the gallonage
content can be read off from the continuous lines —
7500 gallons.
Every long dash line represents a storage tank of
particular dimensions, so that it is easily possible
to mark or to draw in position the line correspond-
ing to each tank in use and then, for any particular
tank, to start from the corresponding long dash
line and read off the gallonage content at the ob-
served depth of liquid — e.g., the tank specified in
the example is represented by the long dash line EF.
It is assumed in all cases that the tank occupies a
horizontal position.
An auxiliary graph has been prepared for use
when the overall length of the tank has been speci-
fied thus (see fig. 4) : —
Fig. 4.
From the values of (U-l,) and d the corresponding
value of (12-1,) is read from the parameter of the
graph; by adding to this the value of 1,, 12 is
obtained and the point corresponding to 1, and 12 is
then found on the maingraph.
The charts will be specially useful in obtaining a
check on the contents of a travelling tank as deter-
mined by the weighbridge reading and the observed
specific gravity of the liquid.
A smaller " water chart" gives an accurate cor-
rection for the residual water which often collects
at the bottom of a tank.
The charts can also be used to find: — (at the
depth of liquid that will be equivalent to a given
gallonage in a particular tank; (b) the dimensions
of a tank that is required to contain a given gallon-
age.
Vol XXXIX. No. 8. 1
REVIEW.
Fig. 3.
REVIEW.
[April 30. 1920.
It is claimed that these charts combine simplicity
in use, accuracy of reading and variations of the
dimensions and shape, in a way which hitherto has
not been available. The formula developed in the
article " Formula for Contents of Cylindrical
Tanks with Spherical Ends " (J. Ind. Eng. Chem.,
6, June, 1914, p. 517) is only an approximation,
and its use involves considerable calculation. Most
other attempts to obtain a method for rapidly
determining the contents of storage tanks are con-
fined to the particular case of a tank in which the
radius of the bumped head is equal to the diameter
of the tank; notably "The Gauging of Storage
Tanks — Method of accurately and rapidly determin-
ing the Volume Content of Material in Horizontal
Cylindrical Tanks," by K. B. Howell (J. Ind. Eng.
Chem., 8, May, 1916, p. 430), and " The Gauging of
Storage Tanks," bv R. L. Ogden (ibid., 8, Jan.,
1916, p. 58).
A complete set of charts measuring 40"x40",
mounted on linen and varnished, can be obtained
from A. W. Deering, Chartered Secretary, Suffolk
House, Laurence Pountney Hill, E.C. 4, for the
sum of £5 5s., post free.
NEWS FROM THE SECTIONS.
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING GROUP.
The first annual meeting and dinner were held
at the Waldorf Hotel, London, on April 15. Mr.
J. A. Reavell, the chairman-elect of the Group, pre-
sided at the former, in the absence of Prof. J. W.
Hinchley. The hon. treasurer's report shows a
balance of £20, after allocating £200 towards the
■tost of printing the " Transactions " of the Group.
The membership numbers 310. The hon. secre-
tary's report states inter alia that the work of the
Data Sheet Sub-Committee has been retarded
through the illness of Prof. Hinchley. The follow-
ing have been elected to the Committee : Dr. W. R.
Ormandy, Messrs. E. Hill, H. F. V. Little, and Mr.
J. H. West, who was elected during the year.
Dr. E. F. Armstrong presided at the dinner, and
among the guests were Mr. John Gray, Mr. W. J. TJ.
Woolcock, Eng. Vice-Admiral Sir George Goodwin,
Prof. F. G. Donnan, and Mr. W. Macnab. Dr.
Ormandy, in proposing the toast of the parent
society, spoke of the unanimous desire of the Group
to work in the fullest harmony with the Society ;
and Mr. Gray, in his reply, assured the Group that
the Council would assist it in every way possible.
Jn common with many other societies, the Society
of Chemical Industry was passing through difficult
times in the matter of finance, and the Council was
considering the question of raising the annual sub-
scription. He was sure that all the members would
willingly bear any additional burden of this kind in
order that the activities of the Society and the
efficiency of its Journal should not be restricted.
Mr. Woolcock proposed the health of the Group
.ind expressed the hope that through its agency a
body of men would arise who would do even more
for Great Britain than the chemical engineers of
Germany had succeeded in during for their country.
Mr. Reavell, replying to the toast, said that the
Group had already done valuable work in bringing
manufacturers together, and he looked forward to
the good it would do in securing the provision of
adequate plant and apparatus for instructional pur-
poses in educational institutions.
Dr. Armstrong, in proposing " Our Guests," re-
ferred to the spirit of unrest which had affected our
young chemists in common with other sections of
the community. Such unrest, if of a constructive
nature, was entirely good, and if wisely directed
would give British chemists and British chemistry
a far higher place in the activities of the State. As
a result of the great part played by chemistry in the
war, the chemical departments in our colleges were
becoming overcrowded ; this would inevitably lead
to very severe competition for appointments in-
chemical industry, and only the fully trained would
have any chance of success. The toast was replied
to by Sir G. Goodwin and Prof. F. G. Donnan. The
latter welcomed heartily the formation of the
Group, spoke of the great value the projected " data
sheets " would have for the student, and urged the
need for introducing a practical atmosphere into'
the college workshops.
MANCHESTER.
The annual general meeting was held at the
Grand Hotel on April 9. The report, which was
read by Mr. Guy Radcliffe, the hon. secretary, bears
witness to the excellent work being done by this
section. The innovation of issuing in September
a provisional programme for the whole of the ses-
sion has been found of great convenience.
The Chairman's address on the Rhineland chemi-
cal works attracted considerable attention in the
technical and general press, and was printed in
extenso in the Eeview (1918, 408 b., 427r.), and
most of the other papers presented found a place in
the Transactions. In all, 10 ordinary meetings were
arranged, 14 communications read, and 2 demon-
strations given. The attendance was invariably
large, exceeding well over 70 on the average. The
annual dinner held in January, the presentation to-
Mr. L. E. Vlies, and the issue of a new edition of
the " Handbook " of the section are briefly referred
to, and also the success of inviting members of
kindred societies to attend the sectional meetings.
The membership is now approximately 635.
Eight candidates were nominated for the five
vacancies on the committee, and the ballot resulted
in the election of the following: — Prof. A. Lap-
worth, Messrs. W. H. Bentley, P. Gaunt, T. Horner,
and T. R. Wollaston, who take the place of the re-
tiring members: — Prof. A. Lapworth, Messrs. W.
Andrews, W. B. Hart, S. E. Melling, and J. D.
Paton.
A paper was read by Mr. B. A. Oldham on
" Carbon Dioxide Recorders and their Application
in Boiler Efficiency Control." The author dealt
with the urgent need of controlling combustion,
and emphasised the superiority of the methods
based upon the determination of the carbon dioxide
content of flue gases. He selected four instruments
which could be recommended, and explained the
principles upon which they work. The condemnation,
of many recorders in the past has been due, he
stated, to the fault of the manufacturer in relying
too much upon the clearness of the printed in-
structions instead of making a point of sending ex-
perienced men to supervise. On the other hand,
credit must be given to the makers for valuable
research and for teaching hundreds of coal con-
sumers how to save.
LONDON.
Three papers were read and discussed at the
meeting held on April 12, at Burlington House,
Mr. Julian L. Baker presiding. The first, entitled
" The Fertilising Value of Sewage Sludges," by
Dr. W. E. Brenchley and Mr. E. H. Richards, waa
read by the latter.
The trials made by the Royal Commission on
Sludge Disposal some 12 years ago indicated that
the manurial value of sewage sludge is low. Since
then, however, activated and slate-bed sludges have
become available, and in the present paper the
authors communicate the results of pot experiments
made with these materials. The growth of barley
in soil treated with 1 unit of sodium nitrate, with
Vol. XXXIX., No. 8.]
REVIEW.
1 and 6 units of activated sludge and with J and 1
unit of slate-bed sludge, showed the following per-
centage increases in the weight of the crop raised
over that of the control sample: — 51, 65, 92, 22, 32.
After the barley had been cropped, mustard was
sown in the soil left behind in the pots, and excellent
results were so obtained, notably in the case of the
heavier dressing with activated sludge, the increase
here being 940 per cent, above that of the control
sample. Thus this material may be of considerable
utility, particularly from the standpoint of re-
sidual value; but the removal of the high water
content (98 per cent.) presents difficulties which
have not yet been overcome. In the ensuing dis-
cussion Dr. Rideal commented upon the high values
shown in the authors' analyses for the potash and
phosphorus in the sludges, and suggested that
these two elements might have contributed largely
to the results obtained.
The second paper, on " A New Test for Incorpora-
tion," by Dr. E. P. Perman, was read by Dr. T.
M. Lowry. When two or more solid substances have
to be intimately mixed by grinding, it is often
convenient to control by analysis the efficiency of
the mixing. Such analyses, when made upon a
sample of ordinary size, may cease to show any
irregularity in the distribution of the constituents,
which, however, may yet be apparent to the naked
eye. The method proposed by the author in such
cases is to reduce very greatly the size of the sample
analysed, so that if a sufficiently small portion of
the mixture be taken any irregularity will at once
become manifest. In the case described, viz., a
mixture of TNT and ammonium nitrate, it was
found possible to obtain the desired evidence of
efficient incorporation by working on as 6mall a
sample as 1 mg., the nitrate component being esti-
mated as ammonia by " nesslerising " in a Dubosc
colorimeter. A series of analyses of pure ammonium
nitrate was made, and the factor of error found to
be 0'6 per cent. One mg. samples of the mixture
were analysed after grinding for 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5
minutes, and corresponding to these times the aver-
age deviations were found to be 6'1, 3'2, 20, 1"1
and 0'6 per cent, respectively, thus showing that
after five minutes the mixture had reached the
limit of incorporation detectable by the method.
In the last paper, " Experiments on Decrepita-
tion," by Dr. T. M. Lowry and Mr. L. P. McHatton,
read by the former, some further experiments on
the decrepitation of barytes were described (c/. J..
1919, 453 R.). It was found that the dimensions
of the particles obtained by decrepitation varied
more or less directly with the amount of moisture
present in the crystals. Careful screening of a
sample of this mineral had resulted in the isolation
of a few small, clear crystals which did not de-
crepitate, indicating that decrepitation was not an
invariable characteristic of this mineral. Experi-
ments with rock salt also tended to show that the
size of the fragments obtainable on heating was a
function of the original moisture content.
MEETINGS OF OTHER SOCIETIES.
THE ROYAL INSTITUTION.
Two lectures were delivered by Sir John Cadman
during March, one on " The Miner's Safety Lamp,"
and the other on " Petroleum and the War." In
the former he traced the history of the lamp from
Davy down to the modern improved types of Pat-
tison, Hailwood, Marsaut, and Mueseler, and, as
an indication of the value of this type of lamp, he
mentioned that 750,000 are now in use in this
country alone. An interesting point brought out
was that Davy had laid down that the gauze mantle
did not need to have more than 625 apertures to the
square inch, and that the ordinary commercial
gauze has 784 apertures (the official standard),
which causes an unnecessary loss of illuminating
power.
In his second lecture Sir J. Cadman spoke of the
enormously increased demand for petroleum during
the war. At the beginning of 1917 our require-
ments amounted to 3£ million tons per annum, or
about twice that of the pre-war period, and by the
end of 1918 to nearly 5j millions. It was in 1917
that our stocks of oil began to be dangerously de-
pleted, and the Government instituted a special
department to take charge of petroleum affairs.
The danger was overcome by (1) utilising tank ton-
nage with greater efficiency, (2) increasing tonnage
by utilising the double bottoms of steamers for oil
carrying, (3) economising in every direction, and (4)
stimulating and increasing home sources of supply.
The difficulties encountered were not merely
domestic ones, for among the Allies there was great
lack of co-ordination and co-operation, and it re-
quired the setting up of an Inter-Allied Petroleum
Council, with a small executive Dommittee, to bring
about the desired improvements. So successful were
the efforts of this body and of the special com-
missions sent to the United States and France that
arrangements were completed for the handling of
oil at the rate of 12 million tons per annum — two-
thirds of which would have been absorbed by Great
Britain — in the spring of 1919. Among the efforts
made in this country to further the production of
oil fuel were the establishment of the Alcohol Motor
Fuel Committee and the successful production of
crude oil from cannel coal on a commercial scale,
which during nine months amounted to 5585 tons
of oil from 45,527 tons of coal — an average of 30'67
galls, per ton. At the time of the armistice
arrangements were well advanced to provide for a
much greater output. The use of tar oils as fuel oil
was also considerably developed ; from a negligible
quantity before the war the output was increased
to 21,000 tons a month in 1917 and over 43,000 tons
a month in 1918.
Referring to the drilling operations in Derby-
shire, Staffordshire, and the Midlothian district,
the lecturer stated that the flow of oil at Hardstoft
(this J., 1919, 201 e) had been continuous to date at
the rate of about one ton a day, and although,
owing to various causes, none of the other borings
had reached the stage at which evidence either
negative or positive was available, there did not
appear much reason to doubt that oil in commercial
quantities would eventually be forthcoming, though
it would take years to develop fully.
The present shortage of oil should cease when
conditions become normal. One cannot, however,
overlook the fact that the United States, which
now provides 66 per cent, of the world's output, is
rapidly absorbing much more of her own supply
than hitherto. In that country there are now some
7,600.000 motor cars in use. and whilst before the
war there were very few oil-burning ships, there are
now 486, representing 3,798,000 tons deadweight.
Of the 720 steel vesesls under construction, 636,
aggregating 4,691,000 tons, will burn oil fuel, and
when the programme is completed there will be a
total of 1731 of the oil-burning type under the
American flag.
SOCIETY OF PUBLIC ANALYSTS.
An ordinary meeting was held at Burlington
House on April 14, with Mr. A. Smetham in the
chair.
The first paper, on " The Turbidity Temperature
of Fats, Oils and Fatty Acids: Part 1," by Mr.
A. E. Parkes, dealt with the influence of traces
of water and free fatty acids on the turbidity
temperature, using acetic acid and alcohol as
reagents. In a paper on " The Interpretation of
REVIEW.
[April 30, 1920.
Milk Records," Dr. G. W. Monier-Williams gave
an analysis of a series of milk records which showed
that the fat content of the morning milk was con-
tinuously low. The cause of this was discussed, and
the results compared with those of Richmond. The
use of frequency curves in connexion with milk
records was also considered. The third paper, by
Dr. A. F. Joseph and Mr. G. A. Freak, was on
" The Loss of Free Ammonia from Drinking Water
Samples." In order to obviate the loss of free
ammonia (by oxidation to nitrate) from samples of
drinking water in the tropics, the samples are
acidified, treated with toluene, or kept in ice, show-
ing that the change is due to bacterial action. Mr.
E. Sinkinson described " A Decanting and Filter-
washing Machine," designed to wash precipitates
with hot water, etc., both rapidly and with great
precision, whilst the decanter works in conjunc-
tion with the filter-washer when used for agri-
cultural analyses. A device is provided which auto-
matically stops the machine when a precipitate
has been completely washed.
THE CERAMIC SOCIEY.
At a meeting held at Stoke-on-Trent on April 12,
Mr. B. J. Allen read a paper entitled " Drying
Stoves Scientifically Constructed," referring mainly
to a new type of stove for drying pottery, which
was lately developed in the United States. The
essential features include transport of the ware
through the stove, with regulation of heat and
humidity, etc. Inside the stove two endless sprocket
chains are connected with a series of sprocket
wheels, some above and some below, and boards for
carrying the ware are suspended upon these chains
in such a way that the boards are readily passed by
the sprocket wheels as the chains move on. The
boards are carried alternately upwards and down-
wards in passing through the stove, the number of
flights depending on the length of the stove, and a
large quantity of ware can be passed through a
stove oi minimum dimensions. Radiators of small
steam pipes are fixed at the bottom of the stove,
and veitical partitions — with one end fixed alter-
nately to top or bottom — divide the stove into com-
partments. Radiators are also placed in the two
end compartments to heat the air which enters
when ware is being put in or taken out of the stove.
Air currents are created and regulated by dampered
pipes (having holes on the under sides) fixed across
the upper parts of the stove, and connected with
a fan or a ventilating shaft. Below the bottom
radiators are removable trays, to catch clay dust
loosened by ware being put in and taken out.
Double walls of the casing of the stove give insula-
tion through the intermediate air-space. The whole
apparatus is at once highly sanitary, very efficient,
and exceedingly compact. The workers never enter
the stove, and the workshop temperature need not
be affected by the dryer.
INSTITUTION OF PETROLEUM
TECHNOLOGISTS.
On April 19, at an ordinary meeting, Mr. G. F.
Robertshaw read a paper entitled, " Methods of
Examination of Lubricating Oils."
The author discussed recent work on this sub-
ject, instancing the researches of Deeley, Lang-
muir, Allen, Hardy, Archbutt, Dunstan, and Thole,
and put in a plea for the setting up of a committee
of the Institution for the purpose of standardising
the method of examination. The chief lubricants
were briefly described, and attention was drawn to
the recent report on solid lubricants (this J., 1920,
102r). The more economic use of fixed oils for
edible purposes was touched upon and the opinion
expressed that uncompounded mineral oils would
ultimately replace the fixed oils. In this connexion
the work of Southcombe is of interest. The refin-
ing and preparation of the chief types of oil were
shortly described, and recent patents on synthesised
lubricating oils were mentioned. The physical
properties of lubricants and the methods of their
determination were discussed, in particular the
various means of estimating viscosity both by efflux
and torsional apparatus. By means of the simple
and ingenious instrument devised by Mitchell a
rapid determination may be made without any
other laboratory apparatus being called for. Sur-
face tension, friction tests, specific gravity, cold
test, emulsification value and volatility were
touched upon also. On the chemical side the
gumming test, the iodine value, determination of
tarry matter, and examination of compounding
means were referred to, and the author concluded
by expressing the hope that collaboration between
the chemist and the engineer would lead to the
drawing ' up of schemes and specifications which
would equally assist the manufacturer and the user.
In the discussion the president, Sir F. Black,
pointed out that standardisation work of the cha-
racter demanded by the author should be a matter
for international co-operation, and promised that
the council would always be glad to assist in such
work.
Dr. Ormandy spoke on the same subject, and
added that, in his opinion, the heat>loss suffered by
lubricating oil was of considerable importance as a
discriminating test. Mr. C. Craig and Dr. A. E.
Dunstan put forward the colloidal nature of lubri-
cating oils as being intimately connected with
their characteristic behaviour, and the latter
speaker drew attention to the fact that the un-
saturated hydrocarbons present in lubricating oils
played a prominent part in lubrication. Mr. A.
Philip considered that the actual oiliness or lubri-
cating power of an oil could not be arrived at from
a consideration of the physical and chemical tests
at our disposal.
PERSONALIA.
With deep regret we record the death on April 18.
in London, of Dr. R. Messel, Foreign Secretary and
Past-President of this Society.
Prof. A. K. Huntington, who vacated the chair
of metallurgy at King's College, London, in October
last, died suddenly on April 17.
The death is reported from Canada of Prof. E.
Mackay, an active member of the Society of
Chemical Industry and of the Canadian Institute of
Chemistry.
Prof. L. T. O'Shea, whose death occurred on
April 18, was professor of applied chemistry at
Sheffield University. He was an acknowledged
authority on fuel technology, and particularly in
its bearing on coke-oven practice. His membership
in this Society dated from 1885.
The death of Prof. W. Pfeffer, in his seventy-fifth
year, removes a plant physiologist of the first rank,
whose pioneer work on the measurement of osmotic-
pressure with semipermeable membranes and its in-
fluence on the theory of solutions are well known to
chemists. As a biologist his work was distinguished
by reliance upon exact quantitative methods of in-
quiry. Prof. Pfeffer was in turn ordinary pro-
fessor at the Universities of Basel (1J years),
Tiibingen (9 years), and Leipzig (33 years).
Prof. H. J. W. Hetherington, of University
College, Cardiff, has been appointed Principal of
University College, Exeter.
It is announced in The Times that the sum of
£5000 has been offered by Mr. F. A. Heron, of
Holy wood, to the University of Belfast for pro-
viding the necessary equipment for the teaching of
physical chemistry, and a further £1000 towards
the cost of securing the required accommodation.
v<*. XXXIX., No. 8.]
147 R
NEWS AND NOTES.
CANADA.
Reported Mineral Discoveries. — Recent exploration
in the Courtenay District near Nanaimo, Van-
couver Island, has disclosed the occurrence of coal-
fields covering an area of about 15,000 acres.
The Canadian National Railway reports the dis-
covery of talc in the Lake Winnipeg District, 80
miles north of Winnipeg. — (Official.)
Zinc Oxide Plant. — The first plant in Canada to
manufacture zinc oxide was put in operation during
March at Toronto by the Watts Chemical Co. The
standard process of oxidising zinc (scrap) is used.
The product is stated to be very pure and to satisfy
the demands of the rubber industry.
Aluminium Transmission Lines. — Canada has pro-
bably a larger proportion of aluminium transmission
lines than any other country. A recent survey by
the Commission of Conservation shows that on all
lines in the Dominion operating at 10,000 volts and
over there are 13,000 miles of aluminium and 8,000
miles of copper wires.
Shawinigan Electro-Metals Co. — The plant of this
company at Shawinigan Falls, Quebec, has been
sold to the Northern Aluminium Co. It was erected
during the war to manufacture magnesium, and
produced 600 lb. per day of ribbon and powder. The
purchasing company is still running its large
aluminium plant at Shawinigan, which uses 50,000
li.p.. and produces 60 tons of metal daily.
The Canadian Institute of Chemistry. — H.R.H. The
Prince of Wales has graciously consented to become
an honorary fellow of this Institute. The member-
ship now includes 113 fellows and 3 associates.
Prof. J. Watson Bain, of Toronto University, is
president, and Mr. H. J. Roast, secretary and
treasurer (393, Guy Street, Montreal, Quebec). The
representation of Canada on the Council of the
Inter-Allied Union for Pure and Applied Chemistry
has been entrusted to this body.
Institution of Professional Civil Servants. — A new
organisation bearing this title has been formed by
scientific and technical men in Government employ
to assist the Government and the Civil Service Com-
mission in the task of classifying and adjusting
their salaries, and generally to represent the inter-
ests of this important section of the Civil Service.
A provisional council has been constituted with Mr.
S. J. Cook, hon. sec. of the Ottawa Branch of the
Society of Chemical Industry, as secretary and
treasurer.
Nickel Coinage. — The Canadian Mining Institute,
which met at Toronto on March 8, 9 and 10, dealt
with the question of changing the present silver
coinage of Canada to a coinage of pure nickel, and
passed a resolution unanimously calling on the
Dominion Government to take the necessary steps
to effect such a change. It was pointed out that the
prevailing high price of silver made this change
highly necessary, apart from the fact that nickel is
Canada's " national " metal, and that tests have
shown that this metal would comply with all the
requirements of good coinage.
New Oxygen Plants. — A new company — The
National Electro-Products Co. — has erected a plant
at Toronto for the manufacture of oxygen, cheap
hydro-electric current providing the energy. This
company intends to establish a chain of five plants
across Canada, in order to meet the great demand
for oxygen, chiefly for welding purposes.
Another Canadian company has been formed to
produce oxygen, nitrogen, argon and other gases.
It will be known as The Dominion Oxygen Co., Ltd.,
and will at once proceed to erect five large plants in
the chief industrial centres; it is a subsidiary of the
Union Carbide and Carbon Corporation, which con-
trols 36 distinct companies throughout the United
States and Canada.
NEW ZEALAND.
Proposed Manufacture of Carbon Bisulphide. — Carbon
bisulphide has been found very effective in New-
Zealand as a rabbit^poison, but difficulty has been
experienced in obtaining sufficient supplies owing
to the very high cost of the imported article.
Quotations were £64 per ton f.o.b. London in
March, 1917, and £68 per ton delivered in New-
Zealand from Melbourne in July, 1919. Manufac-
ture in New Zealand bv Tavlor's electro-thermic
process (this J.. 1902, 1143," 1236) is now being
seriously considered. It is stated that with
an expenditure of 100 h.p.. 5000 lb. of carbon
bisulphide can be produced in 24 hours. The
furnace, 16x41 ft., contains 40 electrodes ar-
ranged crosswise, and with two dvnamos of 330 kw.
working at 30—60 volts 14,000—15,000 lb. of
bisulphide can be produced in 24 hours. Each
electrode consists of 25 carbons, 4x4x48 in., and
lasts about a year. The electrodes are placed at
the foot of a vertical shaft furnace filled with small
pieces of coal and charcoal: melted sulphur flows
in below them, and the vapour traverses the hot
carbon.
From calculations made by the Public Work*
Department it would appear that, assuming an
annual output of 350 tons, the product could be
profitably sold at 36s. per cwt. f.o.r. at the works,
but for a lower output the price would have to be
considerably higher. The estimated requirement
for use against rabbits is 30 tons a year. — (N.Z.
Jovrn. of Agric, Jan., 1920.)
BRITISH INDIA.
The Soap Industry.— The consumption of soap in
India is not great; the imports are only about
18,500 tons a year, mainly from the United King-
dom, and the production in the country is estimated
at about 21.000 tons (c/. Industrial Handbook of
the Indian Munitions Board, 1919, p. 287), i.e.,
only some 4 oz. per head of population per annum.
This is undoubtedly due to the general low standard
of life and comfort, for it cannot be said that the
Indian is indifferent to cleanliness, but he generally
washes both himself and his clothes without soap.
It is to be anticipated that there will be a consider-
able improvement in the standard of wages, and
with it there will be a growth in the demand for
soap. Some of those who have made a special study
of the subject consider that almost unlimited quan-
tities of ordinary soaps could be disposed of in
India, even at present, if steps were taken to
organise the sale. Amongst the wealthier classes
there is a considerable demand for toilet soaps richlv
scented and well got up. The Indian soap factories
are mostly situated in Bombay and Upper India,
but none of them is large and many are quite small,
being practically run by a single proprietor with
the aid of his family. The Government of Madras
has erected a small but well-equipped soap works at
Calicut with the object of introducing the industry
into that province. The industry generally is some-
what handicapped by the absence of indigenous
alkali works, but in normal times soda can be
imported at moderate prices. Fats and oils, both
vegetable and animal, are plentiful, yet the sources
of supply require further development, which no
large firm has undertaken hitherto. It is said, how-
ever, that the Sunlight Company is contemplating
the erection of a large factory in Bengal, where it
will have cheap fuel at its disposal, be in a position
to import soda easily and have a large and dense
local population to cater for. An important and
enterprising firm of this kind will of course be able
to deal with all the subsidiary undertakings such
as oil-pressing, hardening of fats, glycerin recovery
and candle manufacture. The small Indian manu-
REVIEW.
(April 30, 1920.
facturer may, however, still be able to hold his own
if he becomes more expert. At present much of the
soap made locally is of very poor quality. Among
the oils etc. that are used for soap making may be
mentioned coconut oil, groundnut oil, mohra oil,
rosin, and sardine-oil stearin.
SOUTH AFRICA.
The Paper Trade. — Prior to the war the bulk of
the paper trade of the Union was in the hands of
English and Canadian firms, but during recent
years other countries, notably the United States,
Sweden and Norway have secured a larger share of
the business. In the newspaper and wrapping
paper trade Sweden has built up a predominant
position in this market since the war, apparently
as the result of favourable freight conditions. The
trade with Great Britain is mostly conducted
through local agents connected with or appointed
by the English manufacturers, and nearly all the
local dealers and importers have agents in England
who make up their orders weekly. The demand is
fostered by extensive advertising. Manufacturers
in the United States who desire to develop their
trade in South Africa are advised either to send
out a direct resident representative or to get in
touch with an established agent paid by commission.
Statistics for the paper and printing trades before
and after the war indicate the various countries of
origin and the changes which have taken place in
sources of supplies as the result of the war.
Although the values of paper imports have increased
very considerably, it is estimated that the actual
quantities imported were smaller in 1917 and 1918
than thev were in 1913.— (U.S. Com. Rep., Feb. 25,
1920.)
Vegetable Oils and Fats. — The climatic and soil con-
ditions in various regions of South Africa are such
that practically all the soft oil-seeds could be grown,
though tropical products like palm kernels and coco-
nuts are excluded. The importance of the question
to South Africa is shown by the following figures,
which give the number of gallons of oil imported for
industrial purposes in 1918: — Castor, 75.560
(£19.578); coconut, 178,960 (£39,579): colza and
rape, 3.670 (£650); cottonseed, 28 (£6); linseed.
413,426 (£145,028); palm and palm kernel, 506.957
(£89,897) : other vegetable oils, 42,413 (£7,376). The
oils imported for food purposes in 1918 amounted to
137.234 galh., valued at £34,290, whilst palm ker-
nels, copra, etc., were imported to the value of
£196,121. These figures give a total value of nearly
£400,000 to the imports of unmanufactured
vegetable fats and oils, and, in addition, oil pro-
ducts worth nearly £1,000.000 are imported
annually. An oil-seed industry in South Africa
would have to face the competition of Eastern pro-
ducts obtained with cheaper labour and would have
to pay heavy railway rates as against low sea rates,
since the big oil-consumers reside mainly on the sea-
board.
Three firms have oil mills in operation in the
Union, viz., Lever Bros., at Congella ; the South
African Oil and Fat Industries. Ltd., at Jacobs;
and the Mayville Oil Mills, near Durban. The Con-
gella mill has a capacity of 150 tons of palm kernels
per week, but as it was specially constructed to
deal with these seeds, it would not work as efficiently
with copra or groundnuts. Nevertheless, it is in-
tended to extend the plant so that 150 tons of copra
or groundnuts can be treated weekly. The mill at
Jacobs can treat 300 — 400 tons of seed per month,
and three benzene extraction units have been
erected which allow of handling an extra 200 tons
of seed per month. There is also a small plant at
Salisbury, erected by the British South Africa Co..
which mainly handles groundnuts; its capacity is
roughly 600 short tons per annum. At Lourenco
Marques there is a mill capable of treating 100 tons
of sesame seed per month.
Developments in the cultivation and expression
of oilseeds are anticipated in the Waterburg and
Rustenburg districts, also in Zululand and Natal,
and very promising results have been obtained by
the Department of Agriculture of Rhodesia, which
has given a lead in fostering the extended cultiva-
tion of oil-seeds.— (S. African J. Ind., Jan., 1920.)
UNITED STATES.
Chemical Warfare Service. — The Army Reorganisa-
tion Bill, which passed the House of Representa-
tives on March 18, contains a section providing for
the Chemical Warfare Service as a separate unit of
the Army with a brigadier-general in command
and ninety officers and 1,500 men. Though there
was much opposition in the House of Representa-
tives to the Service being made a separate unit,
this was overcome, and the Bill is now before the
Senate, which is said to be unanimously in favour
of the Service retaining its individuality and of
full provision being made for its efficient develop-
ment.
Sand and Gravel in 1918. — The production of sand
and gravel in 1918 was 61,824,426 short tons, a de-
crease of nearly 15 million tons compared with 1917.
Of this amount 2,172,887 tons was glass sand, the
production showing an increase of 12 per cent, over
1917. The resources of the United States in glass
sands are very great. The output of moulding sand
was 4,910,178 tons, and that of filter sand 51,111
tons. Some special grades of moulding sand, such
as the French sand for making fine bronze castings
and the English refractory sands for lining certain
iron furnaces, are imported. — (U.S. Geol. Surv.,
Oct. 31, 1919.)
Manganese and Manganiferous Ores in 1917. — Before
1917, the United States was largely dependent on
foreign sources for the manganese it required, and
in that year the imports of manganese ores
amounted to 629,972 tons, 80 per cent, of which
came from Brazil, whilst the imports of ferro-
manganese, nearly half of which had previously
been supplied by Great Britain, fell from 90,928
tons in 1916 to 41,969 tons in 1917. Owing to war
conditions there was great activity in locating and
exploiting deposits of the ores in the United States,
with the result that the output of high-grade man-
ganese ore rose from 31,474 tons in 1916 to 129,405
tons in 1917. The recommendation of the American
Iron and Steel Institute to the effect that lower-
grade ferro-manganese and spiegeleisen should be
made use of, led to a wider use of domestic ores in
making the alloy. The resulting increase in pro-
duction is shown bv the following figures (short tons)
for 1916 and 1917 : —
Ore with
Year. 35% Manganese
or more.
1916 ... 31,474
1917 ... 129,405
In 191" the number of plants making ferro-man-
ganese rose to 23, with an output of 260,225 tons,
and in the same year 17 plants were making
spiegeleisen, with an output of 189.241 tons. — (U.S.
Geol. Surv., Oct. 31, 1919.)
Silica in 1918. — The production of silica in 1918
was 193,643 short tons, valued at £220,943. and in-
cluded : — quartz (vein quartz, pegmatite and quart-
zite), 71,740 tons; sand and sandstone, 98,956 tons;
Tripoli, 19,982 tons; and diatomaceous earth, 2,965
tons. Flint " for consumption " to the value of
£27.127 was imported into the United States in
1918.— (U.S. Geol. Surv., Bee. 4, 1919.)
Peat in 1918. — The quantity of crude, air-dried
peat produced in the United States in 1918 was
151.521 short tons, an increase of 56 per cent, on
the 1917 production. Practically all this peat was
used in the manufacture of peat products. — (Cr.S-
Geol. Svrv., Nov. 18, 1919.)
Ore with Ore with.
10-35% up to 10%
Manganese. Manganese
453.853 ... 90,473
730,759 ... 130,185
Vol. XXXIX., No. 8.]
REVIEW.
Sulphur and Pyrites in 1918. — The sulphur produced
in the United States rose from 520,582 long tons
in 1915 to 1,353,525 tons in 1918. The production of
pyrites in 1918 was 464,494 tons, valued at £528,903,
an increase of 2,000 tons over the previous year.
The total consumption of pvritic ores, including
imports, was about 960.000 'tons in 1918.— (U.S.
Geol. Surv., Dec. 11, 1919.)
Cement Tile-Drains. — Much of the peace-time work
of the Bureau of Standards was interrupted owing
to the pressure of war work, but some of the more
important projects have now been resumed. One
of these is the field inspection and testing in con-
nexion with tile-drains used in alkali soils. The
Minnesota tiles, which have been embedded in the
ground since the last inspection, have been removed,
and the concrete found to be unimpaired. The com-
mittee in charge of the investigation proposes to
make definite recommendations relative to the
manufacture and use of these drains in alkali soils.
FRANCE.
Industrial Notes. — Metallurgy. — The constant rise
in the price of metallurgical products is attributed
mainly to the increase in price of British coal con-
sequent on the steady depreciation of the franc. As
a possible solution of this difficulty, it is suggested
that less coal should be imported from Britain and
more from Westphalia and Rhineland. In addition
to the Ruhr deposits, there exist on the left bank
of the Rhine the coalfields of Aix-la-Chapelle and
of Erkelenz, as well as the coalpits of Rhenish
Prussia which have been considerably developed
since 1914. The production of these fields, added
to that of the Ruhr, wou'd supply France with the
quantity of coal due to her from Germany.
Statistics published by the Ministry of Public
Works show that in 1919 Westphalia and the Rhen-
ish provinces exported 1,382,845 tons and 342,498
tons respectively of coke and coal to Lorraine, and
received from the latter province a total of 1,147,947
tons of iron ore.
Chemical Industry. — The recent disturbances in
Germany have naturally reduced the supply of coal
and dyes due to France under the Peace Treaty.
The restricted railway service occasioned by the
coal shortage has caused a great reduction in
stocks of raw materials ; on the other hand, it is
stated that there are large quantities of finished
products awaiting transportation. Complaint is
rife concerning Germany's apparent disregard
of her Treaty obligations, even before the
recent troubles. Thus an order for 3000 tons
of intermediates placed in Germany last June
by a syndicate of French dye-producers has been
only fulfilled to the extent of 700 tons. The short-
age of intermediates has been partly made good by
the efforts of the very greatly extended dye industry
in France, of its branches in Switzerland, and also
by importation. The French production increased
from 175 tons in June to 602 tons in December,
the figures for sulphur colours being 68 and 175
tons respectively for these two months. The im-
mediate future is uncertain, particularly in view
of the fact that compulsory dilution of coal gas with
water gas is diminishing the amount of coal dis-
tilled and of tar produced by nearly 50 per cent.
The shortage of tar has become so acute that ex-
portation and re-exportation of coal tar and de-
rivatives have been prohibited. Further, no coal
tar may now be used as fuel.
Petroleum. — Owing to deficient supply the prices
of petroleum, motor spirit and fuel oil (mazout)
have been rising rapidly. Hope is now being turned
towards Poland as a future source of supply. Much
French capital has been invested in the Boryslav oil-
fields, where oil has been struck. The company
Goldman Freres is chiefly interested, and produc-
tion is progressing favourably.
GENERAL.
Camphor Growing in the British Empire. — Owing to
the present high price of camphor and the ever
increasing demand — the world's requirements are
now estimated at about 10 million lb. per annum —
the possibility of producing camphor within the
Empire requires consideration. Commercial cam-
phor is obtained chiefly from Formosa, but the
Fukien province of China, the islands of Shikoku
and Kioshiu in Japan, Cochin China, Sumatra,
Java and Borneo also contribute supplies.
Attempts have been made to grow camphor in
Ceylon, where its cultivation was found to be pos-
sible at altitudes of 250 — 6000 feet above sea level,
with a net profit of £74 per acre per annum. How-
ever, in 1906, only some 100 acres were under culti-
vation, and the production was very small. Pro-
mising experiments are being carried out in the
Federated Malay States. In Mauritius the tree
grows satisfactorily, but yields an oil which differs
from the camphor oils of commerce, and, moreover,
the distillate contains no solid camphor. Similar ob-
servations have been made in Trinidad, Dominica,
and St. Kilda, but in spite of this good results have
been obtained in the West Indit j. With the present
price of camphor (£31 per cwt. in Formosa), and
the reported depletion of the native forests, suc-
cessful cultivation in the British Empire should bs
possible, provided scientific methods be emploved. —
(Prof. P. Carmody, The Times Tr. Suppl., Apr. 10,
1920.)
Metallurgical Industries in Belgium. — Towards the
end of 1919 the Belgian coal production was almost
equal to the pre-war output, but transportation
difficulties have hindered shipments. The failure
to receive promised deliveries of industrial coal from
the Ruhr region, and the great difficulty in obtain-
ing coking coal from other foreign sources, are very
unfortunate for the reviving Belgian industries. For
instance, the re-lighting of the four furnaces of the
important Societe de Sambre-et-Moselle is still de-
layed by the shortage of coke and ore. Normal pro-
duction of steel would require 80,000 tons of coke
monthly, and present production is far below this
figure.
Systematic sabotage by the occupying forces was
carried further in the steel industry than in any
other. Thus, at the time of the armistice, out of
54 blast furnaces in existence in Belgium in 1914,
about 30 had been extensively damaged or de-
stroyed. In the Provinces of Liege and Hainaut
only about 16 rolling mills are in operation out of
the original 101, and only 17 puddling furnaces out
of the 91 that were operating before the war. At
the Ougrce-Marihaye steel works, which produced
50,000 tons of steel monthly before hostilities com-
menced, the value of the plant destroyed was esti-
mated at 45 million francs, and it will cost much
more than this to replace it. Satisfactory progress
is being made in the recovery of stolen machinery
taken into Germany. The steel production has now
reached about 17 per cent, of the pre-war output.
Iron and steel prices continue to advance steadily,
and there is a good export demand. The whole
trade, however, is hampered by the shortage of fuel
and raw materials.
Zinc production continues to increase slowly, and
several new foundries are ready to open on receipt
of regular supplies of oil and fuel. In 1913, Belgian
zinc ore imports averaged about 46,000 tons
monthly, while up to November 1, 1919, only 107,047
tons had been received. Shipments were improving,
however, and the prospects of the industry are good.
The erection of new, thoroughly modern plants to
replace those destroyed will partially compensate
for the present subnormal production, and Belgium
will resume its place as one of the leading steel-pro-
ducing countries of the world. — (U.S. Com. Sep.,
■/»». 27, Feb. 6, 1920.)
[April 30. 1920.
Conversion of War Factories in Germany. — The
Deutsche Werke A.-G. has been founded to take
over various factories which formerly supplied the
.Army and Navy with material. The capital was
fixed originally at 100 million marks, but as a
number of works is to be taken over, instead of one,
it will probably be increased. The State will own
the whole capital and the company will issue bonds
up to 350 million marks, which will be entitled to
one-third of the profit remaining after payment of
5 per cent, on the share capital. Government con-
trol is ensured through the Controlling Council,
composed of members of the Reichstag, representa-
tives from the Finance Ministry and the Treasury,
as well as prominent industrial and financial mag-
nates. The works taken over are distributed all
over Germany, except in Saxony, and will make
the " Deutsche Werke " one of the biggest firms
in the country. Among the works taken over are
the munition factories at Spandau, Sieberg, and
Jngolstadt, the artillery works at Spandau, Lipp-
stadt and Munich, the armament factories at
Spandau, Amberg and Erfurt, and the munition
works at Spandau and Cassel, all of which will be
converted. As it would be difficult to convert the
powder factories, they will not be taken over. —
{Bd. of Trade J., Mar. 25, 1920.)
The Rubber Industry in the Netherlands. — This in-
dustry was expanding just before 1914, and during
the war progress was well maintained. Many of
the factories were enlarged during this period, and
. the " Hevea " and " Pombe " firms united, together
with some other firms, to form the " N.V.
Yereenigte Nederlandsche Rubberfabrieken," which
acquired extensive premises in Doorweerth. At the
present time Holland has at least twenty-nine fac-
tories, the products of which cover the whole range
of rubber goods. During the past few years the
supplies existing in the country were sufficient to
provide for the internal requirements, but against
this must be mentioned the shortage in certain other
raw materials, such as canvas, solvents, including
benzene, benzol, carbon disulphide, rubber substi-
tute and reclaimed rubber. Substitutes could not
be employed owing to the lack of oil and fat, and
separate factories for the preparation of reclaimed
did not exist; in 1918 a factory was started in
Amsterdam for their preparation, but up till then
none was being made. Accordingly, the rubber
factories prepared what reclaimed rubbers were
necessary by secret processes, but this branch of the
trade has been little developed. On the other hand,
the use of catalysts has become firmly established.
Before the war the industry obtained its
machinery chiefly from England or Germany, but
during the period of the war it was dependent on
internal resources.
The future is difficult to forecast, but there is no
doubt that the organisation of the larger factories
has very much improved. In particular, chemists
are in many cases being employed by separate fac-
tories, whilst in 1910 a department was founded in
Delft for scientific research in connexion with the
industry. — (In-en Uitvoer, Dec., 1919.)
Proposed Nitrogen Fixation Plant in the Dutch East
Indies. — H.M. Consul-General in Batavia states
that a 40-years' concession has been granted to a
Norwegian, allowing him to utilise the river Moesi.
above Bankoelen, for the sole purpose of manufac-
turing synthetic nitrogen compounds — fertilisers,
etc. Some 22,000 to 70,000 h.p. are theoretically
available, and a royalty of 1 gulden ( = ls. 8d.) per
theoretical h.p. is to be paid to the Government
as from November, 1926, the rate being then sub-
ject to revision every fifth year. A minimum head
of 350 metres of water is available. The concession
includes the right to mine the necessary coal and
limestone from the adjacent land and to build a
railway from the works to the port. — (Bd. of Trade
■J., Mar. 18, 1920.)
Discovery of Copper in the Dutch East Indies. — Rich
copper deposits, states H.M. Consul-General, have
been discovered in South Timor, about 20 miles dis-
tant from Tjamplong. The ore is reported to be ex-
tremely rich and to be worth 250 — 400 gulden
(£25 — £40) a ton. A road will have to be con-
structed from Tjamplong to the deposits before the
latter can be worked. — (Bd. of Trade J., Mar. 25,
1920.)
The Institute of Metals. — The position of students
whose course of studies was interrupted by the
war, or by special circumstances arising from the
war, has been sympathetically considered by the
Council of the Institute of Metals. It has been
decided to admit to the " student membership "
students of metallurgy who have passed the age
limit of 25 years, and to allow them to continue
as such up to June 30, 1923, so long as they remain
at a recognised school of metallurgy. This con-
cession represents an appreciable financial saving,
as a student member pays only the guinea entrance
fee and guinea subscription of pre-war days. By a
further concession, members and students elected at
the forthcoming ballot on May 31 will not only have
the privilege of membership for thirteen months
instead of the usual twelve, but will receive an extra
copy of the Institute's Journal.
The Institute of Brewing. — The report of the
Council for 1919 states that the number of sub-
scribing members was 1136 on December 31 last, or
nine members more than on the last day of 1918.
An employment bureau has been organised which is
being conducted on strictly confidential lines. It
has been decided to form a Research Association
under the auspices of the Institute, to proceed on
independent lines without the help of a Govern-
ment grant. A scheme to encourage investigation
in the brewing and allied industries has now been
drawn up, and a research fund is being created.
The Journal of the Institute of Brewing is shortly
to appear monthly, instead of seven times a year.
The late Prof. A. R. Brown and Mr. A. R. Ling were
appointed representatives of the Institute to attend
the conferences of chemical and allied societies held
under the auspices of the Chemical Society during
1918 and 1919; and Mr. Ling is the Institute's re-
presentative on the Conjoint Board of Scientific
Societies. Mr. S. 0. Neville has been re-elected
president of the Institute for the current year.
New German Research Institute. — The sum of
500,000 marks has been presented by F. Behringer
to the University of Heidelberg for the establish-
ment of an institute for research on the chemistry
of the proteins. The new institute will be initially
conducted in connexion with the Physiological
Institute of the University, under the direction of
Prof. A. Kossel— ,(Chem.-Z., Mar. 27, 1920.)
The German Chemical Society. — The report of the
Deutsche Chemische Gesellschaft, to be presented
at the general meeting on April 19, states that the
membership number, which was 3350 before the
war, is now again in the neighbourhood of 3000.
During the past year the publication of the
"Chemische Zentralblatt " showed a loss of about
180,000 marks, and in consequence the price will
now be raised. The fourth collective index of the
Zentralblatt will be issued this summer, and the
third volume of the " Index to the Literature of
Organic Chemistry " at the end of the year. The
second volume of the new (fourth) edition of
" Beilstein " was printed at the end of last year.
The issue of the "Lexicon of Inorganic Com-
pounds," in 3 volumes, has been definitely decided
upon; work on the MSS. of the supplementary
volume, covering the period 1911 — 1916, will be
finished by the middle of the year. Prof. C. Harries
has been nominated president of the Society and
Prof. W. Wislicenus, foreign secretary. — (Chem.-Z.,
Mar. 27, 1919.)
Vol. XXXIX., Ko. S.]
REVIEW.
PARLIAMENTARY NEWS.
HOUSE OF LORDS.
Protection of Special Industries Bill.
The second reading, moved by Lord Balfour, was
rejected on an amendment by Earl Beauchamp,
which was carried bv 23 votes to 22 (this J.. 1920,
13 r).— (April 22.)
fits to income-tax. The new tax will not exceed
2s. in the £ on the profits which remain after pay-
ment of interest and dividend on existing deben-
ture and preference issues. — (April 19.)
Benzol Production.
In ajiswer to Captain Moreing, Sir R. Home
stated that the total production of refined benzol at
coke ovens and gas works in 1919 was approximately
20 million gallons. — (April 19.)
HOUSE OF COMMONS.
Home-Grown Sugar, Ltd.
Sir A. Boscawen, replying to Mr. Macquisten,
said that it was a fact that Home-Grown Sugar,
Ltd., half the issued capital of which is held by
the Government, was about to place a contract for
sugar factory machinery with a French firm, as
that firm's tender was the lowest. It was desirable
to benefit from the special knowledge of French
manufacturers, as the chief competitors in this
country had had no experience of beet-sugar fac-
tories. Mr. Macquisten pointed out that a large
part of the machinery required was similar to that
used in cane-sugar manufacture, and could there-
fore be made in this country ; also that the home
firms have the best French experts in their employ.
Sir A. Boscawen replied that it was advisable to
have the benefit of French experts, 60 that the in-
dustry could be started under the best possible con-
ditions. He was, however, willing to receive a
deputation from a firm or firms in this country
capable of making the machinery. — (April 15.)
The Budget.
Exchequer issues in the financial year ended
March 31 last amounted to £1,665,773,000, and
revenue was £1,339,571,000, leaving a deficit of
£326,202.000. During this period the floating debt
was reduced by 100 millions to £1,312,205,000. On
the present basis of taxation the revenue for the
present year is estimated at £1,341,650,000 and the
expenditure at £1,177,452,000. As the balance
would not suffice to reduce adequately the national
indebtedness, the Chancellor of the Exchequer pro-
poses to raise a total revenue of £1,418,300,000, and
thus provide for a surplus of £234,198,000 for the
redemption of debt. Among the proposed changes
in taxation are: — Increases in the postal rates for
letters, newspapers, and for telegrams. As from
•January 1, 1920. motor vehicles used for trade pur-
poses to be taxed by weight, and motor cars at £1
per h.p. unit ; the existing motor-car tax and motor-
spirit duty to be repealed on that date. The duty
on spirits to be raised by 22s. 6d. per proof
gallon to 72s. 6d., and that on beer from 70s. to
100s. per standard barrel. The duties on wines to
be doubled, and in addition a 50 per cent, ad
valorem duty to be levied on imported sparkling
wines. The duty on stock and share transactions
to be increased from 0'5 to 1 per cent. Share capital
duty to be raised from 5s. to £1 per cent., and
receipts and scrip certificates duty from Id. to 2d.
Although no change is proposed in the standard
rate of income-tax. now 6s.. the system of assess-
ment will be altered in accordance with the recom-
mendations of the Royal Commission. The excess
profits duty to be raised from 40 to 60 per cent.,
but to be again lowered to 40 per cent, in the event
of a levy on war wealth increase. A new tax (Cor-
poration Tax) of Is. in the £ on profit income of
limited liability companies engaged in trade. This
tax will run concurrently with the excess profits
duty until the latter is repealed. In arriving at
the profits for the purpose of the new tax, excess
profits duty will be treated as a working expense,
and both excess profits duty and corporation
tax will be deducted before assessment of pro-
REPORT.
Report of the Fuel Research Board for the
Years 1918, 1919. Published for the Depart-
ment of Scientific and Industrial liesearcli by
H.M. Stationery Office. Pp. 57. Price Is. 6d.
net.
An introductory section of this report reviews
briefly the considerations which led to the establish-
ment of a Fuel Research Station of a new type.
Dealing with the question of the immediate im-
portance of fuel economy, it is remarked that,
whilst a widespread knowledge of means of fuel
economy exists among experts, owing to inertia on
the part of consumers even the simplest and most
obvious steps towards improvement are not taken.
The Research Board is at present considering how
these obvious facts may be kept before industrial
consumers of fuel. It cannot be too strongly urged
that in every large works the establishment of an
organised fuel control is essential. It appears that
in the majority of industrial undertakings a reduc-
tion of from 5 to 20 per cent, in the fuel bill could
be secured within a year at comparatively little
cost.
The history of the movement for the development
of home sources of fuel oil is briefly sketched. It is
concluded that no development of the gas industry
on the lines of the present process of carbonisation
at 1000° — 1300° C. will help towards the production
of fuel oil for the Navy. In this connexion it is
essential that the question of carbonisation at tem-
peratures much lower than those customary in gas-
making and coke-making should be exhaustively
examined. Such an investigation is now being
carried on at the Research Station, and it is of in-
terest to note that encouraging results have already
been obtained in the direction of the preparation of
coke in the form of a smokeless domestic fuel, suffi-
ciently strong to stand the rough handling of trans-
port.
A description of the Research Station is illus-
trated by plans and photographs. The lay-out and
equipment of the Station enable the fundamental
conditions for accurate scientific experiments on an
industrial scale to be secured. The experimental
work of the Station can be carried on night and day
and independently of external weather conditions.
Water-gas has been adopted as the fundamental
fuel of the Station, but can at any time be replaced
by other fuel gases. It is intended that the Station
shall supply those in charge of industrial operations
with trustworthy data on the production and
utilisation of heat energy. The maximum unit
scale of operations at the Station contemplates the
treatment of 20 — 30 tons of coal or coke per day.
An apparatus for the carbonisation of coal at tem-
peratures between 500° and 600° C. is already in-
stalled, also a setting of four Glover-West con-
tinuous vertical retorts capable of carbonising 10
tons of coal per day. The apparatus for the collec-
tion and measurement of the volatile products of
carbonisation is capable of dealing with the gases
and products from the high temperature carbonisa-
tion of 10 tons of coal per day or the low tempera-
ture carbonisation of 20 tons per day. The labora-
tories comprise a routine laboratory, a research
REVIEW.
laboratory, a liquid-air room, and a physics labora-
tory with dark rooms for photometry and photo-
graphy. A Survey Department has been established
with a view to the reception, sifting, classification,
and registration of information concerning the
national coal resources from the physical and chemi-
cal standpoints.
Preliminary experimental work on low tempera-
ture carbonisation has been carried out since Sep-
tember, 1919, in a setting of nine steel retorts each
taking a charge of from 2 to 3 cwt. Grants have
been made to the Manchester Air Pollution Board
to further inquiries in connexion with domestic
heating. The important result has been established
that coke fires possess radiating efficiencies superior
to those of coal fires, particularly when the coke em-
ployed is derived from a process of low temperature
carbonisation. The radiant efficiency of coal fires
varies from 19"5 to 25 per cent. With fires of low
temperature coke the efficiency amounts to between
31 and 34 per cent. If the fire is credited with
heat conducted, radiated, and converted from the
surroundings, then the thermal efficiency of the
low-temperature coke fire is between 60 and 70 per
cent. Provided a smokeless form of fuel were
available in large residential centres, the abolition
of raw coal as a fuel would permanently raise the
efficiency of the open fire.
A grant of £500 was made in 1917 to the Atmo-
spheric Pollution Committee of the Meteorological
Office. A plant capable of pulverising 1000 lb. of
coal per hour is to be installed at the Station with
a view to the investigation of the possibilities of
pulverised coal as a fuel. The Board has assisted
the Irish Peat Inquiry Committee in its investiga-
tion, and a Peat Investigation Officer to the Board
has been appointed. A Power Alcohol Investiga-
tion officer has likewise been appointed. The
section on Gas Standards reviews and supplements
the recommendations of the Board concerning the
sale of gas on a thermal basis (this J., 1919, 407 b,
414 b). Evidence is derived from the experience at
a large industrial centre that the present system of
charging affords no real security to the consumer.
The great gain to the gas industry under the pro-
posed basis of sale will be that no undue legislative
restrictions will limit them in their development of
the most economical production of thermal units in
the form of gas.
Appendices to the report are devoted to " Fuel
Economy and Low Temperature Carbonisation " by
Sir George Beilby, and a " Summary of Reports on
the Efficiency of Cooking Ranges," by A. H.
Barker.
COMPANY NEWS.
GOVERNMENT ORDERS AND NOTICES.
PROHIBITED EXPORTS.
The Board of Trade (Licensing Section) has an-
nounced the removal of the following goods from
List A of Prohibited Exports as from April 15 : —
Barley, maize, oats, rye, dari, with their relative
flours and meals; brewers' and distillers' grains;
malt dust, culms, sprouts, and combings; rice meal
or bran.
The Open General Licence for the export of in-
dustrial explosives has been withdrawn (April l),and
the prohibition on the export of explosives has been
amended as follows : — (a) Explosives, except the fol-
lowing : Blasting gelatine, gelignite, gelatine dyna-
mite, viking powder, detonators, electric detona-
tors, monobel, safety fuses, dynamite.
Munitions for smooth-bore guns may now be sent
under the Open General Licence to : — Czecho-
slovakia, Panama, Nicaragua, Honduras, Guate-
mala. Costa Rica. Cuba, San Salvador, San
Domingo, and Hayti.
SOUTHALL BROS. AND BARCLAY, LTD.
The annual meeting was held at Birmingham on
March 31. Sir Thomas Barclay, who presided, said
that the outstanding features of the year's trading
had been the enormous rise in the price of drugs of
Japanese origin, and the increased scarcity of many
crude drugs, particularly those mainly supplied
by the United States. The increased prices were
mainly due to lack of supplies and the large de-
mands from the Continent, but market manipu-
lation was also a contributory factor. The present
price of turpentine was nearly ten times the normal
pre-war price (27s. per cwt.). Ln regard to German
competition, recent examination of German quota-
tions had shown that out of 31 articles offered, in
26 cases the prices were much higher than those
ruling here, and where the prices were lower, the
articles were either of minor importance, or were
protected by a natural monopoly, e.g., caustic
potash. This country was gradually acquiring the
export trade which was formerly held by Germany.
Up to the present little, if any, German competition
had been felt in this country, and the rate of ex-
change had handicapped American efforts to under-
cut this market. The demand for chemical pro-
duets had been very great, and the plants for
chloroform, salicylates, iodides, etc., had been
working full-time. There was increased demand
for phenylqHinolinecarboxylic acid, hippuric acid
and its salts, etc. The net profit for the past year
was £6,395 higher at £32,159 (issued capital
£196.000). The ordinary shares receive 10 per cent,
and a bonus of 5 per cent., both free of tax.
ENGLISH CHINA CLAYS, LTD.
In his address to the first annual meeting, on
April 15, Mr. R. Martin, chairman, stated that the
potential annual production of the company was,
approximately, 500,000 tons of clay, but owing to
difficulties connected with production costs, trans-
port, freights, fuel, and the chaotic state of the
foreign exchanges, the turnover was one-half of
what it should have been. Contracts booked for
1920 indicated a generally increased demand for
china clay. There was a serious menace to the
English industry from those countries, like
America, Germany, Sweden and Denmark, which
had developed their own domestic clays to an
enormous extent during the war, but so far the
competition had been small as the bulk of the com-
pany's clay was confined to the best qualities. The
immediate outlook for the trade was good. A divi-
dend of 5 per cent, on the ordinary shares was
declared.
This company has recently been formed with an
authorised capital of £2,000,000, and an issued
capital of £1,480,686, all of which has been taken
up by the amalgamating companies, viz., Messrs.
Martin Bros, Ltd., The West of England and Great
Beam Clay Co., Ltd., the North Cornwall China
Clay Co., Ltd., and the China Clay Works of
Messrs. John Nicholls and Co., Ltd., have also
been acquired. The new company owns twenty-one
china clay works in Devon and Cornwall, 6even
china stone quarries, ground stone mills, brick
works and cooperages.
ASSOCIATED PORTLAND CEMENT MANU-
FACTURERS, LTD.
At the twenty-first general meeting held in
London on April 19, the Hon. F. C. Stanley, chair-
man, said that the satisfactory trading of the past
half-year permitted of a dividend at the rate of
8 per cent, per annum — the second time in the
company's history that the ordinary shareholders
Vol. XXXIX., No. si
153 R
had received a dividend. The whole of the hold-
ing of preference shares, viz., £350,000, in the
British Portland Cement Manufacturers, Ltd., had
been sold to a group, which was also given the
option to purchase all the unissued ordinary share
capital at par; 250,000 of these shares had been or
are being taken up. Hence the company has now
ample funds for developmental purposes. Jointly
with the British company, it was establishing works
in India, and also substantially enlarging its fleet
of lighters for river transport. As a corollary to
the closer fusion of the Associated and British com-
panies, a joint selling and distributing agency — the
Cement Marketing Co. — had been formed, which
includes several of the allied companies. Many of
the difficulties of manufacture and distribution re-
mained, and the company had a much larger
capacity for production than it is able to utilise.
Plant and raw materials and, to a large extent,
the necessary labour were now available, but the
supply of fuel, and particularly that of coke, was
a matter of great concern. Net profits on home
sales were now smaller than before the war. but
advantage had been taken of the high prices ruling
in the chief export markets.
Carboil Syndicate, Ltd. — This company was
formed in 1913, with the object of perfecting
methods of oil recovery by means of low-temperature
carbonisation. It has now acquired the patent
rights in a new type of producer, in which low-
grade coal and colliery waste can be distilled to
yield motor spirit, oil, and ammonium sulphate,
but no coke. The producer plants will be made by
the Vulcan Steel Products Co., Inc., of the United
States, but the syndicate will carry out the work of
erection. The capital is £500,000, divided into
499,475 ordinary shares of £1 each and 10,500 de-
ferred shares of Is. each. An issue of 245,000
ordinary and 4,900 deferred shares was recently
offered for public subscription, at par and £1 re-
spectively, and over-subscribed.
TRADE NOTES.
BRITISH.
Cyprus in 1918-19. — The mining industry in Cyprus
has been much restricted during the war, but de-
velopments are hoped for, as there are copper and
other minerals occurring which might be profitably
developed. Very little copper mining was carried
out in 1918 owing to the shortage of explosives, but
the asbestos mine at Annando was worked through-
out the year.
Among other home-produced articles, shinia and
sumac leaves were exported. There was a fair
carob crop, the use of which, when crushed, as cattle
food, is increasing. The olive crop was better than
that of 1917, but the yield of oil was small.
Arrangements have been made to carry out experi-
mental cultivation of sugar cane and sugar-beet. —
(Col. Bep.-Ann. No. 1025, Feb., 1920.)
Trinidad and Tobago in 1918. — The value of im-
ported products in 1918 amounted to £4,534,585,
and that of the exports to £4,575,204. The United
Kingdom provided 15'3 per cent, of the total im-
ports, the United States 369, Canada 186, and
other British Possessions 1V2 per cent. The exports
included the following items, the values being given
in brackets : — Asphalt, 56,799 tons (£88,825) ;
22,200,385 coconuts (£145,721); copra, 5,231,991 lb.
(£77,947); sugar, 35,104 tons (£811,068); crude
petroleum, 40,856,298 galls. (£400,610); and petrol
spirit, 2,741,622 galls. (£141,968). The United
States took exports valued at £2,085,726, or 45'6
per cent, of the total. The cocoa exported amounted
to 58,638,562 lb., a decrease on the 1917 figures.
The sugar crop was the lowest recorded for many
years, the exports amounting to 35,104 tons, as
against 62,654 tons in 1917. The coconut industry
continued to make rapid progress, and considerable
areas have been planted. The cultivation of rubber
is increasing, and the exports in 1918, 37,517 lb.,
were nearly twice those of 1917. The output of
asphalt has been much reduced owing to the war,
the exports in 1918 amounting to 56,799 tons, as
against 206,416 tons in 1913. (For petroleum situa-
tion, see this J., 1920, 95 r.)— (Col. Bep.-Ann.,
No. 1013, Jan., 1920.)
FOREIGN.
The Chemical Market in Sweden. — Since the armi-
stice imports of chemicals into Sweden have beec
on a large scale. Heavy chemicals have been ob-
tained from England and dyestuffs from America,
since Germany, which formerly held this market,
has been unable to export. The heavy chemical
market is at present over-stocked, but good oppor-
tunities should occur as the demands increase. In
working up new business, sellerr are recommended
to take special care to supply the goods packed to
suit buyers' requirements. The chief imports of
chemicals and dyes in 1917 were as follows : —
Product.
Chief sources and
Approx. value
percentage amounts.
in £ sterling.
Ammonium nitrate
Norway all
21.000
Prussiate of potash
. . Germany all
18,000
Sodium chromate
.. U.S.A. 96%
21,000
Carborundum
. . Norway 92%
14,000
Caustic soda
. . Germany 95%
32.000
Potass, chloride
. . Germany all
19.000
Chloride of lime
.. U.S.A. 62%
74,000
Salt
. . Germany 87%
310.000
Fertilisers
( Germany 70%
• • 'I U.S.A. 27%
. . 480.000
Sulphate of soda . .
. . Germany 90%
. . 200,000
Oxalic acid
. . Germany all
19.000
Potash
. . Germany all
60,000
Nitric acid
Norway all
76.000
Soda
J Germany 68%
■■(U.S.A. 27%
65.000
Sulphur
.. U.S.A. all
. . 158,000
Soluble glass
. . Germany 92%
19,000
Alizarin
Germany all
10,000
Coal-tar colours
. . Germany 99%
. . 312.000
Vegetable colours
. . West Ind. all
13.000
Indigo
. . Germany all
6.500
— (U.S. Com. Sep.
Jan. 31, 1920.)
Swedish Imports of Chemicals and Metals. — The fol-
lowing figures show the Swedish imports, in tons, of
various chemicals and metals during 1919, together
with the corresponding amounts £or 1913: — Coal
(1000 tons), 1943 (4879); coke (1000 tons), 279 (496) ;
crude phosphate, 69,320 (123,250i; saltpetre, 23,212
(33,892) ; potash salts, 124,902 (80,121) ; raw copper,
14,639 (9182) ; zinc, 9295 (3674) ; tin, 998 (1083) ; pig-
iron, 26,640 (99,972). It will be seen that potash
salts and crude phosphates are the chief items. —
(Chem. Ind., Mar. 3, 1920.)
Chemical Trade in Holland. — Supplies of sulphuric
acid during the first six weeks of 1920 did not com-
pare unfavourably with those of the first half of
1919. Even when sulphuric acid can be imported
from Germany and Belgium, Dutch requirements
have so increased that the whole home output would
find buyers. The industry is hampered by labour
difficulties, particularly in regard to shortened
hours of work. The artificial fertiliser industry has
still to contend with difficulties in obtaining raw
materials. Phosphate and pyrites were imported
in small quantities and irregularly. The trade in
pharmaceutical chemicals is moderately prosperous,
although a normal output is impossible; there is,
however, a brisk demand for pharmaceutical pro-
ducts both at home and from abroad. Trade in
essential oils continues favourable. The imports of
raw materials for the varnish, colour and lacquer
industries were satisfactory during the last three
REVIEW.
months of 1919. Home demands, particularly for
dyestuffs, were such that most Dutch factories could
be kept in full employ. In the absence of difficulties
connected with the importation from Germany of
such raw materials as lithopone, zinc white, etc., the
future of this industry should be good. Deliveries
of raw material from England are, at present, very
uncertain. The manufacture of writing and
printers' inks was brisk, the one drawback being
the irregularity of imports of raw material. The
export trade has been hampered by the depreciated
exchange of foreign countries. — (Z. angeic. Chem.,
Mar. 2, 1920.)
Algerian Minerals. — The exportation of phos-
phates and mineral ore from Algeria in 1919 has
been greatly handicapped by difficulties of transport
and freights. Exports of phosphates and iron ore
exceed those of 1918, but there has been a consider-
able diminution in the exports of lead, zinc, and
antimony ores. Mining, however, has not been
affected. The figures given by the Algerian Cus-
toms indicate that the colony exported half its out-
put of phosphates, all the iron ore, three-quarters of
the zinc ore, but sent all the lead and antimony
ores produced to France. To assist the development
of the mining industry in the country the French
company " Minerals et Metaux " has set up branches
at Constantine and Tunis, whose functions will be
similar to those of the branches of the Metallgesell-
sehaft and the De Beer, Sondheimer Co., which
operated in Algeria before the war.
The Italian Iron and Steel Industry. — Practically all
the iron ore produced in the kingdom of Italy comes
from the island of Elba, which supplies the steel
plants at Portoferraio, Piombino, and Bagnoli, the
yearly capacity of which exceeds 400,000 tons of
'steel. Almost 'all the other steel plants in Italy are
engaged in the re-melting of pig-iron and scrap.
As practically all the coal required had to be im-
ported, the war led to a greater use of domestic
fuel, especially lignite, and to an extended use of
electric furnaces. The growth of the Italian iron
and steel industry is shown by the increase from an
output of 911,000 tons of steel in 1914 to 1,304,000
tons in 1918.— (U.S. Com. Eep., Feb. 13, 1920.)
Tin, Gold, and Tungsten Production in the Federated
Malay States.— In 1919 the output of tin and tin ore
was 36,394 tons, valued at £8,736,474, against
37,370 tons, worth £11,032,234, in 1918. In the
same year the gold production was 16,402 oz., worth
£63,559, compared with 18,309 oz., valued at
£70,948, in 1918. The output of tungsten ores
amounted to 436 tons, an increase of 70J tons over
1918. The ores consisted of almost equal quantities
of wolfram and scheelite. To encourage the
winning of tungsten ores, the export duty is re-
mitted at present.— (Bd of Trade J., Mar. 11, 1920.)
Market lor Cement in Brazil. — In 1913 the amount
of cement imported into Brazil was 465,000 metric
tons, of which 40 per cent, came from Germany
and 28 and 11 per cent, from Great Britain and
the United States respectively. Owing to war con-
ditions the United States had little competition to
face, and consequently its contribution during the
war rose to an average of 30 per cent., whilst Great
Britain's contribution rose to 29 per cent, and
Germany's fell to 14 per cent. — (Bull. Dept. Trade
and Com., Canada, Mar. 8, 1920.)
Oil Seeds and Nuts in Guatemala. — Except for a
small production of castor oil, there is no vegetable
oil industry in Guatemala, although there are
abundant supplies of seeds and nuts from which oil
might be extracted. Besides castor beans, sesame,
and coconuts, the nuts of the royal palm (corozo
and cohune nuts) and avocada must be mentioned.
The corozo nut, which grows on the Pacific slope,
could be obtained in quantities amounting to
100,000 tons per annum, and it has been ascertained
that 12 tons of nuts yield 1 ton of kernels, contain-
ing 52 per cent, of oil. The cohune nut is similar
to the corozo, but grows en the Atlantic slope,
where 60,000 tons per annum could be collected ; 10
tons of these nuts yield about 1 ton of kernels con-
taining 65% of oil. The chief obstacle to the ex-
ploitation of these nuts is the difficulty of collection
and transport over wide areas of swamp and jungle.
Special machinery would be needed for cracking
the nuts— (U.S. Com. Sep., Feb. 7, 1920.)
OFFICIAL TRADE INTELLIGENCE.
(From the Board of Trade Journal for April 8
and 15.)
OPENINGS FOR BRITISH TRADE.
The following inquiries have been received at the
Department of Overseas Trade (Development and
Intelligence), 35, Old Queen Street, London,
S.W. 1, from firms, agents or individuals who
desire to represent U.K. manufacturers or ex-
porters of the goods specified. British firms may-
obtain the names and addresses of the persons or
firms referred to by applying to the Department
and quoting the specific reference number.
Materials.
Australia
Canada
New Zealand
South Afri-a
Netherlands
Argentina,
Uraguay
Brazil
Colombia
Morocco
Paper . . . . . . . . ,
Glass, china, pottery ..
Steel, alloys . . . . . .
Druggists sundries . . . . . . ;
Catch, spun hemp, cordage
Chemicals for rubber, paint, textile,
fur-dyeing, and leather tanning
industries . . . . . .
Plumbers' pottery, twine
Perfumery, soap, talcum . .
Sanitary ware, tool steel
Sheet brass, nickel silver, copper,
bronze, aluminium
Paper, vegetable parchment
Magnesia sectional pipe coverings .
Steel balls, ball-mill liners, steel
plates, standard pipe, borax glass
Steel sheets . . . . . .
Thermometers . . . . . . '
Potassium sulphate, ammonium
sulphate, sodium nitrate, sodium
and potassium cyanides . .
Bottles
Glass, china, iron and aluminium
ware . . . . . . . . j
Paper . . . . . . . . ;
Palm oil and vegetable oils for soap
making, degras. fish oil, tanners' !
requisites, white tallow, margarine
Steel tubes, cables, industrial oils
and greases, refractory products
Galvanised sheets, cement . . I
Lubricants, belting . . . .
Condensed milk, soap, candles,
olive oil, matches (tender for) .
Pharmaceutical products . . : . \
Chemicals for soap making
Chemicals for soap making, stearin,
paper, textile, glass and tanning
factories . . . . . . . . j
Leather
Paper, leather
Galvanised iron,
soap, perfumes
Candles, tinplate
504
505
•172/9/28
432
485
531
532
486
533
tinplate, rubber.
•Official Secretary, Commonwealth of Australia, Commer-
cial Information Bureau, Australia House. Strand. London, W.C. 2.
tThe Canadian Government Trade Commissioner. 73, Basinghall
Street. London, E.C. 2.
Market Sought.
A firm in Canada desires to get into touch with
U.K. importers of polishing oil. [Inquiries to the
Canadian Government Trade Commissioner.]
Vol. XSXIX., No. S )
REVIEW.
TARIFF. CUSTOMS. EXCISE.
Australia. — Tho import of calcium carbide is pro-
hibited, except under licence, as from February 10.
A copy of the Bill for the revision of the Customs
Tariff may be seen at the Department of Overseas
Trade.
Bahamas. — A drawback of 50 per cent, is allowed
on imports upon the duties leviable under the
Tariff Act, 1919, with some exceptions, including
alcoholic beverages.
Belgium. — An import licence is required for
6ulphuric ether as from March 12.
The export of chemical manures, sodium car-
bonate, natural phosphate, pitch, tar and tar dis-
tillates is prohibited except under licence.
Brazil. — The sale price of the gold " vales " for
the payment of customs duties is to be calculated
as from December 8, 1919, on the basis of the New
York exchange instead of on the sterling rate.
This ruling means an increase of about 12 per cent,
in the total duty payable.
British India. — The import of ammonium nitrate
is duty free.
The prohibition of the import of dyes has been
cancelled as from March 13.
Canada. — The form of the certificate of value and
origin for imports under the British preferential
tariff is set out in the issue for April 15. This
certificate must be written, printed or stamped
on the back of the invoices.
Ecuador. — A surtax of 2 per cent, ad valorem
has been levied on most classes of goods as from
January 1.
Esthonia. — All imports are now subject to
permits.
Finland. — The proposed temporary increases of
customs duties became law on March 10.
France. — The export of gold and silver to the
French Colonies is subject to the previous consent
of the Minister of Finance.
France (Madagascar). — The modified classifica-
tion and rates of duty on chemical products dealt
with under the customs regime for German dye-
stuffs applicable to France is now applicable to
Madagascar.
France and Algeria. — Modifications of the " co-
efficients of increase " affect, inter alia, white wax,
wares of nickel, tin and German silver.
French Colonies. — The Decree prohibiting the
import of foreign sugar, molasses and alcohol into
French colonies has been modified and the import
of the goods is now permitted in certain cases.
Germany. — The conditions controlling imports
are set out in the issue for April 15.
Among the articles for which no export licence
is required are slate, alabaster, certain stones,
spring salts, emery cloth, wax cloth, certain wares
of leather and rubber, imitation ivory (except
celluloid), carbons for arc lamps, carborundum
wares (with some exceptions), certain glass wares,
gold leaf, spun silver and aluminium, threads of
imitation gold and silver and threads of common
metals.
Italy. — A stamp duty varying from O'l to 10 lire
has been levied on the sale price of all " articles of
luxury."
Malta. — The provisions of a Bill to confer a tariff
preference on British Empire products is given in
the issue for April 15.
Mexico. — The export of goat skins, ox and cow
hides is prohibited as from May 1.
The import of gasoline and other petroleum
ethers is now duty free.
Portugal. — Recent customs decisions affect gaso-
line, olive oil, coined silver, rolled tin sheats,
bricks, tiles, and ceramic products.
Switzerland. — An import / licence must be ob-
tained for certain milk products, including con-
densed milk.
REVIEWS
" The Chemistry and Technology of the Diazo-
CoMPOimris." By J. C. Cain. Second edition.
Pp. xii. + 199. (London: Edward Arnold.
1920.) Price 12s. 6<2. net.
The second edition of this monograph supplies im-
portant confirmation of the view that the pure
chemistry of to-day is the applied chemistry of to-
morrow. Moreover, this treatise emphasises the
fact that there is no near cut or short circuit to
advance in chemical industry without a persistent
and ungrudging devotion to the pursuit of academic
research. Johann Peter Griess, the discoverer of
* the diazo-reaction, and his teacher, Kolbe, under
whose inspiration the initial step was taken, were
chemists pure and simple without any of the
dubiously attractive labels— such as industrial, en-
gineering, physical, or colloidal — which are so popu-
lar to-day. Nevertheless this discovery of the diazo-
compounds and the azo-eolours, also produced in the
first instance by Griess, has possibly found more
work for the chemical engine, r than any other
organic synthesis in existence. The diazo-reaction
is the fundamental operation required in the manu-
facture of the azo-dyes, the largest and certainly
one of the most important group of colouring
matters. It is also an essential step in the produc-
tion of many coal-tar intermediates required in the
synthesis of drugs, photographic materials and dye-
wares of all descriptions. This chemical change
has played a most important part in the elucidation
of the chemical constitution of many technically
important aromatic derivatives, and is constantly
: receiving fresh applications, as, for instance, in
i its extension to the manufacture of organic arseni-
cals employed as drugs or as toxic agents in chemical
warfare. Improvements and modifications in the
process of diazotisation are constantly being intro-
duced, and since the discovery of the first diazo-
compound in 1858 until the present time the syn-
thetic applications of diazo-derivatives have been
extending. The seven chapters of the monograph
devoted to the reactions of diazo-compounds are a
valuable testimony to the adaptability of the diazo-
reaction to the most varied syntheses occurring
among aromatic compounds. Copious references
relating to these reactions are supplied from which
it will be seen that some of these extensions are of
very recent date. Among other promising develop-
ments in the aromatic series may be mentioned the
synthesis of complex dianthraquinonyl derivatives
from diazo-anthraquinone salts and the application
of orthodiazophenols to the production of mordant
hydroxyazo-dyes.
There is no indication that the diazo-reaction is
I becoming played out. A new chapter introduced
I into the second edition of this treatise suggests on
J the contrary that the chemical change under eon-
j sideration is entering on a new phase of usefulness
as regards the production of heterocyclic diazo-
I compounds. The existence of this more recently
discovered group of diazo-derivatives offers fresh
synthetic possibilities.
The sections dealing with diazo-compounds of the
aliphatic series also show that significant discoveries
have been made recently among this group of diazo-
derivatives.
The intimate relationship between theory and
practice which subsists in this branch of organic
chemistry is demonstrated by the fact that the
classical controversy on the constitution of diazo-
derivatives was ushered in by Schraube and
Schmidt's industrially important discovery of
sodium iso-p-nitrobenzenediazooxide (" Nitrosamine
red in paste "). This invention was exploited
promptly, and the writer recollects very vividly the
circumstance that sample bottles of the commercial
REVIEW.
diazo-oxide were received in 1894 by the same post
as the Berichte, in which the new product was first
described.
The author devotes the last six chapters of the
work to a discussion and review of the various
theories of the constitution of diazo-derivatives from
Griess's time down to the present day. This mono-
graph is an indispensable guide to the chemistry
and technology of the diazo-reaction and its pro-
ducts. The bibliographic data are very complete,
and further aid to the reader is supplied by the full
subject and name indexes.
G. T. Morgan.
Chlorination of Water. By Joseph Race. Pp.
158. (New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc.;
London: Chapman and Hall, Ltd. 1918.)
trice $1.50, or 7s. net.
At the present time no method of water purifica-
tion is so popular as that based on the germicidal
value of chlorine and the hypochlorites. Although
this property of free chlorine was known early in
the last century, and long before the germ theory of
disease was established, it was not until the
'nineties that bacteriological examinations, in con-
junction with the trials of the Hermite fluid for
disinfection of the Worthing sewage in this country,
demonstrated its extraordinary value as compared
with other disinfectants. Ten years ago the
Boonton supply of Jersey City, in America, was
sterilised by the addition of bleach, and now more
than a thousand cities, principally in America, use
it or liquid chlorine for water purification. The
author estimates that 3,000 million gallons of water
per day is being chlorinated in North America, and
in this country the method is now recognised as a
safe and economical one, worthy to form a per-
manent part of a public water service. In these 150
pages Mr. Race has given a very good historical
resume of the subject, together with a description
of the practical methods which have been developed
in America and the results which are obtainable by
their use. At Ottawa the author has found that, as
originally pointed out by the reviewer, the addition
of ammonia to hypochlorite, owing to the formation
of chloramine, increases the velocity of the germi-
cidal action of the solution, and thus renders the
chloramine treatment more economical. This modi-
fication of the original method was distinctly advan-
tageous during the war, when bleach rose to a very
high price in the States owing to the cessation of
exports from Europe..
S. RlDEAL.
Manual of the Chemical Analysis of Rocks. By
II. T. Washington. Third edition, revised and
enlarged. Pp. xii. + 271. (New York: John
Wiley and Sons, Inc.; London: Chapman and
Hall, Ltd. 1919.) Price 11*. 6d. net.
The third edition of this well-known handbook by
one of the American authorities on rock analysis
does not contain anything altogether new, but the
analytical methods have been described with a
greater wealth of detail, and more stress has been
laid on the sources of error both in operations and
in methods. The text-matter is subdivided into five
parts: — (1) An introductory discussion (pp. 26) on
the importance and general character of analyses
and on the various constituents which enter into
the composition of rocks; (2) apparatus and re-
agents (pp. 30) ; (3) sampling and crushing (pp. 16) ;
(4) analytical operations (pp. 36) ; and (5) methods
of rock analysis (pp. 132). An appendix contains
factors, a bibliography, an authors' and a subject
index.
While sections (2) and (4) would seem to be
written rather for the guidance of beginners in
quantitative analysis, sections (3) and (5) form a
most valuable guide for all practised chemists who
do not carry out rock analyses as an ordinary pur-
suit. Indeed, in the writer's opinion, the book is
of such general excellence that criticism, if at all
called for, can only be levelled at one or two minor
points. Thus, on p. 138, in describing the decom-
position of the rock powder by fusion with sodium
carbonate, the author advises rubbing the clean
platinum crucible in which the operation has been
carried out, with a small piece of moist filter paper
to remove the last of the silica, and throwing the
paper into the acid liquid where it disintegrates
during the evaporation to dryness. The writer
would prefer to reserve this piece of paper between
watchglasses and add it to the weighed crucible
before igniting the silica, to prevent any possible
contamination with soluble organic matter formed
during the final stage of the evaporation, when the
acid becomes concentrated. Again, in contrast with
all other directions aiming at work of the highest
possible degree of accuracy, it is perhaps rather
surprising to find the following statement (p. 151) :
" If the rock is high in silica or is low in manganese
(less than 0'20 per cent.), as is true of nearly all
rocks, the analyst may advantageously dispense
with the addition of the persulphate [when pre-
cipitating alumina, etc., with ammonia], and dis-
regard the slight error involved in the distribution
of the manganese among the alumina, lime and
magnesia." One would have expected the author
to advocate the co-precipitation of manganese with
the alumina as a regular practice.
Apart from a few debatable technicalities, the
new edition of this admirable little book offers no
ground for criticism ; its merits have long since
made it a standard work on the subject of rock
analysis.
W. R. SCHOELLEH.
PUBLICATIONS RECEIVED.
The Use of Colloids in Health and Disease. By
A. B. Searle, with foreword by Sir M. Morris.
Pp. 120. (London: Constable and Co., Ltd.
1920.) Price 8s.
Trattato di Chimica Generale ed Applicata all'
Industria. Vol. II. — Chimica Organica. Parte
Prima. Third revised and enlarged edition.
By Dr. E. Molinari. Pp. 624. (Milan: Ulrico
Roepli. 1920.) Price 28 lire.
Utilisation des Algues Marines. Par C.
Sauvageau. Encyclopedic Scientifique., publiee
sous la direction du Dr. Toulouse. Pp. 390.
(Paris: Gaston Doin. 1920.) Price 7 jr. 50.
The Production of Iron and Steel in Canada in
1918. Canada, Department of Alines. By
J. MoLeish. (Ottawa: J. de Laoroquerie
Tache. 1920.)
Publications of the United States Bureau of
Mines. Department of the Interior. (Wash-
ington: Government Printing Office. 1919,
1920.)
Dangerous and Safe Practices in Bituminous
Coal Mines. By E. Steidle.
Production of Explosives in the United
States during 1918. By A. H. Fay.
Gold, Silver, Copper, Lead and Zino in
Nevada in 1918. By V. C. Heikes.
Gold, Silver, Copper, Lead and Zino in
Arizona in 1918. By V. C. Heikes.
Gold, Silver, Copper, Lead and Zino in
New Mexico and Texas in 1918. By C. W.
Henderson.
Gold, Silver, Copper, Lead and Zino in
Idaho and Washington in 1918. By C. N.
Gerry.
Gold, Silver, Copper, Lead and Zino in
the Eastern States in 1918. By J. M. Hill.
Vol. XXXIX., No. 9.]
REVIEW
[May 15, 1920.
SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
AWARD OF THE SOCIETY'S MEDAL.
The Council of the Society has awarded its Medal
for the year 1920 to Monsieur Paul Kestner in re-
cognition of his distinguished services to chemical
industry.
Monsieur Kestner was horn in Alsace prior to the
German occupation in 1871, and although most of
his life has heen spent in France he lived for
several years in this country, and has been a
member of the Society since 1893. He was one of
the chief founders and the first president of the
Societe de Chemie Industrielle in France, which
was established in 1917. He has been connected
with engineering as applied to chemical industry
throughout his career, and among his more notable
achievements are the use of forced draught in acid
towers, automatic acid elevators, the climbing film
evaporator, the scale-less water-tube boiler, and
several inventions in connexion with beet-sugar
manufacture.
Very shortly before the armistice M. Kestner
gave an address of outstanding interest and im-
portance to the London Section of the Society on
" The Alsace Potash Deposits and their Economic
Significance in relation to Terms of Peace " (cf.
J., 1918, 291 t).
The previous recipients of the Society's Medal
have been : —
1896, Mr. John Glover; 1898, Dr. W. H. Perkin;
1900, Dr. Edward Schunck ; 1902, Sir J. W. Swan ;
1904, Prof. Ira Remsen ; 1906, Dr. Ludwig Mond ;
1908, Sir Andrew Noble; 1910, Mr. Thomas Tyrer;
1912, Sir William Crookes; 1914, Right Hon. Sir H.
Roscoe; 1916, Mr. C. F. Cross; 1918, Sir James
Dewar.
ECONOMIC BOTANY AND
CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
J. B. FARMER.
The events of the last few years have served to
emphasise the need of looking more fully than here-
tofore into the best means of utilising vegetable
products as raw materials for industry, or of inves-
tigating their amenability to chemical treatment.
We are mainly dependent on plants for the great
sources of our material wealth, and, indeed, plants
(and in a secondary sense animals also) represent
the main real revenue of the world, inasmuch as
they are practically the chief storers of the energy
that reaches us from the sun.
Few people sufficiently visualise our absolute de-
pendence on the plants for the sheer necessities of
life, or realise how urgent is the demand for in-
vestigations which will enable us not only to in-
crease our wealth, hut also give us a further
measure of control over the sources of, and the con-
ditions that affect, this plant revenue. The need
for such investigation begins at the bottom. We
have much need for stocktaking. At home there is,
for example, a problem why some grass fields will
fatten stock, and others not. Such fields are known
in most grazing districts, but no really satisfactory
explanation of their excellence is forthcoming.
Superficial reasons, so-called, are common enough,
but the fact that such fields are often surrounded
by others apparently similar but of greatly inferior
value should give pause enough to those who are
ready with facile solutions of a difficult problem —
or, rather, congeries of problems. Indeed, the soil
and the grass that grows on it still constitute a re-
latively open field of research. Chemical analyses
of soil go a little, but only a little, way. The com-
plex physical and physico-chemical conditions and
the relation of the plant roots to the substratum,
and the changes that may be induced in the herbage
itself, are very little understood ; indeed, it would
be almost true to say that the real problems have
as yet scarcely been formulated. Hall and Russell
in this country have emphasised the importance of
the physical texture of the land. Russell and his
collaborators at Rothamsted have done first-rate
pioneer work in investigating the importance of the
inter-relations of protozoa and bacteria in con-
nexion with soil fertility, and during the last three
or four decades we have come to recognise that the
problems of fertility are not likely to be elucidated;
by the older test-tube chemistry. They demand
for their analysis chemists with a biological training
and outlook, as well as biologists with a correspond-
ing equipment in chemistry and physics. At
present the two branches of science are often un-
desirably divorced although, largely owing to pesti-
lent systems of examinations, u lack of biological
training among chemists is far more common than
is a corresponding ignorance of " physical " science
with biologists, at any rate those on the physio-
logical side. It is not, of course, suggested that
every student should attempt to specialise in both
of these great branches of science, but it is cer-
tainly a bar to progress that a student of the one
should continue to be entirely ignorant of the more
fundamental principles of the other. Those who
are cognisant of the facts will be able of their own
knowledge to supply examples enough during the
late war — examples that would have been humorous,
had the consequences not been fraught with too
much gravity at the time.
One of the happier developments arising out of
the war consists in the greatly increased recogni-
tion in this country of the value of science to in-
dustrial enterprise, and this is becoming as pro-
minent in the biological as in the chemical and en-
gineering worlds. Botany in its various branches
is in a position to render very important services
at the present time, and the supply of properly
trained young men is as yet quite inadequate to
take advantage of the new situation that has arisen.
The exploitation of oil, rubber and other tropical
products, the fermentation industries — indeed, all
connected with the utilisation of plants and plant
products, afford large and profitable scope for
scientifically directed industrialism. It is the busi-
ness of the botanist not merely to find the raw
material, but to improve it by careful breeding, to-
defend it from the attacks of enemies, both animal
and vegetable, and to investigate the conditions
under which the yield of the desired product can be
improved, whether by appropriate modification of
the environment or by breeding. As the nature of
the problems becomes more clearly recognised the
methods of cultivation, selection, and dealing with
the raw material improve. Breeding, which used
to be a sort of hit-and-miss business, is now be-
coming more and more an exact science, and
although, owing to the tangled mass of factors in-
volved, immediate success in a particular direction
cannot always be predicted, at any rate we do know
how to attack the matter. Thus it is that in the more
direct cases it is now possible with comparative
certainty and rapidity to achieve results which
formerly could only be secured by an immense waste
of time, material and, of course, expense. Intelli-
gent breeding demands a wide outlook over the
many aspects presented by any single organism, but
this fact is still unappreciated by too many business
men. To give but one example, one often hears of
high expectations being entertained that races of
rubber trees can easily be produced which shall give
158 R
REVIEW.
[May IS. 1920.
high yields of caoutchouc, shall be immune to the
attacks of disease, and, in short, shall possess all
sorts of desirable qualities that, unfortunately, are
but seldom combined in a single individual. Such
expectations are entirely unreasonable, at any rate
for so long as we continue to remain ignorant of
the physiological significance of latex in the tree,
of the origin and significance of caoutchouc forma-
tion, as well as of the other substanees that occur
along with it. Possibly it may turn out that there
exists a significant connexion between the caout-
chouc and the troublesome resin which seems in-
variably to accompany it in all rubber yielding
latices. The destiny of the oxygen during the
transformation from carbohydrate to rubber is in
itself an attractive, and perhaps a very funda-
mental, problem.
The matter of immunity to fungal and other
disease-producing organisms is of the widest pos-
sible interest. In our own cultivated crops the
problem is ever arising. Why do Victoria plums
suffer so badly from silver leaf (due to the fungus
Stcreum), and why do certain otherwise desirable
varieties of potatoes fall victims to the attack of
wart disease so that they cannot be grown at all in
districts where the disease is present? It is plain
that there is joint work here for the plant physiolo-
gist and the chemist. There will have to be " many
knots unravelled by the road " before the secrets of
immunity are disclosed, and even if the final goal
be distant the knowledge gained on the way
. thereto cannot fail to be very productive in all sorts
of ways as yet entirely unsuspected.
Fortunately, however, there are many problems
of far more simple type, some of which are being
solved, and others seem ripe for solution. For
example, both in the field and in the laboratory
the amount of scientific work that is urgently
needed in connexion with cotton is stupendous, and
the results will have an imperial no less than a
national influence and significance.
The vast sums of money which the great cotton
industry is setting aside for scientific research is
proof enough that the leaders are alive to the issues
•at stake. It is with special pleasure that reference
is here made to the prize offered by Messrs. Cross
and Bevan for an essay on " The Interconnexion of
Economic Botany and Chemical Industry." In
the pages of this journal it would be superfluous to
dwell on the advances in our knowledge of cellu-
lose and its products which we owe to these investi-
gators, but what they have done for cellulose can
be repeated by others for many other raw products,
to the great advantage of commerce, industry, and
also, it may be hoped, to the investigators them-
selves. To the successful essayist who, in the
opinion of the Council of the Society of Chemical
Industry, has shown conspicuous merit there will
further be awarded a research fellowship of £300
per annum tenable at the discretion of the Council
for two or three years. This fellowship, the gift of
Sir T. P. Latham, Bart., is particularly intended
to promote the study of economic botany, especially
in its bearings on chemical industry ; but the
founder has with great wisdom and foresight
allowed great latitude as to the nature of the re-
searches on which the recipient of the scholarship
may engage. This enlightened action ought to
serve to stimulate some of the best among the
younger men and to direct their attention to the
rich fields of investigation that are awaiting them.
Rubber, indigo, tea, oils, vegetable proteins,
bamboo and forest refuse, especially abroad, and a
host of other products at once suggest themselves
as suitable subjects, and it must not be forgotten
that investigations not only of the main substances,
but of the by-products also, as all experience abund-
antly proves, are of immense value from a material
and scientific point of view. The foregoing are,
however, only a very few of those that might be
quoted. The large and increasing lines of pro-
duction that depend on vegetable organisms and
fermentation only call for a passing mention, inas-
much as they have recently been so ably dealt with
in this journal by Mr. Chaston Chapman. The de-
mand for vegetable oils and fats is a growing one,
and the sources of supply are likewise increasing,
whilst chemical investigation has already shown
how much can be done in rendering the raw oils
suitable for foods and other purposes. But we are
really only on the threshold of the wealth which the
vegetable kingdom holds out to those who know how
to grasp it. And in utilising these things we are
increasing the revenue, without, as in some of our
large industries, depleting the capital of the world.
COAL CONSERVATION IN THE
UNITED KINGDOM.
In the "James Forrest" Lecture, delivered
before the Institution of Civil Engineers, on April
20, Sir Dugald Clerk critically examines the con-
clusions of the Coal Conservation Committee and
their recommendations relating to " super " elec-
trical generating stations (see this J., 1918, 40 r).
It is considered that the coal at present consumed
for purely power purposes, including railways, is
only 48"7 million tons, or 31"3 million tons less than
the Committee's estimate, and that the average
coal consumption per b.h.p. hour is 4'05 lb., rather
than 5 lb., as assumed by the Committee. Allowing
for a reduction in the coal consumption to 1'56 lb.
per e.h.p. hour by the introduction of super-
stations, which will give a saving of 30 million tons
of coal on stationary power, and for a further
saving of 7'5 million tons by the electrification of
railways there is a possible saving of 37"5 million
tons of coal per annum in the production of power
compared with the 55 million tons saving antici-
pated by the Committee. It is shown that,
although small fuel savings are possible in the ap-
plication of electricity for lighting and power pur-
poses, the general substitution of electricity for gas
and for coal used for domestic purposes, as contem-
plated in the Committee's report, would result in a
loss of the whole saving on stationary power
assumed above. It would require the consumption
of 2'65 times as much coal in the super-stations to
provide electrically the heat, light and power at
present supplied by the gas industry, or the extra
coal consumption would be 31 million tons; no coal
could be saved by substituting electricity for the
coal used for domestic consumption (see this J.,
1919, 104 k).
With improved thermal efficiencies of gas manu-
facture resulting from the distribution of 75 per
cent, of the whole heat of the coal in gaseous form,
and with improvements in the design of gas ap-
paratus, an annual saving of 6 million tons of
coal per annum on the gas industry may be antici-
pated. The displacement of all household coal by
gas would save a further 17'5 million tons. If the
efficiency of all boiler plant could be raised to 75
per cent, there would be a saving of 4'4 million tons
on colliery power plants and of a further 4 million
tons on coal used for purposes of manufacture other
than producing power. By using our water power
we could obtain an additional three million h..p.
without consuming any more coal.
It is erroneous to suppose that very large units
are necessary for reducing the fuel consumption in
the generation of electrical power or that great
gain is to be obtained from very large steam tur-
bines. The limiting efficiency of the turbine is
28 per cent., whereas 45 per cent, b.h.p. may be
Vol. XXXIX.. Xo.
REVIEW.
obtained from gas and oil engines in the near
future; the saving of coal in the production of
power may as well be claimed for gas engines as for
super-stations. Any large saving of coal on power
is dependent upon the replacement of capital sunk
in present installations which normally takes place
as a result of the development of industry. In
competition with steam the efficiency of the in-
ternal combustion engine increased from 16 per
cent, in 1876 to 30 — 35 per cent, in 1920; during
the same period the efficiency of steam rose from 8
to 20 per cent.
As a result of healthy competition between the
various modes of generating power it is anticipated
that the consumption of coal will fall to under 2 lb.
per b.h.p.-hour within ten years, but this will be by
the development of the internal combustion engine
and by improvement in steam boiler, town gas, and
gas producer efficiencies in addition to the ex-
tended application of electricity.
It is concluded that if the supply of heat is to be
included in the electricians' programme the present
high-efficiency turbine must be abandoned since the
use of electricity for heating involves great loss of
coal ; use must rather be made of the heat of steam
discharged from engines at a pressure slightly above
atmospheric. By this means the thermodynamic
efficiency of the engine is reduced from 19 to 10 per
cent., but if all the exhaust steam could be utilised
for industrial or city heating purposes, the only
thermal losses in the system are those due to radia-
tion and condensation. The use of high-pressure
steam turbines without vacuum would be a further
advantage in connexion with the choice of position
of central power stations, inasmuch as problems of
water supply are considerably reduced.
It is shown that with a reversed Carnot cycle
engine, advocated by Lord Kelvin for heating and
ventilating rooms, it would be possible to heat large
volumes of air with great thermal economy, using
either gas or electricity as the source of motive
power. The difficulties of application of this
principle are purely practical and can be overcome,
but such schemes are not likely to be developed
immediately owing to the present high overall effici-
ency of gas for light, heat, and power. Still higher
efficiencies are anticipated in the gas industry, and
neither gas nor electricity should be artificially dis-
placed by the uninformed decision of a Government
Committee.
THE POTTERY INDUSTRY IN
JAPAN.*
Japanese ceramic products have always been
distinguished geographically rather than technic-
ally, as Satsuma ware, Imari ware, Awata ware,
etc. Even the common Japanese word for pottery,
" Seto-mono," is derived from the town of Seto,
the most famous manufacturing centre.
Japanese ceramic wares may be classed roughly
in three groups: —
1. Stoneware, including tiles etc., usually glazed
and ornamented only by stamping or scoring, made
in many parts of Japan and chiefly used locally.
2. Faience (earthenware), as Satsuma and Awata
ware, mostly with a crackle glaze, and highly
decorated. It has easier firing than porcelain, and
therefore is softer and more fragile, but also can
be decorated with more delicate colours. Much of
this ware has gone abroad in the form of curios.
3. Hard porcelain and semi-porcelain, as Seto,
Imari, and Kiyo Midzu among the finer wares, and
Kutani among the coarser.
• Abstract of Iteport sent to the Department of Commerce at
■Washington by the U.S. representative at Tokyo.
Japanese porcelain — unlike that of China— after
being shaped is fired biscuit, is painted with hard
fire colours, then glazed, and fired again at a much
higher temperature; in case of enamel colour
decoration or gilding, the ware is afterwards fired
in a muffle kiln.
The values in £'s sterling (at normal exchange)
of the total annual production and exports of
Japanese earthenware and porcelain for the period
1909-1918 were as follows: —
Year. Production. Exports.
1909 ... £1,261,600 £537,560
1910 ... 1,354,700 562,900
1911 ... 1,521,000 558,000
1912 ... 1,689,000 556,560
1913 ... 1,804,600 683,700
1914 ... 1,491,600 603,500
1915 ... 1,789,800 709,790
1916 ... 2,574,500 1,235,600
1917 ... 2,995,000 1,478,000
1918 ... 4,513,500 2,037,000
It may be noted that since the beginning of the
great war the annual value of the exports has
more than trebled. Before the war nearly half the
Japanese production w»nt to the United States,
but less than one-fourth in 1918. Nearly two-
thirds of the total imports of decorated china,
Parian, porcelain, and bisque, into the States come
from Japan, but the United Kingdom supplies the
greater part of the decorated earthenware and
crockery imports. The porcelain and semi-porce-
lain products of which Japanese ceramic exports
largely consist, and for which they are mainly
manufactured, are table ware, sanitary ware (wash-
bowls and other bathroom fixtures), electrical porce-
lain, toys and novelties.
Kaolin is mined in Japan by tunneling into the
hills where the deposits are found, and the finer
material is separated by washing and settling, iron
filter presses being used to separate most of the
remaining water (after running off the surface
portion) from the kaolin. The drying is completed
in open sheds or (in good weather) by direct ex-
posure to the sun. The present laid-down cost of
dried kaolin is 18 dollars per ton. In the Yama-
guchi district only 16 per cent, of the mined
material is usable kaolin, the remainder being left
unused, excepting a limited amount of sand wash-
ings utilised in the steel mills and for making fire-
bricks.
The following analyses indicate the nature of
Japanese kaolins, clays, and " porcelain stones " :
SiO, AI,0, Fe^O, CaO MgO K,0 Na,0 H,0
Shiga-raki
(Kyoto)
56-87
28-56
0-98
0-69
0-47
2-08
006
10-16
Owari (Seto) .
54-65
32-35
0-90
0-37
3-27
2-22
6-30
Hizen (Arita)
49-25
38-89
114
015
0-36
2-01
0-39
5-90
78-70
14-27
116
0-45
2-24
3-29
83-00
11-60
0-70
018
1-90
0-29
2-49
Amakusa Stone
73-87
15-25
0-73
0-43
5-46
1-07
2-23
Kutani Stone .
76-60
14-75
0-86
0-29
—
3-91
065
2-68
The " porcelain stone " or " rock clay " is some-
what similar to Cornish stone.
It has been found that English kaolin or china
clay must be U6ed to obtain the whitest and finest
china, and it costs the Japanese manufacturers
about 40 dollars per ton. The wages of the men
employed in preparing the materials are 60 cents
per day of 12 hours. Felspar occurs in Japan, the
best being from Fukushima. The saggar clays of
Japan are inferior, and about 40 per cent, of the
saggars break in each firing. To counteract the ex-
cessive contraction of the saggar clay it is mixed (as
in other countries) with old saggars broken up and
coarsely ground to the size of a small pea as a
maximum.
In the modern factories using circular down-
draught ovens good coal is required, which is diffi-
cult to secure in Japan, and costs the manufacturer
in Nagoya about 17 dollars per ton (of 2000 lb.),
as compared with 4 dollars in 1914.
b2
REVIEW.
Plaster for the best work is imported from
America, and costs nearly 10 dollars per barrel of
224 lb. Native plaster is inferior. Colours for
decoration are largely obtained from England, in-
stead of as formerly from Germany, but the de-
calcomania sheets * are chiefly supplied from
America.
The old type of Japanese kiln or oven is unique.
A single oven is built at the bottom of a hill. An-
other is added as required to £he side of the first
and at a higher level, being also larger in size.
The kiln or oven resembles in shape the inside of
the ordinary muffle or decorating kiln in the
United States. The floor is usually covered with
sand, an3 the firing is not begun until all the
ovens have been filled with ware. The fire is
started in the oven at the bottom of the hill, the
heat entering from fire boxes which extend the
entire width of the oven near the boundary between
the two arches. Each oven has a draught-hole half-
way up the side, above the hole where the fire is
fed. The direct brunt of the heat is taken by a
firebrick wall. The flame and heat, circulating
about the rounded roof of the oven, pass into the
oven next above through a series of openings on
the level of the floor of that oven. The heat passes
from one oven to the other, the surplus from one
drying and warming the contents of the following
oven. Wood is used entirely in firing the ovens, in
sticks about 15 inches long and about as thick as a
man's wrist. The ovens are fed from either side
through a small hole less than 1 foot in diameter,
one stick at a time being put in continuously
during the firing. The wood costs about four
times the pre-war cost, and the firing of each
furnace costs about 250 dollars. The heat is in-
tense, approximating to cone 16. As each oven
reaches the desired heat the feeding is discontinued
and the firemen proceed to the next oven above,
which by this time is hot enough to ignite the wood.
By the time the third oven is fired the first is ready
to be drawn or discharged. These ovens are a
crude form of the German Hoffmann kiln.
In a modern pottery at Nagoya, the centre of
the industry in Japan, it is a striking fact that
labour is still by no means considered the first and
greatest factor in costs. All the materials are
carted in small one-horse wagons, each horse being
led by a man, and the materials are piled on the
wagon in shallow tray-like baskets, each containing
as much as a man oan carry conveniently. A second
striking fact is the large amount of hand labour
used in the breaking up and sorting of the raw
materials, and also in removing foreign matter
from them. In the Nagoya factory the saggars and
setters are made in machines consisting of steel
dies which squeeze the clay into the desired 6hape,
the pressure being applied by a screw press. The
same method is used for shaping the ware in this
factory as in other countries, but casting is more
largely used than pressing.
The ware from the first fire (in the upper chamber
of the oven) can easily be broken between the
thumb and finger. For the second firing (after
glazing) the French methods of placing the ware
are used, plates, dishes, and flatware being placed
in separate setters. All cups and bowls are put on
rings, which are placed on the bottom of the saggar,
and are not boxed as is customary in France. The
plate setters are so evenly made that it is not
necessary to fill in the edges with clay when fired.
The glost heat reaches cone 17, the cones being
made at Tokyo. The ware is drawn from the kiln
very carefully and rapidly, the man in charge
getting a bonus for every hour saved.
Every piece of ware is carefully inspected and
sorted 'in the Nagoya factory— 10 to 15 per cent,
firsts, 25 per cent, seconds, 35 to 40 per cent, thirds,
the rest being job lots. Only firsts are exported.
About 50 or 60 persons (mostly girls) are employed
in the polishing room.
The decorating processes are similar to those in
use in America and elsewhere. The dinner ware is
decorated largely by mechanical processes, but very
large quantities of decorative ornamental wares
are hand painted.
A recent development in Japan is the manufac-
ture of electrical porcelain, including large high-
tension insulators, made both in large factories
(like the great Morimura plant at Nagoya) and in
small village workshops. One man will throw, turn,
and finish 400 large pole insulators in a day, for
which he gets about 90 cents (or a little less).
Dolls and toys are made in nearly all the pottery
centres of Japan, along with other porcelain ware*
of every description.
OBITUARY.
RUDOLPH MESSEL
With the death of Dr. Messel on April 18, 1920,
there passed away a striking figure which had been
familiar to chemists of this country for close on half
a century.
Rudolph Messel was born on January 14, 1848,
as the second son of S. Messel, a Darmstadt banker,
four of whose children migrated to England in their
youth, the fifth remaining in Germany to establish
a world-wide reputation in architecture. Messel
lost his father at the early age of 11, and shortly
after was sent to a Huguenot school at Friedrichs-
dorf, near Frankfort, where his general education
was completed. On leaving school he at once
entered the employment of Meister, Lucius and
Co., where he gained his first contact with
chemical industry, in which he was destined to
play so important a part. After leaving Frankfort
he visited in turn the Universities of Zurich,
Heidelberg and Tubingen, at the last of which he
took his degree. At Heidelberg he had Bunsen and
Kirchhoff as his teachers, whilst at Tubingen he
I came under Strecker, by whom his attention was
J first drawn to the problem of converting Peregrine
1 Philips' discovery of the fact that sulphur trioxide
could be produced by catalysis into a commercial
process; a problem he was later to solve and with
which his name will be connected indissolubly in
the annals of chemical technology.
On leaving college early in 1870, Messel came
to London, and after a short stay proceeded to
Manchester, where he remained for a few months
as assistant to Calvert and to Roscoe. On the out-
break of war he went back to Germany, became a
stretcher bearer in the Army of the Loire and was
wounded. When he returned to England a college
life no longer afforded him sufficient scope for his
activities, and instead of going back to Manchester
he obtained employment with Messrs. Dunn, Squire
and Co., of Stratford. Squire shortly after formed
with Spencer Chapman the firm of Squire, Chapman
and Co., and took Messel with him to his new
venture. This change occurred at a time when the
growth of the synthetic dyestuff industry, which
until then had made rapid strides, was threatened
by the excessive price charged for fuming sulphuric
acid, then virtually a monopoly of Stark, who pro-
duced it by the old Nordhausen process near Pilsen
in Bohemia. Squire, deciding to commence the
manufacture of the fuming acid, learned from
Messel of his early experiments with Strecker, and
they resolved to explore the commercial possibili-
ties of the catalytic process. Of the work that
followed no permanent record has hitherto been
published except in the form of a patent taken out
Vol. XXXIX., No. 9.]
REVIEW.
by Squire in 1875. A year later, however, Squire
and Messel read a paper before a meeting of
chemists which, although never printed, was,
amongst the records of his great achievements,
treasured by Messel until his last days.
This document, from which the following extracts
have been taken, bears eloquent testimony to
Messel's exceptional powers of accurate observa-
tion and reasoned generalisation, as well as to the
courage and perseverance which enabled him to
surmount the innumerable difficulties he had to
face in converting his early experiments into a
commercial process, the success of which was proved
shortly after on a large scale at Silvertown : —
" It occurred to us that the catalytic process,
which had bee.i found impractical for the produc-
tion of ordinary sulphuric acid, might possibly be
available for the production of the anhydrous acid.
For many reasons we considered spongy platinum
the most promising substance to begin with.
" Carefully washed pieces of pumice stone were
soaked in a solution of platinum chloride and
ammonium chloride and heated to dull redness. In
this way the platinum was obtained finely divided
and distributed over tho surface of the pumice
stone.
" We then passed pure sulphurous acid and
oxygen, mixed in the requisite proportions, over
the spongy platinum. The result was in the high-
est degree satisfactory.
" From the cool end of the reaction tube the
liquid anhydride fell, drop by drop, into a flask
placed to receive it, and in the absence of foreign
gases the condensation was extremely perfect. . . .
" The next step was to prepare the sulphurous
and oxygen gases economically on a large scale.
After a number of experiments we remembered
that Deville had, some years ago, proposed to pre-
pare oxygen gas by subjecting sulphuric acid to a
high temperature.
" Under these circumstances it splits up into
sulphurous acid and oxygen, the former of
which is easily removed. This was the very
thing required. The decomposition of ordinary
sulphuric acid in this way furnished us with the two
gases required in any quantity and always precisely
in the proportion required. The constituent water
of the sulphuric acid is easily and readily removed.
" It is only necessary to break up the sulphuric
acid, take out the water, and put together again
what is left. The agent employed in breaking up
the sulphuric acid is platinum and much heat ; the
agent employed in putting it together again is
platinum and little heat."
In the same paper Squire and Messel described in
some detail experiments they had made with other
catalysts, including various metallic oxides, and
notably those of copper and chromium, with which
Wohler and Mahla had experimented in 1852. In
discussing their results, Squire and Messel say : — ■
" Whether in the case of metallic oxides the com-
bination is effected directly, as is the case with
platinum, or by tho formation and subsequent de-
composition of a sulphate, still remains to be seen.
The whole subject requires more investigation; for
this reason we have in practice confined ourselves
to spongy platinum. . . . After arriving at the re-
sults which we have described, we learnt that
Professor AVinkler, of Freiberg, has been working
contemporaneously in the same direction, and has
obtained precisely similar results, as far as the
decomposition of sulphuric acid and its re-composi-
tion by spongy platinum are concerned, but he
prefers to use asbestos, prepared with platinum,
and he does not employ a platinum, but an iron
apparatus for decomposing the sulphuric acid."
Squire and Messel also discussed tho poisoning of
the contact mass due to impurities in the gases,
thus drawing attention at that early date to one of
the main difficulties of the process, which was de-
scribed by Knietsch in such detail twenty-five years
later.
In 1878 Messel succeeded Squire as managing
director of the firm which subsequently became
Spencer Chapman and Messel, Ltd., and under him
the factory at Silvertown grew in size and import-
ance, finally attaining an output of 1000 tons per
week. Messel was himself an indefatigable worker,
and he expected all those who served under him to
keep to the standard he set. However, sympathy
with those who worked for him and an innate sense
of justice gained for him their ready acquieecence,
and on his withdrawal from active management,
partially crippled by a stroke, he was followed into
retirement by the love and respect of all the em-
ployees of his firm.
Force of circumstances had converted the young
scientist of 1870 into the technologist of
later ' years, yet Messel remained throughout
a scientist, and his interest in pure science
never failed even in his last days. He re-
joiced in the friendship of most of tho dis-
tinguished chemists of his day, not only in this
country but throughout the world, and his extra-
ordinary memory, which only became dimmed to-
wards the end, enabled him to regale his colleagues,
young and old, who were at all times free to his
advice and sympathetic encouragement, with'
anecdotes concerning the great men of their pro-
fession culled from his meetings with them, what-
ever the interval which had elapsed.
Messel played an active part in many scientific
societies and institutions. He was an original
member of the Society of Chemical Industry, of
which he was honorary foreign secretary in 1910 —
1911 and from 1914 — 1920. He was elected presi-
dent for 1911 — 1912, and accompanied the Delega-
tion of that year to America, where his exertions
hastened the outbreak of a malady, the combating
of which was in itself a remarkable demonstration
of his will power and scientific knowledge. Vice-
president in 1912 — 1913, he became president again
for a short term in 1914. He was also a member of
the Publications Committee from 1911 to his death.
In addition, Messel served twice on the Council
of the Chemical Society and once as vice-president
of that body. He was a fellow of the Institute of
Chemistry, a life member and generous patron of
the Royal Institution, a member of the Governing
Body of the Imperial College of Science and Techno-
logy, and in 1912 was elected a fellow of the Royal
Society.
Gifted with his full share of enjoyment of the
good things of this world, Messel nevertheless led
a life of great simplicity, bent upon his task, which
at the end became almost an obsession, of accumu-
lating those funds with which it was his dearest
wish to endow the science and education of his
adopted country.
On April 11 a second stroke left him completely
paralysed, and on April 18 he passed on peacefully
to his rest.
J. S. MacARTHUR.
John Stewart MacArthur, the inventor of tho
cyanide process of gold extraction, died on March 16,
in Pollokshields, Glasgow. Born in Glasgow sixty-
three years ago, he entered the laboratory of the
Tharsis Sulphur and Copper Co. in 1871 as an
apprentice chemist. In 1881 his work in connexion
with the recovery of precious metals from the
Tharsis copper liquors directed his attention to
the extraction of gold from ores, and in 1885 he
entered into partnership with the Drs. Foirest, who
placed at his disposal a small room in their surgery
for conducting his researches. In the same year the
Cassel Gold Extracting Co. was formed to work
the Cassel patents. About this time an article by
REVIEW.
[May 15. 1920.
MacArthur on the Cassel process was published in
Industries, and arrested the attention of many in-
terested in gold extraction processes. The directors
of the Cassel Company, unable to get results from
their process, asked MaeArthur's help, and in 1886
he joined the company as technical manager, when
determined efforts were made by him to render
the Cassel process operative. In the meantime,
MacArthur and his partners had made the wonder-
ful discovery that a weak solution of plain potas-
sium cyanide dissolved the gold from ores, and this
discovery was disclosed to the directors of the Cassel
Co., at whose works the process was thoroughly
tested. The results from the treatment of
15 tons of ore from the New Zealand Crown Mines
proved the process a commercial proposition, and
a contract was made with this company to erect a
plant in New Zealand. South Africa was the next
field exploited, and here the success of the process
opened a new era for the Rand and a new chapter
in the history of the world's gold production. From
this beginning the cyanide process spread all over
the world, and may be truly said to have created a
new source of wealth.
In 1911, MacArthur took up the manufacture of
radium compounds in Runcorn, and afterwards
moved his works to Balloch on Loch Lomond side.
During the war he produced radium for medicinal
use and for making luminous paint for military
purposes, the whole output being taken by the
. Government.
In 1892 he became a member of the Institution
of Mining and Metallurgy, and in 1902 was the
recipient of the gold medal of the Institution in
recognition of his work in the introduction and
development of the cyanide process. He was an
original member of the Society of Chemical
Industry.
Bertram Hunt.
A. K. HUNTINGTON.
The late Alfred Kirby Huntington, whose death
took place on April 17, became an Associate of the
Royal School of Mines in Mining and Metallurgy
in 1877, and afterwards assisted Prof. W. N.
Hartley in his work on ultra-violet absorption
spectra. He was appointed to the newly-established
chair of metallurgy at King's College, London, in
1879, and continued to fill the post until his resig-
nation last autumn. He was well known in metal-
lurgical circles as a teacher and as a consultant,
and gained a wide experience of metals, chiefly non-
ferrous, during his long tenure of the chair. He
collaborated with Prof. Bloxara in the preparation
of a text-book of metallurgy, and this work, subse-
quently revised and published under the names of
Huntington and MacMillan, long enjoyed a de-
served popularity. Much research work was carried
out in the laboratories of King's College under his
direction, and papers dealing with non-ferrous
metallurgy were issued from time to time. Prof.
Huntington also took an interest in general chemis-
try; he was an original member of this Society, and
served on the councils of several other technical
societies, especially the Institute of Metals, of which
he was president in 1913-14, and the Faraday
Society. During the war he served on several
important technical committees, including the
Nitrogen Products Committee, to which he devoted
much time. Any account of his life would be incom-
plete without a reference to his connexion with
aviation. Becoming an expert pilot in the days
of spherical balloons, he gave early attention
to the problem of flight, and was an active member
of aeronautical societies. Shortly before the war he
turned his attention to the construction of an aero-
plane, which he successfully flew, although at an
age when such a feat was scarcely to be expected.
Prof. Huntington took the keenest interest in the
subject of flying, and brought his metallurgical
experience to bear on the problems of construction
which it involves.
Cecil H. Desch.
NEWS FROM THE SECTIONS.
CANADA.
Ottawa Branch.
At the meeting held on April 15 in the Carnegie
Library, Ottawa, two reports were presented to
the Branch and adopted. The first expressed the
approval of the invitation by the Canadian Section
to tho Society to hold the annual general meeting
in 1921 in Canada. The second approved the sug-
gestion of forming the various Canadian Branches
of the Society into independent Sections, having
direct communication with London, provided that
the by-laws of the Society be so amended as to
permit recognition of the Canadian " associate "
members in computing the number of members
available in any locality for the formation of a
Section.
Dr. J. A. Amyot, Deputy Minister of Health,
then gave an address on " The Procedure Used in
the Examination of the Waters of the Great Lakes
during the Pollution Investigations in 1913," in
which he reviewed the work of the International
Joint Commission appointed to determine to what
extent and in what localities the waters of the
Great Lakes had been polluted and rendered unfit
for domestic use. Dr. Amyot first drew attention
to the various kinds of water supplies in Europe
and America. He pointed out that many of the
streams of Europe from which water supplies were
drawn were turbid, but that the typhoid rate was
low. The waters of the central and southern states
are also turbid, and the waters in the rivers to the
north of the Great Lakes are brown. In spite of
the fact that the water of Lake Erie is very clear
and cold, the typhoid rate of the riparian cities
was very high, sometimes reaching 350 deaths per
100,000 of population. The speaker then traced in
detail the actual methods used in the investigations
undertaken in 1913. He pointed out that although
the normal bacterial count in waters from the
Great Lakes was low, practically all the bacteria
so found were of intestinal origin. The cold water
of the Great Lakes served admirably to refrigerate
these bacteria and thus to preserve them. As a
result of the work undertaken, practically all the
cities on the Great Lakes are now using water
taken from them ; in many cases it is filtered to re-
move suspended matter and subsequently sterilised
by chlorination.
NEWCASTLE.
On April 21, Mr. C. L. Haddon read a paper on
" The Setting of Calcium Sulphate Cements."
Prof. P. Phillips Bedson presided.
The author has investigated some of the factors
determining the setting of commercial flooring
plaster and of plaster of Paris. By increasing the
percentage of water, the setting time is also in-
creased, and a weaker cement is obtained, but in
the case of flooring plaster, unless precautions are
taken to keep it damp for eight or nine days, dry-
ing occurs when the material is far from being
hydrated. Tho water content was found to have
a great effect on the tensile strength. Rohland's
theory — that substances which increase the solu-
bility of calcium sulphate also increase the rate
of setting — was examined and found to be unten-
able; sulphates of other metals, which various
Vol. XXXIX., No 9.]
REVIEW.
163 b
workers have shown to decrease the solubility of
calcium sulphate, were found to have a marked
accelerating effect on the setting. This was shown
to be an effect of mass action; but the tensile
strength did not increase uniformly, as with a
sufficient ratio of sulphate added to water used
(about 5 per cent.) the tensile strength decreased
after the first day and then increased again. In
the presence of these other sulphates, the rate of
hydration was so great that the material set before
the excess water had evaporated ; thus the trouble-
some precautions, when flooring plaster alone was
used, were unnecessary.
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING GROUP.
The third conference of the Group was held at
Birmingham on April 23, over 100 members attend-
ing. The subject was " Labour-saving Devices in
Chemical "Works," and seven papers were presented
of which six were read. Mr. W. A. S. Calder pre-
sided at the afternoon session, and Mr. C. A. Smith
in the evening. The first paper, by Mr. H. Blyth,
dealt with high-speed electric telpherage; its vari-
ous uses were described, and its advantages over
transporters, elevators and conveyors discussed.
The advisability of introducing such a system is
determined by the extent to which the capital cost
divided by the number of men saved exceeds £1400,
the estimated capital equivalent of one man. After
Mr. H. J. H. King had described the pneumatic
suction plant for handling coal at the works of
Messrs. Boots' Pure Drug Co., at Nottingham,
Capt. C. J. Goodwin followed with a paper on
portable elevators and transporting trucks, in
which the costs of operating these appliances were
compared with those for hand-labour. At the even-
ing session, Mr. G. S Layton dealt with the advan-
tages, in certain cases, of the pneumatic handling
of granular substances ; Mr. S. H. Johnson dis-
cussed the subject of automatic weighing machines;
Mr. H. Varndell's paper on the importance of the
mechanical handling of material in its relation to
production costs dealt principally with gravity con-
veyors; and the last paper, by Mr. H. F. Broad-
hurst, described the evolution of automatic filling
machines for liquids. These papers will be noticed
more fully in the Transactions, and will be issued
in due course in the Proceedings of the Group.
An informal dinner was held in the evening at
the Grand Hotel, and on the following day a visit
was paid to the works of the Birmingham Small
Arms Co., Small Heath.
MANCHESTER.
At the meeting held on April 23, with Mr. J.
Allan in the chair, a paper was read by M. S.
Masfaraud on " Distillation Plant," with special
reference to the rectification of alcohol, acetalde-
hyde and other volatile products, and to continuous
ether-manufacturing plant.
After a brief reference to the great importance of
fractional distillation in modern chemical industry,
the author discussed the theory of the distillation of
binary mixtures of non-miscible liquids, and showed
how the composition of distillates could be fore-
cast. He then dealt successively with mixtures
of liquids which aro either partly or entirely
miscible, taking for detailed consideration an
alcohol-water mixture to illustrate the former class.
To solve problems relating to the distillation of
mixtures of miscible liquids, it is -necessary to de-
termine the vapour pressure of several mixtures of
two of these liquids and then introduce the third
body, and again determine the vapour pressure.
Reference was made to a number of mixtures of
alcoholic liquids and to Soret's " coefficient of
solubility," in place of which Barbet has introduced
his "coefficient of solubility." The theoretical
foundation of the latter was discussed and data
adduced to show its superior accuracy in indicating
the progress of the distillation of complex mixtures.
To M. E. E. Barbet belongs the credit of having in-
vented the first type of apparatus for the continu-
ous rectification of alcohol; and during the period
November, 1914. to November, 191S, his firm sup-
plied plint with a collective capacity per 24 hours
of 917,800 litres of 96—97 per cent, alcohol, 913,000
1. of ether, 480,000 1. of petroleum, and also for all
the ether required by the British Government for
munition purposes.
In the ensuing discussion Dr. Ormandy drew
attention to the handicap placed on industry in
this country by the prohibition of the simultaneous
fermentation and distillation of alcohol, and of its
continuous distillation, together with the required
presence of an excise official, and pointed out its
consequences in limiting supplies of motor fuel.
There was a record attendance of about 250.
On May 7, a paper on " Hydrogenation in the
Naphthalene Series " was read by Mr. F. M. Rowe.
The work of Bamberger and 'lis collaborators on
the reducing action of sodium and an alcohol re-
sulted in the preparation of numerous hydro
derivatives of naphthalene, which have attracted
the attention of subsequent investigators from time
to time. As a result it has been shown that ar-
tetrahydro-alpha-naphthylamine possesses many in-
teresting properties which might well render this
base and its derivatives useful intermediate pro-
ducts to the manufacturers of dyes, if the produc-
tion of the base on a technical scale were economi-
cally possible.
The author has been engaged upon a study of the
course of the reduction by which tetrahydro-
naphthaleneandar-tetrahydro-alpha-naphthylamine
are formed from naphthalene and alpha-naphthy-
lamine respectively, and it is now clear that, so far
as the reaction with sodium and an alcohol is con-
cerned, a similar series of reactions occurs in each
case. First a dihydro derivative is formed, in which
the additional hydrogen atoms occupy the para posi-
tion with respect to one another, and this is con-
verted into a dihydro derivative in which the addi-
tional hydrogen atoms occupy the ortho position
relatively to one another, by the action of sodium
alcoholate, prior to the further reduction to the
tetrahydro compound. The intermediate dihydro-
alpha-naphthylamines have been isolated and their
constitution determined..
The formation of hydrogenated derivatives of
naphthalene by the action of hydrogen in the pre-
sence of a catalyst was next discussed, and attention
drawn to the fact that tetrahydronaphthalene and
dekahydronaphthalene, which are valuable solvents
and motor fuels, are now available in Germany in
large quantities, being manufactured by the direct
hydrogenation of naphthalene. The author de-
scribed the results of preliminary experiments on
this subject.
YORKSHIRE.
The annual general meeting was held on May 3,
and after the election of officers, Mr. G. B. Haworth
read a paper on " Graphical Methods for Inter-
preting Flue Gas Analyses." The investigation
of fuel combustion problems generally resolves itself
into tho analysis of the fuel and flue gas, followed
by an interpretation of these results in terms of
correct air supply and heat lost in the flue gases.
By ordinary methods the calculations are tedioua
and complicated, and fuel chemists have made
several attempts to simplify them, Bunte's
graphical method being the best known. The latter
method, however, is not applicable to all classes of
fuel, and the present methods have been devised to.
164 R
REVIEW.
(May 15. 1920.
remedy this. Two series of graphs have been pre-
pared; the first correlates the four variables,
carbon dioxide in the dry flue gas, oxygen in the
dry flue gas, excess of air for combustion, and a
chemical factor calculated from the composition of
the fuel ; given values for any two of these variables,
the corresponding values for the other two can be
read off the graph. From the second graph the
total heat lost in the flue gases is read oft corres-
ponding to the carbon dioxide in the dry flue gas,
the temperature of flue gas, and the molecular
ratio of hydrogen to oarbon in the fuel.
Mr. G. F. Pickering then contributed a paper on
" Commercial Analysis of Sulphonated Oils." The
author deplored the present state of our knowledge
of these products, and pointed out that there was
little theoretical basis upon which to ;'orm an accur-
ate system of analysis. Furthermore, the chemical
and physical properties of sulphonated oils were
such as rendered even empirical methods difficult
and in many cases unreliable. These difficulties
were especially marked with products obtained from
oils of high iodine value. The author described in
detail the analytical methods which he used in
commercial practice, and, in passing, pointed out
numerous errors which occurred in the published
literature. In the discussion which followed,
numerous points connected with the chemistry of
"sulphonated" oils were brought forward, the
chief being that the action of sulphuric acid upon
them produces a true sulphate and not a sulphonate.
The changes in the list of officers for 1920-21
include: — Mr. S. H. Davies becomes chairman in
place of Mr. W. Mc. D. Mackey, Dr. L. L. Lloyd,
vice-chairman in lieu of Mr. S. H. Davies, and
Mr. Mackey takes the place of Dr. Lloyd on the
Committee. Messrs. J. I. Graham, L. Neaverson
and A. B. Searle have been elected to th Com-
mittee in place of the retiring members, Dr. H.
Ingle, Messrs. L. G. Paul and F. Wood.
LONDON.
A meeting of the above Section was held at Bur-
lington House on May 3, Mr. Julian L. Baker being
in the chair. The first business of the evening was
a presentation of silver to Drs. Keane and Miall,
in token of the appreciation felt by the Committee
and Section for the excellent work done by them in
connexion with the organisation of the Annual
General Meeting, in July last. The chairman next
made sympathetic reference to the losses which the
Society had suffered by the deaths of Dr. Messel,
Prof. Huntington, and Mr. Watson Smith.
The first paper, entitled " The Theory of Gas
Scrubbing Towers with Internal Packing," by
Prof. F. G. Donnan and Mr. J. I. Orme Masson,
was read by Prof. Donnan. The authors considered
the case of the removal of a soluble constituent
from a mixture of gases, giving general equations
showing how the operation-efficiency of a tower de-
pends on the nature of the dissolved gas, the solvent
fluid, the rates of flow of gas and liquid, the
character of the packing, and the height and section
of the tower. No experimental results were given,
and it was assumed, in view of the preliminary
character of the work, that no chemical action
occurred between the gas and the solvent, and that
the temperature and rates of entry of the gas and
the counter-flow of the absorbing liquid were all
constant. It will thus be seen that the equations
obtained cannot from the nature of the case be im-
mediately applicable without modification to the
majority of the cases encountered in commercial
practice, but it was hoped that they would prove
of value in the preliminary design of new structures
intended for the scrubbing of gases where the con-
ditions were similar to those described above. In
the long discussion which ensued it was evident that
the experiences in gas scrubbing described by many
of the speakers considerably outranged in com-
plexity the simplified case with which the authors
dealt.
The second paper was on " The Preparation of
Picryl Chloride," by Prof. P. F. Frankland and
Mr. A. F. Garner. The authors have investigated
the conditions under which the nitration of
l-chloro-2.4-dinitrobenzene are best carried out at
90° — 130° C. The large production of nitrous acid
during nitration was correlated with the formation
of carbon dioxide during the oxidation of chlorodi-
nitrobenzene and picryl chloride, whilst the mix-
ture of the di-nitro compound and picryl chloride in
the nitration product was estimated by determining
setting points. It was found inadvisable to employ
sulphuric acid of a concentration lower than 96 per
cent., and with acid of this strength complete nitra-
tion can be obtained after 12 hours heating at 130°
C. At 140° — 150° C. less nitric acid is needed, and
an equally good product can be obtained in about
six hours.
The third paper, entitled " The Preparation of
Thiocarbonyl Tetrachloride," by Prof. Frankland,
Mr. F. Challenger and Miss D. Webster, was read
by Mr. Challenger. When carbon bisulphide reacts
with 2} molecular proportions of chlorine in the
presence of iodine considerable quantities of tetra-
chloromethylmercaptan (thiocarbonyl tetrachloride)
are produced thus: —
2CS2+5CI2=2CSC14+S2CL,.
This reaction has been studied with a view to the
large scale production of this substance and of its
reduction product thiophosgene (CSC12), both of
which may be employed in the production of vat
and organic dyestuffs. The reaction proceeds best
at 20° Cv and yields about 60 per cent, of the
tetrachloride, caluculated on the bisulphide taken,
the sulphur chloride formed being removed by de-
composition with water. The use of other catalysts
such as iron, lead and tin was also investigated.
A trace of iron (0'2 per cent, of the weight of the
bisulphide) entirely alters the nature of the reaction
products, and practically no tetrachloromethylmer-
captan is obtained, whether iodine be employed or
not. Tin produces a similar effect, but lead is
inert. In all the experiments with iodine a certain
amount of thiophosgene was produced, but the
simultaneous presence of some carbon tetrachloride
prevented its isolation. Attempts to increase the
yield of thiophosgene by using a large excess of
carbon bisulphide were unsuccessful. For the
preparation of this substance it is therefore neces-
sary to reduce the thiocarbonyl tetrachloride by
means of tin and hydrochloric acid, by copper dust,
or by other suitable and less expensive methods.
SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY;
MEMBERSHIP GAINS AND LOSSES.
Elections
Restorations
Resignations
Deletions
Deaths
1912 1913 1914 1915 1916 1917 1918 1919
236 188 173 333 455 608 614 618
254 202 182 352 469 612 630
106 102 121 74
135 145 159 200
32 65 31 68
93 89 151 143
44 27 46 67 61 52 58 48
285 274 326 341 186 206 249 259
Net Gain or Loss .. -31 —72 -144 + 11 + 283 + 406 + 390 + 410
The membership number at March 31. 1920. was 5.440.
Vol. XXXIX., No. 9.]
REVIEW.
MEETINGS OF OTHER SOCIETIES.
SOCIETY OF PUBLIC ANALYSTS.
A meeting was held on May 5 in the Chemical
Society's Rooms, Burlington House, Mr. A.
Smetham presiding.
Mr. H. Droop Richmond and Miss E. M. Ison
read a paper on "A Volumetric Method of Esti-
mating Iron." The method, devised for the estima-
tion of iron in syrups, is applicable in the presence
of hydrochloric acid, phosphorus, oxy-acids. and
organic matter. The colouring matter is destroyed
and the iron oxidised with permanganate and
hydrochloric acid; strong hydrochloric acid and
sodium bicarbonate are added, and the ferric iron
then titrated with stannous chloride solution in
presence of thiocyanate as indicator.
Mr. C. A. Mitchell, in a paper on the " Estima-
tion of the Age of Ink in Handwriting," dealt with
the importance of knowing dates of alteration in
the composition of inks. The distinctions between
old and modern inks were shown and tests for esti-
mating their ages described.
A paper on " The Examination of Chinese Crude
Camphor " was read by Mr. E. R. Dorey. Camphor
oil is estimated by expressing a 100 gm. sample and
weighing the pressed cake, thus obtaining by
difference the loss of water and oil. Moisture is de-
termined on the original sample and on the pressed
cake by the calcium carbide or other method, and
the weight of water lost in pressing is found by
difference. This, subtracted from the total liquid
expressed, gives the amount of oil. It is assumed
that the proportions of oil and water in the sample
and expressed liquid are the same, and the total oil
content is calculated on that basis.
THE CHEMICAL SOCIETY.
On April 29, a special meeting was held to con-
sider the Society's by-laws, and the proposed altera-
tions in them were passed with a few verbal altera-
tions.
As a preliminary to any effective alterations it
was found necessary to secure a Supplemental
Charter, for the original one, granted to the Society
in 1848, included various hampering restrictions,
prescribing, for example, a definite numerical limit
to the size of the Council and a particular method
for its election. Such provisions, made for the con-
duct of a comparatively small society, associated
mainly with the London district, have become quite
unsuitable in these days when the membership is
over twelve times what it was in 1848, and the
metropolitan area embraces a minority only of the
Fellows. There has further been doubt whether
under the original Charter it was permissible to
admit women as Fellows. The position is now
cleared up by the declaration in the Supplemental
Charter that Fellows may be of either sex, and
there is therefore now no obstacle to the admission
of women.
Various other modifications of the by-laws aim
at securing to provincial Fellows a greater share in
the conduct of the Society. Under the old system
everything of importance affecting the Society, in-
cluding the election of the officers and council, was
determined at a general meeting by the majority
of those present and voting. The Supplemental
Charter confers on the Society the power to elect
the officers and council by a postal vote, and to take
in certain cases a poll of all Fellows resident in the
United Kingdom. These powers have been incor-
porated in the new by-laws.
It is noteworthy that in some of the changes made
there has been kept in view the possibility of united
action with other related bodies, as, for example,
the acquisition of common premises or in the publi-
cation of joint abstracts. Conceivably these pro-
visions may turn out to bo among the most
significant of the changes embodied in the new
by-laws.
Ordinary scientific meetings were held on April
15 and May 6. On the former date a paper on " The
Viscosity of Nitro-cellulose in Mixtures of Acetone
and Water " was read by Messrs.J. I. Orme Masson
and R. McCall; and on the latter date the following
papers were presented: — "The Mustard Gas
Problem," by Mr. G. M. Bennett; " The Formation
and Stability of Associated Alicyclic Systems," bv
Prof. J. F. Thorpe and Mr. R. M. Beesley";
" Orientation of the Nitro- and Arylazo-glyoxa-
lines," by Mr. R. G. Fargher; " Orthochlorodi-
nitrotoluenes," by Prof. G. T. Morgan and Mr.
H. D. K. Drew.
INSTITUTION OF MINING AND
METALLURGY.
In his presidential address, delivered at the
annual meeting on April 15, Mr. Frank Merricks
described the progress of mineral production, moro
particularly within the Empire, during the last 25
years. Owing to discoveries made during the past
80 years within the Empire, the mineral require-
ments of the United Kingdom are assured, few ores
and metals have now to be obtained from foreign
countries, and the Empire controls certain sources
of supply which are indispensable to many foreign
countries. Comprehensive tables were given show-
ing the great strides that have been made in the
output of ore-minerals, including such new-comers
as wolfram, monazite, etc.
Of the world's output of gold, valued at over
£90,000,000 in 1914, the British Empire contributes
about 64 per cent., and of the Empire's production
Africa accounts for about 76 per cent, and Austral-
asia 14 per cent. With regard to silver production,
the prominence of Canada is especially noteworthy ;
the production in that country has risen from a
value of £68,776 in 1893 to £3,769,144 in 1917, re-
presenting about 65 per cent, of the Empire's
output. During the last five years about 600 million
ounces of silver has gone to India, and a further
large amount to China, where it has probably been
hoarded.
Least satisfactory from the Imperial standpoint
is the position as regards copper, but there are
possibilities of developments in Australia, particu-
larly in Queensland, and the capacity of the
smelteries and refineries in the Commonwealth is
largely in excess of output. The contribution of
the Empire to the world's production of this metal
— 1,415,000 tons in 1917 — is only about 7 per cent.,
and to this Canada supplied 50,351 tons, Australia
40,000 tons, and the Singhbhum mine in India,
20,000 tons.
A rough estimate appears to justify the claim
that the Empire is now producing about 25 per
cent, of the world's supplies of lead, and there is
some likelihood that this will increase. Australia
is a prolific producer with a capacity of about
300,000 tons of lead per annum; Canada and Burma
each yield about 20,000 tons. The Bawdwin mine
in the latter country is expected to produce about
31,500 tons yearly, and the reserves at June, 1918,
stood at 4,300,000 tons, assaying, Ag 24-2 oz., Pb
26-8%, Zn 18-72%, and copper 0"07%. The annual
production of the United States exceeds 500,000
tons, and that of Spain is about 180,000 tons.
The world's chief sources of supply of zinc ores
are the United States, Australia (Broken Hill),
Germany, Spain, Algeria, and Tunis; other pro-
ducing countries are Mexico, France, Greece,
China, Japan, Canada, Great Britain and Belgium.
Owing to the zinc content of the ores varying
REVIEW.
[May 15. 1920.
widely, it is not possible to estimate accurately the
production or proportion for each country. The
actual production at Broken Hill was equivalent to
about 260,000 tons of spelter in 1917 and 300,000
tons in 1918.
The British Empire produces about one-half of
the world's tin, and in addition smelts and refines
still larger amounts of foreign ore and crude tin.
The chief source is the Federated Malay States,
with an output of nearly 50,000 tons of metal in
1914. Bolivia is the second largest producer of til
ore in the world, the production in Siam (about
8300 tons yearly) is advancing, and the output in
China is stated to have increased considerably in
recent years.
The rise of the nickel industry in Canada is one
of the romances of mining enterprise. In 1893 the
output of ore in the Sudbury district was valued
at £431,489; in 1917 it was £7.027,523. Canada
supplies at least 85 per cent, of the world's supply
of nickel, and is on the way to become the greatest
refiner of this metal; the production is over 1J
million tons of ore per annum. The only other pro-
ducers of importance are New Caledonia and
Norway.
Manganese ore was first produced in India in
1892, and as the grade was high and facilities were
good, the output increased to 900,000 tons in 1907,
but this fell to 591,000 tons in 1917, owing to the
war. Before 1914, Rhodesia and New Caledonia were
the chief sources of chrome ore in the world, but
•since then largo supplies have been obtained from
Canada, India and the United States. Prior to
the war China was the chief source of supply of
antimony, computed at 50 per cent, in 1913, and
the United Kingdom was dependent mainly on that
country, Mexico and Australia; but as a result of
recent discoveries made in Canada and South Africa
these countries are likely to become considerable
producers. Graphite was formerly obtained chiefly
from Austria, followed by Ceylon, whose output has
now been reduced owing to competition from
Madagascar. In 1918 the world's production of
asbestos was 164,000 tons, all of which, except
10,000 tons derived from Russia, was produced in
the Empire, mainly in Canada. More than half the
world's supply of mica is obtained from India,
where a record output of 2738 tons was achieved
in 1915. The United States and Canada come next
in order of importance, the Canadian outpui being
less than half that of India. Competition is to be
feared from Brazil, where the industry developed
rapidly during the war, and there is a good deposit
in the Tanganyika Territory (German East Africa).
Bauxite is derived mainly from France and the
United States. The former produced over 300.000
tons in 1913, and the latter 210.000 tons in 1913,
and 570,000 tons in 1917. Proved deposits exist in
British Guiana and India, and during 1917 Ireland
provided 14,700 tons. British Guiana exported
2037 tons in 1917 and 4199 tons in 1918. Six
bauxite areas in this country have been leased to
the Northern Aluminium Co., of Quebec, on the
condition that it establishes in British territory
refining works with a yearly capacity of 4000 tons
within seven years.
Largely owing to the war and labour troubles,
the world's output of the chief minerals has
seriously decreased of late years, and the conserva-
tion of mineral resources, more particularly of coal,
iron and manganese ores within the Empire, re-
quires serious consideration. The use of hydro-
electric energy in the mining and metallurgical in-
dustries has greatly developed during the past de-
cade, but not to the desired extent in the United
Kingdom, where until recently coal and labour have
been fairly cheap. Probably the attitude of British
engineers, long accustomed to the use of steam
plants, has retarded the development of hydro-
electric energy in certain other countries.
PERSONALIA.
Prof. G. Ciamician, of Bologna, has been elected
a foreign member of the French Academy of
Sciences in succession to the late Sir William
Ramsay.
Mr. J. A. Brodie has been elected president of the
Institution of Civil Engineers for the year 1920-21,
and among the members of council are Dr. C. C.
Carpenter and Sir Robert Hadfield.
H.M. the King has been pleased to appoint Mr.
W. G. Craib to the Regius professorship of botany
in the University of Aberdeen, in succession to the
late Prof. J. W. H. Trail.
The chair of metallurgy, in the Royal Technical
College, Glasgow, vacant by the resignation of Prof.
C. H. Desch, has been filled by the appointment
of Dr. J. H. Andrew, who has been in charge of the
metallurgical research department of Sir W. G.
Armstrong, Whitworth and Co., Ltd., Manchester,
since 1914.
The sum of £10.000 has been offered to the Uni-
versity of Oxford by Mr. E. Whitley, of Trinity
College, for the endowment of a professorship of.
biochemistry, and one of £5,000 has been received
from the British Dyestuffs Corporation, Ltd., to
meet the cost of extending the organic chemical
laboratory.
The firm of Alfred Holt and Co. has given the sum
of £15,000 to the University of Liverpool in response
to its appeal for funds, for the establishment and
endowment of a chair of metallurgy. The United
Alkali Co., Ltd., has contributed £10,000, and
Pilkington and Sons, Ltd., of St. Helens, £5,000
for the erection of new chemical laboratories.
The following candidates were successful in the
examinations of the Institute of Chemistry, held
recently in London, Manchester, and Sheffield: —
Fellowship: E. Clayton, H. W. B. Clewer, R. O.
Eames, N. Ratcliffe. Associateship: F. N. Apple-
yard, S. Bowman, R. Humphries, A. Lees, S. B.
Phillips, E. C. Pickering. Certificate: S. Dixon.
Sir Henry Birchenough has been appointed to
succeed Lord Moulton as chairman of British Dye-
stuffs Corporation, Ltd. On retiring from the posi-
tion of Director-General of Explosives Supply some
eighteen months ago, Lord Moulton was appointed
to the chairmanship, by arrangement between the
Lord Chancellor and the Board of Trade, but only
for a period of twelve months. His Lordship's
resignation from the Board of the Corporation is
due to the urgent need for his full-time judicial
services in the House of Lords and on the Privy
Council.
The death is announced of Prof. J. A. McClel-
land, F.R.S., professor of experimental physics in
University College, Dublin.
Mr. Watson Smith, the editor of this Journal
from its inception in 1881 until the end of 1914,
died on May 1, in London, at the age of 75.
Prof. F. C. Phillips, who died in February last,
was for 40 years instructor in chemistry in the
University of Pittsburgh, U.S.A. Dr. Phillips had
a wide reputation as an authority on natural gas,
and was closely identified with the establishment of
the Priestley Memorial Fund.
The death is reported of Mr. James Gayley, who
received the Perkin Medal of the American Section
of the Society of Chemical Industry in 1913 in
recognition of his valuable work in chemical metal-
lurgy (see this J., 1913, 180). including the inven-
tion of furnace improvements, bronze cooling plates
and the dry air blast. Mr. Gayley was president of
the American Institute of Mining and Metallurgy
in 1904-6, and was the first vice-president of the
United States Steel Corporation.
Vol. XXXIX. No. 9.]
REVIEW.
167 r
NEWS AND NOTES.
AUSTRALIA.
Manufacture ol White Lead, etc. — A company — the
British-Australian Lead Manufacturers Pro-
prietary, Ltd. — lias been formed for the purpose
of manufacturing white lead, etc., in Australia.
The capital is £300,000, the greater part of which
has been subscribed by the leading white lead cor-
roders in the United Kingdom, and the balance by
the Long Life Mining Companies at Broken Hill.
The company is erecting works with an output
capacity of 4,000 tons of white lead per annum, and
it is intended to manufacture paints and varnishes
as well. As the Australian consumption of white
lead is approximately 10,000 tons a year, there is
ample scope for the new company. — (Ind. Australian
and Min. Standard, Feb. 5, 1920.)
The Eucalyptus Industry in Victoria. — During 1917-
18 the eucalyptus oil distilled from forest areas
amounted to 806,977 lb., an increase of 161 tons on
the previous year. The areas in the. north-west
chiefly bear trees of the blue mallee species, and are
now regularly cultivated under a coppice system.
They are not classed as forest reserves, but ar-
rangements have been made with the Lands De-
partment for the issue to eucalyptus distillers of
annual licences. In the Wombat forest, Ceneral
District, where many small stills are in operation,
the peppermint tree only is used; most of
the plants are crude and are not properly equipped.
At fiendigo, where the foliage of the red and white
ironbark is used, there are several good mills, and
the industry is useful in disposing of large quanti-
ties of surplus coppice growth, which lias to be
removed in the treatment of the young forests. —
(Chemist and Druggist of Australia, Feb., 1920.)
FRANCE.
Industrial Notes. — Chemical Industry. — Owing to
the enormous cost of obtaining the necessary raw-
materials for this industry, it is considered pro-
bable that chemical firms will follow the lead of
the metallurgical companies in grouping together
for the common good and thus dispensing with
third parties in the buying of raw materials and
intermediates. This policy does not appeal in
general to the French temperament, but sooner
than see the State step in again and impose irritat-
ing regulations, the chemical firms will undoubtedly
prefer to combine of their own initiative and form
a basis of association which will be inspired by a
more realistic and direct estimation of their im-
mediate needs.
Great interest is being taken in the formation
of the " Societe Centrale des Industries de l'Air
Liquide et de l'Azote," which is to apply M. G.
Claude's patented process of nitrogen fixation on an
industrial scale. The capital of the company is 25
million francs.
Metallurgy. — The late strike of the miners in the
north of France, which has lasted 24 days, with a
resulting loss in extraction of about 630,000 tons
of coal, has very severely reacted on the production
of the metallurgical works. This shortage of fuel,
added to strikes in the metallurgical centres around
Metz and the recent disturbances in the Ruhr basin,
has caused 90 per cent, of the blast furnaces of
Lorraine to stop work, and the situation is very
critical. Recourse has been had to the liquidation
of war stocks for material that the factories cannot
produce.
New Issue of Nickel-Copper Coinage. — The Journal
Officiet has published the law of October 16, 1919,
authorising the emission by the Minister of Finance
of a further ten million francs of bronze nickel
coins pierced by a hole in the centre and composed
of 25 per cent, nickel and 75 per cent, copper, with
a toleration of over or under ten-thousandths.
The Zinc Industry. — According to L'Exportateur
Francois, the output of zinc ores in France during
1913 was 46,577 metric tons, of which the two de-
partments of the Gard and the Hautes-Pyrenees
supplied nearly 30,000 ; to this has to be added the
production of the French dependencies, Algeria
82,256, Tunis 30,000 and Indo-China 33,430 tons.
Imported minerals totalled 178,179 tons (66,178
tons in 1900), against which there was exported
58,203 tons. At the outbreak of war the industry
came to a complete stoppage, but to meet the
national urgency production was renewed to some
extent in 1915, and this was continued, so that in
1917 the outputs were: — France 12,604, Algeria
40,020, Tunis 15,000 ; total 67,624 tons.
In 1913 the total output of French smelters was
67,890 tons of zinc, exclusively from the three de-
partments of Aveyron, Nord and Pas-de-Calais.
During the same year the consumption was 78,153
tons, i.e., there was a deficit of 10,263 tons, which
was met by importation, Belgium supplying 84 per
cent. To compensate for the temporary loss of
the works in the invaded departments of the Nord
and Pas-de-Calais other works were opened, and
progress was made in the substitution of the elec-
trolytic process for the older distillation process.
The present lack of coal, refractory materials and
labour all point to a further development in this
direction, since by the older method it took 5 tons
of coal to produce a ton of zinc, whereas this quan-
tity of metal is produced electrolytically for a con-
sumption of 4,000 kw.hr.
It is estimated that the French production will
shortly be increased to 250,000 tons of mineral, and
110,000 — 124,000 tons of metal. These quantities
should meet the home demand — an eminently desir-
able result in view of the imperative necessity of
reducing purchases abroad.
The Proposed Indian Chemical Service. — According
to The Times, the Chemical Service Committee has
recommended the establishment of an Indian
Chemical Service (cf. J., 1920, 12 b, 56 e), with
headquarters at Dehra Dun, and managed by a
Board of Control comprising a director-general and
four deputy-directors, who would act as heads of de-
partments'for inorganic and physical, organic,
metallurgical, and analytical chemistry. The main
duties of the Board should be to initiate new indus-
tries, to develop new processes, and to co-ordinate
the activities of workers in the provinces. Each
province should have its own research institute, the
staff of which should be recruited mainly from
Indian chemists, and although assistance should
be given to private undertakings, local institutes
should in no way compete with industrial enter-
prises. Further recommendations relate to the
need for creating a Ministry of Science, and for the
carrying out of a chemical survey of the country.
The Sugar Industry. — For some months past a
committee, under the chairmanship of Mr. J.
MacKenna, Inspector-General of Agriculture in
India, has been investigating the production of
sugar in India with a view to discover the best
means of increasing it. Although India has a
larger area under sugar than any other country,
the production is not sufficient to meet the internal
consumption, and consequently at least half a
million tons is imported yearly, mostly from Java
and Mauritius. In view of the general shortage,
this is a serious matter for the world as well as for
India, but the problem cannot be solved satisfac-
torily by merely extending the cultivation of sugar
cane at the expense of other crops, because there is
also a deficit of food grains and cotton. It is there-
fore desirable to find other means, such as bringing
under cultivation waste land suitable for sugar, and
improvements in the cultivation and treatment of
the crop whereby the yield of sugar per acre may be
materially increased. Although the sugar cane
grows much better in a tropical climate, in India
it is mostly cultivated in the north, where the
weather is comparatively cold during part of the
year, and this is one of the reasons why the yield is
low. Thus, in Java the yield is 3 — 4 tons per acre,
and in Demerara, Mauritius, and Queensland
rather less than 2 tons. In the Bombay Presi-
dency the yield is 2'5 tons per acre and in Madras
1'9, but in Bengal it is only 0'9, in the United
Provinces 0"8, and in the Punjab 0'6. The reason
why sugar-cane is not grown more in the south is
partly that water is not as a rule available for
irrigation, and partly that there are other crops
which pay the cultivator better.
Fortunately, the Agricultural Departments have
given considerable attention to sugar cultivation in
the past and have made a good start on various
methods of improvement. Some improved varieties
of cane have been introduced, and it is proposed to
continue investigations both by crossing and
selection.
The committee has also been collecting evidence
as to methods of crushing the cane and boiling down
the juice. There are only a few large central sugar
factories in India; most of the sugar is sold in the
form of unrefined gur, which is preferred by the
majority of Indians, partly for religious reasons.
It is made by the cultivators themselves with rough
and generally inefficient plant, and in consequence
a considerable proportion of the product is lost.
The crushing mills mostly have wooden rollers and
are driven by cattle, which are often not strong
enough to do the work when the rollers are set
close. Consequently much of the juice is left in and
is burnt under the evaporators. In some places,
however, mills with hardened steel rollers and
driven by small oil engines have been introduced,
and these are far more economical. Moreover, they
are able to deal with thicker and therefore richer
canes.
The system of land tenure renders it practically
impossible in most parts of India for a central
factory to ensure sufficient cane cultivation in its
immediate neighbourhood, and consequently some
of the factories work for part of the year on the
refining of gur, which is a somewhat wasteful pro-
cedure.
Considerable quantities of sugar are also made in
India from the juice of the date palm and toddy
palm, and in the extreme north sugar beet is culti-
vated.
The report of the committee, when it appears,
will no doubt contain much valuable information on
these and many other points and should help
materially to place the industry on a more satis-
factory basis.
UNITED STATES.
Cost of Production of Dyes.— The United States
Tariff Commission has now placed before the Senate
its report on the cost of manufacturing dyes in the
United States. The report states that the cost
of manufacturing dyes in that country is from two
to five times greater than were the German selling
prices in America before the war. The American
costs, however, were slightly lower than the prices
of German dyes as offered to the Reparation Com-
mission, taking the mark at par. Attention is
drawn to the difficulty of ascertaining American
cost figures, owing to the lack of organisation and
uniform methods of accounting, so that only
approximate conclusions can be drawn. It appears,
however, that while the costs of intermediates, such
as aniline, beta-naphthol and nitrobenzene, were
falling, the costs of dyes have, generally speaking,
shown an upward tendency. — (Oil, Paint and Drug
Hep., Mar. 8, 1920.)
Exhaust Gases from Motor Vehicles. — In connexion
with the proposed vehicular tunnel to join New
York with New Jersey, account is to be taken of
the exhaust gases from motor vehicles, in which
carbon monoxide is found. The Bureau of Stand-
ards will shortly undertake a series of chamber
tests on human subjects, following road tests which
have been under way with motor vehicles of 80
different classes. In the chamber tests compart-
ments designed to represent cross sections of the
tunnel will be used.
Quicksilver in 1918. — In 1918 the production of
mercury in the United States was 32,883 flasks (of
75 lb.)," valued at £772,750. The total number of
producing mines was 47, the total exports 3098
flasks, and the total imports 6719 flasks. The fol-
lowing figures show the world's production (in
flasks) of quicksilver: —
Country. 1913. 1915. 1916. 1917.
United States . .
. 20,213
. 21.033
. 29.932
. 36.159
Austria..
. 24.104
. 25.000
. 25.000
. 25.000
Hungary
. 2.606
. 2,500
. 2.500
. 2,500
Italy . .
. 29,513
. 28.954
. 32.129
. 29,300
Russia)..
. 800
. 1,100
500
Spain . .
. 36.619
. 35.925
. 23.369
.25.147
Mexico and other countries .
. 4,000
. 4.000
. 4.000
. 4.000
Total
. 117,055
118.212
118.030
122.606
— (U.S. Geol. Surv., Oct. 31, 1919.)
Phosphate Rock in 1918. — The quantity of phos-
phate rock marketed in the United States in 1918
was 2,490,760 tons, valued at £1,642,892; part of
this was due to stocks held over, as the actual
quantity mined that year amounted to 2,284,245
tons, a decrease of 19'9 per cent, on the 1917 out-
put. The most extensively developed phosphate
deposits in the United States are those of Florida,
where four classes are mined : hard-rock, land-
pebble, river-pebble and soft-rock phosphate. The
world s prodi
the following
K-tim
table
1 of pho
sphate r
ock IS sl
own in
Country.
1913.
1915.
1916
1917.
Metric
Tons.
Algeria
377.934
225.891
389.211
202.539
Angaur Island
90,000
30.000
30.000
Milium
219,420
—
—
—
Canada
349
197
184
135
Christmas Island
152,405
24.119
Dutch West Indie
Aruba
Curacao
38.150
1.850
51.000
32.915
11.700
3.639
Egypt
104,450
82.998
125.008
115.732
298.S59
24,700
British Guiana
5.000
Japan, including
Easa
Island
25.013
57.723
114.389
Makatea Island
82,056
71.724
39.285
114.780
New Caledonia.
Uuon
Island
2,100
8.400
New South Wales
2.032
New Zealand
11.170
—
—
5.557
Norway
757
Ocean and Pleasant
Islands
250,000
—
70.000
• — •
Russia
25,000
South Australia
6.045
4.688
5.093
5,183
Spain
3.548
9.080
14.111
2S.14S
Tunis
2.284.678
1.389.074
1.695.295
999.320
United States
3.161.000
1.865.038
2.014.103
2.625,630
7.141,822 3.852.847 4.536.079 4,100.075
The output so far recorded for 1918 is as follows :
—Algeria, 234,825; Egypt, 31,147; Tunis, 818,962;
United States, 2,530,612 metric tons.— (U.S. Geol.
Surv., Oct. 4, 1919.)
SOUTH AFRICA.
The Sugar Harvest. — The current harvest of sugar
in Natal and Zululand is expected to produce from
175,000 to 180,000 tons, leaving from 30,000 to
40,000 tons for export. The yield exceeds the pre-
vious highest record by 25,000 tons. — (Official.)
Vol. XXXIX.. No. 9.]
169 E
Mineral Production in 1919. — The mineral output of
the Union for 1919, according to official returns of
the Mines Department, was valued at £50.841,405,
an increase of £3,621,872 compared with the year
1918. The figures for the two years are : —
1919. 1918.
Gold £35,390,609 £35,75S,316
Silver 203,646 158,815
Diamonds 11,237.778 6.961,062
Coal 3,430,361 3,247.608
Copper 208,902 358,627
Tin 275,111 447,952
Other base minerals 94,998 287,093
It will be noticed that the enhanced value of
diamonds was responsible for a difference between
the two years of £4,276,716. Corundum to the
value of £45.139 was exported from South Africa
in 1918, an increase of £11,500 over the previous
year. Exports were chiefly to the United King-
dom, America, Japan and East Africa. Produc-
tion started in 1912 with an output valued at £659.
The corundum deposits of the Northern Transvaal
are said to be the largest and most important in
existence so far as is at present known. — (Official.)
GENERAL.
Corrosion of Metals. — The Corrosion Research Com-
mittee, initiated some ten years ago by the Institute
of Metals, has already issued five reports embody-
ing the results of very valuable research work on
the corrosion of metals in general and on that of
condenser tubes in particular. The necessary funds
have hitherto been provided by the Institute of
Metals, by manufacturers, and, more recently, by
the Department of Scientific and Industrial Re-
search, but the Department has now stipulated that
the continuance of Government aid will be con-
tingent on contributions being obtained from the
users of tubes and condensers, among whom ship-
ping interests are specifically mentioned. The
Committee is therefore inviting the assistance of
consumers to enable it to continue its work. Com-
munications should be addressed to the secretary,
Mr. G. Shaw Scott, at 36, Victoria Street, S.W. I.
" The Institute of Physics." — A new society bearing
this title has been founded to promote the interests
of physical science and the professional welfare of
those who pursue it, on lines analogous to those of
the Institute of Chemistry. There will be three
classes of members, viz., associates (A.lnst.P.) and
fellows (F.Inst. P.), who must possess full pro-
fessional qualifications, and ordinary members. The
Institute has been brought into being by the joint
effort of the Faraday Society, the Optical Society,
and the Physical Society of London, but it is hoped
that other societies will co-operate in due course.
The first board has been constituted from members
of the councils of the societies above named ; Sir
Richard Glazebrook is president, Sir Robert Had-
field hon. treasurer, and Prof. A. W. Porter hon.
secretary. Further information may be obtained
on application to the secretary, Mr. F. S. Spiers,
10, Essex Street, Strand, W.C. 2.
Gretna and Waltliam Abbey Munition Factories. —
The conclusions of the committee appointed in
February, 1919, to consider the future of these
factories, and reached in June, 1919, have just been
issued as a White Paper [Cmd. 667, Id.]. The
recommendations include the retention of the
Gretna factory as being the more up-to-date and
better suited for manufacturing cordite, and the
scrapping of the works at Waltham Abbey. The
committee was advised that cheap, duty-free methyl
alcohol of a grade suitable for the dye industry
could be manufactured at Gretna, as well as ether,
provided the existing plant were slightly modified,
and it recommends that a small grant be made for
this purpose. The Government could also assist by
encouraging local industries to start in the neigh-
bourhood, and by offering cheap power and water,
and facilities over the factory railways. Sir Win.
Pearce, in a minority report, recommends the re-
tention of Waltham Abbey and the scrapping of
Gretna. The Admiralty already possesses a cordite
factory adequate to supply its requirements, there
is a large stock of cordite in the country and a
large over-production of both oleum and glycerin.
The locality of Gretna is unsuitable for peace pro-
duction, and its enormous capital cost, approaching
£150 per ton of cordite produced, should be cut
forthwith.
Conjoint Board of Scientific Societies. — According to
the report of the Conjoint Board of Scientific)
Societies for 1919, the total number of constituent
societies is now 57, four societies having been ad-
mitted to membership in the past year. Among
the seventeen committees appointed by the Board
are seven which deal respectively with the following
subjects : — The prevention of overlapping among
scientific societies ; the metric system ; iron ore ; the
water power of the British Empire; timber for
aeroplane construction ; glue and other adhesives ;
joint buildings for scientific and technical societies.
It is stated that water power investigations in many
parts of the Empire have been stimulated, particu-
larly in India, British Guiana, and New Zealand,
and the suggestion is put forward that some per-
manent central body is required to co-ordinate,
advise, collect, and distribute data relating to water
powers throughout the Empire. The research work
carried out under the auspices of the committee on
glue and other adhesives has now been transferred
to the Department of Scientific and Industrial Re-
search. The work includes the formation of
numerical standards for adhesives, investigations on
the methods of preparing gelatins and glues, and
researches on adhesives from casein and other
sources. A new method has now been patented for
making an adhesive by condensing formalin and
phenol, and a number of technical researches has
been carried out. The report of the committee on
joint buildings for scientific and technical societies
states that a joint building and library adjacent to
the Institution of Civil Engineers at Westminster
would be an asset of great national importance.
Toxicity of Lead Paints. — The committee appointed
by the Home Secretary in 1911 to investigate the
hygienic effects of the use of lead compounds on
persons engaged in painting, enamelling, and var-
nishing coaches and carriages has recommended
that the use of any painting, filling, stopping, or
similar material containing more than 5 per cent,
of its dry weight of a soluble lead compound should
be prohibited after three years from the date of
the report. A method for the determination of
soluble lead is prescribed.
Sugar in the West Indies in 1919. — The sugar ex-
ported from the West Indies in 1919 amounted to
267,247 tons, a decrease of nearly 24,000 tons on
the estimated amount. This decrease is ascribed
to various causes, including shortage of fertilisers
and labour, and drought. The chief sugar-produc-
ing areas included in the West Indies group are
Barbadoes and British Guiana. At present con-
ditions are reported to be favourable, and the 1920
crop is estimated at 271,318 tons.— (Bull. Dept.
Trade and Com., Canada, Apr. 5, 1920.)
The Late Prof. W. Will. — Wilhelm Will was born
in Giessen in 1854 and died on December 30, 1919.
He studied and graduated at the University of
Giessen, and in 1876 went to Berlin, where he served
as assistant to A. W. von Hofmann. In 1891 he
gave up his academic work to undertake the estab-
lishment of an institute for explosives' research con-
nected with the War Office, which later developed
REVIEW.
into the Militiirversuchsamt. Will made valuable
contributions on the production of a stable nitro-
cellulose. His stability tests consists in determining
volumetrically the nitrogen evolved from the sample
at 135° C, the progress of the gas evolution being
recorded graphically. He introduced into ex-
plosives technique the so-called " Zentralite," sub-
stituted ureas, which act as stabilisers and regu-
lators of combustion. A method of manufacturing
nitro-glycerin powders not involving the use of
volatile solvents, such as acetone, was introduced
by him, by which the processes of manufacture and
test were considerably accelerated. He also found
a means of overcoming the sensitiveness of nitro-
glycerin to frost, and the instability due thereto,
by the addition of nitrated polyglycerides. The
danger of fire-damp explosions in mines is con-
siderably reduced by the use of the safety explosives
introduced by Will; and his introduction of tetra-
nitromethylaniline in place of trinitrotoluene in
detonators marked an important step in advance.
Much work was carried out under his direction dur-
ing the war on the use of liquid air as an explosive,
and on the substitution of lead azide for mercury
fulminate. He served in the field during the
opening stages of the late war, but was re-
called to the War Ministry at the instigation of
Emil Fischer. There he rendered notable service
in connexion with the substitution of wood cellu-
lose for cotton, the chief difficulty being to prepare
the former in such a state that it had the same
absorptive capacity for acid as the latter. — (B.
Lepsius; Ghent. Intl., Feb. 28, 1920.)
The Origin of Petroleum. — Although largely de-
pendent on chemical investigation, the subject
o fthe origin of petroleum is essentially a geo-
logical question. Of the many theories that have
been advanced, so far it cannot be said that
any one has given universal satisfaction or
been accepted as conclusive. It is, however,
probable that no single theory of origin suffices to
meet the case. The theories of origin can be broadly
grouped as either organic or inorganic. It appears
improbable that any commercial supplies of petro-
leum can have originated in an inorganic manner,
although small quantities of hydrocarbon occur in
meteorites, igneous rocks, or in volcanic material.
The theories that suggest its origin as due to the
action of percolating carbonated waters on metallic
iron at high temperatures deep down in the earth,
or as due to the interaction of water, or steam,
on metallic carbides are not satisfactory, as many
objections can be raised to them. Another inorganic
hypothesis is the " mining " theory of origin, and
has been suggested in view of the frequent associa-
tion of sulphur and gypsum with petroleum, the
supposition being that sulphur dioxide and sul-
phuretted hydrogen acting on limestone in the
presence of water could produce petroleum, gypsum,
and sulphur. The gypsum has, however, probably
been formed in a stratiform manner or is contem-
poraneous with the beds in which it is formed.
On the whole, it appears advisable to accept
organic hypotheses of origin as affording the most
probable sources of derivation — in any case in re-
spect of large deposits of petroleum. The required
conditions or factors for the production of deposits
of petroleum, originating from organic matter, may
be summarised as follows : - — (1) Sufficient sources of
organic matter (mainly marine and especially
micro-organic) and deposition together with
rapidly accumulating (preferably) argillaceous de-
posits, possibly in presence of saline conditions; or
transportation of the hydrocarbons by means of clay
sediments and subsequent deposition. (2) The
existence of a suitable medium whereby the bitumen
can reach and accumulate in porous beds — either
by means of capillarity and adsorption or through
cracks and fissures in the argillaceous or impervious
material. (3) The presence of such porous beds
suitable to serve as reservoirs, within access from
the seat of origin, and sealed by impervious
material. (4) The presence of water (preferably-
saline) in the strata, or water-logged rocks, and
the advent of geotectonic conditions favourable for
effecting concentration. The possible organic
origins are examined in detail, and reasons are
given for supposing that marine organic sources are
the most important as regards the origin of the
largest accumulations of oil. The author considers
salinity to indicate a general prevalence of desic-
cated conditions attending deposition, although he
points out that a saline condition of the water
would tend to promote the separation of the oil
and thus the production of accumulations. The
view is taken that petroleum is seldom indigenous
to the beds in which it is formed. The author re-
gards bitumen as not of sporadic or restricted oc-
currence, but as being fairly generally present or
accumulating in appreciable deposits where the con-
ditions are favourable. — (Mining Magazine, Jan.,
1920.)
LEGAL INTELLIGENCE.*
Naphthalene Transactions. J. M. Steel and Co.
v. The Gas Light and Coke Co.
In the King's Bench Division, on April 19,
Messrs. J. M. Steel and Co. sought to recover
money alleged to have been paid in error to the
Gas Light and Coke Co. in respect of purchases
of naphthalene.
It was stated on behalf of the plaintiffs that
before the war they had bought their supplies from
the defendants, but owing to shortage during the
war they had been compelled to purchase from
people who had bought from the defendants. In
this way they bought 10 tons of ball naphthalene
from a Mr. McCarthy on March 8, 1916, and paid
him £465 on March 10, when they obtained a de-
livery order on the Gas Co. When plaintiffs
sent for the goods, defendants refused to deliver
without payment, and plaintiffs then, in error, paid
them i-425. They had thus paid McCarthy £465
and plaintiffs £425. Two years later the mistake
was discovered, and plaintiffs now claimed £425
from defendants. On July 29, 1916, plaintiffs
bought another 10 tons from McCarthy, and on
August 4 the latter paid defendants £470 for the
goods and received a delivery order. On the same
day plaintiffs asked the defendants whether
McCarthy had paid them, and they said he had.
Plaintiffs then paid McCarthy £470, but did not
take immediate delivery. When delivery was re-
quested later on defendants failed to deliver, and
plaintiffs now sought to recover the money paid,
ivith damages for alleged breach of contract.
In giving judgment, Mr. Justice Shearman said
that, in the first claim, plaintiffs could not say
that the money paid by them to defendants was
money which defendants had to their use and, there-
fore, defendants were not bound to repay plaintiffs.
With regard to the second claim, when plaintiffs
and defendants were negotiating for delivery, they
both forgot that McCarthy had paid, and it was
clear that this was the plaintiff's money, demanded
and paid on the basis that money was due when it
was not due. Judgment was given for the plaintiff i
for £450 with general costs of the action, defendants
to have the costs of the first issue.
• More detailed accounts of legal cases reported in this Journal
may be seen on application at the Society's offices.
Vol. XXXIX., Xo. 9 ]
REVIEW.
171 R
OFFICIAL TRADE INTELLIGENCE.
(From the Board of Trade Journal for
April 22 and 29 and May 6.)
OPENINGS FOR BRITISH TRADE.
The following inquiries have been received at the
Department of Overseas Trade, 35, Old Queen
Street, London, S.W. 1, from firms, agents or in-
dividuals who desire to represent U.K. manufac-
turers or exporters of the goods specified. British
firms may obtain the names and addresses of the
persons or firms referred to by applying to the
Department and quoting the specific reference
number : —
Locality of
Firm or
Materials.
Agent.
Australia
548
595
Bottles, glass, earthenware
596
Glassware. Drycolouis
635
British India
Cement, paint
Lubricating oils and greases, sizing and
549
finishing materials
636
637
Canada
Rubber, paper, twine
Pig-iron
600
Chemicals, pharmaceutical preparations . .
603
Fertilisers, basic slag
Essential oils, rubber, leather, paint.
varnish, perfumes, soap, glass, matches.
t
Tinplate
644
Sodium hyposulphite, naphthalene, Epsom
salts, sodium sulphide
646
647
Pig-iron
654
Egypt
Leather, paint, oils, tinplate, galvanised
sheets
501
Metals
605
Oil paint
658
Glass and china
659
Glassware, aniline, caustic soda, sodium
silicate
Crockery
Lubricating oils, bar iron and steel, dis-
infectants
Dyes, oxides of cobalt and manganese,
sodium and potassium dichromates.
nonium chloride
Denmark
Varnish
Italy
Heavy chemicals, pig iron, metals
611
Netherlands . .
Steel sheets, bar iron
664
Norway
Sugar, svrup, cotton-seed products
576
Poland
Tvpe metal
578
Fats, oils, manures
579
Oils, grease, rubber, paper, rope
580
Portugal
Metals, carbide*
667
Rumania
Boric acid, carbolic acid, antipyrin. aspirin,
quinine sulphate, iodine, potassium
iodide, potassium permanganate, sodium
sulphate, bismuth salts, vaseline, der*
♦
Switzerland
Tanned leather
Nickel steel sheets
Argentina
Industrial chemicals, paint, varnish, wire
586
Brazil
Metals, paints in powder form '
621
Cuba
Soap, paraffin
Wire cloth, steel and galvanised wire and
587
plates, linseed oil
625
Mexico
Iron and steel rope
589
Chemicals, drugs
590
"
Alcoholic beverages
Chemicals, paint, varnish, tinplate, china.
591
bottles, glass, leather
502
Photographic plates, film3 and chemicals
677
• The High Commissioner for Canada, 19. Victoria Street. London
S.W. 1.
tThe Canadian Government Trade Commissioner. 73, Basinghall
Street, London. E.C. 2.
t M. le Commandant I. Cerna. Corpul Greniceri, Boulevard
Bratiann (Colt cu Batiste), Bucharest.
Markets Sought. — A firm in Canada owning
mica and molybdenite properties wishes to hear
from interested firms in the U.K. [Inquiries to the
High Commissioner for Canada.]
A Canadian firm manufacturing aspirin,
phenacetin, benzoic acid, sodium benzoate, salicylic
acid and potassium permanganate wishes to get into
touch with importers in the U.K.
iAi_ ^^nadian firm manufacturing denatured
alcohol desires to hear from U.K. importers.
A British Columbian firm wishes to find a market
for talc, magnesite, magnesium sulphate, etc., in
the U.K. [Inquiries to Canadian Government
Trade Commissioner.]
A firm in Poland wishes to hear from importers of
cement in the U.K. [612.]
TARIFF. CUSTOMS. EXCISE.
Argentina.— The import dutv on sugar has been
reduced as from Febuary 14.
The export duties for this year will be levied on
the same basis as those for the years 1918 and 1919,
except that wheat, flour and preserved meat now
pay the full rates of duty.
Australia. — The new schedule of import duties
is issued as a supplement to the issue of April 22.
The chief new feature of the schedule is an inter-
mediate scale of duties about which, however, no
information is available at present.
Austria. — Among the articles for which export
licences are required are salt, saccharin, fats, oils,
hides, skins, ores, magnesite, asbestos, cement,
tanning materials, gums, resins, mineral oil (in-
cluding paraffin), paper pulp, paper, cardboard,
rubber, leather, bricks, tiles, pig iron, metals of
al! kinds, candles, soap, matches, artificial manures,
explosives and many chemicals.
Belgium. — Among the articles under the control
of the Ministry of Industry, Labour and Supply
for which export licences are required are alcohol,
soap, candles, starch, matches and certain seeds.
An import licence is still required for sugar (ex-
cept molasses).
Canada. — The import of margarine is permitted
under licence until August 31, and the sale until
March 1, 1921, but the margarine so imported must
conform to certain specified conditions.
The import of explosives, except " safety cart-
ridges," is prohibited unless such explosives have
been declared to be authorised explosives.
The Dumping Clause of the Tariff Act provides,
inter cilia, that when imported goods of a class or
kind made in Canada are sold in that country at
more than 5 per cent, below the fair market value
in the country of origin, the importation is subject
to dumping duty.
Columbia. — The import duty on certain food-
stuffs, including sugar, lard, flour and biscuits, is
suspended until July 20.
Federated Malay 'States. — The export duties on
tin and tin ore are set out in the issue for May 6.
Finland. — No export licences are required, inter
alia, for carbide, cork, gneiss, paper and manufac-
tures thereof, pig-iron, resin, tar, turpentine, wood
pulp, wood products, except paper-wood and fire-
wood.
France and Algeria. — With some exceptions goods
may now be imported from Germany and other
European countries without licence.
Recent customs decisions affect incandescent
mantles and paper.
The export of industrial alcohol is prohibited
save under licence. The increased coefficients of
increase relating to yeast, fireproof pottery and
firebricks, etc., are given in the issue for May 6.
The decree prohibiting the import of "luxury"
articles applies to perfumed soap and perfumeries,
blacking, glass ware, fabrics of silk and artificial
silk, paper and manufactures of paper, kinemato-
graph films, metal wares, arms, powder and
ammunition, optical apparatus, etc.
Gambia. — An export duty of £2 per ton has been
placed on palm kernels.
Georgia. — The customs duties (i.e.. those of the
former Russian " European " tariff) have been in-
creased tenfold, but certain foods are exempted
REVIEW.
[May 15, 1920.
from duty. Regulations have been issued regarding
the control of exports from the Republic.
Germany. — Rubber wares and medicated wadding
may not be exported except under licence.
The regulations respecting the control of export
trade are set out in the issue for April 29.
The taxes to be levied on the issue of export
licences for export-prohibited goods have now been
fixed.
Gold Coast. — The import and sale of " trade
spirits " is prohibited as from February 23.
Drugs and official preparations in the British
Pharmacopoeia are now free from import duty.
Italy. — The amount of duty payable is increased
by 100 per cent, when payment is made in paper
currency.
Jugo-Slavia. — Among the articles of " luxury "
the import of which is prohibited are cocoa,
oleaginous fruits, extract of meat, ivory, canthar-
ides, vegetable fats, alcoholic beverages, vinegar,
margarine, agate, amber, perfumed soap, saccharin,
fusel oil, acetone, wood spirit, volatile oils (except
turpentine and camphor oil), artificial perfumes,
leather, artificial leather, certain wares of rubber,
paper and glass, " luxury " articles of china and
porcelain, and certain manufactures of metals.
Luxemburg. — The export of elates is prohibited
except under special licence.
Import licences are required for, inter alia, slates,
cement, polishes, explosives and fire-proof products.
Netherlands. — The prohibition on the export of
aluminium and aluminium alloys, copper and
copper alloys, salt, vinegar and yeast has been
temporarily raised.
Norway. — The prohibition of the import of beer
containing more than 4'75 per cent, of alcohol has
been cancelled.
Paraguay. — The Budget Law for 1919, with cer-
tain modifications, is to be remain in force until
August 15.
Poland. — Among the articles on which the import
duty must be paid in gold are vanilla, saffron,
alcoholic beverages, perfumery and certain kinds
of porcelain.
Portugal. — The export of olive oil is prohibited as
from February 20.
St. Vincent. — Crude oil is now admitted duty
free, and the export duty on syrup and molasses
is raised from Is. 6d. to 5s. per 100 galls.
Spain. — Export licences for olive oil will be valid
until September 30 for oil exported in barrels, and
to October 31 for oil exported in tins or bottles with
Spanish trade marks.
The duty leviable on absorbent gauze is fixed at
2 pesetas per kg.
Turkey. — Sulphur and petroleum are among the
articles that may now be exported without licence.
COMPANY NEWS.
GOVERNMENT ORDERS AND NOTICES.
Pkohibited Exports. — The Board of Trade
(Licensing Section) has announced the removal
from List A of Prohibited Exports of the following
goods: Milk, condensed unsweetened; milk
evaporated (April 29); cod-liver oil and prepara-
tions containing; quinine sulphate (May 6).
Patents and Designs Acts, 1907 and 1919. — The
Board of Trade has given notice that Section 29 (1),
(2), and (4) of the principal Act, as amended by
Section 8 of the Patents and Designs Act, 1919, and
Section 15 of the latter Act came into operation on
April 23 last.
UNITED ALKALI CO., LTD.
At the adjourned 27th and 28th annual meetings,
held in Liverpool on April 21, Mr. Max Muspratt,
chairman, regretted his inability to include the ac-
counts for 1919. The Inland Revenue authorities
were disputing the company's claims for deferred
repairs, and were demanding that the minimum
working stocks should be written up ; these were
mainly stocks which were never realised until a
works was finally closed, and the object of the de-
mand was to levy excess profits duty on the fictitious
profits so created. This impost was also being
strenuously resisted by other firms and by the
Federation of British Industries.
The 29th annual meeting followed. Mr. Mus-
pratt referred to the long time it had taken to place
the company's operations on a peace-time basis.
This should be completed later in the year, but the
question of deferred repairs would take longer.
Owing to excessive costs, manufacturing was being
carried on under adverse conditions, but he was
hopeful that prices would be reduced before long.
Labour, which cost the company £750,000 per
annum before the war, cost £1,570,000 in 1919, and
fuel, of which 800,000 tons was consumed, cost 27s.
per ton, against lis. in 1915. The general outlook,
nevertheless, was good. In accordance with its
policy of concentration, the company had closed
and dismantled the Gerard's Bridge works at St.
Helens, and the Muspratt works at Flint had been
sold to Messrs. Courtaulds, Ltd. The sum of
£10,000, spread over five years, had been offered to
the University of Liverpool and accepted. The
dividend payable on the ordinary shares for the
past year was 15 per cent., less tax.
UNITED PREMIER OIL AND CAKE CO., LTD.
The first ordinary general meeting was held in
London on April 30. Mr. H. Guedalla, who pre-
sided, explained that the company was a holding
company, and that it held practically all the capital
in Wray, Sanderson and Co., J. L. Seaton and Co.,
Premier Oil Extracting Mills, Sowerby and Co.,
Ltd., and the Universal Oil Co., Ltd.; and recently
various smaller businesses had been acquired. In
future the company would not deal in raw material.
Investments in subsidiary companies stood at
£1,302,794, the net amount received from them was
£246,726, and the sum at disposal was £181,456.
The ordinary shareholders are to receive 10 per
cent., free of tax, for the period under review
(7J months), and the carry forward is about
£60,000. The recent decision to issue the remaining
250,000 ordinary £1 shares at 25s. would place the
company in a strong financial position. A research
department had been established.
TRADE NOTES.
FOREIGN.
Trade in Persia. — The chief articles exported from
the Teheran district are raw cotton, opium, nuts,
gum tragacanth, silk cocoons, petroleum, asafoetida
and saffron. This trade formerly went largely to
Russia, but is now diverted to India and Great
Britain. Gum tragacanth to the value of £18,693
and £1159 was exported to the United States in
1917 and 1918, respectively. Great Britain has taken
the premier position formerly held by Russia in the
import trade, which includes textiles, drugs, dyes,
paints, glass ware, petroleum, rubber goods, etc. —
— (U.S. Com. Pep., Mar. 30, 1920.)
Vol. XXXIX., No. 9]
Chemicals and Drugs in Japan. — The drug and
chemical trade in Japan is centred at Ozaka and
Tokvo, which are also the chief ports. The exports
were valued at about £5.600.000 in 1916, £6.600,000
in 1917, £7.400.000 in 1918. whilst the imports were
valued at about £5,600,000 in 1916, £6,400,000 in
1917, and £7,800,000 in 1918. The trade continued
active in 1919, especially for sulphate of ammonia.
Among the various crude and botanical drugs now
obtainable in Japan are ginseng, pyrethrum
flowers, scopola root, valerian root, camomile
■flowers, and cocoa leaves, and in addition to
camphor, menthol, etc.. the prepared drugs avail-
able include aconite, iodine, and peach bark ex-
tract. Many of the drugs and medicines in com-
mon use are imported. — (U.S. Com. Sep., Mar. 30,
1920.)
Tanning Industry in Sao Paulo, Brazil. — Prior to
1914 it was not possible to establish the tanning
industry in Sao Paulo on a paying basis, but con-
ditions changed radically owing to the war, and
there are now 32 tanneries, four of which contain
first-class plants, in the State. All the tanneries
work on cowhide save one, which works on sheep-
skins. Large quantities of cowhide are available for
export, salted hides and dry hides being shipped in
1918 to the extent of 2,426,046 and 5160 lb. re-
spectively. In addition, leather, mostly sole
leather, was exported to the weight of 72,852 lb. in
1918, as against an importation of 486,448 lb. in
the same year. In view of the tax (about 3s. 9d.)
on every cowhide exported and the heavy import
duties on leather, the tanning industry in Sao
Paulo has everv prospect of success. — (U.S. Com.
Sep., Mar. 12, 1920.)
Foreign Company News. — France. — La Bevue
Economique et Financiere reports that the
" Etablissements Poulenc " (tine chemical manufac-
turers, etc.) show a profit for the year 1918-19
about equal to that of the previous year, say,
5,768,000 fr., and the dividend will probably be
maintained at 50 fr.-: at the same time, the capital
is to be increased by the issue of 16,000 new shares
of 500 fr. issued at 550 fr. The total capital will
then be 20 million fr., say, £800,000 nominal.
Sweden. — The report of the Svenska Tandsticks
A.B. (Swedish Match Trust) states that the year
1919 was essentially a transition period to normal
conditions. Although supplies of wood were scarce,
chemicals were easier to obtain. During the first
six months of the year the foreign trade was very
small, partly owing to Japanese competition and
partly to the closure of markets as a result of war
conditions. In the second half of 1919 trade re-
vived, and the Dutch East Indies and British
markets have been recovered, in spite of Japanesj
competition. The industry was now in a 6trong
position. The net profits, including balance
brought in, were 9,116,000 kronor (5,763,000 k. in
1918), and a dividend of 14 per cent, has been de-
clared on the ordinary share capital of 45 million k.
(12 per cent, in 1918).
According to Das Handehmuseum, in February
last the Trust took over all the match factories in
Finland, owing to fear of Finnish competition in
foreign markets, especially in Dutch markets,
where during the war Sweden acquired a virtual
monopoly.
Holland. — The " N. V. Hollandsche Kunstzijde
Industrie " has been founded in Breda, with a.
capital of five million gulden, for the manufacture
of artificial silk and similar materials.
Chemical Industry and Trade in Spain. — The wealth
of Spain is chiefly of an agricultural and mineral
nature, but war conditions have led to a fuller
development of the natural resources of the country,
chiefly in the mining and metallurgical fields. The
following tables give the chief imports and exports
of a chemical nature during 1916 and 1918, the
figures referring to pounds of weight unless other-
wise stated : —
Chief Imports of Chemicals and Allied Products
in 1916 and 1918.
191C. 1918.
lb. lb.
Acetate of lime and pyrolignite of iron 1.106.504 .. 219,790
Acids : —
Acetic and pyrolijmeou* .. .. 17,742 .. 271
Citric and tartaric and their alkali
salt* 936.362 . . 700.453
Hydrochloric and sulphuric .. 64,604 .. 17 489
Nitric 18.060 . . 5082
Carbolic acid, naphthalene, creolin.
etc. 213.460 . . 203.163
Sulpholeic and similar acids . . 7,824 . .
Albumin 59.643 . . 66.419
Alkali carbonates, borates, silicates ;
ammonium salts other than the
nitrate 4.977.273 . . 2,636.607
Alkaloids, other than quinine . . 4,440 . . 6.512
Alums, sulphate, chloride and acetate
of alumina, sodium aluminate.
kieserite 2.329,898 .. 553,056
Antipyrin, etc 17,910 . . 21,383
Calcium carbide . . . . . . 3,413 . . 23,360
Chemical products . . . . . . 6,36 j.182 . . 2,911,737
Chloride of lime 1.130,455 .. 2.179,573
Chloroform 6.314 . . 9.520
Ether 7.484 . . 2.749
Fertilisers : — ■
Superphosphate and basic slag . . 50.831,373 . . 24.390
Nitrate Of soda 98.614,242 .. 41.337.366
Sulphate of ammonia, potash salts . . 139.543.051 .. 270,584
Phosphate rock (tons) 288.328 .. 115.028
Gelatin 146.392 . . 54.992
Glycerin 2.399 . . 68
Insecticides (sulphates of copper and
iron, cyanides) 8.903.909 . . 348.934
Lead oxides 33.854 . . 33,653
Phosphorus 43,192 . . 4,630
Potassium and sodium chlorates and
phosphoric acid 212.279 . . 101.383
Caustic soda and potash . . . . 46.665 . . 4.939
Sodium chloride 298.673 . . 29.445
Sodium sulphate and sulphite, chloride
and carbonate of magnesia . . 2,5«7,873 . . 1,521.320
Sulphur : —
Crude 3,945.800 .. —
Refined unground 4.349.285 .. 2,609." IS
Refined ground and Bowers of . . 17.723,065 . . 6,707,213
Tannin 37.143 .. 5.121
Dyes and dyestuffs 9.429.100 . . 6.205.545
Paints, pigments, colours, etc. . . 8.301,184 . . 3.486,692
Oils, fats and waxes 28.755.332 . . 19.053,819
Sesame, linseed, copra, etc. . . (tons) 44.870 . . 16.104
Miscellaneous 223.101.463 . . 120.869.677
Chief Exports of Chemical and Allied Products
in 1916 and 1918.
1916. 1918.
lb. lb.
Chemical products 70.123.194 . . 40.249.587
Chloride of lime 1,170,725 . . 105,116
Copper sulphate 43,905 .. 250.004
Glvcerin 1.860.898 . . 1.993.224
Perfumes and essential oils .. .. 1.012.612 .. 1.280.017
Mineral salts 10.400 . . 2.405.227
Caustic soda 5,990.546 . . 8.037.639
Sodium chloride (tons) 423,035 .. 336.063
Sodium sulphate 696,262 .. 419,635
Sulphur 1.243 . . 559.123
Tartar, crude 16.338.750 . . 10.965.288
Tartar, cream of 701.154 . . 1.161.382
Tartrate of lime 1.470.150 . . 2.654.749
Paints, pigments, colours, varnishes .. 9.107.630 .. 9.015.325
Oils, oilseeds, fats and waxes . . 351.777,810 . . 64.272,590
blende (tons) 53.634 . . 47.666
Calamine (crude and calcined) .. 40.898 . . 6.49d
Copper ores 45.606 . . 22.350
Galena 1.231 .. 113
Iron ores 5.045.575 . . 4.292.406
Iron pyrites 2.744.767 . . 1.065.701
Lead ores . . . . • • .. "30 . . 374
Manganese oxes . . ■ ■ .. 8,851 . . -2.521
Barks and tanning materials . . . . 21,843.128 . . 12,546.830
Candles 827.538 .. 96.294
Explosives 294.734 .. 647.620
Glass 30,112.814 .. 19.432.730
Rosin 23.662,849 .. 11,786.960
Turpentine 8.234.308 .. 5.113.364
Paper 40.807.525 .. 18.4Cl.80s
Soap, common . . . . . ■ • ■ 7.824,560 . . 10.355.774
Sugar 5,579.425 .. 1 .390.300
Vegetable pitch 212.435 . . 1.466.867
(For production of minerals and mineral products,
see this J., 1920. 96 R.)— (J. Ind. and Eny. Chem.,
Mar., 1920.)
REVIEW.
[May ^15, 1920.
REVIEW.
MOLINAHI'S ChEMISTKY. VOLUME I. : INORGANIC.
Second edition, translated from the fourth
revised and amplified Italian edition by T.. H.
Pope. Pp. xix + 876, with 328 illustrations and
2 plates. (London: J. and A. Churchill. 1920.)
Price £2 2s. net.
This translation of the fourth Italian edition of
Molinari's treatise is dated 1920, but the date of
publication of the foreign edition is not given. It
is obviously desirable that this should be done in
all translations. The text follows closely that of
the first English edition; the coloured plate of
spectra in the latter is omitted, and a few new
sections are added. The latter deal with such
topics as the Bone and Schnabel surface-combustion
process, the utilisation of peat, the manufacture
of cyanides, and many other less detailed additions
to the text. There are also new illustrations.
Since the author explicitly states in the preface
that his main purpose has been to describe
industrial processes, one would expect the theo-
retical side to be lees prominent than usual. On
the whole, however, the introductory part of the
book, comprising 132 pages, gives a reasonably
complete account of the foundations of the science.
In some cases, indeed, the treatment is fuller than
that accorded to the subject by other books of the
same size. Atomic numbers, and Bragg's re-
searches are not mentioned. Werner's theory of
valency is explained only very briefly. The very
scanty reference to Nernst's theorem, which is now
a matter of technical interest, on p. 72, is inadequate
and the confusion of a-rays and positive electrons,
on p. 127, is another instance of some carelessness
on the theoretical side. The historical allusions
add to the interest of the text, but are sometimes
misleading. Thus, the reference to Priestley on
p. 169, and that to Scheele and " Berthelot ''(sic)
on p. 573, give an entirely erroneous impression of
the points at issue. The mis-spelling of names now
customary (e.g., " Brody " for " Brodie," "Ber-
thelot" for " Berthollet ") is also represented. It
is much to be regretted that authors who give
historical details should almost invariably convey
the impression that they have no acquaintance
with the original sources. The text-books on the
history of chemistry, from which information seems
commonly to be derived, are not usually exceptions
to this rule. On p. 319 it is stated that the Squire
process (really that of Messel and Squire) was used
in "the large works of Thann, of London."
Thann is a town in Alsace, where the factory was
situated. The statement as to the relation of the
Norwegian nitrate works to the Badische Co.,
given on p. 396, seems to be inaccurate.
There are only very sketchy descriptions of
hydrazine and hydroxylamine salte, both of which
are technical products, and no mention is made
of Raschig's process for the preparation of the
former. Hydrogen persulphide is still given the
formula H2S5 ; there is no mention of Baker in the
description of N203 ; and in connexion with per-
sulphates it is stated on p. 329 that: " According
to Ger. Pats. 172,508 and 205,069, persulphate*
may be obtained by the electrolysis of sodium or
potassium bisulphate," not a word appearing of
the original work of Marshall. In many cases,
indeed, the reviewer has obtained the impression
that the author of the book exercised insufficient
judgment in his choice of material.
The translation is not particularly well done.
Thus, on p. 396 we read that a reaction proceeds
" better in the hot in presence of catalysts."
In spite of these defects, and of its relatively
high price, the book should be very useful to
studente and as a work of reference. The detailed
accounts of technical processes form a most wel-
come supplement to the ordinary text-books, and
a mass of really useful information is contained in
the work. Although the data on costs all relate to
pre-war conditions, they are not without value to
the technical student, who too often does not know
that potassium iodide, for instance, cannot be used
as lavishly on the large scale as limestone. The
statistical tables of production, and of exports and
imports, have been brought up to date, and the
detailed statements of the uses to which chemicals-
are applied are a good feature.
The description of the several hydrometer scales
in use, which occupies pp. 77-79, may serve to
bring home to technical chemists the folly of their
ways. Great confusion has been caused by the
use of these perfectly unnecessary scales. Even if
a knowledge of decimals is regarded as less of an
obstacle to the efficient prosecution of works
routine than was formerly the case, the use of a
scale in which water is taken as 1000 or 100, and
the statement of specific gravities as 1250 for 1'250,
or 986 for 0'986, would seem to meet the needs even
of the " practical " man.
J. R. Partington.
PUBLICATIONS RECEIVED.
The Hydrogenation of Oils. Catalysers and-
Catalysis. Second edition, revised and en-
larged. By Carleton Ellis. Pp. xvii. +767.
(London: Constable and Co., Ltd. 1920.) Price
36s.
Tungsten Ores. By R. H. Rastall and W. H.
Wilcockson. Monographs on Mineral Be-
sources, with special reference to the British
Empire. Imperial Institute. Pp. 81. (Lon-
don: John Murray. 1920.) Price 3s. 6d.
Report of the Fv/el Research Board for 1918 and
1919. Department of Scientific and Industrial
Besearch. (London: Stationery Office. 1920.)
Price Is. 6d.
Annual Reports of the Society of Chemical
Industry on the Progress of Applied
Chemistry. 1919. Vol. IV. (London:
Society of Chemical Industry. 1920.) Price to-
members, 5s. 6<i.; to non-members, 12s. 6d.
Report of First Conference of Research Organ-
isations. July 29, 1919. Report of Second
Conference of Research Organisations.
December 12, 1919. (London: Department of
Scientific and Industrial Besearch. 1920.)
Panchromatism. Second edition, revised and en-
larged. Pp.32. (London: Ilford, Ltd.) Price
Gd.
Publications of the United States Geological
Survey. Department of the Interior.
(Washington: Government Printing Office.
1920.)
The Work on Mineral Resources done by the
United States Geological Subvey. By
E. S. Bastin and H. D. McCaskey.
Architectural Concrete Stone and Building
Blocks in 1917 and 1918. By G. F. Lough-
LIN.
Asbestos in 1918. Bt; J. T. Diller.
Potash in 1918. By W. B. Hicks.
Strontium in 1918. By G. W. Stose.
Asphalt and Allied Substance in 1918. By
C. C. Osbon.
Talc and Soapstone in 1918. By J. S. Diller.
Mineral Waters in 1918. By A. J. Ellis.
Vol. XXXIX., No. 10.]
REVIEW
[May 31, 1920.
REPORT OF THE CHEMICAL
SERVICES COMMITTEE (INDIA).*
In the autumn of 1919, Prof. J. F. Thorpe, pro-
fessor of organic chemistry in the Imperial College
of Science and Technology, London, was appointed
by the India Office to preside over a committee to
consider the advisability of establishing an all-India
Chemical Service, and in the event of this being
approved to map out a scheme for its initiation,
containing, inter alia, proposals for the location,
6cope and organisation of research institutes. In
addition to the president, the committee comprised
Dr. K. S. Caldwell, Mr. R. W. Davies, Dr. W.
Harrison (Imperial Agricultural Chemist), Sir P. C.
Ray, Prof. J. J. Sudborough, and Dr. J. L.
Simonsen (secretary). Prof. Thorpe arrived in
India in November last, and the report was in the
hands of the authorities by the following February.
The committee found that the formation of a
Government chemical service was the best means of
overcoming existing difficulties and deficiencies, and
of encouraging industrial research and develop-
ment. The main defect of the existing order ii
considered to be the absence of any effective means
of co-ordination, and the keynote of tha new
proposals is research on a co-operative basis.
It is proposed that the co-ordinating and advisory
centre should be a Central Imperial Chemical Re-
search Institute located at Dehra Dun, which is
near Simla and Delhi and in the same area as the
Forest Research Institute. Its duties would in-
clude : — the . creation of new industries and the
development of new processes up to a " 6emi-large "
scale, or further if necessary; the investigation of
problems of a fundamental character which have no
apparent immediate practical importance but may
be pregnant with industrial possibilities; the main-
tenance of an information bureau and record office,
and the publication of information. The director-
generalship of the chemical service and the director-
ship of the central institute should be united in the
same person, and under him should be a deputy
director-general and, in the first instance, four
deputy directors of research in charge of depart-
ments for inorganic and physical, organic, metal-
lurgical, and analytical chemistry at the central
institute. It is recommended that the general work
of this institute be under a board of control, with
the director-general as chairman and eminent
chemical experts as members.
An important feature of the proposals is the
establishment of a research institute, with or
without 'sub-stations, in each Province, under a
local director of research, who, for administrative
purposes, would be independent of the central
autbority. Should a Province not elect to provide
an institute or to employ a director of research, it
would be open to the director-general to recommend
the erection of an Imperial institute in that
Province and to place in charge thereof a member
of the chemical service as director; but such an
institute should be handed over to the local
authority when desired. The functions of these
institutes would be, briefly, to maintain contact
with and solve problems for chemists and chemical
industry, to translate laboratory and " semi-
large " scale results into industrial practice, to
assist in the development of new industries, and to
carry out analytical work. The equipment of the
institutes would include apparatus of about one-
sixtieth of the size of the usual large scale plant.
Discoveries made would have to be published, but
not necessarily at once, and no manufacturing in
Pp.
competition with private enterprise would be per-
missible. The centres specified for the location of
Provincial research institutes are: — Madras,
Bombay, Calcutta. Ranchi, Cawnpore, Lahore,
Rangoon and Nagpur. There should be close co-
operation between the central and local institutes,
the latter sending up certain problems for solution
at the former, while the " central " officials would
visit the Provincial institutes and co-ordinate the
work done in each. The chemists employed at these
institutes would be members of the chemical service,
but would receive their appointments and pay from
the Provincial Government.
With regard to the relationships between the
chemical service and existing institutions, it is
recognised that the reorganisation of the scientific
departments connected with the Agricultural
Service is inevitable, and that in the "meantime
agricultural chemists should be excluded from the
chemical service. The opinion is emphasised that
research on industries subsidiary to agriculture is
outside the scope of the Agricultural Department ;
also that the chemical examination of forest pro-
ducts in situ is within the sphere of chemistry. A
joint survey of the forests by chemists and botanists
and a joint chemical exploitation of forest products
are recommended. Ordnance factories ought to be
controlled by men of high chemical attainments, and
all chemists employed under the Ordnance Depart-
ment, as well as assay masters and deputy assay
masters, should be seconded from the proposed
chemical service. The creation of a Ministry of
Science is called for at the earliest possible moment,
and a chemical survey of the country should be
undertaken as soon as practicable.
In a chapter on recruitment to the chemical
service it is laid down that the research laboratories
be staffed mainly by Indians, and that there should
be no differentiation in the method of appointment
of Indians and Europeans. For all appointments to
the service there should be a probationary period of
three months, and for purposes of recruitment the
qualifications recommended are: — (1) an Honours
degree in the first or second class, or its equivalent,
(2) a suitable training in _ engineering (workshop
practice and machine drawing), and (3) one or two
years' training in research. The Government
of India should make maintenance and equip-
ment grants to students while being trained
in research. The scale of payment in the
Bervice is detailed, and a standard pension of
Rs.6000 at 50 years of age is advocated. Every
member must have at least three periods of study
leave, each for a minimum period of six months, on
full pav. during his first fifteen years of service.
Although no estimate could be formed of the cost of
the scheme, it is recommended that liberal grants
be allocated for its initiation.
The report is signed bv all the members of the
committee, but Sir P. C. Ray. in an appended note,
affirms his disbelief in the principle of an all-India
chemical service. Departmentalism he regards as
" an arsenal of delav and procrastination " par-
ticularlv unsuited to India, the "services have
become'a "glaring anachronism," and the country
cannot be saved bv the installation of a chemical
hierarchy Chemical industries naturally advance
pari passu with the scientific progress of the
people, conditions differ enormously throughout the
country, and instead of imposing a cut-and-dned
on the whole land, each Province should be
left unfettered to work out its own salvation. I he
road to development lies in the improvement of the
teaching of chemistry in the Universities In spite
opinions, the writer has attached his signa-
ture to the report because he recognises that it a
Government chemical service be constituted, the
proposals of the Committee could not be bettered.
THE CELLULOID INDUSTRY IN
JAPAN.
Celluloid was first imported into Japan in L884,
although a few sample pieces were introduced from
1877 onwards. The manufacture was initiated in
1889 Li.v Rokusaburo Kocho, who established works
at Nalcanogo in the vicinity of Tokyo, but it
remained undeveloped until 1908, when two large
factories were built by the Nippon Celluloid and
Artificial Silk Co. arid the Sakai Celluloid Co.,
respectively. The former was erected at Aboshi,
near Kobe, and managed by Dr. J. L. Keen, an
English ex | urt, and the latter was conducted by
Dr. C. Axtel, an American chemist, who chose a
siii> at Sakai, near Ozaka. Alter initial difficulties
both firms succeeded in marketing their products
in 1910, but subsequently, owing to over-supply,
severe competition took place between them. In
191 !. after both works had reduced their output by
one-half, the war materially influenced their pros-
perity The Nippon company received an enormous
order tor guncotton from the Russian Governmi nt,
greatly increased the capacity of its works, and
quickly made pood the losses it had suffered during
the previous '.-ears; at the same time the Sakai
company obtained a monopoly of the supply of cellu-
loid sheets aril reaped great profits. Owing to the
utilisation of the celluloid factories of foreign
belligerents for war-time services the Japanese
celluloid and camphor industries received a great
impetus, many new plants were erected, and, in
general, -the industry was placed on a very sound
footing.
According in the Annual Reports of the Japanese
('iisiei- Bureau, initiated in 1896, importations oi
celluloid sheets etc. have been as follows (kin.=
133 lb., yen 2s.): —
1896
SS2
£13.445
190 i
£49.687
1906 . .
.. 2.4 D6
£S1,S12
1907 . .
£32,070
190a . .
.. 5.808
£66.8 :
1909 .
£59.122
1910 . .
£64.029
1911 ..
£67.181
1912 . .
4.471
«!!.■-■"
1914 . .
278
£2.'j;>J
1915 ..
104
£1.080
1910 ..
2.25
£J5.
1917 . .
.. [41!..]
£6
The export trade dates only from the year 1918.
The following returns are available for 1919:
United States .. .. £200.000
Russia £150.000
Uriiish India and Australia, £150.000
England — .. £100.000
I ram e and Italy . . . . — .. £200,1 00
More recently the export trade has been stimu-
lated bj the in< reased tonnage available.
In addition to the two linns above mentioned
there ww at least ten others of considerable size
manufacturing celluloid sheets. Towards th
of last year six of the latter amalgamated with the
two pionee • to found the Dai Nippon Celluloid Co.,
with a capital of 12; million yen (£1,250,000). In
addition thi re are a lew firms, such as the Toa
Celluloid Co.. which supply raw sheets to the fai -
lories at which novelty i^omls are made. Tim total
annual production of celluloid sheets, rods, tubes,
etc., is estimated at 6 million lb., of which two-
thirds is consumed in the country for making
novelty articles. Although it is not possible to give
the number of makers of these goods, as much of
the work is done domestically, it is very large; in
the neighbourhood of Tokyo alone there are over
700 works. The most important manufacturing
firms are the Nagamine. the Chigusa, and the
Central Celluloid Co , at Tokyo, and the Koyania
hi.! Sakai Celluloid companies at Ozaka. In
general, toys, dolls, etc., are made in Tokyo, and
hair decorations, brushes, beads, etc., at Ozaka.
CHEMICAL PATENTS *
WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO CANADIAN
PATENT L\W.
A. E. MacRAE. t
The subject of chemical patents, and patents for
products and processes relating to industrial
chemistry, is one of the earliest in the realm of
patents. As early as 1467 a patent was granted in
Berne for the manufacture and sale of paper.
During the ten years following 1.561. when the
patent policy of England began, twelve of the
eighteen patents granted were for various chemical
products and processes.
A patent is a form of monopoly, but is not a true
monopoly. A monopoly in its strict sense is an
exclusive right granted by the Sovereign or State-
to an individual or a number of persons of some-
thing which before was of common right. That is
to say, a true monopoly includes on the one hand an
exclusive right or privilege, and on the other hand
a restriction or restraint which operates to prevent
the exercise of a right or liberty which was open
to the public before the monopoly was granted.
Thus, a patent for a new and useful invention never
known or used before is not a true monopoly, be-
cause it does not restrict the exercise of a right that
was open tn the public before the patent was
granted. Patents are frequently condemned by
persons who do not recognise this fundamental
difference bit wen a true monopoly and a patent
for a new and useful invention.
Many people imagine that patent laws are for the
exclusive benefit of inventors and that a patent
gives to the patentee a concession which he does not
deserve, and this regrettable mistake leads to many
misunderstandings. A man confers a distinct
benefit by developing a patent, and he ought to be
treated as a creator of public wealth. Compare the
industrial development of such nations as England
and the United States, which have liberal patent
systems, with that of other countries where patent
la are less favourable to the inventor. Until
comparativelv recently Holland had no patent law
whatever and allowed the unrestricted use of any
invention. Tt was easy to use freely in Holland
proi — ie« patented in other countries and to dis-
tribute from there infringing goods to other coun-
tries of the world. Yet Holland, with her highly
developed commerce, her abundant money supply
and enterprising people, remained industrially nu-
ll v 1 d. Whv? Because there was no incentive
to saddle oneself with the risks and outlays of start-
ing a new enterprise or of improving methods for
manufacture, knowing beforehand that in case of
success one's neiehbour could do the same thing
without anv restriction whatever. A patent is
simnlv a contract between a nation and the in-
dividual Bv the contract the inventor discloses to
i !•■ public the results of his intellectual work. By
doinsi so ho enables others to get acquainted with
liis work and to improve thereon, and this stimu-
lates further research, invention, and enterprise.
Branch of the Ganadlai
•From n nnpfir read before the
Si-ctinn. February 1920.
t Examiner in the Chemical and Metallurgical Division of th*
Canadian Patent'Omce at Ottawa.
Vol. XXXIX., No. 10.]
REVIEW.
177 r
It is to be noted that newly disclosed patents are
very frequently followed in rapid succession by im-
provements thereon conceived by others but pat-
terned on the original invention. For the benefit
thus conferred on the nation by the inventor the
nation, in return, gives him for a number of years
the sole use of his invention. At the end of this
term his invention becomes public property. The
period of monopoly is none too long in view of the
time it takes to develop the invention into com-
mercial shape. In many cases inventions reach the
money-making stage only after the patents on which
they are based have expired.
The rights of the inventor to a limited monopoly
of his invention were recognised by Canadian
Statute as early as 1824, and the first Canadian
patent was granted in June of that year.
Section 7 of the Patent Act, Revised Statutes of
Canada, 1906, says: —
" Any person who has invented any new and
useful art, machine, manufacture or composition of
matter, or any new and useful improvement in any
art. machine, manufacture or composition of
matter, which was not known or used by any other
person before his invention thereof, and which has
not been in public use or on sale with the consent
or allowance of the inventor thereof, for more than
one year previously to his application for patent
therefor in Canada, may, on a petition to that
effect, presented to the Commissioner, and on com-
pliance with the other requirements of this Act,
obtain a patent granting to such person an ex-
clusive property in such invention."
This Section thus provides that patents may be
granted for four classes of things, namely, arts,
machines, manufactures and compositions of
matter, and to be a proper subject for a patent they
must eaeh stand the test of invention, novelty, and
utility.
Processes come within the definition of arts, and
chemical patents are more particularly concerned
with arts and compositions of matter. Processes
are operations which consist partially or wholly in
the employment of some non-mechanical science,
such as heat, electricity, light, chemistry, etc., or
operations which consist entirely of mechanical
transactions which may be performed by hand or l>\
machine. Compositions of matter cover all com-
positions of two or more substances whether they be
the result of chemical union or of a mechanical
mixture.
Patents arc granted for things invented. A
thing may lie novel and useful, but unless it em-
bodies invention it is not patentable. To be a
proper subject for patent the subject matter must
stand the test of novelty and utility as well as of
invention. We have seen that a thing may be new
but not be an invention. It cannot be an invention
without being new. In his petition an applicant
for a patent in Canada states that the subject
matter of his application was not known or used by
any other person before his invention thereof and
was not in public use or on sale with his consent or
allowance for more than one year previous to his
application for patent therefor in Canada. The
applicant is presumed to know what has been dis-
closed in the prior patents or printed publications
of every country in the world and what has been
known or in public use before his application for a
patent. Novelty is thus determined by reference to
the prior art as disclosed in patents or other printed
publications or in public use or practice. A printed
publication is any printed matter distributed to any
part of the public. Prior knowledge or use is not to
be considered unless disclosed i n printed publica-
tions prior to the making of the invention or more
than one year prior to the application for patent
for the invention. Moreover, the information dis-
closed in the printed publication must be full and
precise enough to enable one skilled in the par-
ticular art to perform the process or make the
article sought to be anticipated beforo it may bo
considered.
Inventors have expended much time and thought
in developing processes which as far as they knew
were quite novel only to find on applying for a
patent that someone else had previously worked tho
same process. This may be a hardship on such in-
ventors, but the Act refuses them a patent. This
emphasises the need for careful review of the prior
art before undertaking research in any particular
art. A slight degree of utility is sufficient to meet
the requirement of usefulness. An invention which
has an illicit object in view is not patentable, how-
ever.
In the present Canadian Act there is no re-
striction on the nature of the composition of matter
which may be patented, except that it must be new
and useful and the result of invention. The same
conditions exist in the United States and did exist
in Great Britain until a very recent date, when a
new Patents and Designs Bill, which was introduced
in the British House of Commons, in November,
1917, became law This Bill passed the House of
Commons without debate, discussion, or division. and
by it, I understand, products of chemical processes
or intended for food or for medicinal or surgical
purposes may not be claimed in a patent application
but only the process. That is, specifications relating
to an article or substanco made by chemical pro-
cesses or intended for medicinal or surgical use
may contain claims for the process of manufacture
only and not for the substance or composition of
matter. Some other countries also refuse patent
protection on similar compositions. Ciermany,
Austria, Japan, and Russia refuse to grant patents
on foods, medicines, or chemical products, and in
Switzerland neither the product nor the process of
making them may be patented. Sweden will patent
processes of making foods or medicines but not the
product. Denmark will not patent medicines,
articles of food, nor processes of making articles of
Food. France, Italy, and Spain refuse patents on
medicines and pharmaceutical preparations of all
kinds.
The intermixture of the ingredients of a composi-
tion of matter may be by mechanical or chemical
operations, or both, and to be patentable the com-
position must possess characteristics or properties
not possessed by any of the individual ingredients.
The mere presence of a new ingredient in a com-
position does not give patentability unless it
changes the essential characteristics of the composi-
tion. Alloys are a good example of the various
kinds of compositions, as they may vary all the way
from a true ch mical compound to a mechanical
mixture of two or more metals. Examples of true
organic chemical compounds are found in the
following claims taken from recent Canadian
patents: —
Oi Dimethyldi-isopropylbenzidene ; (2) a new dye-
stuff consisting of the tetrnzo compound of di-
methyldiisopropylbenzidene coupled with an amino
aromatic compound ; (3) amy! ether of cephaoline.
A process is a way of treating substances to pro-
duce a desired result, and it may consist of one or
more steps to reduce or change the substance to the
desired state. It may lie performed irrespective of
any particular form of mechanical device. A
chemical process is patentable, but a process merely
involving the function or principle of a particular
mechanism ••••■<■ no! be patentable A scientific
principle of itself is not patentable, but its applica-
tion to n particular process may be the subject of a
patentable invention. A person who discovers a
natural force or scientific fact is entitled to patent
protection nnlv on the process by which he makes
use of the effect of the natural force. For example.
o 2
REVIEW.
[May 31, 1920.
the fact that heat will decompose substances cannot
be patented, but its application to the manufacture
of lime from limestone might be patentable if new.
That is, the specific application of the principle is
patentable.
An application for patent in Canada consists of a
Petition, an Oath, and a Specification, and if the
nature of an invention admits of illustration by
means of drawings such drawings must be sub-
mitted. The specification embodies a preamble,
giving the name and residence of the inventor and
the title of his invention, a general statement of the
objects and nature of the invention, a brief descrip-
tion of the figures of drawings if there be any, a de-
tailed description of the invention and the claim
or claims. The specification should fully and
clearly disclose the principle of the invention and
the preferred way in which the applicant intends
applying the principle, in such a way as to dis-
tinguish it from other inventions. In chemical
cases the terms used should be sufficiently definite to
enable one skilled in the art to know precisely what
is to be included. The claims should point out the
invention definitely and clearly and should not be
couched in a great variety of expressions with a
view to catch infringers who may hereafter use
modifications of the invention.
Two copies of the specification, three copies of
claims, and two copies of the drawings on tracing
linen and one on Bristol board are required. The
original copy of the specification, claims, and draw-
ings remain on file in the Patent Office. The dupli-
cate is mailed as the patent. The third copy of
claims is used for printing the Patent Office Record,
and the drawings on Bristol board, together with a
printed copy of the claims from the Record, are
filed in the examiner's room for purposes of search.
The duration of a Canadian patent is eighteen
years. The full fee is ¥60, but it is the applicant's
option to pay the full fee for the term of eighteen
years, or the partial fee for the term of six years,
or the partial fee for the term of twelve years.
Whenever a patent is deemed defective or in-
operative by reason of insufficient description or
specification, or by reason of the patentee claiming
more than he had right to claim as new, but at the
same time it appears that the error arose from
inadvertent accident or mistake, the patent may be
surrendered and a new patent issued for the un-
expired term of the original patent upon the pay-
ment of $4 for every unexpired year of the duration
of the original patent.
In order to maintain a Canadian patent valid the
patentee must at the end of two years from the date
of the patent commence and constantly carry on in
Canada the construction or manufacture of the
patented invention in such a manner that any
person desiring to use it may obtain it or cause it
to be made for him at a reasonable price. More-
over, the patentee must not import the invention
into Canada after twelve months from the date of
the patent. The Commissioner of Patents may,
however, if sufficient reason is shown therefor, ex-
tend the period for non-manufacture in Canada or
the period of one year for importation into Canada.
An applicant may, prior to the issue of his patent,
nr within six months thcrafter, apply to the Com-
missioner of Patents to have the Compulsory
Licence clause substituted for the above-mentioned
conditions of manufacture, and the Commissioner,
having regard to the nature of the invention, may
grant such request. That is, under this clause any
person at any time during the life of the patent may
apply to the Commissioner of Patents for a licence
to use the invention, and the Commissioner, being
satisfied that the reasonable requirements of the
public with reference to the invention have not been
satisfied, may order that a licence be granted to the
person applying therefor upon such terms as the
Commissioner may consider just.
An inventor who has not perfected his invention
! may file in the Patent Office a Caveat, embodying a
description of his invention. If at any time within
a year of the filing date of the caveat another
person applies for a patent covering the same in-
vention, the person filing the caveat will be notified
thereof and given three months within which to
file his application for patent. If the applications
are found to be conflicting they are declared in
interference. A caveat gives no protection, but it
alfords one reasonable assurance that a patent
covering the invention disclosed will not be granted
within a period of one year from the date of filing
the caveat without his being notified.
When an application is received in the Patent
Office it is given a filing date and a serial number.
The formal papers and the copies of the specifica-
tion and claims are compared and the application
is referred to the examiner who deals with the art
to which the alleged invention belongs. It is the
examiner's duty to see that the specification
properly discloses the nature of the alleged inven-
tion and to determine whether or not the subject
matter discloses an invention which is useful. As
previously stated, the presence of invention and
novelty is determined by a search of the prior art.
The extent of the search is necessarily somewhat
limited, as the facilities for searching in the office
include only Canadian patents, the United States
patents for a short period, and a somewhat incom-
plete set of British patents, together with some of
the technical journals. The examiner reports to
the applicant any informality in or objections to the
specification or claims, as well as references to the
prior art held to anticipate any or all of the claims.
The applicant may amend as often as any objections
or references are presented, and in doing so should
point out wherein he thinks his case presents
patentable novelty in view of the art disclosed.
When the application is found to define properly
the scope of the invention it is allowed and issued
as a patent. Patents are dated and mailed
approximately six weeks after allowance. The
length of time an application is held awaiting
action hy the Patent Office is dependent on the con-
dition of the examiner's work. Many of the
examiners at the present time are several months
behind with their work owing to the increased
number of applications for patents and to some
extent to the depletion of the examining staff
during the war.
Comparatively few applications ever mature into
patents, as they are found not to embody inven-
tion. When an examiner refuses to allow an appli-
cation the applicant may appeal from the
examiner's decision to the Commissioner of Patents,
who may allow the application if he finds that in
his opinion the examiner was in error in refusing
to allow the case. An appeal may he taken from
the decision of the Commissioner of Patents to the
Exchequer Court.
In the case of two or more applicants claiming
the same invention the applications are held to be
in conflict, and the original inventor is determined
by arbitration and the patent granted to the one
so determined.
The Patent Office Jlecord is puhlished weekly and
contains from one to three of the claims of each
patent with the main figure of the drawings. The
complete specifications of patents are not printed
but may be obtained from the Patent Office in type-
written form with a photograph of the drawings.
A study of the Canadian patent system is recom-
mended to all interested in the industrial develop-
ment of Canada, and the attention of our chemists
is especially directed to the new British Act, since
it affects very greatly the protection of their inven-
tions in that country, and because acquaintance
with it will enable them to influence opinion if
nnv similar measure is proposed for Canada.
Vol. XXXLX.. No. 10.)
REVIEW.
179 e
NEWS FROM THE SECTIONS.
EDINBURGH AND EAST OF SCOTLAND.
A joint meeting of this Section with the Local
Section of the Institute of Chemistry was held in
Edinburgh on May 11. Dr. T. W. DrinkwaUr
presided.
The subject before the meeting was the method of
training chemists who had decided to take up
technical chemistry as a profession. Dr. Drink-
water opened the proceedings, and was followed by
Dr. A. C. Cumming and Prof. A. A. Boon, who
treated the subject from the teacher's point of
view. A general discussion followed, in which a
large number of members and visitors took part.
All the technical chemists present expressed them-
selves very strongly in favour of a thorough train-
ing in pure chemistry and were opposed to too early
specialisation as a preparation for any particular
industry. The importance of an adequate know-
ledge of physics and mathematics was agreed to
and also biology for certain industries.
In regard to the vexed question of chemical en-
gineering there was naturally some difference of
opinion. The advantage of some elementary know-
ledge of engineering was readily admitted, but the
general feeling was that it was impossible for a
man to be both an engineer and a chemist and that
the so-called " chemical engineer " was frequently
neither a chemist nor an engineer. To study en-
gineering to such an extent as would be desirable
would mean that the amount of time devoted to
chemistry would be very much reduced, and this
was considered a most serious objection.
Several members spoke strongly against degrees
and diplomas in technical chemistry and favoured
a thorough training in pure chemistry, but the plan
which is followed in some districts of a man spend-
ing his vacations, or even a whole year, in a works
laboratory or in the laboratory of a general analyst
was thoroughly approved. As regards instruction
in technical chemistry, the opinion was that this
should be on quite general lines, e.g., methods of
evaporation, distillation, transport, properties of
materials used in works, etc.
NOTTINGHAM.
At a meeting of the Nottingham section, held on
May 19, Mr. J. White presiding, two papers were
read and discussed.
The first, by Dr. E. B. R. Prideaux, described a
series of measurements which had been carried out
with the object of determining accurately the
vapour pressures of ammonium nitrate alone and in
admixture with other salts, in order to fix the
humidity limits at various temperatures within
which this salt could be dried or beyond which it
would deliquesce. The methods of using the John-
ston and differential tensinieters were described
and illustrated by exhibits. A complete scries of
measurements of the pressures of solutions
saturated with respect to both ammonium and
sodium nitrates showed how great was the effect of
admixtures upon the first deliquescence. A theory
of the mechanism of such a process from the first to
the final deliquescence was then given and illus-
trated by some results quoted from the work of
Lieut. -Colonel J. A. Hall with his permission.
The second paper, by Mr. J. AI. Wilkie, des-
cribed an expedient which has overcome the diffi-
culty of reducing arsenic acid to the arsenious state
— a reduction necessary in the quantitative estima-
tion of arsenic by means of the electrolytic method
previously described by the author and collabora-
tors. None of the reducing agents described by
former investigators is completely satisfactory.
Sulphurous acid may not be expelled completely by
boiling, or if so, the long boiling may result in a re-
oxidation of the arsenic. Stannous chloride was
found satisfactory by C. A. Hill, but this was not
confirmed by Sanger and Black, so that the U.S.
Pharmacopoeia adopted sulphurous acid. The
authors find the use of crystalline sodium sulphite
preferable to that of potassium metabisulphite,
employed by Thorpe, but the most satisfactory sub-
stance is glycerol. The paper describes the
technique of the reduction of arsenic acid in the
electrolytic determination of arsenic, using this
material as reducing agent.
LIVERPOOL.
This Section met on six occasions during the past
session, and for the first time since its formation
in 1881 the meetings were not held at the Univer-
sity ; four were held at the Adelphi Hotel, and two
at the Royal Institution. To the change of locality
is probably mainly due the improved attendance,
which has been about 50 per cent, better than dur-
ing recent years. At the meeting in March there
was a symposium on "Acid-resisting Materials,"
to which representatives of a .lumber of manufac-
turing firms contributed exhibits and short papers.
On account of the high cost of printing it was de-
cided to postpone publication of the Sectional list
of members.
The annual meeting was held on April 23. There
are no changes to be recorded among the Sectional
officers, but Prof. E. C. C. Baly and Messrs.
W. M. W. Fell, E. Gabriel Jones, W. Mansbridge,
and J. AV. Towers retire from the committee after
three years' service, and Prof. R. Robinson has
resigned on leaving Liverpool. To fill these vacan-
cies the following were elected : — Dr. G. C. Clayton,
Major F. E. Everington, Dr. C. W. Moore, Mr. W.
Ramsay, Mr. W. H. Roberts, and Dr. W. Trantom.
GLASGOW.
The report of the hon. secretary for the session
1919-20 states that six ordinary meetings have been
held, and also three informal meetings at which
short papers were read and discussed. The latter
were arranged in the hope of getting the younger
members to participate in the discussions. A full
programme is anticipated for next session.
The officers elected for next session include: —
Mr. J. H. Young, chairman; Mr. E. W. Moodie,
vice-chairman ; and the following are the new
members of committee: Messrs. J. M. Heilbron, J.
Lang, Q. Moore, J. Sorlev, W. H. Walmsley, and
J. F. Wilson.
MEETINGS OF OTHER SOCIETIES.
SOCIETY OF GLASS TECHNOLOGY.
The third annual meeting was held in Sheffield on
April 19, the president, Mr. S. N. Jenkinson,
presiding.
The report for the year 1919 shows a steady
growth in membership and influence. At the end
of the year there were 516 members on the roll, of
whom 120 were collective, 392 ordinary, and four
student members. Nearly one-fifth of the total
membership is composed of members overseas.
Among the noteworthy events recorded are the
formation of the Glass Research Association ; the
completion by the Refractories Research and Speci-
fications Committee of provisional specifications for
tank blocks, silica bricks, and clay for pots; the
formation of a Glass Standards Committee, with
180 «
REVIEW
(May 31. 1920.
sub-committees to deal with optical glass, glass for
lamp-working, and bottles and general glass con-
tainers. The Society is also considering the publi-
cation of works of reference, but the financing of
the scheme has not yet been settled. Income during
1919 was nearly £1300; over £1000 was expended on
the Society's Journal, the abstracts section of
which lure been greatly enlarged. The balance on
the year's working was about £20, and the excess
of assets over liabilities about £60. At the annual
meeting a year ago it was decided to raise the sub-
scription rate for ordinary members from 21s.
to 30s.
Vacancies in the list of officers and council were
filled by the election of Prof. W. G. Fearnsides and
Messrs. E. F. Chance, J. Connolly, and J. Forster
as vice-presidents, and of Messrs. E. A. Coad-Pryor,
J. H. Davidson, \V. J. Gardner, J. Kaye, F.
Towers, and Col. T. W. Simpson as members of
council. During the meeting reference was made
to the Society's impending visit to America next
autumn, and the president, in his address, spoke of
the continued growth of the membership, over 50
new members having been added since January 1
I:. -I.
The technical meeting was devoted to a general
discussion on glass refractories, the subject being
inf'rodured by a paper on " The Properties of
British Fireclays and their Suitability lor Use as
Glass Refractories, Part T.," by Miss E. M. Firth,
Mr. F. W. Hodkin, and Dr. W. E. S. Turner. In
the evening the second annual dinner was held, 79
.members and guests being present; and on the
following day visits were paid to the Ickles Works
of Messrs. Steel, Peech. and Tozer, Ltd.; and to the
works of Messrs. Rylands Glass and Engineering
Co., Ltd., of Stairfoot, Barnsley.
THE CERAMIC SOCIETY.
Sir W. J. Jones, president, took the chair at the
seventh meeting of the Refractory Materials Sec-
tion, held on April 28 and 29, at Stoke-on-Trent.
There was a very large attendance of members. It
was announced that the proposed visit to the United
Stairs had been postponed, owing to the abnormal
conditions, and that the autumn meeting would be
held in London and the following spring meeting
in Bournemouth.
In a paper on the analysis of zirconium minerals,
Mr. H. V. Thompson described a method of " open-
ing up " these materials by fusion with sodium
peroxide. By treating the fused mass with water
and filtering, all the iron, titanium and zirconium,
and some of the silica are obtained in the residue,
whilst the whole of the aluminium and the rest of
the silica are found in the nitrate. Sir W. Jones
exhibited and explained a high-pressure oil-burner
for use in glass works, which works on a mixture
of creosote and pitch (111), introduced by a drip-
feeder from a storage tank about 10 ft. above the
burner. The oil is maintained at 100° F. by means
of low pressure steam, and air is admitted through
an annulus on the front of the burner. The con-
sumption of oil for a furnace 14 x 8 x 4 ft. is 16'8
galls, per hr., and the heating is very uniform and
efficient. Mr. A. Malinovszky described a method of
preparing fused artificial sillimanite by smelting in
a special cupola furnace a mixture of crushed
aluminous rocks or minerals with coke or other
carbonaceous material; air is blown into the fused
mass to produce cellular interstices resembling those
of diatomaceous earth; the specific gravity of the
product varies from 2'G2 to 2'08.
Mr. W. .1. Rees, in his paper on " The Corrosion
of Col:,. Oven Walls; II. The Action of Salt on
Silica and Fireclay Bricks," stated that the order
of resistance to salt attack, beginning with the
most resistant was: silica bricks with lime bond,
silica bricks with clay bond, semi-silica bricks (made
of clay and ganister, and containing SO to 90 per
cent, silica), and ordinary firebricks. The bleach-
ing action of salt vapour on bricks was fairly com-
I li te, and a sample was shown in which the iron
oxide was reduced by salt vapours from 3 to about
O'o per cent. Fireclay bricks with a large propor-
tion of sillimanite were found to be much more
resistant to salt attack than ordinary fireclay bricks.
Sillimanite and tridymite are much less soluble in
alkaline flux than quartz or half-fired clay.
Properly made silica bricks appear to be the most
promising, although aluminous bricks containing
sillimanite are not without possibilities.
The Symposium on Gas Firing proved so interest-
ing that it was decided to continue the discussion
at the next meeting of the section. Dr. E. W.
Smith reviewed the characteristics of the chief
types of gas available, and stated that, on a
B.Th.U. basis the relative cost of producer gas, coal
gas, and blue water gas was as 3:4:5. He pointed
out that the producers, whether external generators
or internal producers, could use any type of fuel if
the conditions necessary for that type were studied.
Steam should always be used in all producers, if
only to cut down clinkering troubles. Mr. H. M.
Ridge called attention to the importance of regu-
lating the supply of gas and air respectively, and
gave figures showing the waste of heat with different
proportions of excess air.
Mr. E. M. Myers said that gaseous firing could sup-
plant any coal-firing process and effect economy in
fuel up to 50 per cent., and that it was quite as easy
to obtain oxidising or reducing atmosphere as with
coal. Blast-furnace gas could be used for heating
purposes, and coke-oven gas, which is extensively
used in the United States, was quite equal in
calorific value to coal gas. The chief difficulty was
due to its tendency to rise through air. To prevent
this the air port might be placed slightly in advance
of the gas port in the furnace, or, alternatively, the
air might be delivered at a higher temperature so
as to approximate to the specific gravity of the coke-
oven gas, which is 0'4, taking air as 1.
Mr. William Baylis said that gas-firing was not
the cheapest method in the production of steel ; and
Col. C. W. Thomas contended that a direct coal-
fired continuous kiln compared favourably with a
gas-fired continuous kiln; the economy really arose
in recuperation or regeneration, which could be
applied to either type of kiln. The possible saving
ol labour was greater with gas firing, but there was
no hope of any considerable economy of fuel. There
might perhaps be a lower repair cost with gas-firing.
THE IRON AND STEEL INSTITUTE.
The fifty-first annual general meeting was held
on May 6 and 7, in the Hall of the Institution of
Civil Engineers, Westminster. After the report of
the Council had been presented M. E. Schneider,
the retiring president, inducted into the chair Dr.
J. E. Stead, the new president, who delivered an
address. This took the form of a condensed review
of the progress made during the last fifty years in
the ferrous industries, and was divided into sections
dealing with the blast furnace, the puddling pro-
i rss, the foundry, the basic Bessemer and basic
open-hearth processes, the electric furnace, the pro-
duel ion of sound ingots, the recognition of science,
the advent and progress of metallography, the
application of science to the ferrous industries, the
encouragement of research and technical education.
In each of these sections Dr. Stead mentioned the
principle advances which had taken place, and, i.i
particular, traced the development of the basic
Bessemer and basic open-hearth processes from their
inception. The address closed with an appeal for
greater facilities for scientific research and tech-
for XXXIX., No. 10.)
REVIEW.
181 »
nical education, particularly the technical educa-
tion of workers in iron and steel works. Jn con-
nexion with this Dr. Stead stated the example of
his lectures on st<*el to workers in his districtSj and
tlic lectures and discussions organised for the
workers by Messrs. Brown, Bayley's Steel Works,
the Brown-Firth Research Laboratory, and other
industrial establishments. The address forms a
very complete monograph on ferrous metallurgy.
\ number of papers was read and discussed Mr.
C. A. Ablett reviewed the relative merits (.1 three-
phase and direct currenl for ateei works and rolling
mills, and pointed out that for practically all pur-
poses tin. i. cui nut was to he preferred. The cniel
advantage oi direct em rent is that it is possible to
vary tiie speed oi motors without loss of power; in
the case of three-pie; .!• in s this is only possible
ik" ot' machines of a complicated and costly
type-
Mr. F. Chin, nts reviewed current British blast-
furnace practice, ami suggested a design for a fur-
nace capable of producing 2000 inns oi pig iron per
week from a burden yielding 30 per cent, pig-iron
and with a blast temperature of 1000° IT., whilst
Mr. H. E. Wright also presented a paper on the
thermal and chemical conditions in the blast-
furnace practice. A piper by Mr. W. E. Hughes
discussed the defects ol electrolytic iron. It was
shown that this product, as deposited, is quite 1111-
suitable for engineering purposes without separate
heat treatment; many of the defects can he avoidi 'I
by efficient control during manufacture, hut in
many cases the product is far from pure, and should
not he taken as the starting point in a research
without careful examination of its composition.
Messrs. Baker and Russell reviewed the "Ball
Test " lor hardness and discussed the effect of cold
working during the test on the values obtained. An
interesting paper In- Mr. J. H. Whiteley de 1 rib d
investigations into the distribution of phosphorus
in steel between the Ac, and Ac, points. He found
that phosphorus is more soluble 111 ferrite than in
austenite containing dissolved carbide, and that on
heating to within the critical range phosphorus
diffuses out of the austenitic regions into the
ferrite; diffusion of phosphorus in ferrite is rapid
at 800° C, hut slow at 650° C. ; the rate of diffusion
cif phosphorus is always less than that of carbon.
The following papers were also presented or taken
as read: " The Utilisation of Titaniferous Iron Ore
in New Zealand," by J. A. Heskett; "Iron-Port-
land Cement." hv E. H. Lewis; " Practical Notes
011 the Design and Treatment of Steel Castings,'-' by
(1. E. Preston ;; " The Valuation of Ores and Iron-
making Material," by C. H. Ridsdale ; " Slag C'on-
(liiinns in Open-hearth Basic Steel-making Prac-
tice," by .1. F. Wilson; and "The Reduction of
Silicon from the Slag in the Acid Open-hearth Pro-
," by B. Yaneske ami G. A. "Wood.
The adjourned meeting was held in the Mappin
Hall of the University of Sheffield on May 11.
Prof. Desch welcomed the members on behalf of the
University, and Dr. Stead briefly replied, pointing
out the pre-eminent position occupied by Sheffield
in the scientific investigation of the ferrous metals.
The holding of an adjourned meeting in a pro-
vincial centre is a departure from precedent, hut
the marked success of this experiment leads one
to hope that it will he repeated.
The first papers read in the afternoon were those
hv Prof. C. A. Edwards and his co-workers on
tic thermal analysis and electrical resistivity of
chromium steel. The discussion was very keen,
the point which received nnvt attention being the
existence of a double carbide of iron and chromium
< F" C.Cr,C,) in the annealed steels. The electrical
results very strongly point to the occurrence of the
compound, and in the subsequent discussion ehemi-
1 il evidence was brought forward of a strongly con-
firmatory nature. The paper presented by Mr.
J. II. G. Monypenny contained still more proof of
this tact. 'Ih,' latter work was of remarkable in-
ti rest in that the author showed that in these steels
" is tla- comentite which dissolves first on heating,
.mil thai the whole of ihc pearlite carbide dees not
pass into solution until a very much highei tera-
P nature has bei n attained.
At the evening m< eting M r. Mon , pi n 1 papi -
was further discussed, ami that by Prof. Andrew
ami his collaborators pn sented. 1 be
made by these ivorkei that carbide of iron (lis.
sociates at high 1 mpei aturc s <-, ol .',1 1 onsiderable
criticism, most of the members who tool pari in the
discussion finding 11 impossible to accept this ri< ■•
The paper by Dr. F. Rogers on brittleness in nickel-
chrome and other steels gave rise to much discus-
sion ol an entirely critical nature. During this
the question oi the influence of phosphorus in giving
rise to tcmper-brittleness was brought up, and data
wore adduced tending to show that m general the
in tiie in e ii! this 1 1 -e 'i .-;:■> negligible.
_Owing to lack of lime the papers by Mr. A. L.
3 nil the influence ol other elements in steel
on tie- electrical resi cancc, and that of Prof. K.
Honda and T. Murakami on the constitution of
chromium-tungsten steels were taken as read.
ROYAL PHOTOGRAPHIC SOCIETY.
Prof. Alex. Eindlay, of Aberdeen University,
delivered the second biennial Hurter and Driffield
Memorial Lecture on May 11, the title of the lec-
ture being "Some Properties of Colloidal Matter
and their Apple ul iiuis in Photography."
The lecturer, after paying a tribute to the
accurate scientific work of Hurter and Driffield,
pointed out that in few departments of human
endeavour ami achievement did colloids play a
greater ami mere fundamental role than in photo-
graphy. Not only was gelatin, which was the most
largely employed medium for the support of the
light-sensitive silver sahs, one oi the most typical
and most important of colloids, hut the formation
of silver chloride and bromide for use in the photo
graphic process was carried out in a colloidal en-
vironment which profoundly influenced the pro-
perties of those -all. hided, the whole series of
processes from the formation and ripening of the
photographic emulsion to the production of the
finished print was, if not explicable solely in terms
of colloid chemistry, largely dependent on the col-
loidal state.
After discussing the properties of the two main
classes of colloids, the suspensoids and the emul-
soids, the le, turer pointed out that by the addition
of an emulsoid colloid to a suspensoid the latter
became endowed with the greater stability of the
former, and was no longer so readily precipitated
by salts. This fact was of the greatest importance
in connexion with the production of the light-
sensitive silver salts. Owing to the presence of
gelatin, albumin, etc., the silver halide was
"protected." and so was obtained in the grainless
or fine-grained colloid form. The ultimate proper-
ties of the silver halide Here largely dependent on
the influence exerted by the emulsoid colloids at
; he 1,10 a 1, 111 ,,1 formation of the light-sensitive salt ;
Hid when, in the course of ripening, the silver
halide passed into the crystalline form, gelatin was
adsorbed ami doubtless greatly modified the sensi-
tiveness of the salt. Moreover, on the basis of the
colloid properties of matter an explanation could he
"liven of the nature of the latent image produced
by the actii light on the sensitive silver bromide
in the photographic plate. Whereas, formerly, the
view was held that a sub-bromide was formed, il
was now mere generally believed that by the action
mI light nil tie silver salt colloidal silver is pro-
duced. which is then taken up by 1 he gilver 4>romide
present by a process of adsorption.
m
REVIEW.
(May 31, 1920
INSTITUTION OF PETROLEUM
TECHNOLOGISTS.
At a meeting held on May 18, Sir Frederick Black,
president, in the chair, a paper was communicated
by Mr. R. Stirling on " The Air-Lift System for
Raising Oil." The air-lift system is stated to be
the most advantageous method of raising oil from
wells which have ceased to flow naturally or which
only flow intermittently. Any gas present with the
oil assists the air lift and its energy i* therefore
utilised, whereas under current conditions it is lost.
Where loose sands are encountered the air lift is
the only practicable means of raising the sand with
the oil, keeping the well always clear to the
bottom, and thereby securing the maximum yield.
The air-lift system was successfully applied in 1901
in No. 24 Bibi-Eibat, and the production was raised
from 1200 to 12,000 pouds per day. In the case of
Well 41 of the Baku Russian Petroleum Co. at
Saboonchi, which only yielded slightly to baling,
the application of the air lift brought about a yield
of 7,000 to 8,000 pouds per day. More than 50
wells were dealt with during 1901 — 1902, and the
results were most satisfactory. More recently the
system has been successfully demonstrated in Trini-
dad. The author gave details of the complete air-
lift installation applied to oil raising.
NEWS AND NOTES.
PERSONALIA.
Sir William Pope has accepted the nomination of
the Council of this Society to be President for the
year 1919-1920; Professor H. Louis has been elected
Foreign Secretary in succession to the late Dr. R.
Messel, and Dr. C. C. Carpenter to succeed him as
the Society's representative on the Governing Body
of the Imperial College of Science and Technology.
Mr. E. A. Coad Pryor, recently of the National
Physical Laboratory, is now Director of Labora-
tories of British Glass Industries, Ltd.
The members of the Empire Motor Fuels Com-
mittee of the Imperial Motor Transport Council
include Sir Charles H. Bedford, Sir John Cadman
and Dr. W. R. Ormandy.
Dr. F. C. Thompson, lecturer in metallurgy at
the University of Sheffield, has been awarded the
Sorby Research Fellowship by the Royal Society.
Dr. F. G. Cottrell, chief metallurgist of the
U.S. Bureau of Mines, has been appointed director
of that institution, Dr. van H. Manning, it is
stated, having resigned to take up work for the
Petroleum Institute.
Sir Robert Hadfield, Bart., has placed in the
hands of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers
the sum of £200 to be devoted to a prize, or prizes,
for the description of a new and accurate method of
determining the hardness of metals, especially of
those which have a high degree of hardness.
At a meeting of the Council of Leeds Uni-
versity on May 19, it was resolved that a chair of
physical chemistry be instituted, and Dr. H. M.
Dawson was selected to be the first occupant. Dr.
Dawson was an 1851 Exhibition scholar, and since
1905 has been lecturer in physical chemistry at the
same University.
The Franklin Institute has awarded Franklin
Medals to the Hon. Sir Charles A. Parsons and Prof.
Svante A. Arrhenius. The medals were presented
to the British Ambassador and the Minister of
Sweden, acting for the recipients, at a meeting held
on May 19. On the same occasion a paper by Sir
C. Parsons on " Some Reminiscences of Early Days
of Turbine Development," and one on " The AVorld's
Energy Supply," by Prof. Arrhenius, were read by
the vice-president of the Institute and Dr. Cushi-
man respectively, in the absence of the authors.
FRANCE.
" I.'lnstltut de la Vlctoire." — A committee has been
formed under the patronage of M. Paul Deschanel,
President of the Republic, and with M. R. Poin-
care, M. G. Clemenceau and the Marshals of France
as honorary presidents, with the object of establish-
ing extensive laboratories for chemical research in
Paris, to be called the " Listitut de la Victoire."
The committee is composed of well-known scientific,
industrial and political men. — (Rev. Prod. Chim.,
Apr. 15, 1920.)
Progress in Chemical Manufacture. — The output of
chemical products is increasing satisfactorily,
although in certain branches it is still far below
the demand. On the whole, however, the progress
made since the war has been quite remark-
able. In 1913 the production of sulphuric acid
was 800,000 tons; in 1919 it had increased to
1,700,000 tons. The output of nitric acid
has risen from 20,000 to about 200,000 tons
in the same period. Barely 6000 tons of oleum
was made annually before the war; now more than
300,000 tons is produced, and new factories are in
course of erection near Lille and in the South of
France. Liquid chlorine was formerly imported
almost entirely from Germany ; 18,000 tons is now
being produced electrolytically. The output of
synthetic nitrogen compounds is now at the rate
of 250,000 tons a year, and when present extensions
have been completed it will reach 400-500,000 tons.
The production of cyanamide has increased from
barely 7500 to 200,000 tons per annum. In 1913
some 40,000 tons of calcium carbide was manufac-
tured:, the present production, soon to be aug-
mented, is 300,000 tons. These results speak for
themselves ; their full significance will be realised
only after a material reduction in costs of produc-
tion has been effected.
The Fuel Situation. — In 1919 there were imported
into France about 19J million tons of coal, nearly
1,700,000 tons of coke, and 1,170,000 tons of com-
pressed fuel. Of the above quantity of coal England
supplied 74'5 per cent., Belgium 9 per cent., and
the United States 1'75 per cent. The total amount
of coal, coke, etc., received from Germany and the
Saar basin was 3,165,532 tons. The quantity of
liquid fuel imported was 3,275,878 hectolitres of
refined petroleum, of which over 93 per cent, came
from the United States, and 4,231,479 hi. of motor
spirit, to which the United States contributed
nearly 72 per cent.
Approximate figures for production, importation
and deficiencies of coal are given below in millions
of metric tons : —
Demand Production Importation Deficiency
(D) (P) (I) (D_r_i)
Pre-war . . 64 . . 41 . . 23 . . —
1918 .. 26.S .. 18.2 .. 19..T
1919 .. .. 21.9* .. 19.2t •■ 23.1
*Includlng Lorraine.
tExcluding amount received from Germany (cf.s.)
The chief causes of the reduced output last year
were the withdrawal of prisoners of war, the institu-
tion of the 8-hour day, and miners' strikes. Pro-
duction in the current year is not expected to
exceed 24 million tons, and importation about 25
millions (Great Britain 12, Belgium 3, and the Saar
Valley 10). Although Germany is under obligation
to supply 28 million tons, she has practically
intimated her inability to send more than 750,000
tons a month (9 millions p. a.). The disparity
between demand and supply is thus very great, and
if no solution be found the industrial life of the
countrv must suffer very severely. The remedies
suggested are many, and include the importation
of Polish and Italian labour, extended use of ini-
Vol. XXXli.. No. 10.]
REVIEW.
183 r
proved machinery for extraction, harnessing of the
abundant water power of the country, and the en-
forcement of Germany to pay her debts under the
Peace Treaty. A contract is being arranged
between the owners of the devastated coalfields and
an association of Belgian coal merchants whereby
in exchange for a monthly supply of 100,000 tons
of coal from Belgium, France will send iron or©
and phosphate, sulphate and carbonate of lime.
Prospecting in the south-west and in the neighbour-
hood of Lyons is proceeding steadily.
UNITED STATES.
The Spring Meeting of the American Chemical Society.
— The 59th meeting of the Society was held at St.
Louis, Mo., from April 12 to 17, under the presi-
dency of Prof. W. A. Noyes. After an introductory
address by the president, Lt.-Col. A. A. Fries, who
has succeeded Major-General Sibert as head of the
Chemical Warfare Service, read a paper on
chemical warfare, and Dr. C. H. Herty followed
with an address on " Victory and its Responsi-
bility," in which he referred to the Longworth Bill
for the protection of the coal-tar chemical industry,
to the Nolan Bill for effecting reforms at the Patent
Oliice (this has now passed Congress), to the Bac-
charaeh Bill, which seeks to repeal the duty-free im-
portation of foreign apparatus, and to the Army
Reorganisation Bill, which provides for the
separate existence of the Chemical Warfare Service.
To the general meeting were also presented papers
on tho prediction of solubility (J. H. Hildebrand),
the study of plant distribution with hydrogen ion
indicators (D. P. Wherry), and the absorption of
alkaloids ; but perhaps the event of greatest tech-
nical moment was the general symposium on col-
loids, at which " colloidal " fuel, flotation, lubri-
cation, soap and proteins, vegetable tanning,
ceramic processes, etc., were discussed from the col-
loidal standpoint. Other notable contributions in-
cluded papers on the preparation of furfural from
corncob~, on the mechanical preparation of finely
divided nickel for use in hydrogenation, chemically
active nitrogen and hydrogen, and the use of
Belenium oxychloride as an inorganic solvent.
At the inaugural meeting of the Sugar Section
saccharimeters, beet sugar, and decolorising car-
bons were discussed, and at that of the Leather
- tii m a new method of estimating tannin in vege-
table tanning materials was described, which the
authors recommend in place of the official American
method, the latter being stated to involve errors of
from -13 to 198 per cent. In the Rubber Division the
practice of marketing compounding ingredients
and accelerators under trade names was con-
demned; and in the Pharmaceutical Chemistry
Division chloramine antiseptics, hypnotics, and
antestheties formed the chief subjects of discussion.
The more interesting papers presented to the new
Dye Section treated of the Chemical Foundation
dye patents, the physical constants of aniline, and
■arch.
Among the decisions arrived at by the Council
were the appointment of committees to investi-
gate the continued thefts of platinum from certain
laboratories, and to consider the question of the
[Uate remuneration of university professors.
The advertising business of the Society was en-
trusted to the Chemical Catalog Co., Inc., of New
York ; Dr. C. L. Parsons was appointed to represent
the Society at the June meeting of the Inter-
national Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry;
and Rochester was selected as the locality of the
next spring meeting.
Physical and Chemical Properties ol Copper. — The
issibility of deducing the chemical properties of
copper from a physical examination was discussed
in a reci n" paper before the American Institute of
Mining and Metallurgical Engineers. It appears
that if the surface of copper i^ in general convex,
with a very close and even wave-like structure, the
metal may be taken as having a copper content of
at least 99 and probably 9995 per cent. This same
appearance cannot be produced on copper less pure,
the general contour of the surface of which is
concave. Good electrolytic copper should have
the following approximate analysis: copper, 9995 ;
silver. O'OOl ; oxygen, 0-039; sulphur, 0'003, arsenic,
0-0015; antimony, 0'0020 ; nickel, 0'0015 ; iron,
0"0025; lead and bismuth, nil; Belenium and tel-
lurium, trace.
Forging Iron-Nkke! Alloys.— It has been estab-
lished that pure iron-nickel alloys do not forge satis-
factorily at ordinary forging temperatures, and at
the Westinghouse Research Laboratory an investi-
gation has been under way to determine what treat-
ment would make such alloys more readily forgeable.
It has been found that aluminium, chromium, mag-
nesium, and silicon have scarcely any effect, but
that in amounts of two per cent. 'of the lesser con-
stituents, manganese or titanium imparts the
desired characteristics and makes the alloys ,
able. It is believed that the function of these ele-
ments is to strengthen the amorphous inter-
crystalline material to the point where it possesses
gri it strength than the crystals.
Desiccated Vegetables.— Dr. Hawk, of the Jeffer-
son Medical College, has found that when desic-
cated vegetables are immersed in water for a few
hours they assume a form verv closely approaching
that of the fresh vegetable, and that if this
rehydrated material be removed from the water and
left at room temperature for 2-1 to 36 hours, it
returns to approximately the same anhydrous state
as before being freshened. This behaviour is en-
tirely different from that observed with fresh vege-
tables, and the conclusion is reached that there
must be a structural difference. The failure of the
re-hydrated product to retain its water may be
due to the change in the colloids of the vegetable
i lis. With an accompanying decrease in their power
to hold water. The decrease in the inhibition power
nf the colloids might he due to the removal of
mineral salts from the vegetable during soaking in
water. These experiments have no reference to
nutritive values.
The Beet Sagar Industry.— Out of a total world
production of 16£ million short tons of sugar in
1919 the United States produced 915,000 tons, in-
cluding 795,000 tons of beet and 120,000 tons of
cane sugar, or a total of 5$ per cent, of the world's
supply. Against this the consumption was about
1 million tons,' or about one-fourth of the world's
production. Thus 23 per cent, of the consumption is
home produced; a further 24 per cent, comes from
Hawaii, Porto Rico, and the Virgin Islands, whilst
the remainder comes from the Philippine Islands,
Cuba and other countries. There are now 99 beet-
sugar factories in the United States, and it is
estimated that, in order to supply the requirements,
this number should be increased to 930, which would
entail the cultivation of sugar beet over an area
of 1,400,000 acres.— (Chem. and Met. Encj., Mar. 24,
1920.)
Arsenic, Bismuth and Selenium In 1918.— In 191S,
6323 short tons of white are mic, valued at £242,600,
was produced, as against 6151 tons in 1917. About
2 million lb. of the while arsenic produced is used
lor the manufacture of insi i I icides and weed killers.
n hile about 1 million lb. is used in the glass indus-
try, and a small amount for the manufacture of
One company was reported to produce
metallic arsenic.
In 1917, bismuth was recovered by only one coni-
pany in the United Stat . the ource l>< hilc the
refining of lead bullion, in 1918, 135,700 lb. of bis-
muth, valued at, £55,456, was imported.
The production of selenium in 1918 was 103,694 Hi..
valued at about £41,308, an increase of 162 and 195
181 a
REVIEW.
titay 31. lflSft.
per cent, over the output and value for 1917. In
1918, selenium was recovered as a by-product in a
number of electrolytic copper refineries. The im-
ports are very small, as the producers can satisfy
the home demand. — (U.S. Geol. Surv., Nov. 19,
1919.)
Fluorspar and Cryolite in 1918. — The total quantity
of fluorspar gold from mines in the United States
in 1918 was 263,817 short tons, valued at £1,093,096,
an increase in quantity and value of 21 and 139
per cent, respectively over 1917. The bulk of the
output (236,121 tons) consisted of gravel spar for
use in the manufacture of open-hearth steel. The
entire supply of natural cryolite used in the United
States is imported from Greenland. — (U.S. Geol.
Surv., Dec. 9, 19L9.)
BRITISH INDIA,
industrial Progress in the United Provinces. — The
report of the Director of Industries, United Pro-
vinces, for 1918-19 gives an interesting review of
those growing industries to which the Department
can be of assistance. Class Industry — Manufac-
turers had a very successful year, their trade reach-
ing considerable dimensions under the stress o!
war conditions. It is pointed out that if this trade
is to be permanently secured and increased,
methods, both of business and manufacture, must
be improved on scientific lines. The importance of
affording technical advice as to plant and processes
of manufacture is fully recognised, and steps are
being taken to obtain a glass specialist. The ser-
vices <ii four English glass blowers were secured
during the year for the Allahabad Glass Works to
facilitate tie' training of good workmen, with the
result tint workmanship has much improved, and
the output of the factory has doubled during the
twelve months. Metal Ware Industry. — This in-
dustry has also done well, hut expert guidance is
urgently necessary. With better craftsmanship in
the preparation of pressing tuols, the making of
lamp parts and other similar articles of pres ed
metal ware would Have excellent prospects Chi rfti-
eal Industries. — Development in this direction is
limited by the absence of some of the more im-
portant raw materials, hut considerable assistance
has been afforded by the Department through its
Industrial Chemist. The industrial laboratory car-
ried out a large number of inquiries on behalf of
the Government and also for private firms. A con-
siderable sum was spent On the investigation of th<l
production of alkali from rell, the manufacture of
which could be successfully undertaken if condi-
tions for the collection of the raw material were
available. Essential Oil Industry. — It is in the
laboratory that most assistance can be given to this
industry, which is reported to bo in a flourishing
condition, though worked on primitive lines. Work
on the distillation of clove oil was completed, and
an exhaustive series of experiments on the distilla-
tion of rose and patchouli was carried on. Work
in connexion with dyes, tanning and sizing mate-
rials was continued by the Industrial Chemist, who
also records very encouraging results from work on
the preparation of printing inks, and speaks hope-
fully as to the possibility of starting a varnish and
paint industry. Weaving Industry. — A large sec-
tion of the report is devoted to this industry. Hand-
loom weavers took advantage of the rise in price of
cloth and many new sheds were started in villages,
while a real advance appears to have been made in
lie use of the fly-shuttle loom. Much is expected
from the development of co-operative effort. The
chief factor, however, in the development of the
weaving industry in this province must, as in all
cases, be education, and attention is drawn to the
success of the established weaving schools and tha
activities of the Department of Industries in
organising peripatetic instruction.
SOUTH AFRICA.
Occurrence of Lead. — No lead deposits of consider-
able extent have yet been found in the Union • the
Transvaal contains the more important localities.
The Hhonosterhoek (Marico district) deposit has
been worked for some time on a small scale through
an adit 75 ft. below the original outcrop. It is very
similar in character to the other local occurrences
of galena, being found in dolomite; small outcrops
are visible on the surface, the value of which de-
i leases in depth, and the ore gives out at about
50 ft. The galena occurs in irregular lumps or
masses of characteristic shape, weighing a few
nines to several tons, embedded in a soft brown
earth carrying manganese peroxide; it is extremely
pure (i'b 83%, Ag 9 — 15 oz. per short too). The
ore novt being taken out is smelted in Johannesburg
and is used principally in the manufacture of lead
nitrate. At Leeuwkloof (Pretoria district) 700 tons
of galena (Pb 73 — 75%, Ag 2 — 4 oz.) have so far
been extracted. At a number of other localities in
the Transvaal lead has been mined in the past, but
the mines are ai present shut down: Witkop, Bok-
kraal, Buffelshoek, Rietspruit, Doornhoek (Marico
i ), Broederstroom, Edendale, Dwarsfontein,
Roodekraus (Pretoria district), and Windhuk
(Pietersburg district). Throughout the whole of
the dolomite area of the Transvaal irregular de-
posits of galena are found and occasionally worked,
the ore being sold to the ore reduction companies on
the Rand. In the Transvaal Silver Mine (Pretoria
district! argentiferous galena is associated with
chalcopyrite, copper carbonates, and tetrahedrite,
in the vicinity of a diabase dyke. At Edendale, alsi
in the Pretoria series, a vein has been worked in
which galena occurs in conjunction with zinc blende.
Another vein which was formerly worked is found
near Argent, 50 miles east of Johannesburg.
In the Cape Province lead ores have been found
ai the Maitland Mine (Port Elizabeth), Banghoek
(10 miles west of Hopetown), Knysna, Richmond,
in the Beaufort West and Victoria West districts,
and at various other points. No mining appears
to have been done. In Natal no promising deposits
are known; a quartz vein near the Tugela river has
been prospected, but contains roily small and iso-
lated nests of galena. Since limestones and dolo-
mites are fairly abundant in South Africa, it is
likely that numerous occurrences of lead ore are
still undiscovered; but prospecting will not be easy
as these rocks are largely covered with soil owing
to the ease with which they weather — (S. African
F.iifl.. Mar., 1920.)
GENERAL.
Proposed Site for London University. — The Govern-
ment has offered a site of about 11^ acres near to
and mi the north side of the British Museum, for
the accommodation of the headquarters, King's
College and other institutions connected with the
University of London. The President of the Board
of Education, in communicating the offer to the
Chancellor (Lord Rosebery), stated that the con-
dition of the national finances precluded any offer to
provide the cost of the buildings from public funds,
although the Government was prepared to secure
the University from loss in respect of maintenance
charges on the new headquarters. The proposed
site includes houses now occupied by several
scientific and learned societies, of which the
Institute of Chemistry is one.
Society of Dyers and Colourists. — The 36th annual
report states that 83 members and 60 junior mem-
bers joined the Society in 1919. A Midlands
Section has been formed and will be in active opera-
tion during the present year. The accounts show a
slight adverse balance, which is traced to the
greatly increased cost of printing and publishing;
owing to this cause the subscription rate for the
Vol. XSilX., No. 10.)
REVIEW.
185 h
Society's Journal has been raised to 60s. per
annum for non-members. The Right Hon Loril
Moulton has been elected presideiit, in succession la
.Mr. C. F. Cross.
Agricultural Industries in St. Vincent. — The Report
of the Agricultural Department of St. Vincent for
1918-19 records that the progress in the chief in-
dustries of the island has been maintained.
Cotton. — The season was favourable, and the area
planted exceeded 6,030 acres, compared with 4,710
acres in 1917-18. Of this total 4,583 acres was
planted with Sea Island cotton. The increase in
planting was stimulated by the satisfactory prices
paid by the Government for the cotton, which was
required for aeronautical purposes. The total yield
of Sea Island cotton was 437,273 lb. (329.115 lb. in
1917-18).
Starch. — The output of starches was increased as
the result of high prices. In view of the in< re)
cost of production, of anticipated lower Belling
prices, and of competition, a serious consideration
of the position would appear to be necessary. Pro-
vided that the cost of production can be lowered, it
miyrlit possibly be profitable in the future to erect
central stills and manufacture power alcohol from
the starches.
Cacao. — The improvement noted in the previous
year was continued during 1918, when the export of
cured cacao was 206.547 lb., as compared with
133,391 lb. in 1917.
Sugar. — Although the exports of sugar and syrup
were not so large as in the two previous years, the
position of the industry was well maintained. In
thi^ connexion the Imperial Commissioner of Agri-
culture has reported that the time is now opportune
for developing the manufacture of syrup in St.
Vincent. It is doubtful whether conditions are
favourable for putting up the elaborate machinery
necessary for the manufacture of sugar on modern
lines, but simpler machinery will serve for the
manufacture of syrup.
Among the minor industries improvement is also
general. Progress in the production of maize has
continued, exports -having steadily risen from 745
bushels in 1913 to 3,037 bushels in 1918. Small
shipments of copra and nuts are recorded. Large
areas of coconuts are commencing to bear, and ex-
ports are likely to rise considerably. Groundnuts
is a profitable minor industry. Good prices were
realised for the unshelled nuts, more particularly in
Trinidad. The export for the year was 13,489
bushels, against 14,424 bushels in 1917.
New Industries in Portugal. — The number of new
industries being established in Portugal is steadily
increasing; they include the manufacture of sodium
carbonate, copper sulphate, calcium carbide,
chloride of lime, vaseline, gasoline, aluminium sul-
phate, sodium chromate and dichromate, artificial
silk, liquid air, etc. This development is largely
due to the absence of German competition, which
has put certain industries in a position to export,
in spite of the difficulty experienced in obtaining
the necessary machinery and supplies. In order to
protect certain of the new industries it has been
proposed that the Government should grant them
monopolies for a term of 15 years, provided that
they increase their present production by at least
five times. — (Z. angew. Chem., Mar. 12, 1920.)
Camphor in South China. — The growing demand for
camphor from South China is leading to increased
activity in the industry. The government officials
of the Kwangsi province have founded a company
at Kuelin for carrying on the industry, and a
modern factory is being established. The produc-
tion and export of camphor are also being organised,
and American buyers are attempting to establish a
trade in camphor oil. Large quantities of this oil
arc being exported from the Kwangtung, Fukien,
and Kiangsi fields. The best virgin field in China
is said to be in Kiangsi province, where, it is stated,
the trees have been cut but little. The island of
Hainan is under investigation as a possible source
of camphor.
The exportation of camphor from the Foochow
district fell Horn 1,516,600 lb. in 1906 to 49,533 lb. in
1917, owing to the creation of a monopoly and un-
wise official control, as well as to the competition of
Formosa!) camphor. In 1918, however, owing to the
high prices offered, the trade improved and
ll>. was exported. The camphor is produced
by crude native methods, and trade is further ham-
by transport diHiculties, though labour is
11 ' tted I in the Government is anxious
to rei ive the camphor trade and might be willing to
bear at least a part of the expense of re-afforesta-
tion.— (U.S. Com. Sep., Feb. 11, A/or. 2, 1920.)
Iron Ore in Dutch Guiana.^The concessions in the
Donderbari mountains, belonging to the Guiana
Gold Placer Company , arc said to contain e>
million tons of iron ore in sight, the ore containing
62 per cent, of iron. These iron ore beds are being
in i isl gated by two German mining engineers, who
are also examining deposits of nickel, chrome,
wolfram, molybdenum, and vanadium, which are
repi .led in exist on the concession. — (/>'./. oj
■I.. Mar. 25. :
Discovery of Iron Ore in Switzerland. — Important
its • l iron ore about 2-5 metres thick, have
been discovered in the Frick Valley (Fficktal,
Aargau). The quality of the ore resembles that of
tin/ "minette" of Lorraine and Luxemburg; it is
an oolitic limonite and assays; Fe 25 — 35 , Mn
015— 0-32%, SiO, 12-8— 20-5.'., CaO 7'9— 136%,
Al O, 1-2— 8-8 . Mg 0-72— 1-8%, P 039— 063%,
S (i-Ol CO, 8-5— 12-5%. The deposits
pp ii to be extensive, and can be mined partly by
open working It is hoped that electrical smeiting
will be adopted, as the necessary water power is
available. — (Schive h Chem. -Z., Mar. 17, 1920.)
The German Iron Industry in 1919. — The follow-
ing figures give the production of pig-iron, steel,
and rolling-mill products for the last two years, in
millions of metric tons: —
1918. 1919.
Pig iron 119 ... 63
150 ... 85
Rolling-mill products 10T ... 5'9
The great decrease in the figures for pig-iron is due
primarily to the loss of Luxemburg and Lorraine,
from which a large part of the supplies of ore
(minette) was derived. Considerable ore reserves
were held at the beginning of the year, but they
were soon used up, and an agreement was reached
with the French Government for the exchange of
1 ton of German coke per 1J tons of Lorraine ore at
the rate of 6500 tons of coke daily. Lack of the
• try transport and coal has greatly hindered
the fulfilment of this agreement. The distribution
of the ore among the smelters is arranged b.v an
imp rial commissioner for ore supply, assisted in
disputed cases byr a commission of experts. The
output of steel was interfered with by the man-
ganese famine which was partly overcome by work-
ing up Donawitz manganese slags and by the im-
portation of Caucasian ore via the Danube. The
latti r trade, however, encountered difficulties in
tiir supply ni bunker coal. The cost of the various
manufactured articles has risen greatly (7 — 8 times
the 1918 figures) owing to the great demand and
the collapse of the currency; eventually the Govern-
ment was obliged to negotiate with the smelters for
the setting up of maximum prices. Should the
negotiations prove unsuccessful by January next
the Government is empowered to decree maximum
prices and set up an administrative committee to
regulate prices, on which the smelters, consumers,
merchants, and employers will be equally repre-
(Gliickauf, Mm: 20, 1920.)
186
REVIEW.
[May 31. 1920
Professional Fees in Germany. — The " Vereinigung
selbstandiger Metallanalytiker Deutsehlands "
(Union of Independent German Metallurgical
Analysts) has decided to raise its scale of minimum
fees, fixed on January 9, 1919, by 100 per cent, as
from January 3, 1920. (Z. angcw. Chem., Mar. 5,
1920.)
Diminished Alcohol Production in Germany. — Accord-
ing to the report of the " Verein der Spiritus-
fabrikanten Deutschlands," the German brewing
and alcohol industries are passing through a diffi-
cult period. The pre-war production of 3,500,000
hectolitres of alcohol per annum declined in 1918-19
to 1,300,000 hi., all of which is required for lighting,
heating, and power, so that none is available for
the manufacture of potable spirits; in addition, the
output for the current year is estimated at only
one-fifth of that of the previous year. The decline
in output is mainly due to lack of fuel, shorter
hours of work, and low prices, and to the fact that
the number of potato distilleries working has
diminished from 6000 to 1300. — (Z. angew. Chem.,
Mar. 9, 1920.)
Lignite Tar Oils.— Dr. II. Franck, chief chemist
to the Sunlicht-Gesellschaft (1914) A.-G., Mann-
heim, which was taken over from Lever Bros, on
the outbreak of war, states that about a year ago
he solved the problem of the manufacture from
hydrocarbons of fatty acids suitable for edible pur-
poses, as well as for the manufacture of soap, etc.
The method consists in "cracking," i.e., convert-
ing high-boiling hydrocarbons into partly un-
saturated hydrocarbons of lower boiling point. The
process, when carried out in a reducing atmosphere
even from tar, " Bakura " and similar
material, and saturated petroleum hydrocarbons
(Bergius process of the Erdbl-und Kohlever-
wertungs A.-G.); it was first carried out with
paraffin in an atmosphere of oxygen, with
and without a catalyst, and ultimately with
the aid of special catalysts yields of 70 — 80
per cent, of higher fatty acid* and 15 — 25
per cent, of middle and lower fatty acids were ob-
tamed. The process was applied to other aliphatic
and aromatic hydrocarbons, also to lignite and low-
temperature tar oils. The fatty acids obtained were
not only excellent for soapmaking, but could b»
esterified with ethyl alcohol, glycol or glycerin, yield,
ing useful edible fats by means of the process which
was bring worked by the War Committee.
Dr. Franck docs not consider the process com-
mercially practicable. The German production of
lignite paraffin before the war amounted to about
18,000 tons, whilst that of Galicia was about
100,000 tons, of which about 20,000 tons was treated
or consumed at home. During the war great hopes
were entertained of the low-temperature tar pro-
cess, and the production of tar was expected to
reach 300,000 to 400,000 tons with a content of 10
per cent, paraffin. Apart limn a few scattered
generators, only tho Rositz plant of the Deutsche
Knlol A.-G. is now in operation, producing 10 tons
of paraffin daily, which is all absorbed by the candle
industry. The total production of paraffin at pre-
sent amounts to about 21,000 tons, and that of
lignite tar about 150,000 tons; the German soap
try alone used 250,000 tons of fattj acids in
1913, while the same quantity of neutral fal was
treated in the German margarine industry. It does
not. appear possible therefor-.' lor a private under-
taking profitably to carry out the manufacture of
synthetic fatty acids from lignite tar.
Dr. Harries points out that the "cracking"
> is costly, and at present result* in consider-
able lo ses. To reduce these losses the attempt was
made to obtain valuable oxidation products by
treatment with either oxygen or ozone. As chief
product a refined oil is obtained, which is of great
("in rcial value, and which is not produced l>*
Dr. Frarick's process. — (Die Seije, Mm: 30. 1920.)
PARLIAMENTARY NEWS.
HOUSE OF LORDS.
Exportation of Fertilisers.
The Fertilisers (Temporary Control of Export)
Bill, which has now passed the House of Lords and
been sent to the House of Commons, is intended to
secure to farmers supplies of fertilisers during
periods of shortage. It empowers the Board of
Trade for a period of two years to prohibit exporta-
tion when considered necessary. The materials
specified are sulphate of ammonia, superphosphate,
basic slag, potash manures, and compound fertilisers
containing any of these substances. During the
Committee stage, Lord Blcdisloe moved to substitute
" nitrogenous chemical manures " for " sulphate of
ammonia " ; this was opposed by the Minister of
Agriculture on the grounds that restrictions on re-
export would stop the importation of synthetic
nitrogenous fertilisers from abroad, that the Bell-
ingham works would not manufacture under such
conditions, and that the proposed amendment would
operate against the maintenance of stocks of
Chilean nitrate in this country. The amendment
was withdrawn.
HOUSE OF COMMONS.
I ats from Sewage.
Dr. Addison, replying to a question put by Mr.
A. T. Davies, said that only four local authorities
possessed plants for the recovery of fats from sew-
age on a large scale, and that there was no reason to
suppose that such fats were used in the manufac-
ture of foodstuffs. — (May 6.)
Income Tax (Subscriptions).
Captain Elliot asked the Chancellor of the Ex-
chequer whether ho could seo his way to grant that,
in computing net incomes, there should be allowed
as deductions contribution made within the taxable
year to corporations organised and operating ex-
clusively for charitable, scientific or educational
purposes to an amount not in excess of 1 per cent, of
the taxpayer's net income.
Mr. Chamberlain, in reply, stated that where
subscriptions of the characters indicated are given
by trailers in such circumstances that they may
fairly lie regarded as money wholly and exclusively
expended for the purposes of trade, they are admis-
sable as expenses in the computation of profits for
income lax purposes. He was not prepared to
extend the relief of income tax to charitable and
other contributions which do not satisfy this con-
dition. This was allowed in the United States,
but the Royal Commission on the Income Tax found
that it was unable to recommend such a deduction
is this country. — (May 10, 12.)
Oil in Great Britain.
Mr. Kellaway, replying to Viscount Curzon, said
that one of the eleven oil wells drilled had been
abandoned owing to the difficulty of shutting off
the water encountered. Five wells had yielded
traces of oil, and the well at Hardstoft had a
natural flow of 50 gallons a week, which could bo
ih- reased to 250 barrels a week. The oil produced
amounted to about 2800 barrels (100,000 galls.), and
was in storage pending a decision on the question
nf oil rights in this country. Nine other wells were
being drilled, and it was hoped that five would be
completed shortly. — (May 11.)
Answering Lieut. -Com. Kenworthy, Mr. Bonar
Law said that the Government had now reached a
decision regarding the ownership of and royalties
Vol. XXXIX.. No. 10.]
REVIEW.
187 b
on oil deposits in Great Britain; a Bill had been
dratted and was under consideration. — (May 13.)
Dangerous Drugs Bill.
This Bill, presented by the Home Secretary cm
May 1, is designed to regulate the importation,
exportation, manufacture, sale, and use of opium
and other dangerous drugs in accordance with the
International Opium Convention of 1912. It pro-
hibits the exportation and importation of raw
opium (save under licence) and prepared opiu.u,
and restricts their manufacture; it also regulates
the importation, exportation and manufacture of
morphine, cocaine, ecgonine, and diamorphine, and
their respective salts, medicinal opium and any pre-
paration containing from 0"2 per cent, of morphine
to 01 per cent, of cocaine, ecgonine and diamor-
phine. Other new preparations likely to produce,
if improperly used, similar effects to those produced
by morphine or cocaine, may be brought under the
Bill by Order in Council. The Act is to come into
force on September 1.
Mineral Bights (Acquisition) Bill.
In answer to Major Cope, Mr. Bonar Law said
that the Government intended to introduce a Bill to
provide for the acquisition of mineral rights as soon
as possible. — (May 13.)
Morphia.
Sir R. Home, replying to Mr. Gilbert, said that
at present only three factories in Great Britain
were making morphia, and that licences for its
export are granted by the Board of Trade on the
basis of the estimated legitimate requirements of
the country of destination. During 1919 a total of
322,970 oz. of morphia and morphia salts, valued
at £336,861, was exported, of which British Pos-
sessions took 20,397 oz., including India 530 oz.,
Australia 967 oz., and Canada 18,501 oz.; foreign
countries took 302,733 oz., including Belgium
15,083 oz., France 140.873 oz., and the United
States 121,474 oz.— (May 17, 18.)
Indian Opium.
In a detailed statistical answer to Mr. Gilbert,
Mr. Montagu stated that the opium exported from'
India in 191^-19 amounted to 17,278 chests (in-
cluding 6811 chests exported on Government
account), valued at Rs. 4. 20.15. 975. The largest
amounts were taken by Indo-China (3440 chests*,
the United Kingdom' (2400 chests), Java (2400
ebests), Japan (1936 chests), and Siam (1750
chests). Statistics of opium production were not
available after 1916-17 when the output was 32,124
mounds from 204, 1«6 acres. (Chest=l'5 cwt..
maund = 82'3 lb.)— (May 19.)
Smoke Abatement.
Dr. Addison, in reply to Mr. Sugden, said that
a Departmental Committee had been appointed to
deal with the question of atmospheric pollution by
smoke and other noxious vapours. — (May 19.)
River Pollution.
In response to Sir F. Blake, Sir A. Boscawen
said that he hoped to introduce this Session a
s Bill, which will, among other things, deal
with river pollution. In addition, an Inter-de-
ntal Committee, appointed by the Ministries
of Agriculture and Transport, was investigating the
on of road tarring in relation to stream and
riv.-r pollution. The general question was the sub-
ject of discussion betwen the two Ministries men-
ind the Department of Scientific and Indus-
trial Research.— (May 19.)
Be.nzol.
Mr. Mope, replying to Sir A. Yeo, said that on
November 11, 1918, the Ministry of Munitions held,
or was under contract to buy, 11,700 tons of stan-
dard benzol and 9800 ton of pure benzol. All the
standard benzol was sold by October 7, 191'.), a I an
average price of Is. 8Jd. per gall., and a further 100
ton? subsequently notified for disposal was sold by
March 20, 1920.— (May 19.)
Gas Regulation Bill.
The main object of this Bill, introduced by the
President of the Board of Trade on May 19, is to
substitute calorific value instead of volume as tin'
basis upon which prices of gas will be lixed. It
empowers the Hoard of Trade to authorise im
selling prices to meet increased costs of prodni tion,
and to modify the sliding scales win re im essary.
British Trade with Japan.
Mr. Bridgeman, replying to Mr. Doyle, stated
that in 1919 this country imported goods worth
£23,871,012 from Japan, and exported goods to the
same destination worth £14,729,643. The imports
include the following values: Iron and steel,
£7851; copper, £195.075; other metals, £326,261;
and the ex.] orts include values for these three heads
of £3.980.625. £489,331, and £782,710. respectively.
-(M.,y 20.)
LEGAL INTELLIGENCE.
Cabriagb of Heavy Naphtha. Midland Bailway
Co. and Others v. Brotherton and Co. and
Another.
The Railway and Canal Commission (Mr. Justice
Lush presiding) on May 10-13 heard an action
brought jointly bj the Midland, Cheat Western,
and Lancashire and Yorkshire Railway Companies
against two firms of tar distillers, viz., Messrs.
Brotherton and Co., Ltd., and Messrs. Win. Butler
and Co. (Bristol), Ltd.
The Railway Companies asked the Court for a
declaration that certain traffic consigned by the re-
spondent firms was "Naphtha, Coal Tar" and
" dangerous goods " within the meaning of Acts
by which the companies were authorised to charge
such reasonable sums as they thought fit in respect
of traffic so declared. The respondent firms con-
tended that the traffic in question was " Mineral
Tar Oil," which is included in a class of non-dan-
gerous goods for which rates are fixed in the Acts.
It transpired that the traffic in question was a dis-
tillate of coal tar, which, though frequently in-
voiced as " heavy naphtha " or " high-flash
naphtha," had been consigned by the firms
as " mineral tar oil," in virtue of its flashing point
by the Abel close test being not lower than 100° F.
Technical evidence was given for the railway com-
panies by Messrs. L. Archhutt and J. H. B.
Jenkins (chemists to tho Midland and Great
lit. in Railway Companies respectively), and
Messrs. Horatio Ballantync and W. J. A. Butter-
field; and tor tin' respondents by Messrs. Thomas
Butler (managing director of the firm of that
(traffic manager to Messrs.
ton). Prof. G. T. Morgan, and Dr. P. E.
Spielmann. The railway companies in March, 1917,
announced that the entry " mineral tar oil "
applied only to dark-coloured distillates from coal
tar, of which 1 gm. ex] -1 fi i ■ hours in a
w ate h glass to the air at 60° to 65" F., in a position
free from strong draughts, must not lose in weight
re than 10 per cent. Samples from 20 lot?, con-
mineral tar oil,"
had all shown co id rahly greater loss than If)
by th test, though mostly flashing above
lnii !■'. The respondents' witnesses said this test
[May 31. 1920.
lacked precision, and was inferior to the flash-point
determination in discriminating between safe and
dangerous traffic. For the railway companies it
was contended that their evaporation test was
simple and indicated dangerous properties which
were not indicated by the flash-point alone. They
regarded the traffic as dangerous not merely on
account of its flash-point being only a little above
100° F., but also for other reasons. For instance,
contrasted with the heavier tar oils to which they
restricted the use of the term " mineral tar oil," it
penetrated absorbent material such as sawdust and
sacking more readily, and spread fire much more
rapidly, while, owing to its being lighter than
water," restriction and extinction of fire became
more difficult. The defendants, while admitting
that it was more inflammable than, e.g., creosote
oil, contended that as its flashing point was above
100° F. by the close test, and considerably higher
by the open test, it was not dangerous traffic.
' The judgment of the court, given on May 20,
granted the application of the railway companies
and declared that they were entitled to treat the
traffic in question as dangerous goods and to re-
quire it to be consigned as "Naphtha, Coal Tar."
It was not necessary or expedient for the Court to
decide whether the traffic was in fact dangerous; it
was sufficient that the railway companies had satis-
fied the Court that they had acted in good faith in
classifying the traffic as dangerous goods. Their
evaporation test had been inserted for good and
sufficient reasons and served its purpose.
Potash Contract. ./. 1). Pritchard da Co., Ltd. v.
S. Diamant.
In the King's Bench Division, on May 3, before
Mr. Justice Bailhache, an action was brought by
Messrs. J. D. Pritchard and Co., Ltd., of Swansea,
to recover from Messrs. S. Diamant, of London, the
sum of £259, due for alleged breach of contract to
supply a quantity of potash equal to sample.
For tin' plaintiffs it was stated that en Octo-
ber 11. 1919, the defendants offered them 50 casks
el' natural purified Russian potash, containing 96'50
per cent, of potassium carbonate, at £117 per ton.
When the potash was delivered it was found to
contain only 78'3 per cent, of potassium carbonate,
and the plaintiffs, having paid £2700 on the con-
tract, declined to pay more and claimed a rebate
pro rata with the deduction in the percentage of
potassium carbonate to the extent stated. The
defence claimed that it was entitled to be paid
in full as no warranty had been given and as the
plaintiffs, after inspection, had agreed to purchase
the potash in bulk. The plaintiffs put forward evi-
dence to show that there was no purchase in bulk.
Judgment was given fm- the plaintiffs, with costs.
Damaged Liquorice. W. I!. Andrew v. British East
Africa Corporation, Ltd.
On May IS, in the King's Bench Division, the
plaintiff, [railing as Messrs. Linton, Hubbard nnd
Andrew, sued the British East Africa Corporation
to recover £1500 for loos on a policy of marine in-
surance in respect of 150 cases of Spanish black
liquorice paste. Plaintiff's case was that the
liquorice had been damaged by sea water on the
voyage, and expert evidence was called to prove
that impregnation with sea water had occurred : the
salt content was twice that of the normal. For the
defence it was claimed that the deterioration was
due to fermentation caused by packing in a damp
condition. The analytical evidence showed that
the chlorine content was higher in (lie interior than
near the exterior. Impressed by the latter evi-
dence. Mr. Justice Bailhache gave judgment for the
defendant corporation, with costs.
COMPANY NEWS.
BRITISH DYESTUFFS CORPORATION, LTD.
At the first annual meeting, held in Manchester
on May 21, Sir Henry Birchenough, the chairman,
expressed regret at the resignation of Lord Moul-
ton, and announced that the Board of Trade had
nominated Lord Ashfield (formerly Sir Albert
Stanley) to be the second Government representa-
tive on the board.
Reviewing the financial year, to October 31 last,
the chairman said that the net profit of £172,500
did not reflect accurately the company's earning
power inasmuch as the new capital, £5,000,000,
issued last July had not by then come into bearing.
The change-over from war to peace conditions had
necessitated much reorganisation and concomitant
expense and dislocation; delay and difficulties had
been experienced in the delivery and installation of
new plant; and the costs of wages and materials
had risen continuously. Selling prices of dyes had
not been put up so soon as they might, or perhaps
ought to, have been; and even now the increases
made were relatively less than those for woollen,
cotton and silk varus. The tangible assets valued
in the balance sheet at £6,185,822 included :— build-
ings, plant and machinery, £3,500.000; stocks on
hand. £2,250,000; debts duo and investments,
£1,187,000.
After referring to the basic importance of the
dye industry, particularly in relation to munitions
production and the textile industry, Sir H.
Birchenough said that although the home supply
of dyewares was still short of the demand both in
respect of quantity and range, dye-users should
remember that they have been better supplied than
any country in the world. The output of the British
dye industry to-day exceeds the total consumption
in this country before the war, and it is almost
entirely based on British-made materials and inter-
mediate products. It would be foolish to deprecate
the importation of foreign dyes pending the full
development of the home industry, but on no
account should those alien organisations which were
uprooted during the war be allowed to re-establish
themselves in this country. The unexpected Sankey
judgment had rendered possible the temporary free
importation of German dyestuffs, but they looked
to 11. M. Government to fulfil immediately its pro-
mises of protection. Such promises could, in the
speaker's opinion, only be effectively fulfilled by
prohibiting foreign imports, except under licence.
Research undoubtedly lay at the root of the solu-
tions of problems confronting them, and the place
of n search in the company's plans was regarded as
all-important. About 100 highly qualified research
chemists were now engaged; buildings erected, or
under construction, for this work were costing
£250.000, including equipment, and over £70,000
had been spent during the past financial year on
actual operating costs. The Corporation had re-
ceived a Government grant of £100,000 for research
purposes. The number of workpeople employed was
6000, and the total staff numbered over 7000.
The resolution authorising the payment of a divi-
dend of 8 per cent, on the preferred ordinary shares
was passed unanimously. No dividend has l>een
declared on the ordinarv shares.
JURGBNS, LTD.
Presiding at the first annual meeting — since the
company was converted into a public one — on
May 18, Sir Charles Stewart referred to the issue
of one million 7 per cent, participating preference
shares in May last, with the proceeds of which it
was intended to erect large crushing mills at Pur-
fleet. In lieu of this, however, the company, in
Vol. XXXIX., No. 10.]
association with the Dutch company, Anton
Jurgens' United (Margarine) Works, had purchased
the whole of the share capital of the Olympia Oil
and fake Co., Ltd., of Selhy, Yorks. By this course
delay in delivery of crushing machinery and the
necessity of establishing a large organisation for
the disposal of the cake products were obviated. The
company is now self-contained, all the processes,
from tlie purchase of the seeds to the sale of the
margarine, being under one control. To provide
for tli is purchase and for future contingencies the
nominal capital was raised to £10,000,000 in Novem-
ber last, and li million each of preference and ord-
inary shares were issued to the public. The issued
capital is now £5,000,000. The available profit from
last year's working was £256, 574, inclusive of
£34,534 brought in, and out of this sum it was
agreed to pay a dividend of 7 per cent, on the ordin-
ary shares, and to leave £6-\X13, subject to excess
profits duty, to be carried forward.
OFFICIAL TRADE INTELLIGENCE.
(From the Board of Tradt Journal for May 13—20.)
North Persian Oils, Ltd. — This company was re-
ed on May 8 with a capital of £3,000,000 iu £1
snares. 11. M. Treasury and the Anglo-Persian Oil
Co. are to be represented on the board of directors.
Lbvkb Br.os., Ltd. — A scheme of capital re-
organisation has been formulated which provides
for the raising of the authorised capital from
£ 100.000,000 to £130, 000,000 by the creation of 10
million new 7 per cent, cumulative preference
shares of £1 each and 20 million new 8 per cent.
cumulative " A " preference shares of £1 each.
The existing first, "A," " B," and " C " preference
shares will be merged into the new 7 per cent, pre-
shares, and the existing 15 per cent. " A "
preferred ordinary into the new 8 per cent, pre-
ference shares. These proposals involve the capi-
talisation of £3,944,411, representing undivided
profits, and an increase of £217,963 per annum in
the sum paid in dividends on the existing pre-
ference and 15 per cent, preferred ordinary shares.
The holders of the ordinary shares do not partici-
pate iu the capital distribution.
Bhitish Glues and Chemicals, Ltd. — An im-
portant amalgamation of firms manufacturing glue
etc. has been effected, and a lieu company with the
above title and a capital of £2,000,000 will acquire
and develop the businesses of the following under-
takings: The Grove Chemical Co., Ltd., of Wigan ;
Charles Massey and Sons, Ltd., of Newcastle,
Si.iiN., .Market Harborough, and Stoke-on-Trent;
Me; gitt's (1917), Ltd.. of Sutton-in-Ashfield, Notts;
Quibell Bros.. Ltd., of Newark; J. and T. Walker,
Ltd., Bestwood Colliery, Notts; lie Weaver Re-
futing Co., Ltd., Acton Bridge. Cheshire; and
Williamson and Corder, Ltd., of Low Walker, New-
astle-on-Tyne. The principal manufactures to be
undertaken are glues, gelatins, edible and technical
tats and greases, fertilisers, calcined bones, phos-
phoric acid and its derivatives. The sale of the
business of Quibell Bros., Ltd., does rot include its
sheep dip and disinfectants branches. The assets,
less liabilities, were valued at £1,260,527 (including
£379,384 fur goodwills) on January 10 la it, and this
is the amount of the purchase price. £760,527 being
payable in cash. The annual profits for the last
three years averaged £336,982. Before the war, i,
is stated, the industry was largely in the hands of
continental countries, especially Germany and
Austria. Great importance will be laid on re-
search, and a highly qualified chemist has been en-
gaged to control a central department devoted to
this work. The share capital is divided into
700,000 eight per cent, cumulative preference
shares of £1 each and £1 ,300,000 ordinarj shares of
£1 each: of these. 333,334 preference aiid 666.667
ordinary shares are now being offered to the public
at par.
OPENINGS FOR BRITISH TRADE.
l'he following inquiries have been received at the
Department of Overseas Trade (Development and
Intelligence), 35, Old Queen Street, London,
S. \\ . 1 . from firms, ag< nts or individuals who desire
to represent U.K. manufacturers or exporters of
the goods specified. British firms may obtain the
names and addresses of the persons or firms referred
■ - applying to the Department and quoting the
specific reference number.
New Zealand .
Nigeria
South Airica
Finland
Glass, crockery
Chemicals, drags.. .. ..
Carbon, tungsten and nitrogen lamps..
Tool steel . .
Iron, steel, tinpl.it, .
soda ash
Glassware . . . . . . . . "
Drugs, salt, crockery
Paper, leather
Copper, lead, tin. tinplate. Iron, galvan-
ised sheets
Iron, ateel. Industrial oils
'tanned hides and skins, metals, fatty
products
Cement, drain pipes, cast iron pipes, lead
tP. D. 18
71s
689
pipes
t
Germany
Tannin-' materials, olive nil ..
692
Greece
Chemicals, pharmaceutical products
G93
Leather, paper, perfumery, su^ar . .
3 '7
Hungary
I '.lark iron plates, zinc . .
7_-
Italy ..
Agricultural chemical produi t^
695
Norway
Chemicals, asbestos, rubber
7::-
rortugal
Sheet copper ami brass, tin, lead,veget>
734
Switzerland . .
701
1 soap
Till-
Algeria
■i manures
Black and galvanised sheets, iron, steel,
703
tin, zinc
7U4
Morocco
1 ripoli
Textiles
700
Argentina |
I'.Lia.u.iv
Paint, varnish
741
Brazil
Cement, textiles . .
703
L,;tiu America
llubber. p neeiahi.ciseuti-iluil... perfum-
ery, drugs
742
•The High Commission! r foi Canada IJ, \ ictoria Street, Loudon.
s.W 1
fThe High Commissioner for New Zealand, 115, Strand, London,
W.C. 2.
lli.M. Consul, Nantes.
Markets Sought.
A firm in Canada wiib.es to get into touch with
U.K. importers of crude asbestos and asbestos fibre.
A Canadian firm able to export eel, mis lor use
in the manufacture of lithographic and writing
inks Irishes to hear from manufacturers in the U.K.
[Inquiries to the Canadian Government Trade
Commissioner, 7.'1. Basinghall Street, London,
E.C.2.
A merchant in Samoa able to export papain,
candlenuts, kola nuts, cardamom si eds and cocoa
wishes to get into touch with U.K.
importers [740].
TARIFF. CUSTOMS. EXCISE.
Australia. — Import prohibitions have been re-
moved From, inter alia, alcoholic beverages, per-
fumerj stranded copper cable and cal-
cium carbide.
Belgium. — Export licences an1 again required for
call skins I horse hides in the hair.
Bolivia. The ice lor the certification of consular
invoices has been increased to 3 per ceut. ad
valorem aa from April 26.
REVIEW.
[May SI, 1920.
British East Africa. — The import duty on spiritu-
ous liquors has been increased to Rs.lS per gallon.
British India. — A rebate of two-thirds of the ex-
port duty on raw hide* and skins is allowed, under
certain conditions, when exported to places in the
Empire or in a territory in respect of which a
mandate of the League of Nations is exercised by
the Government of any part of H.M. Dominions.
Crimea. — The export of fats and animal and
vegetable products from which fats are extracted
is prohibited as from April 16.
Denmark. — Export prohibitions have been re-
moved from molasses and certain feeding stuffs.
Finland. — The duties prescribed by the tariff have
been increased by 200 per cent, as from March 10.
Among the articles specially exempted from the
lard, margarine, milled cereals, cocoa
and chu^
many. — Further information respecting the
export control regulations is given in the issue for
May 13.
The export of alloyed gold leaf in the form of
books is no longer subject to licence.
' ce. — Recent customs decisions affect com-
pressed gases, cowhide, alcohol, spirits, and earthen-
ware.
Italy. — Crude mineral oils and residues when
destined to be used exclusively and directly for fuel
are subject to import duties at the reduced rate of
50 centesimi per 100 kg.
Among the articles the export of which is subject
to a certificate of cession of exhange are platinum,
castor oil, magnesia, carbon bisulphide, glycerin,
chemical products, medicaments, horse hair, iron
pipes, articles of iron, copper, brass, bronze, nickel,
lead and alloys thereof, aluminium, certain earths
and minerals.
Luxemburg. — Export taxes have been levied on
iron ore, slag, semi-manufactured iron and steel,
cast-iron, waste and scrap of iron and steel.
Persia. — The text of the Anglo-Persian agree-
ment for the revision of the Persian customs t;i rifr
and regulations which came into force on Aprii 2,
is set out as a supplement to the issue for May 20.
Articles affected include alcoholic liquors, perfumes,
matches, rubber, gutta-percha, cement, wax, vege-
table oils, sal mineral
oils, metallii is. paper, hides, skin?,
pottery, chemicals, chemical fertilisers, dyes,
colours, varnishes, and glass.
• I'd. — The export of organic manures is pro-
hibited.
St. Z/ui ia. — The import duty on rum has been re-
duced to 6s. per proof ga
St. Vil cent. — In o the customs and
alcoholic beverages,
a trade duty of two shillings per gallon has been
imposed as from April 7.
Sierra Lr,,r\i>. — Rates of export duty per
palm '■.■ iyl); £2 15s. (June
l)j and £3 (July 1).
Spain.— The manufacturing taxes on alcohol,
alcoholic bevi have been increased.
The impoi ' md of raw hides is now
permitted.
Pure aluminium in lumps, ingots,
cast slabs, bars and scrap may be exported a
general export licence as from April 15.
Tunis. — The export. and re-export of coal tar and
ti Hates and certain hid
lit under licence.
Turkey. — Olive oil from the vilayet of Aidin may
now 1-
I
earthenware, precipitated chalk, and synthetic
coumarin.
\ copy of the law relating to the
customs rigime for chemicals, i may be
the Department of r ade.
GOVERNMENT ORDERS AND NOTICES.
The following new Orders were issued by the
Board of Trade on May 10 last, viz. : —
The Coal (Revocation of Restrictions) Order
and Direction, 1920. — On and after May 12 last the
following Orders cease to have effect : — (1) The Coal
(Pit's Mouth) Prices Order, of November 29, 1919,
and all other Coal (Pit's Mouth) Prices Orders of
earlier date; (2) the Wholesale Coal Prices Order of
November 28. 1919; and (,'i) the Prescriptions of
December 30 and 31, 1919, made under th
(Pit's Mouth) Pries Order as above. The pro-
of the Wholesale Coal Prices Order of 1917
are not affected.
The Coal (Pit's Mouth) Prices Obder, 1920. —
For the standard amount of 4s. fixed by the Price
of Coal (Limitation) Act, 1915, there shall 1
stituted standard amounts of 23s. 2d. and '_
according to iocality (defined).
The Coal (Bunkering and Export) Prices. Order
and Direction, 1920. — The prices of coal sold for
bunkering certain ships at United Kingdom ports,
which were increased by 9d. per ton as from Janu-
ary 15, are increased by n further 4s. 2d. per ton.
Paragraph (1) of the Directions of the Board of
Trade as to the sale of coal, coke-oven coke, and
patent fuel, dated May 28, 1919, are revoked and
cancelled.
Export Prohibitions. — The following notices '
were issued by the Board of Trade (Li<
Section) on May 20, viz. : —
Munitions for use with smooth-bore guns may be
sent under open general licence to Asiatic Russia.
Suet, marrow fat, and cocoa raw have been re-
moved from List A.
An open general licence has been issued permit-
ting the export to all destinations of apomorphia
hloride, cotarnine h\ djochloride, cotarnine
late.
TRADE NOTES.
BRITISH.
British Solomon Islands in 191S. — The import* and
of the BritisM 3i I an in Islands were valued
and £170,125 respectively fur L91
against £154,743 and £149,743 in 1917. Th
product of the Pro! copra, the export of
which in 191!) — 9891 tons — showed an increase of
50 per cent, over the previous year. These islands
have vast potentialities, which, however, can only
loped by an adequate labour supply, and
locally. — (Col. Bep. — .Inn., No.
1027., Feb., 1920.)
Sierra I.eone in 1918. — The value of the imports
Sierra Leone in 1918 was £1 ,680,336 (£1,332,752
in 1917), whilst the expo, ts ai inted to £1,516,871
(£1.497,995 in 1917). Palm kernels wen sported
to the value of £683,137 (40,816 tons) during the
-bowing a decrease of £109.371 as against
i:»17, mainly owing to hok of shipping facilities,
to influenza, rain and the higl "ported
For the
■ ! at £33,748 was exported, com-
i; 1917. AM
Im nil wont to
I ]
amounted to 2302 tons, wo 6 showing an
of 600 tons in quantity and £76,599 in
over the preceding year' figures. Among
590 tons of pi d at £15.065
and 8470 hides valued at £3488 were exported,
Tot mux, iro. 10.]
REVIEW.
191
chiefly to the United Kingdom. The cocoa industry
in the Northern Sherbo District is being carefully
fostered, and the area of 700 acres in the Kassewe
Hills Reserve planted with gum copal in 1917 is
showing great promise. — (Col. Hep. — Ann.. No.
1032, Apr. ,1920.)
FOREIGN.
Trade and Industry in Crete. — According to H.M.
Consul at Canea, Crete is now in a flourishing
position, owing to the revival of the export trade.
With the exception of certain foodstuffs, practically
every kind of goods produced in the United King-
dom, especially tinplate, galvanised sheets, caustic
soda, sodium carbonate, earthenware and china, is
required. Apart from the making of wine and the
extraction of oil from the olive, the only industries
of importance are the manufacture of soap and of
sole and upper leather. The raw materials available
for export include sheep and goat skins, silk
cocoons, carobs, cedrates, wool and raisins. At
present the exportation of olive oil is prohibited.
Lignite deposits have been discovered in the pro-
vince of Aghios Vassilios, near Plakia, and so far
about 1000 tons of good qualitv lignite has been
shipped to the Piraeus (c/. J. 1918, 417 b; 1919,
29 b).— (Bd. of Trade J., May 6, 1920.)
Swiss Exports of Organic Dvestuffs. — According to
the Europaische Zeitung, the value of the organic
dyes exported from Switzerland during the first
nine months of 1919 was 78 million francs, com-
pared with 64 million francs in the corresponding
period of 1918. The chief customers were : Great
Britain, 32%; France, 23%; U.S.A., 12%; Italy,
11%; Belgium, 4"5% ; British India, 4'3% ; Spain,
2-2%; Brazil, 2%; Japan, lo% ; and China, F5%.
China and Japan took most of the indigotin, viz ,
37 and 17%, respectively, of the total value of 8"1
million francs (about 4 million francs in the pre-
vious year). — (Schweiz. Chem.-Z., Mar. 17, 1920.)
Foreign Company News. — France. — The " Com-
pagnie Tunisienne des Phosphates de Djebel-
Mdilla " has recently been formed with a capital of
16 million francs for the exploitation of phosphate
in Tunisia.
The firm Poulenc Frferes, of Paris, manufacturers
of pharmaceutical preparations, has come to an
understanding with the English firm of May and
Baker with the object of enabling Allied manufac-
turers to compete with German and other interests.
The understanding is the outcome of an exchange
of ideas and manufactures which was found to be
mutually advantageous during the war and since.
According to a Dutch source a new factory has
been established at Marseilles to manufacture white
lead and red lead. The capital is 525,000 francs. —
(Z. angew. Chem., Mar. 12, 1920.)
The accounts of the French Viscose company for
the period 1914-19 show a gross profit of 8,458,143
francs and a net profit of 8,084,801 fr., the latter
figure including 3.32*.561 fr. in respect of 1914-18
and 4.756.240 fr. for 1919. For the whole period
total dividends of 75 fr. per preference share and
52"50 fr. per ordinary share have been declared. — i
(Her. Prod. Chim., Apr. 15, 1920.)
The capital of the " Societe Chimique de la
Grarde-Paroisse " is to be increased from 14 to
34 million francs. The company was founded
jointly by " L'Air Liquide " and the " Compagnie
de Saint-Gobain " in June, 1919, for the purpose
of manufacturing synthetic ammonia by the Claude
process, and the former has placed its factory at
Montereau — used for the production of liquid
chlorine during the war — at the disposal of the new
company. — (Chem. Ind., Mar. 31, 1920.)
Oermany — Following a report that the " A.-G.
fur Stickstoffwerke in Knapsack," near Cologne,
had ceased to produce nitrogenous fertilisers and
was concentrating on the manufacture of carbide as
being^ the more lucrative, a question was asked of
the Government as to the means it proposed to
take to induce the company to resume manufacture.
The Ministerial reply was to the effect that no
cessation of the production of nitrogenous fertilisers
at Knapsack had occurred or been contemplated,
although the company had considered tho possi-
bility of temporarily stopping the manufacture of
cyanamide. Tho application mado by tho company
to increase selling prices had been sanctioned, and
further, compensation would be paid up to mid-May
for any losses due to increased costs of production
— (/. angew. Chem., Mar. 16; Chem.-Zeit., Apr. 8,
Martinique in 1918.— The total imports of the
island in 1918 were valued at about £2,114,158 and
the exports at £1,960,890, the decreases as com-
pared with the previous year (£69,415 and
£1,180,255) being mainly due to lack of transport
facilities. The chief products are sugar, rum,
cacao, and pineapples. The sugar crop was small,
owing to lack of potash fertilisers, labour, and to
disease, the exports (20,711 short tins) being nearly
14,000 tons less than the pre-war average, although
only 169 tons less than those in 1917. The chief ex-
ports and their values were as follows: — Cacao
(£75,581), campeachy wood (£1035), lime juice
(£770), rum (£813,564), and vanilla (£3945). The
chief imports, together with their values, are as
follows:— Asbestos (£1182), candles (£5307), cement
(£17,676), sulphur (£518), sulphuric acid (£1069),
copper and manufactures of (£15,214), fertilisers
(£26.514), glass and glassware (£8143), aluminium
(£5131), mineral oils (£72,174), vegetable oils
(£79,488), and soap (£19,070). The United States
furnishes about 50 per cent., France about 11, and
the United Kingdom about 8 per cent, of the im-
ports.— (U.S. Com. Sep., Suppl., Jan. 31, 1920.)
OBITUARY.
WATSON SMITH.
To the members of the Society of Chemical Indus-
try and the readers of this Journal the news of the
death of Watson Smith will bring with it a sense
of personal loss. From the first appearance of this
Journal in January, 1882, Watson Smith acted as
editor, and he filled that position for a period of
32 years. Under his able guidance the Society's
Journal made for itself a position unsurpassed by
other similar enterprises, serving not alone as a
record of the activities of the various Sections, but
providing abstracts of papers dealing with the
multifarious aspects of chemistry, both " pure and
applied," and also records of patents. The Journal
offers to all interested in one or other of the in-
numerable industrial applications of chemistry a
means of keeping abreast with the progress of
affairs in all parts of the world. In fact it has
become the great asset of the Society and a con-
tributor in no small measure to its world-wide
activities.
This brief recital serves to remind us how
great is the debt which we owe to Watson Smith,
when as the first editor he laid the foundations
which have secured its development on broad and
sound lines, and also ensured its success at the pre-
sent day.
Watson Smith, son of the Rev. Watson Smith, was
born at Stroud on June 16, 1845. His training
in chemistry was received at Owens College, Man-
chester, in the early period of Roscoe's tenure of
the professorship of chemistry. Subsequently he
continued his studies at Heidelberg and later at
192 b
REVIEW.
[May 31, 1920.
Ztirich. Here he became a pupil of Lunge, whose
teaching exercised a great influence upon his out-
look. On returning to England he went into indus-
try, and after some years spent in practice became
lecturer in technological chemistry in the Owens
College. Shortly after his appointment to this
lectureship the Society of Chemical Industry was
founded, and in this movement he took an active
part, becoming, as already stated, the editor of
the Journal. The importance of his editorial work
led him to resign his post in Manchester and to
take up residence in London, where for a time he
acted as professor of applied chemistry at Univer-
sity College. In 1914 Watson Smith resigned the
editorship of this Journal, but until the time of
his death remained an active member of the Tran-
sactions and Abstracts Sub-Committee.
Watson Smith, by his investigations, has added
much to our knowledge of coal, and his published
works show that in this country he was one of
the first to draw attention to the study of rational
methods of coking. As far back as 1884 he identi-
fied himself with the advocacy of the more
economical and sane method of coking coal with the
recovery of by-products, and contributed to the
spread of a knowledge of these methods of utilising
coal, which at long last have obtained a general
recognition in this country.
L. T. O'SHEA.
Lucius Trant O'Shea was born in 1858 as the
eldest son of the late Major R. P. O'Shea and
grandson of Sir Lucius Curtis, Bart., Admiral of
the Fleet. He was educated at the Grammar
School and Owens College, Manchester, and then
went to Sheffield as assistant lecturer and demons-
trator in chemistry at the Firth College. In 1890
he became lecturer in mining chemistry at Sheffield
University, and in 1905 was appointed professor of
applied chemistry, a position he held until his death
on April 18 last.
Prof. O'Shea published many papers in various
journals, including those of the Chemical Society
and Society of Chemical Industry, also in the
Transactions of the Institution of Mining En-
gineers and the Proceedings of the Coke Oven
Managers' Association. During the past 25 years
he made a special study of the chemistry of fuel
from the point of view of coke-oven development,
preparation of fuel for carbonisation, the gases
contained in and evolved from coal whilst being
mined, coal dust and gases in mine explosions, and
published papers on these subjects. During the
last six years he was actively engaged on the in-
vestigation of low-temperature carbonisation of
inferior fuels with a view to the formation of mobile
fuel oils and the production of higher yields of
ammonia. O'Shea was a member of several com-
mittees for the general education of miners and
engineers, and for many years served on the com-
mittee and afterwards as vice-chairman of the York-
shire Section of the Society of Chemical Industry.
At the time of his death, and for many years pre-
viously, he was honorary secretary of the Institu-
tion of Mining Engineers. He was also on the
sub-committee for research on miners' lamps, and
actively connected with the Imperial Mineral Re-
sources Bureau and the British Association Fuel
Economy Committee. In addition to his numerous
activities in industrial chemistry, O'Shea was a
keen volunteer, and commanded a detachment of
Engineers throughout the South African War. He
was Commanding Officer of the Sheffield University
Officers' Training Corps from 1911 to 1918, and
during the late war devoted much of his energy to
the training of young officers.
A. E. Findley.
REVIEW
Quantitative Analysis by Electrolysis. By
Alex. Classen, with the co-operation of H.
Cloeben. Revised, rearranged, and enlarged
English edition by W. T. Hall. Pp. xiii.+346.
(New York: J. Wiley and Sons. Inc.; London:
Chapman and Hall, Ltd. 1919.) Price 17s. 6d.
net.
The present edition of this well-known book re-
presents a slight enlargement and rearrangement
by the translator of an English edition which was
published about six years ago and was based upon
the fifth German edition. Some new methods have
been added and the theoretical introduction has
been slightly enlarged. Thus the chapter on the
history of electrolytic analysis has been extended by
a short account of the history of theoretical electro-
chemistry in which the modern views of the struc-
ture of the atom and of the processes of ionisation
and chemical combination are discussed. A theor-
etical chapter has also been added which deals with
the application of potential and conductivity
measurements to chemical analysis and with electro-
metric titrations. No account of the practical
application of these important methods is, how-
ever, given.
To those English readers to whom Classen's book
is known from Boltwood's translation of the fourth
German edition the present volume will appear as
practically a new book. The theoretical introduc-
tion, which, including the description of apparatus
employed in electrolytic analysis, occupies about
one-third of the book, has been entirely rewritten
and gives a good acount of the theory of the subject.
In the practical part it will be found that in agree-
ment with the results of recent investigation simple
solutions have wherever possible been given the pre-
ference over complex electrolytes. Details of the
methods of rapid electrolytic analysis are every-
where given, the apparatus in use in the author's
laboratory being more fully described. The methods
of determination and separation of metals based
upon the control of the potential of the cathode are
fully discussed both in the introduction and under
such metals as bismuth. The processes worked out
in the laboratory of the University of Pennsylvania
for the determination and separation of the metals
of the alkali and alkaline earth groups and for the
simultaneous determination of anions have been in-
cluded. A section which will be welcomed by many
users is that dealing with the analysis of com-
mercial products which takes the place of the
laboratory exercises on electrochemical analysis to
be found in the earlier editions. The book has
been well translated throughout without a too rigid
adherence to the text of the original, and misprints
are few. It may be hoped that it will stimulate the
use of electrochemical methods in British labora-
tories. Henry J. S. Sand.
PUBLICATIONS RECEIVED.
South Wales Coals: Their Analyses, Chemistry
and Geology. By Llewyllyn J. Davies.
Pp. 89. (Cardiff: The Business Statistics Co.,
Ltd. 1920.) Price 10s. 6d. net.
Introduction to General Chemistry. By H. N.
McCoy and E. M. Terry. Pp. 648. (London
and New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc.
1920.) Price 18s. net.
Animal and Vegetable Oils, Fats, and Waxes. By
Geoffrey Martin. Manuals of Chemirnl
Technology.— IX. Pp. 218. (London: Crosby
Lockwood and Son. 1920.) Price 12s. Od. net.
Vol. XXXIX.. No. II.]
REVIEW
[June 15, 1920
SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
THE ANNUAL SUBSCRIPTION.
During the past two years the financial position
of the Society has been receiving the serious con-
sideration of the Council. Mainly owing to the
increased charges for printing and publishing, the
Society's balance-sheet, for the first time, showed
a serious loss on the working for the year 1918;
and this has been repeated in respect of the last
financial year. In common with many other
administrative bodies, for some time the Council
held the view that the high prices of commodities
would in due course fall to a lower level, and in
this expectation it was decided to meet deficiencies
by encroaching upon the Society's invested reserves.
Unfortunately, however, events have falsified this
view, and it has accordingly become necessary to
provide for financial stability by other means.
In regard to increased costs, it may be of interest
to mention that expenditure upon printing and
publishing is now approximately 4 times greater
than it was in 1914, and that paper costs 5 times
and postage twioe as much as in that year. Further,
owing to the increased activities of the Society,
more particularly in connexion with the Journal,
and owing to the need for making provision to
meet the increased cost of living, administrative
and editorial expenses have risen about 2J times.
During this period the circulation of the Journal
has increased from about 5000 to over 6500. So
far as can be foreseen, it is almost certain that the
costs of printing and paper will continue to rise;
even as recently as June 4 last a further increase
of 12J per cent, in printing charges was notified,
making a total increase of 22£ per cent, since the
beginning of the year.
In view of the above considerations, the Council
has had to choose between raising the annual sub-
scription and drastically cutting down expenditure;
and in deciding to recommend the former alterna-
tive it has been actuated by the conviction that
any serious curtailment of the Society's activities
or reduction in the efficiency of its Journal would
be in the highest degree detrimental not only to
the interests of the Society, but to those of chemical
science and chemical industry in general. The
proposal to raise the annual subscription from 30s.
to 50s. per annum, as from January 1, 1921, will,
it is confidently hoped, be received and supported
in the same spirit of loyalty as that in which it
has been conceived.
With a view to meeting any hardships which the
fulfilment of this proposal might inflict upon the
younger chemists, to whose recruitment the Council
attaches the greatest importance, it has been
resolved to recommend the institution of junior
membership for those under the age of 25 years.
It is proposed that the annual subscription for this
grade should be £2 until the age of 25 has been
reached, or for a period of three years from the date
of election, whichever may be the longer period.
Applicants for junior membership would be re-
quired to adduce satisfactory evidence of age, and
to sign a declaration that they were not seeking
election as nominees of any firm or corporation.
THE FORTHCOMING ANNUAL MEETING.
The arrangements for the annual general meeting,
to be held at Newcastle-upon-Tyne on July 13-16
(particulars of which were sent to members with
the issue of the Journal for May 15), constitute a
via media between the pre-war custom of devoting
the major part of the proceedings to social enter-
tainments, and the plan adopted during the past
four years of devoting most of the time to the
reading and discussion of papers. It will, we
think, be generally agreed that each type of pro-
gramme was appropriate to the circumstances of
the time; and that in the present state of flux and
reflux, a judicious combination of the two will
provide the greatest pleasure to the greatest,
number. Those who desire the " strong meat " of
industrial chemistry will he well catered for by the
conference on By-product Coking, by that on" Cen-
trifugal Machines, Filtration, etc. (under the direc-
tion of the Chemical Engineering Group), and by
the papers dealing with metallurgical subjects,
whilst those who incline more to the social side,
and who wish to make or renew acquaintance with
the great chemical industries of Tyneside (cf. J.,
1919, 80 r), will find full scope for enjoyment in the
very attractive programme of excursions to works
and entertainments arranged by the Local Com-
mittee. As the choice of riches in the latter con-
nexion appears somewhat embarrassing, we have
asked the Honorary Secretaries to supply a few
notes — hereunto appended — to guide intending
visitors in the difficult, albei' pleasant, task of
selection.
At the Tharsis Company's works at Hebburn
both the wet and dry processes for the extraction
of copper can be seen, whilst by contrast with these
long-used operations, visitors to the Newcastle
Alloy Company's works at Rowland's Gill will see
electric furnaces and electrical processes for the
preparation of iron and other alloys. Messrs.
Cookson, at Willington Quay, will show both the
old " stack " and the new " chamber " processes
for manufacturing white lead, together with the
plant recently set up for the preparation of orange
lead and other coloured lead products. One
naturally associates Newcastle with coal, and at the
great Ashington collieries members will have an
unusually good opportunity to see what conditions
of work are like underground — though under excep-
tionally favourable conditions, the seams being
comparatively thick and dry, so that this trip can
be undertaken even by ladies. The hospitable
colliery company will take the party out from New-
castle by motor and entertain it in other ways; it
is possible that those who wish will, like the Ashing-
ton coal, be put on ship at Blyth and returned to
Newcastle by sea — a distance of 20 miles. At
Marley Hill, Messrs. Bowes and Partners have their
fine coke ovens and by-product plant, and this visit
may well be combined with that to the Newcastle
Alloy Company, as the motors which take the party
to Marley Hill will convey it across country to
the latter works.
The North country can be relied upon to show-
its wonted hospitality, and Scottish members need
not fear that they will be received as their fore-
fathers so often were; indeed, a special day
(Friday) has been assigned for a motor tour through
South Northumberland — through the beautiful
valleys of the Derwent and the Tyne — during which
it will be shown that the elaborate precautions
taken by the Romans and throughout the Middle
Ages have been abandoned and remain only as
fascinating ruins.
Newcastle counts it an honour to entertain the
Society, and has endeavoured to rise to the occa-
sion : fine weather and a large attendance the local
officials cannot guarantee, but they count on both.
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING AT THE ANNUAL
MEETING.
Some further details have come to bjind concern-
ing the projected activities of the Chemical En-
gineering Group at the Newcastle meeting. In
addition to the papers already announced, one on
" The Design of Mechanical Filters" will be read by
REVIEW.
Mr. Balfour Braniwell; this will treat of the con-
struction of filters for dealing with large volumes
of liquid, and special reference will be made to a
novel development designed by the author. On
July 14 the Group will hold an informal luncheon
at the County Hotel, after which a visit will be
paid to the works of the International Paint and
'Compositions Co., Ltd., at Felling-on-Tyne, where
a new centrifugal machine, to be described by Mr.
W. J. Gee in his paper on " A New Process for
Centrifugal Filtration," will be seen under ordin-
ary working conditions. Prof. H. Louis will pre-
side at the conference to be held on the afternoon
of July 13, and M. Paul Kestner at that arranged
for the morning of July 14
BRITISH NON-FERROUS METALS.
HENRY LOUIS.
In August, 1919, the Board of Trade appointed a
Departmental Committee to investigate and report
upon the Non-Ferrous Mining Industry of the
United Kingdom, and this Committee has just
issued its report (Cmd. 652). At the very outset
the Committee found it necessary to limit the scope
of its inquiry to the non-ferrous metals and a few
of the minerals associated with them, and from the
non-ferrous metals copper was promptly eliminated.
As stated by the Commitee, the mining of copper
ore in this country has practically ceased, and it
has, therefore, not been included in the investiga-
tions. It may at once be made clear that this con-
clusion appears to be perfectly sound ; not only is
the mining of copper practically extinct in this
country, but it may fairly be added that there would
appear to be but little chance of its ever again
attaining any economic importance. A century
ago, in the decade 1811 to 1820, Great Britain pro-
duced an average yearly output of 730G tons of
copper, which increased rapidly, until a period of
maximum activity was reached between 1830 and
1860, during which the annual production averaged
14,000 tons; after this it began to decline, at first
slowly and then more rapidly until for the decade
1891 to 1900 it averaged only about 400 tons per
annum and has now come down to 180 tons. It is
obviously impossible for the relatively small de-
posits in this country to sustain competition with
the huge occurrences in the United States; when it
is borne in mind that a single modern American
•smelting furnace will put through in a day about
as much ore as the whole of Great Britain produces
in a year, the hopelessness of the British position
becomes obvious. Care must be taken, however,
not to accept too generally the reason for this
decadence assigned in the Committee's report,
which states that " the reason why in Cornwall tin
mining has survived copper mining " is due to the
fact that "tin ore, being less soluble than copper
ores, is deposited at a higher temperature and con-
sequently in a relatively lower zone, when both
metals are derived from the same source." It is
beyond question that tin ores occur in lower depth
than copper ores in Cornwall, though it is doubtful
whether the above simple explanation of relative
solubilities is sufficient to account for observed
facts. Tin is supposed to be of pneumatolytic
origin, whilst copper is generally admitted to be
deposited from solution, and it is only natural to
expect that a liquid would carry its solute further
from its point of origin than could a relatively
•easily decomposed gaseous emanation. Further-
more, it must be emphasised that copper ores occur
elsewhere at far greater depths than have been
reached by any Cornish tin mine — for example, in
the Lake Superior region.
The report lays perhaps most stress on the pro-
duction of lead and zinc ores; it was, of course,
impossible to suggest that non-ferrous mining in
this country will ever again become what it once
was, and the Committee is probably, if anything,
more optimistic than the facts warrant in express-
ing the view that the position affords " grounds for
the expectation that there may yet be a prosperous
future for non-ferrous mining in this country";
nevertheless it is added that "it is unlikely to
revive unless it receives direct State aid." Accord-
ingly, the Committee advocates such aid in a few
selected cases, and though it admits the principle
that such assistance is unjustifiable unless the in-
dustry can be shown to be within a measurable dis-
tance of becoming self-supporting, it makes no
attempt to prove that the particular case upon
which it lays most stress is likely to reach this
stage, far less to repay the public money that it
wishes to see spent upon it. The case which
it urges most strongly is that of the Halkyn
district in North Wales. This is a district which
had long been noted for its important production
of lead and zinc ores, but the mines are very heavily
watered, and with increasing depth the cost of
coping with the water became so serious that most
of the mines were compelled to close down more or
less completely. Soon after 1875 a company, known
as the Halkyn District Mines Drainage Company,
drove an adit about 200 ft. above sea level, which
drained a large portion of the district and enabled
it to be worked down to this depth, and the mines
appear to have been practically worked out down
to that level within some thirty years after the
completion of the adit. In order to enable deeper
working to be resumed, in the hopes that an im-
portant output of ore might be obtained from the
district, the Mineral Resources Development De-
partment of the Ministry of Munitions advanced a
sum of £42,000 to enable certain of these mines to
erect pumping plant. Neeedless to say, the war
was over long before the plant was erected ; it
appears never even to have been put into com-
mission, and the nation not to have benefited to
the extent of a single pound of mineral by the
expenditure of this important sum. With this
object lesson before its eyes the Committee never-
theless advocates the expenditure of further large
sums of public money for driving a new drainage
tunnel from sea level in order that the mines may
be able to resume working. It is noteworthy that
no estimate at all is presented of the cost of this
scheme, still less any figures as to the quantity of
ore that might thereby be expected to be rendered
available, and the Committee is apparently oblivious
of the fact that the important outlay proposed, for
it obviously must be an expensive project, would only
open up some 30 fathoms of backs for mining. Still
more reprehensible is the fact that it appears to
have given no consideration at all to the effect of its
recommendations upon the owners of the minerals.
In the report a few paragraphs are devoted to the
question of royalties, but the important considera-
tion that the royalty owner never seems to hold it
his duty to contribute towards the discovery or de-
velopment of the minerals upon which he receives
royalty payments has been entirely overlooked.
Thus, in the present case it is obvious that the
minerals in the Halkyn district are worthless until
such a drainage tunnel has been driven, yet it is
proposed to drive this tunnel, and apparently to
make the owners of the minerals a present, at the
national expense, of the royalties that they would
derive from their being worked. Whilst the country
has apparently come to the only conclusion that
was to be expected from the British nation, namely,
that royalty owners must in any event receive equit-
able treatment, it is surely wrong to propose, as has
been done here, that they shall be allowed to collect
royalties at the public expense, and the entire
Vol XXXIX. Xo. 11.]
omission of this consideration cannot but be looked
upon as a very serious defect in the preseut report.
The Committee is naturally opposed to the national-
isation of mineral rights as regards metalliferous
minerals, but the reasons given are undoubtedly
feeble, bein4 mainly that " the prospective value of
a mineral lode cannot he assessed even approxi-
mately ; its very existence is only a matter of con-
jecture." It is certainly possible to put a value
upon any metalliferous deposit, and this is one of
the everyday tasks of the mining engineer ; neces-
sarily it is a speculative value because the- article
itself is a speculative article, but an equitable basis
for valuation can assuredly be arrived at ; obviously,
too, as long as the existence of a mineral deposit is
unknown its value is necessarily nit. The reasons
that militate against the nationalisation of minerals
are much wider than those that are here advanced,
though the present is scarcely the place for their
discussion.
Perhaps the portion of the report which will be
of the most general interest is the section dealing
with the organisation of a Mines Department. It
was probably inevitable that a Departmental Com-
mittee appointed by the Board of Trade should re-
commend the formation of a Mines Department
which should be part of the Board of Trade, but it
is a pity that the Committee took so narrow a view
of the position. Those who have taken a wider
survey of the mineral industry of this country are
tolerably unanimous in the opinion that the mining
industry of the country ought to be placed under
an entirely independent Department presided over
by a Minister of Mines, and it is a matter of regret
that the present Committee could not sufficiently
free itself from the shackles of the Department
which appointed it to take this wider and more
statesmanlike view. It may, however, fairly be ex-
pected that when the recommendations of this Com-
mittee come to be considered, the subject will be
viewed as a whole, and that the narrower proposal
here advocated is not likely to prevail.
THE RUBBER INDUSTRY AND
THE WAR.
B. D. PORRITT.
In considering the share which this country con-
tributed to the final downfall of the German-
Austrian cause, it is impossible not to include re-
ference to the plantation section of the rubber
industry, 6ince had it not been for the foresight
and initiative of the Indian Government of some
30 years ago, and the subsequent lavish support of
British capital, the supremacy which the Allied
forces enjoyed in respect of all the many naval and
military articles of equipment of which rubber
articles are components must have been endangered.
In fact, rubber furnishes a striking example of the
advantage accruing from the possession of a raw
material within the Empire and independence from
outside sources of supply.
It i3 unnecessary to go into the details of this de-
velopment of the plantation industry in Ceylon
and Malaya, and it will suffice to point out that, in
1914, of the world's supply of raw rubber, amounting
to 120,000 tons, no less than 71,000 tons was pro-
duced within the Empire. As the consumption of
the British rubber manufacturers at this time was
only 18,000 tons, not only was their supply of raw
material secured*, but in addition neutral manufac-
■f • The supremacy of the Allies ill respect to rubber was intensified
by the fact that London and Liverpool were in the eariy stages the
chief distributing centres, so that the British manufacturers were.
« a result of the heavy stocks held, in a great measure secure against
stoppages by blockade.
turers were dependent on the Empire for the means
to continue their trade. To this fact in a consider-
able measure we owe the success of blockade and
embargo on the import of rubber and rubber goods
into Germany. Further, in return for adequate
supplies of rubber and unrestricted export facili-
ties to all parts of the Empire, the rubber dealers
and manufacturers of America undertook that no
material, raw or manufactured, should be exported
" directly or indirectly to enemy countries, where its
need was from the first acutely felt. This under-
taking appears, on the whole, to have been faith-
fully observed, and although American manufac-
turers profited to good purpose in home and foreign
markets while the British manufacturers' output
was almost entirely monopolised by war supplies, it
must be a source of satisfaction to the producer and
manufacturer to know that the military and naval
resources of our enemies were thereby much
hampered in the production of many important and
essential articles of equipment. Not only has the
Federated Malay States contributed — largely from
the revenues derived from rubber — a super-dread-
nought (the " Malaya ") to the fighting units of our
Fleet, but the rubber trade nas amply met every
requirement of rubber goods for our army, navy,
aud auxiliary forces, and by its predominant posi-
tion as a producer has been able to deprive our
enemies of one of the most important materials
necessitated by the latest developments of science
.and enginering.
From the moment when Germany realised that
the duration of the war was to be protracted the dis-
advantage due to her dependence on outside sources
of supply for rubber and cotton was recognised,
though her available stocks were carefully
husbandedt and efforts made to procure satisfactory
substitutes; with rubber these efforts met at the
most with but partial success, and, while satisfac-
tory ebonite for electrical purposes is claimed to
have been manufactured from a synthetic product
available, the lack of the natural material seems to
have precluded the manufacture of the many soft
rubber articles for mechanical purposes — more espe-
cially pneumatic and solid tyres, which are called
for by recent developments of mechanical transport
and aeronautics.
Such being the condition of our enemies in re-
spect of rubber supplies, it is perhaps well to turn
to the other side of the picture and consider in
what ways the rubber trade contributed actively to
the Allied cause.
As in most other industries, the personnel of the
rubber trade made a full contribution of men to the
fighting forces. For many years women had been
largely employed on lighter work, and when the
call for "dilution " came this industry was among
the first to respond. Notwithstanding the de-
parture of practically every able-bodied man of
military age, the efficiency and output of the trade
was little if at all impaired, and throughout the
period of the war the requirements of the country
were placed by British rubber manufacturers before
the wants of their home or foreign trade, a circum-
stance of which, as has been mentioned, our Ameri-
can competitors did not fail to profit.
The war work of the rubber trade perhaps does
not lend itself to spectacular treatment in the same
way as that of some industries. Although of the
greatest importance by reason of the enormous
variety of the uses — many familiar, some novel —
to which rubber has been put, it is somewhat diffi-
cult to give a just impression of the wartime activi-
ties of this industry.
To begin with, the branch of the industry con-
t Considerable stocks of rubber were no doubt secured as a result
of the capture of Antwerp in 1915. but quite insufficient to meet the
needs of the German and Austrian trade3 which before the war
together consumed 11.000 tons per annum.
REVIEW.
cerned with the product variously known as hard
rubber, vulcanite or ebonite may be briefly con-
sidered. As might have been expected, large quan-
tities of sheet, rod and moulded ebonite were needed
for various electrical purposes, switchboards, wire-
less telegraphy installation, field telegraphs and
telephones, whilst the development of the British-
made magneto for aeronautical and motor use was
rendered possible by the production of a high tem-
perature insulating material to replace the German
" Stabilite " hitherto employed. The rapid develop-
ment of the submarine and aeroplane, moreover,
called for the production of accumulator cells of
special design and quality capable of withstanding
exceptional conditions of usage.
The more important section of the industry em-
ployed in the manufacture of soft rubber goods can
now be considered. The introduction of trench war-
fare in the early stages of the war necessitated
special equipment, and the rubber trench boot was
devised to protect the troops from the water. In
one factory alone these were manufactured at the
rate of about 60,000 pairs per month, and the total
delivered by the Scottish rubber footwear manu-
facturers alone must together have totalled
1,500,000. Enormous quantities of rubber hose,
moreover, were supplied for pumping out the water
from the trenches. The subsequent introduction
of poison gas attacks by our enemies resulted in an
urgent demftnd for some form of protection to en-
, able our troops to withstand this novel form of
warfare. As a result the rubber-fitted gas mask,
which gave satisfactory protection so far as the re-
spiratory organs were concerned, was soon evolved ;
and when it was found necessary by the Allies also
to resort to the use of gas the rubber trade met
the demands for a means to ensure the even dis-
tribution of the gas from the cylinders in the
trenches. The amount of rubber hose employed for
this purpose must have been well over a million feet,
and though rapidly destroyed by the action of the
gas, it was found much more convenient in use
than the lead piping used by the Germans for a
similar purpose.
It is common knowledge that motor transport and
aeronautics played a vital part in all the military
operations, and that consequently vast quantities
of solid and pneumatic motor tyres and aeroplane
and motor cycle tyres had to be obtained. No trade
statistics are available to show the magnitude of
these supplies, but it may be gauged from the fact
that during the latter stages of the war when
private motoring was practically abolished in Great
Britain owing to petrol restrictions, the whole out-
put of every motor tyre factory throughout Great
Britain was barely adequate for military needs.
The surgical branches of the industry were work-
ing at high pressure throughout on the production
of such articles as eheeting, jaconette, surgical
gloves, drainage tubing and the like. It must be a
source of satisfaction to those engaged in the
rubber industry that so large a proportion of their
efforts was directed to the production of articles
destined to promote the comfort and the safety of
those in the fighting lines and to the alleviation of
the sufferings of the wounded. Camp sheets, trench
boots, hose, respirators and safety collars for those
exposed to submarine attack are examples of the
former, and ambulance tyres, hot water bottles,
surgical requisites of the latter. It may be
mentioned as an illustration of the work of this
branch of the trade that from one factory alone
20,000 camp sheets were supplied weekly for a
period of over two years, or a total delivery of no
less than two million sheets in all.
The enormous dimensions of the fighting area
called for an unprecedented system of telegraphic
and telephonic communication for which insulated
wires and cables had to be provided, and the huge
supplies of insulated material needed taxed the
capacity of the cable industry to its utmost limits,
and necessitated large extensions to the plant which
provided for the pre-war requirements. Unfortun-
ately, here again no trade statistics are available
as to the vast quantities of various types supplied.
This necessity for co-ordination between head-
quarters and the fighting units and the remarkably
increased employment of artillery gave rise to the
development and extensive use of the " sausage "
or Caquot kite balloon, which was subsequently
largely employed in the navy (in conjunction with"
small airships of the non-rigid type) as a defence
against submarine attack. The production of
balloon fabric — which prior to the war had been a
speciality of a few European rubber manufacturers
■ — consequently assumed the position of an im-
portant branch of the trade, as may be gauged from
the fact that one British factory was gas-proofing
sufficient material to construct 25 kite balloons per
week, representing approximately 25 miles of two-
ply finished material weekly, and a yearly produc-
tion of over 1200 miles in pieces of from 50 to 100
yards in length, each of which had to be carefully
examined and tested by accurate scientific methods
for weight, strength and gas tightness.
Scientific investigations into the effect of ultra-
violet light on rubber resulted in the discovery of
a method for prolonging the effective life of the
rubber gas-retaining medium in balloon fabric for
a period vastly in excess of that hitherto obtained.
This achievement, which is specially important in
connexion with the development of aeronautics in
tropical countries, will serve as a token that the
necessity for research was not being entirely over-
looked by the British rubber trade even under the
stress of war conditions.
The foregoing rough outline of war activities of
the British rubber industry would be incomplete
without some indication of the difficulties en-
countered and overcome in obtaining these results.
Though the supply of crude rubber was at no time
seriously jeopardised, the processes of its manu-
facture necessitated the employment of many
auxiliary materials in order to obtain the variety
of products which were required by the many differ-
ent uses to which rubber was put. The outbreak of
hostilities and the later depredations of submarines
involved the reconsideration and modification of
many processes and mixings which long use had
endowed with the odour of sanctity. Up to 1914 the
chemist had played but a small part in the economy
of the rubber works generally. Thenceforward the
manufacturer had to invoke his aid to solve the
novel problems presented by war conditions. Among
the first effects of the war was the partial or com-
plete interruption of the supplies of several of the
manufacturers' most important compounding in-
gredients. Among such must be cited barytes, zinc
oxide, lakes and pigments, antimony sulphide,
French chalk and cotton tyre ducks. The barytes
supply of the rubber trade has in the past been
practically a German monopoly, the colour, texture
and price of the foreign supply being apparently
such as to render the trade unattractive to the
owners of the British deposits of this mineral.
Supplies of home origin and manufacture were 60on
available after the outbreak of war, but it would
be idle to contend that even after five years they
compare as a whole with the standard of quality
shown by pre-war supplies. The matter of the
subjugation of the world's zinc supply to German
influence prior to the war has already been the
subject of serious consideration, but in the case of
the rubber trade the outbreak of hostilities and the
German invasion of Belgium resulted in the elimina-
tion of one of the most important sources of manu-
facture of zinc oxide, namely the Societe de la
Vieille Montagne. Whilst the increased output re-
Vol XXXIX.. No. 11.]
REVIEW
197 B
suiting from the developments of the New Jersey
Zinc Co. of America after a few months made up
for the initial shortage of this important compound-
ing ingredient, and fair quantities of British manu-
facture became available, there still would seem to
exist scope for development in our home supply
with a view to a greater degree of independence of
foreign sources and also to meet the needs of the
celluloid, paint and related industries.
The interruption in the supplies of German
colours and pigments was in a measure compensated
for by the alteration in industrial requirements and
the development of a less critical spirit on the part
of the consumer. The development of home supplies
though slow has, on the whole, been satisfactory,
so that with Jie exception of antimony sulphide
comparatively slight difficulty has been experienced
with this class of supplies. A preponderant pro-
portion of the rubber manufacturers' pre-war
supplies of this pigment was derived from two
sources, one German and the other French; hostili-
ties naturally at once cut off the former, whilst the
occupation and industrial destruction of the North
of France soon eliminated the latter, together
with the supplies of motor duck woven in the
Lille district. _ A limited home supply of this im-
portant red pigment has throughout been available.
New manufacturers, however, have not been uni-
formly successful in obtaining either the requisite
purity of tint or stability to heat, with the result
that since 1914 rubber manufacturers have fre-
quently experienced difficulty with red goods
depending on this pigment for their colour.
With the shortage of shipping resulting from mili-
tary requirements and the losses due to submarine
attack, the problems confronting the rubber manu-
facturer and chemist were intensified. The supply
of all imported materials became precarious, and
such staple ingredients as cotton, litharge, lamp
black, Russian shoe waste, paper, sulphur, solvents,
became affected, whilst the necessity for the con-
servation of oils and starch for foodstuffs intensified
the difficulties in practically every section of the
trade. Although some inconvenience resulted to
civilian supplies, the difficulties were in the main
surmounted, and no diminution either in output or
quality occurred in the goods destined for war
purposes.
The foregoing survey, though necessarily super-
ficial, should be enough to show that the rubber
industry can justly look back with satisfaction on
its war record. Though it has emerged without any
radical alteration in its general technical procedure,
in common with other industries, the experiences
of the war have served to dispel many prejudices
and to broaden the views generally of those in
positions of responsibility. The institution of
associations by various sections of the trade and
the recent formation of a research association point
to the existence of a spirit of co-operation greater
now than in the past, and to a growing apprecia-
tion of the need for scientific assistance in the
industry.
On June 3, between 70 and 80 members of the
Birmingham Section of the Society of Chemical
Industry took part in a visit to the works of
the Dunlop Rubber Co., at Fort Dunlop, Erding-
ton. By the courtesy of the directors, the
visitors were enabled to spend two hours in the
works and to inspect the various operations involved
in the manufacture of rubber tyres from the raw
material. The works were laid out on a very ex-
tensive scale during the war, but are not yet
complete; at present some 6000 workpeople and a
laboratory staff of 35 are engaged.
NEWS FROM THE SECTIONS.
CANADA.
Toronto Branch.
The final meeting of the session 1919-20 was held
at the Engineers' Club, Toronto, on April 22.
-Prof. E. G. R Ardagh presided, and the members
were addressed by Mr. C. Price-Greene, Commis-
sioner, Industrial and Resources Department, of the
Canadian National Railways, on " The Resources
° ™u a" , The kej'-note of the address was not
We have the greatest country on God's green
earth, but rather " We have wonderful resources
that need scientific development and conservation "
Chemistry, the speaker affirmed, was at the basis of
all the greatest developments that had taken place
in the world during the last 50 years, developments
more wonderful than those that had occurred during
the preceding 1500 years.
Referring to the scheme for the merging of the
great iron and steel companies of Canada with the
master steelmakers of England as a development
that would be most beneficial u> the industrial pro-
gress of the Dominion, Mr. Price-Greene stated that
in Ontario alone there were 425,000,000 tons of iron
ore awaiting development, whilst along the north
shores of the St. Lawrence River there were large
valuable lead-zinc deposits and an enormous iron-ore
deposit of over SO miles in length as yet untouched.
Out of the mines at Cobalt, Ontario, silver valued
at $250,000,000 had already been taken, and at the
Porcupine gold camps over $50,000,000 of gold had
been extracted to date. Hollinger, in the Porcupine
district, was undoubtedly the greatest gold mine in
the world, and he believed that the Burke mine at
Porcupine would prove a second Hollinger. Larder
Lake, Gowganda, Shining Tree, and West Shining
Tree, all in Northern Ontario, were splendid mining
camps. Ontario's mining development had been
held back owing to the mistake of earlier mine
operators in attempting to work with insufficient
capital. Reference was also made to the graphite,
talc and marble deposits of Central Ontario, centred
in Hasting's County, which needed only a little
more capital and a little more scientific development
to make them important industrial centres. A
geological survey of the marble deposits of Hast-
ing's County had shown that they had a depth of
over 50,000 ft., and that the marble was of the
purest quality.
Unlike the United States, Canada need not fear
concerning the future of her wood-pulp supply, pro-
vided that an extensive reafforestation policy was
at once put into force. The United States, on the
other hand, was fast nearing the completion of her
wood-pulp resources, and another six or seven years
at the most would see their finish. This was not
surprising when it was considered that the United
States alone consumed one-half of the world's supply
of white paper, involving the yearly consumption of
5J million cords of wood. One Sunday edition of a
Chicago paper used up the pulp equivalent of 40
acres of spruce trees. For all purposes, the United
States consumed annually, of all kinds of wood, 244
million cords. A prominent American lumber-man
had informed the speaker that within the next ten
years over 3000 lumber mills in the southern United
States now operating on pine would be forced to
close down, as the supply would be exhausted. In
conclusion, Mr. Price-Greene prophesied a great
future for the copper mining industry in Northern
Manitoba at the great Mandy and Flin Flon mines,
and also for the mineral resources of British
Columbia.
The following were elected to form the Executive
Committee of the Toronto Branch for the session
1920-21:— Profs. E. G. R. Ardagh and J. T. Burt-
[June 15. 1920.
Gerrans, Messrs. M. L. Davies, A. J. MacDougall,
J. P. Murray, T. E. Rothwell, H. van der Linde,
and L. E. Westman, with Messrs. J. Sale and T.
Sinmett representing the associate members.
The annual meeting of the Canadian Section is
being held conjointly with the Convention of Cana-
dian Chemists at Toronto on May 27 and 28.
LIVERPOOL.
On May 27 Mr. P. P. Renwick delivered the
Hurter Memorial Lecture.
After referring to Hurter's valuable services to
photographic science, the lecturer briefly analysed
the many complex factors which go to make up
those qualities of light-sensitive materials which
are summarised in the " characteristic curve " of
Hurter and Driffield, and emphasised the need for
further researches to unravel their separate in-
fluences. The chief theories of the latent image,
viz., the sub-bromide, the silver-germ, and the
physical-change theories, were then discussed, with
special reference to the following phenomena: —
(I) Physical development after fixation ; (2) Image-
transference from one silver salt to another; and
(3) Light-sensitiveness (destruction) of the latent
image under certain conditions. It was shown that,
in addition to those already known, soluble iodides'
in concentrated solution may be used as fixing
agents for exposed plates, and an image subse-
quently built up in the clear gelatin matrix by
means of a " physical " developer. Then it was
demonstrated that the latent image on an exposed
gelatin dry plate may be transferred to silver iodide
and subsequently developed either physically or
chemically with but little loss of detail, and that
the latent image after transference to silver iodide,
and in the presence of soluble iodides, is easily
destroyed by the further action of light, although
the Bilver iodide itself is almost insensitive. The
interesting observation was recorded that the rays
responsible for this destructive effect (reversal) are
limited to a narrow region in the blue lying between
"43 n and "48 n, with a sharp maximum at '45 /*.
The phenomena discussed, and others mentioned
incidentally, are held to necessitate the assumption
that the latent image is a material substance and
not merely an electrically or physically changed
form of the original silver salt. The only known
material capable of giving the observed reactions is
silver, which has been proved to exist in a great
variety of forms.
Finally, on the basis of Reinder's work and other
independent observations, the conclusion was
reached that colloidal silver in solid solution in
crystalline silver bromide is the most light-
sensitive material present in a ripened emulsion,
and that the initial step in the formation of a
latent image consists in the precipitation in the
(electrically neutral) silver-gel form of this dis-
solved colloidal silver. Subsequently halogen is
split off and more silver-gel nuclei formed; but
ultimately this process may lead to repeptisation,
by the liberated bromine, of the already precipi-
tated gel, with formation of a photo-salt rich in
silver but not readily reducible by the developer,
when solarisation (reversal) occurs.
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING GROUP.
The following announcements have been supplied
by the Hon. Secretary of the Group: —
Data Sheets. — The first four of the series of data
sheets which have been in course of preparation
for some time past are now ready, and will be
issued to members of the Group ; thev are entitled •
No. 1 The Properties of Saturated Steam ; No. 2,
The Capacity in Gallons of Vertical Cylindrical
Tanks per Foot of Depth; No. 3, The Capacity in
Gallons of Hemispherical Vessels; No. 4, The
Physical Properties of Sulphuric Acid. Other
sheets are in active preparation, and will be issued
at short intervals. The Hon. Secretary of the
Group will welcome any suggestions from members
of the Society as to suitable subjects for data sheets,
or offers to supply material for their preparation.
Proceedings. — It is expected that the first volume
of the Group's Proceedings, containing the papers
read at the first two conferences, will be published
by the end of this month. To secure earlier pub-
lication of papers in the future, the Committee has
decided that, starting with the Birmingham Con-
ference, the proceedings at each conference shall
be published separately; the numbers so issued
can then subsequently be bound together to form
the annual volume.
Winter Conference. — Arrangements are being
made to hold a conference on "Plant for the Utilisa-
tion of Waste Products " in November or December
next; a further announcement will be made shortly.
MEETINGS OF OTHER SOCIETIES.
ROYAL SOCIETY OF ARTS.
A paper on " The Commercial Application of
Electrical Osmosis," by Mr. J. S. Highfield, Dr.
W. R. Ormandy and Mr. D. Northall-Laurie was
read by the first^named at a meeting held on
May 19.
After a brief exposition of some of the more impor-
tant fundamental phenomena of colloid chemistry,
the authors considered the application of the prin-
ciples involved to the purification of clay and similar
materials. The apparatus for obtaining osmosed
clay consists of a tank containing at the bottom
two paddles which agitate the suspension and direct
it through the perforations of the semi-circular
cathode. The anode is a metal cylinder, revolving
at the rate of one revolution in three minutes, at
a distance of about 0'75 in. from the cathode. A
scraper removes the clay from the anode, where
it forms a blanket up to 0'5 in. thick containing
about 25 per cent, of water. The fresh clay sus-
pension is fed into the lower part of the tank and
the water effluent is returned above to be mixed
with fresh clay. A machine with a cylinder 2 ft.
in diameter and 5 ft. long produces about 1,000 tons
of pure clay per annum. The consumption of
electricity varies from 20 — 70 units per ton of
machine product.
The purified and finely-divided clay obtained in
this way has many advantages. Its melting point
is raised and its sintering or vitrifying tempera-
ture reduced (by as much as 300° C. for low-grade
clays) ; the temperature-interval between vitrifica-
tion and incipient decomposition ("blowing") is
increased. In the manufacture of porcelain and
earthenware, osmosed clays yield whiter bodies, and
chemical porcelain ware so made is of the very
highest quality, the body consisting entirely of pure
kaolin, which, owing to the fineness of the particles,
vitrifies completely.
The electro-osmotic filter press for de-watering
and purifying many finely-divided substances con-
sists of a series of chambers which are closed on
both sides by filter cloths held in position by perfo-
rated or grooved metal, carbon or other conducting
plates, one forming an anode and one a cathode.
An electrical pressure of from 20 to 100 volts,
depending on the substance to be filtered, is estab-
lished between the plates, and the water is forced
towards the cathode. With this apparatus
materials fine enough to choke an ordinary press
cm be filtered
VolXXXLX.No 11 )
199 b
On May 31, Mr. A. Howard, Imperial Economic
Botanist to the Government of India, read a paper
on " The Improvement of Crop Production in
India."
The speaker pointed out that agriculture is, and
must long remain, India's greatest industry, and
that crops were n:ore important than live stock.
After the Indian Agricultural Department was
founded in 1904, it was discovered that improved
crop production could be obtained by improving
the existing varieties and working out a practicable
method of seed distribution, also by studying the
factors that influence plant growth. The work
done on the improvement of varieties has led to
much new knowledge in regard to the inheritance
of characters and also to subjects of immediate
importance. New varieties of wheat which add
more than £1 per acre to the profits of the cultiva-
tors now cover almost a million acres, and similar
results have been obtained in the case of rice,
jute and tobacco. Most attention has been paid
to cotton, and the distribution of new varieties
has already affected large areas under this crop.
In connexion with the factors influencing plant
growth, Mr. Howard dealt at length with soil
aeration, including the development of waste lands
and drainage, with irrigation and soil temperature;
in conclusion he emphasised the value of a know-
ledge of science, of cultivation and of trade, as
the essential qualification of those who are to take
in hand the development of economic botany in
India. Future, as indeed all past, advance lies
with the individual and not with systems of organ-
isation.
THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
At an ordinary meeting, held on May 20, Prof.
J. Norman Collie contributed " Some Notes on
Krypton and Xenon," which included the measure-
ments of a considerable number of new spectro-
scopic lines at the red end of the spectrum. A
curious observation was made in regard to xenon.
When a strong current from an induction coil is
passed through' it, much splashing of the electrodes
occurs, and the xenon disappears as a gas. What
becomes of it is not clear, as it is not observed to be
liberated either by strongly heating the metallic
splash, or by dissolving the latter in suitable
solvents.
SOCIETY OF PUBLIC ANALYSTS.
The concluding meeting of the session was held
at Burlington House, W, on June 2, Mr. A.
Smetham presiding.
In a paper on " The Estimation of Nitro-
glycerin," Mr. H. Droop Richmond discussed the
hydrolysis of this compound and described two
methods of estimating it, one gasometric and the
other alkalimetric, both of which were stated to
give satisfactory results.
Mr. R. L. Morris contributed a paper entitled
" A Study of the Determination of Potassium as
the Perchlorate." This method, he stated, gave
highly accurate results when properly carried out,
the. average error not exceeding -0"1% on pure
potassium salts and +0'1% in the presence of much
sodium. Attention was directed to the need for the
wash fluid to contain not less tnan 97% of alcohol,
after adding 0'2% of perchloric acid. Exact details
for carrying out the determination were given, the
necessity for the removal of sulphates was empha-
sised, and the use of quartz dishes recom-
mended. The author has found that the presence
of iron, magnesium, calcium, and barium does not
interfere with the determination, although when
the last-named is present, traces of barium sulphate
are detected during evaporation.
INSTITUTION OF GAS ENGINEERS.
The fifty-seventh annual meeting was held in
London on June 1, 2 and 3. The president, Sir
Dugald Clerk, in his inaugural address, sketched
briefly the present position and future possibilities
of the gas industry. Statesmen, he remarked, who
fail to understand the magnitude and efficiency of
the services rendered to the public by the gas
industry, appear to have formed very erroneous
I ideas of its future ; developments were unquestion-
ably impending. Reviewing the thermal efficiencies
of various gas-making processes, the following were
given as the best percentage efficiencies of the
several processes employed at the present time: (1)
coal gas produced by destructive distillation, 62'5
per cent. ; (2) coal gas mixed with water gas made
from coke in a separate producer, 67 per cent. ; (3)
coal gas produced in vertical retorts, combined with
steaming, 62"1 per cent. A thermal efficiency of 70
per cent, may be expected from the process
of complete gasification of coal, and such a process
may be desirable in certain circumstances deter-
| mined by the sale prices of coke and residuals.
Suction producers consuming anthracite show a
maximum thermal efficiency of 90 per cent., and
those consuming coke about 80 per cent.
The Third and Fourth Reports of the Research
Sub-Committee of the Gas Investigation Committee
I were submitted to the meeting. The third report is
concerned mainly with the effect upon the efficiency
| for lighting and heating purposes of the dilution of
coal gas with nitrogen, carbon dioxide, and air,
: respectively. Equal percentages of these gases
added to straight coal gas exert very different
effects upon the thermal efficiency in use. The
illuminating and thermal efficiency attainable with
the incandescence mantle burner is not reduced by
the admixture of as much as 20 or 30 per cent, of
l air, if heat units are supplied to the burner at
I equivalent rates. Carbon dioxide and nitrogen, in
contradistinction to air, are true inerts, and the
effect upon the thermal efficiency of coal gas in use
is more pronounced in the case of carbon dioxide
than in the case of nitrogen. The effects of the
presence of inerts in the gas upon the radiant effi-
ciency of gas-fires are relatively small, at least for
dilutions down to 350 B.Th.U. per cb. ft. The
fourth report gives a detailed account of the first
stage of an investigation carried out at Uddingston
into the comparative economies of production from
the thermal and chemical standpoints of different
grades of gas. A full setting of eight vertical.
] retorts was employed in each test, and the results
I showed that the quantity and quality of gas made
are dependent both upon the quantity of steam used
per ton of coal and upon the temperature of the
charge. Employing steam to the extent of 49'9
per cent, of the coal gasified, the yield of gas was
21,849 cb. ft. of gas of calorific value 410 B.Th.U.
gross, compared with 10,384 cb. ft. of gas of 544
B.Th.U. gross without steaming. The action of
steam is not merely to produce water gas, but also
to increase the proportion of unsaturated hydro-
carbons and methane in the gas.
The Refractory Materials Research Committee
j presented a report on the casting of gas retorts,
by Dr. J. W. Mellor and Mr. W. Emery. For pur-
poses of casting, a mixture of sodium carbonate and
silicate with some water is recommended for adding
to the slip (prepared from any fireclay and grog)
in order to produce a smoothly-flowing mixture.
The average proportion of sodium salts required is
about 3 per cent, of the dry weight of clay and grog.
The largest pieces made during the investigation
j were gas retorts of o -section, which, after firing,
j were 2 ft. 4 in. x 2 ft. 5 in. long and 3 in. thick
throughout. Such a retort weighs about 8 cwt.,
and the time occupied in casting is 10 — 15 min. ;
the core is removed in about 24 hours and the mould
after a further 24 hours. Other sections of the
200 b
REVIEW.
report relate to some comparative tests of machine-
made and hand-made silica bricks, and the specific
heats of refractory materials at high temperatures.
The Report of the Life of Gas Meters Joint Com-
mittee dealt with the internal corrosion of mains,
services, and meters. It amplifies the interim
report presented last year and in the main confirms
the conclusions then reached. Cyanogen compounds
are responsible for the corrosion troubles to a very
large extent. Experiments upon lead-coated iron,
aluminium and a special alloy have yielded promis-
ing results as regards the possibility of preventing
corrosion. A simple process for the elimination of
hydrocyanic acid from coal and gas, suitable for
adoption by small undertakings, is eminently
desirable.
A paper on " Oxygen in Gas Production " was
presented by Mr. H. J. Hodsman and Prof. J. W.
Cobb. The authors have examined theoretically
the possibility of increasing the thermal efficiency
of the carbonisation process by generating the heat
for carbonisation within the charge by the use of
a regulated supply of oxygen. The efficiency of the
projected process is 91'1 per cent, employing a
system of carbonisation with steaming, and 90' 1 per
cent, with complete gasification of the charge. The
commercial feasibility of the proposal hinges, in
the first place, upon the cost of oxygen, which, it is
hoped, will become cheaper owing to extended use.
With oxygen at lOd. per 1000 cb. ft., the cost of
completely gasifying I ton of coal would be 10s. 4d.,
whilst for carbonisation of 1 ton the cost of oxygen
Would be about Is. lid. The cost of plant would be
considerably reduced, and the carbonising process
speeded up, thus reducing fixed as well as
running costs of gas-making. The provision of a
cheap supply of oxygen is urged as one of the most
effective ways of promoting efficiency and economy
in the utilisation of the coal supplies of the country.
Mr. S. F. Dufton and Prof. Cobb presented a
paper on " Some High Temperature Reactions of
Benzene and Toluene." It is established that with
such dilution with hydrogen as occurs in ordinary
carbonising practice, benzene is stable up to 800°
O.j and toluene begins to undergo molecular con-
densation at 550° C. Whereas hydrogen inhibits
the decomposition of benzene by preventing its
molecular condensation to diphenyl, it promotes the
decomposition of toluene by converting it into
benzene and methane.
Other papers dealt with carbonisation in hori-
zontal retorts, the Report of the Fuel Research
Board, and electricity supply by gas companies.
THE CHEMICAL SOCIETY.
At an ordinary scientific meeting held on June 3,
Dr. M. O. Forster presiding, the following papers
were read and discussed: "Studies in the Cam-
phane Series. Part XXXVIH. The Cyanohydra-
zone of Camphorquinone " : M. O. Forster and
W. B. Saville; " Arsinio Acids derived from Guaia-
•col and Veratrole " : R. G. Fargher ; " Diphenyl-
arsenious Chloride and Cyanide (Diphenylchloro-
arsine and Diphenylcyanoarsine) " : G. T. Morgan
and D. C. Vining; " Organo-derivatives of Bismuth.
Part III. The Preparation of Derivatives of Quin-
quevalent Bismuth " : F. Challenger and A. E.
Goddard; "The Influence of Nitro-groups on the
Mobility of Substituents in the Benzene Nucleus.
Part II. The Dinitrotoluenes " : J. Kenner and
M. Parkin; "Decomposition of Nitric Esters":
R. C. Farmer.
An extraordinary general meeting has been con-
voked for June 24, at 5 p.m., to consider resolu-
tions passed by the Council recommending an
increase in the annual subscription from £2 to £3,
as from January 1, 1921, and certain alterations to
the entrance and life-composition fees.
NEWS AND NOTES.
CANADA.
Industrial Notes. — Benzol Plant at Hamilton. — The
Steel Co., of Canada, is erecting a benzol plant in
connexion with its coke-oven installation at
Hamilton, Ontario. The benzol will be produced
either for chemical or motor fuel purposes, accord-
ing to market demand.
New Manufactures. — Three materials have re-
cently been added to the steadily growing list of
chemicals made in Canada, the Durham Chemical
Co., at Durham, Ontario, having successfully put
into operation processes for the manufacture of
lead carbonate (refined), lead nitrate, and hexa-
methylenetetramine. The Quinte Chemical Co.,
Ltd., has undertaken the manufacture of juniper
oil and cedar oil at Deseronto, Ontario, thus estab-
lishing a new industry in Canada. Juniper oil is
extracted from the berry of the shrub of that name,
which has a wide distribution in Canada.
A New Magnesite Plant. — The Scottish Canadian
Magnesite Co. has completed a new calcining plant,
consisting of three 60 ft. kilns, at a cost of $500,000.
The works are located at the company's quarry, 16
miles from Grenville, Quebec. Formerly the mag-
nesite was burnt at the plant of the Canada Cement
Co., at Hull, Quebec.
British Empire Steel Corporation. — In an an-
nouncement to the Toronto Board of Trade Lieut. -
Col. Grant Morden states that the objects of this
new big amalgamation of the principal steel and
coal companies of Canada with the leading iron-
masters in the United Kingdom are to develop the
great iron and coal resources of the Dominion and
to supply Great Britain with materials for the pro-
duction of finished steel products. The two chief
Canadian companies concerned are the Nova Scotia
Steel and Coal Co. and the Dominion Steel Cor-
poration. It is believed that the new company will
eventually extend its activities into Ontario and
help to develop the 425 million tons of iron ore
waiting development in that province. The initial
issue of stock is $207,000,000, and the assets, pre-
sumably made up of coal reserves, are valued at
.$403,000,000. The headquarters of the Corporation
will be at Sydney, Nova Scotia.
The Wood Distillation Industry in 1918. — The
Dominion Bureau of Statistics states that the
quantity and value of the various products of the
wood distillation industry of Canada for the year
1918 at the point of production were as follows: —
Classes of Products,
Quantity.
Selling Value.
1
1,531,356
Wood alcohol, refined
. galls.
1,070,928
Wood alcohol, crude
. galls.
875.024
981.535
Acetate of lime . .
. . lb.
25.998,139
1.017,405
Acetic acid
1.772,223
170,173
Acetate of Soda . .
295,572
51.389
Acetone
3,458.810
909.570
Formaldehyde
1.154.902
159.263
Ketone oils
792.864
211.440
Acetic anhydride
44.981
60.515
Methyl acetate
132.121
29.350
Charcoal
. bushel
, 6.472.925
1.575.701
All other miscellaneous products
537.460
Total value of production 57.235,217
Exclusive of charcoal and miscellaneous products,
the value of the chemicals produced was $5,122,056.
The sum of $398,905 was expended on machinery
repairs and on plant made by employees. The total
cost of materials delivered at the various works
during the year was $3,319,731, of which $1,321,893
represented hardwoods (128,097 cords), and
$1,991,198 the cost value at works of materials
used in the industry; items under this heading
included : — acetate of lime, for further manufac-
Vol. XXXIX.. No. 11.1
REVIEW.
ture, 9316 long tons; sulphuric acid, 469 tons; soda
ash, 140 tons; caustic soda, 83 tons; lime, 140,420
bushels; and crude wood alcohol for further manu-
facture, 1,081,837 galls.
In the year under review there were thirteen
plants in operation, eight of which were located in
Ontario and five in Quebec, with one refinery in
each Province. The total capital invested was
•?3, 612,573, divided between these two Provinces
in the approximate ratio of 2:1. The industry has
been stimulated by war needs, but even prior to
1914 there was a considerable export business,
mainly to Great Britain and Australasia. — (U.S.
Com. Rep., Apr. 30, 1920.)
FRANCE.
Industrial Notes.— Coal. — The recent unsuccessful
strike has left its mark on the chief industries of
the country; in particular, the development of the
metallurgical industry, for the products of which
an enormous demand exists, has been retarded by
the new shortage of coal due to the dislocation of
transport. The price of British coal is considered
prohibitive at 600 fr. a. ton, while American coal
can be delivered at Havre for 420 fr. The tendency
is to look to the United States rather than to Great
Britain for future supplies. During the first fort-
night of May, 50,000 tons of American and only
10,000 tons of British coal arrived at Havre.
The Chemical Market. — High prices for chemical
products still prevail, except in the case of
chlorates, of which there is a surplus production,
and rubber, for the neglect of which no exact
reason can be assigned. The market for chlorates
would improve if they were used as substitutes for
chromates and bichromates, which are scarce and
at prohibitive prices, and for permanganates, the
manufacture of which has ceased owing to lack of
raw material. A great shortage also exists in
sodium and potassium salts, and even caustic
alkalis are lacking; importation from England and
America is rendered difficult by the fact that the
demand in these countries aTso exceeds supply.
Sugar. — The right of free importation of sugar
into France was restored to foreign producers on
June 6, 1919, but the prohibition of the export of
home and colonial sugar was maintained in order
to provide for household requirements. As the
food controller of the late Ministry announced that
this embargo would be raised before September 30
-next, transactions were entered into between sugar
manufacturers and wholesale merchants. Great,
therefore, is the discontent of the latter at the
recent intimation that the new Ministry would
maintain the embargo on the entire home and
colonial production of the next season.
BRITISH INDIA.
Indian Turpentine and Rosin. — During the last few
years there has been a great development in the
collection and distillation of pine rosin in the
Himalayas. It is estimated that there is available
an area of 400,000 acres of Pinus longifolia in the
government forests of British India, and about as
much again in native states. There is a small tur-
pentine factory at Bowali in the United Provinces,
and a more up-to-date one at Jallo, near Lahore,
in the Punjaub. Both these belong to the govern-
ments of the provinces, and are the only factories
of the kind working at present in India, but the
United Provinces Government is erecting a larger
one near Bareilly on the same plan as that at Jallo.
In the year ending June, 1918, the Forest Depart-
ments of the two provinces mentioned worked some
2i million blazes over an area of 92,500 acres, and
produced 141,400 gallons of turpentine and 58,500
maunds of rosin. It was still necessary to import
some of each of these products to satisfy the Indian
demand, but it is expected that India will soon
be self-supporting in this respect. Absence of
roads in the mountain areas impedes the develop-
ment of this and other forest industries.
The 1919-20 Sugar and Cotton Crops.— The final
memorandum of the Department of Statistics on the
sugar-cane crop estimates the total area at 2,667,000
acres, or 7 per. cent, less than in 1918-19. The
total yield of raw sugar (gur) is estimated at
3^001,000 tons, which is 27 per cent, above that of
the previous year.
The area under cotton is 23,063,000 acres (about
10 per cent, above the revised total for 1918-19),
and the estimated yield is 5,845,000 bales of 400 lb.
each, or 47 per cent, more than in the preceding
year. — (U.S. Com. Hep., Apr. 20, 1920.)
UNITED STATES.
New Method of Treating Raw Cane Juices. — By
treating raw cane juices with zinc hydrosulphite,
, after treatment with sulphurous acid but before
treatment with lime, it is claimed that their vis-
| cosity is much diminished, thereby rendering filtra-
tion more rapid, evaporation nice economical, and
crystallisation more complete.
Inflammability of Aluminium Powder.— Investiga-
tions of explosions in mills producing powdered
aluminium for paints have shown that this
material when suspended in the air may be ignited
by electric sparks and give rise to violent ex-
plosions.
Cellulose Nitrate as Aeroplane Dope. — It has been
found that 5 — 8 per cent, of ammonium phosphate
or ammonium magnesium phosphate added to cellu-
lose nitrate renders it fire resistant and able to com-
pete with cellulose acetate as an aeroplane dope.
When ignited the ammonia evolved extinguishes the
flame.
Use of Aluminium Leaf as a Water-proofing Material.
— The Forests Products Laboratory reports success
in the use of aluminium leaf, applied with size or
lacquer, as a water-proofing material for wood. The
leaf can be applied quickly at a reasonable cost, and
the resulting coating has been found twenty-five
times more effective than any other for water-
proofing such objects as aeroplane propellers.
Determination of Carbon in Steel. — A method of de-
termining carbon in steel has been announced which
depends upon the change of electrical conductivity
produced in a standard baryta solution when the
carbon dioxide from the combustion of the steel is
passed into it. An accuracy of 0"01 per cent, is
claimed.
American Potash in 1918. — The chief sources of
potash are natural brines (which yielded 73 per cent.
of the output), alunite, dust from cement mills and
blast furnaces, silicate rocks, kelp, distillery waste
and other organic matter (c/. J., 1919, 248 r). The
production of potash-bearing material in 1918 was
207,086 short tons (126,961 in 1917), with an average
content of 26'4 per cent. K.O. This was the output
of 128 firms and represents about 22 per cent, of the
normal consumption in the country, which is ap-
proximately 250,000 tons of potash yearly. About
58 per cent, of the 1918 output consisted of crude
mixed salts, with 20 — 28 per cent, of K20, and com-
posed mainly of carbonates and sulphates of sodium
and potassium ; about 24 per cent, was chloride (60 —
96 per cent.), and 6 per cent, sulphate (35 — 51 per
cent. KjO). The domestic output of refined potas-
sium salts was 53,661,676 lb., produced by 47 firms.
Imports of potash materials in 1913, 1917, and
1918 were 1,092.588. 25.287, and 24,419 short tons
respectively; before the war they consisted mainly
of Karaite and manure salts, but these were not im-
ported at all in 1918. In that year the imported
potash was furnished by Russia (20'9%), India
IJune 16. 1920.
19-6%), Japan (12'4%), Italy (12-2%), Spain (11;4%),
the remainder being supplied by fifteen countries. —
(U.S. Geol. Surv., Mar. 31, 1920.)
SOUTH AFRICA.
Mineral Wealth of the S.W. African Protectorate. —
Besides diamonds and copper (c/. J., 1919, 167 r),
base minerals occur in large quantity in the Pro-
tectorate, although they have not yet been exploited
to any great extent. Coal is found and is said to
be worth exploitation, and large iron-ore deposits
containing 60 per cent, iron have been located in
the central region of the Kaokoveld. There are ex-
tensive deposits of wolfram, of which 34 claims,
covering 6048 acres, were in existence in 1914. Gold
deposits in the Kaokoveld and galena deposits at
Arais are said to be such as to justify further in-
vestigation. The value of the output of tin was
£34,500 in 1913, and that of lead £11,400 in 1912.—
(Bull. Dept. Trade and Com., Canada, May 3, 1920.)
Oil-Seed Cultivation. — The sunflower is grown only
to a limited extent in South Africa, mainly as
poultry and cattle food, but it is cultivated on a
considerable and increasing scale in Rhodesia, and
it would appear to be a suitable crop for other parts
of the Union. Cropping tests carried out in Cape
Province in 1907 gave satisfactory results, in one
case a yield of 3350 lb. per acre being recorded ;
and recent experiments in Rhodesia, in which
yields varying from 581 to 1304 lb. were obtained,
showed that sunflowers will occupy an important
place in the agricultural economy of that country
when the initial difficulties attending the introduc-
tion of a new crop have been overcome.
Cultural tests of Madia saliva, which yields madia
oil, were made at Kerstenbosch in 1914 and at
Salisbury in 1915-16, with results that were suffi-
ciently encouraging to warrant a more extensive
trial. If satisfactory results are obtained it is
hoped to establish the plant on waste land with a
view to supplying the local soap factories with oil.
(S. African J. Ind., Mar., 1920.)
AUSTRALIA.
Projected New Steel Works in Queensland. — It is re-
ported that a new steel works will be established at
Bowen, a seaport 725 miles north of Brisbane, at
an estimated cost of £3,000,000. The equipment
will be of the most modern type, and the capacity of
the initial plant will be considerable; an output of
350 tons of pig iron and from 800 to 1000 tons of
rails per day is hoped for. — (Bd. of Trade J., April
29, 1920.)
Alkali Manufacture. — The possibility of developing
the alkali industry in Australia is at present re-
ceiving attention. Dr. W. G. Woolnough, late
professor of geology in the "West Australian Univer-
sity, has joined the technical staff of Messrs.
Brunner, Mond and Co., and is now visiting Aus-
tralia to investigate the different sources from
which alkali could be manufactured. He is con-
ducting a series of tests on the water of Lake
Preston (situated in the south-west portion of
Western Australia), which contains about 5000
grains of sodium chloride per gallon and is favour-
ably situated as regards coal, fresh water supplies,
and lime deposits.
The Flax Industry. — Considerable expansion is re-
ported in the areas devoted to flax growing. Before
the war the acreage under this crop was 300 — 400 ;
this year it is about 2200, and there are prospects of
increased cultivation in Tasmania, New South
Wales, and Queensland. At present most of the
flax is grown in Victoria. The guarantee of the
British Government to purchase Australian grown
flax at a price remunerative to growers has greatly
stimulated production. Recently the Minister of
Customs has been in consultation with the Common-
wealth Flax Committee as to the amount of the
guarantee to growers for the ensuing three years,
and the Committee indicates that a dividend of
about £1 10s. per ton will be payable to growers over
the guaranteed amount of £5 per ton already paid
on the 1918 crop. The fibre from the flax crop was
originally sold to the Imperial Government at £170
per ton, but in view of the increased prices ruling
for the fibre, and the British Government's desire
to relax control of the flax industry, the contract
was cancelled, and Australian fibre is now being
placed on the open market. There is every indica-
tion that prices will be obtained substantially in
advance of the contract prices. — (Indust. Austral.,
Feb. 19, 1920.)
JAPAN.
Chemical and Physical Research Institute. — An
institute for chemical and physical researches has
been founded in Japan at an estimated cost of
5 million yen (£500,000), half of which has been
guaranteed by persons engaged in industry and
commerce in Tokyo and Yokohama, and the other
half by similar persons in other towns. The
Government will give an annual subsidy of
£200,000, and the Emperor has made a personal
donation of £100,000. No distinction is made in
the scheme of work between pure and applied
science, and industrial problems will be regarded
as of first importance. — (Chim. et Ind., Mar.,
1920.)
The Fertiliser Industry. — H.M. Acting Vice-Consul
at Ozaka reports that there is a tendency towards
the consolidation of the Japanese fertiliser industry
in order to provide protection against the possi-
bility of more severe competition and more difficult
conditions in the future. The Ozaka Kagaku Hiryo
and Nippon Seimi Seizo companies are said to be
combining under the name of the Nihon Kagaku
Hiryo Co., and, in order to provide the requisite
raw materials, a new company, the Teikoku Ryusan
Hiryo Co., will be formed with a capital of 5 million
yen. As supplies of sulphide and phosphate ores
are very scarce, further combinations will inevitably
follow. There are three large groups of fertiliser
companies — the Kuhard group, the Furukawa
group, and the Sumitomo Co., with an output of
7,000,000 bags, 4,180,000 bags, and 680,000 bags per
annum respectively. — (Bd. of Trade J., Apr. 29,
1920.)
The Sugar Industry in Formosa. — The present sugar
season in Formosa has opened somewhat late owing
to shortage of fuel and transport difficulties. The
sugar crop suffered so greatly from a typhoon and
bad weather that it is estimated to amount to only
3,800,000 piculs of centrifugals and 400,000 piculs of
browns (picul = 13328 lb.), as against 4,428,742 and
500,000 piculs respectively in 1918-19. The area
under sugar cane has decreased from 258,328 to
236,269 acres, but it seems probable that a larger
acroage will be devoted to sugar in the 1920-21
season. That the industry is in a sound condition
is shown by the large number of new sugar com-
panies established during the past year; eight com-
panies alone have capitals varying from 1 to 10
million yen (yen = 2s. 0£d), and the Ensuiko Sugar
Manufacturing and Developing Co. is increasing its
capital by 13,700,000 yen to 25,000,000 yen. For-
mosan sugar companies and Japanese capitalists are
also paying attention to sugar production in the
Dutch East Indies, Java, and elsewhere in the
South Seas. A new departure, dating from early
in 1919, has been the importation into Formosa of
Javan sugar for re-manufacture during the si ick
season. (Bd. of Trade J., Apr. 22, 1920.)
The Japanese Sugar Trade. — An attempt is being
made in Japan to increase the output of the sugar
refineries so as to capture European trade. Re-
Vol. XXXIX, No. 11]
203 R
cently some 400,000 cwti of refined sugar was
shipped to Mediterranean ports, which was manu-
factured mainly from cane sugar furnished by
Javanese refineries, only a small proportion being
derived from Formosa. — (Z. angew. Chem. Mar.
16, 1920.)
GENERAL.
Raw Material for Paper Making. — The prices of the
staple materials for paper making, chemical wood
pulp and mechanical pulp, show no indications of
any halt. Chemical pulp, which in 1913 could be
obtained for £7 — £9 per ton now realises £60 — £65
f.o.b. Norway, and bleached sulphite, once bought
at £12— £14, cannot be bought under £80— £90 per
ton. In the same way mechanical pulp purchased
ahead fetched £17 — £18 f.o.b. Norway, though the
coarser qualities are obtainable at the present time
at prices below this figure.
The reasons for these apparently high values are
not far to seek. The law of supply and demand is
in full operationx and the selling prices are bound
to be a reflection of the position. But this state-
ment is by no means an adequate explanation of the
reasons for heavy costs. The actual production
costs for pulp are now extraordinarily high, and
one writer in the World's Paper Trade Review
points out that whereas in the manufacture of
" kraft " paper, quoting this as an example, the
coal and chemicals in 1914 averaged £2 10s. per
ton of paper, the cost to-day is £28. This, together
with the fact that labour costs are now at least
three times their pre-war value, shows that the
economic law in respect of production price is
making itself felt.
The result of this critical situation is that various
attempts are being made to exploit other fibres and
especially in the direction of extending the possi-
bility of utilising the fibrous materials grown
within the British Empire. Considerable attention
has been given in The Times to the virtues of
bamboo pulp, and we may anticipate a serious
endeavour to produce paper pulp from this material
on a large scale. The bamboo is undoubtedly an
excellent paper-making fibre, and the conditions of
its growth favour the installation of a large pulp-
making industry. The bamboo grows easily and
rapidly. Enormous areas are available in India,
and under a proper system of management there is
no doubt that supplies of a uniform character could
be obtained in unlimited quantities.
"Arsenic and Antimony Ores" forms the subject
of the 15th volume of the " Special Reports on
Mineral Resources of Great Britain" issued from
the Geological Survey Office. Commencing with
an introductory sketch concerning the minerals
containing arsenic and the distribution of the ore6
in Cornwall and Devon, their treatment, the com-
mercial uses of arsenic, and statistics of output,
there follows a detailed and authoritative account
of the mines, both active and idle, at the present
time. It is interesting to note that, out of a
total output in 1917 of about 2,620 tons crude and
refined white arsenic," the three mines of
Tincroft, East Pool and Agar and South Crofty,
primarily worked for tin, produced about 1900
tons. As usual, the figures for the " World's
Output" are quoted from an American publica-
tion— " The Mineral Industry " — and it should
have been possible in a 1920 publication to have
brought the figures to a later year than 1914. There
is no production of antimony in Great Britain at
the present time, although formerly small quanti-
ties were raised at a few small mines in Cornwall
and in Dumfriesshire in Scotland.
Extension of the Uses of Rubber. — The Rubber
Growers' Association offers prizes to the total value
of £5,000 for ideas and suggestions for extending
the present uses, or for encouraging new uses, of
rubber. It is laid down that suggestions must be
practical and likely to increase the demand for the
raw material; further, that they may relate to
improvements or new processes which will facilitate
or cheapen the production of rubber goods. The
prizes will be: — one of £1,000, three of £500 each,
ten of £100 each, and a sum not exceeding £1,500
to be divided among remaining competitors who
send in suggestions of value, no competitor receiv-
ing more than £100. Suggestions must be received
by December 31, 1920, and all inquiries concerning
the competition are to be addressed to the Associa-
tion (Dept. C), at 38, Eastcheap, London, E.C. 3.
Biochemistry at Cambridge University. — The sum of
£165,000 has been allotted by the trustees of the
estate of the late Sir William Dunn, banker and
merchant of Paisley, for the endowment of a bio-
chemical institute at Cambridge; buildings to be
erected on a site provided by the University,
£25,000 to be devoted to the endowment of a pro-
fessorship, and £10,000 for a readership.
The Senate of the University has accepted the
offer of £30,000 from the Department of Scientific
and Industrial Research for *he erection, equip-
ment, and maintenance at Cambridge of a low-
temperature station for research in biochemistry
and biophysics.
The Sugar Situation and Germany. — The Mouve-
ment Giographigue publishes the following figures
of production throughout the world : —
191C-17 1917-18 1917-18 1918-19
Metric Tons.
America :
Cane Sugar 11.235.000 11.219.000 11.965,000 12.201.000
Beet Sugar . 747,000 , 694.000 697.900 870.000
Europe :
Beet Sugar . 5,006,000 4.247,800 3.658,000 3.469.000
16.988.000 17.220.000 16.320.000 16.600.000
It will be seen that the production for the present
season is 280,000 tons less than that of 1913-14,
whilst the European production, compared with
that for 1910 — 8,105,000 tons— shows a decline of
57 per cent. (Schweiz. Chem.-Zeit., Apr. 17, 1920).
According to figures published in the Industrie
und Handelszeitung (Mar. 19, 1920), the world's
output of cane sugar can onlv be increased to
13,700,000 tons, which will still leave a deficit of
4,500,000 tons, assuming that the world demand
remains stationary. In addition, American pro-
duction during the war did not increase and seems
unlikely to da so now. In Europe, the only country
that can be looked to for increased production is
Germany which, before the war, produced one-
seventh of the world's sugar. Germany, however,
has lost large beet-growing areas and in 1919 her
production from 276,000 hectares (681,720 acres)
is estimated at 741,800 metric tons of raw sugar
(Verein drr deutschen Zuckerindustrie), compared
with 1,063,300 metric tons in 1918 and 2,718,000
tons in 1913-14, but when conditions are again
normal it is calculated that Germany will be able
to produce not less than 2,330,000 tons of sugar
annually. The immediate prospects of the German
sugar-beet industry, discussed in the Z. angew.
Chemie for April 13, 1920, are the subject of very
diverging opinions. It is held to be certain
that the price of beet-sugar, already raised by
150 mk. per cwt. (at Magdeburg), will again
be increased, and it is also considered probable
that the sugar factories and farmers will have
to face an additional 150 — 190 mk. per cwt.
for beet. Labour conditions have improved, Chile
saltpetre has been available in considerable quanti-
ties, and in consequence of the expected rise in the
price of sugar (cf.s.). it is anticipated that the area
under sugar-beet will be increased by 15 per cent.
The recent political troubles had an adverse effect
on the industry, but they did not affect cultivation.
The weather has been very favourable, and, given
a continuance, an early and improved harvest is
to be expected. England's dependence on cane
sugar supplies can only be broken by increased
cultivation of beet-sugar in sugar-beet growing
countries.
The World's Linseed. — According to reports issued
by the United States Department of Agriculture,
the total production of linseed in that country for
the period 1917-19 did not exceed 10,600,000
bushels from an acreage of 1,800,000, i.e., only
about 6 bushels per acre. This low yield was the
result of a severe drought experienced in the chief
producing states — Minnesota, N. Dakota, S.
Dakota, and Montana. The official yield figures,
however, are said to be considerably lower than
those calculated from market reports. The De-
partment strongly recommends that a larger
acreage should be planted to linseed, as although
the European markets may not be able to absorb
more, the domestic market in the United States
could take the production from at least 2,700,000
acres of average yield. Even this increased acreage
would be less than the area planted in 1910
(2,900,000 acres) and 1912 (2,850,000 acres). Not-
withstanding the decline in the English markets,
it is stated that the demand for linseed oil, at least
in America, is unprecedented and likely to increase,
especially for paint and varnish manufacture. It
is officially estimated that the Argentine crop now
coming in will be 43 million bushels, but this is con-
sidered too low. Up to March 31, 8'5 million bushels
of the current Argentine crop had been sent to the
United States. The approximate acreage in the
Argentine is 3,500,000, and it is calculated that
5 million bushels of the present crop will be retained
for crushing and for seeding the next crop. The
estimated yield of linseed in Canada for 1919 was
170,000 tons; for India, 1918-19, 230;000 tons; also
some may be expected from Russia, and small
amounts from China, Uruguay, and Tunis. The
total world production is put at 1'5 million tons,
but this is probably a low estimate, for one report
estimates the surplus available for export at the
same figure.
The Gutta-Percha Industry. — Gutta-percha is a
jungle product, chiefly supplied by Borneo, though
smaller amounts come from Sumatra and the
Federated Malay States. So far, attempts to culti-
vate the gutta-percha tree have been unsuccessful,
save in one district in Sarawak, where a plantation
has been in existence about 30 years and is only
just beginning to yield supplies in marketable
quantities, as it takes 20 years for the tree to come
into reasonable bearing. During 1918, 1469 tons
of gutta-percha, valued at £293,758, was imported
into Singapore, including 1372 tons from the Dutch
East Indies and 91 tons from British North Borneo,
Sarawak and the Federated Malay States. The
export of gutta-percha from Singapore in 1918 was
3140 tons, of which 1596 tons went to the United
Kingdom and 1230 tons to the United States.
Owing to reports of new cable projects and the
upward tendency of the price of the product, which
has increased by 80 — 100 per cent., it is expected
that production will be stimulated. — (U.S. Com.
Rep., Mar. 20, 1920.)
Rubber in Hainan, China. — The rubber industry
in the island of Hainan, China, has every prospect
of success, as it is now certain that rubber can be j
grown there on a commercial scale. Consequently, |
rubber plantations are being extended all over the
island, and it is probable that they will soon furnish
an important part of the exports of South China.
At present, owing to the cost of transport and the
high value of silver, the cost of production is
almost equal to the selling price in Singapore, but
with improved transport and return to normal con-
ditions the industry should be very profitable. — J
(U.S. Com. Rep., Feb. 18, 1920.)
Mercury Production in Tuscany and Idria. — The
Italian quicksilver industry is centred in the Monte
Amiata district of Tuscany, and the output from
this region represents approximately the national
production. The deposits of cinnabar extend over
400 sq. km., and are workable down to about 200
metres ; their life is estimated at several centuries.
At the present time, owing to the high cost of fuel
and labour, production is restricted to the richest
portions; eight mines are being worked and 900
employees are engaged. With regard to extraction,
the old type of retort oven has been discarded as
it was uneconomical and dangerous to the health
of the workers. Two types of oven are now used,
simple tank ovens for the treatment of large frag-
ments of ore, and special drop or rotating ovens
for the smaller fragments. The production involves
the consumption of large quantities of wood for use
as fuel and mine props, and of charcoal for burn-
ing and mixing with the ore before distilling. As
the call on timber has seriously depleted the scanty
forest resources of the surrounding country, it is
proposed to use electric ovens for ore reduction,
water power from the Apennines being available.
The present furnaces treat 14 — 15 tons of ore per
day and consume 220 lb. of wood fuel per ton of
mineral in 24 hours. In addition, some wood is
used for drying the ore prior to distillation. The
cost of treatment before the war was estimated at
4 lire per ton. The production (in tons) for the
period 1915—1918 was: 1915, ore 110,612, metal
985; 1916, ore 132,524, metal 1093; 1917, ore
113,782, metal 1071; 1918, ore 113,782, metal 1038.
During the war the Italian Government took over
the entire production of mercury at 12 lire per kg.,
and fixed the selling price at 25 lire per kg. It has
recently been proposed to form a combination of the
interests concerned in the Monte Amiata, the
Idrian and the chief Spanish mines, which, with the
backing of the three great Italian banks, would
control the world's supply. The Italian industry was
formerly financed by German bankers, but during
the war control passed to Swiss financiers; at the
present time it is entirely in Italian hands.
The output from Idria (Austria) was 600 tons in
1914, and probably the same in 1918, but no figures
are available from Austrian sources. It is reported
that 1200 workers are now employed, that stocks
are accumulating, and that the selling price is
rather less than 25 lire per kg. — (U.S. Com. Rep.,
Feb. 20, 1920.)
Italian Chemical Industry During the War. — Prior
to the war Italy largely depended on Germany for
many chemical products, as the home industry was
then but slightly developed. On becoming a belli-
gerent, the demand for explosives, and conse-
quently for nitric acid, increased enormously, with
the result that Italy's production rose from 12,531
metric tons of nitric acid in 1914 to 85,800 tons in
1916, about 50,000 tons of which was consumed
directly in the manufacture of explosives. As the
pre-war import of nitric acid was only about 600
tons a year, the home production will now be
amply sufficient. The output of sulphuric acid also
increased from 678,390 tons in 1914 to 835,440 tons
in 1918, but as this was mainly required for the
manufacture of explosives, the chemical fertiliser
industry, already hampered by decreased imports
of phosphates, suffered severely. With regard to
organic acids, the production of citric acid — 900
tons in 1914 — had approximately doubled by 1918,
whilst the output of tartaric acid decreased from
1860 tons in 1914 to 1368 tons in 1918, possibly
owing to the accumulation of stocks. Similarly,
the production of citrate of lime rose from 6687
tons in 1913-14 to 9087 tons in 1917-18, while the
production of cream of tartar in 1918 was only half
the output capacity. The production of tanning
extracts rose from a pre-war figure of 9800 tons a
year to 23,400 tons, with a capacity of 32,400 tons.
Vol. XXXIX., No. 11 ]
REVIEW.
Progress has also been made in the production of
ammonia compounds and coal-tar products, though
the artificial dyestuffs industry has hardly deve-
loped at all and supplies still have to be imported.
In the case of alkalis. Italy can now supply all the
caustic soda required, as large new plants have
been erected. Only small amounts of acetone and
cakium acetate are produced, practically the entire
requirements being furnished by the United States.
The production of rosin and turpentine is inade-
quate, as is that of cellulose, and recourse is had
to importation, but the wood pulp industry de-
veloped rapidlv during the war, the output rising
from 1200 tons in 1914 to 7800 tons in 1918. Owing
to the shortage of raw material, many of the
glycerin plants were unable to operate, with the
result that imports of glycerin reached 6827 tons
in 1918. The domestic production of oleic acid,
stearic acid, glue and gelatin also decreased, as did
that of dextrin, due. in this case, to the small
imports of sago. Although one of the chief pro-
ducers of olive oil, Italy is a large importer of
other vegetable oils: the existing oil-seed plants
have a capactiy of about 3600 tons a month, and,
as the shortage of olive oil is acute, a considerably
increased production of seed oils may be expected.
In 1913, 519 tons of castor oil was exported, but
owing to aviation requirements, 2225 tons was im-
ported in 1913. Sufficient copper sulphate is now
produced to satisfy home requirements, and instead
of an import of 21,905 tons, as in 1914, small
amounts can be exported. (Cf. J., 1919, 108 R,
359 R ; 1920, 120 R.)— U.S. Com. Sep.. Mar. 8, 1920.)
PARLIAMENTARY NEWS.
PERSONALIA.
Sir William Pope has been elected an associate of
the section for the mathematical and physical
sciences of the Academie Royale de Belgique.
Dr. F. G. Cottrell has been presented with the
Willard Gibbs medal by the Chicago Section of the
American Chemical Society.
It is announced that Sir John Cadman will retire
from the professorship of mining at the University
of Birmingham at the end of the current session.
The honorary degree of D.Sc. of Liverpool
University has been conferred on Prof. F. G.
Donnan, professor of chemistry in University
College, London.
Dr. R. S. Morrell, recently chairman of the
Birmingham and Midland Section, has been elected
president of the Oil and Colour Chemists' Associa-
tion, in succession to Dr. F. Mollwo Perkin.
The list of honours conferred on the occasion of
the King's Birthday includes: — Privy Councillor-
ship: The Hon. F. S. Malan, Minister of Agri-
culture, Mines, Industries, and Education, Union
of S. Africa. Baronetcy: Mr. Milton S. Sharp,
chairman of the Bradford Dyers' Association.
Knighthoods: Mr. W. B. M. Bird, founder of the
Salters' Institute of Industrial Chemistry : Dr. .T. C.
Carruthers, principal of the University of the Cape
of Good Hope. Imperial Service Order: Mr. C.
Proctor, superintending analyst, Department of
the Government Chemist.
The Late Dr. Messel. — With reference to the
obituary notice which appeared in the issue for
May 15, p. 160 r, we are informed by a relative
of the late Dr. Messel that he was not a student of
the University at Zurich, but of the Federal Poly-
technic in that town.
HOUSE OF COMMONS.
Power Alcohol.
Replying to Viscount Curzon, Sir R. Home said
that the Government wishes to encourage the use
ut alternative fuels for internal combustion engines.
As alcohol in suitable admixture is a satisfactory
fuel for internal combustion engines, the Finance
BUI before the House contains a clause that permits
the payment of the same allowance in respect of
spirits used for making power alcohol as is made
in respect of spirits used in making industrial
methylated spirits, and the clause gives power to
the Commissioners of Customs and Excise to pre-
scribe the appropriate denaturants.— (May 17.)
Potassium Carbonate.
Sir R. Home, answering Mr. Sitch, said that he
was aware of the shortage of potassium carbonate
required for the glassmakiug industry; there were
no restrictions on the importa ' ion of supplies from
Germany. Since November 11, 1918, 20£ tons of
potassium carbonate had been imported from that
country into the United Kingdom, and there was
no evidence to show that Germanv had dis-
criminated in this matter against the United King-
dom. Such discrimination was forbidden by the
terms of the Peace Treaty.— (May 17.)
Sulphate and Muriate of Potash (Exports and
Prices).
In reply to Sir R. Cooper, Mr. Bridgeman said
that the sale price in this country of sulphate of
potash was first fixed by the Government on August
20, 1919, and is still under control. The maximum
prices fixed were: — ex ship British port, £22
7s. 6d. ; delivered at nearest railway station,
£23 2s. 6d. In November, 1919, the latter price
was advanced to £23 7s. 6d. The contract with the
German Government for the delivery of a total
quantity of 13,250 tons, none of which was licensed
for export to the United States, was signed on
July 1, 1919. The total exports of sulphate and
muriate of potash from September 1, 1919, to
April 30, 1920, were :— Sulphate of potash, 447
tons. 16 cwt. ; muriate of potash, nil. Neither com-
modity was exported to the United States during
this period, but 4631 tons of sulphate and 12,304
ton's of muriate were sold for shipment direct from
Hamburg and Rotterdam to British Possessions,
and a quantity of muriate for shipment to the
United States, these sales being made on the advice
of the Potash Distribution Committee.— (June 1.)
Methylated Spirit.
In reply to Viscount Curzon, Mr. Chamberlain
stated that methylated spirit imported is liable
to the full spirit import duty, whether it be power
spirit or not, but plain unsweetened foreign spirit
or mm may be imported for methylation in this
country, subject to payment of "the difference
between the Customs duty chargeable thereon and
the Excise duty chargeable on British spirits. — ■
(June 7.)
TT'ar Wealth Levy.
The Chancellor of the Exchequer announced that
the Government had decided that the dangers
attendant on the suggested scheme for a levy on
war wealth altogether outweighed any advantages
which could be derived from it; hence any pro-
posals in that sense would not be made to the House
—(June 7.)
A motion in favour of a levy on accumulated
wealth, moved by Mr. Clynes, was defeated by 244
votes to 81. — (June 8.)
LEGAL INTELLIGENCE.
Alleged Infringement of Aluminium Welding
Patents. A.-G. fiir Autogene Aluminium
Schweissung v. The London Aluminium Co., Ltd.
The plaintiff company in this action complained
of an infringement by the defendant company of
Letters Patent 24096/1907 and 24283/1907 for im-
provements in welding aluminium. The defence
denied infringement and asserted invalidity of each
of the patents on the grounds of (1) want of novelty
and subject matter, (2) insufficient description,
and (3) want of utility.
Mr. Justice Sargant, in delivering judgment on
May 21, after a protracted trial, said that the case
against the defendant firm was of having used flux
covered by the patents mentioned. The defence
admitted having used the flux, but pleaded
ignorance of its nature. The evidence adduced
by the defence did not show that the flux was not
an infringement flux, though it was obvious that
the fact, if fact, could have been established ; on
the other hand, expert evidence for the plaintiff
firm showed that the flux used was covered by the
patents, and he therefore held that infringement
had been definitely established. In regard to want
of novelty, the public knowledge involved in a
passage cited from Roscoe and Schorlemmer's text-
book (concerning the melting of aluminium in a
crucible) was not sufficient to deprive the plaintiff's
invention either of novelty or subject matter, and
this also applied to the two specifications (Gooch
and Bates) quoted. The defence of want of utility
divided itself into two sub-headings: — (1) that no
mixture of alkali chlorides when alone or with the
addition of fluorides could produce a useful auto-
genous welding, and (2) that although some such
mixtures could produce such a welding, yet other
mixtures within the description were useless for
the purpose. The defence broke down both from a
theoretical and a practical standpoint. On the
question of the utility of the fluxes, the defence
produced evidence that bad welds sometimes
resulted from their use by expert welders ; but
such evidence was less cogent than the positive
evidence of success brought forward by the plaintiff
company.
His Lordship found that the defendants had not
established any of their defences to the action, and
that the plaintiffs were entitled to succeed.
GOVERNMENT ORDERS AND NOTICES.
Prices of Sulphate of Ammonia, 1920-21. — The
Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries has notified
the following maximum prices of sulphate of am-
monia in lots of not less than 4 tons for delivery by
rail or water to purchasers' nearest railway station
or wharf in Great Britain, less a trade discount to
manure mixers, agricultural merchants, dealers and
Co-operative Societies : —
Month of Delivery.
June, 1920
July
August
September
October
November
December
January. 1921
February
March, April and May . . . . 27 10 6
Small additions are made to the above prices for
deliveries of less than 4 tons.
Price per
ton in
bags.
net cash.
£
d.
.. 23 10
0
.. 23
10
0
.. 24
0
0
. . 24 19
0
.. 25
0
0
.. 25
10
0
.. 26
(1
0
. . 26 10
0
Suspended Orders. — On June 3, the Controller
of Coal Mines, Board of Trade, issued directions
and notices suspending the operation of the follow-
ing Orders, as from June 7: — The Household Fuel
and Lighting Order, 1919, the Retail Coal Prices
Order, 1917, and the Wholesale Coal Prices Order,
1917. The Sale of Coal (Ireland) Order, 1919, was
suspended by the President of the Board of Trade
on June 3, to take effect as from June 7.
OFFICIAL TRADE INTELLIGENCE.
(From the Board of Trade Journal for May 27 and
June 3.)
OPENINGS FOR BRITISH TRADE.
The following inquiries have been received at
the Department of Overseas Trade (Development
and Intelligence), 35, Old Queen Street, London,
S.W. 1, from firms, ageuts or individuals who desire
to represent U.K. manufacturers or exporters of
the goods specified. British firms may obtain the
names and addresses of the persons or firms referred
to by applying to the Department and quoting the
specific reference number.
Locality of
MATERIALS.
Reference
firm or agent.
number.
British West Indies
Galvanised sheets, colours, paint.
varnish, leather
751
China, glassware
752
Canada
(Heine (45 to 95 per cent.)
Chemical fertilisers, gelatin, china
clay, light magnesium carbon-
748
790
796
South Africa
China, tilassware, cotton waste.
Galvanised sheets
749
Belgium
Copper, tin. zinc, aluminium, anti-
mony, lead, bronze
754
Metals for constructional purposes
755
Coke, tinplate
756
Paraffin wax, caustic soda, sodium
sulphate, materials for the manu-
facture of paint
759
Coal-tar products, firebricks, gas
oil, asbestos packing
799
Drugs, pharmaceutical products.
gelatin, gums
800
Chemical and pharmaceutical pro-
ducts
801
France
Colours, paint, varnish
765
Germany
Copper, tin. tinsheet. tinplate . .
806
Greece
Tinplate, zinc
808
Italy
Chemicals, soap, mineral oil
772
Norway
Iron, metals
810
Poland
Chemical and pharmaceutical pro-
ducts, pigments, colours
776
Spain
Indigo, anilines, causticsoda, citric
acid, tartaric acid
777
Tripoli
Porcelain, glassware, colouring
materials, sugar
781
United States
Boiling mill products, tool steel . .
812
Cuba
Chemicals
783
Market Sought. — A firm in Morocco able to ex-
port fenugreek, coriander, cumin, and other seeds
wishes to get into touch with importers in the U.K.
[782.]
TARIFF. CUSTOMS. EXCISE.
Argentine. — Under certain conditions the export
of 100,000 tons of sugar is allowed during a period
of 90 days from May 22.
Australia. — The export of copra is now permitted,
but the embargo on the export of copra from the
late German New Guinea, except to Australia, is
still in force.
Import arid export trade is now permitted, under
certain conditions, with Palestine, Syria and
Mesopotamia.
Barbadoes. — The prohibition of the export of
fancv and choice molasses has been revoked as from
April 13.
Vol. XXXIX., No. 11]
REVIEW.
Belgium. — Certificates of origin and import
licences are still required for, inter alia, colours
with aniline base imported from Germany.
The regulations alfecting the labelling of phar-
maceutical specialities have been amended with
effect from March 1.
Canada. — The revised regulations governing
drawback are set out in the issue for May 27.
The new budget removes the war tax of 7J per
cent, on imported goods under the Intermediate
and General Tariffs. The duty on spirits, essences,
perfumes and medicines containing spirit has been
increased by §2 per gall.
Cuba. — The ad valorem rates of duty are calcu-
lated on the rate of sterling exchange between
London and New York on the date of the invoice,
provided no attempt has been made to undervalue
the goods.
Czechoslovakia. — Copies of the customs tariff
in Czech and German may be seen at the Depart-
ment. The tariff is mainly the same as the pre-
war " general " tariff of the Austro-Hungarian
Empire, but numerous additions hnve been made
to the free list, which now includes oil-seeds, fats,
dyeing and tanning materials, gums, resins and raw-
textile materials.
France. — The export and re-export of chicory root
and celluloid is prohibited.
The " surtaxe d'entrepot " on nitrate of soda has
been re-imposed as from May 13.
France and Algeria. — The export of resinous
wood in logs for the manufacture of cellulose pulp
and of round fir wood in the rough is prohibited as
from May 14.
Germany. — Import licences are no longer required
for certain feeding stuffs and artificial fertilisers.
The " agio " leviable when customs duties are
paid in paper money is fixed at 700 per cent, from
May 25.
Gibraltar. — An export duty of Is. 6d. per ton has
been levied on all fuel oil.
Iceland. — The regulations affecting imports are
set out in the issue for June 3.
Mexico. — A surtax of 2 per cent, of the amount
of the Federal taxes has been imposed on all exports
and imports.
Netherlands. — Export prohibitions have been re-
moved from, inter alia, brewers' pitch, cow7 hair,
certain woods, horn, artificial horn, turkey red oil,
and other sulphonated oils.
Portugal (Mozambique). — A copy of the customs
tariff may be seen at the Department. Among the
articles affected are acetic acid, alcohol, alcoholic
beverages, gasoline, edible oils, opium, paper, card-
board, perfumery, candles, glassware, syrup, sugar,
whale oil, and certain organic manures.
"Rumania. — The regulations governing the control
of exports are given in the issue of May 27. The
20 per cent, ad valorem surtax has been abolished.
Customs duties when paid in paper are fixed at five
times the rates prescribed by the tariff.
Serb-Croat-Slovene Kingdom. — Xew regulations
affecting exports came into force on April 16. The
export of certain articles of prime necessity is pro-
hibited except under certain specified conditions.
The export of all other goods is free but subject to
conditions of sale and payment.
Sierra Leone. — The export of gum copal is pro-
hibited for three years from September 30, 1920.
Spain. — The customs duties on coal tar dyes are
fixed at 1 peseta 30 centavos per kg. for powder or
crystals and at 50 centavos per kg. for paste or
liquid as from May 27.
Switzerland. — The export of malt, milk powder,
and certain feeding stuffs is now covered by general
export licence.
I inted States. — The import duties on certain
kinds of paper have been amended.
REPORT.
ReFORT TO THE BoAKD OF TRADE OF THE DePAKT-
me.ntal Committee on the Xon-Fekuous Mining
Lndcstby. Pp. 46. (Cmd. 652. 9d.) H.M.
Stationery Office. 1920.
The Committee, appointed in August, 1919 to
investigate the condition and possibilities of non-
terrous mining and to make recommendations as to
Un-ei-nment action, confined its attention to the
ores of tin, lead zinc, tungsten, arsenic, barytes
and fluorspar. Ihe mining of copper ore in this
country has practically ceased, but it is probable
that certain mines in the Camborne-Redruth area
abandoned when the copper production failed!
would yield tin if developed at a lower level
im.— The production of black tin is confined to
Cornwall and Devon and amounted to 6378 tons
in 1918 compared with 15,000 tons in 1890 The
decreased output is attributed to the fall in value
of the metal after 1890, together with foreign com-
petition, exhaustion of the sh-Uower ancf richer
veins of the mines, increased costs of extraction
and pumping, and restriction of development work
during the war. The financial organisation of the
industry in the past was conducive neither to
systematic development nor to stability of the
operating companies, and practically the- onlv
companies which have survived a long period of
depression are those possessing superior organisa-
tion, equipment or ore deposits. A summary of
accounts of four of the larger companies shows that
1918 was a year of comparative prosperitv, but that
this was due to the exceptional values of by-products,
viz., wolfram and arsenic. There was a "decrease in
the yield of black tin per ton of ore crushed from
32.43 lb. in 1908 to 25.81 lb. in 1919, accompanied
by a heavy increase of working costs. Many mines
are now working with a grade of ore which cannot
yield a profit unless economy in working or more
efficient extraction be effected. The actual in-
crease in labour costs between 1913 and 1919 was
60 per cent., but it would have been 75 per cent,
if a normal amount of development work had been
done; about 57 per cent, of the increase in
expenditure is due to the increased cost of coal.
The future is considered hopeful, as there has
been a steady ri6e in price since the spring of 1919,
a fact which has considerably altered the position
of the industry.*
Many of the larger mines have been able to make
more stable commercial arrangements with the
smelters. Improvements in the recovery of black
tin from the ore (at present only 65 — 70 per cent.)
are being investigated by the Tin and Tungsten
Research Board ; the adaptation of the flotation
process to the separation of black tin gives promise
of higher yields. Increased labour costs must be
anticipated but friendly relations exist with the
employees, all the work being done by contract.
Many working costs can be decreased by better
organisation, by improvements in tin-dressing
plants, and by amalgamation of adjacent proper-
ties. Several amalgamation schemes were sub-
mitted to the Committee but no opinion is
expressed as Eo the advantages to be gained.
Wolfram. — A large proportion of the 302 tons of
wolfram produced in 1918 was obtained from tin
mines ; attempts have been made to develop three
properties for wolfram only, but these have now
ceased owing to the fall in price from 60s. to 30s.
per unit.
Arsenic. — The 1918 output of white arsenic was
2349 tons derived mainly from the " arsenic soot"
resulting from the roasting of tin ores.
• The Report is dated March 17. 1920.
REVIEW
Lead and Zinc. — The production of lead ores,
found together with zinc on certain horizons of the
Lower Carboniferous formations in the north of
England, in North Wales, and Derbyshire, and of
the Lower Palaeozoic formations in Wales; Shrop-
shire, the Lake District and Lanarkshire, has
decreased steadily from 80,850 tons in 1877 to
14,784 tons in 1918. This was due to low prices
following upon the development of Spanish,
Mexican, and Australian supplies and to the
exhaustion of shallow workings. The output of
dressed zinc was only 9025 tons in 1918, compared
with an average of over 20,000 tons prior to 1908.
Labour shortage caused a rapid decrease during
the war and the present outlook is discouraging
owing to high smelting costs and to the importa-
tion of Australian concentrates. There is need for
greater co-operation between the mine owners and
the spelter makers to overcome the difficulty of
marketing small parcels of blende and of smelting
blendes containing high proportions of calcium
fluoride, barium sulphate, and lime; it was sug-
gested that advantage would be gained by mixing
the coarser British concentrates with the finer Aus-
tralian concentrates. It is recommended that the
Government should consider a guaranteed price for
home-produced blende of £1 per ton above the cost
of Australian concentrates in this country.
Barium. — The home output of barium minerals
increased steadily up to 50,045 tons in 1913, and
the 1918 output was 66,360 tons. It is probable
that the home production mainly consisted of
"off-colour" barytes and that the imports were
of a higher quality. There is a demand for more
high-grade barytes in the paint and paper trades
than is produced in this country, but producers
have difficulty in selling lower grade materials.
Attempts are being made to improve the grinding,
grading and bleaching of the product ; one process
being tried consists of wet grinding and continuous
elutriation.
The industry is in an unsettled condition owing
*X) trie fear of foreign competition, and it has been
cuggested that it should be protected against
dumping.
Fluorspar. — The 1918 production of fluorspar
was 53,498 tons; of this, 30,000 tons was used in
this country for fluxing purposes and in the glass
industry, and the remainder was exported to
Canada and the United States. A considerable
quantity is produced from the tailings from lead-
dressing plants and from waste dumps, etc.
Recommendations. — The mining industry suffers
owing to the railway rates applicable to valuable
ores and to the incidence of taxation upon the
profits of a wasting asset. The relationship
between lessor and lessee and between neighbour-
ing lessees and the different systems upon which
royalties are fixed present complicated problems
which some new authority should have power to
settle. Only two members of the Committee
favour the nationalisation of the industry. It is
recommended that a Department of Mines should
be established to centralise the various duties
relating to the mining of minerals other than coal,
and that a Mines Tribunal similar to the Railway
and Canal Commission should _ have power to
decide, upon appeal, all questions relating to
leases etc., and to compulsory orders of the
Department (c/. J., 1918, 477 r). The proposed
Department should undertake geological work con-
nected with the underground structure which
at present is not the main function of the
Geological Survey, and it should be made com-
pulsory on mine owners to deposit, and to bring
up to date both surface and underground plans,
standardised somewhat on the lines of South
African practice.
The existing Mineral Resources Development
Branch of the Board of Trade should be provided
with a suitable technical staff to advise upon
technical questions and development schemes, and
which should ultimately form part of the new
Department. A more efficient and more compre-
hensive system for the collection and distribution
of statistics is recommended.
The personnel of British mines has played such
an important part in the expansion of mining in
the Empire that exceptional measures to maintain
the industry are justified, and it is recommended
that the Government should take power to extend
financial assistance to mining companies to assist
them in times of depression and to undertake
exploration and development work, the funds of
the Development Commissioners being made avail-
able for this purpose.
In the appendices attached to the Report are
given details of the mines; works and machinery
regulations in South Africa, of the Australian
schemes of State aid for mining, and of the annual
output, yield and price of the various minerals.
(See also pp. 194 E — 195 k of this issue.)
COMPANY NEWS.
BRITISH COTTON AND WOOL DYERS'
ASSOCIATION, LTD.
The annual meeting was held in Manchester on
May 21. Mr. A. Hoegger presided. The chair-
man, in his address, referred to the criticisms
levelled against British dye manufacturers and the
Government on account of the inadequate supply
of dyestuffs, and said that, in view of the complexity
of the problem, there was no doubt that British
makers of dyes had achieved remarkable results —
results which those conversant with the industry
would have considered barely possible. Neverthe-
less, there wa6 much left to be done in regard to
colour effects, variety of shades, brilliance, and
fastness. Had it not been for the Swiss dyes avail-
able and the timely arrival of some " reparation "
colours, quite a number of the company's branches
would have suffered severely. Doubtless the very
greatly increased demand for dyes and the scarcity
of intermediates had been potent factors in the
short supply. The first consignment of the dyes
purchased in Germany by the committee of the
Colour Users' Association (c/. J., 1920, 94 r,
116 r) had arrived, but only a small proportion of
those due under the Peace Treaty had been
received, and the proportion distributed was still
smaller. With regard to the shortage of inter-
mediates, steps were being taken to bring together
dye-makers and British chemical manufacturers
with a view to relieving the situation. He was
still of the opinion that the first step in building
up a successful dye industry should be to found
a State-aided establishment for the manufacture
of intermediates. The dye users had not suffered
from the rise in the prices of dyes, as this had
happened in all countries.
The accounts for the year ended March 31, 1920,
show a net profit of £151,090 after providing for
tax, duty, depreciation, etc. A dividend of 10 per
cent, is declared on the ordinary shares, £68,541 is
placed to the reserve fund, and £39,003 is carried
forward. The issued ordinary share capital is
£580,624. The company's investments include
£31,311 in the British Dyestuffs Corporation, Ltd.,
£6000 in British Alizarine Co., Ltd., and £48.750
in National War Loan, etc. On March 31^ last
the total liquid assets were valued at £1,017,425,.
against which there were trade and loan creditors'
claims for £501,114.
VoL XXXIX., No. 11.]
SYNTHETIC AMMONIA AND NITRATES, LTD.
Messrs. Brunner, Mond, and Co. have formed
the above company, with a capital of £5,000,000,
to take over from the Government the manufacture
of nitrogen products from atmospheric nitrogen,
and to develop this manufacture on a commercial
6cale. By agreement with the Government the
company will always be under British control, the
directors are to be British-born, and the first
directors are to be approved by the Government.
The works will be situated on the site purchased
from the Government at Billingham-on-Tees (c/.
J., 1920, 139r), and it is proposed to erect at once
a plant for the production of 100 tons of 100 per
cent, ammonia per day, with provision for a rapid
extension to 300 tons per day, equivalent to
150,000 rising to 450,000 tons of sulphate of
ammonia per annum. The chief product, however,
will be ammonium chloride, which will be manu-
factured simultaneously with sodium carbonate,
and it is hoped that the agricultural community
will eventually adopt this form of fertiliser, there-
by enabling it to obtain supplies of nitrogenous
fertilisers at a reduced cost. Explosives Trades,
Ltd., has undertaken to purchase its requirements
of ammonia from the company, and to erect plant,
to the extent desired by the Government, for its
conversion by oxidation into nitric acid and explo-
sives derived therefrom. The technical staff of the
company has made a thorough inspection of the
works at Oppau in Germany, which has produced
at the rate of 250 tons of 100 per cent, ammonia
per day, of the nitrogen plant belonging to the
United States Government at Sheffield, Alabama,
and the General Chemical Company's plant at
Laurel Hill, New York ; also of the experimental
plant working the process of M. Georges Claude
at La Grande Paroisse. The experimental plant
of Dr. E. B. Maxted, of Gas Developments, Ltd.,
together with the relevant information and
patents, has been purchased.
As already intimated, the process selected by the
company is essentially a modified form of the
Haber process, and this has been worked out
entirely without German assistance. All enemy
patents bearing on the process have been placed
by the Government at the company's disposal, and
the royalties upon them will be paid to the
Custodian of Enemy Property for account under
the reparation clauses of the Peace Treaty. In
general, the Government has undertaken to give
the new company every possible assistance in the
development of the process.
TRADE NOTES.
BRITISH SULPHATE OF AMMONIA
FEDERATION.
A non-profit company, limited by guarantee, has
been registered under the above title with the
objects of trading in sulphate of ammonia, pro-
moting its use at home and abroad, etc. The
management is vested in a council, each member of
which must be a British subject and a producer of
at least 10,000 tons of sulphate of ammonia yearly,
or represent a firm or group of firms, companies,
etc., producing this amount. In addition there will
bo separate representatives from each of eight dis-
tricts into which the country has been divided for
the purpose, the number for each district being de-
termined by the number of multiples of 10,000 tons
of sulphate of ammonia produced within it. It is
also intended that different methods of production
(coke ovens, gas works, iron works, Mond process,
shale works, etc.) shall as far as may be practicable
be separately represented on the council. The
secretary of the Federation is Mr. H. Jones,
and the registered office. 30, Grosvenor Gardens,
S.W.I.
FOREIGN.
Swiss Exports of Artificial Silk. — In 1918 Switzer-
land exported artificial silk to the value of 1,960,000
francs, but owing to the general shortage of this
material, the exported value rose to 16 million
francs for the first nine months of 1919, the chief
consumers being North America (7 million francs),
France (2 million fr.), Spain (.1,880,000 fr.), Italy
(1 million fr.), and England (400,000 fr.). These
figures do not include exported manufactures of
artificial silk, which were of considerable value. —
(Z. ancjeic. Chem., Mar. 9, 1920.)
Washing Soda Prices in Germany. — New prices have
been officially fixed for sodium carbonate cryst. vary-
ing from 28.30 marks per 10O kg. in lots of 10,000
kg. to 32.50 mk. for quantities of 50 kg, all at the
factory. These prices have been based on an hourly
wage of 2 mk., and in factories where this wage is
higher or lower than 2 mk. prices can be raised or
lowered at the rate of 70 pfg. per 100 kg. for every
10 pfg. increase or decrease in wages. Wholesale
merchants are to sell at the above prices plus 0.80 to
14 mk. not, according to quantity (freight extra) ;
middlemen may charge an additional 0.40 to 10.50
mk. (freight extra), and retailers 25 mk. per 100 kg.
as from May 1 last. The above prices are inclusive
of packing. Prices for other sorts of sodium car-
bonate have been fixed accordingly. — (Che.n. Intl.,
May 5, 1920.)
Sweden's Foreign Trade in 1919. — The export of iron
ore from Sweden in 1919 amounted to 2,420,000 tons,
or about half the quantity for the previous year.
The exports of iron and steel also decreased from
363,000 tons in 1918 to 223,000 tons in 1919. An
improvement took place in the wood pulp and paper
exports, but the amounts were still below the pre-
war figures. Paper and pasteboard exports
amounted to 140,000 and 20,500 tons respectively,
and sulphite pulp to 900,000 tons. The figure for
matches — 28,500 tons — was approximately the same
as for 1918, but the exports of machinery and instru-
ments improved from about 113 to 142 million
kronor (krona = ls. lid.). As regards imports, coal
remained stationary at 2.220,000 tons, mineral oils
increased from 40,000 to 162,000 tons, and fatty oils
amounted to 24,000 tons, an increase of 23,400 tons
over 1918. The imports of iron and steel were
113,000 tons, compared with 100,000 tons in the pre-
vious year ; steel manufactures and railway supplies
also showed large increments. The value of im-
ported machinery and implements was 60 million kr.
(36 million kr. in 1918), and the imports of textiles
and foodstuffs also showed large advances. — (Bull.
Dept. Trade and Com., Canada, April 26, 1920.)
Costa Rica in 1918. — With a climate varying from
tropical to temperate, and with rich soil and
abundant rainfall, Costa Rica is capable of great
agricultural development. Gold mining and lumber-
ing have long been established, but manufacturing
on modern lines is limited and likely to remain so.
The chief industries are coffee growing, banana and
cacao cultivation. Gold and silver are produced,
and manganese was mined on the Pacific coast
throughout the vear. The imports, valued at
£747,004 (£1,119,048 in 1917), included 104,405 kg.
of drugs and chemicals, valued at £15,558, and were
mainly supplied by the United States (90'46 per
cent.), Spanish America (636 per cent.) and the
United Kingdom (1*74 per cent.). The exports
amounted to £1,924,774, compared with £2,276,433
in the previous year, and included : — Cacao, 958.236
kg. (£47,586); coffee, 11,451,719 kg. (£740,725);
hides and skins, 284,316 kg. (£25,309); rubber,
11,011 kg. (£2015); and sugar, 322.704 kg. (£7278).
Gold and silver worth £133,120 and 9893 tons of
REVIEW.
[June 15, 1920.
manganese ore, worth £61,875, were shipped to the
United States during the year. During the war,
balsa and cohune nuts were shipped for use in war
industries.— -(U.S. Com. Hep., Mar. 2, 1920.)
Madagascar iu 1918. — During 1918 there was little
activity in the mining industry of Madagascar, the
production of gold and graphite showed large de-
creases, and the total trade of the colony showed
a diminution as compared with 1917, largely owing
to transport difficulties. The imports and exports
in 1918 were' valued at £3,947,615 and £3,542,812,
respectively, compared with £5,279,344 and
£8,606,972' in 1917. The imports included: —
Candles, 76 metric tons (£12,405) ; cement, 1632
tons (£18,902); chemicals, 569 tons (£31,640);
coal, etc., 19,155 tons (£141,207); hydrated lime,
307 tons (£3550) ; matches, 38 tons (£13,159) ; medi-
cinal compounds, 61 tons (£19,413) ; manufactured
metals other^han machinery, 3068 tons (£469,267) ;
olive oil, 84 tons (£19,342) ; petroleum and mineral
oils, 748 tons (£28,880) ; paints and dyes, 299 tons
(£33,310); soap, £165,607; sugar, 1332 tons
(£51,518). Among the exports were: — Mangrove
bark, 133 tons (£515); beeswax, 267 tons (£37,146);
cacao, 81 tons (£18,773) ; cloves, 143 tons (£24,853) ;
coffee, 321 tons (31,013); corundum, 174 tons
(£3020); gold dust, 20,672 oz. (£74,552); graphite,
15,015 tons (£260,815) ; hides, 3934 tons (£242,149) ;
minerals, 13,394 tons (£122,760); oil fruits and
seeds, 552 tons (£6006); oils, volatile or essential,
11,389 lb. (£5831) ; raffia fibre, 4147 tons (£128,075) ;
rubber, 10 tons (£2615); vanilla, 623,902 lb.
(£163,798). France's share in the total trade of
the colony amounted to 54 per cent., while the share
.of the United Kingdom and British colonies was 8
and 18 per cent, respectively, as against 8 and 8
per cent, in 1917. — (U.S. Com. Rep., Suppl.,
Mar. 3, 1920.)
Foreign Company News. — Germany. — The following
figures are taken from the reports of the companies
named covering the year 1919, the figures in paren-
theses being those for the previous year : — Fr.
Bayer u. Co., net profit 29,077,840 marks
(13,088,188), dividend 18 per cent. (20). Meister
Lucius u. Briining, amount written off 15,529,905
mk. (23,747,496), including 1,335,497 mk. (2,779,068)
brought forward; balance 24,217,861 mk.
(14,955,603), dividend 14 per cent. (12) on the share
capital of 90 million mk. Chemische Werke vorm.
H. and E. Albert in Amoneburg-Biebrich, trading
profit 5,454,846 mk. (4.356,576), net profit 4,159,918
mk. (2,973,711), dividend 30 per cent. (20).
The patents of Profs. Erdmann and Bedmann re-
lating to the hardening of oils are to be worked by a
new company, called the " Oelwerke Hydrogen " in
Ammendorf, near Halle. The provisional capital is
290,000 mk.— (Z. angew. Chem., May 14, 1920.)
Rumania. — A company, the " Industrie Chimique
Roumanie," has recently been formed at Bucharest
with a capital of 10 million lei (£400,000) for the
purpose of manufacturing chemicals from local raw
materials. As pre-war imports of chemicals from
Germany amounted in value to £580,000, and as the
necessary raw materials exist in Rumania, a ready
market is assured. A partially-equipped factory
has been obtained in Bucharest and another will
'be established for the manufacture of wood aclohol.
—(U.S. Com. Rep., Mar. 16, 1920.)
According to H.M. Commercial Secretary at
Tokyo, a company, the Tairiku Boeki Kabushiki
Kaisha (the Continental Trading Co., Ltd.) has
been formed in Tokyo with a capital of 10 million
yen (yen=2s. Oid), in 200,000 shares of 50 yen
each, with the object of opening up trade with
Germany and capitalising and encouraging enter-
prises in both countries. The co-operation of two
German experts has been obtained, and Japanese
have been sent to study conditions in Germany. —
(Bd. of Trade J., Apr. 22, 1920.)
REVIEW.
The Photographic Researches of Ferdinand
Hurter and Vero C. Driffield. Edited by
W. B. Ferguson. Pp. 374, with 16 illustra-
tions and numerous diagrams. (London: The
Royal Photographic Society of Great Britain.
1920.) Price 25s. net.
This volume marks the culmination of the efforts
of the Royal Photographic Society to establish a
memorial to Hurter and Driffield, and here for the
first time all the important papers of these two
pioneers in the application of science to photo-
graphy have been collected together in a convenient
form and in chronological order. Consequently the
interest of this book is not only scientific but his-
toric, and as these papers are scattered throughout
the chemical and photographic literature in a most
haphazard way the advantage of having them to-
gether in one volume may well be realised. It is
noteworthy that although more than twenty years
have elapsed since Hurter and Driffield devised
their system of sensitometry, and although later
work has rendered the validity of many of their
assumptions doubtful, their methods are employed
substantially unchanged at the present day.
The reprints of these papers are preceded by an
article on the early work of the authors, which
must have involved the editor in a very
laborious study of the original manuscripts, now
preserved in the rooms of the Royal Photographic
Society, and this introduction not only explains the
early ideas of Hurter and Driffield, but also makes
the succeeding papers much more easy to follow.
In addition to the reprints themselves, the volume
also contains the criticisms of the authors' views
which were made at the time by Abney and others,
and their replies, thus providing a complete
account of the growth of the science of sensitometry
and such closely allied subjects as photometry and
actinometry.
The papers are too numerous to mention in
detail, but in particular Hurter and Driffield's
paper, first printed in the Journal of the Society of
Chemical Industry, of 1890, is now almost a classic,
as it placed photography, up to this time carried on
largely by rule-of-thumb methods, upon a firm
scientific basis and opened the way for its future
advancement. Following this reprint is a series of
papers on photometers, the theory of photographic
reproduction, the latent image, etc.; and the work
concludes with an exceedingly valuable biblio-
graphy of all the more important papers which have
been published upon physical and chemical pro-
blems bearing upon photography, which alone
would prove invaluable to workers in this field, and
which, combined with the complete history of the
subject in the body of the work, provides a valuable
addition to photographic literature.
G. I. HlGSON.
PUBLICATIONS RECEIVED.
Memoirs of the Geological Survey. Special Re-
ports on the Mineral Resources of Great
Britain. (London: H. M. Stationery Office.
1920.)
Vol. VI. — Refractory Materials : Ganister
AND SILICA-ROCK ; SaND FOR OpEN-HeARTH
Steel Furnace3 ; Dolomite. Second edition.
Pp. 241. Price 7s. 6rf. net.
Vol. XV. — Arsenic and Antimony Ores. By
H. Dewey, J. S. Flett and G. V. Wilson.
Pp. 59. Price 3s. 6d. net.
Report of the Chemical Services Committee
(India). Pp. 121. (Simla: Superintended,
Government Central Press. 1920.)
Vol. XXXIX., No. 12.]
REVIEW
[June 30, 1920.
THE USE OF COLLOIDAL PREPARA-
TIONS IN MEDICINE.*
H. H. DALE.
The science and practice of therapeutics exhibit,
almost of necessity, a special liability to the in-
fluence of vogues and fashions, waves of exag-
gerated interest, from which even the more exact
sciences are not wholly immune. New lines of
treatment are suggested with growing frequency
by developments in the neighbour sciences, . and
the conscientious physician must often find his
judgment hesitating between a reluctance to deny
to his patient the chance of benefit from some widely
advocated treatment, and a desire to restrict his
practice to measures of which the rational basis is
fairly intelligible to him. It is impossible, however,
that he should keep pace with all modern develop-
ments of physics and chemistry, and his modesty
will forbid him to be too critical of a proffered ex-
planation, on tin' mere ground that its meaning is
not perfectly clear to him.
The attitude of many medical men to the colloidal
preparations, now so widely advertised, seems to
afford a good example of this situation. They
know, in a general way, that the investigation of
the properties of colloidal solutions, and of the
part which these properties play in vital processes,
is a centre of interest, one of the recognised " grow-
ing-points " of biological science at the moment.
They read clinical records of therapeutic effects
attributed to the use of colloidal remedies. There
does not seem to be any clear connexion between
the two. but an impression grows up that there is
something mysterious about the colloidal condition,
some efficacy as yet incompletely understood, and
any therapeutic claim comes to have a chance of
being treated with a peculiar respect if the prepara-
tion on behalf of which it is made is stated to be
" colloidal."
In these circumstances any attempt to give a
clear and simple statement of what is known about
the colloidal state, of the properties which this
physical condition entails, and of the bearing they
might be expected to have on therapeutic problems,
would be very welcome. It is with the hope of find-
ing such a plain, balanced statement, therefore,
that one opens the volume entitled " Colloids in
Health and Disease," in which Mr. A. B. Searle
has published his Chadwick lectures; and such hope
is encouraged by Sir Malcolm Morris's statement,
in a "Foreword," that the book contains "lucid
expositions of ascertained results . . . written by
an acknowledged master of the subject." It
must be admitted that confidence is already some-
what shaken by the rest of the " Foreword."
Perusal of the volume has apparently left its
sponsor in a state of mind in which he con-
siders it "an obvious desideratum that the drugs
employed to combat disease should be in the
colloidal state," because vital processes, in-
cluding the immunity reactions, take place in a
colloidal system. It has apparently left him con-
tent also with a definition of the colloidal state as
" a form in which they may be isomorphic and iso-
tonic with the elements of the body " — a statement
in which it is curiously difficult to discover any
meaning.
When one turns to the hook itself the feeling of
disappointment rapidly gains the upper hand. In
the earlier chapters one feels that Mr. Searle set
out with the good intention of giving a simple and
lucid exposition, but he soon gets carried away by
the unbalanced enthusiasm, which one had hoped his
* " The Tse of Colloids in Health and Disease." By
A. B. Searle. with foreword by Sir Malcolm Morris.
(London: Constable and Co.. Ltd., 1920.) Price 8s. net.
book would help to regulate and to replace by sane
appreciation. We soon meet with the all-too-pre-
valent tendency to invoke the colloidal condition
without reason, as when it is suggested that sub-
stances like soap reduce the surface tension between
dirt and water, because they are in the colloidal
condition (p. 34). But it is the physiological and
therapeutic deductions which form Mr. Searle's
main objective, and which provide the material for
the greater part of his book; and it is not long
before these awaken suspicion of the author's equip-
ment for his task. He soon finds himself in un-
necessary difficulties, caused by his determination
to find colloids everywhere. Thus we are told, on
p. 16, that peptones are colloidal, and " in the
laboratory their solutions do not pass through
animal and vegetable membranes." Not only pep-
tones, but all the products of digestion are "essen-
tially colloidal " (p. 43), for which reason, ap-
parently, " there can be no general cure for all
forms of indigestion" (p. 44). But this assump-
tion, in the face of the evidence, that the products
of digestion are colloidal makes it difficult to ex-
plain their passage through the mucous membrars.
of the alimentary canal, and necessitates the fur-
ther unfounded assumption that " in the presence
of a crystalloid, such as common salt, the passage of
colloidal sols through the membranes is considerably
increased." Hence — a veritable triumph of deduc-
tion— " the advisability of eating salt with so
typical a colloidal gel as a boiled egg is seen to be
based on a physiological requirement" (p. 43).
But if salt, according to Mr. Searle's physiologv,
will get a boiled egg through the alimentary mucous
membrane — and it is difficult to find any other
meaning for his statement — digestion becomes a
mere hobby.
There is no indication that our author is
joking; on the contrary, he seems to have the
seriousness of a devotee, and as he progresses
through his lectures we lose, more and more, the
scientific expositor in the apostle of a creed. In
vain one looks for a consistent statement of the
manner in which the colloidal state affects the
therapeutic action of a substance. Vague generali-
ties we find in plenty — as, for example, that "the
fact that the blood is a typical complex colloidal
fluid is now accepted, and this is the basis of the
treatment of numerous diseases " (p. 27). We hear
much, too, of a " normal colloidal state of the body
fluids," which injection of suitable sols can main-
tainor restore. Sometimes the author seems inclined
to pin his faith to the electric charge carried by the
colloidal particles as the secret of their action, as
when we are told that " for deep-seated affections
better results may be anticipated from the introduc-
tion of suitably charged particles (colloidal sols)
into the blood stream " (p. 19), than from radiation.
But when he comes to discuss the results of the
application of different colloidal preparations in
practice, such theories of their action are appar-
ently forgotten altogether. Even the experimental
observations put forward as to the action of the
different sols in the laboratory seem to be either
irrelevant or even contradictory to the therapeutic
indications given. For example, we are told on
one page that colloidal platinum has no germicidal
action (p. 73), on another that "colloidal platinum,
though too powerful for use in medicine, has been
emploved to a limited extent for the same diseases
as colloidal silver " (p. 97), which is recommended
for the germicidal action which the platinum sol
does not exhibit. The author soon finds himself
reduced to the statement that one or another col-
loidal preparation has been used with " remarkable
and surprising results." as shown by clinical records
quoted from the medical journals. All kinds of
effects have been observed, reported or found, occa-
sionally of a startling nature, as when we read that
"it is found that the amino-acids are readilv able
to absorb into their complex molecule a notable pro-
portion of iron administered in the colloidal form,
and from it to effect the synthesis of haemoglobin."
It is truly amazing to find a statement of this
kind made without citation of authority, but merely
the bare assertion "it is found," in tho midst of
clinical records quoted in full detail, without any
attempt at explanation of the results described
in them. This sort of thing may be good advocacy,
but it is not " lucid exposition." Mr. Searle had
a fine opportunity to supply the need for a simple
and careful statement of what is really known con-
cerning the role of colloids in therapeutics; it is a
matter for regret that he was unable to avail him-
self of it to better purpose.
And what, after all, does this knowledge amount
to? All will agree, in the first place, that in deal-
ing with living cells and organisms we are dealing
with very complex colloidal systems. It may be
admitted, further, that there are a few experimental
examples of physiological actions produced by
chemical substances, which can be attributed wholly
to the electric charge which their ions carry — e.g.,
the effects of the trivalent kations of certain rare
earths on the action of the heart muscle. Note that
this is an effect produced on the colloids of
heart muscle, not by charged colloidal aggregates,
but by ions. It may further be stated that there is
as yet no known example of an effect of this kind,
produced either by crystalloids or charged colloids,
which has any therapeutic application, nor any
known therapeutic effect which can be explained
along these lines. In the present state of know-
ledge, therefore, there seems to be no warrant what-
ever for attributing a therapeutic action, produced
by a colloidal preparation, to the electric charge
carried by its particles.
It is true, again, that certain of the phenomena
of immunity visible in the test-tube — agglutination,
specific precipitation — show points of suggestive,
though incomplete analogy with some of the pheno-
mena shown by colloidal sols. We are not entitled
to say more than that such reactions are apparently
conditioned by the colloidal nature of the inter-
acting substances ; the specificity of the reaction has
no analogy in any phenomenon depending on col-
loidal properties alone. The mere fact that anti-
toxins and other antibodies are colloidal, like all
other proteins of the blood and tissues, affords no
basis for the suggestion that other substances, if
in the colloidal condition, will have an action of the
same kind. Mr. Searle puts forward, as " now
admitted," a suggestion that the body is rendered
liable to invasion by germs by a disturbance of
" the normal colloidal condition of any of the more
important body fluids," and indicates as the aim of
treatment the maintenance of this "normal col-
loidal condition." So far from this being "ad-
mitted," it may be doubted whether anyone ac-
quainted with the facts of pathology would be able
to attach any definite meaning to such a statement.
Still less can it be taken for granted that the
" normal colloidal condition " can be maintained
or restored by the introduction into the body of
colloidal chemicals foreign to its constitution.
There are, again, some interesting and sug-
gestive analogies between the action of certain
metallic sols in catalysing chemical reactions and
the action of the specific, organic catalysts known
as enzymes. As yet, however, there is no logical
connexion discernible between these effects and the
therapeutic results which have been recorded with
some of the same preparations.
What, then, is left as a rational basis for the use
of colloids in medicine? Not a great deal, it must
be admitted, but sufficient to support a modest
claim. In the first place, it may reasonably be
suggested that, they may have value, not because
they are peculiarly active, but for the very opposite
reason, that they provide a depot or reservoir of in-
active material, from which active material is
slowly but steadily supplied as the substance passes
into true solution. Salvarsan, for example, which
is injected in alkaline solution, and is practically
insoluble in water at the reaction of the blood, must
circulate in colloidal solution, protected from aggre-
gation by the plasma proteins. There is no definite
evidence that this physical condition plays any
direct part in the action on the spirochaetes of
syphilis ; on the contrary, neosalvarsan, which is
truly soluble in water at the neutral reaction of the
blood, has an immediate effect of similar potency.
But in all such effects time is an important factor
as well as intensity; and whilst the soluble neo-
salvarsan is to a large extent excreted rapidly, the
insoluble salvarsan remains longer in the body,
passing only slowly into true solution and acquiring
thereby a more prolonged and effective action.
Similar considerations possibly apply to some of
the metallic sols. Mr. Searle, in what looks like
a momentary lapse from colloidal orthodoxy, points
out that " the germicidal power of certain metallic
salts depends to a large extent on the degree of
ionisation." One hoped, in vain, to find him pro-
ceeding to the logical deduction that the germicidal
action exhibited by certain metallic sols, such as that
of silver, when directly applied to an infected sur-
face, may be attributable to the presence of a small
proportion of the silver in the ionised condition. A
really good case could be made for the use of a col-
loidal preparation, for certain purposes, on these
lines, in that its aggregates would furnish a depot
from which the low concentration of ions could be
continuously maintained — a concentration sufficient
to inhibit bacterial multiplication, but never rising
high enough to irritate sensitive structures or
injure the tissue cells. Such depot action, by
almost insoluble materials, is no new thing in
therapeutics, nor is it peculiar to colloids. Oint-
ments containing calomel, mercuric oxide, or
metallic mercury must produce their well-known
effects by such slow, persistent liberation of mercury
ions ; the mild antiseptic action exerted by bismuth
subnitrate in its immediate neighbourhood must
similarly be produced by such traces of substance
passing into true solution. Very probably there
are special purposes for which colloidal preparations
will furnish the reservoir for this slow, continued
action most conveniently ; but it must be insisted
that it is an action which does not depend on the
charge on the colloidal particles, nor on any more
mysterious property of the colloidal condition, nor
even, so far as the part of the material at any
moment active is concerned, on the colloidal condi-
tion at all, but on the presence of a very dilute
true solution between the colloidal aggregates.
There is another property of colloidal sols which
may have importance in a similar connexion,
namely, the readiness with which they undergo ad-
sorption on certain surfaces. In the case of silver,
for example, which in the ionised condition is an
extremely potent germicide, adsorption of the col-
loidal aggregates from a sol on to the surface of
bacteria would presumably increase the concentra-
tion of ionised silver in the neighbourhood of each
organism. Moreover, it would probably be very
difficult to wash away the adsorbed material from
the organisms.
Now there are obvious possibilities here of a very
valuable localisation of effects in vivo. If it were
found, for example, that a metal, introduced as a
colloidal sol into the circulation, became pre-
ferentially deposited in the cells of inflamed or
abnormal tissue, so that the effective ions were pro-
duced in the greatest concentration where they were
most needed, just as salvarsan has been shown to
be deposited in local excess in a syphilitic focus —
if all this were well established, we should begin to
have a really firm basis for the use of some colloidal
preparations in appropriate conditions. One of the
drawbacks of the present state of affairs, in which
an advocacy prepared to assume anything addresses
Vol. XXXIX.. No. 12.]
itself to a credulity prepared to accept anything, is
that it diverts attention from promising and
rational lines of inquiry. There are some effects
reported by clinical observers which at present have
no rational basis at all. We need not reject theia
on that account; but, on the other hand, it does
not help progress to cite, in explanation, facts
which have as yet no perceptible connexion with
them. For example, it is well known that colloidal
palladium catalyses reductions by hydrogen and
decomposes hydrogen peroxide; but this knowledge
does not yet help to explain, and should affect in
neither direction the confidence with which one
accepts, the statement that colloidal palladium stops
epileptic fits. The clinical evidence must be criti-
cally examined and taken or rejected on its own
merits ; the statement that the preparation used
was " colloidal " must not be allowed to justify
belief in what would otherwise be viewed with scep-
ticism. When once this sound attitude is aban-
doned, we are caught in a tangle of hypotheses
without foundation and explanations which ex-
plain nothing; we find that the use of the word
"colloidal" is expected to justify a claim, for
any remedy, that it has all the valuable therapeutic
action and none of the incidental dangers or draw-
backs of the same substance in the ordinary form ;
and we find that the literature of the subject is be-
ginning to acquire a jargon of its own, which is too
liable to produce in the practical man an atti-
tude of bewildered respect. The word " colloidal "
suggests something flabby, amorphous, indefinite;
but it is not an " obvious desideratum " that these
qualities should be reflected in our methods of
thinking and writing about colloids; on the con-
trary, it is peculiarly desirable here to keep our
habits of thought and expression clear-cut and
crystalline.
THE PEAT RESOURCES
IRELAND. *
OF
The recent numerous increases in the cost of coal,
due to the introduction of shorter hours and higher
wages for miners, coupled with decreased pro-
duction, form a very important factor in the possi-
bility of working economically the peat bogs of
Ireland. From 1809 to 1814 about £40,000 was
spent on the investigations of the Irish Bogs Com-
mission, which performed excellent work in com-
piling information with regard to the nature and
extent of these bogs and the possibilities of their
drainage and cultivation. The Commissioners
came to the conclusion that all the bogs could be
naturally drained without anv great expenditure.
The total bog area is 3,028,000 acres, the depth
varies from 5 to 18} ft., and the anhydrous peat
available was computed at 3700 million tons. The
peat consumption of Ireland lies between 6 and 8
million tons per annum, whilst 90,000 tons of coal
are raised and 4,650,000 tons imported into the
country. Calculations show that the possible life
of the peat deposits is 200 years, and that of the
coalfields 20 years, assuming that only one kind of
fuel is used and no coal is imported. At the present
rate of consumption the peat would last for some
500 years, and the native coal for more than twice
that length of time.
Recent trials carried out in Canada and Germany
on the application of mechanical mothods to the
winning of peat have shown that a considerable
measure of success in the cheaper produc-
tion of peat has been attained, and that
• Abstract of a lecture given before the Roval Pnhlin Society,
March 5. 1910. by Prof. P. F. Purcell. Special Report No. 2. of the
Fuel Research Board. 1920.
so far as Ireland is concerned it may be
safely assumed that these conditions have now
placed peat in a more favourable position to com-
pete with coal. The mechanical dredging of the
peat bogs would bo attended by great difficulty
should these contain much buried timber, but
according to the investigations of Professor Cron-
shaw, of Galway, there is little likelihood of this
trouble arising in the case of the Irish bogs. In an
undrained bog the peat contains from 90 to 95 per
cent, of water, whilst this amount is reduced to 90
per cent, by draining. Although this reduction in
moisture is not apparently great, yet it will be seen
that one ton of air-dried peat (containing 25 per
cent, moisture) is produced from 15 tons of un-
drained or 7} tons of drained peat, so that the
amount of raw material to be handled in a drained
bog is only half of that to be handled in an un-
drained bog. Hence the difference between success
and failure may be decided by the effective draining
of the bog. Cut by hand and air-dried, the
moisture content of the peat diminishes to 25 per
cent, under normal weather corditions. The sus-
tained application of even very high pressure will
not reduce the moisture content below 70 per cent.,
but this condition is attained in about 2 to 3 weeks
by ordinary air-drying, whilst a further 5 or 6 days
exposure will reduce this figure to 60 per cent. This
is the wettest peat that manufacturers have claimed
to utilise in gas producers, though Haanel denies
the possibility of utilising such peat for this pur-
pose, the optimum moisture content being stated
by him to be 33 per cent. If dehydrated, peat re-
absorbs water to the extent of 16 per cent., and
hence this is the practical limit beyond which it
is useless to dry peat. Notwithstanding the ad-
vance in science and in mechanical and industrial
operations, the air-drying of peat by natural means
is still the only recognised commercially successful
method in use. The drying of peat by artificial
heat does not become a practical consideration until
the moisture content has been reduced to 70 per
cent., and even then it is a very doubtful financial
proposition, since to produce fuel with 33} per cent,
moisture, the equivalent of over 40 per cent, of the
available peat must be utilised to evaporate the
excess of water.
The average calorific value for air-dried peat is
about 6850 B.T.TJ. per lb., and its ash content is
3 per cent. The latter increases from the surface
downwards, as does the nitrogen from l'O per cent,
to 25 per cent, at the bottom of deep bogs. In a
by-product recovery producer it should be possible
to recover 100 lb. of ammonium sulphate per ton of
air-dried peat.
The season during which peat can be air-dried is
limited to the six months from April to September,
and this renders it necessary to produce in that
season sufficient peat to last for the whole year. It
thus happens that a great number of hands is re-
quired for a portion of the year, whilst the labour
is idle during the winter. This forms a serious
obstacle, and it must be met if the peat industry is
to be established on a' permanent basis. The fore-
going considerations furnish a very strong incentive
to inventors and others to produce some form of
apparatus by which peat may be dried artificially
on an economical basis and the industrv carried on
for twelve months instead of for only five or six as
at present. So far no one appears to have suc-
ceeded, and even the Ekenberg process is still in
the experimental stage.
All the peat in Ireland is at present hand-cut.
though in Canada and on the Continent mechanical
winning is being largely adopted. In the Anrep
and Anderson machines the peat is macerated and
the pulp spread out to a depth of 5 or 6 inches to
dry. In Germany, tests carried out in 1915 showed
that sufficient raw peat to produce 75 tons of air-
dried peat was excavated and spread by one
machine and five men in ten hours. Thus, the out<
B?
REVIEW.
put of air-dried peat per worker per day was 15 tons,
whereas an Irish hand-cutter, catcher, and wheeler
spread about 11 tons of raw material per day, or
one ton per man per day of air-dried peat.
Attempts have been made from time to time to
make paper, building material, alcohol, petrol, and
cloth from peat, but the main uses of peat must
continue to be for litter; cattle food and fuel (the
latter including the various distillation products).
Peat dust is also used for packing fruit.
As regards the application of peat to power
problems, the moisture present may be utilised to
replace partially the steam which would otherwise
have to be blown into the producer in the manu-
facture of semi-water gas. This is a great advan-
tage which the gas producer can claim over the
steam boiler, especially as there is also the recovery
of by-products to be considered. By burning peat
under a water-tube boiler and using the energy in
turbo-generators an overall efficiency of 16'4 per
cent, may be attained, whilst when burnt in gas
producers and used in large power units fired by
gas the efficiency is only 9'8 per cent. If the pro-
ducer gas is used in a gas engine driving a generator
the efficiency may be taken as about 15 per cent. In
arriving at a sound conclusion as to the best method
to adopt for the utilisation of peat, account must
be taken of labour, depreciation, maintenance, and
capital charges, contrasted with the overall effi-
ciency and the value of the recovered by-products.
NEWS FROM THE SECTIONS.
LONDON.
In place of the usual meeting at Burlington
House, a joint meeting with the Institute of
Chemistry was held at the Institute's quarters in
Russell Square, W.C., on June 7. No papers were
read, but there was an exhibition of chemicals
and chemical apparatus, which was inspected
with interest by a large number of members
and fellows. On the first floor was shown an
exhibition of the Sheringham Light, by means of
which a reflecting surface above the source of arti-
ficial light reduces the excess of rays in the red end
of the spectrum, and by thus emphasising the effect
of the blue and violet rays causes the light to
approach very closely in character to that of day-
light from a north window.
In the laboratories on the second floor were shown
numerous exhibits of chemical glassware, fine
chemicals and apparatus of various kinds: —
S.H.M. Co. : Prof. J. T. Hewitt showed samples
of quinine derivatives and phenylhydrazine.
Boake, Roberts and Co. : An exhibit of acetylene
derivatives, aldehydes and acetates.
T. and C. Clark,' Ltd. : Enamelled iron apparatus.
Mr. C. A. Mitchell: Osborn's comparative micro-
scope, an American device for comparing simul-
taneously two colours on microscope slides.
Arthur Johnson, Ltd.: " Chinagraph " pencils,
for writing on glass, porcelain or polished metals,
made in four colours.
Cannon Ironfoundries, Ltd. ; Enamelled pans and
vessels.
Adam Hilger, Ltd. : Interference refractometers
and a polarimeter.
Dr. C. A. Keane: An exhibit of the Pfeiffer gas
analvsis apparatus.
Aluminium Plant and Vessel Co., Ltd. : Pails,
bowls and other aluminium ware.
Cambridge Scientific Co., Ltd. : Optical pyro-
meter and distance thermometer.
Kestner Evaporator and Engineering Co., Ltd. :
Charts and diagrams of double-effect evaporators.
Thermal Syndicate, Ltd. : Samples of the well-
known " Vitreosil " silica chemical apparatus.
British Drug Houses, Ltd. : A selection of fine
chemicals and chemical indicators.
Scientific Supplies Co., Ltd. : A large exhibition
of British-made laboratory glassware of all kinds.
Dr. R. Lessing showed various specimens of con-
tact rings packed in towers for use in fractional
distillation.
W. J. Bush and Co., Ltd.: Exhibits of benzoic
and salicylic acid derivatives.
Pharmico-Chemical Products, Ltd. : A selection
of fine chemicals.
The annual meeting of the Section was held in
the Society's Offices, Finsbury Square, E.C., on
June 14. Mr. Julian Baker presided.
After a vote of thanks had been passed to Dr. S.
Miall, the retiring hon-secretary, and he had
replied, it was announced that the committee had
elected Dr. G W. Monier-Williams as his successor
in office. A ballot for the election of five new
members of committee resulted in favour of Mr. A.
Chasten Chapman, Prof. W. R. Hodgkinson, Dr.
Bernard Dyer, Mr. A. H. Dewar, and Mr. J.
Connah. The retiring members are Prof. J. S. S.
Brame, Prof. A. R. Ling, and Messrs. A. E. Berry,
H. E. Coley, and C. S. Garland.
MEETINGS OF OTHER SOCIETIES.
THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
The Bakerian Lecture was delivered on June 3 by
Sir E. Rutherford on " Nuclear Constitution of the
Atom." Earlier experiments having indicated
that the passage of a-particles through pure nitro-
gen caused the liberation of long-range particles
resembling hydrogen, the nature of the latter was
further examined by studying their deflection in
a magnetic field. The observations recorded are
held to establish definitely that hydrogen is one of
the disintegration products of atmospheric nitro-
gen, and that it is a constituent of the nitrogen
nucleus. It was also concluded that short-range
particles of atomic mass = 3, approx., are expelled
from the same nucleus, and independently of the
hydrogen ; they are also set free from oxygen, but
in this case no hydrogen is liberated. These new
atoms probably constitute an isotope of helium, the
structural difference being that they contain three
hydrogen nuclei and one connecting electron,
whereas the helium atom consists of four hydrogen
nuclei and two such electrons. Evidence was ob-
tained that the expulsion of the new atoms from
nitrogen and oxygen is accompanied by liberation
of energy.
ROYAL SOCIETY OF ARTS.
At the outset of his lecture on " The Oil Resources
of the British Empire," on June 4, Sir John
Cadman deplored the recent " newspaper chatter "
as to the imminence of British domination over
oil supply, and he adduced evidence to show that,
with the exception of India, there was nothing to
prevent foreigners taking part in the exploitation
of oilfields situated within the Empire. The United
States, upon which country we must long remain
dependent, produces 70 per cent, of the world's
output, and controls at least 80 per cent, of the
total" contribution of North America, including
Mexico, to the world's supply ; the British Empire
furnishes 2% per cent., or 4 J per cent, if Persia be
included. Although it is true that the United
States is absorbing more and more of its own
VoL XXXIX., No. 12.]
REVIEW.
215 b
.supply, and that consequently the surplus available
for export is dwindling, pessimistic reports con-
cerning rapid exhaustion of its reserves should be
received with caution.
The author then recalled the interesting facts
that the deposition of natural petroleum seems to be
associated with the tertiary and the carboniferous
horizons (when plant life thrived on the earth)t and
that of the known deposits 49'4 per cent, was pro-
duced from the former and 41'1 from the latter.
Having in view the enormous extent of these forma-
tions and how exceedingly little has been done in
prospecting for oil within them, any idea of a
permanent famine appears out of the question.
The following statistics were given relating to the
production, consumption, and importation of
petroleum and petroleum products in the British
Empire (tons) : —
Production of Natural Petroleum in 1918.
Production. 1918
(Tons).
United Kingdom
250.000
Canada
40.000
Trinidad
300.000
India
.. 1.150.000
Egypt
250.000
Australia 1
New Zealand f "
10.000
Sarawak
80.000
Total British Empire
. . 2,080.000
Persia
. . 1.500.000
World's Production
. . 70.000.000
Consumption and Production of Petroleum
Products.
Consumption.
Production.
1912
. . 4.212.000
1,421.000
1913..
. . 4,713.000
1.519.000
1914..
. . 5.467.000
1.503.000
1915..
.. 5,184.000
1.629.000
1917
. . 7.485.000
1,774,000
1918..
. . 9.038.000
1918.
2.078.000
Consumption.
Production
Great Britain
242.500
5.395.000
India
. . 1.146.000
1.292.00(1
Canada
43.500
1,717.000
Australia
10.300
110.000
New Zealand
600
67.000
South Africa
54.000
Egypt
263.000
424,000
Trinidad
291,000
112,000
Imports and Consumption of Petroleum Products
in 1918.
Imports of all petroleum products
to the United Kingdom.
Consumption in the
United Kingdom.
Origin.
Quantity
(tons).
Products.
Quantity
(tons).
United States of America
Dutch East Indies
British India
British West India Islands
Peraia
1.800.000
500.000
120.000
60,000
130.000
90.000
Crude oil
Kerosene
M.T. spirit
Lubricating oil.
Gas oil
Fuel oil
30,000
620.000
650.000
260.000
120.000
1.020.000
Total
2,700.000
Total
2,700.000
Then followed a brief review of the present
position in regard to oil supply in each aone o'f the
Empire, from which the following items are
selected : —
United Kingdom. — The results from the test well
at Hardstoft indicate a promising future for British
■oil. Canada. — There are great tracts of country
where the geological age and conditions favour
petroleum production. New Zealand. — The outlook
does not at the moment appear very hopeful.
British Honduras. — Indications of petroleum have
been reported, and the Government is considering
the question of carrying out a geological survey.
Nigeria. — The geological conditions as to age and
structure are promising. SomalUand. — Indications
of oil have been met with, and examination of the
territory is imminent. Sarawak. — The present
production {cf. s.) should be considerably increased
when the material necessary for development can be
got to the fields. British North Borneo. — It is be-
lieved that promising fields exist. Persia. — The
potential source of this area is prodigious, and a
very large output may be expected. Cyprus. — It
seems doubtful whether oil in commercial quantities
will be discovered. Malta. — There are rocks of
suitable age and structure, and it is probable that
test drilling will be undertaken. Mesopotamia. —
Very little is definitely known of the prospects,
although the geological conditions are believed to
be similar to those of Persia. As the Government
is now considering claims and proposals, further
remarks would be inopportune. Palestine. — Sur-
face indications have been found, and testing opera-
tions will probably be undertaken at an early date.
The paper concluded with a brief historical sketch
of the development of the petroleum industry.
THE CHEMICAL SOCIETY.
The lecture room at Burlington House, W.,
having proved to be entirely inadequate to accom-
modate the large audiences which attend the lec-
tures, that on Helium, by Prof. J. R. McLellan, on
June 17, was held in the lecture theatre of the In-
stitution of Mechanical Engineers, by the courtesy
of its Council. Sir J. J. Dobbie presided over an
audience of nearly 250 and announced that the
Emil Fischer Memorial Lecture would be given by
Dr. M. O. Forster on October 21 next. He also
made an appeal to British chemists to send dona-
tions (by July 31 at latest) in support of the
memorial being raised bv their French colleagues to
the memory of C. F. Gerhardt (1816—1856), the
well-known French chemist.
The subject matter of the lecture included data
concerning the occurrence and content of helium in
natural gas within the Empire, more particularly
in Canada ; the designs of the modifications of the
Claude plant and process utilised, together with
yields and possible applications. Prof. McLellan's
latest experiments show that it is practicable to
isolate on a commercial scale helium of 97 per cent,
purity from the natural gas at Hamilton, Ontario,
at a cost of less than 2^d. per cubic foot at
Hamilton A fuller account of the lecture will be
given in these columns in due course.
Sir Richard Threlfall, who spoke on the vote of
thanks to the lecturer, stated that his suggestion
to use helium in airships was communicated to the
Admiralty as early as October, 1914, and that he
was lead thereto by press notices to the effect that
the Germans were contemplating the use of an
uninflammable gas. A search into the literature,
especially into the investigations of Prof. C.
Moureu on the dissolved gases in the springs of
France, enabled him to show that the use of
helium by the Germans was improbable, and then
to present in outline a definite scheme of large-
scale production from natural gas at Fredonia,
Kansas, U.S.A., where the gas was known to be
comparatively rich in helium. After a very full
investigation, the Admiralty decided, in August.
1915, not to proceed with the scheme, but when
America came in, all the information which had
accumulated was passed on to that country.
At the meeting held on June 24 no definite de-
cision was reached concerning the proposed increase
in subscription.
[Jsne 30, 1920.
FARADAY SOCIETY.
At a meeting held on June 14, in the rooms of
the Chemical Society, Prof. A. AV. Porter presiding,
various papers, dealing mainly with electrical con-
ductivity, were read. The first of these, by Dr.
A. Fleck and Mr. T. Wallace, dealt with the con-
duction of electricity through fused sodium hydrate.
The resistance was measured between two elec-
trodes immersed in a bath, of 4 ft. diameter,
containing about a ton of the alkali. The chief
results obtained were: — 1. That as the distance
between the electrodes is increased, the resistance
increases until a maximum value is reached, after
which it remains constant. 2. The rate of change
of resistance between 320° and 480° C. is 0T02
pier cent, fall per 1° C. rise in temperature. 3. The
decomposition voltage at 320° C. is 2332 and the
temperature co-efficient is 2'25xl0~3 for each 1° C.
rise in temperature. In the discussion which fol-
lowed, the method adopted for measuring the resists
ance was criticised by some of the speakers.
A paper by Dr. H. F. Haworth on " The
Measurement of Electrolytic Resistance using
Alternating Currents" followed. The method
described consists in the use of a bridge in one arm
of which is placed the cell containing the electrolyte
(which may be regarded as a resistance in series
with a capacity) and a variable self-induction in
series with it. The adjacent arm contains a vari-
able resistance and another self-induction. The
bridge is supplied with sinusoidal alternating cur-
rent of a known (and variable) frequency and the
balance is read on a vibration galvanometer. The
balance is first obtained with the cell short-
circuited and again after the cell has been intro-
duced, and from the results the resistance and
capacity are calculated. With increase of frequency
a decrease in the apparent resistance of the cell
is found, and by plotting the impedence of the cell
for a number of different frequencies, the true
resistance (i.e., the resistance at infinite frequency)
can be found.
The third paper was one on " The Measurement
of Electrical Conductivity of Metals and Alloy6 at
High Temperature," by Mr. J. L. Haughton, and
consisted mainly of a description of an apparatus
designed for this purpose. The principle on which
the apparatus works is the comparison of the volt-
age drop along tho specimen with that along a
standard resistance, the same current flowing in
both ; the specimen is placed in a special type of
furnace designed to ensure uniformity of tempera-
ture.
A short note of Miss N. Hosali introduced a series
of 24 very beautiful models illustrating crystalline
form and symmetry. These models are built up of
steel wires and silk threads coloured so as to repre-
sent the different axes and planes of symmetry.
The 24 models exhibited represent about 140
different crystal forms.
In addition to these papers several others were
taken as read. Amongst these may be mentioned
one on " The Theory of Electro-chemical Chlorate
and Perchlorate Formation " by Messrs. N. V. S.
Knihbs and H. Palfreeman. This paper described
the results of the measurement of the conductivities
of solutions of chlorate, chloride, perchlorate, and
of mixed chlorate, perchlorate, and chlorate, the
velocity constants of the reaction, and the resistance
and potential effects in technical cells.
Mr. F. H. Jeffery's paper describes some experi-
ments on the electrolysis of solutions of sodium
nitrate, using a copper anode. He concludes that
the following reactions take place at the anode: —
(1) The cupiic anion Cu(N02) is formed. (2) This
is decomposed by the water present, giving
CiKNO^CuO and 'nitrous acid. (3) The undisso-
ciated portion of the nitrous acid decomposes,
giving rise to nitric acid and nitric oxide.
Other papers contributed were " The Sorption
of Iodine by Carbon," by Mr. J. B. Firth, and
" The Pressure Variation of the Equilibrium
Constant in Dilute Solution," by Mr. A. M.
Williams.
PERSONALIA.
Mr. Julian Baker, chairman of the London
Section of this Society, has been appointed to the
editorship of the Journal of the Institute of Brew-
ing, vacant by the resignation of Prof. A. R. Ling.
Dr. T. Slater Price has been appointed director
of research to the British Photographic Research
Association.
The chair of organic chemistry in the University
of Liverpool has been filled by the appointment of
Prof. I. M. Heilbron, now professor of organic
chemistry at the Royal Technical College, Glasgow.
Mr. H. Richardson, of the Municipal College of
Technology, Manchester, has succeeded Prof. W. M.
Gardner as principal of the Bradford Technical
College.
The Council of the Roval Society of Arts hag
awarded the Albert Medal for 1920 to Prof. A. A.
Michelson, professor of physics in the University of
Chicago, and who received the Nobel prize for
physics in 1907.
Dr. Benjamin Moore, of Queen's University
Ireland, and formerly professor of biochemistry in
the University of Liverpool, has been appointed
first professor of biochemistry in the University of
Oxford.
At Sheffield University, Dr. W. E. S. Turner, who
has been in charge of the new department of glass
technology, has been elected to the recently created
chair of glass technology ; and Dr. Mellanby,
professor of physiology in the University of London,
has been appointed to the new chair of
pharmacology.
The following decorations have been conferred
upon British chemists for valuable services rendered
during the war: — By the King of Italy: Officers
of the Order of St. Maurice and St. Lazarus — Dr.
T. M. Lowry, Prof. P. F. Frankland. By the
King of the Belgians : Officer of the Order of the
Crown — Dr. E. J. Russell; Commander — Dr. W. R.
Dunstan.
Prof. Marston T. Bogert, president of this
Society in 1912-13, has been elected president of
the New York Section of the Societe de Chimie
Industrielle for the ensuing year.
The Chandler Medal of the American Chemical
Society has been presented to Dr. W. R. AVhitney,
director of research to the General Electric Co. at
Schenectady, formerly professor in the Mas-
sachusetts Institute of Technology.
Mr. Van H. Manning, whose resignation as
director of the United States Bureau of Mines was
recently announced, has been appointed director
of the newly-organised Bureau of Statistics and
Research of the American Petroleum Institute.
Dr. A. Kirpal has been appointed professor of
chemistry in the German University at Prague.
Prof. F. Haber, director of the Kaiser-Wilhelm
Institute for Physical and Electro-chemistry, is te
succeed the late Emil Fischer at Berlin University.
Dr. Haber has intimated his acceptance of this pro-
fessorship subject to being allowed to retain his
present position, and it is therefore proposed to
elect a second ordinary professor of chemistry.
VoLXSXlX.,No.l2.]
217r
NEWS AND NOTES.
FRANCE.
Industrial Notes. — Metallurgy. — In spite of the
many difficulties which have lately handicapped pro-
duction, it seems as if maximum prices have at last
been reached ; although demand exceeds supply,
prices have to be lowered to enable any business to
be done. The decline in the prices of metals extends
practically to all except aluminium, which remains
firm at 10.500 francs per ton:
It was stated some time ago in German papers
that France had undertaken to supply Germany
with 200.000 tons of iron ore for each of the months
of May and June. This promise was, indeed, made;
but on the clear understanding that Germany should
send fuel in return, and especially metallurgical
coke. As Germany has not yet fulfilled her obliga-
tions to the extent stipulated in the Peace Treaty,
it is hardly likely that the importation of iron ore
into that country will exceed 50,000 tons for May.
Cool. — The production of coal during April.
1,762,000 tons, against 1,451,506 tons in March, is
still much below normal. German coal is arriving
at the rate of 1,000,000 tons a month, which is a
great improvement. American coal comes in at the
rate of 180,000 tons a month, and there are strong
reasons to hope that before long this figure will be
brought to 300,000 tons. Never has the British ex-
portation of coal reached such a low level. It is
estimated that the total for 1920 will be about
30 million tons below that for 1919.
The Chemical Market. — The great unsteadiness
of prices in the chemical market is reacting strongly
on the development of chemical industry since high
cost of raw material leads to the use of cheaper
substitutes, and the introduction of these often
entails radical changes in both processes and plant.
The situation is made worse by the wastage and
absence of method noticeable in many works, and
in many cases the quality of the manufacture is
sacrificed to the imperative need for increased pro-
duction. However, these obstacles are gradually
being overcome by the combination of. the leading
chemical firms which realise more and more that
co-operation is the keynote of progress.
There is a great demand for acetic acid, sulphuric
acid, and formaldehyde, the 40 per cent, solution of
the last-named being unobtainable even at 20 fr.
per kg. Tartaric and citric acids, owing to the
" dry " policy in the United States, are very scarce,
and offers of 25 — 26 fr. per kg. and 30 fr. per kg.,
respectively, have been made. Mineral colours are
also in great demand. The price of mercury has
gone up to 37 — 38 fr. per kg. ; the demand has much
increased owing to its use in the synthetic produc-
tion of alcohol and acetic acid. Potassium salts are
rare, and the carbonate is barely obtainable at
750—800 fr. per quintal, which is a serious matter
for glass manufacturers.
Transport.- — The Government Bill for the re-
organisation of the French railway system provides
for the establishment of a supreme council, com-
posed of representatives of the State, of the rail-
ways, and of commerce and industry, to co-ordinate
the work of the companies in the national interest;
at the same time the autonomy of the individual
companies is to be preserved, thereby ensuring
healthy competition. Financial resources are to be
pooled. The staffs of the companies will be re-
presented on the council and will be granted a
bonus on profits. The Bill also provides for the de-
velopment and increased efficiency of the rolling
stock, and for the interconnexion of railway lines
with ports, waterways and canals.
Cotton. — Active steps r.re being taken to develop,
cotton growing in the colonies. Cilicia, now under
French control, seems a promising field, as its cli-
mate is like that of Egypt, and, it is stated, an
area of SOO.000 hectares (1.876.000 acres) is avail-
able for cotton growing, the probable yield being
about 200,000 tons of cotton, which would almost
meet the present consumption — 250,000 tons.
The Olive Oil Industry.— Since the war the olive oil
industry in the South of France has extended con-
siderably, but has not yet attained the position it
held in 1913, although at that time it was declining
owing to the low price of the oil. The production
of oil in 1913, 1917, and 1919 was 135,000, 280,000,
and 68,000 hectolitres, respectively, the low return
in 1919 being due to unfavourable weather condi-
tions. The enormous increase in the value of olive
oil has given a new impetus to the industry, and
the improved methods of cultivation and crush-
ing now employed should lead to increased crops.
The home supply of olive oil is very greatly
below French needs. Normally about 1} million
quintals (150,000 m. tons) is consumed annually,
and in 1919 only 4i per cent, of this was forth-
coming. The general shortage of edible oils in
France is due to difficulties in importing oil-seeds
from abroad, to the impossibility of importing olive
oil from Italy, Tunis, Algiers, and Spain, and to
diminishing production at home, the area under
these seeds in 1917 being but one-quarter of that
prior to the war. In view of the present value
of olive oil many new mills with improved crushing
machinery are springing up in the olive districts,
but there is no prospect of any being available for
exportation. The " olive " oil exported in the past
was rarely, if ever, pure Provence olive oil. but a
mixture of French and foreign olive oils. — (Bd. of
Trade J., May 13, 1920.)
Resources of Senegal. — The chief agricultural pro-
duct of Senegal is groundnuts, which has been ex-
ported since 1840, the shipment in 1915 reaching
306,221 tons. The cultivation of this crop, the
best varieties of which are grown in the Cayor
district, is extending as means of communication
improve. Among other crops the oil palm grows
fairly abundantly in Kazamanza and to the north
of the peninsula of Cape Verde, and there are a few
coconut plantations near St. Louis. The castor-
oil plant is grown all over the colony, and gives a
good yield of oil. After groundnuts, gum arabic is
the next most important product, with an export,
in 1919, of 250,000 kg. Wax. rubber, food plants,
e.y., rice, millet, manioc, are also produced. — (Rev.
Prod. Ohim., Mar. 31, 1920.)
UNITED STATES.
American Chemical Society. — On May 10 the Society
granted a charter to a new section to be known as
the Savannah Section, with headquarters in
Savannah, Georgia, U.S.A. The first president is
Mr. J. J. MeManus, and the secretary-treasurer,
.Mr. Herbert P. Strack.
At a meeting of the New York Section on June 11,
a simplified form of boiling-point apparatus, or
ebullioscope, was described which is specially de-
signed for the use of brewers, who must now pro-
duce malt drinks containing less than 0'5 per cent,
of alcohol. Although it is possible to prepare
beverages made from grain with less than this per-
centage of alcohol, the practice generally followed
is to make them with 2-3 per cent, and then to re-
move the excess of alcohol' by running the liquid
over a hot surface in a thin stream or sheet, or to
heat the liquid in a vacuum. In most cases the
excess alcohol is wasted, as recovery is expensive.
A simple cryoscopie apparatus for the rapid testing
of milk was described by Dr. J. Hortvet, of the
Minnesota State Dairy, which is based on the fact
that watered milk has a different freezing point to
pure milk.
218 r
REVIEW.
[June 30, 1920.
Degumming of Silk. — A process of degumming silk
has been devised by which the raw material is sub-
mersed under a pressure of 71b. for 30 minutes in
distilled water containing a small amount of am-
monia, borax, caustic soda, soda ash, or other
alkali. The use of soap is obviated and the treated
silk has a normal lustre.
Improvement in Cement Manufacture. — An American
patent has been granted for an improvement in the
wet process of manufacturing Portland cement,
whereby a material which will prevent objectionable
setting' in the slurry is introduced. Such a
material, for instance, 025 per cent, of sugar, is de-
stroyed during calcination.
Surface Treatment of Concrete Floors. — It has been
found that such compounds as magnesium fluosili-
cate, sodium silicate, and zinc sulphate give fairly
satisfactory results when used for treating the sur-
face of concrete floors to prevent excessive dusting.
Treatment with aluminium sulphate has given a
floor which remains in satisfactory condition after
nine months of wear.
Rendering Pyroxylin less Inflammable. — A patent
has been granted for a new process to decrease the
inflammability of pyroxylin. The commercial
article is dissolved in methyl alcohol containing 5 per
cent, of acetone ; the solution is then diluted with
carbon tetrachloride and chlorinated in the pre-
sence of a carrier, such as zinc or tin chloride, until
five to eight per cent, by weight of chlorine has been
absorbed. The solution may then be evaporated
and the chlorinated pyroxylin washed, neutralised,
and dried in the usual manner.
CANADA.
Metallurgy in British Columbia. — The Consolidated
Mining and Smelting Co. is increasing the capacity
of its refinery from 20 to 50 tons of copper per day in
order to treat tho output of the Canada Copper
Corporation's smelters at Allenby, which is ex-
pected to be 130 tons of concentrates (with a copper
content of about 25 per cent.) per day. A rod mill
is also being installed at Trail at a cost of about
$200,000. In the past Canada imported practically
all its bar and rod copper from the United States,
the importation in 1918 reaching 14,796,200 lb.,
valued at 13,787,521; with the new rod mill in
operation a large proportion of the rod copper used
should bo produced in Canada. Plans for the new
concentrator for the Consolidated Co. to treat the
copper-gold-silver ores from the company's Rossland
mine are being pushed on with the utmost speed.
At the Dolly Varden Mine, at Alice Arm, B.C., un-
usually rich silver ore, carrying heavy plate silver,
has been struck. About 2i tons of this ore is being
produced daily and sent to the Selby Smelter on
San Francisco Bay.
Chemical Products, Ltd. — Trenton, Ontario, will
soon become one of the largest centres of chemical
industry in Canada, as a new organisation, known
as Chemical Products, Ltd., has bought the plant
formerly owned by the British Chemicals, Ltd.,
which was operated by the Imperial Munitions
Board during the war for the manufacture of ex-
plosives, etc. The property comprises 255 acres,
bounded on three sides by main lines of the three
chief railways, and on the fourth side by the Trent
River and Trent River Valley Canal. As Trenton
(population 7,000) is also located at the head of the
Bay of Quinte, the plant is well situated both for
water and rail transportation. Chemical Products,
Ltd.. has been recently formed to succeed the
Chemical Products of Canada, Ltd., organised in
1916, which produces aspirin, phenacetin, etc., at
Toronto. Manufacturing operations have already
commenced at Trenton, where the plant is being
laid out in four sections. In the first unit sulphuric
acid will be made, largely for the production of acid
phosphate for fertilisers, and nitric acid for general
purposes. Plant No. 2 will be devoted to the manu-
facture of refined sodium nitrate and magnesium
sulphate, plant No. 3 for salicylates and derivatives
and plant No. 4 for ammonia and coke-oven by-
products. Plant operations are in charge of Mr.
A. H. C. Heitman, who was the first to produce
aspirin on a commercial scale in Canada for the
Cott^A-Lap Co., at Walkerville, Ontario. The
Trenton Co. is capitalised at $2,000,000, and is pre-
pared to manufacture 75,000 tons of acid phosphate
per annum, utilising phosphate rock from Central
Ontario as raw material. The annual production
of the other products is estimated to be : Sulphuric
acid, 38,160 tons, sodium nitrate 6,000 tons, salicylic
acid 456,000 lb.,' and aspirin 1,080,000 lb.; a large
export trade is expected in all these products.
AUSTRALIA.
Iron Ore at Yampi Sound. — It is stated on the
authority of the State Mining Engineer (Mr.
A. Montgomery) of Western Australia that
enormous quantities of unusually pure iron ore
occur on Koolan and Cockatoo Islands at the
north-east side of the entrance to King's
Sound, and near Yampi Sound, which affords
a spacious, deep-water harbour. The deposits are
sedimentary beds of dense micaceous haematite, and
the outcrop at one part measures 130 — 140 ft.
across. If the "probable" ore below high-water
mark be taken into account, the estimated quantity
of 97,300,000 tons would have to be increased several
hundredfold, thus making the occurrence one
of the greatest in the world ; in addition large quan-
tities of alluvial ore could be dredged from the
harbour near the cliffs. The combination of a huge
iron-ore deposit of first-rate quality and workable
by quarrying, with a deep-water harbour where
ships could be loaded directly from the quarries, is
almost unique. The ore is very pure and free from
deleterious ingredients, both phosphorus and sul-
phur being well within the limits for high-class ores.
It is suggested that as much ore as possible should
be sent to the Eastern States of Australia for
smelting, as no coal suitable for this purpose has
been found in Western Australia, and coal should
be carried back to Yampi Sound as a return freight
and stored there for coaling ships coming for car-
goes of iron ore for the United Kingdom. The
deposits must be worked on a large scale to be pro-
fitable, and it is suggested that a combination of
iron and shipping interests in Great Britain would
be most likely to be successful in this respect. Cheap
shipment should go far to compensate for the cost
of the long voyage to British markets.
SOUTH AFRICA.
Industrial Notes. — Cement. — The African Portland
Cement Co., Ltd., is being floated for the purpose
of manufacturing portland cement at Port Eliza-
beth.
Transvaal Gold Output. — The following figures
relating to gold production have been issued by the
Chamber of Mines for the years 1919 and 1918
respectively : —Tons milled, 24,412.432 (25,267,302) ;
yield, £35,383,974 (£35,768.688); fine oz., 8,330,091
(8,420,659); total working cost per ton, 23s.
(21s. 8d.) ; total working profit per ton, 5s. 6d.
(lis. Id.); dividends, £6,075,765 (£5,237,633).
South-West African Mineral Output. — In South-
West Africa the diamond output for the year
ended March 31, 1919, was valued at £860,000, com-
pared with £833,953 for 1917, and £749,000 for
1918. Approximately 7500 tons of copper ore was
exported to complete contracts, after which export
was stopped. The quantity of ore available for
export at the end of March was approximately
150,000 tons. Five tin mines are working, two of
which were re-opened in October, 1918. Seventy-
four tons of tin was exported during 1918.
Vol. XXXIX., No. 12.]
REVIEW.
Leather and Tanning Industry. — The tanning
industry has been much extended. Four additional
factories have been opened at Port Elizabeth for
the manufacture of leather goods, and there are
extensions in the same direction at Oudtshoorn. A
new boot factory has been completed at Great Brak
River, where the output is rapidly increasing. There
is also a tannery and boot factory at Somerset East.
A boot factory at Bedford has commenced opera-,
tions in conjunction with the local tannery. The
tannery at Kingwilliamstown dealt with approxi-
mately 70,000 hides last year. The large military
contracts have ceased, and the factories are now
manufacturing for civil requirements. Leather
and leather goods valued at £39,158 were exported
during 1918, an increase of £4462 compared with
1917. and of £36,875 compared with 1913.— Official.
Agricultural Journal. — It is announced that the
Agricultural Journal of the. Union of South Africa,
the official organ of the Department of Agriculture,
n hich ceased publication after August, 1914, is
about to reappear under its old title, and will be
published monthly in two languages, commencing
April, 1920.
GENERAL.
Imperial Mineral Resources Bureau. — Dr. R. Selig-
man, who represents the Society of Chemical
Industry on the Aluminium, Magnesium, Potassium
and Sodium Technical Committee of the Imperial
Mineral Resources Bureau, has kindly supplied the
following notes relating to the work of the Com-
mittee: — As originally appointed, the Committee
consisted of Dr. J. W. Evans (chairman), Dr. Selig-
nian. Mr. M. Morrison, representing the Institute
of Metals, with Sir R. Redmayne, and Lord Morris
as e.c officio members. The first step was to add ten
new names to the list of members, including several
well-known in chemical industry. In order to prevent
overlapping the Governors of the Bureau have de-
cided that potash should be transferred from this
Committee to the Chemical Industries Committee,
and the members of the Aluminium Committee ap-
pointed to deal with potash have been co-opted on
the Chemical Industries Committee for this special
purpose. The main work done by the Aluminium
Committee to date has been the consideration of
the development of the important bauxite deposits
in British Guiana. It has examined the proposals
of the Government for opening up these deposits,
and has made recommendations with a view to
securing the interests of British chemical industry
as well as those of the firms interested in the manu-
facture of aluminium. The meetings of the Com-
mittee have been suspended for several months
pending the collection by the officials of information
and statistics dealing with the subjects which come
within the Committee's purview. The meetings are
to be resumed shortly.
Sugar Research. — The British Empire Sugar Re-
search Association has appointed a sub-committee,
consisting of Prof. A. R. Ling (convener). Prof. T.
Grav. and Messrs. W. Douglas, Hugh Main, James
Ogilvie, and L. J. de Whalley, with power to co-opt,
"to consider and advise on the question of the
normal weight of sugar to be used for the quartz
compensating polarimeter in use for technical sugar
work." All chemists interested in this question
should apply to the secretary of the Association,
Mr. G. W. Giffard, at 5—7, Old Queen Street,
S.W. 1. for a memorandum drawn up by the sub-
committee.
Research Association for the Iron Trade. — Steps have
been taken by the Institution of British Foundry-
men to form a Research Association for the gray
and malleable cast iron trades under the auspices
of the Government Department of Scientific and
Industrial Research. It is proposed to have the
offices and laboratories (the latter now existing)
with bureau of information in Birmingham, and
Mr. T. Vickers, secretary of the Metallurgical
Society, has been appointed technical organiser.
There are 2800 foundries in Great Britain, of
which 285 are in Scotland and 50 in Ireland. In
the .Midlands there are 828, and Birmingham has
the most foundries of any English town, viz., 118.
Yorkshire has the largest number of any county —
415. Labour is supporting the iron-founding re-
search scheme, for it is generally felt that the in-
dustry is much in need of scientific assistance.
The Spitzbergen Treaty. — The treaty regulating the
status of Spitzbergen and conferring the sover-
eignty on Norway has been drawn up, and the
Powers concerned (United States, British Empire,
Denmark, France, Italy, Japan, Norway, Nether-
lands, and Sweden) have notified their agreement
to its terms. The treaty provides, inter alia, that
the nationals of all the High Contracting Parties
shall have equal liberty of access and entry to the
archipelago and may carry on there without im-
pediment all maritime, industrial, mining, and
commercial operations on a footing of absolute
equality. In addition, Norway undertakes to grant
equality of treatment with regard to methods of
acquisition, enjoyment, and exercise of the right of
ownership of property, including mineral rights, to
provide mining regulations that exclude any privi-
leges, monopolies, or favours for the benefit of the
State or the nationals of any one of the High Con-
tracting Parties, including Norway. The Nor-
wegian Government can levy an export duty not ex-
ceeding 1 per cent, of the maximum value of
minerals exported up to 100,000 tons, beyond which
figure the duty will be proportionately diminished.
— (Bd. of Trade J., Apr. 29, 1920.)
The Bohemian Glass Industry The glass factories
are now overwhelmed with orders, partly on
account of the conditions of exchange and partly
owing to the large business which resulted from the
fairs at Leipzig and Lyons. In trade circles, how-
ever, the opinion is held that after two years of
such activity over-production is bound to follow.
Japan is to be regarded as a dangerous competitor;
in 1914 that country had 463 glass factories and
about 9000 workers, in 1917 there were 832 factories
and 17,000 workers. In consequence of this com-
petition, the Indian and most of the markets in
the Near East are probably lost for good. New
works have been erected in Belgium, the Ukraine,
Rumania and Poland, and in north-west Bohemia
alone 19 large new companies have recently been
founded. All these facte point to a quick reaction
for the local glass industry. — (Z. angeiv. Chem.,
Apr. 20, 1920.)
Chemical Industry in Hungary. — The Hungarian
sugar industry, which before the war exported con-
siderable quantities of sugar cane, now barely pro-
duces more than 8 per cent, of the home require-
ments. Owing to high prices manufacturers of
spirits are likely to offer higher prices for sugar
beets than the sugar manufacturers can, unless the
Government prohibits the sale of roots for the pur-
pose of manufacturing spirits. The shortage of
leather is being acutely felt and prices are high.
Before the debacle in 1918, Hungary was very
nearly independent of outside sources of supply of
chemicals, but the partition of the country has de-
prived it of its largest and most important chemical
works. At the present time, it is stated, the fol-
lowing branches would be able to supply the
country's needs were the necessary raw materials
available : Artificial fertilisers, vegetable and
mineral oils, fats, rubber, starch, alcohol, pharma-
ceutical products, and dyes. To ensure the pro-
vision of adequate supplies of raw materials it is
suggested that agreements should be concluded to
this end with other countries, particularly w'th
German Austria; that agriculture must be resusci-
and that chemical works should be granted
facilities by the State in respect of supplies of
alcohol. At the present time the provision _ of
chemical applies of all kinds is rendered almost im-
possible by prohibitive prices doe to profiteering. —
-:ii>/iU!eum. Apr. 7. Hay. 13. 1920.)
Proposed Changes in tie '•Mihtar-Versacksanu.'— A
Bill has been introduced into the German National
ly to authorise the conversion of thi
suchsamt " Experimental Si
into a " Chemikalisch-Technische Beichsamalt "
of Technical Chemistry
has been engaged for the past 30
years on work in applied physics and chemistry, in-
cluding mechanical and metallurgical technique,
and in its new form it is proposed to charge it with
investigations of raw materials, researches on
problems of general industrial importance, investi-
gations into the prevention of accidents, fire and
explosions., and the protection of the work-
addition, the Institute will be associated wzt
tain Government Departments dealing with the
utilisation or destruction of munitions of -
Any work to be undertaken will be limited to that
not alreadv covered bv other technical institutions.
(Che - y30.)
•>■■!■■■ Ma— farfre in Norway. — The a1ii»i»i«
works of the Hoyangsaldens Norsk Aluminium Co. .
which has hitherto manufactured electrodes and
carbide, is reported to have started the production
of aluminium and to have already marketed sons of
its products. As the supply of calcined day from
the French-owned works at Hoyangen is still very
unsatisfactory, owing to fuel and transport diro-
culries, the Hoyangen company has acquired a
." .-..--. - .:.- .' - : .:'- A: -.-..' \ .: i :: :■ -it -\>-~-
that high-grade ore win shortly be available. The
-:--:.: :-: - :: I'.zzz.-.: .r.. :r.;.-.- :- ; i-' >:
-•2. per lb. at normal exchange).
— 1 ._
Toe Narvik Inn W«rks X«rwayW — The question of
-.'.-.-- :r-^::::z :: -. -_:- j: * -;::•:::-; :r:~ :~£
; rks . which was postponed by the Storthing
ear, is still under discussion, and thi
wegian Ministry of Industry now proposes to give
the State subsidy to one large plant as Xarvik. the
contribution to be in she form of a guarantee for a
man of 16 »">K«i» kroner, representing half the
working capital of the company -krone = Is. lid. i.
V - X - -■ ■ .-: -: - - - :. ?. .:. - V. . .s s ■ .
:'■. --.-.~- . ::. :~ : :- - - r - -: tt: -: v - : : -
:r. ;-y.--: ::::- : : ".-.- ■ > :.;r_ s : : : : it .."
tons of pig iron. 125,000 tons of steel billets -
tons of phosphate, and 95.000 tons of roOing pro-
dacss is aimed at. Pig iron wiD be prod- s
sr^r.lAri -.-■-. '■ ■.;; -.z;._-.r.-r- :■.•--;::*£ :vt. ;--
-.r.i r;"...r._: z- -:. :- . .--■ -;->- > -~\'. r'.zz-iz :;-
"
Kingdom, and wiD .aportance in the
;-:-;!;:r;-: ::' r. :--':.•: z- N : — --■ - Z
J .. May 13. 1930.)
l»»ari«a »i the Sweats* Fat Incustr*. — The produc-
tion of stearin has apparently arrived at a
stationary stage, that of glycerin is in excess of the
demand, and that of oleic acid below h. The manu-
facture of glycerin in Sweden has much increased
of late, bat it is doubtful if an export trade wiD
The prospect* of the margarine industry
continue unfavourable: in 1919. owing to the fall-
ing oaf of the home demand, she production was
barely one-half of that at the end of the war. The
- ::: :-- ;:' jc.lv ■.:.:•::.:■ ::'i -; - ;--•'-:
-- v.irfv: ;. :... ;-.;.;:-.•:: --.-.-:-.: :>.-; .•.:■.•::;•'
the total capacity output being same in at to supply
a population of 30 millions. Hence the plants are
: " " :-k-.-i : .-. ■•; :'-•■;''*. tV-I ..■:: :y and
".■■>-:•.:: •-:- ■-. _ ~ :.-: v .■ >: ;: -':..:;: ;-
predating fabricating oil, fidi crl. ete., many of
which were started during the war, k ah» in rrrnm
of requirement*. The future of this Sweduh in-
-
Apr. 16, 1930.)
The Carmne lamnlij in q»ainlma — The present
position of the Swiss carbide indmir* is very un-
favourable. Manufacture k for the most part at
a standstill and several works have been rhaon
i -. - - . ;_- ■.:-.. :::- - \ -. - ~* ■:.- i.A
demand. Foreign countries cawnof buy owing to
..- - : -z _- . -■-;-- zz:z~
-rbide is being sokfat 139 mk. per 100 kg.,
and the cost of eoal in Switzerland makes etna pt'ii
tioo impassible. France, too, has imputed an im-
port doty which amounts to 9000 — 2390 fr. per raaV
way wagon. The future appears very uncertain,
::'..: ~~ :..-::;- . ■■ : : -.::v^ ::::'.:j
. ... . . _....„...- - - - I" t-
facture will develop into a seaaonal one, i-£~ he re-
stricted to a few month* in the spring and summer.
: : • : : - •- • .— ; - i :i~ : . : r. .e
" - 1 ct. per kwJur. is not ake*y to he oeea
_ : --■-.:-... -r.-.—.-.i - _• ■■-T-.-r- ----_ ::
-:-- ----- -_-■::-.- -:^i
supply. It is puuiihh that a few tag «4ec£riehy
---::.£.-_- -; L-- ^- vjit ~ -.r. .: i :: .:-. ::"
electric-furnace products, using snrplns tuiieni at
_.. . . - .-:... -.-—-■•:
Jfar. 17, MOO.)
Ofiit OB friirnia m Sanm.— Becent crushing in
::•_.-: ." . _ -- - : : ; :: -t.-- - • ■-
. .-. : .-- :.. : • - l. z. ^- -.: ^.- :•_ : : _. .;
. : . I: _---:. ---. .-.;-.-_ --.-.■ ~. JH
: :z . .. .- -:_ :~ i-:..i\'.i ::.- ---..- r : —-
: - .-_• .. : :. i - :- • i -: - ---i Ir. -::-..:
::---: - ;- _ _ ::: v:z_i :-:r.,-" ;-...- :;
_ - - -r::. -.: ' 7. --- _-^i ;.; ; •-.:.- -_-. 1: i.
:■ ■ - " . . •- it :.- -• ;.-: :-...: 1 :: - . -
the dHpo^al of the Spanish Government an amount.
-■..-. - - - --- ::-. . t -.Li tr.:-r :: ■ ;■ : -;_
It is, however, impn-hihle to buy efl at thm ieure;
:---.--. " .-.l - - - - -7LZL-L-. -7 ■■ -.: - : 1:
- - - - ::.. r: vt:t i.— : - -: : :-
ikmistelt. The Government wffl shm llj teohhgml
- ' £ " _ - - --7- :t ::1t7 t: zi-l^ :: -■:--. :.r
to buy oil. which is a wnwiu to -the fipmiit
-■ ■■- - :.:-.:-..--- r l ' .TtTtxt::.:: :: :_r;
ofl in previous years was: 1914. 3. "
335.1(b: 1916.307.115: lr ...
metric tons- Fighrr per cent, of the nmdnHmn
• - .-.- i: ■ - - ■ " - v ••:■" L :.-
A: It
• of Tons. — Alia, which grows wild on the
L : I: t.:.. :. :..- ; t.:-::.:_7 i -;n .z-
.. - .- ... ___ ._ -. r . . _ ^__
. :aat a prodncaae of 3C«J-"X») tcass a year could
be obtained if it were cat annually (c/. J., 1938,
301 s '. Second only in importance to agricaltuie b
: : ----" ~ : ■ ' ' t : ■■- - - - - - _; -
.- - -:■ --'- £--.■:■_- --i -. ::.:: ~ - :-:-
_ ■ ■ •■:- ■ ::.• vt-t-" ■;
- .:■■ •---- ; ■■ •- : -- - — ." ; : :. •--.
: -.• -.-: -:• "-■•::■' i.vi.i -t ■---■:-■-.-- : •
i . ' ■ - - . - : - t - ' - : - " - ; : t es-; 1 :
- ■ ■-: ■ :-: ■ - ::; A _-: i" :.-:-:.-: - : .:z
-- -" — " " " ■?-: ■ - : l. i:~- Si-?-
. . _ . - . . .: . . . _. ...,...._.... .
uuworked. The mineral producsaen in 1917 ami
wr*'i- KM
:•" i> .
: ■
MM; ttga:»». 32.634. Tc^X-. The hum*
■
mostly shipped to the South of Irance for 1
- - - .;...-- - ■.; - - .. -i • - i,;
:- - .'- -:- — ;"»." : •: .-.:;. .";'..
M hi::
BKV E "■'
C*rfc Prmiucnon ami wjasuaj(rau.i
- -
-
•
-.•:'-'
E-
— -
Resources »f Smmiso In
■ iss in. very I _
- - _ -
VI "" _ : ■
-
-
mat^ii to ecu
' .' '
v _ -
-
■
Output ic vaamnav and Wiifrim Ones
I
-
■
-
-
-
:
Beet-Sagar Pi-wnction in Spain . --.-
reccrt lamed by rh-= ? - i ■ -~:n.- ii-.icr.--e;-
ti-r rr >i : ■ -. : —"—:_: - :- 22 :. - ::--:_:
"i- — .-.-.-" - " - -.- : ■- - 1 •> : I 1 •"_ :
.
----- : L 192
Cuba- - . . .
- - ■
- .
-
Resources at Cardenas. Caba. _
:
tion oi fcunmiuen reee
. . _ - . .
!
■
■
-
12 I
I
-
:
£7.7
I
"per
l— <r i - -
Coconnt and Coaane Production in Mexico. — The
"a :-".
-
I
■
Petreteam Deposits in Seugen. Argentina. —
_
-
:_ :cj:.i-i:^ _ "•■.:•:.•-.. a '1 z:' : ' -- -
: -: :r \z-i r . :- - ' :- - 7 .: . \ "-■: - ■
-
-
■
-
r
-
!
_
I
■
Caste -
-
-
-
-
£
Z
-
Mica Deposits in Sao Panto. Brazil. — 51
-
espor 1917
■• 2 - ' -
-"
[June 30, L920.
REPORT.
Report on the Trade of Canada and Newfound-
land, TOGETHER WITH DETAILED REPORTS ON THE
Trade of Ontario and Western Canada for
the Year 1919. By F. W. Field and L. B.
Beale, R.M. Trade Commissioners at Toronto
and Winnipeg respectively. Pp. 204. [Cmd.
720. Is. 6d.] London: H.M. Stationery
Office.
Production. — The production of nickel was main-
tained in 1919 at about half the rate for the last
war year, or slightly under the average rate for
the last three pre-war years ; copper production was
also considerably reduced. Gold and silver produc-
tion showed a decrease, largely owing to labour
troubles, and shipments of lead and zinc ore, ob-
tained chiefly from British Columbia, declined in
the early part of the year, recovering later on with
increased mining activity, but the output was
below that of recent years. Asbestos mining was
fairly steady throughout the year, but that of other
products, such as cobalt, molybdenite, chromite,
graphite, and magnesite felt the effects of the re-
stricted market. Coal production declined, though
the decreased output from Nova Scotia was com-
pensated by increased production in Alberta. The
competition of foreign coal and labour troubles were
largely responsible for the decreased output. The
estimated total value of the mineral production of
Canada in 1919 was $173,000,000, as against
$211,000,00 in 1918.
Notable expansion has taken place in the pulp
and paper industry ; the production of newsprint
paper was 561,911 short tons in the first nine
months of 1919, compared with 683,088 tons for the
whole of 1918; it is estimated that within ten years
the annual production of this paper will amount to
2 million tons. The textile industries of the
Dominion continue to progress, and although the
recently acquired export trade may not be retained
permanently, it is believed that the home market
is secure. The demand for explosives and other war
munitions aided the establishment of many large
chemical works in Canada, and the list of manu-
factures is continually increasing. The production
of soap shows a large increment in recent years,
and the output for 1919 is unofficially estimated
at about double that for 1915 ($6,445,939).
Export Trade. — A striking feature of the Cana-
dian export trade in recent years has been the in-
crease in the value of exported manufactured goods
as compared with the fiscal year 1913-14. This in-
crease was largely due to the export of munitions,
and the decline in the export of manufactures in
1918-19, as compared with the previous year, is
mainly accounted for by the return to peace condi-
tions. The total value of Canadian produce ex-
ported in 1918-19 was $1,216,443,806, and the de-
cline in value during the seven months to October
31, 1919, was about $19 millions from that of the
corresponding period of 1918. Notable increases
are recorded in exports of agricultural and animal
products, in wood, wood products, paper and manu-
factures thereof, and to a less extent in iron and
steel manufactures, which are an important factor
in the industrial situation ; but these gains were
more than offset by declines in ores, non-ferrous
metals and metallic products, and in chemicals and
chemical products. By means of Government
credits, trade missions, and various export trade
organisations, every effort is being made to increase
Canada's export trade, and prospects are held to be
promising.
Import Trade. — To a total value of imports
amounting to $916,429,335 (excluding specie), the
United Kingdom contributed $73,035,118, and the
United States $746,920,654. The Canadian Asso-
ciation of British Manufacturers and the British
Agents' Association of Canada look after British
trade interests in Canada, but it is pointed out that
United Kingdom exporters should pay much more
attention to advertising media, to the provision of
invoices satisfactory to the Customs Department, to
the appointment of suitable agents, and to catering
more closely for Canadian requirements. The ten-
dency of United States firms with trade connexions
in Canada is to establish separate units in that
country, and United Kingdom manufacturers
should carefully consider whether their agency
arrangements lor Canada should be treated as part
of their United States arrangements or not (c/. J.,
1920, 136 r). It is stated that there is no lack of
business if British manufacturers can accept orders
at reasonable prices and under satisfactory con-
ditions.
Iron and steel products, ranging from ores to
manufactures, constitute the most important group
of imports; in 1918-19 they were valued at
$161,000,000, of which the United Kingdom sup-
plied $6,000,000 worth ($151 millions came from
British sources in 1913-14), almost all the remainder
coming from the United States. Among clay pro-
ducts, British-made firebrick always had a high re-
putation, but at present the market is overstocked.
The British position in the earthenware and china-
ware trades is more satisfactory, although it is less
good in the glass trade, where the difficulty of
securing deliveries from the United Kingdom has
resulted in the loss of many orders. Practically all
the glass and glassware imported in 1919 came from
the United States. Various heavy chemicals,
formerly imported, will now probably be produced
in the Dominion. Acids were imported during the
first six months of the current fiscal year to the
value of $463,671, including $222,178 from the
United Kingdom, the rest being furnished by the
United States. The imports of drugs, medicinal
and pharmaceutical preparations during the same
period were valued at $1,900,000, of which the
United Kingdom furnished $522,000, or about half
the amount from the United States. Some of the
drugs, dyeing and tanning materials, imported
from the United States are re-exports of products
originating in the British Empire.
Ontario. — This Province produces 46 per cent, of
the mineral output of Canada and 30 per cent, of
the wool clip ; it is the centre of many industries
and takes about 55 per cent, of the Canadian im-
ports. In view of the growing pressure of
Japanese and other competition, a number of sug-
gestions embodying advice to United Kingdom ex-
porters is given. The general industrial condition
of Ontaro is good, but the production of nickel,
copper, iron pyrites, and other " war " minerals is
likely to be less both in quantity and value during
1919, for the reasons previously stated. The out-
put of silver has decreased, but that of gold has in-
creased, whilst the demand for nickel is expected to
become normal once the accumulated stocks in the
hands of the Allies have been absorbed. Molyb-
denite is not produced now, and the output of lead
is much smaller. The production of petroleum in
Ontario was 288,692 barrels in 1918, and the esti-
mated production for 1919 is about 238,000 barrels.
The area has large resources in timber and pulp-
wood, there being 125,000 sq. miles of forest lands,
with a production of 735,691 cords, valued
$7,430,355 (in 1917). The work of the Hydro-
Electric Power Commission of Ontario is making
rapid progress, the area now supplied with electric
power by the Commission being about 35,000 sq.
miles. Many United States companies have made
inquiries during the past year with regard to the
establishment of branch works in Ontario, espe-
cially in regard to engineering, electrical equip-
ment, chemical and other factories. The pulp and
paper industry has developed greatly during the
past ten years and is still growing rapidly ; the
Vol. XXXIX., No. 12.]
REVIEW.
total capital engaged exceeds $200,000,000, and the
value of the annual output is over $100,000,000.
In 1919 this industry ranked fourth in the list of
Canadian exports, with a value of pulp and paper
of $83,872,566 and pulpwood ¥15,386,000, being
surpassed only by foodstuffs, explosives, and pro-
visions. Up to the present Canada has made no
tinplate, some 50,000 tons of tinplates and 125,000
tons of black and galvanised sheets being imported ;
but in 1920 a Welsh company will make it in ex-
tensive branch works at Toronto. During the past
few years Japanese earthenware, china, etc., has
replaced the German and Austrian lines formerly
imported, but the demand for the British article is
excellent, although sufficient supplies cannot be
obtained. The dye trade is shared largely between
the United Kingdom and the United States, the
competition from the latter country being very
keen. There is a good demand for chemicals from
the United Kingdom in spite of competition from
Canadian and United States products. Cyanide,
soda ash, paints and colours are now manufactured
in Ontario, but there is a good outlook for druggists'
sundries, gelatins, and glues from the United King-
dom.
Western Provinces. — The mining industry of
Western Canada is developing greatly ; in 1919 its
contribution of $60,000,000 represented 40 per cent,
of the total Canadian production. British Columbia
produced minerals in 1919 valued as follows : Gold,
$3,217,000; silver, $3,871,000; coal, $11,786,000;
and copper $8,631,000; it contains the three largest
developed copper mines in the Empire, with a
potential production of 70 million lb. a year. The
establishment of an iron and steel industry near
Vancouver is contemplated. Coal is practically the
sole mineral produced by Alberta, the output for
1919 amounting to 4,750,000 tons. Lignite is pro-
duced in Saskatchewan, and an important mining
field, chiefly copper and gold, is being developed in
Manitoba. Petroleum is believed to exist in
Alberta and British Columbia; surveying and drill-
ing are now being carried out.
General. — A .report on the trade of Canada with
India shows a striking increase in the import
trade from the latter country— $4,133,847 in 1915
and $8,395,290 in 1919. Reports from Imperial
Trade Correspondents in Nova Scotia, New Bruns-
wick, Quebec, Alberta, British Columbia (Victoria
and Vancouver), and Newfoundland are also given.
The minerals and mineral products of Nova Scotia
were valued at $52,813,300, and consisted largely of
coal and iron and steel products. Approximately
9 million tons of coal could be made available each
year from the 1100 sq. miles of coal areas in this
province, and large developments in the lumber and
iron and steel industries are expected. In 1919 the
total value of the imports into Newfoundland was
$33,297,184, of which Great Britain furnished 72
per cent., the United States 49'8, and Canada 38' 4
per cent., as against 27'5. 34'8, and 32'6 per cent,
respectively in 1912-13. The local lumbering in-
dustry has been much stimulated by high prices,
and a new large coalfield opened recently in the
West Coast area is awaiting financial support to
commence operations. Appendices are devoted to
statistics of Canadian imports in 1914 and 1919, of
Canadian Government credits to certain European
countries, etc.
(Cf. J., Beview, 1919, pp. 232, 245, 254, 268, 299,
308, 329, 376, 417, 435; and 1920, pp. 36, 56, 112,
136, 147, 200.)
PARLIAMENTARY NEWS.
Corrigenda. — In the issue for June 15, p. 203 r,
col. ii., under "The Sugar Situation and Ger-
many." in the third and fourth columns of statis-
tics, the years should read 1918-19 and 1919-20,
respectively.
Also page 197 R, col. i., last line, in lieu of 35,
read 115.
HOUSE OF COMMONS.
Home Grown Sugar, Ltd.
Replying to Mr. C. White, Sir A. Boscawen
stated that the company known as Home Grown
Sugar, Ltd., was registered on February 13, 1920,
with a nominal capital of £1.000,000, divided into
one million ordinary shares of £1 each. The total
number of shares issued, all having been allotted for
cash, is 500,000, of which a maximum of 250,000
has been allotted to the Government, which has
guaranteed a dividend of 5 per cent, per annum on
the capital subscribed by the public up to 250,000
shares until March 31, 1930. After repayment to
the Ministry of Agriculture of any sum paid under
the guarantee, the directors may call upon him to
sell his shares upon payment of their full value,
plus a deferred dividend of 5 per cent, upon such
shares from the date of allotment. The directors,
other than the managing directors, are each paid
£300 per annum, and an additional £100 per annum
is paid to the chairman. The Government has no
voice in the appointment of the directors, but the
Minister of Agriculture can appoint a director of
the company to act as the Government's financial
representative (cf. J., 1920, 15 r). — (June 8.)
Coal Tar Products (Export Licences).
Mr. Bridgeman, answering Mr. Kiley; said that
applicants for export licences for certain coal tar
products are required to produce a certificate from
the actual manufacturers to the effect that the
goods in question can be exported without detri-
ment to domestic consumers. — (June 8.)
Employment of Women and Children in Factories.
The Women, Young Persons and Children (Em-
ployment) Bill was read a second time on June 10.
The provisions of the Bill contain three conventions
which were agreed to at the International Labour
Conference held at Washington in November, 1919
(cf. J., 1920, 4r), and relating respectively to the
prohibition of the employment of any child under
14 in any industrial establishment and to the night
work of young persons and of women employed in
industry. A provision, not included in the conven-
tions, is designed to permit the continuance of the
war-time practice of employing women and young
persons in shifts averaging eight hours daily on any
weekday other than Saturday between 6 a.m. and
10 p.m.
Dried Milk (Freightage).
In answer to Mr. A. Short, Sir E. Geddes said
that he was aware that the freightage charges on
dried milk exceed those on ordinary milk by 80 per
cent, for large and 130 per cent, for small consign-
ments; the present charges on particular commodi-
ties cannot be altered pending the report of the
Rates Advisory Committee. — (June 14.)
Fertiliser Shortage.
Sir A. Boscawen, in answer to Mr. Carew, 6aid
that the shortage of basic slag and other fertilisers
is primarily due to the greatly increased demand ;
supplies for the coming season were expected to
show a substantial increase. The Minister of Agri-
culture is taking every possible step to augment
supplies, and has recently appointed a committee
to consider improved methods of manufacture and
use of basic slag. Except in the case of potash, of
which there is now a world shortage, there is no
reason to expect a shortage of other fertilisers
during the coming season, provided that their ex-
port is still controlled, for which purpose a Bill is
I now before Parliament. — (June 14.)
REVIEW.
Sulphate of Ammonia (Export Restrictions).
Mr. Houston asked whether the restrictions on
the export of ammonium sulphate had had the
result of forcing the manufacturers of this article
for home consumption to form a ring or association,
thereby causing works which produce for export
to be closed down. Sir R. Home replied that the
export restrictions referred to were imposed at the
instance of the Ministry of Agriculture and are
administered by the Board of Trade in order to
ensure adequate quantities of fertilisers at reason-
able prices for home supply of agriculture. In
view of this arnd of the introduction of the
Fertilisers (Temporary Control of Export) Bill,
the question should be addressed to the Parlia-
mentary Secretary to the Board of Agriculture. —
(June 14.)
Gas Regulation Bill.
The second reading was passed, without amend-
ment, on June 8, and considered in Committee on
June 16. On the latter date, Mr. Bridgeman moved
a financial resolution relating to the proposed
appointment by the Board of Trade of a chief
examiner and three gas referees for the whole of
the country. It was proposed that the payment of
the necessary expenses and salaries of tEese officials
should be made by a levy on all the larger gas
undertakings, and that this should not exceed £15
for ever 100 million cb. ft. of gas made. Further,
that the Treasury should finance these payments
for the first two years, at the end of which the
expenditure should be repaid by the companies.
The question was put and agreed to.
Wood-distillation Factory, Ludlow.
Mr. Hope stated, in answer to Sir B. Stanier,
that the wood-distillation factory at Ludlow is one
of the group of five factories now advertised for
sale. The Btores at Ludlow consist of cordwood —
the raw material for the factory— and are reserved
for sale to the purchasers of the factories. —
(June 16.)
Export Duties on Tin.
In answer to Mr. Jesson, Mr. Bridgeman said
that export duties are imposed on tin ore and
smelted tin in the Federated and Unfederated
Malay States, but not in the Straits Settlements.
The duty on tin ore is reduced if a guarantee is
given that it will be smelted in the Straits Settle-
ments, Australia, or the United Kingdom. In
Nigeria there is a royalty on the export of tin, and
in Bolivia an export duty on tin ore. — (June 16.)
Re-export of Sugar.
Mr. MoCurdy, replying to Captain Rankin, said
that it was necessary to restrict the consumption of
sugar in the United Kingdom to about 1,100,000
tons a year ; free private exportation in excess of
this quantity would lead to enhanced world prices.
No disadvantage accrues to this country by per-
mitting the re-exportation of this sugar to other
countries in diminution of the amount which they
would otherwise require to import from elsewhere.
• — (June 16.)
Fertilisers (Temporary Control of Export) Bill.
In moving the second reading of this Bill (cf. J.,
1920, 186 k), Sir A. Boscawen said that it was purely
a temporary measure; the difference between the
export and trade prices of sulphate of ammonia
(£50 and £23 10s. per ton respectively) — the chief
fertiliser concerned — was such that unless the export
could be controlled there would undoubtedly be a
serious Shortage in this oountry, and 86 per cent,
of the trade had agreed to the terms of the Bill.
The present arrangement of securing equitable
distribution through a special department of the
Ministry of Agriculture would be upset at once if
unrestricted exportation were allowed. — (June 16.)
Gas Mantles (Foreign Competition).
Mr. Bridgeman informed Captain Bowyer that
the Government was fully alive to the importance of
this industry, and he hoped to be able to make a
statement concerning policy at an early date. —
(June 16.)
Nauru Island.
The second reading of the Nauru Island Agree-
ment Bill was moved by Col. Leslie Wilson on June
16. This island is said to possess the largest re-
serves of high-grade phosphate in the world, the
lowest estimate placing the quantity in sight at
80 to 100 million tons. The deposits were leased
from the German Government by the Pacific Phos-
phate Co., a British undertaking. As a result of
the war the Supreme Council has granted a man-
date for the island to the British Empire, and an
Empire syndicate has since bought out the com-
pany for £3,500,000. The present measure pro-
vides that the members of this syndicate shall have
first claim on the phosphate at cost price and in the
proportion of their contributions to the purchase
price, viz., Great Britain and Australia 42 per cent,
each, and New Zealand 16 per cent., and that the
surplus may be sold elsewhere at market rates. The
agreement applies also to the rights of the same
company in Ocean Island, where 15 million tons of
phosphate is estimated to exist.
A long debate followed, in which it was generally
conceded that the arrangement was satisfactory
from the business standpoint, but much opposition
was offered on the score that it was against the
principles of the League of Nations, one article of
which prescribes equality of opportunity in man-
dated territories for all members of the League.
The motion to reject the Bill was defeated by 217
votes to 77.
COMPANY NEWS.
BRUNNER, MOND AND CO., LTD.
The annual ordinary general meeting was held
in Liverpool on June 16. Mr. Roscoe Brunner,
chairman of directors, who presided, moved the
adoption of the report and accounts, the payment
of 7 per cent, on the preference shares and a divi-
dend at the rate of ll{ per cent, per annum on the
ordinary shares (10 per cent, in the previous year),
both less tax. The motion was subsequently
carried.
The balance sheet for the year ended March 31,
1920, shows a credit to profit and loss account of
£1,129,150, against £1,012,081 for the previous
year. There is a book profit of £2,100,000 on the
sale of the ordinary shares held in J. Crosfield and
Sons and W. Gossage and Sons, the purchase price
of which was £4,000,000. The assets have increased
by £2,250,000 and the cash position has improved
to the extent of over £500,000. The net profit was
£117,000 higher at £1,129,150. The company now
holds about 91 per cent, of the total capital of the
Castner-Kellner Co. (cf. J., 1920, 21 e), and 97.5
per cent, of the shares of the Electro-Bleach Co.
have recentlybeen acquired (cf. J., 1920, 98e, 136k).
In consequence of these transactions the issued
capital has been increased by £1,497,241, and now
stands at £10,967,621.
After referring to the services of the staff and to
the registration of Synthetic Ammonia and
Nitrates, Ltd. (cf. J., 1920, 209 e), the chairman
said that the prospects of trade would be bright if
supplies of fuel and raw materials could be assured,
and if the vicious cycle of increase in wages and
Tol. XXXIX., No. 12.]
increase in prices could be put an end to. The
diminished output of fuel per man might partly be
due to increased development work in the mines,
for this had ceased during the war, but the total
number of workers employed was now greater and
the total output less than before the war. The com-
petition between employees in different industries
to secure as much or more than their fellows in
other occupations was leading to chaos. The in-
creases in wages already given by the company
exceeded pre-war rates by 216.6 per cent, for the
lowest-paid day men and 22-5 per cent, for the
lowest-paid shift men. The trade unions represent-
ing the workers in chemical factories were now
demanding a further advance of £1 per week, and
if this were agreed to it would entail the dividend
on the company's ordinary shares being reduced to
4J per cent. There was a limit to the power of any
seller to raise prices, and if the dividend were
reduced to this extent the share values would fall
below par and new capital could not then be raised.
In his opinion the time had come for all employers
to say "No" to demands for advances in wages.
Sir John Brunner moved a resolution, seconded
by Mr. Robert Mond. authorising the directors to
distribute £100. 000 to such universities or other
institutions in the United Kingdom as they might
select for the furtherance of scientific education
and research. The resolution was opposed, and as
the voting by a show of hands was so even, the
chairman announced the withdrawal of the resolu-
tion, at the same time remarking that it was " a
desperately mean thing for a big company to do."
It is understood, however, that the matter will
be reopened at a later date, when the directors
hope to be able to bring the shareholders to their
point of view.
BRITISH GLASS INDUSTRIES, LTD.
At an extraordinary meeting held in London on
June 10, it was resolved to increase the capital of
the company to £5.000.000 by the creation of
3 million new shares of £1 each. Of- the new capital,
£2,100,000 represents the capitalisation of
£2,100,000 held by the company in cash which has
been derived from premiums on the issue of shares.
Existing shareholders are to be allotted three addi-
tional £1 shares for every two now held.
In his address, the chairman, Mr. C. W. Milne,
stated that the twenty-six separate organisations
owned or controlled by the company are earning
about £600,000 per annum in profits, and when ex-
tensions have been completed, and many are near-
ing completion, the approximate profits should be
at least £1,500,000. The present output of glass
bottles, containers, tumblers, etc., was at the rate
of 170 millions per annum, and this would be about
three times greater when the programme was com-
plete; the actual production of electric bulbs — 13
millions per annum — would be doubled before the
end of the Year (c/. J.. 1920, 64 r).
NEW PACCHA AND JAZPAMPA NITRATE
CO., LTD.
Dealing with the prospects of the current year
at the annual general meeting held on Afay 19, in
London, Mr. N. G. Burch, the chairman, said that
matters had greatly improved since September,
1919, and since then over 1 million tons had been
sold by the Association of Nitrate Producers at
improving prices. Inasmuch as the company's
stock had cost it over 9s. a quintal, the prices at
which the first large sales were made were not
profitable, and this fact, coupled with expenses
due to stoppage, explained the loss incurred during
the year. Work was resumed on the Jazpampa
maguina in March last, and provision had been
made for burning oil after the coal stock had been
exhausted. The company had large stocks on hand,
and it was hoped that the Paccha maquina would
restart production soon. Production costs and
railway freights had increased, labour was scarce,
and the export duty was very high. However,
ocean transport facilities had improved, and the
present price for nitrate was very favourable. In
regard to artificial nitrate production, the chairman
said that he thought it would be a long time before
the market for the Chilean material would be seri-
ously challenged by any form of synthetic product.
SAN LORENZO NITRATE CO., LTD.
The accounts of this company for the year ended
December 31, 1919, reflect the bad conditions, e.g.,
suspended output and loss on exchange, obtaining
in the nitrate trade during that period. The trad-
ing profit fell from £23,200 to £3500, and the net
result was a loss of £11,040, comparing with a net
profit of £15,600 in the previous year; no dividend
i- payable for 1919 (25 per cent., tax free, for 1918),
and the carry forward is reduced from £14,500 to
£3500.
In addressing the annual general meeting at
Liverpool, on May 27. the chairman, Mr. W. H.
Hasler, referred to the brighter prospects now
showing, chief among which, from the company's
point of view, was the very large amount of caliche
in sight. When the company was formed in 1902 it
was estimated that there were 6 million quintals
(quintal = 10142 lb.) in sight; since that time
5,462,457 q. had been produced, and it was now
estimated that 6J million q. remain. As the result
of investigations, it has been concluded that the
various claims which have been put forward con-
cerning improved methods of manufacture are un-
likely to be substantiated. Hence it has been de-
cided not to venture on a new system, but to modify
the existing plant, at an estimated cost of £50,000,
so that it could turn out 50,000 q. yearly.
LATTARO NITRATE CO., LTD.
Mr. H. A. Rau, who presided at the 32nd annual
meeting of the company on June 16, in London,
stated that between November, 1918, and Septem-
ber, 1919, the company was only able to sell 2000
tons of nitrate, but as neutral tonnage had become
available in the last three months of the latter
year, it was possible to show a gross trading profit
of £101,223, or about one-third of that made in
1918. The total gross profit for the year was
£150,254, and after deducting £49,503 for income
tax and French dues, £45.000 for excess profits
duty for 1918 and 1919, and £25,000 for amortisa-
tion, there was a net profit of £23,222 (capital
£550,000). The payment of a first and final divi-
dend of 16 per cent., free of tax, was proposed,
leaving, after allocating £40,000 for reserves and
contingencies, £66,587 to be carried forward, as
against £171.356 brought in. During the year
1919 the total exports from Chile did not exceed
911,000 tons, as compared with a normal pre-war
export of 3 million tons. With regard to the ques-
tion of synthetic nitrogen products and the future
of the industry, the chairman said that it could not
be concealed that the danger from this source must
be considered as existing already to a degree that
may eventually become very threatening. He then
urged the need for the Chilean Government to
modify the system of export duties and to regulate
these according to the price of nitrate; and also
for a better method of centralising sales than ob-
tains at present.
Boot's Pt-re Dure Co., Ltd. — It is reported from
America that the United Drug Co.. of that country,
has acquired a controlling interest in Boot's Pure
Drug Co., Ltd. The purchase price is stated to be
£1.500,000.
(June 30. 1920.
Xf.w Company. — Sand, Glass and Foundry
Materials (Amalgamated), Ltd. has been formed to
acquire and develop under one control and man-
agement a group of mineral deposits, the materials
derived from which are in great demand in the
glass, iron, steel and building trades. The minerals
and properties are mainly situated in South York-
shire, and have been favourablv reported upon bv
Prof. W. G. Fearnsides and Prof. P. G. H. Boswell.
The minerals, freehold, and plant to be taken over,
valued at £285.578. are being purchased for
£196.323, of which £100.000 is pavable in ordinarv
shares. The capital is £300.000 divided into
300,000 ordinary shares of £1 each, and the remain-
ing 200,000 shares are now offered for subscription
at par. It is stated in the prospectus that special
attention will be given to scientific research, and
that research and management will go hand-in-
hand.
OFFICIAL TRADE INTELLIGENCE.
(From the Board of Trade Journal for
■June 10 and 17.)
OPENINGS FOR BRITISH TRADE.
The following inquiries have been received at the
Department of Overseas Trade (Development and
Intelligence), 35, Old Queen Street. London. SAY. 1.
from firms, agents, or individuals who desire to
represent U.K. manufacturers or exporters of the
goods specified. British firms may obtain the names
and addresses of the persons or firms referred to by
applying to the Department and quoting the specific
reference number.
Locality of firm
MATERIALS.
Reference
or agent.
number.
Canada
Rubber
Steel tubing. cylinders~ior com-
pressed gas, brass, copper and
824
aluminium tubing *"-. .
830
Lithopone. barytes, litharge, glue
874
Chemicals . . . . . .
876
Steel sheets
878
Sanitary earthenware
880
Asbestos brake linings and pack-
ings
882
China, earthenware
885
Bottles
•
Malta '..
Candles, soap
835
Austria
Condensed milk, animal fats
836
Belgium
Oil varnish . . . .
Petroleum derivatives, essences,
palm oil. coconut oil. cod liver
839
842
Cod liver oil, essences
844
Denmark
Bricks, fireproof materials
848
Greece
Ciiemicals, leather
851
Italy
Chemicals, drugs, dyes, rosin.
mineral oils, benzine*
852
Machinery and requisites for the
897
Antifriction, bearing and babbitt
metals, alloys
893
Serb. Croat.SIovene
Catalogues of paper, leather, chc-
State
901
Spain
904
do. (Canary Isles)
Gl.issware, paper
855
Switzerland
;-
905
Algeria
Sulphates of copper, potash and
ammonia. .
860
Pharmaceutical products
861
Salts of potash and soda, bicar-
bonate of soda, iodides, quinine
907
908
Morocco
Candles, soap
China
'fumes
t
t'nited States
Planished steel sheets
S64
Argentina
Glass
912
Brazil
Chemicals, drugs, dyes
914
1 The High Commissioner for Canada. 19, Victoria Street, London
TARIFF. CUSTOMS. EXCISE.
Australia. — The Proclamation of October 15. 1919,
whereby the import of certain food containers was
prohibited, has been amended, and the prohibition
now extends to any package, container or appliance
used for manufacturing, keeping or holding moist
or liquid food substances.
Austria. — The rates of import duty have been
modified on, inter alia, alcoholic liquors (with some
exceptions), chicory, pyrites, coal tar oils of the
benzol series v.ith sp. gr. above 0'950, certain skins,
cement, iron and steel bars, rods and sheets, tin-
plate, calcium acetate and carbide, barium chloride,
and methyl alcohol.
Yellow and red lead, copper sulphate, war glue
and paper size pay duty again at the ordinary rates
Belgium. — It is proposed to amend the customs
duties by means of " coefficients of increase." and
to bring into force new rates of duty without await-
ing legislative sanction.
Canada. — The tariff regulations affecting the
Special AYar Revenue Act. 1915. effective from
May 19. are set out in the issue for June 17.
Among the articles affected are cut glassware,
patent medicines, spirits, essences, perfumes, wines,
and malt liquors.
Cyprus. — Under the new law which confers a
preference on the products of the Empire when im-
ported into Cyprus, dyes, matches, soap, china,
earthenware, and malt liquors pay duty at two-
thirds of the full rate
East African Protectorate. — The import duties on
potable distilled liquors have been increased.
Finland. — A licence tax and additional export
duties have been levied on. inter alia, timber, wood
pulp, paper, matches, tar, pitch, and on certain
hides and skins.
France. — As from May 22, the export and re-
export of petroleum, schist and other mineral oils
are prohibited.
Hungary. — Customs duties when paid in Hun-
garian paper money are subject to a surtax of 1900
kronen for every 100 kronen of such duty, as from
June 1.
Italy (New Territories). — The Italian customs
tariff is extended to the occupied territories of
Yenezia Giulia. and Yenezia Tridentina. Among
the articles subject to an additional manufacturing
surtax when imported into the occupied territories
are beer, spirits, sugar, glucose, gunpowder, seed
oils, acetic acid, and soap.
Lithuania. — Among the articles subject to export
duty are horsehair, bristles, certain oil-seeds,
cumin, soap, and wrapping paper.
Xetherlands. — Export prohibitions have been
temporarily raised from bone grease, artificial
fertilisers, ammonium nitrate, chalk, copper sul-
phate, copper oxide, cubic nitre, nitric oxide, nitre,
sulphates of lime, potash and ammonia, zinc
chloride, soft soap, soap powder, molasses, vaseline,
terpineol. terpene hydrate, and ana?sthenine.
Xetherlands (East Indies). — Export licences are
required for gold, silver, medicines, gunpowder,
cinchona bark, quinine and its salts.
Poland.— Compound pharmaceutical prepara-
tions, specifics, etc., may only be imported and sold
with the permission of the Ministry of Public
Health and under certain specified conditions.
Portugal. — Further regulations affecting imports
are given in the issue for June 10. Among the
articles affected are cast tin. tinplates. and textiles.
Sweden. — Export prohibitions hare been raised
as from May 12. from benzol oils, terpineol. safrol,
menthol, heliotropin. cumarin. musk and other un-
specified scented substances, natural or artifxial,
for use in the manufacture of perfumery.
Tunis. — Among the articles the import of which
is subject to special restrictions or prohibitions are
opium, spirits, sulphur, mineral oils, salt, saccharin,
compound medicines, and matches.
V«L XXTTX., Ho. 12.]
REVIEW.
TRADE NOTES.
FOREIGN.
The Soap Trade of Italy. — The Italian imports and
exports of soap are about equal; but, as there has
always been a shortage of tats in Italy, the raw
materials are imported and the finished products
exported. Of the raw materials, England and the
United States supply the caustic soda, Australia
and La Plata supply the coconut, sesame, arachis
and palm oils and animal fats, the United States
supplies the cottonseed oil, whilst the resins come
from France, Greece and Spain. In 1919, Italy-
imported 2967 tons of common and 74 tons of per-
fumed soap, of which England supplied 1906 and
403 tons respectively. The exports in the same
year amounted to 2086 tons of common and 180 tons
of perfumed soap. — (U.S. Com. Jiep., Apr. 19, 1920.)
The Rubber Trade in Italy. — With the exception
of one or two " war " years, the value of raw rubber
imported into Italy has risen steadily ; in 1909 it
was 20 million lire, and in 1918, S3 million lire,
During this period the value of imported manu-
factured rubber goods declined from about 33 to
19 million lire, notwithstanding high prices. These
figures, and the known increased demand for cer-
tain rubber goods, show that apart from the direct
effects of the war, the industry has been developing
satisfactorily. Germany formerly controlled this
market, and is expected to make a strong bid
to recover her footing ; and competition is also
feared from America and England. To consolidate
and further the interests of the Italian industry,
thirteen firms have recently combined under the
leadership of Pirelli and Co., of Milan. — (Schweiz.
Chem.-Z., Apr. 17, 1920.)
Swiss Chemical Trade in 1919. — During the year
1919, Swiss chemical trade was characterised by a
downward tendency owing to customers holding
bark for the expected fall in prices. The dye in-
dustry was affected by the troubles experienced in
the Entente countries in passing from war to peace
conditions, but the outlook is now somewhat
brighter. Imports were affected adversely by the
very defective arrangements in French, Belgian,
and Dutch ports, of which, however, Antwerp was
the best. Regular traffic up the Rhine was inter-
fered with by the continued drought, so that the
time of delivery from England und overseas was as
bad as in the worst years of the war. Supplies are
not forthcoming from Germany in spite of the con-
ditions of exchange; very little merchandise is
available there; transport conditions are bad and
the reliability of many German manufacturers
doubtful. It is anticipated that Swiss dye exports
this year will equal those for 1919. but in certain
quarters it is predicted that they will be less than in
pre-war times, for then the export figures included
many re-exports from Germany. Pharmaceutical
works are suffering from the diminished consump-
tion of medicinal substances due to the re-establish-
ment of peace and to the existence of large stocks
held in England, America, and France. In Ger-
many also there is a sufficiency of drugs, etc., and
as the rate of exchange brings their prices below
those current in neutral or Entente countries, the
outlook for the latter is scarcely promising. —
(Schiceh. Chem.-Z., Apr. 30, 1920.)
Market for Chemicals and Drugs in Turkey. — Nearly
50 per cent, of the chemical products consumed by
the Turkish market before the war was supplied by
Germany, which also furnished the major part of
the synthetic products required. This position was
attained by a careful study of the markets, ade-
quate representation and propaganda work, and.
in the case of special products, compliance with
the requirements of the French pharmacopoeia,
which is officially recognised in Turkey. Except
for a little quinine and a few pharmaceutical
specialities, British chemicals were unknown in
Turkey until 1908, when they obtained a market
in the face of keen competition. Before the war,
French chemical products represented 20 per cent,
of the consumption, and, in addition, 75 per cent,
of all pharmaceutical specialities came from
Fiance. France has now taken the place of Ger-
many, and if British chemical manufacturers wish
to regain their pre-war footing, they must adopt a
method of packing based on the metric system and
comply with the requirements of the French Phar-
macopoeia.—(Brf. of Trade J., May 13, 1920.)
Foreign Company News. — Germany. — The Badische
Anilin- u. Sodafabrik reports a net profit of
27,025,045 marks (10,848,442 mk. in 1918) after
writing off 60,867,018 mk. (40,604,423). The divi-
dend payable is 18 per cent, compared with 12, 20,
28, and 20 per cent, in the years from 1918 to 1915,
respectively. The report states that in a few cases
prices have begun to recede, but it is not possible
to foresee any immediate general decline. The
present favourable state of business affords no
ground for couclusions as to future prospects.
Chemische Fabrik auf Aktien vorm. J. Schering
in Berlin reports good trade throughout the whole
of the past year, particularly in regard to export
business. The net profit was l-88 million mk. (166
in 1918), and the dividend is maintained at 18 per
cent.
Chemische Fabrik Griesheim-Elektron in Frauk-
furt a.M. has written off 4.227,085 mk. (5,458,762),
and from the net profit of 6,962,303 mk. (3,151,371),
and the amount brought in, 1,437,204 mk., is paying
a dividend of 12 per cent.
Chemische Fabriken vorm. Weiler-ter Meer,
Uerdingen, made a net profit of 2,582,627 mk.
(1,147,680), and is paying 12 per cent., compared
with 10 per cent, for 1918.
A.-G. fur Anilinfabrikation in Berlin. The gross
profit for the past vear was 24,877,536 mk.
(13,700,319), the net profit 10,265,383 (4,972,770),
and the dividend pavable 14 per cent.
Kalle & Co., A.-G.; Biebrich. The directors
state that manufacturing, distribution, and stocks
were under Allied control during the entire year
1919, and communication with customers was ren-
dered very difficult. The fact that the year, on
the whole, was a good one was due to the good ex-
port trade. Prospects for 1920 are in so far favour-
able as there is a strong demand everywhere for
the company's products. The net profit was
2.438,414 mk., compared with 740,146 mk. in 1918;
dividends total 14 per cent. — (Z. angew. Chem.,
May 28, June 8, 1920.)
Trade of Chosen in 1919. — In 1919 the imports and
exports of Chosen were valued at £28,224,760 and
£22,123,413 respectively, as against £15.994,367 and
£15,543.524 in the previous year. Amongst the
imports in 1919 were: Cement, £160,149; coal,
£1,432,110: explosives, £65,559; matches, £145,227;
kerosene. £812,644: copper ore. £8.744; porcelain
and earthenware, £151,456; salt, £325,846; sugar,
£407.054. The exports included : Soya beans,
£2.065,818; coal, £63.818; copper ingots and slabs,
£193.834 ; copper ore containing gold and silver,
£319.203: ginseng. £175.681; graphite. £54,869;
cowhide', £324,895; iron and mild steel, £1.107,365;
manures, £311,634: gold ore, £122,794; iron ore,
£242.613; tungsten ore, £38,175; and silk,
£589.269. The bulk of the trade is with Japan,
and the large increase in the total trade, which has
quintupled since 1914. points to the general
economic prosperitv of the Koreans. — (U.S. Com.
Brp.. Mar. 27. 1920.)
Drug and Chemical Trade of China. — Many herbs
and plants having medicinal properties are grown
in China, including those producing liquorice,
REVIEW.
[June 30, 1920.
rhubarb, ginseng, cassia oil, aniseed and gum ben-
zoin. It is estimated that China exports drugs and
medicines eacn year to a value of over £600,000.
In addition, there are large imports of drugs and
chemicals; tne value of the chemicals imported in
1916, 1917 and 1918 was £300,000, £400,000 and
£300,000, respectively, and medicines to an ap-
proximate value of £1,200,000 were imported in
each of these years. The chief heavy chemicals
imported are soda and sulphur. — (U.S. Com. Hep.,
Mar. 25, 1920.)
The Tanning Industry ol Lima, Peru. — The tanning
industry of Peru is carried on almost entirely by
Italians, who use primitive methods. Few tanneries
are completely equipped, and some have no machin-
ery at all. The largest tannery in Lima uses about
700 skins a week, of which 300 — 400 are usually
cowhides and the rest sheepskins and goatskins.
In 1918, Lima exported 1,482,623 kg. of cowhides,
valued at £106,430, 29,772 kg. of sheepskins, worth
£563, and 221,980 kg. of goatskins valued at
£10,699. The average annual export of cowhides
of all kinds is roughly 4,822,000 lb., say some
300,000 hides. It is estimated that local tanners
make a profit of over 100 per cent, a year on their
invested capital. — (U.S. Com. Rep., Feb. 19, 1920.)
Salvador in 1918. — The chief crop of Salvador is
coffee, grown on elevated land, whilst the lowlands
produce sugar, cacao, indigo, rubber, sisal, balsam,
etc. Dyewoods are found in the forests and large
areas of balsam trees grow near certain parts of the
coast. There are rich mineral deposits, including
gold, silver, copper, iron, lead, zinc, and antimony.
In addition, petroleum deposits have been located,
particularly near Antiquisaya and San Miguel,
which are the most important. Of the total imports,
valued at about £1,208,539 in 1918, the United
States supplied 56 per cent., and the United King-
dom 25 per cent. The values of some of the chief
imports in 1918 were: Cement, £11,853; drugs and
chemicals, £22,462; explosives, £12,823; fertilisers,
£736; gasoline, £7185; edible oils, £2282; illumin-
ating oils, £8125; linseed oil, £3935; lubricating
oils, £2923; crude petroleum, £3289; paints,
£6181 ; soap, soap-making material and candles,
£26,292; and zinc £2550. The exports, valued at
£2,479,960, were chiefly taken by the United States
(85 per cent.), the share of the United Kingdom
being only 0-8 per cent. The values of the chief
exports in 1918 were: — Balsam, £26,520; gold and
silver, £267,576; indigo, £127,719; rubber, £2657;
sisal, £29,638; sugar, £121,411.— (U.S. Com. Sep.,
Suppl., Mar. 17, 1920.)
Guatemala in 1917 and 1918. — In spite of the dislo-
cation of the economic life of Guatemala caused by
earthquakes and fever, trade has become practically
normal. The total imports in 1918 were worth
£1,326,800, compared with £1,436,600 in 1917, and
the exports were valued at £2,263,800 in 1918, as
against £1,565,400 in 1917. The values of some of
the chief imports for 1917 and 1918 were: Copper,
tin, lead, and alloys, £2074 and £21,591; drugs and
medicines, £42,392 and £55,652; glass, crockery,
and earthenware, £18,322 and £14,959; iron arid
steel, £133,486 and £67,921; petroleum, £18,841 and
£50,565; paper, stationery, etc., £34.167 and
£47,852. Slost of the imports came from the United
States, with the exception of woollen goods, mainly
supplied by Great Britain, and silk and petroleum, <
supplied by Japan and Mexico respectively. In
1917 and 1918 the exports, which wore mainly sent
to the United States, included castor oil, £1215 j
(1918 only); mineral products, £9358 and £49,202; i
skins and hides, £104,854 and £54,328; sugar,
£90,048 and £99,816. The chief industries in
Guatemala are sugar and coffee, but at present,
owing to scanty supplies, the export of sugar is pro-
hibited.— (U.S. Com. Hep., Suppl. , Feb. 14, 1920.)
REVIEW.
The Hydrogenation or Oils. Catalysers and
Catalysis. By Carleton Ellis. Second edition,
revised and enlarged. Pp. xvii. + 767. (London:
Constable and Co., Ltd. 1920.) Price 36s. net.
The greatest result of the classic researches of
Sabatier and Senderens on the catalytic activity of
metallic nickel has developed from the application
by Normann of metallic nickel to the hydrogenation
of fatty oils in the liquid state. In the early days
of the process many technical difficulties had to t>e
overcome, and much information as to the prepara-
tion and properties of the catalyst acquired, and
it was also necessary to produce hydrogen in large
volumes cheaply and in a high state of purity.
Such early difficulties being surmounted, develop-
ment has been extremely rapid, and the process of
hydrogenating fats is now carried out almost in
every part of the world. The information con-
cerning it scattered through patent specifications
and other literature is so voluminous that its
collection in book form has become a necessity. It
cannot be affirmed that the time has yet arrived
when it is possible to eliminate from this mass old
and probably inaccurate matter, and in the volume
under review the author has contented himself with
a description, more or less condensed, of plants and
processes as these are described in publications.
From this point of view the work has been well
done, and the many annotations in the text make
it easy to refer to the originals for fuller
information.
Although the book has not been divided into
sections its contents might be grouped under four
headings, viz. : Methods of hydrogenation, in
which processes and plants are described ; catalysts
and their production, including much of the matter
published in the interesting controversy concerning
the possible action of oxides of nickel as catalysts;
hydrogenated fats and their use in the preparation
of foodstuffs, soaps, lubricants, etc. ; the manufac-
ture of hydrogen in quantity by various methods,
with notes on the handling and storage of the gas.
The book has 767 pages, of which almost 100 are
taken up by an appendix containing very full
abstracts from the official reports of two important
patent actions in which, whilst there is much that
is interesting as reading matter, there is a great
deal that is so purely legal that it might well be
left out of a technical work of this character.
The book is a useful collection of information
bearing on the subject, but its bulk is already so
great that it may be safely asserted that future
publications on the subject will be concerned with
a critical analysis of the process and the principles
underlying it, with the elimination from the text
of a great deal of matter which is already, even for
so recently introduced a process, out of date.
John Allan.
PUBLICATIONS RECEIVED.
CnEMicAL Fertilisers and Parasiticides. By S.
Hoare Collins. Industrial Chemistry Series,
edited by Dr. S. Rjdeal. Pp. xii. + 273. (Lon-
don: Bailicre, Tindall and Cox. 1920.) Price
10s. 6d. net.
The Peat Resources of Ireland. A Lecture given
before the Boyal Dublin Society on March 5,
1919, by Pro-/. Pierce F. Purcell. Depart-
ment of Scientific and Industrial Besearch.
Fuel Besearch Board, Special Beport No. 2.
(London: E.M. Stationery Office. 1920.)
Price 9d.
Vol. XXXIX.. No. 13]
REVIEW
[July 15, 1920.
BEQUEST TO THE SOCIETY BY
THE LATE DR. R. MESSEL.
Id the obituary notice of the late Dr. Rudolph
-Uessel which appeared in the Review of May 15 it
was stated that his dearest wish was to accumulate
funds tor the endowment of science and education
in his adopts country. This statement has now
been amply verified by the terms of his will, upon
which probate was recently granted, and for the
in formation of members the following passages from
the original testament, made in 1915, and from a
second codicil, dated July 16, 1919, dealing with this
most generous bequest to the Society are herewith
appended: —
". . .as to the residue of the said money and
my residuary estate generally I direct my trustees
to divide the same into five equal parts and I eive
such parts as follows: —
"I give four of such parts to the Royal Society
Turlington House and the remaining part to the
Society of Chemical Industry Broadway Chambers
Westminster and without imposing any trust or
obligation I think fit to set forth mv desire* with
regard to the fund given to each of these Societies
as follows : —
" (i.) The fund should be kept separate from the
other funds of the Society and be known under my
"anl?°r otherwise as the Society may think fit '
. (li.) The capital of the fund should be kept
intact. ^
" (iii.) The Society should apply the whole of the
income or the fund in such manner as it may think
most conducive to the furtherance of scientific re-
search and such other scientific objects as the
Council of the Society may determine and should
not apply any part of the income for such charitable
° <le? Vs the granting of pensions and the like
vva my f,rlend Prof- Henrv Edward Armstrong
+ i ',vno Pjat'.num still in which I carried out
!!u A ' j squire .my experiments in connection
with the decomposition of sulphuric acid and I
request without seeking to impose any trust upon
him that he wiU upon his death leave it to the
bociety of Chemical Industry.
"2. To the said Society of Chemical Industry my
platinum crucible which formerly belonged to' Dr
SP^ngel my Otto Von Guericke's ' Experiments^
nova Magdeburgica de vacuo spatio 1672' my
English translation of the de Magnete of Dr Wil-
liam Gilbert given to me by my friend the late
Sylvanus Phillips Thompson my 'Jubilee of Dis-
til 7. + l "I—6 ^ ?W WilliM Perk;n and my
gold catalytic cigar lighter made by Tiffany of New
>ork and given to me by Dr. William Nichols of
-New \ork. '
ti^?6 ,te£tato/ £Is.° ]?ft £5000 to the Royal Institu-
Sorietv Br>tam and £1000 to the Chemical
TP£r{fi£9?1JS}0™ OF BRITISH
CHEMICAL MANUFACTURERS.
AlJye^ReiPq09n °/ +the .£0un,cil for the year end<*l
fh? nJ 1 '. 8tateS- that the Association has con-
be ^-sbfn b°nfa 6 8atl!factory progress. The mem-
bership has increased to 150 firms, representing a
,reP nfne^fflT/!0'000'?00' a"d in addition there
the rmfnn*? d af oclatlons- The personnel of
rZieTed the same as in the previous
>ear, and the othcers included Mr. R G Perrv
S^'wilfUnfp E- F'A Armstrong, vice-chaiS;
hir William Pearce, M.P., treasurer; the Right
J°W Lor 1 Moulton. president. The Right Hon.
i \ j • ' M P a,ld Dr- C. C. Carpenter were
elected vice-presidents wrpenier were
re^trdr+rprr>ng t0 the acti««OS of the Council in
nffu J i° Par!lameiltary matters, and to the work
tL T^fP r2T,taVVes0n the Advisory Committee of
the Import Restrictions Department (which has
now practically ceased to exist), the report proceeds
I"*?8 th,e work o* the Chemical Mission to
fc m the..SP/mg °^ 1919' the reP°rt °n which
has been supplied to British chemical manufac-
turers and Government Departments only, a criti-
cal summary being issued to the public press. The
Council records its thanks to all members of the
Mission and in particular to the chairman, Mr.
JV V. .Lyans, and the editorial committee for the
preparation of the extremely valuable report
One of the results of the report was to call atten-
tion to the unsatisfactory state of affairs with re-
gard to the education and training of chemical
engineers in this country, and also to the lack of
co-operation existing between the makers and users
ot chemical plant. The training of chemical en-
gineers is considered of such importance that the
Council has requested the Publication Committee
ot the German Chemical Mission to draw up a
report on the subject, and it is hoped that this
report will be available at an early date Steps
have also been taken to bring together British
manufacturers of chemical plant and the members
ot the Association. The outcome of meetings and
discussions which have taken place is the pro-
posal to form an Association of Chemical Plant
.Manufacturers, which will be affiliated to this
Association. It is hoped and expected that this
arrangement will lead to a fuller understanding bv
the engineers of the peculiar needs of the chemical
industry, and that it will be to the mutual advan-
tage of both makers and users of chemical plant
In commenting on the dye situation, the Council
in its last report stated that " its earlv efforts in
the interests of chemical industry and British dye
production have succeeded to some extent in im-
proving what is still a by no means satisfactory
outlook." This statement again exactly represents
the present position. An attempt has' been made
to deal with the position— as it must ultimately be
dealt with— as a whole. Following a conference
which the chairman and general manager (Mr
W. J. U. Woolcock, M.P.) had with the then Presi-
dent of the Board of Trade (Sir A. C. Geddes), a
further conference, presided over by Mr. Percy
Ashley, was held, at which dye users, dye makers,
and producers of intermediate and raw material
were represented. This conference decided that a
further effort should be made to co-ordinate the
work of the three parties concerned, and a com-
mittee comprising two representatives of each, with
the general manager, is now at work with this
object in view.
A list of intermediates has been compiled which
is divided into three parts— (a) intermediates
already manufactured, (b) intermediates required
but unobtainable, and (c) intermediates unobtain-
able in sufficient quantities. The list has proved of
great value in encouraging the manufacture of
intermediates on a sufficiently large and compre-
hensive scale, and the Council hopes that, in the
course of time, the three divisions may be abolished
and only the first remain.
The difficult situation arising out of the refusal
of the Board of Trade to grant licences for the
export of anthracene led to conferences between
the dye makers and anthracene producers. These
discussions have resulted in the formulation of a
scheme whereby, it is hoped, the production of
anthracene will be increased to meet both home and
foreign demands, and an agreement reached as to
the price at which the product is to be sold. In the
230 R
REVIEW.
latter connexion evidence is being given before the '
Profiteering Committee on Dyestuffs, and negotia-
tions are still proceeding which should result in the
solution of all the difficulties involved.
The policy of bringing together people interested
in particular subjects, with a view to the discus-
sion of problems of interest peculiar to themselves,
has been pursued during the past year with, it is
believed, advantage to all concerned. In this con-
nexion an experiment was inaugurated last year
whereby the producers of pitch were kept in close
touch with market conditions. This scheme lias
proved so successful that the makers have decided
to continue the arrangement for the coming year.
In the Fine Chemical Group particular attention
has been devoted to the adequacy of the supply of
British research chemicals as distinct from chemi-
cals used as reagents. In the early part of this year
Dr M O. Forster and Prof. A. W. Crossley kindly
supplied a list of the former. Each item in it has
been carefully considered and classified. It is pro-
posed to issue a brochure for distribution to whole-
sale houses and research chemists showing which of
the manufacturers of fine chemicals is prepared to
supply each item on the list.
In view of the fact that in the past standard
specifications for chemical products have too often
been drawn up solely from the standpoint of the
users, the Association is collaborating with other
bodies, such as the British Engineering Standards
Association, to ensure that the interests of chemi-
cal manufacturers shall not be overlooked. A com-
mittee of the Association has already done useful
work with regard to a specification for creosote for
telegraph poles, etc.
Although the Information Bureau has been most
successful in supplying information on technical
matters, and in continually introducing new buyers
to members, the Council regrets that fuller infor-
mation has not been placed at its disposal for the
use of its representatives on various Government
committees. . .
The Council expresses its gratitude to the Iratfac
Committee, under the chairmanship of Mr. J.
Lukes, for the extremely difficult and important
work which it has performed during the year. The
subjects dealt with have been very numerous, in-
cluding the recent proposals of the Ministry of
Transport and the conveyance by rail of dye inter-
mediates. Mr. Luke gave evidence before the
Rates Advisory Committee in its public inquiry
into the general revision of railway rates and
charges, and with reference to the forthcoming
stage of this inquiry, which will deal with the
classification of merchandise, it is suggested that
members of the Association, including the tar
distillers, should prepare an adequate statement of
their requirements for submission to the Advisory
Committee. The Association was also interested in
the action Midland Baihnay Co. and Others v.
Brotherton and Co. and Another (cf. J., 1920,
187 R), and the report, in expressing sympathy
with the defendants, remarks that the judgment
of the Court only shows how strongly entrenched
the position of the railway companies is in matters
of dispute with traders.
THE PRODUCTION AND SUPPLY OF
SYNTHETIC ORGANIC CHEMICALS
IN THE UNITED STATES.
The Secretary of the Department of Scientific
and Industrial Research announces that the
Research Association for the Silk Industry has been
approved bv the Department as complying with the
conditions laid down in the Government scheme for
the encouragement of industrial research. Ihe
secretary of the committee engaged in the estab-
lishment of the association is Mr. A. B. Ball, the
Silk Association of Great Britain and Ireland,
Kingsway House, Kingsway, W.C.2.
H. T. CLARKE and C. E. K. MEES.
Chemical industry is founded upon scientific re-
search, since it is only through research that the
science of chemistry can be developed, and the
growth of any chemical industry is necessarily de-
pendent upon the development of the science which
underlies it. In the section of chemical industry
which is concerned with organic chemistry the
connexion between research and the industry is
direct and obvious. It is not improper, in fact, to
consider the amount of scientific knowledge avail-
able in any branch of organic chemistry as a species
of capital which must be increased to correspond
with an increase in the industry, just as financial
capital must be. .
We might consider any particular section there-
fore as requiring for its development as an indus-
trial venture so much financial capital (expressed in
dollars) and so much intellectual capital (expressed
in chemist-years of research). This intellectual
capital can generally be derived partly from th"
accumulated knowledge stored in chemical litera-
ture but invariably some, and generally most, of
it must be accumulated directly by experimental
research for the particular purpose in view. Per-
haps we might say that the accumulated knowledge
of the German dye works would be roughly equiva-
lent to about 10,000 chemist-years. Of this perhaps
one-third is available to the outside world in the
literature and in patents, and one-third is obsolete
or useless, representing work directed towards ends
not now advantageous.
If any nation, therefore, desires to develop a
specific "chemical industry which may rival the
corresponding German industry, it will be necessary
to invest not only the required financial capital, but
also an amount of chemical research which will be
of the order of, say, 3000 chemist-years. (These
figures are, of course, mere guesses.) Since the
German works employ at least 1000 chemists they
are adding 1000 chemist-years to their knowledge
every year, and in order to overtake them more
than 1000 chemists engaged in the rival organic
chemical industry will be necessary. .
This argument assumes, of course, that chemists
of different nations are on the average equal in
ability and organisation, an assumption which, in
the absence of evidence, is at any rate safer than
any based on belief in special national superiorities.
The research work carried out in the technical
laboratories of the chemical industries is, however,
i dependent on the supply to those laboratories of two
types of raw materials, purely scientific chemical
knowledge and trained men suitable for research.
For the supply of both of these the technical
laboratories are dependent on the chemical depart-
ments of the universities which not only train the
students but also carry out the research work in
pure science on which all applied chemistry must
ultimately be based. We see, therefore, that
organic chemical industry is dependent on the
technical research laboratories which, in turn, are
dependent on the universities. In order to render
organic research possible it is also necessary to have
readily available the materials with which to carry
it on No one who has ever worked in a German
chemical laboratory has failed to realise the im-
mense advantage of having ready to hand all the
chemicals produced, not only by the large-scale in-
dustries, but by the manufacturers cf specialities
required for laboratory use alone.
Organic chemistry is thus dependent upon a
I cycle of production. The laboratories produce new
theories and new syntheses as the result of their
Vol. XXXIX.. Xo. 13.J
231 B
research work ; these are adopted by the factories
and there developed into new processes by which new
products are obtained and placed upon the market.
In return a small portion of these new products,
and the intermediates involved in their prepara-
tion, are turned back to the laboratories for use in
future syntheses. Since, however, the research
chemist as a rule requires materials of a degree of
purity generally unnecessary in technical practice,
these chemicals must pass through a centre where
they are purified before distribution ; and since a
multitude of substances other than those so obtain-
able are required by the laboratories, such a centre
is naturally formed by the manufacturer of special
research chemicals.
When at the outbreak of war in 1914 the im-
portation of chemical products from Germany was
cut off, after an initial period of inactivity the
chemical industries of the United States began a
rapid growth, and the technical laboratories in
which the manufacturing processes were worked
out naturally developed in a corresponding degree.
But these laboratories, as well as those in the Uni-
versities, were soon in great difficulties owing to
the lack of a supply of research chemicals; and,
owing to the necessity of preparing the starting
materials necessary to practically every piece of
research work undertaken, progress in the develop-
ment of processes was very slow.
In the university laboratories the situation be-
came almost desperate, and no solution was found
until Dr. C. G. Derick, head of the chemical de-
partment in the University of Illinois, initiated
and successfully carried out a scheme of enlisting
a group of capable students to prepare during
vacation time a supply of chemicals needed by the
students who were to follow them. The work was
conducted with a regular accounting system, so
that the value of the preparations, which were then
purchased by the University, could be known. This
admirable scheme deserves to be imitated in other
universities, for it afforded the students a unique
training in the manipulation of chemicals on a
scale impossible, on account of its expense, in any
regular teaching course. The scheme was subse-
quently taken over and developed by Dr. Roger
Adams, under whose direction supplies of chemicals
were provided for other universities, for the
Government, and for the American Expeditionary
Force.
But the efforts of Illinois were naturally insuffi-
cient to meet the wide and increasing demand, and
since it was clear that the supply of synthetic
organic chemicals was a " key " section of chemical
industry, it became urgently necessary for an in-
dustrial firm to undertake not only the synthesis of
the lees common organic compounds, which might
be required for research work, but are not manu-
factured on a large scale, but also the purchase,
purification, and distribution of the intermediates
and finished products produced by the organic
chemical industries.
The difficulties of such an undertaking were
obvious and considerable. There could be no pro-
spect of any immediate pecuniary return, and the
preparation of a large number of pure chemicals
on a small scale involves very high costs, particu-
larly in regard to labour. Not only were the pre-
vailing rates of remuneration in 1915 considerably
higher in the United States than in Germany, but
by 1918 they had doubled. Most of the materials
necessary for the work were more expensive than
before, and in many cases were unobtainable. To
complete the difficulties, trained chemists of the
required calibre were practically unobtainable
owing to the prior claims of the military authorities.
Notwithstanding all these difficulties, the matter
was of such patent urgency to the country that con-
stant efforts were being made to induce some first-
class firm to undertake the experiment as a matter
of patriotic duty rather than for any financial
profit; and after some consideration the Eastman
Kodak Company decided, in the autumn of 1918,
to endeavour to supply this link missing in the
chain of production of the American chemical in-
dustry. The offer of the company was received
with enthusiasm by the American Chemical Society
and by all the more important of the organic
chemical manufacturing firms, who have placed at
the disposal of the undertaking not only their
finished products but the intermediates which they
prepare exclusively for their own use.
As just stated, men of adequate training were to
all intents and purposes not to be found, so, with
the exception of the chemist in charge and the
errand boy, the department of synthetic chemistry
was staffed entirely with young women. Nothing
but praise can be spoken of the way in which these
girls performed their work, which must have taxed
them heavily both physically and mentally.
But as time went on difficulties made themselves
evident. That which caused the greatest concern
was the unforeseen danger of accidents. In such
work accidents are apt to have most serious conse-
quences, and while it is by no means certain that
these are more liable to occur with girls than with
men, there can be no question that a disfigurement
from such a cause is a very much more grievous
thing for a girl than for a man. Up to the present
no accidents of any moment have occurred on
account of fires, but the serious accidents have
almost all been caused by corrosive liquids. No ex-
pression can be too strong for the admirable spirit
shown by the staff in the face of these troubles. Not
a sign of panic or inclination to leave the laboratory
has ever been shown, and in almost all cases girls
who had been badly burnt returned to the work
after they had recovered. In view, however, of this
situation it was decided, after rather more than a
year's work, to replace such girls as left the
laboratory by men, who were by that time again
becoming available, and at the present time only
three girls remain on the purely laboratory staff.
The actual duties of the department fall under
three heads. Of primary importance is the syn-
thesis of compounds which are not prepared tech-
nically but are required for laboratory purposes;
secondly, the purification of technical materials
obtained from the chemical manufacturers; and,
thirdly, the distribution of such technical chemicals
in the form in which they are purchased. By
undertaking this last duty the laboratory can be of
service not only to chemists and their purchasing
agents at universities, but also to the manu-
facturers themselves, to whom a retail trade in
small quantities is abhorrent, but who, on ground
of public spirit do not care to refuse assistance.
An understanding has now been formed between
such manufacturers and the laboratory of the East-
man Kodak Co., whereby inquiries for small
quantities are referred by the former to the com-
pany and inquiries for large amounts are referred
by the latter to the manufacturers.
Raw materials are obtained principally from the
manufacturers of dyes and dye intermediates, but
large supplies are also furnished by the producers of
perfumery chemicals, explosives, pharmaceutical
and other chemical specialities. Many of these firms
have supplied not only products which they manu-
facture for their own exclusive use, but in several
instances have furnished materials specially pre-
pared for this work or obtained by their research
laboratories. Assistance has also been rendered by
firms making specialities of a few of the less common
products, as well as by certain individual workers
in university and other laboratories. Thus Dr.
W. D. Turner, in charge of the laboratory of tech-
nological chemistry of the University of Missouri,
has had stocks of certain materials prepared for us
by his students. This system, which has also been
adopted at the Massachusetts Institute of Tech-
nology, is unquestionably most advantageous for
232 B
such laboratories, inasmuch as it enables students
to handle relatively large quantities of expensive
materials without undue cost to the teaching insti-
tution. But the most important connexion the
Synthetic Laboratory possesses i6 that with the De-
partment of Organic Chemistry of the University
of Illinois, which not only supplied the original
nucleus of the present stock, but has from the be-
ginning acted as distributor of the materials pre-
pared there.
With respect to the purification of technical pro-
ducts, it was attempted to prepare as many as pos-
sible of these in a pure form, but in certain instances
this has been found impracticable, particularly in
the case of the sulphonated dye intermediates,
where satisfactory criteria of purity have in many
cases not been established. In a few other instances
attempts at purification have had to be abandoned
on account of the expense involved, since the price
of the pure products would be prohibitive. This
has occasionally also been the case when the yields
of pure material were exceptionally low. In a large
number of instances the quality of commercial
chemicals is sufficiently high to permit them to be
employed for general laboratory synthesis. The
plan has accordingly been adopted of classifying
chemicals into three grades : — (1) Those of the high-
est purity obtainable; (2) those not perfectly pure,
but sufficiently so for synthetic purposes; these are
termed "Practical" chemicals. Thi6 class also
. includes a few substances synthetised in the labora-
tory in which small amounts of impurities are
known to be present, as well as a series of inorganic
compounds commonly employed in organic syn-
thesis.
The main duty of the laboratory naturally con-
sists in the production of the pure chemicals either
by purification or by synthesis. In many cases the
purification is essentially a relatively simple matter
of recrystallisation or fractional distillation, but it
frequently involves a considerable expenditure of
time.
(3) The majority of the products consists of those
research chemicals which are not produced in either
pure or technical quality elsewhere. Such materials
torm a large proportion of the list of organic chemi-
cals issued by Kahlbaum prior to 1914; but a study
of this list shows that there was in Germany a far
larger number of technical products upon which to
draw than in this country. The influence of the
availability of commercial substances upon the
prices in this list forms an interesting study. As
may well be imagined, the cost of production in the
laboratory is much greater than in the works, and
in consequence the prices of pure materials are
largely influenced by their source. An instructive
comparison is afforded by the products of the
nitration of chlorobenzene and bromobenzene
respectively. In both cases the ortho and para
mono-nitro derivatives are formed simultaneously,
and in the laboratory the separation of these
isomers is a much simpler matter in the case of the
bromo compounds than with the corresponding
chlorine derivates. On the other hand, the latter
compounds were available from technical firms, but
the bromine compounds were not; while neither of
the meta-nitro derivatives were produced on a huge
scale.
Kahlbaum's Price List.
Marks per Ks. Marks per Kg.
Chlorobenzene 11-00 p-Nitrochlorobenzene 1500
Bromobenzene 19-00 p-Nitrobromobenzene 40-00
O-Nitrochlorobenzene 15-00 m-Nitrochlorobenzene 100-00
O-Nitrobromobenzene 11000 m-Nitrobromobenzene 45-00
Marks per Kg.
2-4 THnirroohlorobenzene 7-50
2-4 Dinitrobromobenzene 11-00
At the present time the price list contains over
700 items comprising about 650 distinct chemical
substances. Of the three divisions the pure chemi-
cals constitute about two-thirds of the number,
the " practical " chemicals one-fifth, and the
" technical " chemicals one-seventh. On an average
the prices are slightly more than twice those of the
Kahlbaum list of 1912, reckoning the mark as
equivalent to 25 cents.
Up to the present the work has been conducted
at a very considerable financial loss, the first year's
working showing a loss exceeding $14,000, although
no rent or other overhead charge was debited to the
undertaking This was purely due to the initial
months when methods were being developed.
At the present time the staff of the department
is able to produce a monthly supply of chemicals
sufficient for the sales, and at the same time to add
steadily new chemicals to the list at a cost involving
only a small loss.
It has from the outset been the aim of the labora-
tory to make as large a number of chemicals avail-
able in as short a time as possible, and this policy
has connoted small stocks of chemicals of a some-
what higher cost price than if large stocks of
fewer materials had been prepared. Three points
have been kept in view in selecting new substances
to be added to the list. First, urgency of demand ;
second, availability of raw material; and third, ease
of preparation. Whenever an inquiry is received
for a chemical not in stock, an attempt is made, if
in any way feasible, to prepare it. If, however,
experimental difficulties are encountered, the pro-
blem is set aside to be worked upon during spare
moments rather than given an intensive study. In
this way solution may bo reached only after some
months, but it has been obtained without inter-
fering with the preparation of more accessible
materials. Instances of this are phloroglucinol and
p-cresol. Small stocks of each of these were ob-
tained from outside the laboratory at the beginning,
but soon became exhausted ; and it was only after
several months of desultory experimentation that
suitable processes were developed. Problems of this
kind which are still being carried on are the pre-
paration of p-nitrophenylhydrazine, of nitron, and
of piperazine. The solution of any of these may be
reached at any time. Occasionally we are invited
by workers in universities to suggest such problems
which urgently require solution, and, as can be
imagined, such co-operation is most welcome. On
the other hand, it is our desire to co-operate with
the chemical public by furnishing, on application,
details of any process developed in the laboratory
and employed for the preparation of Eastman
chemicals ; and any discoveries of particular inter-
est will be published either in the Journals or in
patent form.
A rather disconcerting feature from the financial
point of view has been the very large investment
represented by the stock required by such an under-
taking. Owing to the high average value of the
chemicals and to the great number listed even the
smallest stock represents a considerable amount of
money. In a profitable undertaking this might not
be serious, though in any case such a stock must
have a very slow " turnover." but in a venture with
so small a margin as is possible in this case the large
investment necessary would clearly make it difficult
to establish an adequate stock without considerable
financial resources behind the undertaking.
Since organic chemical industry is in this country
still in process of development, the supply of techni-
cal products is in a somewhat unstable condition,
and not only are crude materials subject to violent
fluctuations in price, but in certain instances they
appear in and disappear from the market in a
manner which adds extra difficulties to the work.
On the other hand, the United States is singularly
fortunate in its natural chemical resources, many
of which are now being developed, and it is our aim
to take full advantage of this by rendering available
for research these new materials, which five years
Vol. XXXIX., Xo. 13.1
ago were but chemical rarities of high price.
Foremost among these new resources is normal butyl
alcohol, of which a large number of derivatives have
been prepared. In 1912 this substance was listed
by Kahlbaum at 27'50 mk. per 100 gm. ; it can now
be obtained for §300 per kg., or at half this price
for the commercial grade. Among the derivatives
we have prepared mention may be made of butyl
ether, for which we have developed a process. It
is a fragrant liquid boiling at 141° C. which should
be useful as a solvent and as a less volatile substi-
tute for ethyl ether in extractions or for the Grig-
nard reaction. Another is butyl oxalate, which is
formed with as much ease as the ethyl ester is pre-
pared with difficulty. Yet another is butyl mer-
captan, which is identical with the odorous prin-
ciple of the skunk ; this pleasant substance is em-
ployed in mines for the detection of fire-damp.
Another new product is the mixture of esters of
normal homologues of acetic acid which was pro-
duced during the war by the Hercules Powder Co.
as a by-product in its process of manufacturing
acetic acid and acetone from sea-weed. We have
laid by a considerable stock of this material from
which, by a tedious process of fractional distillation,
pure ethyd propionate and ethyl butyrate have been
isolated.
Ethylene ehlorohydrin, a useful reagent in syn-
thetic work, was obtainable before the war, but at
the high price of 16 marks per 100 gm. ; owing to
the introduction of " mustard gas," a process for
the large scale manufacture of this material was
developed by the Dow Chemical Co., and it can now
be obtained for $9'00 per kg. Trimethylene glycol
was another reagent which was formerly obtainable
in small quantities ; it was supplied by Schuchardt
at 9 marks per 10 gm., but is now available in large
quantities as a by-product in the manufacture of
glycerol, and can be obtained in " practical "
quality for $12"00 per kg.
A considerable future undoubtedly awaits the
chemistry of compounds prepared from ethylene
and its homologues, since these gases are now by-
products in the petroleum-cracking industry. By
the absorption of propylene by sulphuric acid under
suitable conditions, with subsequent hydrolysis, iso-
propyl alcohol is formed, and this substance is on
the market in a high state of purity and far lower
in price than before the war.
Through the recent work of E. A. Werner, a con-
venient method for the preparation of the methyl-
amines is now known ; and although this prepara-
tion on as large a scale as is feasible in the laboratory
is kept running continually, we find ourselves un-
able to keep pace with the demand. Undoubtedly,
if a larger proportion of the time of the department
were devoted to the commercial production of a
few such iteni3 for which there is a greater demand,
the department would sooner approach a self-sup-
porting basis ; but this is a course of action we are
determined not to take. In the near future, how-
ever, the department will be installed in more suit-
able quarters, where it is hoped that larger produc-
tion with equal staff will be possible, and with the
increase in demand which may be expected during
the current year it may at the end of our second
year be on a stable basis, where the running costs
of the undertaking are met by the sales, leaving a
small margin which can be applied to the increase
of the number of the chemicals supplied, and especi-
ally to the production of those rarer chemicals for
which the demand is limited but which are none the
less of the greatest importance for the furtherance
of chemical research. The object of the work will
not be attained until the link in the cycle of Ameri-
can chemical science is completely established, and
American chemists are in as favourable a position
with regard to supplies of chemicals for research as
they are in University facilities or in manufactur-
ing strength.
ALUMINIUM AND ITS ALLOYS.
At the invitation of the Royal Society of Arts,
a course of three Cantor Lectures on this subject
was delivered by Dr. W. Rosenhaiu on April 12
19, and June 7.
The lecturer began by pointing out that at
the present time aluminium is almost the onlv
basis available for manufacture of light alloys. Of
other possible metals, alloys consisting mainly of
magnesium are disappointing, whilst beryllium i,
not yet available. After describing briefly the
process for the production of aluminium by electro-
lysis of pure alumina dissolved in molten cryolite,
it was pointed out that there is no satisfactory
method for refining aluminium, and that its purit'v
is dependent on that of the materials used in its
manufacture — notably the alumina and the carbon
electrodes. Consumption of the latter is approxi-
mately equal, weight for weight, to the metal
produced, and special petroleum ooke having a low
ash is essential for their manufacture. The
necessity for cheapening the cost of aluminium
was emphasised. In this connexion mention was
made of the new nitride process whereby bauxite,
carbon, and nitrogen are made to react at a high
temperature with formation of aluminium nitride,
which on treatment with soda yields sodium
aluminate, with ammonia as a valuable by-product.
The cost of preparation of pure alumina by this
process is said to be very much less than by the
present method. In dealing with the properties
of aluminium, it was pointed out that its weakness
lay in its mechanical properties, and therefore, for
structural purposes where strength is required,
alloying with other metals is necessary. The value
of an alloy for structural purposes is "dependent on
the relation between strength and density, and the
ratio,
Tensile strength (tons per sq. in.)
Weight of 1 cb. in. (lb.),
or "specific tenacity," may be taken as a measure
of this value. A more striking representation of
the value is given by the length of a bar of an
alloy which will support its own weight hanging
freely from one end. Thus a 30-ton steel will
support approximately 3 miles of itself, and may
be called a "3-mile" alloy, whereas recent pro-
gress in wrought aluminium alloys at the National
Physical Laboratory has produced a "14-mile"
alloy. The aluminium alloy known as duralumin,
used by the Germans for their Zeppelin airships,
is a "9-mile" alloy. The higher the "specific-
tenacity," or greater the length supported, the
less the weight required within limits in any given
structure for equal strength.
The alloys of aluminium present the difficulty
that with the exception of zinc, and possibly
magnesium, the range of solubility in the solid
state for other metals — e.g., copper, nickel, man-
ganese, iron, tin — is low, and the addition of com-
paratively small percentages of these metals leads
to the formation of hard compounds as free con-
stituents, causing r.ipid decrease in ductility.
Zinc is retained in solid solution by aluminium to
the extent of as much as 40 per cent., and it is
the zinc-aluminium solid solution which has pro-
vided the basis material for development of the
"14-mile" wrought alloy above mentioned, as well
as the best casting alloy for general purposes.
Confining himself to the most important alloy
systems, Dr. Roscnhain described the constitution,
microstructure, and properties of the copper-
aluminium and zinc-aluminium alloys, both cast
and wrought, and traced the development, at the
National Physical Laboratory, of the alloy "3/20"
(copper 3, zinc 20, aluminium 77 per cent.), which
in the hot-rolled condition attains a tensile strength
234 r
REVIEW.
of 26-27 tons per sq. in., with an extension of
18 per cent, on 2 in.
As a result of the addition of as little as 05 per
cent, of magnesium, many alloys, including those
of aluminium with copper and with copper and
zinc, undergo a remarkable age-hardening after
quenching, which is analogous to the hardening and
tempering of steel. By utilising this property in
the case of the "3/20" alloy above mentioned, a
wrought alloy of slightly less density was developed
at the National Physical Laboratory, and subse-
quently produced on a commercial scale. This is
capable of attaining a tensile strength of 40 tons
per sq. in., and giving a proof load of 26 — 28 tons
per sq. in., with an extension of 12 per cent, on 2 in.
The remarkable effect of nickel on the rolling pro-
perties of certain aluminium alloys was then dis-
cussed, as well as the development of an alloy of
aluminium with magnesium, nickel and copper,
possessing valuable properties, both cast and rolled.
Strength in compression and shear, resistance to
fatigue and shock, and the important question of
corrosion were also dealt with.
The demands of the Air Service during the war
were chiefly responsible for the development and
greatly extended use of aluminium alloy6. Research
work has added considerably to our knowledge of
their properties, and these alloys have found many
applications in the construction of aircraft, auto-
mobiles, submarines, and tanks.
In regard to cast alloys, an outline was given of
the reasons for the selection of the alloy, copper 2'5,
zinc 12 5, aluminium 85 per cent., which proved
so successful for general castings, crank-cases,
pump-bodies, carburettors, etc. In the form of
1 in. diam. chill this alloy gives a tensile strength
of 12 tons per sq. in. Substitution of aluminium
alloys, with their much higher thermal con-
ductivity, for cast iron for pistons and cylinders
of aero-engines lowers the working temperature
of pistons from the neighbourhood of 400° C. to
200° — 250° C. ; higher compression ratios become
possible, and an increase in power of the order of
20 per cent., with 20 — 2.5 per cent, decrease in
petrol consumption, results. Special alloys able to
retain their strength at high temperatures are
required for pistons and cylinders. The copper-
zinc-aluminium alloy above mentioned loses strength
rapidly when heated, and is unsuitable. Dr.
Rosenhain traced the development of an alloy
of aluminium with magnesium, nickel, and copper
which in the form of 1 in. diam. chill has a tensile
strength of 12 tons per 6q. in. at 250° C, as against
4 tons for the zinc alloy previously mentioned. To
provide satisfactory bearing surfaces, aluminium
alloy cylinders require to be lined, and steel liners
to be screwed or shrunk in. Piston troubles, " burn-
ing " (so called), growth and distortion, were dis-
cussed, and the deleterious influence of tin on im-
pact strength at high temperatures was pointed
out. In connexion with the wrought alloys, lengths
of rigid airship girders constructed of channel and
bracings of "3/20" alloy and of the high-tensile
alloy above mentioned were exhibited. Results were
given of tests on channel sections showing the
greatly increased resistance to compression of the
high-tensile alloy compared with other alloys. The
production of very thin alloy sheet and the possi-
bilities of its use in place of linen fabric for wing-
covering were discussed in connexion with the all-
metal aeroplane, examples of which were captured
from the Germans during the war.
Dealing with future developments, the lecturer
pointed out that the increased specific tenacity of
aluminium alloys over that of steel made possible the
reduction of weight of structures, e.g., roofs and
bridges could be constructed of greater span, and
the starting and stopping losses of vehicles could be
minimised by rise of aluminium alloys for the
underframes and other parts.
MEETINGS OF OTHER SOCIETIES.
INSTITUTE OF METALS.
The tenth annual May lecture was delivered on
June 10 last by Prof. C. A. F. Benedicks, of Stock-
holm, the subject being " Recent Progress in
Thermo-electricity . ' '
The lecturer referred briefly to the deficiencies of
the gas-kinetic electron theory of metallic conduc-
tion of electricity and indicated how such de-
ficiencies were avoided by his " phoretic " electron
theory of metallic conduction. This theory contem-
plates the conduction of electricity in metals as
originating in the transportation of electrons
through the metal via the contacts between ad-
jacent atoms, and its development has led Prof.
Benedicks to the discovery of what he termed the
homogeneous thermo-electric effect in metals.
The history of thermo-electricity may be divided
into three periods : first, a period of active, un-
critical experimenting from 1821 — 1838; second,
the period 1838 — 1885, characterised by keen criti-
cism of thermo-electric phenomena. During this
period the law of Magnus, that no thermo-electric
current occurs in a perfectly homogeneous metal,
was definitely accepted. Apparent departures from
this law were ascribed to want of homogeneity in
the material of the metal. During the third
period, extending from 1898 to the present day,
evidence has been advanced questioning the validity
of the Magnus generalisation.
The existence of a thermo-electric current in an
apparently homogeneous conductor is readily de-
monstrated by providing that a rapid temperature
gradient occurs in the metallic conductor. This is
best achieved by employing what the lecturer
termed a " strangled " cross in the electric circuit.
Two portions of the metal in question rest lightly
upon one another in the form of a cross, and a
closed electric circuit is secured by connecting one
end of each constituent to a galvanometer. By
heating one of the remaining limbs of the cross, a
rapid temperature gradient occurs in the strangu-
lated region of the circuit. Employing such a de-
vice, the lecturer demonstrated various phenomena
indicating the existence of a thermo-electric cur-
rent in a homogeneous metallic conductor. The
existence of a thermo-electric effect of this nature
and of the correct sign in pure homogeneous mer-
cury has been confirmed. The observed effect is
proportional to the cube of the temperature differ-
ence, whereas in a heterogeneous circuit the effect
should be proportional to the first power of the tem-
perature difference. The lecturer has also esta-
blished the reality of the inverse phenomenon, viz.,
an electro-thermic effect in a homogeneous con-
ductor of a more general nature than the Thomson
effect. The passage of an electric current through
a constricted or strangulated section of a homo-
geneous conductor was found to be accompanied by
the production of a difference of temperature be-
tween the two portions of the constricted or stran-
gulated region. This temperature difference was
found to be proportional to the current density
through the strangulation. The existence of these
thermo-electric effects in homogeneous material*
permits the schedule of such effects to be completed
in the following manner: —
In
homogeneous
bodies.
In
heterogeneous
bodies.
Thermo-electric effects, i.e., ther-
mal current produces electric
current.
Benedicks,
1916
Seebeck,
1821
Electro- thermic effects, i.e.. elec-
tric current produces thermal
current.
Thomson,
1856
Peltier.
1834
Vol. XXXIX.. No. 13.]
REVIEW.
235 R
ROYAL PHOTOGRAPHIC SOCIETY.
At the meeting of the Scientific and Technical
Group on June 8, Sir William Pope presented the
second of a series of papers by himself and Mr.
W. H. Mills on " Photographic Sensitisers." The
" carbocyanines," considered in this paper, are
formed by the condensation of two molecules of a •
quinoldinium alkyl iodide in the presence of j
formaldehyde; they differ from the isocyaniaes pre- I
viously descrbed (this J., 1920, 468 a) in that the j
two quinoline groups are attached at the 2,2' posi-
tions by the 3-carbon linking :CH'CH:CH', instead |
of by the simpler link :CH' at the 2,4' positions,
and also in sensitising further into the red end of
the spectrum. The best known member of the
group is the 1-1' diethyl compound, which is in use
under the name Sensitol Red (German, Pinacyanol).
About 20 carbocyanines were described, variations
being made both in the number, position, and com-
position of the substituting radicles, and the wedge-
spectra of plates sensitised by them were shown in
colour on the screen. As in the case of the iso-
cyanines, substitution in some positions has a con-
siderable depressing effect on the sensitising action.
In the subsequent discussion Sir William Pope sug-
gested that the essential characteristic of the car-
bocyanines is the 3-carbon linking, :CHCH:CH-,
and not the position of connexion to the quinoline
groups.
Mr. G. I. Hogson described and exhibited a neat
device for obtaining non-intermittent graded ex-
posures of known values. The photographic plate
is moved by means of a governed dictaphone motor
under an opening of any desired shape; the actual
speed of movement and any irregularities in it arc
obtained by means of an electrically operated time
marker, controlled by a metronome, which marks
off definite time intervals on a smoked glass
attached to the table which carries the plate.
NEWS FROM THE SECTIONS.
CANADA.
The animal meeting of the Canadian Section was
beld in the University of Toronto, on May 27-28,
in conjunction with the third annual Convention of
Canadian Chemists. Dr. W. L. Goodwin, chair-
man of the Section, presided at the opening session
of the Convention, which was devoted to the reading
nf three papers: " The Inner Life and Habits of
Metals," by Messrs. H. J. Roast and C. F. Pascoe ;
" The Bicarbonate Reaction and its Application to
the Manufacture of Carbon Dioxide," by Mr. G. H.
Tomlinson; and "Canadian Opportunities in In-
dustrial Chemistry," by Mr. S. J. Cook. A paper
entitled "Notes on Decolorising Blacks," by Mr.
C. F. Bardorf was taken as read.
The annual meeting of the Canadian Section was
held at the second session. In his report, the hon.
secretary, Mr. Alfred Burton, described the good
progress made by the Society in Canada, and in-
timated that it. was proposed to abandon the pre-
sent organisation into sections and branches, and
to substitute five independent sections which would
deal directly with headquarters in London ; these
sections would be as follows: — Montreal, Toronto,
Ottawa, Canadian Pacific and Maritime. The per-
sonnel of the Executive Committee of the Canadian
Section for the new session would be: — Chairman,
Dr. H. van der Linde ; hon. sec, Mr. A. Burton;
Drs. W. L. Goodwin, R. F. Ruttan, W. L. Miller,
W. L. Lang, F. T. Shutt, and Messrs. M. L. Davies,
C. R. Hazen, M. L. Hersey, H. J. Roast, L. J.
Rogers, H. M. Lancaster, and A. F. MacLean.
Dr. Charles H. Herty then delivered an address
on " Chemistry under a Constitutional Govern-
ment," in which he compared the great progress
of chemical industry under the late autocratic
German regime with the comparative ignorance and
neglect shown to it by legislatures in more demo-
cratic countries. Dr. Herty's solution of the pro-
blem is to enlighten the public through the agency
of the ephemeral press. The address was very
heartily received. Two more papers were then
read, one on " The History of the Varnish Indus-
try," by Mr. N. Holland, and the second on
"Capital and Labour; and Chemists," by Dr. J.
Waddell.
On May 28, the Canadian Institute of Chemistry
held its annual meeting, Prof. J. Watson Bain pre-
siding. Mr. H. J. Roast, the secretary, read the
annual report, which recorded excellent progress,
and then the by-laws were discussed. A resolution
moved by Dr. Ruttan urging the Dominion Govern-
ment to remove the excise duty from pure ethyl
alcohol for hospital, laboratory, and industrial uses
was carried unanimously. The afternoon was de-
voted to the inspection of workj in the locality, and
the annual dinner brought to a close a most
successful meeting.
PERSONALIA.
Dr. T. M. Lowry has been appointed to the new
professorship of physical chemistry at Cambridge
University.
Dr. W. N. Haworth has succeeded Dr. S. Smiles
as professor of organic chemistry at Armstrong
College, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
Dr. Marston T. Bogcrt, professor of organic
chemistry in Columbia University, has been
appointed a member of the United States Traiff
Commission.
The office of Pro-Vice-Chancellor of the Uni-
versity of Bristol has been filled by the appoint-
ment of Dr. F. Francis, professor of chemistry in
the University.
By an Order in Council, dated June 24, 1920,
Prof. Sir John Cadman, Mr. W. B. Hardy, and
Prof. Sydney Y'oung have been appointed members
of the Advisory Council to the Committee of the
Privy Council for Scientific and Industrial Re-
search.
Dr. J. S. Flett, at present Assistant to the
Director in Scotland, has been appointed Director
of the Geological Survey and Museum, in succession
to Sir Aubrey Strahan, who retires this month.
The retirement of Mr. G. W. Lamplugh, Assistant
to the Director in England, is also announced.
The late Mr. J. W. Hyatt, of Short Hills, New
Jersey, was awarded the Pcrkin medal by the
American Section of this Society in 1914 for his
services to applied chemistry. He was the inventor
of celluloid and held a large number of patents,
many of considerable industrial importance.
Dr. Max Bodenstein, of the Technical High
School at Hannover, has been appointed to the chair
of physical chemistry in the University of Jena.
The death is announced of Prof. Ludwig 6a Her-
mann, professor and director of the University
Chemical Laboratory in Freiburg i/B, on June 21
last, aged 60.
Friedrich Bayer, son of the founder of the firm
of Fr. Bayer and Co., Leverkusen, died on June 22
in his 68th year. The deceased had held various
important positions in the works, and for the last
eight years was a director of the firm.
REVIEW.
NEWS AND NOTES.
UNITED .STATES.
A " Tjrian Purple " from Costa Rica. — In Costa
Rica a dyestuff is being obtained in a small way
from shell-fish, which doubtless belongs to the same
family as that which supplied the Tyrian purple of
the ancients along the Mediterranean. It is used
principally in dyeing silk thread, which, when
passed through the liquor and subsequently ex-
posed to sunlight, takes on a fast purple colour.
Fire-proofing of Cotton Bales. — At the recent meet-
ing of the American Cotton Association a bale of
cotton, which had been treated by a new chemical
process, was on exhibition. This process renders
the bale flash- and spark-proof, and at the same
time seems so to condition it that country damage
is largely avoided. Ordinarily 20.000 bales of cotton
are destroyed before the crop is marketed, and most
of this is due to flash or spark fires.
Lactic Acid in Human Dietary. — Edible lactic acid
is rapidly replacing the more expensive citric and
tartaric acids in many American industries. In
soft drinks 1'75 lb. of lactic acid replaces 1 lb. of
citric crystals and l'S lb., one pound of tartaric acid.
The cost of edible lactic acid (56 per cent, by volume
;ind 50 per cent, by weight) is about 35 cents per lb.,
whereas citric acid fetches $1.00 and tartaric acid
about 85 cents. It has been found that the addition
of a small quantity of edible lactic acid to beer of
very low alcohol content improves the beverage by
combining with the amides and amino acids.
Synthetic Camphor. — To combat the Japanese
camphor monopoly, three large chemical companies
have started the large-scale manufacture of syn-
thetic camphor from turpentine. This step has
been taken because the supply of camphor allotted
to the United States by the Japanese Government
is considered inadequate and the price too high.
As approximately nine-tenths of the world's supply
of turpentine is distilled in the United States, it
is believed that the manufacture of synthetic cam-
phor will develop into an important industry. The
present price of spirits of turpentine is $2 per
gallon. It may not be possible to undersell the
Japanese product now, but it is hoped to counter-
act the Japanese monopoly and improve the market.
The Beet-Seed Industry.— The United States Beet
Seed Co. has decided to continue its activities during
1920 in Idaho, but on a smaller scale than hitherto.
In fact, unless the results obtained in 1920 are more
successful than during 1919 the company may be
unable to continue at all. The production of 6eeds
during 1919 was less than half the normal, and the
stecklings wintered for seed growing in 1920 are
poor. The acreage for planting out these stecklings
is 1600, as against 3000 in 1919. During^the three
months September, October, and November,
1,762,500 lb. of beet seeds, valued at about
£513,000, was imported into the United States
from Germany. During eleven months in 1919 only
113,140 lb. was re-exported. Japan was the best
buyer.
SOUTH AFRICA.
Discovery of Tin Ore. — Prospectors have dis-
covered the presence of tin ore ((cassiterite) over
an area comprising Helderberg, between Stellen-
bosch and Somerset West, and the Kuils River Mills
of the Koeberg District. The geological formation
is a grey granitic base rock, on which lie the
Malmesbury beds consisting of slates, phyllites,
quartzites, and limestones. These Malmesbury
beds can be correlated with the Devonian rocks of
the West of England, and therefore the geological
formation of this Cape district is similar to that of
the Camborne district, Cornwall. — {Official.)
Occurrence of Chromium Chromite deposits are
farrly widely distributed in the Lydenbuxg district
of the Transvaal. In the bushveld plutonic rocks
east of the Lu Lu Mountains there is a more or
less continuous chain of outcrops, in which the ore,
associated with a black, very basic hypersthene, is
found in bedded layers up to 5 ft. thick with a dip
of 8° to 15° in a belt 1% miles wide. At Ward
Steelpoort a lode of chromite 6ft. wide, with which
are considerable quantities of magnesite, is being
worked, and the ore can be sold in Pietersburg for
35s. a ton at a profit of 13s. 9d. In the Rustenburg
district the mineral is found associated with mag-
netite in serpentinised pyroxene in several localities
extending for 28 miles between Rustenburg and
the Crocodile River. It usually occurs as lustrous
black aggregates of granular ore carrying 35%
Ci\j03 and up to 1 dwt. of platinum per ton. The
ore weathers easily, and is therefore difficult to
concentrate, hence production in quantity is un-
likely. In North Lydenbuxg, however, deposits
containing up to 54% Cr203 have been found, but
development is retarded owing to lack of transport
facilities. Natal chromite contains only 25 — 28%
of chromic oxide, whereas that found at Selukwe,
in Rhodesia, contains between 41% and 51%. The
latter deposit occurs in a talcose schist, but the
rock was originally a peridotite in which the
chromite was a product of igneous segregation.
The peridotite has metamorphosed into talc, dolo-
mite, serpentine, and chlorite, in which the chromite
is found as large lenticular masses mostly between
150 and 450 ft. long. About 130 of these masses
have bean mapped, and the " chrome mine " which
has been working 8 to 10 of them for 9 years has
exported 300,000 tons of crude ore. Rhodesia pro-
duced 55,485 tons of ore, worth £139,099, up to
January, 1910. The production in recent years has
been as follows : 1915, 60,525 tons, value £143,510,
or 47s. per ton ; 1916, 87,406 tons, value £335,935,
or 77s. per ton; 1917 (to June 30), 32,000 tons,
value £142,817, or 89s. per ton. The latest avail-
able selling price is £9 10s. per ton for 40% ore
and 2s. per unit above 40%, delivered in England.
In view of the fact that many South African
ohromites contain up to 1J dwt. of platinum per
ton, examination of alluvial deposits in the neigh-
bourhood of chromite might lead to the discovery
of the metal in pavable quantities. — OS. African
Eng., Apr. 30, 1920.)
AUSTRALIA.
Power Alcohol. — In the past the excise duty of Is.
per gallon on industrial denatured spirit has ren-
dered its manufacture unprofitable, but now that
it has been removed the industry is likely to de-
velop rapidly. An Australian company has already
been formed to manufacture " natalite " in Papua,
where 100 square miles of territory have been re-
served for the industry. Plants and trees will be
used as the raw material, and these, it is estimated,
will yield 73 galls, of alcohol per ton. When the
projected plant is complete the company antici-
pates an annual output of 5i million galls, of
" natalite," to be eventually increased to 18
millions. A retail price of 2s. per gall, is fore-
shadowed. The company intends to form co-
operative undertakings throughout the Common-
wealth with the object of inducing farmers to raise
crops of sorghum, estimated to yield 80 galls, of
alcohol per ton, and to share in the profits. If this
scheme be carried out, the country will be inde-
pendent as regards liquid fuel; last year it paid
£2 500,000 for imported motor spirit alone.— (Tun U
It. Suppl., June 12, 1920.)
Graphite in Western Australia. — The Western Aus-
tralian Minister of Mines announces that an Eng-
lish company is making preparations to work the
Vol. XXXIX.. No. 13.]
REVIEW.
very extensive deposits of graphite in that State.
He was advised that this deposit was one of the
biggest in the world, and that in view of the fact
that the world's requirements were something like
300,000 tons per annum, and that most of the hig
sources of supply were dwindling, the enterprise
should prove of great value. — (Official.)
NEW ZEALAND.
The Kauri-Gum Industry. — During the year ended
March 31, 1919, kauri gum to the value'of £18,847
was purchased by the Department for the Adminis-
tration of the Kauri-Gum Industry, and sales
amounting to £14,226 were made, solely to the
United States. Since that date, shipments have
been sent to the United Kingdom, and with more
shipping available, exports in this direction will pro-
bably increase. The first plant in New Zealand for
the extraction of oil from kauri-gum peat (the soil
of the buried kauri forest) was started up at Redhill
in December, 1919. The oil yields motor spirit, a
solvent oil, a turpentine substitute, and paint and
varnish oils. There are thousands of acres of this
oil-soaked peat in the North Auckland Province,
so that the industry has a good future, especially as
the winning of the peat is cheaper than that of' the
gum, though distillation costs are approximately
equal. The result of fractionating 95 gallons of the
peat oil was : Light oil (spirit), 4"75 galls. ; medium
oil (carbolic), 10 galls. ; heavy oil (creosote), 24-25
galls. ; resinous tar and pitch, 22 galls. ; water, 31
galls. ; loss in handling 3 galls. A ton of peat,
which showed 10 per cent, of kauri gum, yielded 64£
galls, of oil. The New Zealand Peat Oils', Ltd., has
a lease of 3000 acres of this land near Kaimaumau,
in Mongonui County, and developments are re-
ported to be satisfactorv. — (Bd. of Trade J., May
27, 1920.)
FRANCE.
Industrial Notes. — Metallurgy. — Reconstruction
work in France has been progressing very steadily
ever since the armistice, and it is no exaggeration
to say that the mines have recovered 75 per cent, of
their pre-war output capacity. If actual production
has not kept pace with the rate of recuperation, the
causes are to be found in scarcity of labour and
difficulties of transport. The total production of
pig iron in France in 1919 was 2,412,149 metric
tons, of which 55,422 tons was made in the electric
furnace. The works in Eastern France contributed
469,954 tons or 194 per cent, to the total pro-
duction, and those of Alsace-Lorraine 1,112,443
tons, or 46 per cent.
There is little warrant for the belief that the
present depreciated values of metallurgical products
will lead to a general and permanent fall in prices.
The latter will reach their normal level only after
the problem of adequate fuel supply has been solved
and production has become commensurate with
demand.
It is reported from Strasbourg that an agreement
has been arrived at between the Lorraine firms and
British metallurgists by which iron ore from the
Briey basin will be exchanged against British coke
to arrive in France via Havre and Dunkirk.
Fuel. — Provided the present rate of reconstruc-
tion in the North of France be maintained, it is
estimated that the Nord basin will supply some
3 million tons of coal in 1921. American coal is
still arriving, and latterly Canadian coal has
appeared on the French market.
The use of mazout or heavy fuel oil has been
proved a success by the Orleans Railway Co., all
technical difficulties having been overcome, but,
unfortunately, it has to be recognised that extensive
use is ruled out at present by irregularity of supply,
scarcity of tonnage and excess of demand over
supply. A good strike of petroleum is reported
from between Marignier and Giat in the Bonneville
district of Savoy.
The Chemical Market. — The comparative firmness
of this market, in face of general depression, is due
to the fact that supply is still very short of demand,
and to the fear that the market may soon be flooded
with surplus stocks from Japan or theUnitedStates,
thus preventing any upward tendency in prices.
There is still a great shortage of acids, compounds
of potassium, sodium, manganese and magnesium ;
in some cases the dearth is connected with packing,
as casks, carboys and cylinders are in very short
supply. Among other chemical products in great
demand are: — Boric and phosphoric acids, sodium
sulphite; benzene, nitrobenzene, aniline, and their
derivatives; toluene, meta- and para-cresol; and
fertilisers are also scarce, especially those of organic
origin. In the bleaching and dyeing trade, the
shortage of indispensable chemicals is very keenlv
felt and prices are extremely high. Nitrate of soda
is more abundant owing mainly to the more con-
ciliatory spirit displayed by Chilean producers. The
fixation of atmospheric nitrogen ij still engrossing
great attention. Besides the works at Grande
Paroisse, which utilises M. Claude's process, " La
Societe Norvegienne de l'Azok " has just estab-
lished in conjunction with the Kulilmann company
and " La Compagnie Nationalo des Matieres Color-
antes," La Societe des Forces Electriques de la
YalUe de Garonne," which will utilise local water
power for the production of synthetic ammonia and
nitric acid.
GENERAL.
British Cotton Industry Research Association. — This
Association was constituted exactly a year ago, and
a report covering the first nine months of its activi-
ties has just been issued. Mr. Kenneth Lee has
succeeded Mr. H. R. Armitage as chairman, who
resigned owing to ill-health; Prof. A. W. Crossley
took up the duties of director at Easter this year;
Dr. A. E. Oxley has been appointed head of the
physics department, and Dr. J. C. Withers is in
charge of the abstracting and indexing of scientific
and technical information in connexion with the
Records Bureau. The Council has approved of the
proposal put forward by the Textile Institute that
the various textile industries should join in
financing the publication of abstracts, and has
accordingly made an initial grant of £300 for one
year to the Institute for this purpose. The Associa-
tion has been admitted to the Federated Super-
annuation Scheme for Universities whereby mem-
bers of University staffs will be able to move freely
on to the staff of the Association without invalid-
ating their claims to superannuation. A property
known as " The Towers " has been acquired in East
Didsbury to house under one roof all the depart-
ments of the Research Institute, and the Council is
about to issue a special building appeal for
£250,000. The chief aim of the Association is
stated to be the solution of fundamental problems,
the application of the results being left, in the
main, to those engaged directly in the industry.
In order to secure a future supply of trained men, a
joint committee has been formed with the Empire
Cotton-Growing Committee of the Board of Trade
with the object of granting scholarships to
graduate students; so far, three botanical scholar-
ships have been established. The number of in-
dividual members of the Association is 1408.
Italian Chemical Journals. — It is announced that
the Giornale di Chimica Industriale will, as the
result of an agreement between the Societa di
Chimica Industriale and the Associazione Italiana
di Chimica Generate ed Applicata, appear in future
under the title of Giornale di Chimica Industriale
ed Applicata. In its new form the journal repre-
sents the continuation of both the " Giornale di
Chimica Industriale " and the " Giornale di
Chimica Applicata,-' the latter of which was pub-
REVIEW.
lished as a second series of the " Annali di Chimica
Applicata." The new journal, being also the organ
of the Associazione Chimica Industrial of Turin
and of the Associazione Nazionale Industrial
Chimici, adequately represents applied chemistry
and will be to this field what the Gazzetta Chimica
is to that of pure chemistry.
Projected Leather Research Institute for Saxony. — The
Government of Saxony has asked the local Parlia-
ment to vote a single contribution of 500,000 mk.
and a yearly subsidy of 50,000 mk. for the estab-
lishment of a research institute for the leather trade
and industry.— (Chem.-Zeit., June 17, 1920.)
Technical Education in Germany. — The number of
students in the various technical colleges in
Germany is now 18,686, compared with 12,200 before
the war and 5000 thirty years ago. The present
total includes 5975 mechanical engineers (3118 in
1913-14), 2842 electrical engineers (1307), 3333
chemists, biologists and pharmacists (1544), and
577 students of mining and metallurgy (576).
Charlottenburg, with 3168 students, has the largest
number, followed by Munich with 2811 and
Hanover with 2572. The number of women
students in the winter session 1919-20 was 284 (116
in 1914-15), of which 161 (32) were studying
mathematics, biology, chemistry and pharmacy. —
(Chem.-Zeit., June 17, 1920.)
Proposed Institute for Lignite and Mineral Oil Techno-
logy in Germany. — According to a recent memoran-
dum issued by the leading technical chemists of
Germany, it is proposed to establish an Institute
of Lignite Technology and Mineral Oil Chemistry
at the Technical High School, Charlottenburg, the
object of which will be to investigate the better
utilisation of lignite and its by-products, and the
heating value and methods of combustion of the
different varieties of mineral oil. It is planned to
set up a chair of lignite technology and a chair of
mineral oil chemistry to which would be handed
over the research work of the existing Mineral-
olversorgungs-Ges., m.b.H. The originators of the
movement have formed a society for the promotion
of the proposed Institute with a minimum sub-
scription of 1000 mk. payable in 10 yearly instal-
ments. A capital of 2 million mk. has already
been subscribed by a small number of interested
people. — (Chem.-Zeit., June 10; Z. angeic. Chem.,
May 21, 1920.)
German Potash Production in 1919.— Owing to
transport difficulties, strikes, shorter hours of work,
etc., the German potash production dropped from
10 million quintals of pure potash (K20) in 1918
to 8'12 million quintals in 1919, when the output,
in quintals of K20, consisted of :— Carnallite,
19 841 ■ kainite, 3,727,633 ; manure salts (20—40 per-
cent ) 2,070,813; chloride of potash, 2,164,353; and
sulphate of potash. 107,384 (quintal =01 metric ton).
The relative proportions of the different products
to the total output remained substantially the same.
At the end of 1919, the production, after the loss of
13 works in Alsace, was divided among 198 potash
works, 151 of which gave the actual and 47 the
estimated output. A further 8 works have joined
the syndicate, making the total now 206.— (Chem.
Ind.'june 23, 1920.)
Gold and Platinum in Germany. — The high prices of
these metals in Germany— gold costing 60,000 marks
per kg. and platinum 300,000 mk. per kg., as com-
pared with 2800 mk. and 6000 mk. in 1914— has
aroused much interest in the question of their
occurrence in the country. Gold was obtained both
by mining and washing in former years, and
analyses of samples from certain of the disused
mines show a gold content of more than 50 gm. per
ton, whilst examination of old dumps indicates that
these contain notable quantities of the metal. A
deposit of green lead ore (green pyromorphite)
hitherto unworked would, according to recent
analyses, yield 0"002 per cent, of gold. Platinum
was first discovered some years before the war in
the Rhenish greywack. Unfortunately, the
attempts to recover it proved ineffective, so that
new methods will have to be employed, for which
cheap electric power or cheap fuel will be necessary.
It has been shown that the platinum is not confined
to the Devonian greywack, where it was dis-
covered, but that it also occurs in the diabases of
Nassau and in the schists of Devonian age. —
(Schweiz. Chem.-Z., Apr. 17, 1920.)
The Dye Industry in Basle. — The coal-tar dye
industry in Basle dates back to 1856, and has so
developed that it now employs some 3000 unskilled
workmen and a staff of 700, which includes 120
chemists. The exportation of dyestuffs increased in
value from 14 million francs in 1896 to 335 million
francs in 1912, whereas Germany exported values
of 72 million mk. in 1898 and 142 million mk. in
1913. Imported raw materials and semi-
manufactures were valued at 15,075,000 fr. in 1912,
to which fuel worth 1,623,000 fr. should be added.
The power utilised includes 1568 steam- and 11,111
electrical h.p. The improvement of water transport
will react favourably on the progress of the
industry, as will the establishment of a co-operative
acid factory near Basle and a soda works near
Zurich, whilst the amalgamation of the dyestuff
and artificial fertiliser industries in the district will
provide the basis for a large production of the
necessary acids. In regard to trade policy, the
industry demands minimum restrictions on the
importation of raw materials, and seeks " most
favoured nation " treatment in all countries
importing its wares. — (Be v. Prod. Chim.,
May 31, 1920.)
Copper Mining in Russia. — Before the war the
Russian production of copper was about 25 per
cent, greater than that of Germany, but while
Russia could easily supply her own needs, owing
to her poor industrial development, Germany could
only furnish 20 per cent, of her own requirements.
During the 18th century Russia supplied a great
part of Europe with copper and continued to export
large amounts until about 1840, after which period
the output fell so low that considerable quantities
had to be imported. The output fell by one-half,
and at times the imports were three times the home
production. The causes of the decline are ascribed
to the abolition of serfdom, the raising of the
mining tax, and a very low import duty. After the
import dutv had been raised to 25 roubles per pood
in 1886 (rouble = 2s. lid.; pood=36 lb.), smelting
bean to increase in the Urals and the Caucasus, so
that from 1885 to 1893 the output rose from 4853 to
5681 tons, against an import of 14,300 tons in 1893.
Copper ore is found in the Urals, Caucasus,
Poland, Finland, Siberia, Altai, and Russian
Turkestan. Smelting is carried on in the Urals,
Caucasus, and Altai mountains, and electrolytic
refining in Western Siberia. Thanks to high im-
port duties the home industrv made rapid progress
in the decade before the war. In 1907 the produc-
tion and imports were 9500 and 13.200 metric tons
rcspectivelv ; in 1909, 22.000 and 500 t. ; and in
1913 the output rose to 47,200 t. There was, how-
ever a shortage of electrolytic copper, the annual
demand for which was about 17,000 t., and the
home supply some 6000—7000 t. short of this figure.
The war affected the industry very severely. In
spite of the great demand, production fell from
34 300 t. in 1913 to 26,500 t. in 1915, and importa-
tions rose from 6300 t. in 1913 to 42,500 t. in 1915
(31 500 t from the United States), and 64,500 t. in
1916 Some of the Caucasian mines were destroyed
by the Turks; others, particularly in Siberia,
suffered from lack of fuel, bad transport, sen i city
Vol. XXXIX.. No. 13.
REVIEW.
239^
of labour and of explosives which formerly came
from Germany. No official statistics are available
for recent years ; the industry has been paralysed by
the political changes, and in June, 1918, it, together
with all other industrial enterprises, was "social-
ised." Hence the war and its consequences have
dealt the Russian copper mining industry a heavy
blow, notwithstanding some promising discoveries
of new deposits, e.g., in the Altai district a body of
ore was disclosed measuring 900 m. long and 6 m.
wide containing 40 per cent, of copper, and in 1918
a large seam was discovered in the Kursk Govern-
ment containing 58 per cent, of metal. — (Schtveiz
Chem.-Z., Mar. 30, 1920, from Technik u. Wirt-
schaft, 11, 1919.)
Petroleum Production in Mexico. — On November 1,
1919, the Mexican wells that were producing petro-
leum numbered 305, with a daily output of about
two million barrels, but as the estimated capacity
of any well is only of relative accuracy it may safely
be said that the present Mexican production is
approximately one million barrels a day. During
1919 about 75,700,000 barrels of petroleum was ex-
ported. The Mexican Government, in pursuance of
its policy of encouraging petroleum refining, has
granted numerous concessions for the establishment
of refineries, many of which are now under construc-
tion. During 1918, 3,795,000 tons of crude oil was
refined in the country, fuel oil taking first place
among the refined products, with a total output of
2,883,000 tons; 2,653,000 tons of refined petroleum
products was exported in 1919. — (U.S. Com. Sep.,
Apr. 13, 1920.)
"Pita" Fibre in Brazil.- -Owing to the war-time
shortage of jute, attempts were made in Brazil to
utilise as a substitute the " pita " fibre obtained
from Fourcroya gigantea. Technical spinning tests
showed that as the breakage of pita fibre was 25 per
cent,, against a maximum breakage of 15 per cent,
for jute, textiles woven with it could not be made
use of commercially. However, pita has been suc-
cessfully used in the manufacture of twine and rope
in several factories, but it is more liable to rot than
jute when exposed to damp. Some is exported to the
United States, where it is used in the manufacture
of finer fabrics, such as mercerised cotton goods,
suitings, etc., for which it appears to be suitable.
The cultivation of the fibre is very expensive and
difficult, so much so that quantities of Italian hemp
and jute are again being imported. In several dis-
tricts, as in the State of Parahyba. the plant is not
cultivated ; it grows freely in a wild state and sup-
plies are drawn from natural resources. As a re-
duction in the Brazilian customs tariff on imported
rope is being contemplated, it is probable that the
native article, whether made from imported jute
and hemp or native-grown pita, will have to face
severe competition, especially from the British-
made article.— (Bd. of Trade J., May 20, 1920.)
Rubber Production and Prices. — In contrast with
most other commodities, the output of raw rubber
increased so much during the war that there is now
a surplus. From 1913 to 1915 the output and con-
sumption balanced fairly closely, but since then
stocks of raw rubber have been accumulating. From
1905 to 1919 the output increased from 60,000 to
334,000 tons, and in the latter year there was a sur-
plus amounting to 86,000 tons, including floating
stocks of manufactured goods. The price has fallen
in sympathy with the increase in production as
shown by the following figures: —
1915. 1916. 1917. 1918. 1919. 1920.
Hard fine Para 3/9 3/3 2/8i 2/7 2/7J 2/7
Caucho Ball ... 3/- 2/2 1/61 1/8 1/8 1/10
These price movements are interesting in view of the
fact that they are all lower than the pre-war rate,
which in 1911 was 7s. The effect of this fall has
been to give rise to a suggestion to curtail output
or to form an amalgamation of British and Dutch
planters.— (Schweiz. Chem.-Z., May 12, 1920.)
PARLIAMENTARY NEWS.
HOUSE OF COMMONS.
Incandescent Gas Mantles.
In reply to Mr. Doyle, Sir R. Home said that it
was true that the imports of gas mantles had in-
creased in value from £1880 in November, 1919, to
£25,619 in the two succeeding months, and that the
import value from February 1 to May 8 of the
current year was £35,804. The Government was
watching the position carefully, and it was hoped to
make a statement soon with regard to this and
cognate eases. — (June 21.)
Oil Supplies (Agreement).
Mr. Kellaway, answering Mr. Doyle, stated that
certain reciprocal arrangements had been entered
into with France with regard to oil supplies. No
restriction had been placed on the use to which oil
covered by this agreement was to be put. He was
unable to say when the particulars of the reciprocal
agreement would be given to the House ; no agree-
ments were in force with other Duropean Powers. —
(June 21.)
Income Tax (Deductions).
Replying to Mr. Greenwood, Mr. Baldwin, for the
Chancellor of the Exchequer, said that donations
made by a trader for the purpose of extending the
provision of university education, including train-
ing in research, in departments of science and tech-
nology relating to any particular industry, would
not be regarded as money expended exclusively for
trade purposes, and were therefore not admissible
as expenses in calculating profits for income-tax
purposes. (Cf. J., 1920, 186 r.)— (June 22.)
Brewing and Distilling Supplies.
In answer to Mr. Raffan, Sir W. Mitchell-Thom-
son said that the quantities of materials used by
brewers in the United Kingdom during the year
ended September 30, 1919, were: Malt, f.56,157
tons; unmalted corn, 2397 tons; rice, rice grits,
flaked rice, maize grits, etc., 17,551 tons; sugar, in-
cluding syrups, glucose, and saccharuni, 76,583
tons; and the estimated quantities used in distil-
leries during the same period were: Malt, 113,875
tons; unmalted grain, 22,125 tons; molasses, 4421
tons; sugar, 66 tons; other materials, 900 tons. —
(June 22.)
Coal Production (Distribution).
In a written answer to Capt. Bowyer, Mr. Bridge-
man stated that the coal available for home con-
sumption in 1919, after deducting the amount used
in operating the coal mines, was estimated at
162 million tons, the chief uses being : Railways (lor
locomotives), 13,000,000 tons; gas works, 17,750,000
tons; electricity and water undertakings, 7,500,000
tons ; blast furnaces, 15,750,000 tons : domestic (in-
cluding coal supply to miners), 42,500, 000 tons; all
other purposes, 65,000,000 tons. — (June 22.)
Sugar.
Sir W. Mitchell-Thomson, in reply to Sir B.
Chadwick, stated that the Royal Commission on the
Sugar Supply had purchased this year's Mauritius
crop of vesou sugar, which is estimated at 200,000
tons, at 89s., 90s., and 91s. per cwt., according to
quality. There was no evidence that a large part
of the world's sugar crop could not be marketed
owing to transport difficulties in the producing
countries. — (June 23.)
Answering Mr. Seddon, Mr. McCurdy said that
the financial reserves of the Royal Commission on
Sugar Supply were reduced during 1918 by about
£4,000,000 owing to the maintenance of the retail
price of sugar in this country below the level of the
world's sugar prices. It was estimated £hat the
total production of the United States, including
Porto Rico, the Philippine and Sandwich Islands.
REVIEW.
would not exceed 1,900,000 tons, compared with a
consumption in 1919 of 4,067,000 tons. There was
no evidence of the existence of a sugar trust in
America. — (June 24.)
OH (Mesopotamia).
The following information was given by the
Prime Minister in a reply to Major Entwistle : — The
ownership of the Mesopotamian oil deposits will be
secured to the Arab state as part of the administra-
tive arrangements under the Treaty and mandate.
No final decision has been reached regarding the
method of working the fields, but rights legally
secured before the war will have to be considered.
The Anglo-Persian Oil Co. is a participant in a
group claiming such rights. In any case the Arab
State, whose interests have been carefully safe-
guarded, will receive royalties either on all the oil
won or on the profit made from all the oil sold. At
present it is impossible to say what claims based on
grants by the Turkish Government may be put
forward in the various mandated territories. — ■
(June 28.)
Gas Regulation Bill.
After some minor amendments had been inserted
the Bill was read a third time and passed (cf. J.,
1920, 187 b, 224 r).— (June 29.)
Ministry of Mines BUI.
The Ministry of Mines Bill provides for the
appointment of a Minister of Mines as an addi-
tional Parliamentary Secretary of the Board of
Trade, and transfers to him all the powers and
duties of the Board with respect to the mining
industry, including coal mines, metalliferous mines,
and quarries. The special powers conferred on the
Minister for one year in respect of the regulation
of the export of coal, coke, etc., of the pithead
price of coal, of miners' wages, and the distribution
of profits are to be subject to the approval of the
Board of Trade (section 3). It is proposed that
the Coal Mines (Emergency) Act, 1920, shall con-
tinue in force until the date on which the first
order made under section 3 takes effect, or until
March 31, 1921, whichever may be the earlier; that
advisory committees be set up, and that the com-
mittee on coal and the coal industry shall consist
of a chairman and 24 members, including 4 owners
of coal mines, 4 workers in or about coal mines,
3 employers and 3 workers in other industries, one
mining engineer, two managers of coal mines, one
coal exporter, one coal factor, one person with ex-
perience of commerce (other than coal), one person
with experience of co-operative trading, and three
experts in medical or other science.
Part II. of the Bill deals with the regulation of
coal mines and provides for the constitution of pit
committees, district committees, area boards and
of a National Board. The functions of a pit com-
mittee, half the members of which must be repre-
sentatives of the workers, include the making of
recommendations in regard to the health and social
welfare of the workers, the maintenance and in-
crease of output, and disputes. The expenses of
the above bodies are to be paid by the mine owners,
who will also be called upon to pav Id. per ton
of coal raised into a fund to be applied to furthering
the social well-being of the workers, and for mining
education.
In moving the second reading on June 30, the
President of the Board of Trade stated that al-
though no provision had been made in the Bill for
the nationalisation of minerals, the Government in-
tended to fulfil its pledge in this connexion at a
later date. The reading was opposed by the Labour
Party, but carried by 217 votes to 91.
Replying to a question put by Capt. Tudor-Rees,
Mr. Bridgeman gave the estimated cost of the new
Department at about £250,000 per annum, nearly
the whole of which sum represents the cost of ex-
isting organisations which will be transferred to
the new Ministry. — (July 1.)
Cornish Tin Mines.
Mr. Seddon asked whether the owners of the tin
mines in the Camborne-Redruth area are prepared
to amalgamate their interests, and thus effect great
economies, and, if so, if the Government would give
any financial help, seeing that the threatened
closing down of various mines, including the Dol-
coath and Grenville United mines, would throw
large numbers of men out of work.
Mr. Bridgeman replied that the position of the
Cornish tin mining industry had been carefully
considered and that the Government, however, did
not see its way to ask the House to vote such
financial assistance in view of the present position
of national finance. The suggestion that control
should be re-established and the importation of
tin prohibited was ill-advised, as the whole output
of this country was not likely to meet more than a
fraction of the home demnd. — (July 1.)
War-time Scientific Inventions.
In reply to Sir H. Norman, Mr. Bonar Law said
that the question as to the official attitude towards
scientific inventions made by officers during the war
had been considered by the Government Depart-
ments concerned, and the Lord President of the
Council was about to appoint an inter-departmental
committee with the following terms of reference : —
(1) To consider the methods of dealing with inven-
tions made by workers aided or maintained from
public funds, whether such workers be engaged
(a) as research workers or (b) in a technical
capacity, so as to give a fair reward to the inventor
and thus encourage further effort, to secure the
industrial utilisation of suitable inventions, and to
protect the national interest, and (2) To outline
a course of procedure in respect of such inventions
which shall further these aims" and be suitable for
adoption by all Government Departments
concerned. — (July 5.)
Nauru Island (Agreement) Bill.
This Bill came before the Standing Committee on
July 6, and in spite of Government opposition, a
motion, by Lord Robert Cecil, that the Bill be sub-
ject to sanction by the League of Nations, was
carried by 16 votes to 15.
Patents (Government Servants).
In reply to Mr. C. Edwards, Mr. Bonar Law said
that technical officers and scientific workers em-
ployed by the Department of Scientific and Indus-
trial Research can take out patents for inventions
resulting from work done for the Department. The
patents are taken out in the names of the inventor
and of the Imperial Trust for the Encouragement
of Scientific and Industrial Research. The Com-
mittee of the Council reserves the power to deter-
mine what share, if any, of the royalties or benefits
arising from such inventions should be paid to the
inventor. — (July 6.)
GOVERNMENT ORDERS AND NOTICES.
Spirit Duty. — The Commissioners of Customs and
Excise have issued a notice to manufacturers of
medical preparations setting out the conditions
under which they may obtain repayment of the
increased duties now imposed on spirits.
Export of Explosives. — The Board of Trade
(Licensing Section) announces that, as from June 18
last, Rex powder may be exported without Privy
Council licence.
Vol. XXXIX.. Xo. 13.]
REPORT.
Report ox Industrial and Commercial Conditions
in Germany at the Close of the Year 1919
iJ>- 3s- H.M. Stationery Office. 192(1. (Cmd
<o2. 4rf.)
Finance and Taxation.— Factors contributing to
the depression of German finance are destruction
of credit by the loss of the war and by political un-
rest, absence of raw materials, inflation of currency
uncertainty as to obligations under the Peace
Treaty, and the difficulty of controlling imports
of goods and exports of marks across the western
frontier. There was a marked increase of paper
currency during the second half of 1919 due to
rising prices and to the impending assessments in
connexion with the levy on capital. The Gorman
Public Debt amounted to 16,715 million marks on
March 31, 1915, and was estimated at 218,812
million marks on March 31, 1920; the budget made
no provision for any except immediate obligations
arising out of the Peace Treaty, it being left to
the Allies to frame their demands. Many new taxes
and a concentration of the control of taxes have
been introduced to put the internal finances in
order, but these do not affect the foreign credit and
trade balance.
Coal and Bailways. — There was a steady improve-
ment in the output of coal during 1919, but strikes
and transport difficulties prevented the accumula-
tion of winter stocks. The production of lignite
exceeded that of 1913 owing to the development of
the nitrogen and aluminium industries. The trans-
port of coal is still unsatisfactory, and large clumps
exist in Upper Silesia and the Ruhr Area. Stocks
for the railways were only maintained with great
difficulty during the winter ; many of the smaller
gas works have been closed for some time, and in
other cases a supply of gas is only maintained for
a few hours daily. The distribution of domestic
coal is very irregular particularly in the south and
east. The food- supply has been affected by the
small quantities of coal available for shipping,
flour mills, forge and other agricultural purposes.
Blast furnaces, steel works, power stations and the
cement, lime, brick and procelaiu industries, all of
national importance, suffer from the shortage.
Efforts have been made to avoid closing down manu-
factures in order to utilise such raw materials as
were available. Coal taxes were introduced in 1917,
followed by a system of central control of the indus-
try, in which the miners participate, iu 1920, but
these do not affect production.
Iron and Steel. — The industry is particularly
affected by the loss of the Saar and of Lorraine
and by the rising cost of Swedish ore, large amounts
of which were due at the end of the war. F. Krupp
A.-G. closed the year 1918—1919 with a loss, being
hard hit by the declining exchange as the Govern-
ment prohibited payment for foreign ore in foreign
currency obtained from exports during the war.
After the armistice, new manufactures such as
internal combustion motors, locomotives, goods-
trucks, lorries, sewing machines and other small
goods were started in addition to those run before
the war.
The industry had anticipated an improvement in
the coal and labour situation in May, 1920, but
it is unlikely that this has occurred. The price
of Swedish ore was 300 mk. per ton, as against
18 mk. in 1913, and of minette 070 mk., as against
85 mk. A Union of the German Metal Goods In-
dustry, with 1400 members employing 300,000
hands, has been formed.
Leather. — Government control was removed in
August, 1919, and the subsequent rise in prices up
to 10 — 12 mk. per lb. for raw hides was such that
manufacturers ceased buying. The state of the
exchanges, coupled with import regulations, have
raised foreign leather goods to a prohibitive price.
Shipping. — After delivering all ships over 1600
tons and half those between 1000 and 1600 tons,
Germany now possesses a total of 501,910 tons, a
tenth of her pre-war tonnage. Construction of new
vessels over 1000 tons is prevented by uncertaintv
of the interpretation of the peace terms.
As Germany cannot buy she cannot produce, and
is therefore not a serious industrial rival at pre-
sent ; her industrial organisation is, however, not
seriously damaged, and would rapidly respond to
any stimulus. German factories should not be pur-
chased without consideration of the problems of
fuel, labour, taxation and restrictive legislation.
Most undertakings worth buying have taken pre-
caution to prevent the intrusion of foreign influ-
ence.
LEGAL INTELLIGENCE.
Saccharin Transaction. N. L. Scaliaris v. E.
Ofverberg and Co.
On June 22, in the King's Bench Division, an
action was brought by Mr. N. L. Scaliaris against
Messrs. E. Ofverberg and Co., of London, to re-
cover money paid for saccharin and damages for
breach of contract.
For the plaintiff it was stated that he purchased
1200 lb. of saccharin, Monsanto brand, from the de-
fendant company in August, 1918. The goods were
landed at Glasgow and then sent to London, where
they were sold as being of the Monsanto brand. It
was found that 400 lb. was not of this brand, and
the sub-purchasers rejected this quantity. Mr.
Justice Bailhache had previously confirmed the
award of an arbitrator in favour of the sub-
purchasers, to whom the plaintiff, therefore, paid
some £4,500. Plaintiff now claimed this amount
from Ofverberg and Co. and £225 for loss of profits.
The defence was that as plaintiff took possession
at Glasgow, he should have examined the goods
there; as he failed to do this, there was no reason
for complaint when the goods arrived in London.
Mr. Justice Rowlatt, in giving judgment, said
that the buyer was entitled to reject the goods in-
asmuch as although they were manufactured by the
Monsanto firm, they had been sold for shipment to
another firm which had put the Monsanto label
upon them. As to whether the buyer was not too
late in his rejection of the goods, he held that the
buyer could treat them as still in transit until they
arrived in London, as Glasgow was not the port of
destination. He found that the plaintiff did
examine at the first reasonable opportunity, and
that lie was then entitled to reject.
Judgment was given for the plaintiff for a sum
to be agreed upon between the parties.
Validity of a Pke-War Contract. Pacific Phos-
phate Co., Ltd.. v. The Empire Transport Co.,
Ltd.
An action was brought on June 29, in the King's
Bench Division; by the Pacific Phosphate Co., Ltd.,
of London, against the Empire Transport Co., Ltd.,
for a declaration that a contract of August 30,
1913, was a valid and subsisting contract.
On behalf of the plaintiff company it was stated
that under the contract defendants were to be pro-
vided with twelve steamers a year from 1914 to 1918
for the transport of phosphate from Nauru and
Ocean Islands, and that in the event of war ship-
ments could be suspended until its termination.
REVIEW.
[July 15, 1920.
The defendants denied liability, maintaining that
the contract was frustrated and dissolved.
In giving judgment, Mr. Justice Rowlatt held
that the contract had come to an end by reason of
frustration by events not contemplated by the
parties concerned ; accordingly he gave judgment
for the defendants, with costs.
Corrosion of Ship's Plates by Dissolved Copper
Sulphate.
On June 29, the Court of Appeal upheld the judg-
ment of Mr. Justice Hill that the owners of the
steamship in question were not liable for damage
due to water having entered a mixed cargo of
copper sulphate in bags and cotton yarn, and dis-
missed the appeal by the owners of the cargo. (Cf.
J., 1920, 19 h.)
OFFICIAL TRADE INTELLIGENCE.
(From the Board of Trade Journal for
June 24 and July 1.)
OPENINGS FOR BRITISH TRADE.
The following inquiries have been received at the
Department of Overseas Trade (Development and
Intelligence), 35, Old Queen Street, London, S.W. 1,
from firms, agents, or individuals who desire to re-
present U.K. manufacturers or exporters of the
goods specified. British firms may obtain the
names and addresses of the persons or firms re-
ferred to by applying to the Department and
quoting the specific reference number : —
Locality of
firm or agent.
MATERIALS.
Egypt
Belgium
Czecho-Slovakia
Germany . .
Switzerland
Algeria
.. and Tunis
United States
Brazil
Colombia and Vene-
zuela
Cuba
Earthenware . . . . . - j 918
Dry colours, colours in oil. white
lead, paint removers . . . . | 931
Druggists' supplies .. .. 950
Coated papers and boxboard
Cotton waste (tender for)
Copper, brass, zinc, lead, nickel.
white metal
Chemicals
Nickel chrome steel, bright drawn
steel bars
Olive oil. tannin? material*
Oil (including all edible oils), oil-
seed cake . . . . . . 965
Glass, china, pottery . . . . 967
Pig iron, tinplate. copper, tin. zinc 940
Oil-seeds 941
Drugs, medicines, essences, per-
fumes, toilet soap
Soda (ash and crystal), glue, gela-
tin, shellac, gum tragacauth,
boric acid, sodium sulphide . . 973
Chemicals 974
Glassware, metal sheets . . . . 975
Copper sulphate, soap, candles . . 976
Waste paper . . . . . . 946
Chemicals, anilines, lubricating
oil, cement
Industrial chemicals, iron bars and j
sheets, cement 979
Paint, varnish . . . . . . 948
Steel rails and bars, iron pipe.
corrugated roofing, plate and
sheet glass, Boor and wall tiles . . I 9S1
* The High Commissioner for Canada, 19, Victoria Street, London,
8.W. 1.
t Sir A. L. Webb. K.C.M.G., Queen Anne's Chambers. Broadway,
Westminster, S.W. 1.
Market Sought. — A Canadian firm able to ex-
port lard oils for textile use wishes to hear from im-
porters in the U.K.. Inquiries to the Canadian
Government Trade Commissioner, 73, Basinghall
Street, London, E.C. 2.
TARIFF, CUSTOMS, EXCISE.
Austria. — A State monopoly of the sale and
manufacture of natural and artificial mineral
waters and mineral water products has been esta-
blished as from June 1.
Belgium. — Among the articles affected by the law
authorising, as from June 21, the increase of
customs duty by means of " coefficients of in-
crease " are fermented beverages, cocoa, candles,
yeast, matches, certain metals, paper, skins,
earthenware, gunpowder, liquid carbonic acid,
acetic and sulphuric ethers, soap, glass, vinegar,
acetic acid, and textiles.
The export without export licence of hackled flax
and waste therefrom and of flax tow is authorised
until September 15.
Denmark. — The prohibition of the export of
potato starch has been cancelled.
Egypt. — The import tariff valuations of iron and
steel manufactures are set out in the issue for
July 1.
France and Algeria. — Among the articles subject,
under certain conditions, to reduced rates of im-
port duty when imported for the purpose of fur-
ther working and re-export are tinplate, wire of
copper, bronze or brass, certain kinds of paper,
and porcelain.
The import of newsprint paper and cellulose pulp
for the manufacture thereof is prohibited as from
June 16.
Italy. — To obtain the reduced rate of import duty,
crude mineral oils must have sp. gr. not less than
0950 at 15° C, must be viscid and of a black
bituminous appearance, and not contain more than
20 per cent, by weight of distilled products at 310°
C. Residues when not suitable for lubricating
purposes or illumination, and provided that they
have sp. gr. not less than 0'860 at 15° C, may also
be admitted at the reduced rate.
Kelantan. — As from February 1, the rate of ex-
port duty on copra is fixed at 3 per cent, ad
valorem.
Luxemburg. — The rate of export duty on iron
ore, slag, and scales from rolling mills has been
reduced to 60 centimes per 1000 k%. as from May 1
Netherlands. — Export prohibitions have been
temporarily withdrawn from bone black, nickel,
and wire nails.
Poland.- — The temporary suspension of customs
duty on certain articles has been prolonged. Among
the articles affected are margarine, nitric and sul-
phuric acids, natural colouring earths and clays,
certain kinds of porcelain, rubber packing, and iron
and steel wire.
" Articles of luxury," the import of which is
prohibited include certain nuts and seeds, cocoa,
chocolate, beer, precious stones, painted earthen-
ware and porcelain, majolica, certain kinds of glass-
ware, perfumery, toilet soap, boot polish, and
liquid inks.
Portugal. — The decree modifying the export re-
strictions and surtaxes is given in the issue for
June 24. Among the articles affected are hides
and skins, molasses, olive oil, olive husk oil, whale
oil, fish oil, oil cakes, industrial alcohol, cocoa,
chocolate, wine, vinegar, alcohol, tartaric acid,
tartar, tartrates, turpentine, rosin, resins, tanning
materials, glue, copper ore, tin ore, tin, wolfram,
copper precipitate, tinplate, certain metals, wood-
pulp, vegetable fibres, phosphorus matches, coal
tar, medicinal plants, copper sulphate, chemical
and pharmaceutical products, paper, and wax.
Portugal (Angola).— The export duties on hides,
skins, palm kernels, and palm kernel oil have been
amended.
San Salvador. — Exportation of brown sugar is
prohibited as from May 12.
Southern Ithodesia. — The import duties on
spirits, perfumes, essences, medicinal and toilet
Vol. XXXIX.. Xo. IS]
preparations, syrups, and tinctures containing
more than 3 per cent, of proof spirit have been in-
creased as from May 10.
Spain.- — Sugar may be imported at the reduced
rate of duty until September 8.
Sweden. — The customs duties on, inter alia, lard,
dripping, margarine, and condensed milk have been
suspended until August 31.
Switzerland. — The general export licence author-
ising the export of crude ferro-silicon, ferro-
chrome, and similar iron alloys has been abrogated
as from May 25.
Tunis. — The export and re-export of industrial
alcohol is prohibited as from April 30.
COMPANY NEWS.
THE BRITISH CYANIDES CO., LTD.
The annual ordinary general meeting was held in
London on June 23. Mr. C. F. Ron-sell, the chair-
man, said that in spite of the many alterations and
extensions to plant and works, and the fact that
trade had been exceptionally difficult during the
past year, the balance of profit had increased from
£20,572 to £25,042 (issued capital £256,438). The
directors were engaged in negotiations which would
doubtless result in a considerable change in the
position of the British Potash Co. That company
had done good service during the war and during
the past year, and its value as an asset to the
British Cyanides Co. would be eventually well worth
the price at which it stands in the books, viz.,
£26,500; but it was impossible to say very much
as to the future of the business.
Mr. Kenneth M. Chance, the managing director,
referred to the great expansion the works had
undergone during the past seven years, and said
that greater progress had been made in the manu-
facture of chemicals since January 1, 1920, than in
any previous complete year in the company's his-
tory. Manufacturing costs had been reduced and
new methods had been worked out by the research
department. The change-over to peace conditions
had been attended by many difficulties, but now
that the extensions had been completed neither
German nor any other foreign competition was to be
feared, provided only that fair treatment in regard
to taxation and restrictions on trade were accorded
by the Government. Despite long delays due to
difficulties in obtaining materials, progress had been
made in working out the company's " barium " pro-
cess. He believed that ultimately the process would
be better suited to the economic production of
ammonia in this country than any other, although
it would take many years to bring to fruition ;
meanwhile efforts were being concentrated on the
primary objective — the production of a cheap and
unlimited source of supply of cyanogen. Much pro-
gress had been achieved in regard to potash pro-
duction, the output had been increased materially
and both methods of manufacture and quality of
the finished product greatly improved. Manu-
facture is handicapped by the prohibition of its
exportation except under licence, and by the unre-
stricted importation of foreign material. Appar-
ently, some of the crystal glass manufacturers were
not satisfied with tbat form of protection, and
wanted facilities for importing pure carbonate of
potash from Germany at prices far below those at
which the Germans can make it. During the
present year the company had supplied this
material without delay to British glass manufac-
turers at a lower price than had been charged for
similar quality by any makers in any other
country in the world.
BLEACHERS' ASSOCIATION, LTD.
The report for the year ended March 31, 1920.
gives the gioss trading profits at £1,202,240, or
£472,628 more than in the year 1913-14, and the
net profits at £813,579, which with the amount
brought forward leaves a total available balance ot
£1,102,468. Out of this sum £150,000 is placed to
the general reserve fund, bringing it up to
£1,200,000, and the holders of ordinary shares are
to receive 15 per cent, for the year, plus a bonu^
of 5 per cent. The carry forward is £321,461, as
against £288,888 brought in. The directors, while
not proposing to make any immediate issue, recom-
mend that the capital be increased to £8,000,000
by the creation of 2 million new shares of £1 each.
This proposal was adopted at an extraordinary
meeting, following the annual meeting held in
Manchester on June 22. Sir Alan Sykes, who pre-
sided, stated that the world's markets were at the
present time doing extremely little in the way of
buying.
BURMAH DLL CO., LTD.
In his address to the annual general meeting at
Glasgow on June 24, Sir John T. Cargill stated
that he had recently visited Cambridge University
and had noted with great satisfaction the excellent
use which was being made of the company's dona-
tion of £50,000 for chemical research. He wished
others would follow the example of the oil com-
panies and encourage scientific research and educa-
tion at all our great universities.
The business of the company during 1919 was
very prosperous, the profits having exceeded those
of 1918 by £1,350,000. After writing off large sums,
placing £1,291,000 to general reserve, and paying
£318,120 for income tax, dividends amounting to
50 per cent, for the year are paid on the ordinary
shares, and the carry forward is £1,536,994, sub-
ject to excess profits duty estimated at £1,300,000.
Owing to increased taxation and a greatly increased
share capital, the payment of 50 per cent, in divi-
dends for the year 1920 is most improbable.
In conjunction with Messrs. Tata, Ltd., a com-
pany has been formed to initiate the manufacture
of tinplat-e in India. The factory will be erected
near the Tata iron and steel works at Jamshedpur,
about 150 miles from Calcutta, which will supply
the necessary materials. It is hoped that produc-
tion will commence in the early part of 1922.
At a subsequent extraordinary meeting it was
resolved to increase the capital to £7,000,000 by the
creation of one million new ordinary shares of £1
each, to capitalise the sum of £2,286,000, repre-
senting undivided profits, and to appropriate that
sum for distribution as a capital bonus to share-
holders at the rate of four new ordinary shares for
every five now held.
SCOTTISH OILS, LTD.
The first annual general meeting was held on
June 24, in Glasgow, Sir Charles Greenway pre-
siding.
Alluding to the critical position of the Scottish
shale oil industry a year ago, the chairman said
that a crisis was reached in September last (cf. J.,
1920, 20 b) when the workers demanded a reduction
of hours. Work was continued on the old basis for
six months, after which the directors came to the
conclusion that owing to the economies which would
result from the amalgamation (cf. J., 1919, 277 r),
and to the advance in the price of products, the
industry would be able to stand a seven-hours' day,
and this was brought into force on April 7 last.
The projected extension of the activities of the
industry by undertaking the refining of imported
REVIEW.
crude petroleum was now in operation, thereby
enabling the refineries to work at full capacity
and reduce working costs ; very important develop-
ments were to be expected in this connexion. The
sale and distribution of by-products by the Scottish
Oil Agency, Ltd., were being successfully carried
out, and an arrangement between this agency and
the British Petroleum and Homelight companies,
whereby the two latter would act for the former in
England and Ireland, had been completed. The
marketing of sulphate of ammonia was in the hands
of the Sulphate of Ammonia Federation, Ltd. (<•/.
J., 1920, 209 r), in the formation of which the
company had taken a leading part. The Scottish oil
companies produce about one-sixth of the total pro-
duction of sulphate of ammonia in the United
Kingdom, and the Federation comprises 444 manu-
facturers out of a total of 499. Since the close of
the financial year selling prices of all the company's
products had advanced, but costs had also risen.
However, with a continuance of present conditions,
the current year should bo prosperous.
THE BRITISH OIL AND CAKE MILLS, LTD.
The directors' report for the year 1919, sub-
mitted at the general meeting held in London on
June 24, states that after allocating nearly
£247,000 to reserves, etc., there remains a balance
of £357.811, which, with the amount brought for-
ward, allows of the payment of 25 per cent, on the
ordinary shares. The sum of £255,000 has been
spent on repairs and renewals during the year.
In his address as chairman, Mr. J. W. Pearson
referred to the negotiations which had taken place
between the company and the African and Eastern
Corporation, Ltd., with a view to a possible fusion,
but these were abandoned before any offer or pro-
posal had been made by either side. The past year
had been a very succesful one, the turnover having
exceeded £25,000,000, of which the Revenue would
take approximately one-half. Arrangements had
been made to acquire the entire share capital of the
business of J. and J. Stephenson, Ltd., of Hull.
With regard to stocks of raw material, valued at
£2,700,000, the company had rarely more than
sufficient to run the mills for a month, and the
whole of these had been sold at a profit within six
weeks of the closing of the balance-sheet. The
chief subsidiary companies were the British Ex-
tracting Co. and John Robinson, Ltd. The Hull
Stearine and Warehousing Co. dealt with the whole
of the by-products of the company's refineries. The
margarine works had been completed and ex-
tended ; the soap works at Hull were approaching
completion and should reach the production stage
early next year.
ELECTRO BLEACH AND BY-PRODUCTS, LTD.
The directors' report presented to the sixth
annual meeting at Manchester, on July 1, states
that the gross profit for the year 1919 was £68,368,
and the net profit £34,637. After paying the pre-
ference dividend and allocating £5000 to reserve,
it is proposed to pay a further dividend of 7J per
cent, on the ordinary shares, making 14 per cent,
for the year, and to carry forward £4277. The
report and accounts were adopted at the meeting.
The chairman, Sir H. Mackinder, stated that the
exchange of shares with Brunner, Mond and Co.
had been carried through; only the owners of 125
out of 400,000 issued shares had refused the offer.
£200,000 ordinary and £100,000 preference shares,
and annual profits have averaged £36,000 for the
last four years. £50,000 six per cent, debentures
are now offered for subscription at £92 per cent.,
making the balance of a total issue of £100,000. The
debentures are repayable at par by annual draw-
ings, the amount to be allocated to redemption
being equal to 8 per cent.
Boot's Pure Drug Co., Ltd. — In a circular
addressed to the shareholders, the chairman, Sir
Jesse Boot, states that recent reports concerning
the sale of this company to the United Drug Co.
of America were inaccurate. As a result of
negotiations between himself and the president
of the American company, a working " alliance"
between the two companies has been brought about
by the formation of a new company with a capital
of over £10,000,000, which has taken over all Sir
J. Boot's holding of deferred ordinary shares in
the Pure Drug Co., together with the large
Canadian business and all other businesses outside
of America controlled by the United Drug Co. The
main object of the alliance is stated to be the
avoidance of competition.
TRADE NOTES.
New Issues. — T<ow Temperature Carbonisation,
Ltd. (cf. J., 19 r), is offering £250,000 ordinary
shares of £1 each at par.
A, Boake Roberts and Co., Ltd. — This company-
has a share capital of £300,000, divided into
BRITISH.
Nigeria in 1918. — The total value of the imports,
exclusive of specie, was £7,423,158, as against
£5.808,592 in 1917. The imports included :— Kola
nuts, 133,445 centals (£197,958); salt, 34,763 tons
(£311,752); kerosene, etc., 1,615,960 galls.
(£93,697) ; iron, steel and their manufactures,
£139,535; and soap, 2867 tons (£129,337). The
value of imports from the British Empire increased
from £5,025,043 in 1917 to £6,4.59,147 in 1918, and
foreign goods were valued at £964,011 (£783,549 in
1917). The exports, excluding specie, amounted
in value to £9,511,971 in 1918, compared with
£8,602,486 in 1917. and included : — Benniseed. 42
tons (£696) ; cotton lint, 661 tons (£697,339) ; cotton-
seed, 405 tons (£15,412); rubber, 157 tons
(£19,667) ; hides and skins (£293.019) ; shea products,
126 tons (£4884); tin ore, 8294 tons (£1,770,003);
palm oil, 86,425 tons (£2,610,448); palm kernels,
205,167 tons (£3,226,306); and groundnuts, 57,554
tons (£920,137). The share of the exports taken
by the United Kingdom and British Possessions
increased from 83'6 per cent, in 1917 to 924 per
cent, in 1918.
In the Northern Provinces 82 tin-mining com-
panies operated throughout the vear and produced
8434 tons of tin ore (8314 in 1917). Gold mining
operations were continued near Minna in the Niger
Province and 14166 oz. of alluvial gold was won.
In the Southern Provinces mining is confined to
the Calabar Province and only one company, the
Nigerian Proprietarv Co., Ltd., is operating. The
output of coal was 83,405 tons in 1917 and 148,214
tons in 1918.
The season was a fair one for most crops except
cotton; groundnuts showed an increase of 10,000
tons, and a large quantity still remained in the
country owing to the lack of railway facilities.
Progress has been made with the cultivation of
pedigree seedling sugar canes obtained from Bar-
badoes in 1914, and it is estimated that there are
now approximately 150 acres under this crop. The
Agricultural Department distributed large amounts
of various types of cottonseed to the farmers and
continues to encourage cotton growing. Coconuts
in the Onitsha province have suffered from disease
and control measures have only been partially suc-
cessful. Several of the Para rubber plantations
Vol. XXXIX.. No. 13.]
REVIEW.
have reached a tappable size and the yield of rubber
was on the whole satisfactory; a serious fungous
disease of the bark which broke out on a number
of tapped trees is being investigated. Successful
efforts have been made to encourage the planting
of the Gold Coast variety of the kola nut and it is
hoped eventually to produce nuts equal in quantity
to the imports. — (Col. Bep.-Ann., No. 1030 Avr
1920.)
GENERAL.
The Japanese Rubber Trade. — The manufacture of
rubber goods in Japan has developed considerably
of late years owing to the conditions imposed by the
war. The Tokyo Rubber Association was formed
early in 1919 and soon decided to raise prices by 20
per cent., but this was found to be insufficient.
Japanese tyres are used almost exclusively in
Shanghai in spite of the opposition of the Eastern
branch of Dunlop's. Although the climate and con-
ditions of the roads militate against a long life, the
Japanese tyres are supplied under a guarantee of
seven months. — (India Eubber World, Apr., 1920.)
Chemical Trade of Japan. — The imports of chemi-
cals into Japan, which include salicylic acid, caustic
soda, sodium cyanide, soda ash, logwood extract
and aniline dyes, have increased greatly of late
years. In 1919, stocks of imported carbolic acid,
soda ash, caustic soda, glue and resin were in ex-
cess of the demand. Most of these chemicals were
imported from the United States, which is the sole
sourceof Japanese imports of potassiumdichromate,
calcium acetate, milk sugar and aniline salts.
Ammonium carbonate and chloride, tartaric acid,
zinc white, sodium cyanide, sodium borate, citric
acid and gelatin, however, are imported from Great
Britain more freely than from the United States,
whilst the former is the exclusive source of sodium
peroxide and cyanide. Among the products that
became export lines during the war are naphtha-
lene, acetic acid-, zinc dust, copper sulphate,
potassium chlorate and chloride. — (Bd. of Trade J.,
June 3, 1920.)
Trade of Hongkong in 1919 Chemicals.— The
trade in chemicals was valued at £514.551 in 1919,
compared with £413,116 in 1918. The chief im-
ports were : Saltpetre, mainly from India (£91.931) ;
camphor, from north and central China and Japan
(£57,787) ; soda ash, almost entirely from Great
Britain (£45,684) ; caustic soda, of which two-thirds
came from the United States and the remainder
chiefly from Great Britain (£38,939). The im-
ports of acid, mainly from Japan, showed a marked
decrease, as did also those of bleaching powder,
calcium carbide, phosphorus and glycerin. There
were increased imports of alum, borax, quinine,
potassium chlorate, and sulphur. In general,
supplies were difficult to obtain, and the trade
showed little life.
Sugar. — For the first time in a good many years
Hongkong imported refined sugar in quantity, the
imports in 1919 amounting to about 12,000 short
tons. The total imports during that year, viz.,
403,7733 tons were, however, lower than the total
imports during 1918, 485,530 t., of which Java fur-
nished the largest portion. The total exports for
the year 1919 were also below those of 1918, namely,
350,589 as compared with 417,664 tons. The quan-
titv of refined sugar exported to Great Britain in-
creased from 1899 tons in 1918 to 11,207 tons in
1919.
Leather, etc. — In 1918, a tannery erected in
Hongkong by Chinese interests and equipped with
modern machinery, started work, but did not prove
a financial success. Since then the plant has been
acquired by joint British and American interests,
which purchased additional equipment, with the
result that, early in 1920, the tannery had begun
to produce chrome leather of practically all grades.
It is believed that the leather now produced will
take the place of cheaper grades imported from the
United States, so that there will be little competi-
tion from the better grades supplied by Europe and
America. Of the sole leather imported into Hong-
kong in 1919, valued at about £1,200,000, the
Straits Settlements furnished 66 per cent., China
20, Siam 9, Australia 3. and the United States
under 0'75 per cent. In the same year upper
leather valued at £60,000 was imported, 90 per cent,
of which came from the United States.
Exports of hides and skins improved during 1919,
a total value of £1,154,152 being reached (£803,777
in 1918). Great Britain and France respectively
took 48 and 39 per cent, of the buffalo hides, and
the Straits Settlements and Japan took 30 and 23
per cent, of the cow hides, France, Great Britain,
and China taking about 15 per cent. each. Most
of the hides are usually shipped to Singapore, where
they are turned into sole leather, the latter being
reshipped to Hongkong. — (U.S. Com. Sep., Mar.
18, 25, Apr. 29, May 8, 17, 28, .920.)
Foreign Company News. — France. — The Cie. Pro-
duits Chimiques de Saint-Gobain reports a net
profit of 12,605,475 francs for 1919 (9.335,243 fr.
in 1918); the dividend has been raised from 180
to 210 f r.
The Cie. Phosphates Tunisiens reports a net pro-
fit of 4,105,451 fr. (2,462,739 fr. in 1918), and it is
proposed to pay a dividend of 15 fr. on each of the
160,000 shares, 15 fr. on the original shares, and
7-50 fr. on the shares issued in 1918.
With the support of the " Serica " company, a
new company has been formed for the manufacture
of artificial silk, chiefly by the Stearn process. The
capital will be 1,800,000 fr. divided into 18,000
shares of 100 fr. each. The company will exploit
the Belgian patent under licence at its works at
Ecaussines — (Bev. Prod. Chim., June 15, 1920.)
Noricay. — It is reported that the Titan Co. A./S.
of Frederikstad, which manufactures titanium
white, is about to raise its capital from 6 to 9 mil-
lion kroner (krone = ls. ljd.). A portion of the
plant was started up in June, 1919, with very satis-
factory results; the full plant is now about to be
put into operation. Ore in the form of slimes is
obtained from Norwegian mines — (Z. angew.
Chem., June 4, 1920.
Japan. — A syndicate of dyestuff manufacturers
has been founded in Tokyo with the approval of the
Ministry of Agriculture and Trade. The president
and vice-president represent the Taisho Chemical
Industrial Co. and Tokyo Aniline Dyes Co. respec-
tively.— (Z. angew. Chem., June 15, 1920.)
United States. — The Farmers' Co-operative Phos-
phate and Fertiliser Co., recently organised in Mul-
berry, Florida, with a capital of §5,000,000, has
purchased 3700 acres of phosphate land estimated
to contain nearly 10 million tons of pebble phos-
phate rock with an average content of 65 — 75 per
cent, tricalcic phosphate. A further area with
some 4 to 5 million tons has been contracted for,
and it is hoped to produce 58,000 tons of phosphate
annually, to be increased eventually to 200,000
tons.
Reunion in 1918. — The imports and exports of this
French colony in 1918 were valued at £1,205,029
and £1,133,421 respectively, as against £849,270
and £1.033,803 in 1917. Amongst the imports were
730 metric tons of petroleum and gasoline, valued
at £36.624, and 336 tons of soap, worth £26,814,
while the exports included vegetable and essential
oils (geranium, 115,858 lb. ; vetyver, 9975 lb. ;
ylang-ylang, 6333 lb. ; other oil, 46 lb.) to the value
of £147,770. The colony's trade is mostly shared
between France and French possessions, England
and British possessions, and the United States. —
(U.S. Com. Sep., Feb. 18, 1920.)
246 b
RKVIEW.
[July 15, 1920
Guatemala in 1919.— The imports into Guatemala
during 1919 were valued at £2,246,163 (at normal
exchange), of which the United States provided
about 72 per cent, and the United Kingdom 18 per
cent. The values of some of the chief imports
were: — Iron manufactures, £191,894; copper
manufactures, £7097; glass and pottery, £29,741;
drugs and medicines, £89,914; paper, £59,083. The
principal exports included: — Castor oil, 31,659 lb. ;
sugar, 11,335,919 lb.; vegetable fibre, 98,570 lb.;
rubber, 15,340 lb.; mineral products, 3,711,966 lb.
The United States took the majority of the exports.
—{U.S. Com. Bcpit Apr. 2, 1920.)
REVIEW.
PUBLICATIONS RECEIVED.
Ozone. By E. K. Rideal. (A Treatise on Electro-
chemistry, edited by Bertram Blount.) Pp.
198. (London: Constable and Co., Ltd. 1920.)
Price 12s.
Food Inspection and Analysis. By A. E. Leach.
Bevised and enlarged by A. L. Winton. Fourth
edition. Pp. 1090, with 41 plates. (New York :
John Wiley and Sons, Inc.; London: Chapman
and Hall, Ltd. 1920.) Price 45s.
Notes on Chemical Research. By W. P. Dreaper.
Second edition. Pp. 195. (London: J. and A.
Churchill. 1920.) Price 7s. 6d.
The Extra Pharmacopoeia. Vol. I. By W. H.
Martindale and W. W. Westcott. Seven-
teenth edition. Pp. 1115. (London: H. K.
Lewis and Co., Ltd. 1920.) Price 27s.
Techno-Chemical Receipt Book. By W. T. Brannt
and W. H. Wahl. Pp. 516. (London: Hodder
and Stoughton. 1919.) Price 15s.
Kleines Praktikum der Kolloidchemie. By
Prof. Wolfgang Ostwald and P. Wolski.
Pp. 159. (Dresden and Leipzig: Theodor
Steinkopff. 1920.) Price 15 marks.
Technos. Bevue Analytique des Publications Tech-
niques Francaises et Etrangeres. Pt. I. Pp.
190. (Paris: 40, rue de Seine.) Price 6 francs.
ibulletins of the lancashire and cheshire coal
Research Association.
-No. 3. The Influence of the Addition of
Inert Matter upon the Volatile Matter
Evolved when Coal is Heated. By F. S.
Sinnatt and A. Grounds. Pp. 14. 1919.
Price 6d.
No. 4. Notes on Coal Analysis. By F. S.
Sinnatt. Pp. 38. 1920. Price 2s.
No. 5. Coal Dust and Fusain. By F. S.
Sinnatt, H. Stern and F. Bayley. 1920.
Price Is.
Reports of the Indian Trade Enquiry. Imperial
Institute.
Hides and Skins. Pp. 123. Oil-Seeds. Pp.
149. (London: John Murray. 1920.) Price
6s. per volume.
Journal op the Royal Microscopical Society.
Part I., 1920. (London: Royal Microscopical
Society. 1920.) Price 10s.
British Chemical Standards. Beport of the
Working of the Movement from Sept., 1916,
to Sept., 1919, as given April, 1920. Published
by the Organisers. Middlesbrough, 1920.
Die Frage der Kunstlichen Dungung (mit
besonderer Beriicksichtigung der Phosphor-
saure-Diingung in den National staaten des
eh emali gen Oesterreich-Ungam vor dem Kriege
und Reute). By Dr. H. Lipschutz. Pp. 68
+ ii. (Vienna and Leipzig: Carl Fromme,
G.m.b.H. 1920.)
Cement. By Bertram Blount, assisted by W. H.
Woodcock and H. J. Glllett. Monographs
on Industrial Chemistry, edited by Sir Edward
Thorpe. Pp. alii. + 284. (London: Longmans,
Green and Co. 1920.) Price 18s. net.
This is a welcome addition to what may be
described as the " popular " literature on cement.
The author has to a large extent kept to the beaten
track, which has led to similar books being stereo-
typed and uninteresting, but he has interspersed
the inevitable historical quotations, descriptions of
cement-making machinery, and extracts from
standard specifications, with items of personal ex-
perience and predictions of the future trend of the
industry that render the work under review of con-
siderable interest and worth the while of even a
cement manufacturer to read.
In the opinion of the author, the Portland
cement industry will develop on the lines of blast-
furnace practice for burning, either by electrical
heating or with oxygen-enriched air as a means of
attaining the high temperature required, together
with some undefined method of destroying the
quality of toughness in the resultant clinker, and
so enabling it to be ground with a fraction of the
power now absorbed.
There is indeed much in the book that should
cause the cement manufacturer of to-day to think,
and it will be interesting to observe whether, with
this suggestive work before him, the British cement
maker will take the lead or will again be satisfied
for other countries to be the pioneers.
It must be admitted that the British standard
specification for Portland cement in limiting the
molecular ratio of lime to silica and alumina does
not encourage progressiveness, and the first manu-
facturer to produce the fused clinker containing 70
per cent, of lime, stipulated by the author, would
probably bo unable to market his cement as comply-
ing with the specification. The possibility of pro-
ducing a cement of monocalcic composition is hardly
touched upon, but the fortunate producer of such
a cement would be similarly handicapped by the
existing specification.
Strangely enough, no reference is made in the
book to the British standard specification require-
ments in regard to chemical composition, nor is
there a single chemical analysis of cement. There
are numerous analyses of raw materials, but in
many of the calcareous examples there is no separa-
tion of " silica and insoluble," even when this item
exceeds 10 per cent., thus rendering such analyses
of little value for the purpose in view.
Methods of analysis of raw materials and cement
are given in considerable detail, but when it is
stated that " rational " analysis of clay is un-
necessary it must have been overlooked that unless
clays liable to contain silt are submitted to some
form of mechanical separation the chemical analysis
will not be very useful for cement manufacture.
Description of a method of " rapid lime determina-
tion," which is a prominent feature of works con-
trol, might have been included with advantage.
The valuable summary of the literature of the
chemistry of cement shows the almost chaotic con-
dition of this subject, and indicates the harvest
that is to be reaped by the research workers of the
future.
One wishes that the author, with his unique ex-
perience in the industry, had, to use his own
phrase, put himself in the witness-box for a longer
period, for his evidence would have been more
appreciated than the lengthy extracts from foreign
cement specifications and other matter, such as
the methods of oil testing and the history of the
forms of briquettes.
S. G. S. Panisset.
Vol. XXXIX., No. 14.]
REVIEW
[July 31, 1920.
THE ANNUAL MEETING AT
NEWCASTLE-UPON-TYNE.
The thirty-ninth annual meeting at Newcastle-
upon-Tyne proved a successful achievement, on
which all who contributed to its preparation and
organisation are to be cordially congratulated. The
lot of the 290 members of the Society who attended
was an enviable one, thanks to the measures taken
by the Citv Council, the Governing Body of the
Armstrong "College, the boards of industrial under-
takings, and the Local Committee, for their delec-
tation, instruction, and entertainment. Of the
civic functions, at which the Right Hon. the Lord
Mayor of Newcastle proved an untiring and genial
figurehead, the most memorable perhaps was the
dinner at the Mansion House on the last evening
of the meeting, to which invitations were neces-
sarily limited. No better accommodation could have
been found anywhere than the Armstrong College
afforded, not merely for the technical proceedings
but for the social functions which followed them.
The works, shipyards, mines, etc., which were
thrown open to the inspection of members were of
an exceptionally interesting and varied character,
and the directorates and staffs vied one with the
other in supplying information and dispensing hos-
pitality. The efforts of the strong Local Com-
mittee were co-ordinated by the indefatigable
honorary Local Secretaries, Mr. H. Dunford Smith
and Dr. F. C. Garrett, whose efforts for the success
of the meeting and the comfort of members were un-
flagging. The Chairman of the Local Committee,
Professor P. Phillips Bedson, also deserves special
recognition for his work, in which he was ably sup-
ported by Professor Henry Louis, who presided
throughout the proceedings in the absence, through
illness, of Mr. John Gray, the President, to whom
the Society owes so much for his administrative
work during the past year.
The proceedings furnished ample proof of the
vitality of the Tyneside industries, in which
chemistry plays a leading part, and the visits to
works afforded convincing evidence of the energy,
resourcefulness, and ability of the industrial
chemists of the district. An excellent exhibition
of chemical products and plant, which had been
organised in connexion with the meeting, and was
housed in an annexe to the Armstrong College, was
much appreciated, and demonstrated the efforts
which are being made by local business under-
takings in particular to make more sure the
foundations on which the extended chemical in-
dustry of the country stands.
Annual General Meeting.
The proceedings at the annual general meeting,
and, indeed, throughout the week, were inevitably
clouded by the absence of Mr. Gray, but the Society
was fortunate both in having the services of Prof.
Louis at its disposal and in not being deprived of a
presidential address. In spite of his serious indis-
position. Mr. Gray was able to draft an address
which, by his express wish, will not be published
until he has had the opportunity of completing and
revising it. The draft was read by Prof. Louis and
given a very hearty reception.
One of the most pleasing functions was the pre-
sentation of the Society's medal to M. Paul
Kestner, who was present in person. In his reply,
M. Kestner recalled his long connexion with this
country, acknowledged the debt he owed to British
science and British manufacturers, and thanked
the Society for the honour it had paid, through
him, to his country and the Societe de Chimie In-
dustrielle.
Finance and Publicity.
Less pleasant, but very necessary, was the con-
sideration of the Society's financial position. In
view of the present outcry against the Government
for seeking to justify ever-increasing expenditure
rather than cutting the coat according to the cloth,
it might have been anticipated that the Council's
proposal for raising more revenue would have met.
with some adverse comment; but " figures speak,"
and with the published balance-sheet before the
meeting, Mr. Lloyd Howard, the retiring hon.
treasurer (who received a hearty vote of thanks for
his services) had no difficulty in justifying the
Council's financial policy. In this he was ably
seconded by Mr. E. V. Evans and Dr. E. F. Arm-
strong, both of whom emphasised the great import-
ance of maintaining the standard of the Journal,
the unavoidably increased cost of which has been
almost entirely responsible for the deficits of the
past two years. The accounts and resolutions re-
lating to the increased subscription rates were
carried unanimously.
Some remarks made by Mr. Jvans concerning the
policy of the Publications Committee appear to
have led certain interested parties to the erroneous
conclusion that it was intended to veto publicity
of the Society's affairs in the press generally. Such
is far from being the case ; the Council invites the
widest publicity of the activities of the Society, in
the right way and at the right time, and it has re-
cently instituted a news service to assist in attain-
ing this object. In consideration, however, of the
Society's dependence upon the sale and circulation
of the Journal, and the valuable and indispensable
revenue derived from advertisements, the view has
been urged that the present practice of allowing
other journals to record the Society's activities at
undue length before they are chronicled in the
Journal stands in need of some revision.
Canada.
Another matter of interest and importance was
the very hearty acceptance given to the invitation
of the Canadian Section to hold the next annual
meeting in Montreal. The energy and enterprise
shown by our fellow-members in the Dominion have
been followed with close attention and deep appre-
ciation on this side, and the enormous possibilities
awaiting the chemical development of that country
have been gradually dawning in the minds of those
who think imperially as well as chemically. It
is to be hoped that members in this country will
make every effort to take part in the proceedings
next summer; true, the difficulties in regard to
expense, time, and so forth will not be few, but in
the national interest, as well as from the more
parorhial standpoint of the Society's good, it is of
the first importance that a truly representative
body of Enslish chemists and chemical manufac-
turers should accompany Sir William Pope, our
new President, across the seas.
Conference on Filtration.
This was the fourth conference arranged by the
Chemical Engineering Group and was, perhaps, the
most successful that has been held, the quality of
the papers, the character of the discussions, and
the attendance all being very satisfactory. Circu-
lated papers, discussion slips, rules of procedure,
together with excellent chairmanship, aided in
making the conference a really useful contribution
to the technology of filtration.
Prof. H. Louis presided at the first session, and
pointed out the general importance of filtration
processes, but added that the subject matter of
one or two of the papers could not he included
strictly under the term "filtration" In his
opinion scientific men should be careful in giving
REVIEW.
[July 31, 1920.
definite meanings to words they used, and the term
filtration should be restricted to the operation of
separating solid particles from their associated
liquids by means of a porous septum. In the ab-
sence of the author, Mr. E. Hatschek, the paper
•(circulated in abstract) on " The Principles of
Technical Filtration " was taken as read. In the
discussion which followed, exception was taken to
the statement that ' ' the structure of the cake and
its content of mother liquor are not affected by
the pressure employed — a point on which the most
common and serious misconceptions exist." Among
expressions of appreciation of the suggestive char-
acter of the paper, some objection was made to the
use of membranes for the separation of ultra-
microscopic particles being described as filtration.
In the next paper, Mr. R. A. Sturgeon described
with great clearness his self-discharging centrifuge,
and illustrated by examples the character of the
work done by the machine, the feature of which
was its continuous running and the intermittent
discharge of the separated solids by means of a
piston hydraulically operated. In reply to numer-
ous questions and some criticisms, the inventor
stated that one cylinderful of water was required
for each discharge, so that the amount of operating
water needed could be determined from the pro-
portion of solids present in the material to be
treated. The machine was of a new type, it was very
free from vibration, and an experimental machine
which had been in use since 1914 showed no sign
of failure through wear and tear. It was capable
of handling any material which did not clog the
passages and was otherwise suitable for treatment.
Dr. Ormandy's paper on " The Filtration of
Colloids " created great interest, and the lantern
slides and experimental demonstrations elucidating
the points raised were much appreciated. The
author discussed the effect of electrolytes on col-
loid suspensions, and the movement of colloid
particles under the influence of an electric field.
A suspension of ball clay treated with about 003
per cent, of caustic soda was placed in a cylindrical
vessel of copper, which formed the cathode, the
anode being a carbon rod placed in the middle.
In a very short time a thick deposit of clay par-
ticles was formed which was obviously compara-
tively dry. A continuous machine for laboratory
use was shown which had a rotating drum from
which the deposited clay was removed by an
ebonite scraper. A useful discussion and many
questions followed. Could the process be applied
to the separation of oil emulsions, of oxidation
products after caustic fusions, colloidal hydroxide
of iron, the clarification and sterilisation of beer,
the treatment of sewage, etc. P The author pointed
out that the process had only been used commer-
cially in this country for the. treatment of clay,
but that in Germany it is employed for the drying
of peat, the purification and separation of glues
and gelatins, the separation of paraglobulin from
anti-diphtheritic blood serum, etc. The firm con-
cerned with the development of the process in Ger-
many had spent during the past twelve years
£25,000 annually in development. Mr. S. H.
Menzies described the construction and operation
of the Sharpies' "Super-centrifuge," and gave an
experimental demonstration with a laboratory
machine driven by compressed gas.
M. P. Kestner presided at the second session,
and was introduced by the Hon. Secretary, who
referred to his great interest in and the help he
had given to the Chemical Engineering Group.
Mr. W. J. Gee described his Centrifugal Separator,
which differed from other types in point of size,
discontinuous working, the method of removal of
the solids, and the grading of the material which
took place. The operation of the machine was
made clear by means of a cinematograph film — a
most effective method of demonstration. The
machine shown on the film was a veiy large one,
separating half a ton of solids at one operation,
but a smaller size of machine is also made. The
discussion on this paper was very interesting, and
in reply to it Mr. Gee pointed out that the machine
had been very successfully applied to the treat-
ment of sugar, but that there was no provision in
the ordinary machine for washing; he was en-
gaged on that question at the moment. Acid-
resisting material could be used for the construc-
tion if necessary. He could give few figures at
present, but a 36-in. machine working on dyestuffs
separated 2 cwts. in 12 minutes, as against 12 hours
required in the filter press. Mr. E. A. Alliot gave
an outline of his paper on " Recessed Plate
and Plate and Frame Filter Presses : Their Con-
struction and Use." This was adjudged by many
the most useful contribution to the conference,
and from a chemical-engineering point of view left
nothing to be desired. The terms " chamber " and
" frame " press, however, seem to be more con-
venient than the cumbrous description in the title
of the paper. The subject was treated from every
point of view, and efficiency was measured by the
proper commercial standards. A mathematical
discussion of the subject led to the determination
of the most efficient size of press for a given job.
The washing of the cakes was well considered, and
the methods of charging and discharging fully dis-
cussed. Two excellent models of the Kelly Filter and
the Rotary Vacuum Filter were exhibited by Mr.
Campbell (U.S.A.), who gave a very good account
of filters of the " leaf " type, i.e. those in which
the deposit is formed on the outside of a filter-bag
which is immersed in the liquor to be filtered.
Some important information as to the special value
of this type of press was given. Mr. B. Bramwell
discussed the design of mechanical filters for the
purification of water supplies, but devoted most
of his remarks to the " turn-over " filter. In this
machine the cleansing of the filter is brought about
by turning over the chamber containing the sand
filter bed.
The Coke-Oven Conference.
In the Chemical Lecture Theatre of Armstrong
College, on July 13, five papers were read, all bear-
ing on various aspects of coke-oven practice.
Mr. "W. A. "Ward produced a treatise, rather
than a paper, on " Modern By-product Coke-Oven
Construction"; and it is to be feared that its
great length and the mass of detail it contained
made it difficult for his auditors to carry away
much of the really valuable matter which he laid
before the meeting. In the general portion of the
paper he points out the need for choosing the site
of ovens with due regard not only to its mechanical
capabilities, but also to the general traffic of the
works and to the possibilities of future extension.
From his language, he seems to favour the national
pooling of coking coals, and their treatment at
" super-works," so as to achieve regularity of load
and uniformity of treatment, and thus raise effi-
ciency ; but the cost of transport, the fact that
though different installations work different coals
yet any one installation has as a rule a very regular
quality to deal with, and the further fact that dif-
ferent qualities of coke are really required, appear
to have modified this opinion, for he points out
later that no one type of oven can be treated as a
standard, but that the type of coal to be carbonised
must govern the construction of the oven ; and he
quotes as a merit of some of the quenching and
loading devices which he describes, that they enable
" selected coke," even from parts of the discharge
of the same battery, to be segregated. He rightly
combats the idea that either type of oven, " re-
generative " or " waste heat," is inherently or
essentially more efficient than the other : the truth
Vol. XXXIX.. No. 14.]
REVIEW.
being that each has its own avenues of waste, dif-
ferent from those of the other. He remarks, from
the engineering point of view, on the structural
design of ovens, and the relative advantages of
bricks and blocks, arches and beams, and deals
with the questions of expansion and contraction,
the stiffening of the structure by tie-rods etc. ;
and he discusses the relative advantages of clay
and silica as refractories. The need for proper ad-
mixture of gas and air at the burners, and the
high efficiency of the oven at the beginning of the
process, when the temperature difference between
fluo and oven is very great, are also noticed. At
the end of the paper several mechanical devices for
both quenching and loading the coke are described,
all making both for rapidity and economy. There
is still room, however, for an invention which shall
render available the sensible heat of the incan-
descent coke — some 8 per cent, of the total amount
used in coking the coal. Perhaps the most inter-
esting part of Mr. Ward's paper, especially to
those engaged in the industry, was his description
of many designs of coke ovens and accessories :
though this was just the part of it which was
least suited for the transient oral method of com-
munication, especially as his slides and diagrams,
excellent in detail, were not on broad enough lines
to be visible at a distance. There was really matter
enough here for a treatise on the subject — too much
for a paper in a journal — and such a treatise
would probably be welcomed by many of those
whose daily work deals with coke-making.
Mr. W. J. Rees' paper dealt with the corrosion
of coke-oven walls by alkali salts, especially
chlorides, which are contained in considerable
quantities (over 0"5% of chloride and 0'2% of sul-
phate) in certain Midland coals. Even when the
coal is washed about 50 lb. of sodium chloride and
20 lb. of sulphate go into the ovens with each ton
of coal. These do not glaze the lining of the oven,
because the temperature-gradient is upwards from
within outward to the flues; and the vapours
permeate the bricks, soften them by chemical
action, and thus help their disintegration by the
movements of the coke. The author points out
that silica is less affected in this way than fireclay ;
so that, apart from their advantage over clay
bricks in conductivity for heat, silica bricks would
greatly reduce the wear and tear which now, with
fireclay bricks, goes on from this cause. The large
expansion of silica bricks has been a bar to their
use in oven construction ; but bricks are now ob-
tainable in which the permanent part of this ex-
pansion has been effected during manufacture, and
which should behave satisfactorily under coke-
oven conditions.
The paper of Mes?rs. Hewson and Fowles deals
with both coke-oven gas and blast-furnace gas.
They advocate the building of coke ovens at the
steel works, and state that the coal needed to pro-
duce coke for the blast furnaces would at the same
time yield enough gas to work the steel furnaces and
the heating furnaces, for which (especially for steel
furnaces) it possesses many advantages over pro-
ducer gas. The blast-furnace gas has usually,
where it has been utilised at all, been burnt under
boilers; and so treated, it has not been enough
for the requirements (blowing engines, etc.) of the
blast furnaces and auxiliaries. It has not been
possible to use this gas in gas engines, because of
the dust contained in it; but if the gas be cleaned
by one of the modern processes it becomes suitable
for gas-engine use, and the high efficiency of the
gas-engine as compared with the boiler and steam-
engine, allows of considerable economy in its use.
The authors have used the Halberg-Beth process
for cleaning the gas; and thev find that instead
of the gas needing to be supplemented by coal for
the purposes of the blast-furnace plant, as is some-
times the case, one-half of it is enough for those
purposes, and that the other half, used in gas-
engines to generate power electrically, produces
more than enough to drive all the steel works'
machinery. A very large saving has thus been
effected, and increased, incidentally, by the potash
value of the recovered dust.
Mr. Harold Wright advocates the use of the by-
product coke oven as a source of town gas supply;
not only in cases where, as at Middlesbrough, the
ovens are pre-existent, but also where they would
need to be erected for the purpose, in establishing
or extending a gas works. He bases his advocacy
on the high efficiency of the regenerative oven, as
compared with gas works' plant or with producers,
and he deprecates the steaming of retorts and the
production of water-gas as inefficient and hence un-
economical. But he recognises that the commer-
cial success of such a plan is altogether dependent
on the presence of a market for metallurgical coke,
the sale of which at one and a-half times the price
of coal, per heat unit available, makes the gas in
his pattern costs sheet cost nothing at all, so that
the sale of it at a figure represented by 105 covers
all the costs of distribution, whilst ordinary coal
gas must be sold, under similar conditions, at 162.
Dr. E. W. Smith, in reviewing the position of
the coke-oven industry with special reference to
the by-products rather than the coke, also advo-
cates the use of the surplus gas as a town supply ;
but whilst Mr. Wright gives 55% of the total make
as surplus, Dr. Smith puts it at 40% ; and whilst
Mr. Wright regards the use of producer-gas as
wasteful and inefficient, Dr. Smith would heat his
ovens by means of producer-gas, so as to have the
whole of the coke-oven gas for use as town's gas.
In dealing with ammonium sulphate, he points
out that the present high price is due to the cost
of acid, and that whilst gas works extract from
their gas more sulphur than would make the acid
they use in their sulphate houses, sulphur is not
recovered from coke-oven gas at all. Benzol, on
the other hand, is taken out at practically all coke
works ; but the methods of extraction are crude,
and there is much room for improvement in them.
He also dealt with cyanogen, naphthalene,
ammonium chloride, and alcohol, and commented
on the promising work that had been and was
being done on the production of these substances
from coke-oven gas. Besides the improvements
that may be expected in methods themselves from
scientific research, the most profitable industrial
application of them, and the attainment of the best
commercial return, would be promoted by co-
operation among coke-oven installations; and Dr.
Smith also thinks that study both by those en-
gaged in the coke-oven industry and in the gas
industry of each other's methods of work might be
productive of considerable progress in both indus-
tries.
Catalysis.
On the Wednesday morning, Dr. E. F. Armstrong
gave an account of some recent work which he had
done in collaboration with Dr. T. P. Hilditch on
" Catalytic Chemical Actions and the Law of Mass
Action."
The earlier studies of the rate of chemical change
effected by enzymes led to the conclusion that these
actions were unimolecular, i.e., in successive equal
intervals of time the amount of change was the same
fraction of the amount of material undergoing
change present at that time; later the work of
Duclaux and of Adrian and Horace Brown in-
dicated that the amount of change was to some
extent constant and independent of the amount of
hvdrolyte present. In other words, if the amount
of chemical action was plotted against time, the re-
sulting graph tended to be a straight line instead
of a logarithmic curve. Next, the work of H. E.
and E. F. Armstrong on enzyme action showed that
b2
REVIEW.
in the absence of conflicting factors the action was
"linear," the "logarithmic" changes being due
to decrease in activity of the enzyme. This was
illustrated by the decomposition of urea by urease,
an enzyme whose activity is restricted by ammonia ;
the curves for the decomposition of urea alone and
in presence of ammonium carbonate or ammonia
were definitely logarithmic, whereas in presence of
excess of carbonic acid the curve was linear.
In 1912 — 1914 preliminary work on the rate of
hydrogenation of linseed, whale, cottonseed, and
olive oils in presence of nickel indicated that well-
marked linear phases were present; more recently
an opportunity was taken to examine the hydro-
genation of pure compounds, such as ethyl cin-
namate and anethol, when it was found that the
resulting curves were linear for 80 per cent, or
more of the total action.
Just as the linear nature of the enzyme curves
showed that the acting mass was constant in
amount (the measured change being probably the
decomposition of a compound formed between the
enzyme and hydrolyte), so the hydrogenating action
was' explained by the hypothesis that a very small
quantity of an unstable compound of nickel with the
unsaturated organic compound was formed, that
this complex further became associated with
hydrogen, and that the action actually measured
was the resolution of this complex into saturated
compound and nickel.
Owing to the ease with which nickel of definite
activity can be prepared and employed in known
quantity, the effects induced by varying conditions
can be studied much more readily than in the case
of enzymes. Thus, when a phenolic compound,
such as isoeugenol, was hydrogenated in place of
anethol, the curves were found to be exactly
logarithmic, the acidic phenol tending to spoil the
activity of the nickel and the measured action
being, not the rate of hydrogenation, but the rate
of loss of activity of the catalyst. Similarly, if the
process is carried on in a closed apparatus with
hydrogen containing an inert impurity such as
nitrogen, which accumulates as the hydrogen is
absorbed, the curve is logarithmic, and good " uni-
molecular " constants are obtained if the theoretical
total absorption is taken, not as the amount of
hydrogen required to saturate the organic com-
pound, but as the amount of hydrogen required to
be absorbed before the closed space is completely
filled with gaseo\is impurity.
It was also shown that the isomeric oleic acids
actually found in the hydrogenation products of
olein were exactly those which would be expected to
result from decomposition of complexes of nickel
with olein and stearin (elaidic and an iso-oleic acid
with the ethylenic linkage displaced along the
carbon chain).
Another type of action briefly referred to was
the " water gas equation": CO+H,0 = CO,+H2,
an action which proceeds in presence of iron oxide,
slowly at 250° C. and with increasing velocity up to
450—500°, and is explained by the alternate re-
duction and oxidation of iron oxide by carbon
monoxide and steam respectively. If copper is sub-
stituted for iron oxide as catalyst, however, the
action is more rapid than in the latter case from
200 — 300°, but falls off somewhat above this tem-
perature; this coincides with the temperature
range over which copper was shown by Sabatier to
decompose formic acid. The action is thus de-
pendent on the chemical changes induced by the
specific catalyst used.
It was pointed out in conclusion that a physical
and a chemical factor are both necessary for cata-
lysis ; tho physical factor is that of a surface at
which gases and liquids are concentrated in what
has been shown by the researches of Lord Rayleigh,
W. B. Hardy, and Langmuir to be a single layer
of molecules. In addition, for any given chemical
action, the appropriate specific chemical catalyst
must also be present; for example, nickel (copper,
palladium, platinum) in cases of hydrogenation,
alumina (thoria, etc.) for dehydration of alcohols,
and a specific kind of enzyme for hydrolyses of
various types (sugars, glucosides, urea).
Metallurgical Papers.
In a paper entitled " Some Properties of 60:40'
Brass," Prof. C. H. Desch described experiments
he had undertaken to determine the reason why
brass rods approximating to this composition had
been found to give widely differing results in turn-
ing and drilling operations on automatic lathes.
He has found that the addition of metals other than
zinc and copper changes the relative proportions
of the alpha and beta constituents ; that the Brinell
hardness of brasses increases fairly regularly with
the "apparent" zinc, i.e., with the added metals
calculated to the equivalent quantities of zinc ; and
that the machining hardness bears no relation to
the Brinell hardness. A drilling test is described
for determining machining hardness, and ma-
chining times have been correlated with composi-
tion. Brass of good machining quality should con-
tain as nearly as possible 60 per cent, of copper and
15 per cent, of lead, with the smallest possible
quantities of other metals. The structure should
be fibrous, the alpha crystals forming parallel
threads. Extrusion is preferably carried out at a
moderately low temperature in powerful presses.
Mr. D. W. Jones discussed the composition of
lead for use in the construction of chemical plant,.
and his experimental results should prove useful to*
manufacturers of sulphuric acid. Whereas ordinary
lead, refined by the Parkes process, rarely with-
stands the action of concentrated sulphuric acid up
to 280° C, lead intended for use in chemical plant
should remain resistant up to 300° C. The addition
of copper to Parkes lead, in certain definite quanti-
ties, has a marked effect in raising the temperature
at which corrosion occurs, but no advantage accrues
from adding it to a pure lead, i.e., Parkes lead re-
refined. The presence of sodium also acts bene-
ficially, but that of antimony, zinc, tin, and bismuth
is harmful. Antimony, even if present in quantities
which a commercial metal may contain, will render
the lead useless for chemical operations. Although
copper will inhibit the injurious effects of antimony
and bismuth, pure lead is to be preferred.
The last paper, " Recent Developments of the
Electric Furnace in Great Britain," by Mr. D. F.
Campbell, brought out very clearly the effect of the
war on the development of electric-furnace work in
connexion with the reduction of ores of chromium,
tungsten, and molybdenum, and with the manu-
facture of steels, caustic soda, chlorine, phosphorus,
and fused silica ware. Excluding the energy used
for aluminium production, the electric-furnace
capacity had increased from under 6000 to over
150,000 h.p. during the period of the war. The
reasons for this great development and the tech-
nical advances achieved were reviewed, and grounds
given for belief in the future expansion of the
| electro-metallurgical industry in this country.
The programme of the concluding day was of a
purely non-technical character. In the day-time,
thoughts were successfully diverted from chemistry,
industry, and even chemical industry, by the
glories of Hexham Abbey and the attractions of
the Roman remains near Chollerford. In the even-
ing, members and visitors passed some pleasant
hours at a reception given by the Chemical Industry
Club — a vigorous institution which can boast of a
good collection of up-to-date literature presented by
local chemists and chemical manufacturers.
The Newcastle Meeting of 1920 will long be re-
j membered as one of the most enjoyable and best
I organised in the history of the Society.
Vol. XXXIX. No. 14.]
THE INTERNATIONAL CHEMICAL
CONFERENCE.
Owing to the kindness of M. Jean Gerard,
general secretary of the International Chemical
Union, we are enabled to give the following
account of the proceedings of the conference held
in Rome on June 21-25, under the presidency of
Prof. C. Moureu.
At the meeting of the Council, attended by re-
presentatives of the five nations which founded the
Union (Belgium, France, Italy, United Kingdom,
United States), the following countries were by
unanimous vote admitted to membership: —
Canada, Denmark, Spain, Greece, the Netherlands,
Czecho-Slovakia, and Poland.
The delegates present at the Conference (General
Assembly) were as follows: — Belgium: Prof. F.
Swarts, of the University of Ghent; Dr. R. Lucion,
director of the laboratories of the Societe Solvay.
Czechoslovakia: Prof. E. Votocek, of the Poly-
technic, Prague, and president of the Bohemian
Chemical Society. Denmark: Prof. E. Biilmann,
University of Copenhagen ; M. AVarming, chief
engineer to the A/S Dansk Svovlsyre og Super-
phosfabrik. France: Prof. G. Bertrand, president
of the Societe Chimique de France; Prof. F.
Bordas, director of the laboratories of the Ministry
of Finance; M. J. Gerard, general secretary of the
Federation Nationale des Associations de Chiniie
de France; M. Paul Kestner, president of the
Societe de Chiniie Industrielle ; Prof. L. Lindet,
president of the Association des Chimistes de
Sucrerie et de Distillerie ; M. C. Lormand, chemist
in the Ministry of Agriculture ; Prof. C. Matignon,
vice-president of the Societe de Chimie Indus-
trielle; M. C. Marie, general secretary of the
Societe de Chiniie Physique; Prof. C. Moureu, pre-
sident of the Federation Nationale des Associations
de Chimie; M. Nicolardot, of the Ecole Poly-
technique. Greece: Prof. Zenghelis, University of
Athens. Italy: Prof. G. Bruni, of the Polytechnic,
Milan ; Prof. - G. Ciamician, president of the
Associazione Italiana di Chimica Generale ed Ap-
plicata : Prof. F. Garelli, of the Turin Polytechnic ;
Prof. R. Nasini, University of Pisa; Sig. Parodi-
Delfino, vice-president of the Associazione Italiana
di Chimica Generale ed Applicata; Prof. G. Oddo,
University of Palermo; Prof. E. Paternb, Univer-
sity of Rome and vice-president of the Consiglio
Nazionale di Chimica; Prof. Plancher, University of
Parma ; Sig. F. Quartieri, of the Societa Italiana
Prodotti Esplodenti ; Prof. A. Peratoner, Univer-
sity of Rome. Netherlands: Prof. R. H. Kruyt,
of the University of Utrecht, president of the
Nederlandsche Chemische Vereeniging. Poland:
Prof. Kowalski, of the Polytechnic at Varsovia,
and Minister for Poland to the Vatican. United
Kingdom: Sir William Pope, president of the
Federal Council for Pure and Applied Chemistry;
Mr. Hay, technical delegate on the Reparations
Commission. United States: Dr. C. L. Parsons,
general secretary of the American Chemical
Society.
The sessions were held in the rooms of the
Accademia dei Lincei, in the Corsini Palace, and
each one was presided over by a different foreign
delegate. The scheme of organisation of the Inter-
national Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry de-
cided upon by the Conference is as follows: —
To qualify for membership in the International
Union, a country must first co-ordinate its various
chemical societies by founding either a national
council composed of the representatives of such
societies or a federation. The initiative in this
may be taken either by a chemical society, by a
national academy, by a national research council
or some other similar national institution, or by
the Government.
In accordance with the rules (cf. J., 1919, 263 r),
the Union is administered by a Council consisting
of delegates of each of the countries adhering to
the Union, and the executive power of the Council
is vested in a Bureau. The General Assembly is
the supremo authority. It considers reports of the
Council, including those on the financial situation
and general position of the Union, passes the ac-
counts for the previous financial year, and votes
the budget for the ensuing year.
Permanent relations between the chemical
organisations of the associated countries are assured
by the establishment of a special organisation which
is under the control of the Council of the Union and
the direction of an executive committee ; it carries
out the programme drawn up by the Council and
defined by the Bureau. This permanent office is
known as the International Organisation for
Chemistry (Office Internationale de la Chimie) ; it is
situated at the headquarters of the Union and is
the connecting link between the various organisa-
tions combined within the Union.
The Council of the Union has power to investigate
particular questions or to undertake specific work
or administer international bodies in course of de-
velopment.
Finally, there is a Consultative Committee,
divided into sections corresponding to the different
scientific and industrial branches, which secures
the adequate representation of all departments of
pure and applied chemistry and reports upon ques-
tion of detail. The associated countries are repre-
sented in each section by delegates nominated for
three years by the official national body attached to
the Union. The delegates of any one nation are to
constitute a National Committee, the function of
which is to study for that nation the development of
knowledge in science, industry, and commerce from
the standpoint of chemistry.
A meeting of the Council of the permanent Com-
missions attached to the Consultative Committee
and to the General Assembly is to be held annually
under the name of the International Chemical Con-
ference.
As the result of a motion by Prof. Lindet, it was
decided that the International Chemical Conference
should become every fourth year the International
Congress of Pure and Applied Chemistry, at which
the elections to the Council, the permanent com-
missions and the consultative committee will take
place. The conference may be divided into sections,
corresponding to those of the consultative com-
mittee, for the consideration and discussion of re-
ports and communications.
English, French, and Italian are the accepted
languages of the conference, but communications
may be made in another language if a translation
or summary in the accepted languages be provided.
In order to avoid errors of interpretation, recom-
mendations, resolutions and official decisions, if not
already in French, must be translated into that
language.
At the beginning of each Conference the Bureau
of the Union will present minutes of the resolutions
adopted by the preceding Conference with a state-
ment of the results which have accrued.
The Council of the Union may, within the limits
of the funds voted each year by the General
Assembly, encourage research by awarding prizes
and medals to the authors of important work.
In connexion with a report furnished by M.
Nicolardot on the unification of chemical analyses,
the Conference expressed the wish that the inter-
national agreement signed at Paris on October 16,
1912, should be ratified and brought into effect as
soon as possible. This agreement relates to the
adoption of a standard method for stating the
results of chemical analyses of food stuffs, and for
the establishment at Paris of a permanent Inter-
national Bureau of Analytical Chemistry dealing
with these matters.
REVIEW.
Following a report by M. Crismer on the creation
of an international bureau of chemical standards,
the Conference directed the Council to organise a
chemical standards bureau comprising three sec-
tions, viz., chemical standards, pure chemicals for
research, and commercial products.
The Bureau of the Union will serve as a connect-
ing link between scientific men, manufacturers and
traders on the one hand, and the sections of the
consultative committee on the other, in order to
promote inter-communication and to induce the
scientists, manufacturers, and traders to ensure
that inquiries are addressed to the appropriate
sections. The United States, with its special
organisation, will constitute a branch attached to
the Union in the same way as the sections. The
different sections will have the duty of carrying out
the conditions laid down by persons who give loans
or donations. Three sections will be set up, the
first for Belgium, the second for the United King-
dom, and the third for France.
On the proposal of Prof. Kowalsky and a report
by Prof. Matignon, a special sub-committee asked
for the appointment of a commission to investigate
the subject of thermo-chemical data and standards.
A provisional committee was set up for this
purpose.
A report by M. Trincheri on the legal value of
"sealed envelopes " in applications for patents led
to the decision that the International Union of
Pure and Applied Chemistry should set up a body
of. persons with technical and legal qualifications
for the consideration of problems relating to
patents. The first question to be considered is the
legal value of " sealed envelopes " and the creation
of international patents. Italy will prepare a
scheme of organisation.
Consideration of a report by Prof. W. D. Ban-
croft (chairman of the Division of Chemistry and
Chemical Technology, U.S.A.) on the International
Commission for Atomic Weights, led to the con-
stitution of a commission for this purpose, and the
request that Messrs. Thorpe, Clarke, and Urbain,
members of the former commission, should continue
their work for another year.
On a motion by Prof. Oddo, it was decided to
insert the following proposals on the agenda for
the next International Conference : — (1) The table
of atomic weights should be revised every ten years,
so as to allow the commission and research workers
sufficient time to check the available data. (2) That
Dalton's proposition, accepted by Avogadro and
Cannizzaro, to take the atomic weight of hydrogen
as unity, should be reverted to.
On the proposal of M. Marie, the Conference
decided that the International Committee for
Tables of Constants should be attached to the
Union.
With regard to physico-chemical symbols, on the
request of the Chemical Society of London, the
Conference will ask the various chemical associa-
tions and chemical journals of the countries at-
tached to the Union to republish the list drawn up
by the late International Association of Chemical
Societies at Brussels on September 23, 1913, at its
last meeting.
With the object of drawing the attention of the
respective Governments to the importance of the
work of the Union, the following recommendation
was adopted at the request of the Danish dele-
gates : —
" The Conference of the International Chemical
Union desires that all the delegates of the asso-
ciated nations shall endeavour to obtain recognition
of the public utility of the work of the Union."
The Bureau will forward to the Italian Govern-
ment the complete report of the Conference, with
the request that this report shall be communicated
officially to all the other Governments.
In its final session the Conference decided to hold
the next meeting at Warsaw in 1921.
During their visit the delegates were entertained
at receptions, including one by the Syndic of Rome,
dinners and other social functions ; visits were paid
to the various museums, to Pompeii, to the works
of the Bombrini Parodi-Delfino, at Segni, the
Elettro-Chimica Pomilio at Naples, and the Soeieta
Italiana Prodotti Esplodenti at Cangio. The suc-
cessful organisation of the Conference was due to
the untiring efforts of Professors Marotta and
Paterno, and the work accomplished may be re-
garded as of outstanding importance, inasmuch as
it laid the foundations of a permanent organisation
whose influence will extend to every country.
HELIUM.*
No element has had a more romantic history than
helium, and few are of greater interest to men of
science at the present time. Its extreme lightness,
its absolute inertness, its close approximation
to an ideal or perfect gas, and its intimate con-
nexion with the phenomena of radioactivity are
among its most interesting properties, whilst its
use for inflating airships and its possible applica-
tion to a variety of other utilitarian purposes
appeal especially to the student of chemical
technology.
The gases from some springs in France have been
shown to contain as much as 5% of helium; natural
gases in the Western States of America contain
from 1 to 2%, but within the British Empire no
natural gases have been found to contain as much
as 0'5%. When during the late war it became
apparent that the use of helium would have im-
portant advantages over that of hydrogen for filling
airships, the Board of Invention and Research if
the British Admiralty, acting on proposals ad-
vai.ced by Sir R. Threlfall, asked Prof. McLennan
to undertake a survey of the sources of helium
within the Empire, and to devise ways and means
of isolating it in quantity and in a relatively pure
state. Natural gases from Ontario and Alberta,
Canada, were found to be richest in helium (034%
and 0'33% respectively), and it was estimated that
these sources could 6upply from 10 to 12 million
cb. ft. of helium per annum. Gases from New
Brunswick were found to contain 0064%, and the
richest natural gaseB in New Zealand not more
than 0077%. A natural gas from Pisa, Italy, con-
tained no helium; the gas at Heathfield, Sussex,
0-21% ; that from the King's Spring, Bath, 016% ;
and the natural gases at Pitt Meadows, Fraser
River Valley, and Pender Island, on the Gulf of
Georgia, British Columbia, were ascertained to
possess a nitrogen content of over 99%.
In 1917 a small experimental station was set up
at Hamilton, Ontario, where it was found that the
helium present in the crude natural gas, to the
extent of 0"33%, could be satisfactorily isolated on
a commercial scale ; and a second station was estab-
lished to operate on the natural gas at Calgary,
Alberta. Three methods of isolating the helium
content were investigated, viz., (a) by utilising the
cold obtainable from the natural gas itself for
liquefying all the contained gases except the
helium ; (b) by using external refrigeration only,
by means of ammonia, liquid air, etc. ; and (c) by
combining methods (o) and (6). Although method
(<■) had been successfully used in the Texas field
by the United States authorities, it was not
adopted, as it did not appear to be economical.
• Abstracted from a lecture delivered before the Chemical
Soolety by Prof. J. C. McLennan, on June 17. 1920.
Vol. XXXIX.. No. 14.]
Method (n) was selected, and by suitably modifying
the Claude oxygen-producing column it was found
that helium of 87 — 90% purity could be regularly
and continuously produced. Ultimately an
auxiliary apparatus was added whereby the purity
of the gas was raised to 99% or higher. From the
experience thus obtained, it was possible to draw
up specifications for a commercial plant to deal
with about 56,500 cb. ft. of gas per hour at normal
temperature and pressure, t Six of these machines
would deal with 9J million cb. ft. of gas daily — the
average supply of natural gas at Calgary. The
cost of a commercial plant for treating the whole
supply from the Alberta field would probably be
less than £150,000. assuming an efficiency of 80%
(i.e., a recovery of 80% of the helium content of
the natural gas), and allowing for salaries, running
costs, amortisation, etc., helium could be produced
in Alberta at less than £10 per 1000 cb. ft., ex-
cluding the cost of cylinders and transport. From
data so far ascertained, it is probable that the
potential yearly supply of helium from all sources
within the Empire would not suffice to keep more
than a very few of the larger airships in commis-
sion, even if diluted with 15% of hydrogen; it
might be used to fill fireproof compartments
adjacent to the engines if it were decided to instal
these within the envelopes of larger airships.
In the course of this work a number of collateral
problems was investigated. It was found, e.g.,
that for aeronautical purposes hydrogen could be
mixed with 15 — 20% of helium without the mixture
becoming inflammable or explosive in air. The
permeability of rubbered balloon fabrics for helium
was shown to be about 071 of its value for hydrogen.
For skin-lined fabrics, the permeability to hydrogen
and helium was about the same. Thin soap films
were found to be about one hundred times more
permeable to hydrogen and helium than rubbered
balloon fabrics, but untreated cotton fabrics when
wetted with distilled water were but feebly per-
meable to these gases. It was found that rapid
estimations of the amount of helium in a gas mix-
ture could be made with a pivoted silica balance,
a Shakspear katharometer, or a Jamin interfero-
meter. The latent heats of methane and ethane
were determined, and also the composition of the
vapour and liquid phases of the system methane-
nitrogen. It was ascertained that helium contain-
ing as much as 20% of air, oxygen, or nitrogen can
be highly purified in large quantities by simply
passing it at slightly above atmospheric pressure
through a few tubes of coconut charcoal kept at
the temperature of liquid air. In the spectroscopy
of the ultraviolet, helium was found to be excep-
tionally useful.
Among the suggested possible applications of
helium are its use in industry as a filling for ther-
mionic amplifying valves of the ionisation type ;
for filling tungsten incandescent filament lamps,
especially for signalling purposes where rapid
dimming is an essential; and for producing gas arc
lamps in which tungsten terminals are used, as in
the " Pointolite " type. However, both of these
varieties of lamps possess the defect of soon becom-
ing dull owing to the ease with which incandescent
tungsten volatilises in helium and deposits on the
surface of the enclosing glass bulbs. As regards
illumination, helium arc lamps possess an advantage
over mercury arc lamps in that the radiation
emitted has strong intensities in the red and yellow
portion of the spectrum. Nutting has shown that
Geissler tubes filled with helium are eminently suit-
able, under certain conditions, for light standards
in spectrophotometry, but the amount of the gas
which could be used in this way is very small. It
has recently been proposed to use helium in place
of oil for surrounding the switches and circuit-
breakers of high-tension electric transmission lines.
t A full account of the apparatus employed, wjth diagrams, is
given in the " Journal of the Chemical Society." July. 1920.
If the gas should prove suitable for this purpose
large quantities could be utilised, but it has yet ta
be demonstrated that in this field helium possesses
any advantage over the oils now used. It has been
suggested by Elihu Thomson and others that if
divers were supplied with a mixture of oxygen and
helium, the rate of expulsion of carbon dioxide
from the lungs might be increased, and the period
of submergence as a consequence be considerably
lengthened.
To chemists and physicists the discovery that
helium can be produced in quantity at a moderate
cost opens up a vista of surpassing interest in the
realm of low temperature research. It is but a
few years (190S) since Onnes, after prolonged effort,
succeeded in liquefying helium, and in so doing
reached a temperature within approximately 1° or
2° of absolute zero. The results obtained by him,
although limited in number, are of great import-
ance, for they show that if liquid helium were
rendered available in quantity, fundamental in-
formation of the greatest value on such problems
as those connected with electrical and thermal con-
duction, with specific and atomic heats, with mag-
netism and the magnetic properties of substances,
with phosphorescence, with the origin of radiation,
and with atomic structure, could be obtained.. In
spectroscopy, supplies of liquid helium would enable
us to extend our knowledge of the fine structure
of spectral lines, and thereby enable us to obtain
clearer ideas regarding the electronic orbits exist-
ing in the atoms of the simpler elements. In the
field of radioactivity important information could
be obtained by the use of temperatures between
that of liquid hydrogen and that of liquid helium;
and such problems as the viability of spores and
bacteria at such low temperatures could be attacked
with fair prospect of success. A point to be re-
membered is that the supplies of natural gas from
which helium can be extracted are being rapidly
used up, and hence careful consideration should be
given to the problem of producing helium in large
quantities while it is still available, and of storing
it up for future use.
The number of problems which could be attacked
by the use of liquid helium is so great that it
appears well worth while to press for the establish-
ment of a cryogenic laboratory within the Empire.
Such a project merits national and, perhaps, im-
perial support. A well-equipped cryogenic labora-
tory should include: — (1) A large liquid-air plant,
(2) a liquid-hydrogen plant of moderate capacity,
(3) a small liquid-helium plant, and (4) machine
tools, measuring instruments and other apparatus.
The capital cost of such a laboratory would be
£30,000, and the running costs would be covered
by the interest on an endowment fund of £125,000.
No better method could be imagined of perpetuat-
ing the work of the great pioneers of low-
temperature research — Andrews, Davy, Faraday,
and Dewar.
LORD MOULTON AND THE UNITY
OF THE PROFESSION.
The dinner given last week to Lord Moulton in
recognition of his work as Director-General of Ex-
plosives Supplies was a fitting tribute to one who
has served his country well and who has, in-
cidentally, made a host of friends among members
of the chemical profession. Some eighty-odd repre-
sentative chemists and chemical manufacturers-
took part in the proceedings, in the course of which
a silver loving cup was presented on their behalf
to his lordship by Mr. Emile Mond.
Sir William Pope, as chairman, described the
signal services which Lord Moulton had rendered
in developing the production of explosives with aa
254 b
REVIEW.
energy and efficiency that were truly remarkable,
and upon a scale which this country had never
previously dreamed of. The secret of his success
lay in his ability to co-ordinate the activities of
.a Vast number of individuals and of corporations
who were each doing their best in a thoroughly
individualistic spirit, but who were getting in each
other's way ; and this triumph of organisation had
been subsequently supplemented by the establish-
ment of the coal-tar colour industry in this country
and by important inquiries conducted by the
Nitrogen Products Comittee. Sir William Pope
then directed attention to the necessity of per-
petuating among chemists the co-operative spirit
which the war had engendered, and indicated the
means of attaining this most desirable object: —
" Whilst strenuous attempts are being made,
and with very considerable success, to expand and
develop our chemical industries, to secure financial
aid for the training of men in the methods of
chemical research in our universities and colleges,
and to direct a larger proportion of the young and
vigorous intelligence of our country towards a
career in chemical technology, one essential branch
of chemical activity still awaits the necessary finan-
cial stimulus. The societies which represent the
general and corporate interests of the various
sections of pure and applied chemistry are ill-
housed and ill-endowed, and the accommodation
and the resources at their commend are entirely
inadequate for their rapidly growing membership ;
the funds at their disposal are so insufficient as to
make impossible any of the important schemes for
publication which await their attention. They are
unable to build up such a joint library as would be
properly representative of the present position of
chemical literature and, if they were in possession
of such a library they would, under present condi-
tions, have no place for its reception.
The urgent necessity for the provision of funds
for the purposes to which I have just referred will
"be realised by everyone who acquaints himself with
the work done by our chemical societies. The whole
development of scientific and technical chemistry
is centred in these great organisations ; they fur-
nish the intellectual stimulus so essential to the
younger men who are preparing to carry on the
■work now in the hands of the older. It would be
impossible to overrate the services rendered to pure
and applied chemistry by the Chemical Society and
the Society of Chemical Industry and by many of
the smaller, more specialised societies.
This is a question which has for some time
engaged the attention of the Federal Council for
Pure and Applied Chemistry, and an appeal for
funds is now about to be issued under the leader-
ship of Lord Moulton. We cannot doubt but that
the chemical industries of the country, which now
represent such gigantic financial interests, will
co-operate with our guest for this purpose with the
same unanimity and public spirit as they showed
during the war."
In acknowledgment, Lord Moulton modestly put
the credit for having saved the country in the
matter of explosives supply upon the chemists who
had responded to his call and rallied together to
face the common danger. He could scarcely think
of an industry that did not grumble at him ; he
could think of none that did not support him. He
had had to show to the nation how chemistry per-
meated every part of its life, and one of the lessons
of the war was that of its omnipresence. It was
•the lack of unity among chemists that had pre-
viously played into the hands of Germany. Why
did they not assert their essential importance, and
why did they not announce to the world that they
were at the roots of the nation's prosperity in in-
dustry? Unless they continued in peace the hearty
co-operation which existed in war, he did not think
they would attain to their rightful position.
THE ASSOCIATION OF BRITISH
CHEMICAL MANUFACTURERS,
The fourth annual meeting of the Association
was held in London on July 8, Mr. R. G. Perry
(chairman) presiding.
The chairman's address dealt mainly with the
recent activities of the Association, as described
in our last issue (pp. 229-230 r). One of its most
important functions was to watch over Parlia-
mentary Bills from the standpoint of chemical
industry. In the past year the Patents and Designs
Committee had exercised considerable influence on
the drafting of the new Patents Act, and since
this was passed not a single adverse criticism had
been received from any member of the Association.
On the subject of taxation, the Council was
opposed to the present Government policy, inas-
much as it discouraged enterprise ; there was also
evidence of too much haste to get the country's
debts liquidated. Another point singled out for
especial comment was the work of the Traffic Com-
mittee. Owing to the great importance of this
subject, which affects all manufacturers in greater
or less degree, he recommended that serious con-
sideration should be given to the setting up of a
Traffic Department within the Association having
an experienced expert as head. Reviewing briefly
the object and achievements of the Association
during the past four years, Mr. Perry said that its
chief object was to promote co-operation among
manufacturers and thereby facilitate co-operation
between them and Government officials. Perhaps
too much stress had been laid in the past upon the
advantages of individualism, and the time had now
come to put team work in its place. An achieve-
ment of which they were proud was the report of
the commission sent to Germany, the preparation
of which was only rendered possible by co-opera-
tion with the Department of Overseas Trade.
Dr. E. F. Armstrong dwelt on the extreme value
of individuality in trade and on the necessity of
combating Government control and interference.
The Association had proved its value in the latter
respect, particularly in the case of the smaller
firms. The immediate future could not be regarded
as very hopeful in view of dear money, the cer-
tainty of a very big fight with labour, delay in
obtaining delivery of plant, and taxation. On the
other hand, adversity would doubtless bring out
the best which was in the chemical manufacturer,
and if manufacturers would work together through
the Association the result would not be in doubt.
Members should give more assistance to the Infor-
mation Bureau by providing it with accurate
statistics, as it was of prime importance that the
Association should be able to approach the Govern-
ment in the name of the whole industry. The
advent of American competition would probably
prove to our good, but it was imperative to over-
haul our machinery in good time.
In the general discussion which followed, Mr.
E. V. Evans spoke of the vital importance of
chemical engineering to chemical industry, con-
gratulated the Council on having initiated the
formation of an Association of Chemical Plant
Manufacturers, and expressed the hope that steps
would be taken to direct and foster the education
of chemical engineers.
Mr. E. B. Cook and Mr. F. H. Carr referred
to the present position as regards unrestricted
importation. The former appealed to the Council
to impress the Government with the urgency of
the situation, and the latter held that the Govern-
ment was perhaps justified in delaying legislation
in view of the need for re-establishing exchanges.
With regard to the new Salicylic Acid Association,
Vol. XXXIX.. Xo 14]
REVIEW.
Mr. Carr said that ite object was to bring prices
down by securing that efficiency in the manufacture
of salicylic acid which would enable home manu-
facturers to compete with Germans in foreign
markets. English makers of fine chemicals were
■dependent for their continued existence upon sell-
ing in a bigger market than England affords.
Mr. Kenneth Chance, speaking as one who took
no direct part in the management of the Associa-
tion, congratulated the Council on the excellent
work it had accomplished. Ho supported the pro-
posal to employ an expert in traffic problems, and
suggested tnat informal private meetings should
be held at which such subjects as the working of
chemical plant could be discussed.
After further speeches, by Mr. It. J. Pugh and
Mr. J. Lukes, the resolution that the report be
adopted was carried unanimously.
PERSONALIA.
Mr. C. O. Bannister has been appointed professor
of metallurgy in the University of Liverpool.
Mr. D. R. Steuart has retired from the position
of chief chemist to the Broxburn Oil Co., Ltd., after
forty years' service.
The new chair of fuel technology in the Uni-
versitv of Sheffield has been filled by the appoint-
ment of Dr. R. V. Wheeler.
Mr. G. B. Brook, lecturer in non-ferrous metal-
lurgy at the University of Sheffield, has been
appointed chief chemist to the British Aluminium
Company.
Dr. L. A. Jordan, who was recently created
Chevalier of the Order of the Crown of Italy for war
services rendered, has been awarded the degree of
D.Sc. in chemistry by the Senate of the University
of London.
Sir Jesse Boot has given the sum of £50,000 to
University College, Nottingham, for the purpose of
developing the scheme of a new university for the
East Midlands. Of the sum mentioned, £20,000 is
to be devoted to the endowment of a chair of
chemistry, and £30,000 to the building fund.
Two research fellowships, each of £300 and
tenable for one year, have been founded at the
Royal School of Mines by Mr. William Frecheville,
■who was professor of mining from 1912 to 1919, with
the object of encouraging research in mining,
mining geology, metallurgy, and oil technology.
Among the appointments made by the Council
of University College, Swansea, are: Prof. C. A.
Edwards, of Manchester University, to the chair
of metallurgy; Dr. J. E. Coates, of Birmingham
University, to the chair of chemistry ; and Dr. E. A.
Evans to the chair of physics. The foundation-
stone of the new buildings of the College was laid
by H.M. the King on July 19.
The following candidates were successful in the
July examinations of the Institute of Chemistry : —
Fellowship: A. C. Melville (metallurgy); G. E.
Knowles (textiles). Associateship: E. A. Morris
(minerals); C. Hollingsworth (metallurgy); L. V.
Cocks. R. G. M. Dakers (organic); S. Greenberg,
Vera Newcombe, H. C. M. Winch (food and drugs) ;
A. Potter (coal-tar dyes). The following have
passed the examination for the Fellowship and will
oe admitted thereto after three years' registration
as Associates: — G. G. Auchinleck, H. C. S. de
Whalley (agricultural chemistry).
NEWS AND NOTES.
FRANCE.
Industrial Notes. — Metallurgy. — Restoration in the
metallurgical industry has been most marked in
the Meurthe and Moselle districts, where pig-iron
is produced in fairly large quantities and four big
steel works are in operation. Although the rate of
recovery in these districts and in the industrial
parts of France generally has been very satisfac-
tory, there is no room for unrestrained optimism;
the work of reconstruction must continue to be slow
and laborious. The Lorraine works will have to
bear the brunt of production for some time, and
this again will again be possible if coke is available
in sufficient quantities. Works now in a position
to produce are those which were equipped with up-
to-date machinery and able to restart operations
soon after the armistice, in many cases with
machinery which had been removed to Germany but
brought back without difficulty in the early days
of peace. Factories which were entirely or partly
destroyed, or which had no modern equipment when
hostilities broke out, are now in a very different
position ; they have to make an entirely fresh start
and to place big orders which cannot be executed
promptly ; moreover, they are not likely to receive
assistance from Germany in the form of machinery
removed during the occupation.
According to an official statement, the quantities
of pig iron and semi-manufactured iron products
exported to Germany during 1919 were 9593 tons
and 30,580 tons, respectively, and for the first four
months of 1920, 1698 and 16,289 tons, respectively.
Fuel. — No decision has yet been taken by the
B.N.C. (National Office for Coal Distribution)
regarding the controlled distribution of American
coal. It is, however, reported that during the last
quarter of this year consumers of American coal
will see their British supply reduced in a certain
proportion. From June 7 to 10, 545,725 tons of
coal reached French ports, including 385,775 t.
from Britain, 43,705 t. from Germany and 116,245 t.
from the United States.
Measures are being taken to increase the produc-
tion of peat in France. The Northern works utilise
peat mixed with either oil or coal fuel, and this is
found to give good results. Successful experiments
were carried out during the war on the enrichment
of peat with mineral oils, etc., at the " Conserva-
toire des Arts et Metiers." Unfortunately, peat
is now expensive as it has to be imported from the
Netherlands, the cost price of a ton delivered at
Lille being 300 francs. The Government contem-
plates developing the peat-fields of the North of
France, where the Departments of the Pas de
Calais, the Somme and the Aisne are estimated to
possess a total area of 5000 hectares. The peat of
the Somme is rich in nitrogen. In the Pas de
Calais much peat is found in the St. Omer and
Montreuil s/Mer districts, and in the Aisne around
St. Quentin and Laon.
The Chemical Industry. — The chief feature of the
chemical industry is the dearth of stocks. The
market is disorganised and prices are fictitious.
Every consumer is prepared to pay almost any price
for the stock he requires. The market just now is
ransacked for tartaric, citric and oxalic acids, for
formaldehyde, ferro- and ferricyanides, permanga-
nates, chromates, dichromates, bicarbonates, sul-
phides and sulphates of soda and potash, gums, and
ammoniacal salts. Prices vary considerably, but,
whenever possible, consumers themselves undertake
the manufacture of products they require and are
glad to take advantage of the experience and advice
of the industrial chemist.
Colonies.- — The Government is apparently con-
sidering seriously the question of developing the
[J.uly 31, 1920.
colonies so as to obtain from them the raw materials
which hitherto have been derived from foreign
sources. An important statement to this effect was
made on July 2, in the Chamber of Deputies, by the
Colonial Secretary. The actual value of the trade
of the French colonies is 3 milliards of francs. That
great activity prevails is shown by the formation
of 125 new companies with capitals ranging from
50,000 to several million francs, and distributed as
follows : —Western Africa 40, Indo-China 35, Mada-
gascar 18, and Equatorial Africa 8. The colonies
have to be provided with all the necessary modern
equipment in the way of machinery, ports, canals,
railways and mercantile marine, and to finance this
big development an appeal is being made to the
great financiers and bankers of the country, who, if
they have not employed their capital in recon-
struction work in the liberated Departments, can
well be expected to invest it in the development of
the Colonial Empire. Such an appeal will very
probably not be made in vain, as France is never
deaf to a national appeal.
BRITISH INDIA.
Industries in the Indore State.— The recent report
of the Commerce and Industry Department of the
Indore State reveals its immense industrial potenti-
alities and the rapid strides being made to develop
them. Twelve joint stock companies have been
started with an aggregate capital of one crore,
twenty-two lakhs of rupees (over £800,000 at par),
and industries represented by them include cotton
mills, a tile and brick factory, etc., whilst among
the new schemes nearing completion are a paper
mill, a glass factory and a tannery. In order to
help industrial development, railway facilities are
to be improved and an active policy of State aid in
the shape of loans to nascent industries is beino-
pursued. The State has appointed Prof. Stanley
Jevons as its Economic Adviser, and his report is
now awaited.— (Indian and Eastern Engineer
May, 1920).
AUSTRALIA.
Oil Indications.— There are indications that oil
exists m the Central State, a quantity of bitumen
having been found in the Port MacDonnell district
Coorongite," known in Canada as " elastic
bitumen," occurs in the Coorong district, and 13
fractions of oil have been obtained from the
asphaltic base of this material. Ozokerite and ■
kerosene shale (which yielded 8 — 28 galls, of vola-
tile oil per ton) have been discovered, and white
paraffin wax is reported from the Mt. Gambier
region and yellow paraffin wax from Fowler's Bay,
on the West Coast. The Surveyor of the Queens-
land Department of Agriculture' has applied to the
Mines Department for a licence to prospect for oil
over an area of 2000 acres, situated near Brisbane,
indications of its presence having been detected. —
(Ind. Australian and Min. Stand., Apr. 22, 1920-
Bd. of Trade J., July 1, 1920.)
Sugar Industry. — Sugar cane is grown in only two
States in Australia, viz., Queensland and New
South Wales. The area occupied by the crop in
1918 was 186,484 acres, of which 175,762 was in
Queensland, and the yield for the 1917-18 season
was 174,881 tons of cane and 19,875 tons of sugar
in New South Wales and 2,704,211 tons of cane and
307,714 tons of sugar in Queensland. In spite of
the increased production of sugar in Australia, the
exports exceeded the imports in 1907 and 1915 only.
In 1917 there were three cane-crushing mills in New
South Wales and 47 grinding mills in Queensland,
whilst Victoria and Queensland had two sugar
refineries each and New South Wales and South
Australia one each. The output of refined sugar,
from 271,131 tons of raw, was 263,145 tons.— (U.S.
Com. Hep., May 6.)
Attention is drawn to the fact that the high
price of sugar and the shortage in the Queens-
land crop are encouraging attempts to cultivate
beet sugar in Western Australia. Orders have been
j sent to England for half a ton of the best Conti-
nental seed, and to the United States for a similar
quantity. Arrangements have been made with
farmers to sow this seed in experimental plots. —
I (Austral. Sugar J., May 7, 1920.)
UNITED STATES.
Technical Association oi the Pulp and Paper Industry.
— Although the leaders of the pulp and paper in-
dustry had long felt that insufficient attention had
been given to the training of technical men, and
that provision was needed for the encouragement of
research on the part of paper mill chemists and
engineers, it was not until September, 1914, that
a definite plan was submitted to the members of
the American Paper and Pulp Association relating
to the formation of a new technical Division which
should concern itself with the collection and dis-
semination of information concerning mechanical
and chemical engineering and the chemistry of
paper and paper-making fibres as applied to the
manufacture of pulp and paper. In response to
inquiries, replies were received indicating that a
majority of members favoured the plan. A meet-
ing was held in February, 1915, in connexion with
the annual convention of the American Paper and
Pulp Association, at which Mr. H. E. Fletcher
and a committee of five were appointed to continue
organisation work. The committee met in Chicago
in April, 1915, adopted a tentative constitution,
and elected a committee to prepare subjects and
rules for a prize essay competition. The committee
met again in Chicago in May, 1915, and adopted
the name " Technical Section of the American
Paper and Pulp Association." The text of the
constitution was approved, an executive committee
and a secretary-treasurer appointed, and the
journal Paper was selected as the official organ of
the section. Membership in the technical section
was at first restricted to members of the American
Paper and Pulp Association and their employees,
but it was subsequently decided to throw it open
to all who could meet the requirements for mem-
bership, irrespective of whether they were em-
ployees or members of the American Paper and
Pulp Association.
At the first annual meeting of the technical sec-
tion held at New York in February, 1916, the mem-
bership had grown to 207. On this occasion the
constitution was revised, and the name of the
organisation changed to " The Technical Associa-
tion of the Pulp and Paper Industry." Two other
meetings were held during 1916. The second
annual meeting took place in New York on Febru-
ary 6 — 8, 1917, the membership having then in-
creased to 274. Among the transactions of this
meeting was the award of $400 in prizes for papers
submitted in the prize essay competition. In
March, 1917, the executive committee met at Erie,
Pa., in conference with the council of the Technical
Section of the Canadian Pulp and Paper Associa-
tion, and steps were taken to assure fuller co-
operation between the two Associations in all im-
portant committee work. The subjects discussed
at the conference and on which co-ordination of
work was invited included joint meetings, special
bulletins, abstracts of pulp and paper literature,
model library of books on paper making, and voca-
tional education. It was also decided to hold a
joint meeting of the two Associations at Holyoke,
Mass., in September, 1917.
The Association has continued to grow steadily
in numbers. Usually two meetings are held during
the year ; one in New York, at the same time as
the annual convention of the American Paper and
Vol. XXXIX.. No. 14]
REVIEW.
Pulp Association, and one (sometimes two) in a
paper mill district. The Association has standing
committees on: Abstracts of literature; biblio-
graphy; groundwood ; heat, light, and power; pulp
and paper machinery; soda pulp; sulphite pulp;
sulphate pulp; standard methods of testing
materials; and vocational education. These com-
mittees have submitted many excellent reports and
have been responsible for procuring a large number
of interesting papers. The vocational education
committee, in co-operation with the Canadian
Association, is engaged in preparing a standard
text-book on the pulp and paper industry, the first
volume of which will be ready for publication about
September. Each section is written by an expert,
criticised by persons familiar with, or actively en-
gaged in, the particular work covered by the
section, and finally revised by a professional text-
book writer. It is proposed to use the book as the
basis of a correspondence course in paper-making.
The membership includes honorary members,
ordinary members, associate members, and junior
members. Members must be at least 28 years old,
have had a technical education or its equivalent,
and have been actively engaged for at least five
years in the manufacture of pulp and paper, or in
related industries or institutions. Associate mem-
bers include superintendents of plant, etc., and
junior members include younger chemists and en-
gineers The total membership, as reported at the
annual meeting in April last, was 537. The con-
nexion with Paper as the official organ of the
Association has been terminated, and steps are now
being taken to establish a new journal which will
be published by the Association and have the
character of a scientific journal devoted to the pulp
and paper industry. The president of the Asso-
ciation is Mr. R. S. Hatch, and the secretarv-
treasurer Mr. T. J. Keenan, 131, East 23rd Street,
New York. N.Y.
GENERAL.
German Dyes. — At the first annual meeting of the
Colour Users' Association, held in Manchester on
July 20, Mr. C. Rawson, chairman of the Technical
Advisory Committee, stated that the stocks of dyes
in Germany as at December last amounted to 22,000
tons, comprising 13,000 items. Under the repara-
tion clauses of the Peace Treaty, Great Britain
was entitled to 15 per cent, of this amount, or 3300
tons, but up to the present not more than 1500
tons had been received. As a result of its visit to
Germany in January, the Advisory Committee had
there purchased 140 tons of dyewares, worth about
£192,000, and options were secured on a further
700 tons, valued at about £1,000,000. These options
expired on July 1, and the committee decided not
to agree with the request of the Bayer Co. to
arrange an extension ; so far, some 220 tons, worth
£345,000, had been received on this account. The
policy of collective purchasing of German dyes had
been found to be unworkable, owing to the freedom
with which these dyes were entering the country,
and consequently it had been abandoned. — (Cf. J.,
1920, 40 B, 94 r).
Increased Annual Subscription to the Chemical Society.
— A second extraordinary general meeting was held
at Burlington House, W., on July 20, to consider
certain resolutions put forward by the Council,
under the by-laws now in force, relating to the
entrance fee, the annual subscription, and the life
composition fee. The proposals submitted and con-
firmed by the Fellows at this meeting were : (a) that
the entrance fee be reduced from £4 to £3 as from
December 1, 1920; (6) that the annual subscrip-
tion be increased from £2 to £3 beginning with the
year 1921 ; and (c) that the life composition fee as
from June 1, 1920, be £45, with reductions for those
Fellows who have paid annual subscriptions for
various periods.
Petroleum in Trinidad. — Considerable attention has
lately been attracted to the oil resources of Trini-
dad, and the report of the Inspector of Mines for
1919 states that a number of companies of good
financial standing has acquired lands with a view
to commencing drilling operations, and it is ex-
pected that in the near future the oil-bearing lands
of the colony will be developed on a very much
greater scale than hitherto. At the pTesent time,
however, there is difficulty in obtaining prompt
delivery of drilling equipment, etc. The export
of crude oil and its products shows an increase over
last year, the figures b^jng 49,000,000 Imperial
gallons during the year under review, as against
45,000,000 galls, for 1918. The shipments of crude
oil, oil fuel and distillates to the Admiralty have
continued during the whole of the year, and consti-
tute the largest portion of the oil exported from
the colony. The bunkering trade continues to
make good progress. Many ships call to replenish
their bunkers with oil fuel. The local and West
Indian trade is also increasing (cf. J., 1920, 95 r).
Industrial Notes from Belgium. — Coal Production. —
The Belgian output of coal in 1919 was 18,487,230
tons, compared with 13,887,600 tons in 1918. In
spite of the increased number of miners, the com-
parative output has decreased, largely owing to the
introduction of the eight-hour day. The need for
increasing coal production in Belgium is urgent,
as exports of non-industrial coal are of great im-
portance in adjusting Belgium's adverse trade
balance. The necessity for increasing the output
of coking coal is perhaps even greater, because of
the great difficulty in obtaining regular and ade-
quate deliveries from Alsace-Lorraine and Ger-
many. In January, 1919, the output of coal
reached 97'8 per cent, of that for the same month in
1913.
Metallurgy. — Twenty-five coke ovens, half the in-
stallation at the St. Denis-Obourg-Havre coal mine,
have been started up, in addition to another 35 at
the Bray coal mine, and three more blast furnaces
belonging to various companies have been blown in.
The iron output for January, 1920, has surpassed
that for January, 1913, by nearly three per cent. ;
the production of steel ingots and cast-iron, how-
ever, was only 27'7 and 197 per cent, respectively
of the outputs in the last-mentioned period. The
Societe Anonyme Metallurgique de Corphalie has
re-lighted several zinc furnaces, and the Vieille-
Montagne Co. has started a seventh zinc-rolling
mill at the Tilff works. The production of raw zinc
in January, 1920, was 238 per cent, of that during
January, 1913. Negotiations have been concluded
with the British Government for the delivery to the
Belgian zinc industry of 240,000 tons of zinc ore
within two years.
(Mass Industry. — The production of window-glass
is from 1,800,000—2,000,000 sq. ft. a month nine-
tenths of which is exported, whilst numerous foreign
orders cannot be filled. Eighteen furnaces are now
operating, and the lighting of extra ones is under
consideration, but is delayed by the fuel shortage.
Trade in other varieties of glass is active and con-
siderable amounts are being exported. On April 1
the working day was reduced from 9 to 8 hours.
Artificial Silk.— The reports of companies manu-
facturing artificial silk in Belgium indicate pro-
sperity. The Tubize company, which announced
a profit of 4,178,264 francs for the fiscal year 1919,
has made a contract with a Etrong American syndi-
cate for the erection of a large artificial silk factory
in the United States. This company has hitherto
used the Chardonnet process, but is now about to
start manufacture by the Viscose process; the plant
will be able to produce 1 metric ton daily. The four
artificial silk factories at Tubize, Obourg, Maran-
sart, and Alost now employ 5400 workers (6000 in
1913) and are producing thread at about 32 per cent,
of their output in 1914—2,700,000 kg. The favour-
able position of the industry is being made use of by
the workers in order to obtain higher wages. — (U.S.
Com. Bep., Apr. 26, May 8, June 1, 1920.)
Sulphur Exports from Sicily. — The export of sulphur
from Sicily in 1919 amounted to 147,286 tons, as
against 231,390 tons in 1918. Of this amount,
nearly 45 per cent, was exported to France, the
remainder being taken by Greece, Turkey, Spain,
England and South America. No sulphur was
exported to the United States during 1919. On
December 31, 1919, the stocks on hand were esti-
mated at 136,991 tons. Production improved
slightly during the year^but is still below pre-war
figures, largely owing to industrial troubles and
fires. The industry has many difficulties to contend
with, and its prospects are not considered very
bright (cf. J. 1920, 293 n).— (U.S. Com Bep.,
May 11, 1920.)
Orijarvi Copper and Zinc Mines in Finland. — It is
stated that work is about to be resumed in the
Orijarvi copper and zinc mines of Finland, which
have produced some 4500 tons of copper in their 130
years of existence. In addition to copper and zinc,
lead and silver are found in payable quantities. It
is estimated that the waste heaps of the mine will
last five years, and that the ore reserves will pro-
bably last at least another five years. The froth
flotation process will be used, and the product thus
obtained, which is said to contain about 30 per
cent, of zinc, 10 per cent of lead, and a minimum of
200 gm. of silver per ton, will be smelted electrically
'in. Finland, or, if this is not possible, in Sweden,
Norway, or Belgium. It is expected that the mines
will be in full operation by August, 1920. — (U.S.
Com. Bep., May 19, 1920.)
Sulphuric Acid Factory in Uruguay. — In 1918 a law
was passed in Uruguay authorising the Executive
Power to borrow 100,000 pesos (peso = 4s. 2d.) from
a credit institution for the establishment of a sul-
phuric acid factory at Montevideo. A site and
building have been acquired and the necessary
plant has been installed. A further loan of 30,000
pesos was authorised in April last to cover the cost
of apparatus ordered from Europe for the manu-
facture of hydrochloric and hydrocyanic acids and
for the purchase of raw materials, etc., required
before the factory can commence operations.
(For other chemical manufactures in Uruguay, cf.
J., 1918, 162 r).— Bd. of Trade J., June 3, 1920.)
Resources of Matto Grosso, Brazil. — The State of
Matto Grosso occupies an area of 432,348 sq. miles
in the western part of Brazil, of which it is the
second largest State. It is a country of extensive
forests, but stock-raising is the chief industry, and
hides have mostly been exported to Britain. The
forests produce rubber and large quantities of
ipecacuanha, which furnishes a khaki dye as well
as the drug. A large variety of excellent hardwoods
is found in Matto Grosso, but little has been done
to exploit them. The Paraguayan yerba mate zone
extends north into the southern part of Matto
Grosso; the chief company engaged in this industry
gathers about 6 million kg. of this plant yearly.
The most valuable mineral found in the State is
manganese ore, deposits of which occur at Morro de
Urucum and Morro Grande, near Corumba, and are
said to contain at least 120 million tons of man-
ganese. The ore assays at an average of 46 per cent,
of manganese, with variations of from 37 to 60 per
cent., and 9 to 10 per cent. iron. These deposits are
owned by a large company, the Companhia Minas e
Viacao de Matto Grosso, a joint mining and trans-
port enterprise. Some 7,000 tons of ore have been
taken out of the Urucum deposit, which is the
only one now being worked, and the annual output
is expected to exceed 120,000 tons. Alluvial gold
is found, as well as diamonds, and copper ore assay-
ing 40 per cent, occurs near Rio Jauru, a tributary
of the Paraguay, but it has not been worked on a
commercial Bcale. — (U.S. Com. Bep., Apr. 1, 1920.)
PARLIAMENTARY NEWS.
HOUSE OF COMMONS.
German Dyestuffs.
In answer to Lieut.-Col. Pickering, Mr. Bridge-
man said he was aware that America had arranged
to import German dyes, for which there is a de-
mand in the United Kingdom, but the importation
of dyestuffs in this country had been allowed since
last December, and supplies were being secured
from Germany under the Reparation Scheme.
Even when their importation was prohibited, save
under licence, arrangements were made to secure
from Swiss manufacturers dyes that were not avail-
able from other sources. Although the Govern-
ment was under an obligation to safeguard the dye
industry in this country, and therefore to control
importation, it was not part of its policy to com-
pel British consumers to purchase dyestuffs from
any one British firm. — (July 8.)
Sir R. Home informed Mr. Hogge that the total
quantity of synthetic dyestuffs, including a small
quantity of intermediates, imported from Germany
during the first six months of the current year was,
roughly, 387 tons, 150 tons of which was received
under the Reparation Clauses of the Peace Treaty.
—(July 19.)
British Firms (Foreign Control).
Mr. Kellaway, answering Col. Newman, said
that he had seen Press statements regarding the
recent passing under foreign control of British
firms, such as Boots and Co., Ltd., but no licence
or authorisation from any Government Depart-
ment was required in such a case; developments
of this kind would be carefully watched. —
(July 15.)
Oil-Burning Locomotives.
Replying to Major Palmer, Mr. Neal said that
the Great Central Railway Co. had recently car-
ried out tests on locomotives burning colloidal fuel,
consisting of 60 per cent, coal dust and 40 per cent,
oil. Figures of comparative efficiency had been
received, but the fuel consumption and cost as com-
pared with coal had not been given. Liquid fuel
had been used extensively in locomotives since
1886, but its use was not economical at the present
time, and it was doubtful whether oil would ever
be supplied in sufficient quantity and at a low
enough price to warrant its general use on the rail-
ways in this country. — (July 15.)
Excess Profits Duty and Contributions to Scientific
Besearch.
In Committee on the Finance Bill, Lieut.-Col. W.
Guinness moved a new clause to provide for exemp-
tion from income-tax and super-tax of sums devoted
to charitable purposes up to a maximum of 5 per
cent, of the total income of the claimant. In re-
fusing to make this concession, Mr. A. Chamberlain
offered to move a new clause to a similar effect but
in relation to the excess profits duty, if the motion
were withdrawn. This was done, and the Chan-
cellor's clause, as given below, was subsequently
added to the Bill.
" Where, out of the profits of a trade or business,
any contribution has been made after the 16th day
of July, 1920, to any trust, society, or body of
persons in the United Kingdom established solely
for the purpose of relief of the poor or the sick, or
for the advancement of education, or for scientific
research, there shall, for the purpose of Excess
Profits Duty, be allowed in the computation of the
profits of the trade or business arising in the
accounting period within which such contribution
was made, a deduction in respect of such contribu-
tion of an amount not exceeding 5 per cent, of those
Vol. XXXIX.. No. 14.
profits as calculated for the purposes of Excess
Profits Duty (before adjustment for increased or de-
creased capital and before making any deductiou
under this section) and not exceeding 20 per cent,
of the amount of such contribution. This Section
shall not apply to any contribution which, apart
from the provisions of this Section, would be ad-
missible as a deduction from profits for the purposes
of Excess Profits Duty."— (July 16.)
Salt Manufacturers' Association.
In reply to Major Entwistle, Sir R. Home said
that in the Report of the Sub-Committee (of the
Standing Committee on Trusts) appointed to in-
vestigate salt it was stated that the Salt Manufac-
turers' Association fixes the selling price of 95 per
cent, of the salt sold in this country, but that prior
to the formation of the Association the prices ob-
tained for salt were barely remunerative. The
present situation did not call for action by the
Board of Trade, but the course of prices would be
watched.— (July 19.)
Synthetic Dye Industry.
Answering Mr. Sugden, Sir R. Home said that
the Government was aware of the vital importance
of the dye industry, and had given pledges to pro-
tect it for a time, so as to enable it to be placed on
a secure foundation. All the various methods of
fostering the industry had been considered, and the
Government was of the opinion that the best
method was to prohibit the importation of dyestuffs
except under licence. An undertaking to this
effect had been given, and suitable proposals would
be embodied in a Bill relating to key industries to be
introduced and proceeded with as soon as possible.
The Government would facilitate the working of the
trade so far as it could. — (July 20.)
German Capital (British Industries).
Mr. Bridgeman, replying to Brig. -Gen. Surtees,
said that Section II. of the Aliens Restriction
(Amendment) Act, 1919, prohibits a former enemy
alien from holding any interest in a key industry
for a period of three years from December 23, 1919,
and the publication of a list of key industries was
under consideration. The investment of capital by
former alien enemies in the non-ferrous metal in-
dustry was also restricted by the Non-Ferrous
Metal Industry Act, which would continue in force
until five vears after the termination of the war. —
(July 21.)
Trade with Germany.
In a written reply to Mr. Short, Sir R. Home
gave statistics concerning the imports into this
country from Germany during the period Novem-
ber 11, 1918, to May 31, 1920. The total value was
£10,026.660, and included: — Paper and manufac-
tures thereof, 159,751 cwts. (£458,884) ; potassium
compounds, 350,894 cwt. (£445,550) ; glass and
glassware. 112,239 cwt. (£301,650); coal-tar dye-
stuffs, 6208 cwt. (£294,693) ; unrefined beet sugar,
113,597 cwt. (£240,626); painters' colours, 182,90S
cwt. (£181,934); and wood pulp, 1526 t. (£65,285).
The value of the exports from the United Kingdom
to Germany was £23,166,090, and included 25,279
tons of linseed oil (£2,030,418) and 222,021 cwts. of
soap (£870,995). Exports to Germany of foreign
and colonial produce and manufactures were
valued at £20,287,915, including 3.923 tons of raw
rubber, worth £906,435.— (July 21.)
Cane-Sugar Production.
Mr. McCurdy informed Lieut. -Col. Croft that
the increased production of cane sugar from 1913-14
to 1919-20 was estimated at 736,000 tons in the
British Empire and 1,873.000 t. in other countries.
The decrease in the world production of beet sugar
in the same period was about 5.4407,000 t., so that
the world supply of sugar is still about 3,500,000 t.
below pre-war production. — (July 22.)
LEGAL INTELLIGENCE.
Trade Marks in Foreign Countries. — Espinar v.
Bunjoyne, Burbidges and Co., Ltd.
On July 13-16, in the King's Bench Division,
the Lord Chief Justice and a special jury heard an
action which emphasises the need for traders to
exercise care in the registration of trade marks in
foreign countries.
In 1900 the defendants arranged with the plain-
tiff that he should sell in Spain their disinfectant,
sold under the trade mark " Zotal." The plaintiff
thereupon registered the mark in Spain in his own
name. After trading for some years he left for
Mexico and sold the mark to Tehera, who thus
became the only person entitled to sell Zotal in
Spain, but could not get it to sell. In these cir-
cumstances Tehera applied to the defendants and
obtained a promise that he should be their sole
agent. When Tehera died the plaintiff approached
the defendants and offered to abandon the sale of
" Germol," which he had recently been pushing,
if the defendants would cortract with him to sell
Zotal. An agreement was signed that the plain-
tiff should have the agency if he could obtain
possession of the trade mark Zotal from Tehera's
heirs. On the ground that this condition was not
fulfilled, the defendants repudiated the contract,
and the plaintiff sued for £12,000 damages for loss
of business in Germol and for an alleged libel.
From the summing up of the Lord Chief Justice
it appears that under Spanish law the defendants'
assistance in the action to recover the trade mark
was needed, and this they had not given, thus
creating a breach of contract with the plaintiff.
The jury found for the plaintiff for £5000 damages
for breach of contract and £1000 damages for libel.
REPORTS.
Report of the Merchandise Marks Committee op
the Board of Trade. H. M. Stationery Office,
June, 1920. (Cmd. 760. 2d.)
This Committee was appointed to consider: —
Ui) Whether the Merchandise Marks Act should be
extended to require " indications of origin " to be
affixed to goods, (6) the advisability of " National
Trade Marks " or similar collective marks, (c)
whether further international action is required to
prevent the false marking of goods.
(a) Whereas manufacturing interests favoured
the compulsory marking of imported goods as an
indication of origin, the merchants insisted that
any such requirements would be detrimental, espe-
cially to the entrepot trade. The Committee there-
fore recommends that the Board of Trade should
have power to make an order requiring indications
of origin in the case of any particular kind of
goods, after an official inquiry, in the course of
which special attention should be given to any
unfair competition in the manufacture or sale of
such goods. In appropriate cases, therefore, it
might be ordered that particular goods should be
marked " imported," etc.
As the central authorities have no adequate staff
for the detection of offences under the Act, it is
recommended that local authorities should be given
power to prosecute, since they already possess suit-
able staffs. But prosecutions should be in the High
Court to secure uniformity.
(6) In the absence of agreement among the bulk
of the traders concerned there are grave objections
to the institution of a British National or Empire
[July 31. 1920.
mark (like the French " France-Unis " or the Swiss
" Spes " marks); but marks administered by a
group or association of a particular trade or trades,
for use in connexion therewith, have met with con-
siderable support, and provision for their registra-
tion in proper cases has already been made in this
country.
(c) With regard to international action, the in-
teresting proposal is made that if a country refuses
to carry out its obligations under a convention, the
matter might be referred to the League of Nations.
It is suggested that further investigation should
be made as to the possibility of international or Im-
perial registration of trade marks. A useful warn-
ing is given as to the danger of British trade marks
owners losing their rights in many foreign countries
in which the first applicant for a mark, even if he
be a pirate and not the real owner, can obtain re-
gistration even against the originator of the mark.
Recommendations are made as to legislation against
this abuse. Meanwhile the only remedy is for the
British owner to obtain early registration abroad.
Report to the Board of Trade of the Empire
Flax Growing Committee on Substitutes for
Flax as at April 27, 1920. Pp. 6. London:
H.M. Stationery Office. (Cmd. 762, Id.)
Two fibres come mainly into account as possible
substitutes for flax, namely, ramie and Italian
hemp. Ramie grows in almost unlimited quantities
throughout equatorial Africa, in India and China,
the finest qualities coming from China, where also a
■certain amount is cultivated. The quantity of the
raw plant actually available appears to be far in
excess of any possible requirements, but the pre-
paration of the fibre for the market is a long and
complicated process. No large development of the
industry can be expected until mechanical methods
of decortication have been established. The process
of degumming has been employed successfully as
a secret process, first in Germany at Emmendingen
and later in Yorkshire. The output is almost en-
tirely devoted to the manufacture of gas mantles.
There is little doubt that ramie could be used as a
substitute for flax to a much larger extent than at
present; the appearance of the manufactured
articles is excellent, but it is alleged that, owing
to deficient elasticity, cracking occurs in the finer
textiles when they are folded.
The Committee has come to the conclusion that
there are considerable possibilities for the use of
Italian hemp in the linen trade. It has been spun
successfully in Belfast on a commercial scale as
fine as 35 lea, and with due care and experiment
might be used even for finer yarns. It would ap-
pear that the finest qualities of Italian hemp have
never so far reached this country, most of the
specially fine quality having been sent to Germany
before the war. The principal difficulty in the use
of Italian hemp lies in the fact that it must be
properly softened, and only when the softening
process has been thoroughly carried out is the fibre
capable of consideration as a substitute for flax.
A successful German machine for this purpose con-
sists of a concrete bed on which two stone rollers
mounted on a swivel are rotated very rapidly, so
that the hemp on the bed becomes quite hot under
the action of the rollers. The yarn from Italian
hemp, like that from ramie, is deficient in elas-
ticity and tends to break when used as a warp.
The total Italian crop of hemp this year is estimated
to reach 100,000 tons, about half of which is avail-
able for export; the quantity of high-grade fibre is
estimated at between 5000 and 10,000 tons from
Bologna and Ferrara and 3000 — 5000 tons from
Naples. In buying hemp for use in the coarse and
medium numbers in the linen trade, it would be
necessary for spinners to obtain hand-dressed or
half-dressed hemps and to put them through all
the processes as though they were raw flax. Hemps
of other origin than Italian have been considered
by the Committee; some of these might be utilised,
as for instance Hungarian hemp, but some are
inferior in quality and others difficult to procure.
Nettle fibre does not appear to offer any attrac-
tions. The Committee concludes that, although
substitute fibres exist and come into use when flax
is scarce and the price is high, none of them can
satisfactorily replace flax in the manufacture of
the finer textiles, and that the solution of the
difficulties now confronting the linen trade is to
be sought by extending the cultivation of flax.
Second Interim Report of the Water Power Re-
sources Committee. Board of Trade. Pp. 27
H.M. Stationery Office. 1920. (Cmd. 776, 4rf.)
The terms of reference to the Committee were en-
larged in October, 1919, and now include the con-
sideration of what steps should be taken to ensure
that the water resources of the country are properly
conserved and fully and systematically used for all
purposes. (For previous interim report see this
J., 1919, 151 R.)
The difficulty in allocating water is becoming
annually greater in England and Wales, and it is
recommended that the Minister of Health should
set up a Water Commission having jurisdiction over
England and Wales in regard to all uses of water,
and that the responsibility of the Commissioners to
the Minister should be direct. Amongst other
duties the Commission would be charged with the
allocation of water resources in the interests of
the community, with the adjustment of conflicting
interests in the use of water, with the consideration
of the development of rivers from the point of view
of all water interests, and with the appointment of
Advisory Committees for the purpose of advising
upon matters within the purview of the Com-
mission. Duplication of work and delay in pro-
cedure would be avoided by the establishment of a
Statutory Interdepartmental Committee, upon
which various scientific services would be repre-
sented. All future proposals regarding the utilisa-
tion of water, whether surface or underground, for
purposes other than private domestic use would be
subject to the sanction of the Commission, which
would also be empowered to modify burdensome
conditions, or conditions inconsistent with proper
conservation of water resources, by Order, which
should take effect, in the absence of opposition,
without confirmation by Parliament. With regard
to the development of water resources, it is recom-
mended that facilities be given for private enter-
prise of various kinds as well as for public elec-
tricity supply. The duty of studying, supervising,
and promoting the development of water power
should be specifically delegated to the Board of
Trade or the Electricity Commissioners, and a
fund be made available for the purpose. In the
event of the duty being delegated to the Board of
Trade, the development of water powers allocated
to the 'purpose of public electricity supply should be
among the duties of the Electricity Commissioners.
It is remarked that the possible water-power re-
sources in an area embracing North and Mid-
Wales, Dartmoor and Exmoor, the AVest Riding,
the Avon, and the Dee average about 10 continuous
h p per square mile of catchment area. Pre-
liminary surveys indicate that the view expressed
by some witnesses that comparatively little water
power remains to be developed is not justified. Une
appendix is devoted to a digest of recommendations
concerning water supply drawn up by various Com-
missions, etc. during the period 1866—1910.
Vol. XXXIX., No. 14.]
REVIEW.
OFFICIAL TRADE INTELLIGENCE.
{From the Board of Trade Journal for July 8, 15,
and 22.)
OPENINGS FOR BRITISH TRADE.
The following inquiries have been received at the
Department of Overseas Trade (Development and
Intelligence), 35, Old Queen Street, London,
S.W. 1, from firms, agents, or individuals who desire
to represent U.K. manufacturers or exporters of
the goods specified. British firms may obtain the
names and addresses of the persons or firms referred
to by applying to the Department and quoting the
specific reference number : —
China, earthenware, gi
paper
Paper, pitch
Metals
Soap, druggists' supplies
Imitation leather . .
Iron, steel
New Zealand
South Africa
Austria . .
Belgium
Germany
Greece . .
Italy
Sweden . .
Turkey . .
Ecuador
Mexico
Chemicals, fish oils, grease, rosin,
turpentine
Chemicals, paint, oil, iron, steel,
leather
China, earthenware, glass
China, glassware
Cocoa, rubber
Soap, candles, vegetable oil
Copper sulphate, potassium di-
chromate, ammonium chloride
and carbonate
Pig iron
Chemicals, leather
Chemicals, pharmaceutical pro-
ducts
Tanning materials
Paper, rubber
Black sheets, tinplate
Paint, varnish, enamel
Paper (newsprint and journal),
glassware
Heavy pharmaceutical and
analytical chemicals, paints,
varnishes, anti-fouling com-
positions
Chemical products for industrial
purposes
Oirniiral and pharmaceutical pro-
ducts
Industrial chemicals, oils
Crucibles
Caustic soda and potash, calcined
glauber salts, sulphuric acid,
quebracho extract (63-115%),
soda ash. salt cake, chloride of
lime, rosin
Technical oils, window glass, iron
and steel bars, druggists'
sundries
Paint, varnish, paper, glass
bottles
Chemicals
Drugs, dyes, soap, china, glass,
paper, inks
Perfumery, leather
Earthenware, tiles. .
Chemicals, essential oils, mica,
rubber
Chemicals
Chemical products
Metals, chemicals, paint, varnish,
linseed oil, dyes, drugs,
medicines, starch, perfumery . .
Metals, chemicals, drugs, dyes,
cement, china, perfumery (cata-
logues of) . . . . . . I
Market Sought. — A Danish firm in Mexico deal-
ing in essence of linaloe, henequen, mercury,
vanilla, cocoa, sugar, alcohol, hides, and coquito de
aceite is anxious to get into touch with importers in
the U.K. [79]
TARIFF, CUSTOMS, EXCISE.
Argentina. — The new Customs Tariff Amend-
ments Law increases the former duties by 20 per
cent., but the duty on various articles, including
red and white lead, lead pipes, slabs and sheets,
rubber goods and galvanised iron sheets, is in-
creased to a greater extent.
Belgium. — A supplement to the issue of July 8
sets out in full the customs tariff showing the " co-
efficients of increase " applicable in the case of
each separate heading and sub-heading and also
the articles either free of duty or subject to ad
valorem duties which are not affected by the decree
of June 12. The decree is effective from June 21,
and will cease to be in force on June 15, 1921.
Among the duty-free articles are drugs, manures,
certain oils, scientific instruments and apparatus,
chemical products not specifically mentioned (in-
cluding acids, salts, and unenumerated chemicals),
resins, bitumens, dyes, and colours.
Export licences are again required for bottles of
all kinds.
Bolivia. — The new customs tariff came into force
on July 1.
Chile. — A decree dated April 17 imposed certain
restrictions on the importation and sale of sac-
charin and similar products.
A copy of the new Sanitary Code may be seen at
the Department. The articles affected include phar-
maceutical preparations and foodstuffs.
Cuba. — The restrictions on exports and re-exports
have been withdrawn except in the case of money,
and gold and silver in any form.
The import duty on gold, silver, and platinum
has been increased.
Danzig. — The conditions regulating trade be-
tween Danzig and Germany, Danzig and Poland,
and Danzig and other countries are set out in the
issue for July 22.
France. — A summary of the new turn-over tax,
which varies from one-tenth to 25 per cent, ad
valorem is given in the issue for July 15. Spirits
are subject to the highest tax, and among the
" articles of luxury " which pay tax at the rate of
10 per cent, are ceramic wares cocoa, chocolate,
glass and crystal wares, and perfumery.
The export of oil cake in amount to be fixed each
month by the Ministry of Agriculture will be
allowed during the summer, but export duty will be
levied thereon at the rate of 25 francs per 100 kg.
A list showing the quantity of dyes and other
chemicals that may be imported from Germany in
excess of the levy imposed by the Peace Treaty may
be seen at the Department.
The export or re-exportation of cast iron and
scrap iron capable of utilisation for re-smelting is
prohibited as from July 10, save under certain con-
ditions.
French Colonies. — Colouring materials, chemical
and pharmaceutical products, in excess of the levy
imposed by the German Peace Treaty, still require
special licences when imported from Germany and
other European countries subject to the French
General Tariff.
Dominican Republic. — A copy of the new sanitary
laws may be seen at the Department. The laws
affect the sale of drugs and patent medicines and
the sanitary control of foodstuffs.
Italy. — The temporary suspension of the customs
duty on newsprint paper is continued until
August 31.
Among the articles for which export licences are
still required are cocoa, cocoa-butter, edible gelatin,,
sugar, molasses, glucose, edible vegetable oils, lard,
steel ingots, pig iron, base metals, metal alloys
(except ferrosilicon and tinplate), acetone, certain
acids, alizarine, aniline and its salts, starch, lime,
cement, sodium carbonate, waxes, rosin, copra,
bones, chromates and dichromates, digras, dextrin,
[July 31, 1920.
tanning extracts, gypsum, gums, rubber, animal
and vegetable fats, indigo, vegetable fibres, ores
(with some exceptions), mineral oils, cellulose,
woodpulp, hides and skins (with some exceptions),
certain potash salts, pyrites, chrome salts, tin salts,
copper sulphate, cinchona bark, alcohol, toluene,
turpentine, vaseline, precious metals, certain drugs,
and fertilisers.
Kelantan. — The import duties on alcoholic
liquors have been increased.
Latvia. — The right to sell spirits and brandy is
a State monopoly, and importation by private
persons is not allowed.
Morocco (French Zone). — The revised " gate
taxes " on, inter alia, glassware, lime, cement, iron
and steel bars, bricks, building pottery, fireproof
wares, coal, are set out in the issue for July 22.
Netherlands. — Export prohibitions have been
temporarily raised from ammonia, iron, steel,
metals (except gold and silver), and vegetable fibres.
Newfoundland. — The proposed tariff changes
affect leather, tanning materials, manures, sul-
phuric acid, printing paper, fire clay, china clay,
sand, cattle cakes and foods.
Peru. — An additional 10 per cent, import duty
is applied to all dutiable materials imported
through the customs houses of the Republic.
Poland. — The import and export regulations
now in force are set out in the issue for July 22.
St. Christopher and Nevis. — The export duties on
sugar, syrup, molasses, rum, and coconuts have
been amended.
South Africa. — It is proposed to prohibit the im-
port of wines and spirits from " prohibition "
countries.
Sweden. — Olive oil, arachis oil, sesame oil, and
cottonseed oil when imported in glass or earthen-
ware vessels pay duty at the rate of 5 ore per kg.
(including the weight of the vessels), but when im-
ported in other vessels are free of duty.
Switzerland. — A permit is required for the export
of, inter alia, various semi-manufactures of glass,
gla°s hollow-ware combined with precious metals,
raw animal and vegetable material for pharma-
ceutical use, crude tartar, phosphoric acid, and
certain phosphorus compounds, white and red phos-
phorus, " chromosal " mordant, laundering pow-
ders, and soap.
New or increased duties are payable on, inter
alia, coal, lignite, coke, briquettes, alcohol, petro-
leum and its products, naphtha-solvent, mineral
and tar oils.
Tunis.- — All goods imported from or originating
in Germany pay duty at the rates prescribed in the
French " General " Tariff, increased by the " co-
efficients of increase " applicable in France.
Products of other countries imported from Ger-
many arc also subject to the " surtaxe d'entrepot "
or the " surtaxe d'origine " applicable in France.
The export or re-export of wood for the manu-
facture of cellulose pulp, celluloid, etc., is pro-
hibited as from June 16.
GOVERNMENT ORDERS AND NOTICES.
Prohibited Exports. — The Board of Trade has
notified the removal of the following materials from
the List of Prohibited Exports as from July 22,
1920: — Guanos; phosphate rock, namely, apatites,
phosphate of lime and alumina.
German Nationals and British Patents. — The
President of the Board of Trade has issued an
Order, dated July 19, 1920, directing the Custodian
of Enemy Property to divest himself of patents pre-
viously owned by German nationals, in accordance
with Article 306 of the Treaty of Peace with Ger-
many. The full text of the Order is given in the
Board of Trade Journal of July 22, and in the
London Gazette of July 23.
British Industries Fairs. — The President of the
Board of Trade has appointed a committee, with
Sir Frank Warner as chairman, to consider the best
policy to be adopted as regards British Industries
Fairs, particularly in respect of the centres at
which they should be held, the trades which should
be included, and the classes of exhibitors which
should be allowed to participate. The secretary of
the committee is Mr. A. G. Chuter, of the Depart-
ment of Overseas Trade.
Dominions Touring Exhibition. — The Depart-
ment of Overseas Trade is issuing a pamphlet con-
taining particulars of the touring exhibition it is
now organising. The Tour will leave England early
in 1921 and will travel for about two years ; it will
visit South Africa, New Zealand, Australia, and
Canada, the various Governments of which are pro-
viding Exhibition Halls, and arranging for reduced
fares, freights, etc. Among the goods especially
wanted in the Dominions are glassware, china and
earthenware, and scientific instruments.
COMPANY NEWS.
EXPLOSIVES TRADES, LTD.
At the ordinary general meeting, held in London,
on July 6, Sir Harry McGowan, chairman and
managing director, described the object of the
amalgamation (this J., 1918, 462 r, 1919, loin),
the difficulties experienced in bringing it about, the
lines upon which it was developing, and the finan-
cial results of the past two years.
Although the long-drawn-out negotiations be-
tween the firms concerned were not completed until
November, 1918, the effective policy of the merger
had been operative some time before that date. It
had been carried out on the soundest lines; the
capital value of pre-war plant was drastically
written down, war-time extensions were taken at
one-fifth of their cost, and met by the issue of de-
ferred shares, whilst goodwill was valued entirely
upon pre-war results. The difficult problems
attending the re-establishment of pre-war indus-
tries and the re-distribution and consolidation of
production had been successfully solved, and atten-
tion had been directed to the opening-up of new
fields of employment for capital rendered unpro-
ductive by the war. The present activities of the
company could be roughly segregated into chemicals
(industrial explosives, chemicals, acids, gas
mantles, collodions, varnishes, etc.), and hardware
and metals (metal goods and hardware, motor
accessories, metal powders, welding, etc.). Seeing
that some 60 per cent, of the capital was now in-
vested in undertakings which had no connexion
with the explosives industry, it was proposed to
give the company a new name. In selecting new
fields of manufacture, the transport industry
appeared to be of great promise. Substantial hold-
ings were acquired in the Dunlop Rubber Co. and
its subsidiaries, in the Rotax Motor Accessories Co.,
and the business of John Marston, Ltd. (makers
of the Sunbeam cycles) was purchased en bloc. Fol-
lowing the example of the leading explosives firm in
the United States — the Du Pont Co. — the sum of
about $25,000,000 was invested in the General
Motors Corporation, Ltd., of America, the largest
motor-manufacturing firm in the world. Substan-
tial interests were also held in the British Dyestuffs
Corporation and the British Cellulose Co., and more
recently the whole of the shares of the British
Pluviusin Co., of Manchester, had been acquired;
Vol. XXXIX., No. 14.1
this firm manufactured artificial leather, the pro-
spects of which appeared to be endless. The result
of the amalgamation had been to lower the prices of
the company's products, e.g., explosives are now
selling at about 80 per cent, above the pre-war
level, in spite of increases of 150 — 200 per cent, in
the cost of materials and increased wages. On the
subject of taxation Sir H. McGowan held that the
period of liquidation of our national indebtedness
should be prolonged, so that our industries would
be enabled to acquire such a share of the world's
trade as would facilitate the much earlier pavment
of that debt.
The net balance at profit and loss for the years
1918-19 was £1,655,241. The ordinary shares re-
ceived 9 per cent, for 1918, and are receiving 10
per cent, for 1919, the deferred shares obtaining 5
per cent. The sum of £231,472 is carried forward.
TRADE NOTES.
BRITISH.
Barbados in 1918. — In the year 1918 the imports
amounted to £2,986,006, as against £2,285,278 in
1917. The sources of the imports were distributed
as follows: — United Kingdom 27, Canada 1525,
British Possessions (including India) 155, United
States 37 per cent. The imports from the United
Kingdom and the United States showed a decrease
of 7 and 2 per cent., respectively. Exports were
valued at £2,480,646, an increase of £290,532, the
share of the United Kingdom being £479,346 and
of British colonies £1,428,332. The chief product
of the colony is sugar, 33,207 t. of which, valued
at £687,453, was exported in 1918, as against
51,960 t., worth £1,056,430, in the previous year.
The export of molasses was 10,683,609 galls., worth
£875,396, compared with 9,400,166 galls., worth
£513,845, in 1917. The decrease in the 1918 sugar
crop was mainly due to the lack of rainfall. The
new seedling sugar canes continue to give good
results and other new varieties are promising well.
A commission was appointed to inquire into certain
serious pests of the sugar cane, but a report has not
yet been issued. Following sugar in importance is
cotton, the crop amounting to 192.541 lb., worth
£28,949, against 76,296 lb., worth £8213, in 1917;
the area under cotton increased from 980 to 1337
acres. The local agricultural department has been
improving the exotic and indigenous cottons by
selection and hybridisation, and 20 acres were
planted with the improved exotic cotton, which it
is thought will furnish enough seed of a good strain
to plant the area estimated for 1919-20. — (Col.
Bep.-Ann., No. 1035, May, 1920.)
FOREIGN.
Sumac Trade of Sicily. — During 1919 the production
of sumac in Sicily was only about 16,000 tons; of this
amount 6055 tons of ground and 1920 tons of leaf,
to a total value of £237,901, were exported to the
United States. The trade was greatly restricted
by lack of transport facilities, and prices, which have
advanced to 18'6 — 19 lire (lira = 9id.) for sumac with
28 — 30 per cent, of tannin, still show an upward
tendency. It is reported that from 10,000 to 15,000
tons of sumac is on hand in Sicily, most of it being
already sold to, or earmarked for, American pur-
chasers.— (U.S. Com. Rep., May 18, 1920.)
Trade ol the Soerabaya District, Dutch East Indies. —
The trade of this district during 1918 was much
hampered by shipping difficulties. Amongst the
imports in that year were: — Chemicals, 3410 tons;
coal, 31,999 tons; ammonium sulphate, 9747 tons;
iron and steel and manufactures thereof, 7292 tons;
kerosene oil, 223.881 cases; lubricating oil, 870,598
litres; white and red lead paint, 410 tons; asbestos
sheets, £7865; soap, 20,379 cases; tar, 826 tons;
zinc, 76 tons; zinc white, 184 tons. The exports in-
cluded : Groundnuts, hulled 188 tons, and unhulled
855 tons; copra, 1821 tons; sisal fibre, 27,924 tons;
hides, buffalo 437.887, and cow 2.633,008; kapok,
2898 tons; peanut oil, 1,284,683 litres; Peruvian
bark, 246 tons; rubber, 7373 tons; and sugar,
654,378 tons. About half of the sugar exported in
1918 went to British India and a little less than half
the total exports went to Singapore in that year.
The exports of sugar, rubber, and sisal fibre showed
large increments, but those of coffee, kapok, and
copra showed decreases. — (U.S. Com. Bep., Suppl.,
Apr. 24. 1920.)
Chemical Exports from Norway. — The following
table shows the exports of Norwegian chemical pro-
ducts, in metric tons, for the years 1918 and 1919 : —
Chemicals. 1918. 1919.
Nitric acid
Oxalic acid
Ammonium sulphat.:
Ammonium nitrate . .
Sodium nitrate
Sodium nitrite
Norway saltpetre
Cyanamide
Calcium carbide
Ferrosilicon
Iodine . . . . . . . . 5-4
matches 0,014-9
Gunpowder and other explosives 5 -0
— (U.S. Com. Bep., May 18, 1920.)
Metric tons.
836-7
1.432
2060
293
49.587-9
5.163
9 636-6
13,036
2.097S
1.893
m.02:.-s
fci.SSO
10-5
9.929-
41,7719
25.599-
iii.sei-3
2.458-
REVIEWS.
Kleines Praktikum der Kolloldchemie. By
Wolfgang Ostwald, assisted by P. Wolski.
Pp. 159, with 14 illustrations. (Leipzig and
Dresden: Theodor Steinhopff . 1920.) Price
15 mfc.
This book gives clear and ample directions for no
less than 168 exercises in Colloid Chemistry, all of
which, the author assures us, " really come off " —
a statement which the review-er can emphatically
confirm from personal experience of a large num-
ber of them. The examples chosen are well calcu-
lated to impress the student with the vast scope
of the subject and with the number and variety
of the methods, mostly physical, called for in the
study of the colloidal state. From the pedagogic
point of view it may perhaps be questioned whether
such a plethora of material is necessary or even
desirable. The view seems tenable that a compara-
tively small number of carefully chosen typical in-
stances will serve the needs of the student, who
must afterwards be induced to exercise his in-
genuity and to acquire the useful habit of consult-
ing the original literature. On the other side it must
be admitted that the task of selection is extra-
ordinarily difficult, that at present laboratory
manuals are written quite as much for teachers as
for students, and that the former, if at all qualified
to teach the subject, will have no difficulty in
choosing what is most useful to their particular
pupils.
The book is extremely well balanced, and the
author has not allowed personal preferences for cer-
tain parts of the subject to affect his choice of
matter unduly. A certain affection for viscosity
measurements is perhaps noticeable. The examples
given are useful, provided the student is made to
realise that time-viscosity or concentration-vis-
cosity curves show only " in a glass darkly " what
changes take place in a given system, and that
attempts at precise interpretation go much beyond
the limits of our knowledge. This, however, is a
REVIEW.
[ July 31, 1920
small point. Generally speaking, the catholicity of
the book is remarkable, and probably the outcome
of a very lively " joy in the phenomenon " of what-
ever kind, and of that enthusiasm for the whole
discipline which has made the author for some time
its leading propagandist, or (to use a term free
from disagreeable associations) its knight-errant.
It is to be hoped that this enthusiasm will prove
sufficiently infectious to induce a large number of
students to carry out the experiments described.
There are few branches of experimental science in
which mere procedure plays a part as important
as in colloid chemistry, and none in which the pro-
perties of a system depend, not only on its com-
position but on its history, as they do with most
colloidal preparations. While the theoretical
results, and the terminology, of colloid chemistry
are becoming fairly widely known, a comprehensive
working knowledge of this vast field is still the pro-
perty of a very small number, as is evident to
anyone who critically reads some recent literature,
more especially on its " applications." Nothing
could contribute more towards remedying this state
of things than the present work.
Emll Hatschek.
PUBLICATIONS RECEIVED.
Principles of Metallography. By R. S. Wil-
liams. Pp. 158. (New York: McGraw-Hill
Book Company. London: Hill Publishing Co.,
Ltd. 1920.) Price 12s. net.
This little book has been expressly written to
meet the needs of engineering students who do not
wish to specialise in metallography but who require
some knowledge of the subject in connexion with
their professional work. In the accomplishment of
this the author has been eminently successful, as
he has given a review of the subject not only suffi-
ciently wide for general engineering students, but
for the majority of metallurgy students also. There
is no doubt that there is a tendency in all the
large schools of metallurgy in this country to devote
far too much time to the physico-chemical prin-
ciples of metallography at the expense of time
which should be devoted to the general principles
of metallurgy, ore treatment, and kindred subjects.
In the book also greater emphasis has been laid
on the applications of metallography to the study
of industrial materials and to the elucidation of
the causes of failures met with in practice than to
the more purely physical aspect of the subject.
Here again our schools of metallography will do
well to take the lead given and train graduates
who can not only read complicated equilibrium
diagrams of alloys of little importance, but who
can actually tackle a problem connected with the
failure of material in service and give a correct
opinion on the cause of the trouble and advice as
to how the same trouble may be avoided or over-
come. The book may be considered of special value
as indicating what is necessary for the students for
whom it has been written, in spite of a few errors
in the text, such as the statement given on the
solidification of solid solution that "It is neces-
sarily true that the crystal which solidifies last
must have exactly the same composition as the
original liquid melt," and on intermetallic com-
pounds that " By far the most important of these
compounds is the iron carbon compound Fe3 C, the
chief surface constituent of case-hardened steel."
The illustrations, which include a large number
of photomicrographs, have been well chosen and
neatly executed. In the appendix are given an
outline of a course of experimental metallography
which embraces most of the practical work neces-
sary for students to undertake, and a descriptive
list of the more important books and journals deal-
ing with the subject, which will be of value to those
wishing to pursue the subject further.
C. O. Bannister.
The Chemists' Year Book, 1920. By F. W. Atack
and L. Whinyates. Fifth edition. Vol. I.,
Pp. 422; Vol. II., Pp. 1136. (Manchester:
Sherratt and Hughes. 1920.) Price 21s.
The Physical Chemistry of the Metalb. By
Rudolph Schenok. Translated and annotated
by R. S. Dean. First edition. Pp. 239. (New
York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc.; London:
Chapman and Hall, Ltd. 1919.) Price 17s. 6d.
Le Soufflage Dt Verre dans les Laboratoires.
Scientifiques et Industriels. By H. Vigreux.
Second edition. Pp. 268. (Paris: Dunod.
1920.) Price 15 francs.
Les Colloides Metalliques : Proprietes et Pre-
parations. By P. Bary. Pp. 95. (Paris:
Dunod. 1920.) Price 5 francs 50 ct.
A Text-Book of Organic Chemistry. By E. de B.
Barnett. Pp. 380. (London: J. and A.
Churchill. 1920.) Price 15s.
An Introduction to Chemical Engineering. By
A. P. Allen. Pp. 272. (London: Sir Isaac
Pitman and Sons, Ltd. 1920.) Price 10s. 6d.
Cocoa and Chocolate. By A. W. Knapp. Pp. 210.
(London: Chapman and Hall, Ltd. 1920.)
Price 12s. 6d.
Dictionary of Explosives. By A. Marshall.
Pp. 159. (London: J. and A. Churchill. 1920.)
Prite 15s.
The Mineral Industry of the British Empire
and Foreign Countries. Arsenic (1913-1919).
Imperial Mineral Resources Bureau. (London:
H.M. Stationery Office. 1920.) Price 6d.
The Effect of Manuring with Superphosphate
and Sannai on the Yield of Crops on Indigo
Planters' Estates in Bihar — Especially of
Rabi Crops in the Season 1918^19. Agri-
cultural Research Institute, Pusa. Indigo
Publication No. 6. By W. A. Davis. Pp. 30.
(Calcutta: Superintendent Government Print-
ing, India. 1920.) Price As.6.
British Guiana Commercial Handbook. By Capt.
J. M. Reid. Pp. 87. (Georgetown, Demerara:
The Argosy Co., Ltd. 1920.) Price 36 cents.
Publications of the United States Bureau of
Mines, Washington, Government Printing
Office, 1920: —
Coal-Mine Fatalities in the United States in
1919. By A. H. Fay.
Safe Storage of Coal. By H. H. Stock.
Development of Liquid Oxygen Explosives,
during the War. By G. S. Rice.
Quarry Accidents in the United Stater
during 1918. By A. H. Fay.
Perforated Casing and Screen Pipe in Oil
Wells. By E. W. Wagy.
Publications of the United States Geological
Survey, Washington, Government Printing
Office, 1920: —
Bauxite and Aluminium in 1918. By J. M.
Hill.
Iron Ore, Pig Iron and Steel in 1918. Bit
e. f. burchard.
Manganese and Manganiferous Ores in 1918.
By D. F. Hewett.
Gold, Silver, Copper, Lead and Zino i>-
Colorado in 1917. By C. W. Henderson.
Gold, Silver, Copper, Lead and Zino ii*
California and Oregon in 1918. By C. G.
Yale.
Vol. XXXIX.. No. 15.]
REVIEW
[Aug. 16. 1920.
THE EXCESS PROFITS DUTY AND
SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH.
In our " Parliamentary News " of July 31 we
gave in eftenso the terms of the new clause added
to the Finance Bill on the proposal of the Chan-
cellor of the Exchequer, by which contributions
made for charitable, educational and scientific
(research) objects are to be allowed as deductions
in computing excess profits duty. In granting this
concession, and incidentally establishing a pre- •
cedent, Mr. Chamberlain stated that his aim was to
encourage great trading firms to recognise their
corporate liability to the communities in which
they lire, and among which their revenue is
earned, and to enable directors adequately to recog-
nise their growing responsibility.
The generous response on the part of many public
companies to the numerous recent appeals made
bv our universities, no less than the spontaneous
gifts which have been made to scientific institu-
tions, are welcome signs that some, at least, are
'" recognising their growing responsibility." Yet
it must be confessed that, in spite of all the so-
called lessons of the war, the British public still
far from realises the very vital connexion between
science on the one hand, and industry, commerce
and national welfare on the other. The recent
opposition by a body of shareholders of one of our
greatest chemic.il undertakings to giving for the
furtherance of scientific education and research a
sum equivalent to less than one-eleventh of the
company's net profit, shows that Matthew Arnold's
reproach that we are a nation of philistines is not
wholly undeserved. That there is hope of better
ideals prevailing may, however, be inferred from
the fact that alter the proposal had been more
fully explained to all the shareholders, they ex-
pressed approval of the allocation by an over-
whelming m.ijority. Moreover, the fact that the
House of Commons has seen fit to include the pro-
motion of scientific research among the liabilities
and responsibilities of those who direct our indus-
tries, may be regarded as a sign of no small promise.
The purport of the Chancellor's " concession " is
that any contribution made after July 16, solely in
aid of scientific research, will be paid as to three-
fifths by the State and only two-fifths by the con-
tributor. Surely opportunity was never more golden
for those public and private companies whose exist-
ence and prosperity depend upon the applications
of science to industry to make some return for " ser-
vices rendered "! The old saw, " Bis dat qui cito
dat," applies with peculiar force at the present
time, for — if ministerial promises can be taken
seriously — the excess profits duty is not to be re-
tained indefinitely; in the Chancellor's words, it is
" an abnormal and temporary tax arising out of
temporary ana abnormal circumstances." Prob-
ably no tax of recent times has met with such a
torrent of adverse criticism as the one in question,
and it remains to be seen whether those who see in
it a " thing evil " will recognise their gratitude and
responsibility to science by demonstrating that,
after all, it contains a " soul of good."
There is a further consideration of especial im-
portance to chemists and chemical industry at the
present time. The appeal which is shortly to be
launched for funds to enable the various chemical
societies to find, inter alia, a solution of their
" housing problem," will derive great support
from the far-seeing action of the Chancellor of the
Exchequer, provided that the new clause be applic-
able to this case. The relevant words in the clause
are : — " .... any contribution .... to any trust,
society or body of persons in the United Kingdom,
established solely .... for the advancement of
education or for scientific research . . . ." Although
the proposals of the Federal Council for Pure and
Applied Chemistry have not yet been announced in
any detail, it is safe to surmise that they will be
found to meet the urgent and essential needs of
all those associating societies to which research is
of the very first importance, and hence it is to be
hoped that the Chancellor's clause will lend itself to
an interpretation favourable to their furtherance..
BRITISH PHARMACEUTICAL
CONFERENCE.
The fifty-seventh annual general meeting of the
British Pharmaceutical Conference was held at the
Royal Institution, Liverpool, from July 19 — 23.
After the Lord Mayor of Liverpool had welcomed
the members, Mr. C. A. Hill delivered his presi-
dential address on " Prog.ess in Science and
Pharmacy."
In dealing with synthetic drugs, Mr. Hill spoke
of the attempts made by chemico-physiologists to
correlate chemical constitution and physiological
action. Much chemical and physiological work has
been done in this field of research, and certain
generalisations have been deduced from very
numerous data ; yet it has to be admitted that really
very little is known of this borderland subject. The
physical condition of the substance, its solubility,
especially its relative solubility in different solvents
(" partition coefficient "), its absorptive power,
osmotic properties, and other physical properties,
have as much to do with its physiological action
as has its constitutional formula. It may indeed
be that the purely chemical action of a drug is
destined to play a subordinate role in therapy, and
that, in the past, the physical action has not been
sufficiently considered. Chemotherapy shows clearly
that the physiological action of a substance is not
due to one constituent only of that compound, but
that it also depends largely upon the molecular
orientation of the compound, and the ratio of
adsorption which exists between it and the protein
colloidal particles through which this or that
constituent is going to act. Consider arsenic, for
example. In the treatment of disease, plain liquor
arsenicalis is not so effective as colloidal arsenic
sulphide, nor is the latter so effective as arseno-
phenylglycine, nor the last so effective as diamino-
arsenobenzene. They all contain arsenic, but the
last, in virtue of its amino-groups, is able to be
absorbed in very large quantities by the protein col-
loidal particles ; consequently, the greatest amount
possible of the element gets taken up. So far as
can be seen at present, the amino-groups are of
great importance in a chemotherapeutic compound,
especially if they can be placed in the ortho-position
to the element one wishes to incorporate.
Of greater importance than the group is the
molecular orientation ; one needs only to mention
the effect of introducing an acetyl group to
illustrate this point. Compare diorthoaminothio-
benzene with its acetyl derivative ; the former is
practically a specific for metallic poisoning, whilst
the latter is as inert as plain colloidal or sublimed
sulphur. Even diparaaminothiobenzene cannot
compare with the ortho-compound. The addition
of an acetyl group to salicylic acid results in a new
analgesic property, while at the same time the
undesirable after-effects of salicylates are in some
measure eliminated. A similar addition to
phenetidin gives us phenacctin with its valuable
antipyretic properties. On the other hand, the
addition of an acetyl group to parahydroxylpheny'-
REVIEW.
[Aug. 10. 1920.
ethylamine (an active principle of ergot) results in
a loss of activity. The introduction of the acetyl
group into the choline molecule converts this com-
paratively inert substance into a powerful heart
poison. Highly interesting is the case of aconitine.
This intensely poisonous alkaloid is the acetyl de-
rivative of benzaconine, the latter substance being
relatively non-toxic. Yet the introduction of further
acetyl groups into the aconitine molecule does not
increase, but diminishes, its toxicity.
Considering synthetic drugs from the point of
view of their manufacture, we find that in very
many of them alcohol is necessary, either as a
solvent or as a reacting constituent — e.g., adalin,
ansesthesin, phenazone, chloral, veronal, sulphonal,
urethane, phenacetine, and many others.
Individually each one may not be sufficiently
important to warrant legislation nor change of
departmental attitude of administration, but
collectively these, and other pure chemicals not
used in medicine, mean the organic fine chemical
industry. The use of duty-free alcohol without
unduly harassing restrictions is essential for the
establishment of this branch of manufacture, with
which goes progress in the discovery and intro-
duction of new substances into medicine; but it is
a wider question still, for this class of manufacture
is one branch of the fine chemical industry which
must be considered as a whole. The importance to
the country of establishing upon a firm basis the
line chemical industry, in which previous to
August, 1914, Germany stood supreme, has been
argued so frequently and so convincingly during
the past six years that further reference to it ought
io be unnecessary, yet unhappily this is not the
case. Now, before the industry is sufficiently
strong to resist the onslaught, it is exposed to
attack from abroad by the unrestricted importation
of foreign fine chemicals. As if to make assurance
doubly sure, this infant industry is in process of
being strangled at birth by the excess profits duty.
Starved of alcohol and stifled by the E.P.D., what
remains is being done to death by the Sankey
judgment.
Among the papers read at the Conference was one
by Mr. T. Tusting Cocking, who showed that when
oil of eucalyptus and ortho-cresol are mixed, heat is
evolved, and on cooling, white transparent crystals,
consisting of an equimolecular combination of
cineole and ortho-cresol, separate. This is a new
compound, which has been named " cresineol." It
may be recrystallised from various solvents, and
forms beautiful prismatic crystals melting at
55-2° C, and boiling at 185° C. Cresineol is
volatile, and possesses a pleasant camphoraceous
odour. It is not caustic in ita action on the skin,
and yet contains 41 per cent, of cresol. Having
high germicidal properties, it is likely to prove of
great value as an antiseptic, both for internal and
external application. The fact that a solid com-
pound is foimed when oil of eucalyptus and ortho-
cresol are mixed can be made use of as a means of
determining the amount of cineole in oil of
eucalyptus. The method i's based on the determina-
tion of the freezing point of a mixture of the oil
with ortho-cresol ; having observed this point, one
may read off directly from a curve, given by the
author, the percentage of cineole contained in the
oil.
Mr. A. J. Jones dealt with the variability in the
composition of commercial samples of mercuric
oxycyanide, which are more frequently than not
mixtures of true oxycyanide with normal mercuric
cyanide in differing preparations. The difficulties
regarding the decomposition of the salt during
manufacture were referred to, and a method for
preparing the pure substance was given. One of
the chief point? to which attention was drawn is
the explosive nature of the salt. There have been
one or two accidents through explosion, but no
satisfactory explanation has yet been advanced as
to whether the salt in itself is dangerous, or
whether the explosions may be the result of
secondary reactions.
Mr. J. L. Lizius showed that the tests given in
the United States Pharmacopoeia for the detection
of inorganic phosphate in sodium and calcium
glycerophosphate are valueless. A satisfactory
means of applying the molybdate test was given,
and ateo a special modification capable of detecting
O'OOl per cent, of inorganic phosphate in glycero-
phosphates.
Mr. Norman Evers dealt with the disadvantages
.of determining lead in alkaline solution by the
method given in the British Pharmacopoeia. A
method of determination in acid solution is sug-
gested for such cases, using the indicator brom-
phenol blue, which hats a colourless neutral point,
to ensure that the hydrogen-ion concentration is
always the same.
Mr. A. Nutter Smith gave details of a test
devised for determining the uncombined acetic
acid present in acetylsalicylic acid.
Mr. R. Leitch Morris dealt with the determina-
tion of hydrocyanic acid. It was shown that the
British Pharmacopoeia prescribed the use of too
small an amount of potassium iodide, and that
accurate results could be obtained by using a larger
quantity.
THE ARTIFICIAL SILK INDUSTRY.
L. P. WILSON.
During the last six years the artificial silk indus-
try has assumed an importance even greater than
in pre-war days, partly owing to the continued
expansion of the industry, and partly owing to
the shortage of natural fibres due to the enormous
consumption of cotton for explosives and of wool
for army clothing, together with the reduced pro-
duction of raw material.
As is generally known, the oldest commercial
methods for the manufacture of artificial silk were
the nitro and the cuprammonium processes, of
which the former was developed in France and the
latter in Germany, but for several years before the
war these two were gradually being displaced in
all countries by the viscose process, which is Eng-
lish both in origin and development.
During the war period the progress of the viscose
silk industry has steadily continued, while manu-
facture by other processes has become relatively un-
important until, at the present day, by far the
greater part of the artificial fibres on the market
are of viscose origin. In Great Britain the change-
over has been complete, and there is now no arti-
ficial silk on the market — made in this country —
other than viscose. The Flint works of the British
Glanzstoff Co., a subsidiary company of the
Vereinigte Glanzstoff A.-G., of Elberfeld, and
formerly manufacturing by the cuprammonium
process, being enemy property, were acquired from
the Public Trustee by Messrs. Courtaulds, Ltd.,
and are now manufacturing wholly by the viscose
process. Both here and at the Coventry works con-
siderable extensions have been carried out since
the armistice, and, in addition, new works are be-
ing erected by this firm in other places.
The viscose process differs from its competitors
in that the raw material used as the source of cellu-
lose is wood pulp and not cotton, and, during the
war, the advantage of this circumstance was
especially emphasised owing to the shortage of the
latter fibre. Numerous sources of cellulose have
been tested for the production of viscose silk, and
many will yield a satisfactory thread, but spruce
Vol. XXXIX.. No. 15
REVIEW.
267 k
pulp — of which Norway supplies the greater part —
is the most usual starting material. The almost
unlimited resources of wood in Canada and other
northern countries ensure a sufficient supply for
the requirements of the industry for an indefinite
period, but for the processes which require cotton
as a basis, viz., the nitro, cuprammonium, and
acetate processes, the position for a large produc-
tion is much less secure. In common with all other
materials, the price of pulp has increased very
greatly, so that pulp which in 1914 cost £12 per
ton is now marketed at £100, and the prices of all
other chemicals have altered in the same direction,
but it is satisfactory to be able to record that by
means of improved processes and machinery Eng-
lish viscose silk is now put on the market at a con-
siderably lower price than that produced in any
other country, and in the case of some sizes is even
cheaper than the corresponding count of Egyptian
cotton.
For the production of a satisfactory spinning
solution and product, it is essential that the pulp
should be free from lignin and colouring matter,
and for this reason a bleached sulphite pulp is the
most desirable. The wood pulp is converted into
alkali-cellulose by steeping in strong caustic soda,
the excess being pressed out and the wet sheets
finely ground and then oxidised. At this stage
very careful control is necessary, particularly with
regard to the amount of oxidising catalyst present
in the nlkali-cellulose. Treatment with carbon bi-
sulphide vapour converts the alkali-cellulose into
xanthate. which is then dissolved in dilute soda,
forming " viscose." This solution is projected
through fine apertures in platinum jets into the
spinning bath.
Spinning baths of very varied composition have
been employed to produce the thread, and, in the
case of viscose silk, very different results can be
obtained by the choice of the proper coagulating
medium ; the composition of this — together with the
degree of xanthation — enables the manufacturer to
produce fibres with varying shapes of cross section,
and thus, of different lustre, covering power, dye-
ing affinity, etc., according to the requirements
of the fabrics w"hich are to be made from them. In
this respect viscose silk is unique, for its fibres may
be either smooth and round; or irregular and ser-
rated in cross sectional outline, or with any inter-
mediate variation; nitro, cuprammonium, and
acetate fibres do not possessess this property, but
have a generally smooth outline with, consequently,
less lustre and covering power.
In the latter part of the war, owing to the fact
that the most suitable raw materials were often
unobtainable, viscose silk did not maintain its
earlier standards, but these have now been regained
and in some respects surpassed; at the same time
the production, which was necessarily reduced, has
in this country again reached and passed its earlier
figures. On the Continent numerous artificial silk
factories were in the war zone, with the result that
some were destroyed; others, as in Belgium and
Northern France, had their machinery removed
by the Germans for the benefit of their own fac-
tories, the nitro-cellulose factory at Tubize being
used by the Germans for the production of ex-
plosives, while still others were forced to work with
a reduced output, and those in Germany itself had
the increased responsibility for the production of
textile fibres owing to the blockade by the Allies.
The shortage of supplies due to the blockade led the
Central Powers to direct great attention to the
manufacture of substitutes for the hitherto com-
monly used textile materials, these substitutes
necessarily being obtained from internal sources,
of which wood and such plants as nettle formed
the chief. This gave a great stimulus to the pro-
duction of fibres from wood, which before the war
had already been considerably developed in the two
directions of artificial silk and paper yarn. The
latter was produced by twisting together narrow
strips of paper obtained either by formation direct
from the pulp or by cutting from paper of greater
width. In either case the wood fibres remained in
their original form and were not subjected to any
chemical dissolution. This paper yarn or " Texti-
lose " was employed by the Central Powers for
many uses : including string, ropes, sacking, and
even clothing.
A certain confusion existed in the minds of out-
siders with regard to this paper yarn and the new
" Staple Fibre " which was, as a result of the war,
produced and employed to a large extent by the
Central Powers, and is likely to have a considerable
application in the future. Staple fibre, however,
is a form of artificial silk coresponding to the
" Fibro " of British manufacture and also of
recent date. "Fibro" does not differ chemically
or in the early stages of its manufacture from
ordinary fine filament viscose artificial silk, but it
is characterised by the short lengths of the fibres.
In Germany this material was largely used during
the war to eke out the wool stocks, which were
exceedingly small, and it was stated that wool fibres
which were otherwise too short for spinning could
be used satisfactorily if mixed with 10 to 20 per
cent, of staple fibre. The Vereinigte Glanzstoff
A.-G. stated that staple fibre, like artificial silk, is
manufactured by means of a very complicated pro-
cess requiring chemicals in large quantity and great
variety. A description in the Farber Zeitung says
that very fine fibres are first produced, twisted into
thick threads, and then cut into 4 or 5 cm. lengths ;
by this means the fine fibres separate again and the
product thus obtained spins exceptionally well,
either alone or in admixture with other fibres. The
production of staple fibre during the war was, how-
ever, limited in Germany both by the restricted
supplies of chemicals available for its manufacture
and by the fact that the production of artificial silk
was confined to a few factories, but there is no
doubt that developments in this direction may be
expected in most countries. In England, " Fibro "
is being produced in increasing amounts, but
instead of being a substitute for wool it is rather
a new material used for the purpose of giving in-
creased lustre in fabrics and for producing im-
proved effects.
Another form of filament which has been pro-
duced in considerable quantities during the past
few years is known as "Ribbon Straw," which, as
its name indicates, is in the form of a ribbon; it
is generally from one to five millimeters in width
and about 002 millimeters in thickness. To pro-
duce this flattened form the cellulose solution is
projected through a slit-shaped aperture into the
coagulating bath, the subsequent processes being
similar to those employed for silk, omitting, of
course, the twisting. This product is extremely
lustrous, dyes readily, and is employed in a similar
manner to fine straw for plaiting or braiding and
the manufacture of hats.
The applications of artificial fibres, and particu-
larly of those produced by the viscose process, are
constantly increasing, and it will be evident, from
the fact that the length, thickness, and form are
variable at will over the widest range, that the pur-
poses to which artificial silk can now be put are
limited by little more than the ingenuity of the
textile designer. At the present time it is used
for all the varieties of knitted materials which can
be made from natural silk, cotton or wool, and for
innumerable woven fabrics from the finest gauzes
to heavy tapestries, including also practically all
varieties of ladies' dress materials, and many
fancy materials and trimmings.
The production of artificial silk on the continent
is said to be 5 tons daily in Germany, 4 tons in
France, with smaller amounts in Belo-iiim, Italy,
b2
Switzerland, Austria and Holland ; the industry
was making progress in Russia until 1917, and the
latest countries to take up the manufacture are
Japan and Sweden. In Great Britain the output
has increased to ahout 10 tons per day, whilst in
the United States the amount greatly exceeds this
figure.
During the last two years the exploitation of
cellulose acetate as a material for the production
of artificial fibres has been attempted in this
country. It has been tried on various occasions dur-
ing the past ten years in several foreign countries,
where it has not met with any commericial suc-
cess; its introduction into England will be watched
with considerable interest. The British Cellulose
and Chemical Co., which set out to produce cellu-
lose acetate for aeroplane dope during the war, and
which was, for this reason, largely subsidised by the
Government, has now turned its attention to the
production of artificial silk from this material.
Cellulose acetate is not soluble in aqueous liquids,
and for this reason the production of filaments from
it largely follows the now nearly obsolete Chardon-
net process; also for the same reason the thread
produced from it is soluble in or softened by numer-
ous organic solvents. The thread is stated to be
impervious to water, this however does not cause
its strength when wet to be greater than that of
viscose silk, and in the dry state its tenacity is con-
siderably lower. The production of acetate silk is
apparently still in the experimental stage, for it
cannot yet be obtained for commercial purposes,
although small quantities have been exhibited, and
the samples which are obtainable possess proper-
ties of which most users, whether textile workers or
dyers, will probably need considerable experience
before they will be persuaded to accept them as
desirable in a standard yarn. It is, for instance,
unique in its dyeing properties, in that with
ordinary methods it can be dyed only by means of
basic dyes which are among the most fugitive of
colouring matters; direct cotton colours it refuses
to take up, and the dyeing of fabric composed of
cotton and artificial silk with direct colours, a very
usual procedure, is not possible in the case of
acetate silk. If this is attempted with acetate
silk, the cotton takes up the colour normally.
but the acetate combines only with the basic
impurities in the dye, with the result that the
former may be the desired navy-blue whilst the
latter is perhaps a dirty yellow shade, or while
the former is black the latter is brick-red.
When dyeing is attempted with vat colours of the
indanthrene type, which are coming into great
demand on account of their remarkable fastness and
consequent suitability for washable materials,
cellulose acetate silk sometimes is partly decom-
posed, and loses its lustre and silk-like properties.
Acetate silk has, however, a very low electric con-
ductivity, and consequently may prove to be a very
useful material for the covering of electric wires
and for other insulating purposes; in such cases
where colouring is often desirable, but numerous or
exact shades are not necessary, the methods and
dye-stuffs available may give sufficiently good
results.
The chemist is constantly searching for new
materials and solvents with which to produce im-
proved filaments of increased tenacity and elas-
ticity, greater fineness, lower specific gravity, or
reduced cost, and numerous suggestions have been
made to one or more of these ends, but he must
always bear in mind that before his product can
deserve, to say nothing of achieve, success, it will
have to pass before the inquisition of the textile
industry which has torn to pieces many a fine theory
and shown up more than one faulty material in its
true colours.
Artificial silk is no longer a curiosity suitable
only for exhibition or at most for fancy articles,
but a commercial fibre which by the beauty of its
fabrics, and its proved resistance to wear and tear,
has now established its position among the premier
natural fibres which have stood the test of centuries.
POSITION AND PROSPECTS OF THE
RUBBER INDUSTRY.
W. A. WILLIAMS.
The position and prospects of the rubber industry
are decidedly encouraging as gauged by the demand
for practically all its products. As almost every
manufacturing industry requires rubber goods for
running its plant, a period of industrial activity
is immediately reflected in the volume of orders
lying in the hands of rubber manufacturers, by far
the greatest demand being from the motor industry.
The mass production of cars, together with the in-
centive to road traffic brought about by the
increasing cost of railway transport, is producing
in its turn a constant and increasing demand
for rubber tyres, both pneumatic and solid, so that
any forecast of the prospects of the tyre industry
is necessarily governed by the progress of the motor
trade.
During the war all rubber factories were working
at their utmost capacity, and although with the
cessation of hostilities there was a falling off in
special war requirements, this demand has been
replaced by that for general rubber goods, and order
books in most factories are filled for a considerable
I time ahead. It is unlikely that any substantial
increase in the production of general rubber goods
will be shown, owing to the enormous difficulty in
most cases of procuring early delivery of new plant.
It can be assumed, therefore, that any increase in
' this class of goods will not exceed the normal, but
owing to the need for replenishing the world's de-
pleted stocks, it will probably continue for some
time to come. Conditions in regard to motor tyre
production are, however, abnormal. It was fore-
seen by manufacturers that a large and immediate
increased demand would eventuate and appropriate
preparations were made to meet it.
The prospects of the rubber trade in this country
cannot be dissociated from the activity of the trade
in the United States. American factories consume
about 60 per cent, of the world's total production
of raw rubber, and consequently the position of the
industry in America has a world-wide influence.
. The production of motor-cars in the United States
will in the near future be about three million per
annum ; this year the registration of cars on the
road, including commercial vehicles, will be in the
neighbourhood of nine millions, and these will con-
sume, on a conservative estimate, some 200,000 tons
I of rubber for tyre-replacement purposes.
In Great Britain our requirements are modest as
compared with those of America, the registration of
cars in this country being just under the -half-
' million figure. The requirements of crude rubber
' for tyre-replacement can be taken at, approxi-
mately, 10,000 tons per annum. This represents
about 25 per cent, of the country's total rubber
requirements used in the tyre industry, a propor-
tion that will in all probability increase in the near
future owing to developments in the use of motor
j transport.
From the above and the following figures it will
be seen that the greatest part of the rubber con-
sumption is due to motor traffic.
For all requirements the world's consumption of
rubber in 1919 can be taken at 320,000 tons, and
i the production of crude rubber at 380,000. Taking
Vol. XXXIX.. No. 15.]
REVIEW.
269 R
into consideration the demand for the motor trade
and for general rubber goods, it is estimated that,
in 1920, there will be a total world consumption of
384,000 tons, with a possible crude rubber produc-
tion of 403,000 tons, thus again showing a surplus
of production over consumption.
If the development of the motor trade continues
at the same rate as in recent years, it is just
possible that the available rubber in sight will
be taxed to meet the demand, as the area under
plantation rubber coming into bearing only repre-
sents an increase of 7'2% in 1921, 62% in 1922,
5-6% in 1923, and 54% in 1924. In addition, the
increased yield per acre from the estates in bearing
will also be contributing to the total production
figures. It is worth noting that the average yield
per acre has risen from 157 lb. in 1910 to 293 lb. in
1919. There is also a possibility that should a
shortage in the supplies of crude rubber be indi-
cated, wilcl rubbers will again come into the market
to help to make up the balance. These have dropped
off within recent years to the extent of 20,000 tons
annually. For the immediate requirements of the
trade, however, there are undoubtedly sufficient
supplies of crude rubber to meet the manufacturing
demand.
The supply of cotton is as essential to the rubber
manufacturer as is that of crude rubber, and in the
pneumatic tyre industry, provision has to be made
for the supply of special grade material. For this
purpose, so far, satisfactory results have only been
obtained by the use of long staple cotton, viz., Sea
Island or Egyptian grades. The former is at the
present time not available, the American Sea
Island crop having been destroyed by the boll
weevil, and the amount that will be raised need
not be taken into consideration. The supplies of
cotton from Egypt are not expected to show any
appreciable increase over those of recent years
owing to Government restriction, the available
ground being needed for the raising of food crops.
The only relief that can be given to meet the heavy
demands which are expected will come from
America, where the cultivation of Egyptian cotton
has been given special attention, and large areas
of land have been placed under cultivation, princi-
pally in Texas, Louisiana and Arizona. In Arizona,
especially, the question of cotton supplies has been
taken in hand by the large rubber-tyre manufactur-
ing companies themselves, and these have planted
solely for their own requirements. These planta-
tions are under United States Government control
in respect of the grade of cotton, and also of the
steps to be taken for the elimination of pests, with
the result that good supplies of cotton suitable for
the trade's requirements are being produced. It is
hoped that the Arizona crop will have the effect of
steadying the price and preventing the serious
situation which might result if Egyptian cotton
alone were on the market. Prices are already on a
very high plane, having risen to about 200d. per
sq. yard from about 20d. per sq. yard in 1914.
The result of the high prices for long staple cotton
may be that manufacturers will be forced to use a
proportion of short staple cotton in their products,
which up to the present has probably never been
seriously attempted, but undoubtedly something in
this direction will need to be done if the supplies of
the long staple varieties do not keep pace with the
increased demand for tyres. Should this result in
giving a lower average mileage than the present
production, it may be compensated for by a corre-
sponding decrease in the selling price of tyres.
The consumption of long staple cotton in the
form of tyre fabric for 1920, based on the number
of cars registered in the United States and Great
Britain will be in the neighbourhood of
210,000,000 lb. As against this, the total world
crop, according to the latest figures, is approxi-
mately 600,000,000 lb., a quantity which has to meet
the requirements not only for tyre fabrics but for
fine count cotton fabrics generally, for which this
grade is extensively used. Hence it must be recog-
nised that unless ether grades can be used or the
world production increased, the position of the
rubber industry in regard to supplies of cotton
fabric will be a serious one.
The supply of chemicals and compounding
materials is barely sufficient for present demands,
although no actual shortage has been experienced.
The difficulties of supply are due to depletion of
stocks augmented by delay in rail transport to the
consumers' works. These" handicaps materially in-
crease the difficulties of continuous manufacture
and may possibly lead to curtailment of output. The
rubber manufacturer can only protect himself from
such a contingency by carrying largely increased
stocks of what is to him raw material, a policy
which, at the present time, is absolutely essential,
not only in regard to chemicals but also to cotton
cloths, delivery of these from the cotton mills being
long-dated on new contracts. Unfortunately, this
necessity adds to the cost of manufacture by reason
of extra charges for storage, and the interest on
money locked up in increased stocks. At the
moment this cannot be avoided if plants are to be
kept running, the increased expenditure being
more than offset by the risk of loss through the
.'hutting down of manufacturing operations due to
inadequacy of supplies.
The labour supply is sufficient to meet the in-
creasing demand, but, as in all other industries,
only at a greatly increased cost ; and although
labour-saving machines and devices are introduced
wherever possible, the high cost of labour em-
ployed in ratio to value of goods produced will still
remain a characteristic of the rubber industry, and
proportionately high selling prices must in conse-
quence be expected.
The relation between cost of manufacture and
selling prices is likely to continue satisfactory,
except in the tyre section, where there appears to be
a grave possibility of severe foreign competition,
especially from America, unless the Government
comes to the aid of the British manufacturer.
Tyre-manufacturing plants are being increased
in the United States to such an extent that their
output will be more than can possibly be absorbed in
their own market. At the present time three firms
alone have a combined output of 100,000 tyres per
day, and plant in course of erection which will fur-
ther increase it. Their output capacity is such that
they could supply the whole of Great Britain's
requirements in motor tyres in a few weeks, and
undoubtedly when the time of over-production
comes in the States the surplus will be shipped to
this market, if still open ; by this means their plants
will be kept operating at full capacity, their factory
organisation intact, and their on-cost charges at
the minimum figure.
There are already indications of the efforts that
will be made in this direction. The import of motor
tyres into this country during the first three
months of this year was at the rate of £5,000.000
per annum, and this rate is steadily increasing.
The Continental countries, particularly France and
Italy, are shipping the bulk of their production to
this country, finding it more profitable to sell here
and reap the benefit of the exchange position than
to manufacture for their home requirements. These
trade conditions are outside the control of the
British manufacturer, and only Government action
can be looked to for assistance against this class of
competition.
The rubber industry is in a favourable position
to meet competition on an equal footing, for during
the last few years a considerable amount of investi-
gation and research has been undertaken, and en-
REVIEW.
gineering problems relating to the construction of
more efficient plant hare been investigated, with
the result that the leading mills are well-equipped
with modern and up-to-date machinery. Factory
operations are controlled by chemists and physicists,
working, in the case of the larger firms, in close
co-operation with the routine and research labora-
tories, with the result that the manufacture has
been brought up to a high state of perfection both
in respect to cost of output and in quality of the
goods manufactured. The question of research has
also been taken in hand, independently, by the
Research Association of British Rubber and Tyre
Manufacturers, of which most firms are members.
Looking ahead, it appears reasonably certain that
the rubber industry will be called upon to increase
output, and provided that the difficulties attendant
upon rising production are met, as outlined above,
there is every reason to anticipate- substantial
progress and prosperity.
CORRESPONDENCE.
" THE USE OF COLLOIDAL PREPARATIONS
IN MEDICINE."
Sir, — There is an excellent custom that reviews
are not ordinarily subject to the right of the author
to reply to the criticisms made, and, in view of this
and of the attitude of your reviewer in regard to
both Sir Malcolm Morris and me personally, as
well as against the numerous medical men cited in
my book, I do not propose to send any detailed
reply to his various statements. Even an apparent
contradiction (on pp. 73 and 97) which he mentions
is not actually contradictory — except when the
statements are separated from the context — and
when he claims (p. 212 r) that no one " acquainted
with the facts of pathology " could attach a mean-
ing to a certain statement, he is not tilting at me,
but at no less eminent a pathologist as Sir William
Collins ! It is surely a significant measure of the
value of your reviewer's criticisms that my lectures
— of which my book on Colloids is a summary — have
been delivered on many occasions in London and
various other important cities and towns before
audiences of medical men and chemists, and in no
case was there any adverse criticism of a serious
nature. — I am, Sir, etc.,
A. B. Searle.
[The above is an abridgment of a letter received
on Jul}' 6, in reply to criticisms which appeared in
our issue of June 30 (pp. 211—213 r).— Ed.]
Sir,— The bright beam of Dr. H. H. Dale's just
indignation (cf. J., June 15, 1920, p. 211 r) reveals
tlic inherent cloudiness of Mr. Searle's hook on the
medicinal use of colloids, and shows that colloid
chemistry is more apt to be stunned by indiscrimi-
nate invocation than damned by faint praise. But
Dr. Dale's criticism is also constructive, and it
seems that in many cases colloids may, as he sug-
gests, serve as depots whence issue over a period
streams of active ions, which may be locally con-
centrated by local adsorption of the colloid. In
any event, Dr. Dale appreciates that it is not neces-
sary to understand modus operandi before recognis-
ing practical results; and many remedies of
acknowledged efficiency are colloidal (even the mer-
curial ointments to which he refers), to say nothing
of such treatment as the intra-venous injection of
gum arabic solutions to help combat surgical shock.
There is nothing occult or mysterious about
colloid chemistry, which exists because it is a fact
that when any substance is reduced to a degree of
subdivision below about O'l/i, but somewhat above
the dimensions of simple molecules, it exhibits
activities quite different from its ordinary physical
properties, but by no means identical with its
ordinary chemical properties, though specific forces
exert an influence. Just as with the radioactive
disintegration of the elements, the electron, and
the complex structure of the atom, it is still a shock
to many to learn that there is no sharp line of
demarcation between the chemical and the physical,
although as early as 1892 (in- the Chemical News)
Sir Wm. Ramsay quoted, in support of this view,
the proverb, " Natura nihil fit per solium."
The colloidal condition is ubiquitous — it is found
in the comet's tail, in the microscopic confines of
the cell, and it exists, if but for a transient
moment, in the course of most chemical changes.
Reason demands a just consideration of all factors,
and though the colloidal condition is often im-
portant or controlling, it is only one factor.
But from Dr. Dale's remarks one might gather
the impression that very dilute true solution, i.e.,
" chemical action " in the old orthodox sense, is
the basis of all colloidal activity. This alone would
hardly account for " protection," swelling and
shrinking, non-stoichiometric adsorption compounds,
mutual coagulation of sols, etc. Such a book as
Bechhold's " Colloids in Biology and Medicine "
makes it evident that the rational basis for the use
of colloids in medicine is already much broader than
Dr. Dale indicates, and that we have much more
to expect in the future. — I am, Sir, etc.,
Ridgefield. Conn.
July 19, 1920.
Jerome Alexander.
PERSONALIA.
Professor C. A. F. Benedicks has been appointed
director of the new Metallographic Institute in
Sweden.
Sir John Brunner has been elected chairman of
the council of the Association of British Chemical
Manufacturers for the ensuing year.
It is announced that Prof. Marston T. Bogert has
declined President Wilson's invitation to serve on
the United States Tariff Commission.
Dr. H. Wieland, extraordinary professor in the
Munich Technische Hochschule, has refused the
offer of a chair of chemistry in the University of
Berlin, and has received a call to the University of
Freiburg i/B as successor to Prof. L. Gattermann.
The following appointments have been made to
the British Cotton Industry Research Associa-
tion: — Organic chemistry: Mr. R. G. Fargher;
general and inorganic chemistry: Dr. D. Clibbens;
colloid chemistry and physics : Mr. F. D. Farrow
and Dr. A. M. Williams. '
We regret to record the death, on August 4, of
Prof. John Perry, emeritus professor of mechanics
in the Royal College of Science, at the age of 70.
H. T. von Bottinger. until recently chairman of
the board of the Farbenfabriken vorm. Fr. Bayer
und Co., died on June 9 last, aged 72.
The death is announced of F. von Gans, co-
founder of Leopold Cassella and Co., in his 87th
year.
Vol. XXXIX.. No. 15.]
NEWS AND NOTES.
UNITED STATES.
Plant Protection Institute. — A meeting of manufac-
turers pf chemicals used for insecticides and fungi-
cides with entomologists and phytopathologists was
held on June 23, by invitation of the National Re-
search Council, with the result that a new organisa-
tion— the Plant Protection Institute — was formed.
The object of the Institute is to support and direct
research relating to the control of injurious insects
and plant diseases, and it is hoped that it will be
the means of effecting the long-desired co-operation
between the various interests concerned.
Titanium in Enamels. — Recent investigation has
led to the conclusion that the advantages of using
titanium oxide in enamels more than outweigh the
disadvantages. The resistance to corrosion of
enamels in the preparation of which rutile has been
used is much greater than is the case with ordinary
enamels, and under all tests such enamel has shown
unusual durability. The resulting surface has a
high gloss and a resistance to abrasion which gives
a longer life, since a damaged surface may lead to
the speedy failure of the enamel. The enamels
hearing titanium have a high heat resistance, hut
the greatest difficulty in its use is the maintenance
of a satisfactory state of suspension of the titanium
oxide in the frit.
Self-lubricating Abrasive Wheels. — The abrasive
wheel previously heated to a temperature corre-
sponding to the melting point of the filler is im-
mersed in a molten bath, whereupon the filler pene-
trates the pores of the wheel. One satisfactory
mixture for this purpose consists of paraffin and
rosin. Upon removing the wheel from the bath it
is rotated, so that any excess of the lubricating filler
is removed by centrifugal action.
Artificial Silk Industry. — The artificial silk industry
in the United States was inaugurated by the
General Artificial Silk Co., which carried out much
experimental work, but was not successful in pro-
ducing a yarn that would sell on the American
market. This company was taken over by the
Genasco Silk Works, which continued the work and
produced a marketable yarn, but only in small
quantities. Although over §1,500,000 was spent on
experimental work, no plant was erected in the
United States solely for the manufacture of
artificial silk until 1910 — 1911, when the British
firm of Courtaulds, Ltd., opened its American
branch under the name of the Viscose Co., and
took over the works of the General Artificial Silk
Co. The successful development of the artificial
silk industry, as we know it to-day, is inseparably
connected with the Viscose Co., which has plants at
Marcus Hook, Pa. (3500 hands), and Roanoke, Va.
(1500 hands). The pre-eminence of this company in
the United States is illustrated by the following
table: —
Production of
Imports.
Viscose Co.
Consumption
lb.
lb.
lb.
1912
1.(131,807
1,117.285
. . 2,749.092
1913
2,395,599
1,565,583
3.961,182
1914
2.590.490
2,443.954
5,034.444
1915
3.044.316
4,107,385
7,151.701
1916
973,082
5.711.338
6,714,420
1917
543.446
6,696,861
7.240.307
1918
120.540
5,827,627
. . 5,958,167
1919
. 1.072,040
. . 8.173.824
. . 9,245.804
Recent developments include the entry of the
Du Pont Co. into the field of artificial silk manu-
facture by its alliance with the Comptoir des
Textiles Artificiels, and the acquisition of manu-
facturing facilities by the Belgian Tubize Co. at
the former munitions town of Hopewell, Va., where
an artificial silk plant will be established under
the name of the Tubize Artificial Silk Co. of
America. Although tho cost of artificial silk is
only about half that of real silk, the former has not
come into competition with the latter ; rather has
it worked out a field for itself and, owing to ite
greater lustre, it is seldom used as an adulterant of
real silk.— (Chemical Age (U.S.A.), May 20, 1918.)
Utilisation of Wool Grease. — It is reported that
good progress is being made in the investigation
conducted by the United States Bureau of
Chemistry into the utilisation of the grease, potash,
nitrogenous substances, etc., present in wool-scour-
ing wastes. The grease content of wool, though
very variable, is surprisingly high in certain grades;
thus, Ohio delaine wool (unsecured) contains from
178 to 41'9 per cent, of grease. For this reason
methods for the economical recovery and utilisation
of the grease and other valuable constituents of
wool-scouring wastes are being developed. — (Oil,
Paint, and Drug Sep., June 28, 1920.)
Dye Situation. — The announcement that the State
Department is prepared to grant licences for the
importation of German dyes in amounts sufficient
to meet the consumer's requirements for a period
of six months, and provided the dyes are not ob-
tainable from home sources, is causing some
anxiety among American dye producers, particu-
larly as the names and formula? of such dyes could
be adjusted to deceive the War Trade Board, while
remaining quite comprehensible to the importer.
Another disquieting fact is that American prices
for certain home-produced standard colours are out
of all proportion to the German prices for similar
products, the former being in many cases as much
as three or four times greater than the latter. This
disproportion has led to the charge of profiteering,
and, should this not be true, it is claimed that such
safeguards should be given to the American dye
industry as would enable it to develop on a broader
basis and thus reduce costs. — (0)7, Paint, and Drug
Hep., June 28, 1920.)
SOUTH AFRICA.
New Starch and Glucose Factory. — The firm of Lewis
and Marks is building a starch and glucose factory
at Vereeniging, Transvaal, which will be worked in
conjunction with its local milling plant. The esti-
mated cost of the factory is about £100,000, and
the daily output 50,000 lb. of glucose and
55,000 lb. of miscellaneous starch products. South
African maize will be used as raw material, and
maize oil will also be prepared for sale as an edible
oil. It is intended to cater for the export as well
as for the home trade. (Cf. J., 1919, 25 R.)— (U.S.
Com. Rep., June 15, 1920.)
Cotton in the Transvaal. — The Rustenburg agent
of the Transvaal Land Owners' Association reports
that the yield of the 1919 cotton crop is estimated
at one miilion lb. of seed cotton, as against 53,000 lb.
in 1918. It was anticipated that the acreage
planted in 1920 would be five times that in 1919, but
the poor rainfall has modified this estimate. —
(Official.)
Nickel Deposits in the Barberton District. — A deposit
of nickel has been found on the property of the
Scotia talc mine in the Barberton district. A hand-
picked specimen examined by the Government Min-
ing Chemist contained 25'8 per cent, of metallic
nickel ; and as sulphur and arsenic were apparently
absent, the ore was considered to be a mixture of
magnetite and a nickel silicate. As the market is
at present over-stocked with nickel, development
of the new deposit will only be proceeded with if
the ore is found to be of sufficient value. —
(S. African J. Ind. , June, 1920.)
REVIEW.
South-West African Protectorate. — The report of the
Administrator of the Protectorate of South-West
Africa for 1919 indicates that the progress made
was satisfactory and that the country is settling
down to work. The year was one of great prosperity
for the stock farmers, and this prosperity has spread
to the commercial community. Residents who had,
to a large extent, been marking time during the
occupation years have re-opened old business
relations and started further enterprises. The
mines have been busy and the traders have
benefited by the great prosperity. The output of
precious stones and minerals was as follows : —
Diamonds, 463,180 carats, valued at £1,500,000;
copper ore, 26,675 tons, valued at £120,000; and
tin, 111 tons, valued at £20,000. The country has
been thrown open to prospecting, and alluvial tin
is attracting attention in some of the central
districts. — (Official.)
CANADA.
Clays in British Columbia. — A number of clays
which were collected from different parts of British
Columbia by the field staff of the Geological Survey
has now been tested and reported upon. Some of
the clays from the vicinity of Ducks, and others
from the Chimney Creek bridge on the west side of
the Praser River, withstood high temperatures
without softening, and would, therefore, be suitable
for the manufacture of fire-brick. The silty clays
of the Nicola Valley and the Fraser and Thompson
Rivers burn to a red colour, whilst those in the
Columbia Valley and along the Windemere Lakes
contain much lime and burn to buff. Although the
latter as a rule are useless for fire-clays, they are
suitable for making building bricks. Other good
clays were found in the neighbourhood of Smithers
and along the Bulkley River. The discoveries are
important, particularly ihe fire-clays, which are
needed in the construction of metallurgical
furnaces. — (Agricultural and Industrial Progress,
May, 1920.)
AUSTRALIA.
Professional Chemists Bill. — The Victorian branch
of the Australian Chemical Institute has for some
time past been giving consideration to the drafting
of a Bill designed to close the profession of
chemistry in that State. It was suggested in the
Bill that a Board be established having the power
to determine what persons shall be regarded as
qualified to practice chemistry, and that such
persons should be known as professional chemists,
and have rights similar to those already enjoyed
by the dental and medical professions. Recently, a
referendum was taken of the whole of the members
in the State, and although there was a majority of
those in favour of the proposal, the number of
voters was not sufficient to give a clear majority of
the subscribing members of the Institute. The pro-
posal was submitted to the members together with
a statement by Professor Masson in which the
arguments for and against were clearly set out. As
a result of the ballot the matter will be shelved for
the present. There is, however, a very strong
feeling that efforts should be made to protect the
interests of properly trained men and ensure an
adequate reward for professional services.
Slag Cement. — The manufacture of slag cement
in Newcastle, N.S.W., is now proceeding satis-
factorily. Blast-furnace slag is granulated at the
Newcastle Steelworks and then conveyed to a
neighbouring site where it is dried and ground with
cement clinker. The clinker is carried approxi-
mately 250 miles to the Kandos Cement Works,
situated on the Mudgee line. Tests have been
made which showed that, prepared in this manner,
slag cement will fulfil all the requirements
demanded by the specifications for Portland
cement. It is not, however, proposed that this
material should be used for more important work,
but there is a considerable demand for cement for
use in road construction, foundry work, etc., in
which a lower-grade product might be employed.
The new product is being marketed at approxi-
mately £1 Is. Od. to £1 10s. Od. per ton lower than
the ruling price of cement in Newcastle. The
present output is approximately 200 tons pej week.
Reports from assayers are somewhat variable, but
the only objection so far raised is the tendency for
this material to leave a somewhat friable surface
when worked up in the same way as Portland
cement. It is also somewhat slower in setting time,
but with experience there is little doubt that it
may be used satisfactorily for the less important
classes of construction work.
Caustic Soda in Tasmania. — The announcement has
been made that the Electrolytic Zinc Co., of
Risdon, Hobart, Tasmania, contemplates the estab-
' lishment of an electrolytic plant for the manu-
facture of chlorine and caustic alkali. It is well
known that under the hydro-electric scheme in
j Tasmania electricity can be obtained at a cost of
Old. per unit. The proposal now being considered
has for its object the production of some 6000 tons
per year of caustic alkali with corresponding quan-
I tities of chlorine and chlorine products. Should
j this enterprise be successfully inaugurated, the
t supply of chlorine will materially affect the develop-
, ment of other industries. Thus, although several
attempts have been made to recover tinplate scrap
' by electrolytic methods, there seems little doubt
that success will not be achieved until chlorine is
available to facilitate the removal of the tin as
stannic chloride. The development of this industry
will undoubtedly be watched with great interest by
chemists in Australia.
FRANCE.
Industrial Notes. — Chemical Industry: According
to the census taken on June 1 last, 98 out of 127
chemical plants, i.e., 77 per cent., were then in
operation. Since October, 1919, the resumption of
work in chemical factories has steadily increased,
and in the Nord Department, which suffered most
during the war, the recovery has been greatest.
The prices fixed for the 2500 tons of ammonium
sulphate due to be delivered by Germany to Franco
during August and September next are 165 fr. per
100 kg. in a loose state on rail French frontier,
and 170 fr. per 100 kg., in bags not returnable.
There has been a slight fall in the prices of
natural fats, of turpentine, and of a few metallic
salts, but the demand for parasiticides, particularly
for sulphate of copper, has been keen. Alcohol
remains very scarce. Methyl alcohol, which could
be obtained at 400—450 fr. per 100 litres two
months ago, is now 780 — 800 fr. There i's a great
demand for this product for the production of
formaldehyde, which, in 40 per cent, solution, has
reached the extraordinary price of 1800 fr. per
100 kg. Generally it may be said that all wood-
distillation products have reached very high prices
as a direct result of the scarcity of the wood, and
of the lack of coal and labour.
Metallurgy: In the region of Longwy reconstruc-
tion work is proceeding steadily in all the great
metallurgical factories. A year ago only three blast
furnaces were working in that district, four months
ago the number was increased to eight, and now it
is fourteen; a few more furnaces are expected to
restart very shortly. These figures bear witness to
a more regular arrival of coke.
Many rolling mills, e.g., those of the Longwy
steelworks, will soon bo ready to start work, and
others have already begun. At present four large
steelworks have re-started rolling.
Coal: The quantity of coal imported during June
was about 1,435,000 t., to which total Great Britain
contributed 985,000 t. (1,145,000 t. in May), Ger-
Vol. XXXIX.. Xo. 15.]
many 150,000 t. (190,000 t. in May), and the United
States 300,000 t. (180,000 t. in May). According to
the decisions recently arrived at by the Peace Con-
ference at Spa, France will now derive her monthly
supplies as follows: — 1,500,000 t. from Germany,
1,600,000 t. from French mines, 750,000 t. from
Britain, 250 000 t. from America, 100,000 t. from
Belgium; making a total of 4,200,000 t., which
represents 80 per cent, of the demand. A further
150,000 t. should be available from the French
mines in Poland. The arrival of all these supplies
is considered doubtful in many quarters.
Transport: The Orleans Railway Co. has been
authorised to harness the waters of the " Haute-
Dordogne " and of the " Chanavon " and the
" Rhue " in order to electrify 3350 kilometres out
of its railway line of 7787 kilometres. The
energy needed is estimated at 280 million kw. hrs.,
to be gradually increased to 500 millions. This will
result in the saving of lj million tons of coal yearly.
The example should be followed, as a general
electrification of the railways in France would do
much to solve the coal problem. At the beginning
of July normal pre-war traffic was resumed by the
railway companies of the North and East.
JAPAN.
The Phosphorus Industry. — Although the Japanese
production of phosphorus is valued at over 30
million yen (yen = 2s. 0^d.), two-thirds of which is
exported, the raw materials were almost all im-
ported in pre-war days. During the war, however,
owing to the absence of Swedish competition,
Japanese matches acquired a wide market, and in
consequence the manufacture of the raw materials,
including phosphorus, was developed at home.
No phosphorus was made in Japan until 1912,
when the Electric Furnace Industry Co. was
founded, aided by the Government Industrial Ex-
amination Bureau, with a capital of 35,000 yen.
Soon after, the Fuji Electro-Chemical Co. was estab-
lished for the same purpose. But the industry did
not prosper until 1915, when the latter company
increased its capital to 1 million yen, amalgamated
with the Nippon Chemical Industry Co., and raised
its output to 180 cases of yellow phosphorus a
month(case = 1001b.). This companyhas since opened
branch works at Onakigawa, Tokyo and Omiya,
Shizuokaken, and a number of other companies has
been established, viz., the Tokyo Electro-Chemical
Co. at Niigatakep, the Yamanashi Chemical In-
dustry Co. at Yamanashiken, the Teikoku Electro-
Chemical Co. at Kyoto, the Kyoto Electric Light
Co. (chemical branch) at Kyoto, the Umebachi
works at Osakafu, and the Tottori phosphorus
works at Tottori.
The demand for phosphorus depends on the
market for matches, and as a rule 4000 gross of
safety matches requires about 400,000 kin (kin =
1'32 lb.) of red phosphorus, whilst 1000 gross of
paraffin matches require about 230,000 kin of yellow
phosphorus. The relation of the output of matches
to the phosphorus consumption is shown in the
following table: —
Output of Consumption of
Matches. Phosphorus.
Year. Gross. kin.
1906 ... 54,802,293 ... 539,442
1907 ... 57,125,761 ... 502,436
1908 ... 39,397,680 ... 360,309
1909 ... 49,972,039 ... 612,255
1910 ... 49,947,215 ... 522.280
1911 ... 43,948.327 ... 547,093
1912 ... 52,845,232 ... 638.859
1913 ... 51,731.010 ... 657,266
1914 ... 49,050,229 ...
1915 ... 49,237,519 ... 493,120
1916 ... 50,612,996 ... 738,696
1917 ... 53,000,000 ... 640,000
The cost of manufacturing a case of phosphorus
in Japan is estimated, in yen, as follows: —
Electric power (0008 yen per kw.) 1200
Phosphatic ores (at 20 yen a ton), coke, silica 8'49
Labour, etc 13-70
Packing 600
Other expenses ... ... ... 9"79
Total 4998
Phosphatic ore is chiefly obtained from Rasa
Island, Lu-Choo, where the ore, containing 14'63
per cent, of phosphorus, is of the best quality. The
production of ore in recent years has been: — 1908,
740 tons ; 1909, 3932 t. ; 1910, 1057 t. ; 1911, 2268 t. ;
1912, 7851 t.; 1913, 19,043 t. ; 1914, 38,259 t.; 1915,
57,716 t.; and 1916, 114,810 t.
GENERAL.
Arsenic. — The Imperial Mineral Resources Bureau,
as already announced, is engaged upon the prepara-
tion of a digest of information on the mineral re-
sources of the British Empire for the period 1913 —
1919. It is proposed to issue each part as it is
completed, and the first to appear is a 19-page
pamphlet on Arserfic, issued in a convenient form
(9| in.x6J in.) and sold by H.M. Stationery Office
at the price of 6d. Arsenic of commerce is essen-
tially a by-product in the metallurgical treatment
of ores of tin, copper, silver, etc. ; hence it follows
that in countries such as England, where smelting
operations are not increasing and where the
authorities have already long insisted upon the
non-pollution of the atmosphere by smelter fumes,
there is little progress in production to report.
The one notable exception is that of the United
States where, mainly owing to the more exacting
regulations now in force, but no doubt assisted by
the great rise in value, an increased recovery of
the hitherto waste arsenic fume has resulted in an
increase in production from 2280 tons refined white
arsenic in 1913 to 10,275 tons in 1918. Whilst
mineral statistics are notoriously difficult to obtain
at any time with any degree of accuracy, the period
under review was one of particular difficulty, and
the Bureau has probably made the best possible
use of the available information. The world's pro-
duction of arsenic, in terms of white arsenic, ap-
pears to be between 20,000 and 25,000 tons per
annum. In the British Empire, the United King-
dom and Canada contribute approximately equal
amounts, i.e., about 2500 tons per annum. South
Africa and Australia have of late taken up the
production of arsenic seriously, but as yet their
output is small. The United States is said to
have produced 3487 lb. of metallic arsenic dur-
ing 1918. Canada is also a producer of the metal,
and a little more information might have been
given in this connexion. A welcome bibliography
gives references to production and uses.
Industrial Conditions in Germany. — The main busi-
ness of the majority of factories since the war has
been export trade, but it has been checked by a
falling off in demands from abroad as well as on the
home market. The absence of raw materials and
fuel are the main factors which are depressing the
industries of the country, and, although some im-
provement is shown in certain branches, leading to
more employment and higher wages, the outlook
generally is still uncertain. In the drug industry
wages have risen, but fuel shortage is causing con-
siderable trouble. The conditions in the colour
trade are not satisfactory. Though still in a lead-
ing position, the aniline dye industry is suffering
from lack of fuel, and one important firm was
unable to carry out more than 40 per cent, of its
orders. Many firms which were manufacturing
powder and explosives are now lying idle or con-
verting their plant for the purpose of peace work.
With regard to the tar-distillation industry, one
important firm reports having failed to obtain more
[Aug. 16. 1920.
than 60 per cent, of the raw materials required ;
many other works are closing down for longer or
shorter periods. The wood-distillation industry is
also experiencing great difficulties owing to the
short supply of raw materials which were formerly
imported from foreign countries such as Poland,
Austria, Hungary, etc. More favourable reports
are forthcoming from manufacturers of photo-
graphic goods, oils, and artificial fertilisers. Speak-
ing generally, the industries of the country have
suffered severely from the shortage of coal and raw
materials, and if matters do not improve, more
workmen will be dismissed. Wages can neither be
lowered nor can they be raised further, and, as
factories are still working up their costly raw
material, the prices of goods cannot at present be
reduced. — (Z. angew. Chem., June 22, July 2, 1920.)
German Potash Industry in 1919. — The reorganisa-
tion of the German potash industry on the basis of
self-administration is now complete, and although
no tangible improvement due to the activity of
the various potash offices is as yet apparent, the
liberation of the industry from the guardianship
of the States bureaus will soon- be felt, and prices
can now be fixed in accordance with the increase
in wages and cost of material.
During 1919, potash prices had to be raised three
times in order to cover costs, and the industry
became dependent upon foreign trade for its profits.
A large number of works had to be closed down
owing to lack of coal, and those that kept running
either required little coal, viz., those producing
kainite, manure salts and chlorate of potash, or
owned their own supply (Kaliwerke Aschersleben).
Output has been kept back by a number of factors,
such as the bad condition of the plants, shortage
of materials, industrial unrest, etc.
The net profit for 1919 of the Kaliwerke Aschers-
leben was 17,661,511 mk. (2,317,667 mk. in 1918),
the increase being due to the exports of chlorate
and sulphate that began in the latter half of the
year. The pre-war dividend of 10 per cent. (7 per
cent, in 1918) was reverted to and a bonus given
of 200 mk. per share. It was decided to issue
2.500,000 mk. of 6 per cent, preference shares, thus
raising the capital to 25 million mk.
The Adler Kaliwerke Oberroehlingen am See
made a profit of 3,429,268 mk. (379,172 mk. in 1918)
and paid a dividend of 20 per cent. A new share
issue amounting to 4 million mk. has been made. —
(U.S. Com. Sep., May 28, 1920.)
Development of Lignite Mining in Germany. — The
following table, compiled by the " Verein fiir In-
teressen der Rheinischen Braunkohlen-Industrie "
of Cologne, shows the output of lignite in Germany
and its two chief producing areas during the last
seven years, in thousands of metric tons: —
Lignite output.
Halle a. S
Germanv.
Ithineland.
district.
1913 . .
.. 87,116
. . 20.256 . .
46.502
1914 . .
. . 83.947
. . 19.480 .
41.151
1915 ..
. . 88.370
. . 20.788 . .
47.718
1916 . .
. . 94.332
. . 23.931 . .
50,694
1917 ..
. . 95,535
. . 24,218 . .
51.659
. . 100.663
. . 26.460 . .
53.220
1919 ..
. . 93.800
. . 24.330 . .
—
The introduction of the eight-hour shift and the
division of the day into three instead of two shifts
oil March 1, 1919, did not result in any appreciable
falling-off in production. The output of lignite is
greatest in Saxon-Thuringia which, together with
the Rhineland district, produces over four-fifths of
the total. The output in the latter district has
increased from 1,016,000 metric tons in 1893 to
26,460,000 t. in 1918, whilst the number of persons
employed in the industry has increased in the same
period from 2067 to 20,485. During the second
quarter of the last few years the average wages paid
per shift were as follows: — 1914, 4'38 marks; 1917,
595 mk. ; 1918, 9"43 mk. ; 1919, 15-30 mk. The out-
put per man per shift increased from 15'69 metric
tons in 1914 to 2562 t. in the third quarter of 1918
owing to the introduction of mechanical appliances,
the more efficient working of substitute labour, and
the employment of prisoners of war in the mines.
During the following two quarters these figures de-
clined to 17-29 and 1T67 t., whilst in the second
quarter of 1919 the output was 1248 tons per man
per shift. — (Z. anyew. Chem., April 16, 1920.)
The German Textile Industry (Occupied Area). —
Although the area under cultivation has been in-
creased, the market supply of flax has not improved
owing to the poor crop resulting from shortage of
fertilisers and labour difficulties. Imports of silk,
raw cotton, wool, and jute have been kept low by the
rate of exchange, and the scarcity of these raw
materials has greatly hindered trade; the home de-
mand for artificial silk and staple fibre is very great,
and exports are subject to licence. The Zellstoff-
fabrik, Waldhof , has had to shut down owing to lack
of coal, and it is stated that the Vereinigte Glanz-
stofffabrik, Elberfeld, has been obliged to negotiate
for Norwegian cellulose. The latter company en-
larged its works at Oberbruch during the war, pro-
vided new plant at Klesterbach, erected a large
works at Stettin, and formed a branch company in
Bavaria. Germany produces a total of 250,000 kg.
of staple fibre, of which the Elbefeld firm consumes
two-thirds, the remainder going to the Bemberg
A.-G. and the Glanzfaden A.-G., Petersdorf. Fur-
ther developments are probable after May, 1920,
when the Muller patent expires; this originally
covered artificial silk, but it also protects the pre-
liminary stages of the staple fibre process. The fol-
lowing were the increases in the prices of raw
materials up to January last, since when further
rises have taken place: Cellulose 700 per cent., sul-
phuric acid 300, sodium hydrate 600, and carbon bi-
sulphide 240 per cent.— (Bel. of Trade J., May 27,
1920.)
Synthetic Rubber. — According to the annual report
of the Elberfelder Farbenfabriken, synthetic rubber
has no prospect of success in competition with the
natural product. Larger quantities are now stored
in London than before the war; moreover, there
has been a marked increase in the cost of raw
materials, especially of acetone and aluminium.
The factory, having used up all its raw material,
has been lying idle since the revolution in 1918,
and although no actual loss has been incurred,
there is no immediate prospect of restarting it
under present conditions. — (Handelsmuseum,
July 1, 1920.)
Dutch Rubber Goods Industry. — The Ministry of
Agriculture, Industry and Trade has recently issued
a statement on the rubber industry in Holland.
The production of tyres has recently been decreas-
ing, but other branches of the industry have been
making progress. Some tyre factories have had to
shut down owing to difficulties over raw materials.
Inmport of tyres were valued at 262,129 during the
first three months of this year, but the exports only
at £12,293. Raw rubber to the extent of 2126 tons
was imported, whilst 1655 tons was re-exported.
Imports of balata amounted to 20 tons, all of which
came from Curacao. — {Rubber Age, July, 1920.)
Proposed Rubber Industry in Para. — Substantial
grants are being offered to the first firm to be
established at Pernambuco and Para for the manu-
facture of tyres and other articles requiring or
using Para rubber. The State is prepared to ad-
vance a loan of 75 per cent, of the cost of erecting
the factories to the contractors who undertake the
work. — (Financial Times, July 17, 1920.)
OH Shale in Bulgaria. — The increasing demand for
oil has directed attention to oil shales, and three
concessions have been already granted. Deposits
Vol. XXXIX.. No. 15]
REVIEW.
occur at Breznik, Radoniir, Popootzi, Kazanlik,
and Sirbinovo. The oil contents average about 13
per cent., whilst that of the Scottish shales is 12.
According to German war experience, a minimum
of 5 per cent, is workable at a profit. The Scottish
shales show a higher content of gasoline, kerosene,
and sulphate of ammonia, whilst the Breznik shales
are richer in lubricating oils and wax. --((.'. S. Com.
Hep., Apr. 27, 1920.)
Mineral Resources of Rumania. — In addition to the
oilfields, Rumania is rich in minerals, especially
salt and coal. The salt mines cover an area of
over 250 sq. miles from the Bukovina to the west
of Oltenic, and the known salt deposits are esti-
mated to contain over 10 million tons. Though of
good quality, the output of salt is very small owing
to lack of organisation, the total pre-war produc-
tion amounting to only 144,000 tons per annum.
Coal, like salt, is found chiefly in the Lower Car-
pathians, but it is little worked, and more than
300,000 tons of coal and coke were imported an-
nually before the war from England, Germany and
Turkey. Anthracite of good quality is also found,
but has been little worked on account of the ir-
regularity of the deposits; during the German
occupation the production was increased from 2500
to 7300 tons a year. Lignite deposits, estimated at
200 million tons, occur over a large area, and the
annual output amounts to some 235,000 tons. The
deposits of copper ore are not worked owing to the
low copper content (2 — 4 per cent.), but pyrites,
with 40 per cent, of sulphur, was extracted for use
in the manufacture of sulphuric acid. Copper ore
containing 5 — 7 per cent, copper, and estimated at
250,000 tons, has been found in the Dobrudja.
Other minerals found ir Rumania, but not yet fully
exploited, include gold, asphalt (the Germans ex-
ported 3000 tons), mica (.the Germans exported
400 tons), graphite, and there are quarries of
quartz, china clav, gypsum, etc., throughout the
mountain areas.— (Bd. of Trade J., May 13, 1920.)
Sulphur Production in Italy. — According to Econo-
mista, the production of sulphur in Italy during
1919 was 364,000 quintals (35,750 long tons) less
than in 1918; "the values for the two years were
49,705,000 and 51,257,822 lire respectively. —
Schweiz. Chem.-Zeit., Apr. 17, 1920.)
Synthetic Ammonia Plant in Italy. — An American
subject has obtained a concession from the Italian
Government for the utilisation of 800 h.p. from the
waterfalls at Terni, 70 miles from Rome, and has
taken over a munitions plant as a works for the
manufacture of synthetic ammonia. In the process
used electrolytic hydrogen and pressures up to 250
atmospheres are employed. One unit out of twelve
contemplated is stated to be in operation. — (U.S.
Com. Hep., May 21, 1920.)
The Italian Soda Industry. — The first attempt to
establish the soda industry in Italy dates back to
1907, but, owing to scarcity of raw materials, the
construction of a factory at Rosignano was not
begun till 1914, and on account of the difficulty of
obtaining building materials and plant, the manu-
facture of sodium carbonate was only started in
September, 1919. Although the Rosignano factory
was unable to meet the great demand, it neverthe-
less produced more soda than the railways could
transport. Manufacture has ceased and the factory
is importing foreign soda ; since January 1 it has
imported 4000 tons, and a further 3000 tons has been
taken by other firms. Owing to the extremely high
price of soda in Italy, the firm in question has been
bitterly, but erroneously, attacked by the press for
alleged profiteering. — (Cliem. Ind., Apr. 28, 1920.)
Sugar Production in Czecho-Slo\akia. — During the
year 1919, Czccho-Slovakia was the only country in
Europe that exported sugar, to the value of about
£2.000,000, for the twelve months. Owing to un-
usually heavy snowstorms in October, 1919, which
damaged a large percentage of the sugar beets still
in the ground, only 500,000 metric tons of sugar was
realised from the 1919- — 1920 campaign, but those
provinces of Austria-Hungary constituting the Re-
public of Czeeho-Slovakia produced almost 18 per
cent, of the total beet sugar of the world, or about
1,500,000 tons. During 1919 about 283,000 tons
was exported, of which Austria purchased 160,000
tons, France 55,000 tons, Germany 26,000 tons, and
England 1250 tons. During the same period the
total home consumption was 258,000 tons. — (U.S.
Com. Sep., June 2. 1920.)
The Swedish Sugar Industry. — The manufacture of
beet sugar in Sweden for the present season began
on October 1 last, with a supply of 910,000 metric
tons of roots, as against 819,000 tons in the previous
year. The average yield of roots per acre was
10 ton; and their sugar content higher than that of
any previous year, viz., 17'5 per cent. Roots,
washed and cleaned, were being paid for at the rate
of about 4s. a cwt. As the estimated production,
together with reserve stocks, will not cover the
home consumption, the difference of about 40.000
tons will have to be imported. — (U.S. Com. Hep.,
June 3, 1020.)
Swedish Wood-Pulp in 1919. — It was not until
October, 1919, that the Swedish sulphite cellulose
industry recovered sufficiently from the effects of
the war to allow the mills to be again fully em-
ployed. The output in 1919 was, however, still only
64 per cent, of the normal pre-war output. The
sulphite industry will have 22 mills equipped with
machinery for the manufacture of sulphite spirit,
with an estimated output of 17 million kg. of 95 per
cent, sulphite spirit. Owing to small sales and the
almost complete cessation of the sale of by-products,
the Swedish sulphate cellulose production had by
November, 1919, fallen to 42 per cent, of the
normal, and nearly all the large mills were idle.
Thev resumed operations in November, and by the
end'of the year their output was again normal, i.e.,
about 217,000 metric tons.— (U.S. Com. Sep., June
3, 1920.)
Norwegian Iron and Steel Industry. — The policy of
the Norwegian Ministry of Industry is to develop
and support the iron and steel industry, so as to
make the country independent of foreign supplies
as far as possible. One of the schemes relates to
the iron and steel works at Narvik (ef. J., 1920,
220 k). and now a grant has been made to a
Trondjhem firm which is about to erect an experi-
mental plant for reducing oxidised iron ore with gas
at 900 — 1000° C. It is claimed that this process
produces iron free from sulphur and phosphorus,
and that, as the product is free from carbon, it is
well suited for the production of steel. The gas
used is to be produced by introducing a fluid fuel
or gas distilled from coal into an electric high-
tension flame of the kind used in the artificial
nitrate industry. The process is stated to be a
Swedish invention and particularly suited for low-
grade Norwegian ore. The Norwegian Government
has been authorised to invest a maximum of
500.000 kroner (krone = ls. l}d.) in a company
which is to produce pig iron electrically, and to
guarantee a loan of 150.000 kr. to another company
for the production of the necessary electrodes. —
(Bd. of Trade J., June 3, 1920.)
New Fertiliser. — A new fertiliser, known as
" Ephos " basic phosphate, has been made from
phosphate mined in Egypt. It contains from 60 — 65
per cent, of tricalcium phosphate, of which 85 — 95
per cent, is soluble in 0'2 per cent, citric acid solu-
tion. The new fertiliser, of which over 30,000 t.
has been exported to New Zealand and sn.all quan-
tities to England, is said to be suitable for wheat
and root crops as a substitute for basic slag or
superphosphate. — (Bev. Prod. Chim., June 30,
1920.)
REVIEW.
[Aug. 10, 1920.
REPORTS.
Fifty-Sixth Annual Report on Alkali etc. Works.
By the Chief Inspector. 1919. £*p. It-
London: H.AI. Stationery Office. 1920.
Price 2s. 6d.
The total number of registered works in the
United Kingdom in 1919 was 1568, of which 165
were in Scotland; the total shows a decrease of 12
on the previous year. The number of separate manu-
facturing plants under inspection was 2288, dis-
tributed as follows : — Alkali : salt cake 57, copper
(wet process) 17; cement, 49; smelting, 78; sul-
phuric acid, 140, do. class II. 116; fertilisers, 143;
gas liquor, 107; nitric acid, 83; sulphate and
chloride of ammonia, 632; chlorine, 25; muriatic
acid (other than alkali) 66, tinplate flux, 70, salt
42; sulphide, 98; arsenic, 50; carbon bisulphide, 5;
bisulphite, 30; tar, 376; zinc extraction, 13; etc.
There was a decrease of 64 plants compared with
1918, mainly accounted for by reduction in sul-
phuric acid, nitric acid, and picric acid works. The
number of alkali (salt-cake) works increased from
54 to 57.
The return of three inspectors from war service
led to a considerable amount of re-arrangement in
the administration that was not conducive to the
highest efficiency in inspection; but the derange-
ment was only temporary, and must be reckoned
as the closing stage of war conditions. The resident
inspectorship of the Widnes, Runcorn, and Liver-
pool district has been abolished and the area in-
cluded in the Cheshire and South Lancashire dis-
trict.
No proceedings were instituted against the
owners of works for the emission of noxious gases or
vapours.
At the beginning of the year demand in the
chemical trades was not strong and much plant was
idle; during this period arrears of repairs and re-
newals were overtaken with subsequent good re-
sults, although the adverse conditions in regard to
labour, materials, and transport continued. During
the year production gradually increased, and the
heavy chemical industry may be said to have
entered 1920 under favourable conditions.
Alkali works. — As in previous years, the electro-
lytic and ammonia-soda processes continued to oust
the Le Blanc process for the manufacture of alkali ;
the last-named process is now very largely confined
to the production of salt cake and hydrochloric
acid, and several new plants have been erected
merely to manufacture these products. The output
of nitre cake diminished rapidly after the armistice,
and little of this material was available for salt-
cake manufacture. No fresh development in the use
of mechanical furnaces is to be reported.
Cement works. — Great activity prevailed in thiB
industry throughout the year, but output was hin-
dered by shorter hours of labour and difficulties in
effecting repairs. The poor quality of the coal
available was also an important factor in de-
creasing output, as it affected the working of the
rotary kilns. The British Potash Co. is putting
down a plant at Harefield (Middlesex) for the re-
covery of potash from the fumes of a large rotary
kiln, and this marks the first serious attempt in
this country to recover potash at a cement works.
The Reading clay deposit found at Harefield con-
tains 2-5—3% K20.
Smelting works. — The general average acidity of
the chimney gases discharged from smelting works
fell from 3'15 grains of sulphur trioxide in 1918 to
246 grains in 1919, the improvement being effected
largely by the use of efficient limestone scrubbing
towers and milk of lime wash towers. Zinc smelt-
ing works, however, formed a marked exception.
The proposed utilisation of these sulphurous gases
from the roasting of zinc blende for the manu-
facture of sulphuric acid has not materialised owing
to difficulties in the operation of the mechanical
roasting furnaces, and although chamber plant was
erected, it has remained idle. Electrical methods
of separating dust from the furnace gases have
proved satisfactory, and their use has been ex-
tended.
Sulphuric acid works. — On the cessation of large-
scale explosives manufacture, many sulphuric acid
plants were laid off for repairs, but by the end of
the year a considerable number was in full opera-
tion again, and demand had so increased that the
industry as a whole was in a fair state of activity.
The use of chamber plants working with limited
chamber space continued to extend ; these plants
are extremely sensitive and need very efficient
control, not only to meet the requirements of the
Act, but also to attain the best practical results.
An example is given of the graphs plotted at one
works, which show a continuous record of the con-
trol tests throughout the plant, such as the com-
position of burner gases, strengths of acids, tem-
perature of chambers, etc. The wide adoption of
this system is recommended. The catalytic oxida-
tion of ammonia as a source of supply of the oxides
of nitrogen for the chamber reaction continues to
give satisfaction, but the financial success in any
one instance depends entirely on the local condi-
tions as regards the competitive price of nitre. The
preliminary iron contact towers referred to in the
last report continued under trial, but no definite
quantitative results are yet available, and the
system has not been adopted elsewhere. The towers
have been found to give a great improvement in
the quality of the acid made, due largely to their
effect in removing dust from the burner gases
prior to entry into the Glover tower. The question
of the most efficient working of ordinary chambers,
by varying their size and shape, position of the
trunks, etc., has been under discussion for a long
time, but it is thought that many plants could still
be improved by the comparatively simple means of
increasing the circulation of the gases. Oleum pro-
duction has fallen off considerably, and some plants
were shut down. The trouble in purification of the
burner gases continues, and it is thought that the
electrical methods for the deposition of dust, which
have proved so successful in smelting works prac-
tice, could be adopted with great advantage in
oleum manufacture. Part of the oleum produced
has been used to bring chamber process acid up to
the highest required strength, and this method of
obtaining strong acid has several advantages over
the ordinary method, as it avoids the last stages
of concentration which have proved to cause the
greatest wear on the plant, the greatest loss by
volatilisation, and the highest fuel consumption.
Many concentration plants were shut down owing
to cessation of recovery processes in connexion with
explosives manufacture. It is noteworthy that this
reduction of plant has been carried out mainly by
closing down cascade units. In some cases cascades
have been replaced by modified Kessler plants.
Chemical manure works. — There was an increased
and continuous demand for phosphatic fertilisers,
which was not always met owing to irregularities
in the supply of phosphate rock. The use of
mechanical dens is increasing, and more new de-
signs have been put forward, the most noteworthy
being a plant on quite original lines which has
been put into operation by Messrs. Kynoch at
Keith. The tonnage of mineral phosphate im-
ported into the United Kingdom in 1917, 1918, and
1919 was 276,617, 464,747, and 351,187, respec-
tively; and the figures for nitrate of soda were
1680J 300, and 24,485 in the same years.
277 r
Sulphate and muriate of ammonia and gas liquor
works. — The reversion from the production of con-
centrated ammonia liquor to the manufacture of
sulphate continues. The total amount of ammonia
products manufactured in the United Kingdom
amounted to 397,513 tons (expressed in terms of
sulphate containing 24"5% NH,), and nearly 9 per
cent, of this amount was produced as concentrated
ammonia. In one works where the sulphuretted
hydrogen of the waste gases was burnt directly for
the manufacture of sulphuric acid, the chamber
capacity was so reduced by reason of the large
amount of inert gas admitted by the waste gas
burners, that the introduction of the ordinary oxide
purifiers and burning of the resulting spent oxide
are now being considered. High-grade sulphate is
receiving more attention, and considerable quan-
tities of excellent dry neutral salt are being made.
Inquiry into a complaint against one works showed
that no sulphuretted hydrogen was discharged, but
that the strong liquor contained sufficient pyridine,
to be offensive. This was the first time that
pyridine was identified as the chief source of trouble
in sulphate of ammonia manufacture, and in follow-
ing the matter up a large amount of laboratory
work was done on the determination of pyridine in
the presence of ammonia ; an account of this is
given in a lengthy appendix to the report.
The "direct" and "semi-direct" processes of
ammonium sulphate manufacture have proved quite
satisfactory in coke-oven practice, hut in gas works
the conditions are different, and the direct methods
have not proved so successful as was anticipated. A
full review of the work done in this connexion is
given, together with tables of the comparative costs
of direct and ordinary distillation processes.
Nitric acid works. — The decrease in manufacture
is shown bv the number of registered plants which
fell from 96 in 1918 to 83 in 1919.
Chlorine and hydrochloric acid works. — The pro-
duction of liquid chlorine, developed primarily for
war work, has led to its use in a number of com-
mercial processes. The precautions taken for the
storage and handling of this dangerous material
have proved efficient. A large proportion of it is
produced electrolytically in the manufacture of
soda. When the demand for the latter is high,
there is a surplus of chlorine over the requirements
for the manufacture of bleach, etc., and this sur-
plus has been utilised for the production of pure
hydrochloric acid by direct combination with elec-
trolytic hydrogen. The pure acid produced has
proved a successful competitor to the acid made by
the older methods.
Tar works. — A fatality occurred at a tar works
due to the victim entering a still contrary to in-
structions. During the inquiry reference was
made to the use of respirators, and it is pointed
out that in the absence of definite information as
to the particular gases or vapours present, respira-
tors should be used with caution, as the wearing
of a mask which is possibly unsuited for the specific
case only leads to a dangerously false feeling of
security. The total quantity of tar distilled ex-
ceeded 1J million tons, and the amount of pitch
obtained was nearly 700,000 tons.
Fuel for Motor Transport. An Interim Memor-
andum by the Fuel Research Board.
As a result of the recommendations of the Inter-
Departmental Committee appointed in 1918 (this
J., 1919, 250 r), a permanent organisation has been
established under the Fuel Research Board for the
investigation of problems connected with power
alcohol. Sir Frederic Nathan, Power Alcohol
Investigation Officer, has prepared a summary of
the present position, which shows that the difficul-
ties to be faced are due to insufficient supplies and
excessive cost of raw materials, rather than to the
indifference or lethargy of the Government De-
partments controlling alcohol.
The Present Position. — In 1919 the world's pro-
duction of crude petroleum was 17£ thousand mil-
lion Imperial gallons, to which total the United
States contributed about 74 per cent., but con-
sumed a larger quantity. The petrol imported by
this country during 1918 and 1919 amounted to
193 and 200 million gallons, respectively, and for
1920 the estimate is 250 million galls. A fuel with
properties similar to those of petrol is essential
for certain purposes and the most suitable is alcohol,
probably best mixed with ether or hydrocarbons.
Mixtures of alcohol and benzol have been success-
fully tried by the London General Omnibus Co.
During 1918 gas undertakings produced 10 million
and coke ovens 32 million galls, of benzol, and
the total production in 1919 was 20 million galls.
The output from coke ovens may increase, but only
a relatively small output from gas works is anti-
cipated.
Practically all alcohol is now made from grain
or molasses, and before the war large quantities
were obtained from potatoes in Germany. It can
be produced from wood cellulose, the available
quantity of which in this country is negligible, from
calcium carbide, which cannot be manufactured in
quantity without cheap power, and from the ethy-
lene contained in coke-oven and coal gas, the re-
covery and conversion of which are still in the
experimental stage. It is shown that alcohol could
not be produced in any quantity from the vegetable
materials growable in this country (barley, pota-
toes and mangolds), because of the acreage required,
of the high cost of cultivation, harvesting and
manufacture, and of the fact that the raw materials
are also foodstuffs.
Molasses is the most suitable raw material in the
Empire outside the United Kingdom, the quantity
available being dependent upon the output of re-
fined sugar. The estimated Empire production of
refined sugar for the 1919-1920 season is just over
one million tons, and the resulting molasses would
only yield 17 to 18 million galls, of 95 per cent,
alcohol. In this country seven or eight million
galls, of 95 per cent, alcohol is produced from
molasses, and in view of present costs of materials,
labour and freight, the erection of additional dis-
tilleries is not commercially practicable. The
molasses should be converted to alcohol where it is
produced, any excess of alcohol over local require-
ments being exported. The quantity of molasses
available should increase with the present increas-
ing output of sugar, and its potentialities are being
pointed out to the authorities of the countries con-
cerned, but the quantities of alcohol available from
this source must be small and will be mainly used
locally to replace petrol.
The difficulties referred to above as existing in
this country do not apply to the same extent to the
cultivation of plants containing starch or 6Ugar
for the manufacture of power alcohol in other parts
of the Empire. In many cases land is available and
labour would be cheaper, but the supply of fuel,
water and transport may be difficult and costly.
Anything in the nature of a foodstuff, wherever
.produced, is likely to command such a price as
would prohibit its use for the manufacture of
alcohol unless grown in very large quantities. The
special cultivation of raw materials is almost sure
to increase the cost of power alcohol, and although
this may not be ultimately the governing factor, it
is considered essential to use a waste material or a
natural product of no other value. Steps have been
taken for the initiation of research work upon the
possibility of obtaining alcohol from tropical vege-
tation by chemical or bacteriological processes.
[Aug. 16. 19211.
A section of the Finance Bill for this session pro-
vides for the use of " power methylated spirits "
for generating mechanical power, and for the pay-
ment of an allowance of 3d. per proof gallon as
in the case of methylated spirits used for industrial
purposes (this J., 1920, 205b). A denaturant will
shortly be authorised which should reduce to a
minimum the cost of denaturing power methy-
lated spirits. Clauses will be inserted into the forth-
coming Revenue Bill, extending facilities for the
importation and distribution of spirits in bulk and
enabling the Board of Customs and Excise to regu-
late the use of power alcohol. The result will be
to facilitate the use of power alcohol and to reduce
the expense of any necessary restrictions.
Alternative Motor Fuels. — It is clear that so long
as power alcohol is produced from foodstuffs, an
adequate supply is impossible until other and
cheaper sources of power have been exhausted or
proved inadequate. Coal is the world's principal
source of fuel, the output being about 1500 million
tons per annum, as against 75 million tons of petro-
leum. Coal being the natural source of heat and
power in this country, our energy should be con-
centrated upon the adaptation of its products,
chiefly gas and coke, to the purposes of transport
until it is proved that oil exists in very large
quantities. The world's undeveloped oil resources
cannot be compared with the undeveloped coal
deposits, and this has a special application to the
British position.
By carbonisation and gasification raw coal can be
"sorted out " into gaseous, liquid, and solid fuels
in some of which the potential thermal units are
more available for the production of heat and power
than in the raw coal. The gas industry obtains
from each ton of coal about 6 million B.Th.U. in
the form of gas, If million B.Th.U. in the liquid
products, and 17 million B.Th.U. in the coke. By
recent developments 8 — 9 million B.Th.U. have been
obtained in the gas, 3J million B.Th.U. in the
liquid products and 15 million B.Th.U. in the coke,
and it is anticipated that in special cases 10 to 12
millions may be obtained in the gas. The thermal
units being more available in the form of gas than
in the form of coal, one million B.Th.U. in the
form of gas finds a ready market at a present price
of 8 — 9s. compared with Is. 6d. in the form of raw
coal. Gas tar with a fuel value of about 16,000
B.Th.U. per lb. can be still further "sorted out"
into benzol, etc., fuel oil and pitch, the thermal
units being most readily available in the more
volatile hydrocarbons. The thermal units in the
form of coke are of much the same value as in coal.
At the Fuel Research Station accurate data are
being obtained as to the thermal and economic
effect of the " sorting out " of fuels from leading
types of coal, special methods of treatment being
selected for each type.
The cost of one million B.Th.U. in the form of
petrol at 3s. per gall, is about 21s., or 2} times that
in gas and 14 times that in coke. In the form of
alcohol at 5s. per gall, the cost would be about 52s.
per million B.Th.U. The availability of the ther-
mal units is at least as high in gas as in petrol, but
gas requires very large or very heavy containers for
transit; it might, however, be used extensively in
omnibuses, etc., if light yet safe containers could
be constructed. If carbonisation at 600° C. were
generally adopted, gas of twice the calorific value
would be available for this purpose. Benzol and
light naphtha are so relatively costly that they
should be reserved for air transport or for tho
lighter road transport. The coke obtained from
coal carbonised at 600° C. is a smokeless fuel, easily
lighted, and suitable for use in suction-gas plants.
The cost of thermal units produced in this way
would be 3s. per million, or one-seventh the cost
of thermal units in petrol.
PARLIAMENTARY NEWS.
HOUSE OF COMMONS.
Legislation.
The Finance Bill was read a third time and passed
on July 28. The provisions in regard to excess
profits tax (60 per cent.) and corporation tax (5 per
cent.) remain as originally proposed.
The Ministry of Mines Bill was passed, without
substantial alteration, on July 29, and the Dan-
gerous Drugs Bill on the following day.
Aluminium (Imports from Germany).
In a written reply to Sir A. Steel-Maitland, Mr.
Bridgeman gave the following statistics showing
the imports into the United Kingdom of aluminium
and aluminium manufactures consigned from Ger-
many during the first six months of 1920 and of
1913 : —
Imports into Exports frora*Cermany
the United Kingdom, to the United Kingdom.
(U.K. Accounts.) (German Accounts.)
Jan. -June, 1920. Jan.-June, 1913
Tons. £ Tons. £
Crude metal in ingots.
blocks, etc. . . 243 35.773 . . 163 13,000
Plates, sheets, bars,
tubes, wire. etc. . . — — . . 230 25.000
Hollow-ware, \
domestic . . 185 63.492
Aluminium manufae- J- . . 86 20.100
tures not other-
wise specified . . 72 28,624 j
-(Aug. 3.)
Anglo-French Agreement (Oil).
The agreement between the British and French
Governments concerning petroleum applies to
Rumania, Asia Minor, territories of the old Russian
Empire, Galicia, French Colonies, and British
Crown Colonies, but can be extended to other coun-
tries by mutual consent. The two Governments
undertake to support their respective nationals in
joint negotiations for the acquisition of oil con-
cessions, shares, etc., in Rumania and in territories
of the late Russian Empire, interests so acquired in
Rumania to be divided equally by the two parties.
The British Government will grant to the French
Government or its nominee 25 per cent, of the net
output of crude oil at current market rates, which
may be secured from the Mesopotamian oilfields,
should they be developed by Government action ;
should these oilfields be developed by a private com-
pany, the French Government may take a 25 per
cent, share in it, but the company is to be under per-
manent British control. The interests of the
native Government, or of the natives, shall not
exceed 20 per cent, of the share capital, and the
French shall contribute one-half of the first 10 per
cent, of such native participation.
The French Government will give facilities to any
Franco-British group or groups of good standing to
acquire oil concessions in the French colonies, pro-
tectorates, or zones of influence, including Algeria,
Tunis, and Morocco. Such groups must contain at
least 67 per cent. French interests. The British
Government will accord similar facilities to French
subjects in the British Crown Colonies in so far as
existing regulations allow.
HOUSE OF LORDS.
The Proprietary Medicines Bill, introduced on
July 13, is designed to give effect to the recom-
mendations of the Select Committee of the House
of Commons on Patent Medicines, which reported in
August, 1914. Provision is made for the establish-
Vol. XXXIX.. Xo. 15.
ment of a register of proprietary medicines and
appliances and of the owners thereof, and the sale of
unregistered goods is prohibited.
The Xauru Island Agreement Bill (cf. J., 1920,
224 e) was passed on August 3.
COMPANY NEWS.
LEGAL INTELLIGENCE.
Whale Oil axd Sperm Oil. — Park Eynie IVhaling
Co. v. South African Oil and Fat Industries,
Ltd.
In the Supreme Court of South Africa, Durban
and Coast Circuit, the Park Rynie Whaling Co.,
which owns a whaling factory on the coast of Natal,
sued the South African Oil and Fat Industries,
Ltd., soap and candle manufacturers, of Jacobs,
Natal, for the balance of money owing for oil sold
and delivered. The contract was for the sale and
purchase of No. 3 Whale Oil. The defence asserted
that the oil delivered consisted of a mixture of
ordinary whale oil and sperm oil. The plaintiff
company did not deny this, but averred that No. 3
Whale Oil may be (and is in practice) made from any
kind of whale; that the trade custom was to keep
separate only the better qualities of whale oil and
sperm oil, Nos. 0 and 1, and that the inferior quali-
ties, Nos. 3 and 4, may and do consist of the oil
from any species of whale, whether they be Baleen
whales (Mystacoceti) or toothed whales (Odontoceti).
It is known that the oil from the head and blubber
of the sperm whale is a wax, and that the oil from
all parts of the baleen shales is glyceridic in con-
stitution, but there was very little evidence con-
cerning the constitution of the oil obtained from
the meat of the sperm whale, Lewkowitsch, Allen,
Fbbelohde, etc., all being silent on this point.
Evidence was given by Mr. A. F. Bearpark on the
technical methods and trade customs of the whaling
industry, and at the request of the court he under-
took analyses of the oil from the flesh of sperm
whales. The results showed that the oil from the
flesh of sperm whales is different in constitution
from the oil derived from the flesh of baleen whales.
The case lasted twelve days, and the Hon. Mr.
Justice Hathorn, in giving judgment for the
plaintiff company, with costs, on December 28, 1915,
stated that he was unconvinced that modern whale
oil produced by factories — and known in commerce
as " whale oil " — was oil extracted from the flesh
only of whales other than sperm whales, but he in-
clined to the opinion that the term would include
the oil in question.
The defendant company appealed against this
decision, and the judge in the Appellate Division of
the Supreme Court of South Africa, Sir James Rose-
Innes, Chief Justice, decided in favour of the
appellants, remarking, inter alia, that: — "It is
clear from the evidence that oil derived from whales
falls into two different categories. That yielded by
the various species of the genus Balaena (such as the
' right ' or the ' humpback ' whale) is in one. That
yielded by the sperm whale (Cachelot) and the
Arctic sperm whale is in another. . . . Under these
circumstances I am forced to the conclusion that
No. 3 Whale Oil denotes for trade purposes the
third grade of oil obtained from whales other than
sperm whales. . . . That being so, the oil which
formed the subject matter of the contract was not,
in my opinion, No. 3 whale oil. ... It is clear that
the delivery by the respondent company of a mix-
ture of whale oil and sperm oil was not a discharge
of its contractual obligations," and granted the
appellant company its costs in both courts.
The whaling companies operating on the South
African coast are now keeping all grades of sperm
oil quite separate from other whale oils.
ALBY UNITED CARBIDE FACTORIES, LTD.
The thirteenth annual meeting of this company
was held in London on July 30, the Rt. Hon. Lord
Southborough presiding.
The chairman said that, after writing off £28,655
for depreciation, the net profit for the year ended
December 31, 1919, was £27,221. The interest on
the preference shares had been met, and £30,886
was left to be carried forward. The company had
received 15 per cent, from the North-Western
Cyanamide Co., but nothing from the A/S
Meraker which, owing to the cessation of demand
for ferro alloys, had been forced virtually to cease
production. Investments in subsidiary companies
had been conservatively valued at £933,653. In
taking over the assets of the Nitrogen Products and
Carbide Co. (cf. J., 1919, 443 r), a surplus book
value was shown of £160,183, and this amount had
been utilised to write off preliminary expenses and
other intangible assets.
The year 1919 had been unsatisfactory. In the
first period, carbide had been made and supplied
in fair quantities, but there had been competition
from Government sales ; in the second quarter some-
what less carbide was sold ; the third quarter saw a
general strike in the Norwegian electro-chemical in-
dustries and the closing down of all factories ; and
production did not get properly under way until
towards the end of the year. The output of carbide
for the year was 42,086 tons, which was about one-
half of the capacity. Throughout the year the ques-
tion of coal supply had haunted the directors, and
since the closing of the accounts no anthracite had
been obtainable. The yearly requirements of the
company were about 50,000 tons of anthracite for
the carbide furnaces, and about 25,000 tons of gas
coal for lime-burning. The policy of the Govern-
ment in refusing to allow coal to be exported to
a British company in Norway was inexplicable, and
the company had not even been allowed to ship
the coal from its own colliery at Workington.
Efforts to obtain coke had been equally unsuccess-
ful, but it was hoped that a patent fuel would en-
able anthracite to be dispensed with. Attempts
had been made to obtain coal from America,
Canada, and Spitzbergen, and only in the last case
.was there any prospect of success, although that
would not be immediate.
The great hydro-electric works at Aura, upon
which about £1,000,000 had been spent, constituted
a valuable asset, but construction had been stopped
by the war, and more capital was required to com-
plete and work the property. However, the direc-
tors would not disregard a genuine offer to pur-
chase. Since the close of the financial year, the
Italian interest in the North-Western Cyanamide
Co. had been acquired at a favourable price, to-
gether with the rights to sell and manufacture
cyanamide in certain important countries where
that company had possessed no rights or only part
rights. There was no fear of want of markets, the
difficulty was to obtain raw materials for a regular
and uniform output.
A committee of shareholders was appointed to
confer with the board on the position of the com-
pany and the best means to be adopted to promote
its successful working.
Brunner, Mond and Co., Ltd. — At an extra-
ordinary meeting, held in Liverpool on August 4,
the resolution proposed at the annual meeting, but
withdrawn, relating to the allocation of £100,000
for the promotion of scientific education and re-
search (cf. J., 1920, 224 r) was reconsidered and
carried by an overwhelming majority.
Mf'j?fD SKTKEX. CO-, LID.
.<;'• 7- ■.--. if-.-.: ..-. ;-i*»-'.--i' i: -.:-- :x'--
■ :.::.i ::■- ' . :- ■- •"- -''•-"- "- ' - '. -. ' :. 7 '-•. ""■' '-'-
-■:,- -.-.- i .-..-. :::-*r. i.v. ^-V. -.:>-.. -i. :r -.:*
;;-.; .•-.: v. v £:': i- .1. O. -.-.-. -^.i- -". v.-.: -.*
necessary to inaeasB ifc io woe okst £■*■«&. Doxiog
■:-. ;•=--.- ■:-. -...-. ;-:'.: ----- .ii.: .-.; v -.■•*.< i".
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:•-., ;: - :■. ..- ".t i.-.l - i; -v ; ; - .hs. :;.- -. .. i-
-. ---.:-.-.-. ; = .-.-_ :j.: -__:.- : i. ■ •: -.-A : -• ;- - i---i. • -.•£.--
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■•».!- .;•■.•. .- '. ---..:->. !.-•- ".■■- :;^ i ,-r.- .-.-■- :::
eomtjmgstmieai the large stacks of —etui wkiefc *b-
..-.-.. -.< =.-. -..-.» -; .: -,-.« •-• -;-- •--;:- •'-•-
= v.--..i --*-;-.-=--; •=.-- i- --;•"-- -...--> -•-..-.-.>
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-> . '.-> ?.---.--. =.-•: '.-:■■■- ::.■-:<•. :• '-.zz-r
sotphate bad, in particular, been distorted by tbe
r. ...;".. .' - : '..'.■'■ ■■" ■ .'. '. .'. v -V*
" '--.; . ,. - ...;. ..: £_/--, _, , -f.-y.-H- -.::. £>.■' i -'
:'•.- -.--■ - -- •-.-. .- - - ■ >.■': ■■-:. -. :---■-- A £-4-- J '
; •■-- :- -■■-.-.■•:..- -.-.■--:.■,-.--.■ :.--■-'-■:..'. i- v^ -v.-
-; - ->•-; .- •.--- •.-::;:- --.v-=- ;-• - - ■■ . r. -. i . - "I i".
- c«nt.T free of tax, and tbe carry forward is
"M, compared with £168.0S@ broagjtt in.
W. J. BUi'H AMD 00., LTD.
On J r J. >t. Bosh, chairman and man-
;:•.•;•'"..:-'''..• :-••-.-: ■-. -.: -.-.:■ -.-~r.-.j--.~.:~ •-.:. r. . -.-
>,:■-.-■■ - v -..-.-•■:. i --.-■-•-: : ::.■-■:.<: r~: -.:. --. - -..-.---
trade had been slack in the early months, bat later
there bad been great actrrity, and tbe company
succeeded in disposing of its large stocks to excep-
- -.:.-.. <:■■-; 'A. ■-■-•• '-•-•- •''.-. "'-- '■■'-- ---'-
the net profits (£96,828) had been greater than in
any prerions year. At tbe present time sales were
diminishing and rallies declining. Tbe new budget
I a farther injury an British essence
--- by adding 22s. 6d. to the spirit
dntv. In 1914. a puncheon of 120 galls, of spirit
£390. The British Essence
Sfannfactnrers' Association and :>.-- P-r; :- -" ~— -
tion of th<; London Chamber of Commerce were
aaain urging th'- Government to gire some form of
■'■■ appeared to be no reason why the
differentiation of duty between industrial alcohol
and*that for potable liquors should not be extended
to essence as well as to medicinal preparations: the
dnty in the former case was 74s. and in the latter
I. per proof gallon. Other branches of the
business, e.g., synthetic perfumes, drugs, and some
•ermediates, had made satisfactory progress,
and this was expected to continue.
In March last, £125.000 was capitalised out of re-
and the ordinary share capital was doubled
rihnting a cent, p^r cent, bonus. The original
ordinary shares received an interim dividend of
G pet rent., and a further 10 per cent, is now pay-
able r,n the increased capital. The carry forward is
£38.161, out of which excess profits duty will be
paid.
British Ckllt-lose and Chemical MAJnn?ACTTOS-
DTO <''<-, Ltd. — Owing to prolonged delay in plant
construction, the directors have decided to postpone
payment of the dividend on the cumulative prefer-
bares. Good reports have been received as to
tbe dyeing and weaving qualities of the silk pro-
duoed, and the plant for making non-inflammable
celluloid is nearing completion.
:77:::a_ t?_oz :?.tli::lv:i
7-: 7i. ::• 1 ...- . .■:■-: .' - i~ '•- '•-
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-..• ■..-- .-.:■-,--.- -:-■..-:: :-:- :.•• :;:•--
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: •. —7^ ■■- : ~~ :• ~ -~ -w- i" ". A
:-■ -,--. .-.-.- l"-i-.--: :• :• - ILij "_:-
::.-. \— — ■■-i ■-'-■'. : • -. :'.'
-. : - -. .-..-. i—..: <h* :■: z'. '.
BBnantiam -lsj:.^-.
' — A ._•-.:: z .:•:. ::- . — -.•:— :: vi_:n _;
::«■■..:-■' ■■' — 7i- - .•- -,- •:: :: '. :-■
• : :;-^i;-.: : ■ - : • - .: :;:._:::: .-r v .-;•: — -;
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Azi-.-r --r 1- ■ -■ .- H-:: :: :ih '.—^7 :■-'
■ ■ - ■ ■ ' ■ •: " . ; •. : ; : : : " :::-...-: : - :
z---. .-'" '■-'- :..: • v.w.^ --.-■■
Diomttrh—The export of nickel coi> it
; * " ' .-.-hi
7 — 7z: — . ..'--■■- ----- r - :t-:.iitt-£ :::
tater oiJo. caraway seed, esrtahi kinds of mod,
wood palp, paper, piich, wood tar, erode tox-
---.-:- :---- --■■ : -A ::--.— :■■■-■:'- A. h i":---.!
7-:- •-: :- :' A "..•■- : — 77r i^ t~ :::>ii:: -
.--.:•'.--. :.; -•-:.- .— •" : : 1.: '.. — - -^ >--
.-r._- -•.-"■: ■---.: . — .-•■- '" ".--•:--• : ^-J---; ■-' ~.:--
■ -■--,-. :- --— :-- :l-t- -i- :;^=.:.r-:i
- - " :
•-.-.-. •-■- -i.-e.--i .-. --; --,rzir.-- :.-"--: ir^;. L-
tanofng extracts, ochres, peUofeom, tin, soap,
hen iff., cnodeiwfd milk, hides, sogar. alcoholir
liquors, earthenware, faience, paper, cardboard,
r." '--.- •-" i = e--:£; ;- -:r : --=--..;
Deiaib of the new municipal (octroi) taxes are
set oat in the issue for August 5. Among the
■ -r ■• - ■: -- :.-..- ::-- ^.--r- i~ — :.f
vegetable fibres, raw cocoa, liquorioe. certain oil
seeds, dry pitch, tar. certain stones, clays,
■
minerals, many metals and salts, quinine, certain
kinds of soap, asbestos, firebrick, broken glass,
paper pulp, paper, optical instruments, robber,
rntta prrrha. and --:.=:
Jamaica. — The increased import duties imposed
by Laws No. 3 of 1916 and Xo. 11 of 1919 and the
export Law Xo. 2 of 1919 are continued in opera-
tion until' March 31. 1921.
J.ifAuania. — The export duties on certain woods
and wood pulp have been increased.
Sethtriands. — Export prohibitions have been
temporarily raised from aU fatty acids. ediV
certain vegetable oils and waxes, mineral wax. cere-
sin and paraffin wax.
Went Zfafand.— The import of tin-pipe, solid
drawn, not wrought, plated or polished, is duty
free, but is subject to the " Primage Duty " of 1
per cent, ad valorem levied under the Finance
Act. 1915.
Poland. — Among the articles of " luxury " the
import of which is prohibited are vanilla, saffron,
certain spices, chicory, fireworks, and certain
leather wares
Sweden. — The amended regulations affecting the
import of sole, welting and strap leather are given
in the issue of August 5.
funis. — The export and re-export of oartaia
kinds of timber and mineral oils are prohibited as
from June 30.
Turkey. — The export of paints and foreign hides
is now permitted.
Vol. XXXIX. Xo. 15.]
REVIEW.
281 R
OPENINGS FOR BRITISH TRADE.
The following inquiries have been received at the
Department of Overseas Trade (Development and
Intelligence), 35, Old Queon Street, London,
B.W. 1. from firms, agents or individuals who desire
to represent U.K. manufacturers or exporters of
the goods specified. British firms may obtain the
names and addresses of the persons or firms referred
to by applying to the Department and quoting the
specific reference number.
>~e\v Zealand
Rumania
Serb-Croat- Slovene
States
Switzerland
Algeria
China
Syria
United States
Venezuela
, Chemicals for paper mills, paper. .
Hard steel wire, black annealed
sheets, electrical porcelain
China
ahemicab for pulp mills ..
Soap, toilet articles
, Bottles
Bond papers
Cocoa butter substitute, gelatin,
j basic colours, citric and tartaric
acids
Glass bottles, sheet and plate
i class, roofins tales, asbestos slate
Galvanised iron
Steel (alt kinds)
Tallow, palm oil ..
Iron, steel, Qon-ierrooa
leather, tanning; extracts, chem-
icals, cement, glass, china
, Raw materials for the manufac-
ture of perfumery
Leather, rubber tyres
\ Beef tallow, coconut oil, resin
Beef tallow, coconut oil, caustic
| soda and potash
Chemicals . .
Vegetable fibres, sugar, leather,
rubber, paper
. ■ als . .
Chemicals, window glass, zinc
white, white lead, oils, varnish
Metals, heavy chemicals, paper,
cardboard
Iron and steel rolling mill products,
cement, cast iron and earthen-
ware pipes
Coconut oil, palm oil. castor oil.
rape oil . .
Tv.in\ wire nails, china, porcelain,
I pottery, oils, paint, varnish . .
157
1J4
123
ICO
128
161
134
143
146
151
* The High Commissioner for Canada, 19. Victoria Street.
London, S.W. 1.
t The Canadian Government Trade Commissioner, 7:J. Basinghatl
Street, London. E.C. 2,
TRADE NOTES.
FOREIGN.
Foreign Company News. — France. — The past
financial year has been a profitable one for French
chemical manufacturers. Thus, the " Etablisse-
ments Kuhlmann " made a net profit of 9,931,491 fr.
in 1919, and it has been decided to raise the capital
from 60 to 100 million fr. ; the " Electro-Chimie et
Electro-Metallurgie " company announces a net
profit of about 3,700,000 fr., as" against 1,546,000 fr.
in 1918: and the " Produits Azotes" company is
about to increase its capital from 10 to 20 million fr.
Satisfactory progress is reported with the proposal
to acquire the Toulouse powder works for the manu-
facture of synthetic nitrogen products by the Haber
process. It is also reported that the " Stearineries
et Savonneries Lyonnaises " is about to enter into
close commercial relations with the " Societe des
Hydrocarbures " of St. Gobain, the " Air Liquide,"
and the " Poulenc " companies. — (Z. angew. Chem.,
June 25, 1918.)
The formation is announced of a new Alsatian
company, the " Societe des Mines de Potasse du
Haut-Rhin," which will compete with another
company now being formed, the " Societe Alsa-
cienne des Mines de Potasse." The latter company,
with a capital of 75 million fr., seeks to bring about
an amalgamation of all the potash undertaking-,
but the former intends to take over only a portion
of them, in agreement with the scheme laid down 03
the French Government. The Haut-Rhin com-
pany takes the view that competition should hare
a good effect on the development and enlargement
of the mines. The shares are of 2000 fr., and more
than five will not be allotted to anv one person. —
(Z. angew. Chem., July 20, 1920.)
The Penarroya company has declared a dividend
of 38 fr., and has decided to issue a loan of 60
million pesetas in Spain (peseta =9id.). A factory
in the Nord department has been purchased from
the Malfidano company, at which manufactures of
lead will be produced. An agreement has been
arrived at with the " Societe Minerals et Metaux "
respecting the sale of products from the company's
factory in Belgium, which has recently resumed
operations.— (Bev. Prod. Chim June 30~, 1920.)
Germany. — The German Gold- und Silber-
Scheide-Anstalt in Frankfort is paying a dividend
for 1919-20 of 17 per cent, on the increased capital
of 40 million mk., as against 20 per cent, on 2'
million mk. It is anticipated that the foreign
trade in chemicals and dyes can be still further in-
creased.
The net profit of the Dynamit A.-G., vorm.
Alfred Nobel u. Co. in Hamburg for the year
amounted to 6,193,891 mk. (5,796.838), which
enabled the company to pay a dividend of 16 per
cent. 1 15). It is hoped that the manufacture of a
number of new goods, including materials o;
" staple " fibre, will be beneficial and lead to the
employment of more labour. Together with two
other works belonging to the company, it is under-
taking the breaking up of ammunition, a-
prescribed by the Peace Treaty.
H. B. Sloman and Co., Saipeterwerke A.-G. in
Hamburg, reports, for the year 1919, a gross profit
of 7-8 million marks (S'T in 1918); and a net profk
of T9 million mk. (3'6), after making increased allo-
cations to reserves. The dividend is 10 per cent.
(20). Production of nitrate could not be resumed
until November, 1919. when three factories re-
started operations, and these are still working.
The quantity of nitrate shipped was 691,514 quin-
tals (q.= 101-42 lb.). The policy of the saltpetre
producers in regard to prices and sales is held to
be mistaken, and the company has not yet joined
the Association of Nitrate Producers. — {Z. angew.
Chem., June 22, July 20, 1920.)
Swedish Chemical Market in 1914 and 1920. — The
prices of certain typical chemicals in Sweden in
1914 and in March, 1920. are given in the following
list in kronor per quintal (krona = ls. lJd.): —
1!>14. Marcl
Alum 9 .. 40-42
Ammonium carbonate (coml.) .. .. 65 .. l--i '•
Ammonium chloride (wliite) .. .. 4:S .. 12.-.
Ammonium sulphate .. .. .. 24 .. 95
Ammonium nitrate . . . . . . 52 . . C0-f.2
Borax 34 . . 120
Calcium chloride 10 . . 40
Chile saltpetre 19-60 . . 47
Chrome alum 23 . . 220
Hydrochloric acid (20— 21°„> .. .. 4 .. 18-20
Hsgaesianj chloride . . . . . . B . . 25
Nitric acid. cone. . . . . . . SO . . 70
Norweitian saltpetre .. .. .. — ,. 40-42
Oleum (12%) 21 .. 20-24
Phosphorus 338 . . 360
Phosphorus sesquisulpl.ide . . . . 218 . . 280
Phosphoric acid 91 . . 170
Potassium carbonate (69 — 98°;,).. .. 30 .. 300
Potassium chloride . . . . . . 19 . . '
Potassium chlorate . . . . . . 50 . . 140-150
Potassium hydroxide 21 . . 310-330
Soda, calc 7-20 . . 60-70
Solium sulphate 3-40 . . 23-25
Sodium sulphite .. .. .. .. 39 .. 50
Sodium sulphide . . . . . . . . — . . 55
Sulphur 8-80 .. 30
Sulphuric acid, cone. . . . . . . 6 . . 18
Water glass 8 . . 30
—(Chem. Ind., May 26, 1920.)
REVIEW.
[Aug. 16, 1920.
Wood Distillation Products in Sweden. — According
to the Year Book of the Swedish Chamber of Com-
merce in London for 1919. the high expectations
that were formed at the end of 1918 of regaining a
market in the United Kingdom for Swedish wood
distillation products have been fully realised.
Large quantities of genuine peasant-made Stock-
holm tar have been imported into this country, but
it can scarcely be stated that Sweden has had her
share of the total import, as shown by pre-war
statistics. Prices have been very high, and Finnish
exporters have taken advantage of the favourable
exchange to undercut, with the result that large
quantities of Finnish tar have come in. It has
been found that consumers would rather pay a
slightly higher figure for the genuine valley-burnt
tar, and in consequence the sales of kiln-burnt tar
have fallen off considerably. At the end of the year
stocks seemed to have reached a normal figure, and
there is every indication that this trade is no longer
subject to the fluctuations which are so harmful in
re-establishing business. There has been a big
demand for other distillation products, such as tar
oil, acetate of lime, methyl alcohol, rosin, and
turpentine.
REVIEW.
A Text-Book of Inorganic Chemistry. Edited by
J. Newton Friend. Vol. IX. Part I.: Cobalt,
Nickel, and the Elements of the Platinum
Group. By J. Newton Friend. Pp. xii.-f 367.
(London: Charles Griffin and Co., Ltd. 1920.)
Price 18s. net.
This volume, the fifth of the series so far pub-
lished, deals with the metals of Group VIII. other
than iron, which has been assigned a separate
volume The general arrangement of the text
matter is already familiar, as a uniform plan has
been adopted for all the volumes of the series. It
should be remarked, however, that Vol. IV. is the
only one so far which contains a separate short
paragraph on the thermochemistry of the element
under discussion; in Vol. IX. the thermochemical
data are almost confined to the halogen compounds
of platinum. Again, crystallographic data are few,
and though the constants for the platinocyanides
are given fully, Tutton's classic researches on the
double alkali-cobalt and alkali-nickel sulphates and
selcnates are very briefly referred to, no figures
being reproduced. A few rather important com-
pounds have not been described, e.g., cobalt pyro-
phosphate, cobalt ammonium phosphate, nickel
ammonium phosphate; the xanthates of cobalt and
nickel ; sodium chlororuthenite and chlororuthenate.
The reduction of the solubility of nickel ammonium
sulphate by ammonium sulphate might have been
mentioned, as also numerical data for the solubility
of potassium chloroiridate.
Apart from 25 obvious misprints noticed by the
writer (e.g., " Absolan," " Erythine," table, p. 20;
" Breihauptite," pp. 78 and 80), substitution of
words has occurred in several places. Thus we find
(•allium for cobalt (p. 45, last line); nickel for
cobalt (p. 66, 1. 17) ; oxidation for reduction (p. 210,
1. 22.); potassium for sodium (p. 230, 1. 4); hydro-
chloric for hydrofluoric (p. 236, 1. 39) ; sesquioxide,
for sesquisulphide (p. 333, 1. 23); and hydrogen for
hydrazine (p. 336, 1. 11). The second equation on
1). 233 is wrong; in the table shown on p. 100 the
currency of Switzerland is given as " cents," that
of U.S.A. as " paras " and " eentcsimos."
Attention must be called to a few inaccuracies and
statements that may lead to misunderstanding.
The following two passages appear contradictory:
When potassium chloropalladite is "boiled with
excess of water, potassium chloropalladate,K2PdCl0,
is formed " (p. 196); and under potassium chloro-
palladate (p. 198): "on boiling with excess of
water, potassium chloropalladite is formed." The
colour of ammonium chloropalladite (p. 197) is given
as " dark green " ; olive-green would be more nearly
correct. In the Table of Reactions, on p. 332, the
yellow precipitate of potassium chloroplatinate has
not been included ; the precipitate produced by di-
methylglyoxime is attributed to ruthenium in place
of palladium, whilst palladous chloride is wrongly
stated to give a " red ppte. of K2PdCl4 " ; this con-
fusion occurs again on p. 335. As a matter of fact,
the chloropalladite, K„PdCl4, is readily soluble in
water, while the red chloropalladate, K„PdCI6,
is not. Describing the distillation of ruthenium
tetroxide in a current of chlorine, the author
states (p. 333) that "the liquid in the dis-
tilling flask must be kept alkaline to prevent
iridium chloride from distilling over with
ruthenium." This statement, which is repeated
on p. 340, is unsupported by any reference to
literature and is at variance with the reviewer's ex-
perience. Deville and Stas, in their monograph, "De
l'Analyse du Platine Iridie," remark that traces of
alkaline chloride and iridium may be carried over
mechanically duringeffervescence; whilst Leidie and
Quennessen (Compt. Rend., 1903, 136, 1399) say
that the liquid must remain alkaline throughout
1 " d cause de I'action de SCI sur BuO,." Mellor
("Quantitative Inorganic Analysis," p. 438), on
the other hand, writes: " The liquid in the distill-
ing flask must be kept alkaline to prevent the action
; of hydrochloric acid on the iridium tetroxide (sic)
and the subsequent volatilisation of iridium
chloride." To the writer's knowledge neither
iridium tetroxide nor a chloride of the same metal
volatile at or near 100° C. has ever been observed;
in his opinion, the acidity of the liquid under treat-
i ment may cause retention of ruthenium, not vola-
tilisation of iridium. The statement that hydrogen
1 sulphide in acid solution precipitates osmium
" monosulphide " (p. 337) is not quite in accord
! with the text on pp. 228 and 229. The first sentence
on p. 341 requires qualification (cf. paragraph imme-
diately following); neither ferrous sulphate nor
stannous chloride reduces platinum salts to the
metal in acid solution, and ferrous sulphate in
neutral solution only on prolonged boiling.
However, the above are minor defects, which can
be remedied in the second edition. The volume
forms a most welcome and valuable addition to the
existing reference books on the subject, whilst the
, whole series, once completed, promises to become
j a standard treatise of inorganic chemistry in the
English language. W. R. Scho'eller.
PUBLICATIONS RECEIVED.
Technical Methods of Ore Analysis. By A. H.
Low. Eighth edition, revised and enlarged.
Pp. 388. (New York: John Wiley and Sons,
Inc.; London: Chapman and Hall, Ltd. 1919.)
Price 19s.
Publications of the Canada Department of Mines.
Mines Branch. (Ottawa: Thomas Mulvey.
1920): —
Graphite. By H. S. Spence. Pp. 202+Plates
LVI.
Publications of the United States Geological
Survey. Department of the Interior. (Wash-
ington : Government, Printing Office. 1920) —
Cadmium in 1919. Bi/ C. E. Siebenthal.
Chromite in 1918. By J. S. Diller, E. F.
Bliss, H. R. Aldrich, and E. F. Burchard.
Copper in 1917. By B. S. Butler.
Lead in 1917. By C. E. Siebenthal.
Vol. XXXIX.. No. 16.]
REVIEW
[Aug. 31, 1920.
"ROPINESS" IN BREAD.*
J. GRANT.
The name " rope" or " ropiness " is given to a
disease in bread that causes the crumb or interior
of the loaf to become moist, sticky and capable of
being drawn out into threads.
Very little was known about this disease until
within the last forty years. Pfliigge was probably
the first to investigate the problem seriously. The
writer's observations on the disease go back for
more than thirty years. Some of his early days
were spent in a country district in the south of
England where wheat, barley, other cereals, and
hops formed the staple crops. The wheats grown
were milled in stone mills driven by wind or water
power. Very little attention was paid to the thor-
ough cleaning of the grain before milling; conse-
quently, the flours were dull-coloured, weak, and
contaminated by numerous micro-organisms.
Moreover, it was not an uncommon occurrence for
quantities of sprouted wheat to be used. Towards
the end of the summer and early autumn, especially
when the season was wet, string mould in bread
was frequent. It has been long known that lightly
baked bread was much more liable to the disease
than broad baked so that it became covered with a
thick, sweet-eating crust. The string mould was
accompanied by a nauseating smell and taste, so
that the bread became inedible. Very rarely did
it reach the stage of forming a hollow centre sur-
rounded by a dark, sticky, strongly smelling mass.
It should be remembered that in those days much
more baking was done at home than in modern
times. Again, little or no distillery yeast was
obtainable, so that one had to depend on the local
breweries for the yeast. This form of yeast works
slowly, and usually produces a small-volumed,
dark-coloured loaf of sweet-tasting bread. Sour
bread, wherever brewers' yeast is employed, is the
exception, but.the same cannot be said of distillers'
yeast and long processes. It is only the skill of
the baker and short processes that yield a sweet-
eating loaf with this yeast. Further, in the Mid-
Victorian period it was quite an everyday matter
to find bakeries in large towns placed underground,
with the idea of keeping an even temperature.
Cleanliness and sanitation were unknown, so
that it was no unusual occurrence to find bread
attacked not only with " rope," but also with
moulds and other micro-organisms. The introduc-
tion of sanitary laws and roller-milling, together
with a thoroughly efficient system of cleaning and
preparing the wheat for actual milling, practically
revolutionised the industry, and put an end to
"ropiness" and other similar diseases of bread
except in the very lowest grades.
The disease is introduced into the flour from the
outside of the wheat berry, where the disease germs
find a secure refuge from the cleaning plant of a
mill in the deep crease of the berry. As XX
flour comes from the inside of the berry nearest to
the bran, it can readily be understood that bakers'
grade of bread, especially when lightly baked, is
very liable to attacks from "ropiness" in hot, moist
weather. Brown breads of the germ and malt type
— those breads which possess the greatest food
value — are peculiarly prone to suffer from ropiness.
During the period from 1904, when the Bakery
and Confectionery School at the Manchester Col-
lege of Technology was placed under the writer's
direction, numerous cases of ropiness and many
other bread diseases came under his notice. The
phenomena accompanying the disease are not the
same in all cases. In some instances, when the
• A paper read before the Manchester Section on March 5, 1920.
attacks are not very severe, casual observation re-
veals very little, except where the bread is closely
stored, in which case a faint, unpleasant odour may
be noticed. Given, however, favourable conditions
the symptoms develop rapidly, and all the well-
known and dreaded phenomena occur. One severe
attack resulted in a cavity in the interior of the
loaf identical with the shape of the loaf and actu-
ally conforming to it. In this particular case, the
disease was caused by the presence of a group of
bacteria belonging to the proteus group.
In 1906, Watkins showed that acidity checked
the growth of bacteria causing " rope." (Cf. J.,
1906, 350.)
Until the work done during the war, the classical
researches of Pfliigge and Emil Laurent were quite
the best information bearing on the subject. The
former studied the several variations of the Bacillus
1 mesentericus as it occurs in the potato. He found
it chiefly in the depression known as the eye.
The most common is the B. mesentericus vul-
gatut, which forms greytsh-vhite colonies that can
be drawn out into threads. This organism excretes
three groups of enzymes : — (d) Peptonising, which
liquefies the medium; (b) an amylase, that attacks
the starch of the potato ; (c) an enzyme resembling
rennin.
Other forms are B. mesentericus fuscus, that in
many ways resembles B. m. vulgatus, but is more
delicate ; and B. mesentericus ruber, which is very
similar to the vulgatus. Streak cultures of the
latter organism are at first reddish-yellow, but
rapidly become rose-red. The endospores are very
difficult to kill, as they withstand a temperature
of 100° C. for six hours, but are killed at once
at 130° C- It should be remembered that the in-
terior of a loaf during baking rarely exceeds a
temperature of 103 — 105° C, and is generally
about 101 — 102° C. ; hence it is obvious that heat-
ing for 40 to 60 minutes in the oven is not likely to
kill the spores, though they may be much weakened.
Emil Laurent was the first to examine this disease
of bread closely. He showed that it occurs regu-
larly in the normal fermentation of dough, and
gave it the name of B. panificans. That the disease
of " ropiness " is not more frequent in bread is
due to the strongly acid reaction of the dough.
(Watkins had evidently not seen Laurent's work.)
He (Laurent) also pointed out that B. mesentericus
vulgatus is closely allied to the B. liodermos of
Loeffler, the gum bacillus of cow's milk.
In July, 1917, the (War) Food Committee of the
Royal Society published an important interim
report on "rope" in bread. The subject had also
been taken up in Cambridge by Dr. D. Jordan
Lloyd and a group of bacteriologists, and the re-
sults they obtained were of the greatest interest to
both miller and baker. The opening paragraph
gives the cause of "rope" in the following words: —
"Rope in bread is due to the development in
the bread, after baking, of one or more types of
bacilli, all belonging to the potato bacillus group
(B. mesentericus). This group consists of a large
number of ill-defined species. Four distinct types
of bacilli have been isolated from grain, flour, and
ropy bread, which were all capable of producing
rope."
The four types are as follows : —
A.— A non-motile bacillus C fro?n wheat, barley,
B.-A motile bacillus [ %™> r0p-v bread»
C. — A motile bacillus, from " ropy " bread alone.
D. — A motile bacillus, isolated from bread.
The C. and D. types give no stain on bread.
Rope bacilli are present on all grain and in all
flours. The spores are not destroyed by less than
five hours' heating at 100° C. They are, therefore,
not destroyed by the heat of baking. These state-
REVIEW.
ments are in agreement with the work of Emil
Laurent.
There are six factors concerned in determining
the development of the " rope " bacillus in bread.
These are: — (1) The degree of infection; (2) the
chemical reaction of the flour; (3) the temperature;
(4) the time; (5) the moisture; and (6) the chemical
composition of the flour. Primary infection comes
from the flour, but the danger is greatly increased
by carelessness in the bakehouse. The full report
of the work of the Food Committee, as published in
the Journal of the Royal Society, may rightly be
designated as the classic on this subject.
In 1918, the Ministry of Food published a short
but interesting pamphlet on the subject. It is
an undoubted fact that the " rope ■"' disease has
made its appearance in bread sporadically through-
out the country. The Food Controller has been ad-
vised that "rope" is caused by the B. mesentericus,
which is generally present in dirt or dust, and also
on the outer husk of the wheat; hence, it is always
present in flour. With the higher percentage of
extraction and the use of low-grade wheats there
is increased risk of infection by the germ. The
same statement holds good at the present time,
since there is a high percentage of extraction, and
low grades of wheat are issued to the millers. The
bacillus is normally harmless, but when conditions
become favourable it causes fermentation and the
bread becomes " ropy." The conditions leading
to fermentation are warmth and excessive moisture.
.The combination of undercooked dough with a
moist, warm temperature appears exactly suitable
for the growth of "rope." In the early stages of the
disease the bread is unwholesome, and in the later
ones uneatable
Nearly two years ago the writer investigated
the question as to the existence of any predispos-
ing circumstances, such as the influence of previous
crops on the abundance of these micro-organisms
in the soil. Two fields, just across the Mersey, in
the county of Cheshire, were cropped with wheat.
In the previous year one field had yielded a heavy
crop of King Edward VII. potatoes that had beeii
singularly free from fungoid disease ; the other had
been sown with wheat. The year previous to this,
both fields were under clover.
It is well known to agriculturists that wheat,
like other cereals, thrives better if the preceding
crop has been clover or pulses. In order to follow up
this line of argument, the wheat was allowed to
mature in the stacks, several samples were obtained
from various parts of each stack, and a series
of investigations was begun. The results showed
that the wheat from the field previously cropped
with wheat contained the usual soil micro-organ-
isms found on the surface of cereals, including some
B. mesentericus and quantities of the tetanus bacil-
lus. The latter is not by any means unusual as, a
number of years ago, the writer received a some-
what rude shock on finding many long rods of
tetanus with numberless free-floating spores in
some steep water from a lovely specimen of prize
barley from Porlock, in Somerset. The wheat from
the field previously under potatoes caused almost
infinite trouble from the commencement of the
work. The various forms of organism responsible
for potato diseases were present in abundance and
had to be eliminated from the cultures. Eventually
cultures were obtained that readily and rapidly
produced all the symptoms of " ropiness " in slices
of sterile bread. These slices were next used to
inoculate flour, and in this way the presence of
"rope" organisms in abundance was established.
The work is of some importance, as it shows
clearly that wheat to be used in flour mills ought
not to be sown on land previously cropped with
potatoes. The usual insecticides are practically
valueless for destroying the spores of bacteria that
induce "ropiness" in bread.
The Royal Society Food Committee states briefly
that only the most drastic remedies are effective
for eliminating " ropiness " from a bakery when
once established therein. Such a statement is
practically useless to a baker. Every part of the
buildings, the whole of the machinery, the bread
racks, vans, and other utensils should be thoroughly
scoured with strong soda water, steamed, then
every appliance covered with a thick coating of
bisulphite of lime. This very drastic treatment
must be repeated at least twice to be effective.
Before starting work again, the bisulphite should
be completely washed off all the utensils and
machinery. Formalin has been used in the place of
bisulphite of lime, but it is more costly and not
quite so effective. Again, if the bread, on being
drawn from the oven, is cooled rapidly to below
65° F., say in a passage open at both ends, there
is very little risk of the disease developing in the
bread.
THE EFFECTS OF AIR POLLUTION
BY SMOKE AND ITS PREVENTION.*
J. B. COHEN.
The Smoke Abatement Committee appointed by
the Minister of Health, after taking a large amount
of expert evidence, has issued an interim report on
what may be termed " domestic smoke." The ob-
ject of this report is mainly to furnish information
as to the best methods of preventing smoke in con-
nexion with the new housing schemes to which the
Ministry is offering large subsidies and which con-
sequently have to receive its approval. Incident-
ally, the destructive effects of coal smoke and the
wastage of fuel, as well as the efficiency or other-
wise of domestic heating appliances, have been con-
sidered. The annual loss of fuel in the form of
soot is estimated at nearly 2\ million tons. At the
same time, it is pointed out that the presence of
soot is an indication that a far more formidable loss
is being incurred by the inefficient utilisation of the
heat from the fuel. Moreover, domestic soot, by
reason of its higher content of tar, which causes it
to adhere to the objects upon which it falls, is far
more destructive and dirt-producing than factory
soot, which is a product of more complete combus-
tion and contains less tar and more ash. The fol-
lowing analyses will make this clear: — '
Top of
Constituents. Original Ordinary boiler chimney
coal. giate flue. — 110 feet.
Carbon
60.30
40.50
27.00
Hydrogen
4.89
4.S7
1.68
Tar
1.64
25.91
1.14
Ash
8.48
18.16
ei.8o
As regards the effect of a smoky atmosphere on
health, statistics show that a town fog immediately
increases the death-rate from respiratory diseases,
and the cause underlying this high mortality, which
invariably follows in the wake of a thick fog, must
operate, though to a lesser degree, on the general
health of the community in an industrial centre
under normal conditions. More definite evidence
was forthcoming of the effects of smoke on vegeta-
tion. By shutting out sunlight, by covering the
leaf and blocking the stomata with tar, life, especi-
ally that of evergreen plants and trees, is seriously
affected. Moreover, the Bulphuric acid which is
invariably associated with soot, destroys the nitri-
fying organisms and removes lime from the soil as
• Vide Interim Report of the Smoke Abatement Committee of
the Ministry of Health. 1920. H..M. Stationery Office.
1 Smoke, a Study of Town Air. by J, B. Cohen and A G. Huston.
K. Arnold. London. 1912.
Vol. XXXTX. So. 16.]
REVIEW.
sulphate. This result has been observed at the ex-
perimental farm at Garforth attached to the Uni-
versity of Leeds, where the difference between
limed and unlimed soils has exhibited in a remark-
able way the action of acid soot. Another indirect
result has been the diminished value of grazing
land in smoke-infected areas, in consequence of
which the rental of these pastures has steadily de-
creased from year to year.
Equally striking evidence was submitted to the
committee by Sir Frank Baines. Director of H.M.
Offiio of Works, as to the serious damage occa-
sioned to public and other buildings by smoke and
other impurities in the atmosphere, and especially
by the deposit of acid soot. The effect in most cases
was due to the removal of the calcium carbonate
(which acts as a cement for grains of siliceous
material) in the stone becoming dissolved as calcium
sulphate, and thus causing the siliceous particles to
crumble away. In the opinion of Sir F. Baines, the
cost of repairs and upkeep of public buildings and
monuments (a very heavy expense) would be
diminished by one-half if the smoke and the accom-
panying acid could be eliminated.
This acid soot not only clings to vegetation and to
stone, but corrodes brick and metal work, attacks
fabrics, leather binding of books, and discolours
paint. The Manchester Air Pollution Advisory
Board find, in Manchester, in the cost of washing
materials alone, apart from the labour involved,
that more than £250.000 would be saved annually
by the absence of smoke. A very careful and ex-
haustive inquiry by an expert committee of en-
gineers, architects, and scientists estimated that in
1912. in Pittsburgh. U.S.A.. the cost due to smoke
was £4 per head of the population. If we take as
a rough estimate the 20 towns of the United King-
dom of over 200.000 inhabitants having a total
population of over 12 millions at 10s. a head, we get
a sum of six millions, whilst the waste accruing
from the non-utilisation of the by-products from
raw coal, such as tar oils, sulphur, ammonia, and
cyanogen compounds, so essential to our chemical
industries and motor traffic, must amount to many
millions more.
A considerable amount of expert evidence was
placed before this committee on the efficiency of
kitchen ranges and on that of coke and coal burnt
in an open fire by Prof. Barker, of University
College. London," and Mrs. Fishenden.3 of the Man-
chester College of Technology. There was a con-
sensus of opinion that the old form of open kitchen
range with back boiler was inefficient, wasteful in
fuel and labour, and productive of smoke.
For cooking, warming rooms, and providing a
hot-water supply, the following recommendations
were made by the committee, and, in considering
these they were guided by the utility, economy and
efficiency of the proposals as regards smoke pre-
vention. They do not recommend any one method,
but make the following suggestions: — That gas
cookers and gas fires are thoroughly hygienic when
properly installed: that where an adequate supply
of gas is available, a gas-cooker should be sub-
stituted for the ordinary coal range; that for
intermittent use both gas cookers and gas fires
are often more economical than coal fires; that from
a hygienic and labour-saving point of view electric
ccoking and heating have much to recommend
them, but the present high price of electricity
precludes their general adoption. The cheapest
and most efficient method of producing a supply of
hot water is a coke-fired boiler. A gas boiler, though
more expensive, is very convenient in hot weather.
The warming of rooms may be effected by hot-water
Tide (*) Report of On Fuel Restore* Board for 191S-1919. Appendix
B and p. 26.
(") Conl Firts. By Dr. FUhenden, Air Pollution Advisory Board.
Manchester City Council.
radiators or gas fires, both of which are quite
hygienic if the rooms are adequately ventilated. In
this way coal may be dispensed with, and this system
has been successfully established at the Austin Motor
Company's village at Northfield, near Birmingham,
where the warming of rooms by radiators and the
. hot-water supply were provided for by a coke-stove
and the cooking was done by gas. No coal entered
the village and no smoke issued from it. The foliage
and grass retained their fresh and clean appearance,
and there was no discolouration of clothes and
fabrics from the fall of soot. There is, however, a
difficulty in dispensing with an open fire. Custom
and sentiment are not easily eradicated, and there
is no doubt that the appearance of warmth is even
more important to the comfort of many people than
its mere sensation. But this difficulty is in a fair
way of being overcome. The production of what is
known a? low-temperature coke, or semi-coke, or
" coalite," which ignites easily and glows with little
or no smoke, is being investigated by the Fuel Re-
search Board under the Department of Scientific
and Industrial Research, and when this fuel is on
the market at a moderate cost and in sufficient
quantity the domestic smoke problem will be near
solution. Meantime a coke stove which can be
readily lighted is being perfected by a Halifax firm
and has the advantage of being used as an open
stove for warmth or closed for heating radiators or
the boiler, or both, and for consuming kitchen
refuse.
Hence efficiency, economy, cleanliness, and com-
fort can be obtained to-day. if we choose, without
resorting to raw coal, thus producing an enormous
national saving, with the added blessings of pure
air, clear skies, and clean foliage.
METHODS OF METALLURGICAL
RESEARCH.
Following established tradition. Mr. C. T.Heycock,
F.R.S., in his presidential address to the Chemical
Section of the British Association at Cardiff on
August 24, gave a summary of the present state of
our knowledge of metallic alloys, dealing for the
most part with those of the non-ferrous metals.
He dealt particularly with the manner in which
our present detailed knowledge has been acquired,
especially in view of the sparse information avail-
able forty years ago. The work of Sorby, published
in 1S64 and 1887, on the microscopic structure of
iron and steel was specially mentioned as the
foundation of modern metallography, and the value
of the work of Mattheisen, Guthrie and Raoult was
emphasised in connexion with modern theories of
the constitution of metallic alloys. The question
of pyrometers for 'the accurate determination of
high temperatures received special attention and
the importance of these determinations in con-
nexion with the construction of freezing-point
curves and equilibrium diagrams was shown. The
remarkable accuracy of the determinations of the
melting points of the metals made by Holborn
| and Wien in 1893, Callendei and Griffiths in 1892,
and Heycock and Neville in 1S95 as compared with
the later determinations made by Burgess and Le
Chatelier in 1912 was clearly illustrated in a useful
table. The pioneer work of the late Sir William
Roberts-Austen, especially in connexion with the
rive reports of the Alloys Research Committee of the
Institution of Mtxhanical Engineers 1891 to 1899.
was given full recognition. The great value of
these reports was considered in detail, and it was
pointed out that the second report, dealing with
the effects on the properties of copper of small
b2
REVIEW.
[Aug. 31, 1920.
quantities of arsenic, bismuth and antimony,
showed that the presence of 0'5 to 1"0 per cent, of
arsenic was highly beneficial. The fourth report
contained a resume of "the Bakerian Lecture given
by Roberts-Austen, on the diffusion of metals in the
solid state, in which he showed that gold even at
a temperature of 100° C. could penetrate into lead
and that iron became carburised at a low red heat
by contact with a diamond in a vacuum. The fifth
report dealt with the effects of additions of carbon
to iron, and gave a description of the thermal effects
which were plotted, as well as photomicrographs of
the various constituents of the steels. It was
pointed out tha<t the work contained in this report,
together with the work of Osmond and others on
steel and iron, provided much of the material on
which Prof. Roozeboom founded the iron-carbon
equilibrium diagram, which, although not repre-
senting the whole of the facts, affords the most
important clue to the constitution of steels.
The work on the copper-tin series received
special attention and provided a good illustration
of the value of microscopical examination in con-
junction with the thermal examination of alloys.
In 1897, Heycock and Neville determined the com-
plete freezing-point curve of this series, confirm-
ing and extending the work of Roberts-Austen,
Stansfield and Le Chatelier, but at this time the
real meaning of the curve was not understood. As
a result of a suggestion made by Sir G. Stokes in
1900, the aid of the microscope was called in to
assist in the interpretation of the singularities of
the freezing-point curve. This work occupied
more than two years and was published as the
Bakerian Lecture, 1903. During the preparation
of the alloys of this series, it was noticed that the
crystalline pattern which developed on the free
surface of the slowly cooled alloys was entirely un-
like the structure developed by polishing and etch-
ing prepared sections from the interior, and it was
concluded from this that changes were taking place
within the alloys as they cooled. In making this
investigation, the procedure of Sorby in the ex-
amination of steels was followed, that is, the alloys
were quenched at definite temperatures during
cooling in order to fix the changes by 6udden cool-
ing. In order to apply this method of examination
to copper tin alloys, cooling curves were first ob-
tained and subsequently samples of the alloys were
cooled down to within a few degrees above and
below the various halts obtained on the cooling
curves. On examining the chilled specimens, the
changes in structure due to the halts were ascer-
tained and the method of chilling was also found
useful in fixing definitely the points on the solidus,
for on chilling an alloy when it is partly solid and
partly liquid, micro-examination shows it to con-
sist of large primary combs embedded in a matrix
consisting of mother liquor in which are dissemi-
nated numerous small combs called "chilled
primary." By repeating the process at succes-
sively lower and lower temperatures, a point is
reached at which the chilled primary no longer
forms, thus giving the upper limit of the solidus.
In connexion with the constitution of the copper-
tin alloys, Haughton's work (1915) has done much to
clear up doubtful points in the tin-rich region of
the diagram.
In conclusion, the value of the laborious prepara-
tion of elements and new compounds in research
laboratories was emphasised, and it was pointed out
that chromium, cerium, calcium, acetylene, etc.,
although unknown outside the laboratory of the
purely scientific investigator a comparatively few
years ago, are now essential to modern scientific
industry, and it is evident that the obligation to
provide financial aid for scientific research devolves
upon those who have reaped the fruit of previous
scientific discovery.
CORRESPONDENCE.
THE ARTIFICIAL SILK INDUSTRY.
Sra, — In the Journal of the Society of Chemical
Industry for August 15, 1920, an article was
contributed by Mr. L. P. Wilson, of Messrs. Cour-
tauld's, Ltd., in which reference was made to the
artificial silk manufactured by the British Cellulose
and Chemical Manufacturing Co., Ltd., Spondon,
in such terms as to convey an impression detri-
mental to the latter. So far as the first part of
that article is concerned I wish to make no com-
ment, but when serious and specific statements are
published regarding the cellulose acetate silk pro-
duced by the British Cellulose Co., we are at least
entitled to demand that criticisms should be based
on knowledge and experience of the product.
The merits of the silk in question may be relied
upon to establish its legitimate position in the
industry, and I only desire to point out that the
silk of the British Cellulose Co. surpasses in many
respects that in which your contributor is
interested. This is notably the case in regard to its
resistance to moisture, as can easily be ascertained
by pressing the two kinds of silk against the
moist tongue; the old type of silk, so to speak,
melts right away, whereas the new product remains
resilient and strong, with its textile qualities pre-
served. In fact, the true elasticity of the silk
manufactured by the British Cellulose Co. main-
tained both in the dry and moist condition, is
one of its most remarkable assets, since it affords
a range of textile effects not hitherto attained by
any artificial silk. It causes the silk to work in the
loom without any breakages even more regularly
than natural silk, and is therefore highly appreci-
ated by the weaver, who can use the new product
not only for weft, but also for warp. This quality,
moreover, enables the silk to be spun and manipu-
lated in very much finer counts than have been com-
mercially possible with the older varieties of arti-
ficial silk.
Finally, I desire to place the fact emphatically
on record that, contrary to what is stated by Mr.
Wilson's article, the acetate silk produced by the
British Cellulose Co. can be easily and cheaply
dyed, is actually being dyed, and has been publicly
exhibited dyed, not only with basic colours, but also
with the entire range of direct colours, the vat
colours and the sulphur colours ; in fact, with any
and all of the dyes which are applicable to other
artificial silks, both alone and in union with cotton.
— I am, Sir, etc.,
J. F. Briggs.
Spondon, nr._Derby.
August 20, 1920.
PERSONALIA.
Sir Edward Thorpe has been elected president of
the British Association for the forthcoming year.
The death is announced of Prof. Edward Kinch,
an original member of this Society, and a well-
known authority on agricultural chemistry.
We regret to record the death of Sir J. Norman
Lockyer, which occurred on August 16, in his 85th
year. Sir Norman Lockyer's achievements in
astronomy included his discovery, with Frank-
land, of the presence of helium in the sun. He was
elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1869, and,
in the same year, he founded the weekly scientific
journal Nature, which celebrated its 50th year in
1919.
Vol. XXXIX, No. 16J
REVIEW.
NEWS AND NOTES.
FRANCE.
Industrial Notes.— Metallurgy. — Though the pro-
duction of pig iron is progressing slowly but surely,
the supply is still far from meeting the demand.
Strong hopes are being entertained that the recent
decree prohibiting the exportation of scrap cast
iron and steel will tend to relieve the situation by
supplying the different foundries and plants with all
the raw material that they may require for in-
creasing the output. The fact must not be lost
6ight ot that this decree can only be a temporary
measure and will lapse as soon as the production
increases, as Prance, under normal conditions of
work following on the circumstances resulting from
the war, will be one of the world's great producers
of iron and steel. However, the decree is very
irksome to exporters of these metals, and many
Belgian steelworks that imported much of their
raw material from France are directly affected. To
meet the claims of industrials and traders thus
affected a special committee has been appointed
by the Ministry of Commerce to examine all appli-
cations for export licences, which will be granted
on the merits of each individual case submitted.
Whatever may be the findings of this committee,
it is certain that the production of pig iron is
steadily improving, and that the results of the Spa
Conference, by assuring a regular inflow of coal,
cannot but better the situation still further. The
output of the rolling mills is still very much below
the mark, but is, however, superior to that of sheet
iron, which is non-existent on the market.
Coal. — According to the recent decisions, from
August 1, Germany will have to supply France with
80 per cent, of the 2,000,000 tons of coal she had
originally undertaken to send to the Allies monthly.
As regards payment, the arrangement falls under
two main parts according as the coal is imported
by land or by sea. The coal imported by land will
be paid for at the price ruling in Germany, that
is, according to the present exchange, at about
80 fr. a ton. To this price there will be added
a premium of 5 marks in gold, or 14 — 15 fr.,
destined to improve the lot of German miners. The
price of 80 fr. will not be paid in cash, but will
be deducted from the German debt; the premium
will, however, be paid in cash, and will apply only
to coal imported by land. For coal imported by
sea the price paid will be the price f.o.b. ruling for
German exportation. The values that result will also
be deducted from the German debt. The price
f.o.b. of German coal will probably reach the price
f.o.b. of British coal, that is, about 260 — 270 fr.
per ton. The Allied advance to Germany will thus
be the difference between 265 and 95, or about
170 fr. per ton.
Liquid Fuel.— The Ministry of Public Works has
just issued a decree declaring that the establish-
ment of a pipe-lin£ for conveying liquid fuel from
Havre to Paris is a work of public utility. The
pipe-line will pass through Bolbec, Yvetot, Bar-
entin, Rouen and Pontoise, and it is reckoned that
it will convey 2400 tons of liquid fuel daily; the
storage tanks will have a minimum capacity of
60,000 tons.
The Chemical Market. — Although this market re-
mains steady, the tendency is towards a rise in
prices resulting from the insufficiency of the pro-
duction as compared with the heavy demand. The
increase in the price of coal, the higher rates of
transport, and the new taxes voted are not calcu-
lated to improve the cost price and, consequently,
the selling price. The higher cost of living that
will inevitably result will react on the price of
labour, which so far had apparently reached a
maximum.
There is a great dearth of chemical apparatus
and of different containers for chemical products,
among which may be mentioned carboys and their
hampers, wooden casks, gas cylinders, enamelled
pans, autoclaves, filter-presses, porous cylinders, etc.
Carbonate of soda is very scarce and has to be
imported from America. This scarcity is due on
the one hand to lack of coal, and on the other to the
heavy increase in the demand. Formaldehyde is
also in great demand, and is extensively used, to-
gether with phenol and cresol, for the production
of artificial plastic material.
On the whole it is reckoned that, on account of
the factors mentioned above, certain chemical pro-
ducts will rise in price by 8 — 10%. This is an
alarming situation if the progress of foreign com-
petition is taken into account, as it will make it
impossible to export.
It is only the very great scarcity of certain pro-
ducts that allows of their disposal at enormously
high prices, but such conditions will probably no
longer prevail in two years' time, and the question
is to know whether by then the cost price will have
improved I
UNITED STATES.
A New Use for Gallium. — There has long been a
demand for a lamp that would give a stable mono-
chromatic red light of high intensity. It has been
proposed to use a lamp of the mercury vapour type
with cadmium in place of mercury, but neither pure
cadmium nor a cadmium-mercury alloy can be used,
as its high tensile strength tends to break the glass
tubes. It has now been found that less than 1 per
cent, of gallium will lower the tensile strength of
cadmium, and the vapour pressure of gallium is so
low that its spectrum does not interfere with the
brilliancy and purity of the cadmium spectrum. As
gallium alloys readily with cadmium and with lead
seals (used to avoid leakage around the electrodes),
lamps of the type described can be operated con-
tinuously with high intensity in the cadmium lines.
Research in the Manufacture of Alimentary Pastes. —
At the annual meeting of the National Association
of Macaroni Manufacturers, held on June 24, it was
resolved to expend a part of the funds of the Asso-
ciation, and to supplement these by subscriptions,
in the pursuit of a scientific programme relative to
the manufacture of alimentary pastes. It was ex-
pected that through co-operative research of this
character the whole level of the industry would be
raisad and a scientific foundation laid which would
lead to the production of more nutritious and uni-
form products. The Association has declared itself
opposed to the utilisation of any colouring matter
in the preparation of alimentary pastes.
Jellies. — Recent work has disclosed the fact that
the three ingredients upon which the successful
manufacture of jellies depends are acid, pectin, and
sugar. In commercial jellies the pectin content
should not exceed 1'25%, acid calculated as sul-
phuric 0'27 to 05%, with 0'3 as a good acidity, and
sugar 5 lb. per gallon of juice. The pectin can be
determined with sufficient precision for factory
control by allowing 10 c.c. of the fruit juice to drop
from a pipette into 180 c.c. of alcohol, and if over
1 % of pectin is present a cohesive gum-like mass
will be formed. If the amount is less than that the
precipitate will remain flocculent. Tables have been
worked out based upon pectin content which in-
dicate the amount of sugar to be used to produce a
satisfactory material. In this connexion the Brix
hydrometer has been found useful, and if 1 lb. of
sugar be added to each gallon of juice for every
degree Brix indicated by the raw juice, a fine clear
jelly, firm enough to stand under nearly any
climatic condition, will result.
Furfural in Caramel. — It has been found that
caramel may contain furfural, especially if the
sugar has been heated to a high temperature during
caramelisation. Furfural is volatile in steam, so
that no precautions are necessary in the prepara-
tions where caramel is heated with water. As fur-
fural is toxic, it is therefore recommended that
caramelised fruit syrups should be boiled with an
equal volume of water for ten or fifteen minutes
before serving them. It is also advisable to avoid
the formation of caramel in baking fruits, and this
can be done by lowering the temperature. Fur-
fural is formed in greatest amount when caramel-
isation is carried on at about 200° C.
" Para-coumarone." — When suitable aromatic
naphthas are treated with strong sulphuric acid,
the coumarone and indene in them are polymerised
and the products remain in solution. If the
naphtha is then separated from the polymerising
agent, neutralised and distilled to separate it from
any unpolymerised material, a liquid residue results
which solidifies on cooling. This product is known
as paracoumarone resin. It resembles rosin, and
has been found to be well adapted for certain types
of varnishes in which a pure raw linseed oil and
china wood oil, together with a cobalt linoleate
dryer, are used. The resulting varnish resists hot
and cold water as well as other varnishes, and has
satisfactory rubbing qualities, hardness, toughness,
and elasticity, which enable it to compete with
natural gums.
Tyre Production. — The record production of tyres
planned for 1920, amounting to 40 million and
valued at 1000 million dollars, is not expected to
materialise. According to Financial America; diffi-
culties with cotton supplies and the necessity of
storing the output that is held up owing to trans-
port troubles have resulted in a curtailment of
manufacture. The cotton shortage is attributed to
want of skilled workmen and failure to re-adjust
the machinery altered during the war. At the
same time Egyptian cotton, which is much in de-
mand, has yielded smaller crops during the last
five years than during the previous five years. Most
of the crude rubber is absorbed by the tyre trade,
but as there are large stocks in America, supplies
are not causing the manufacturers much anxietv. —
(India Rubber J.. July 24, 1920.)
Helium Resources. — According to a report pre-
sented by Dr. Manning to the Committee on Inter-
state and Foreign Commerce of the United States
Congress, all the sources of natural gas containing
helium in the United States can produce a
total of 3 million cb. ft. of gas containing over 0'35
per cent, of helium for a period of from two and a-
half to three years. This would indicate that about
858,300 cb. ft. of helium could be produced a day.
The field most suitable for working is stated to be
at Petrolia, Texas, although helium has been found
in Kansas, Oklahoma. Ohio, California, and Wyom-
ing. It is reported that the Air Reduction Co. is
about to instal laboratories and plant for the ex-
traction of helium from natural gas in Oklahoma,
and that Dr. Cottrell, of the Bureau of Mines, is
investigating the question. The situation as re-
gards helium is not clear, but a Bill now before
Congress in intended to regulate the production
and exportation of the gas. — (Oil, Paint and Drug
Rep., June 21, 1920.) )
Qualitative Analysis by Means of the Electric Arc. —
Mr. W. R. Mott has recently described before the
American Electro-Chemical Society a new method
of qualitative analysis in which the electric arc is
employed. The unknown substance is put into a
cup-like cavity made in one of the carbons, and the
image of the arc is projected upon a screen with a
magnification of 20 diameters. The phenomena to
be noted include the nature and colour of the
material deposited on the pole as the result of dis-
tillation, the smoke, sparks, flame-tipped colora-
tion obtained, and the odour of the fumes evolved.
Many elements have decidedly characteristic pecu-
liarities, e.g., molybdenum causes the emission of
smoke from the hot upper carbon when the arc is
broken, and traces of calcium produce an unmis-
takable red. Good tests have been developed for
about 65 elements, whether uncombined, combined,
or alloyed. It has been found that, on the average,
out of a mixture containing ten of the sixty-five
elements, nine can be identified with certainty by
this method, and that many elements which are
identified with difficulty by the usual method can be
determined with comparative ease by the new one.
Bauxite and Aluminium in 1918. — The quantity of
bauxite marketed in the United States in 1918 was
605,721 long tons which had a value at the mines
of §3,447,992, representing an increase of about 7%
in quantity and 11% in value over the production of
1917. About 69% of the domestic output was used
in the production of aluminium metal, 10% in the
manufacture of aluminium salts, 19% in the
abrasives industries and 2% in the manufacture of
bauxite refractory bricks. The mineral is sold on
the basis of its analysis, a low silica and titanium
content being essential to the producers of the
metal and important to the manufacturers of salts,
abrasives and refractories. A commercial grade
should contain at least 52% of alumina.
Most of the metal produced was used for war pur-
poses. The Government fixed the price at 33 cents
per lb. midway through the year, and there was a
production of roughly 40 million dollars' worth of
primary metal and a quarter of this amount of
secondary metal. [The " Mineral Industry during
1918 " gives the U.S. production of aluminium
metal at 102,000 metric tons out of an estimated
world's production of 220,000 tons in 1918.— Ed.]
About 200,000 tons of aluminium sulphate was
produced during the year, the average price being
about §31 per short ton. About 7000 tons was pro-
duced by waterworks for their own consumption in
water purification. Roughly 4000 tons of the
chloride was also produced, part being used in the
refining of mineral oils. *The abrasives are made by
fusing bauxite in the electric furnace, the same
means also being employed for the production of
refractories. The use of the latter seems to be ex-
panding, particularly in the construction of copper,
iron and lead furnaces and of cement kilns. Bauxite
brick is produced by bonding calcined bauxite or
high-alumina clay with fire clay, sodium silicate or
lime.— (U.S. Geol. Surv., Mar'. 16, 1920.)
Manganese and Manganiferous Ores in 1918. — A new
classification of manganese ores was adopted in 1918
as a result of the recommendations of the American
Iron and Steel Institute to its members, who in-
clude the officials of practically every 6teel company
in the United States.
Materials which contain more than 35% of
manganese are classed as manganese ore, .those con-
taining 10 — 35% of the metal as ferruginous
manganese ore. the lowest grade with from 5 — 10%
of the element being classified, as manganiferous
iron ore. It may be mentioned that certain ore is
termed manganiferous silver ore when it contains
more than 5% of manganese and sufficient silver to
make it more valuable as a source of silver than
manganese.
The domestic shipment of high grade ore (35%
and over) was 305,869 tons, valued at about
$8,000,000, of the intermediate grade (10— 35 \ )
916,163 tons valued at about $4,500,000, and
254,299 tons of low grade ore (5 — 10%) valued at
about §1,000,000.
The imports of ferro-manganese were 27,168 tons,
and of high grade ore 491.303 tons, the latter being
obtained mainly from Brazil and Cuba. The war
showed that domestic deposits could 6upply about
Vol. XXXtX.. No. 16.]
REVIEW
3o of the nation's needs. In 1910-1913, Russia,
India and Brazil supplied no less than 95% of the
world's production. It was found when the Russian
supply ceased in 1914 that as much as 2 or 3% of
iron and as little as 70% of manganese could ba
used in making batteries without serious loss of
efficiency, and considerable domestic supplies from
Montana met these specifications.
In the United Stages more than 95% of the
manganese used in the industries is added to steel
in the form of alloys, the average consumption of
manganese metal in making a ton of steel being
about 14 lb. Several steel companies experimented
wkh alloys of uncommon composition instead of the
usual 80% ferro-manganese and 20% spiegeleisen.
One company completely substituted 32% spiegel-
eisen for 80% ferro-manganese. The results ob-
tained undoubtedly played a large part in the
widespread revision of manganese alloy grades in
April, 1918. (Cf. J., 1920, 148 r.)—' (U.S. Geol.
Sure, April 10, 1920.)
JAPAN.
Oil Production in Echigo. — The centre of the
petroleum industry in Japan is at Echigo, where
the total production of crude oil reached 1.174,909
koku (koku = 47-65 galls.) and that of refined oil
1,051,134 koku in 1918. Details of the production
for 1918 and 1919 are given below: —
1918. 1919.
Koku. Koku.
Naptha 124,604 ... 131,736
Kerosene oil 211,153 ... 179,805
Illuminating oil ... 372,038 ... 359,354
Crude petroleum ... 166,103 ... 120,832
Machine oil 301,011 ... 259,408
Total 1,174,909 ... 1,051,134
Mineral Output in the Hokkaido. — The follow-
ing are the output figures for 1918, together
with those estimated for 1919: — Gold, 19216 and
9445'1 oz.; copper, 1270 and 1300 tons; copper ore,
3911 tons (1918 only) ; pig iron, 1064 and 5270 tons ;
quicksilver, 252 and 6'5 tons ; zinc ore, 4477 and
1739 tons; lead ore, 4331 tons (1918 only); iron ore,
91.234 and 137,000 tons; chrome iron ore, 1303 and
693 tons; petroleum. 300.569 and 311,685 galls.;
coal, 4.135,561 and 4,650,000 tons; manganese, 7820
and 5995 tons; crude sulphur, 19,416 and 12,300
tons; sulphur ore, 19,416 and 12,300 tons; platinum,
65-65 and 172"25 oz.— (Bd. of Trade J., April 22,
1920.)
The Development of the Alcohol Industry. — Up to
twenty years ago Japan imported from Germany
all her alcohol, which is used principally as an
ingredient for the national drink, sake. Then heavy
import duties effectively checked imports from
abroad, with the result that Japan is developing an
alcohol industry of her own, utilising the by-pro-
ducts of the beet-sugar factories in Formosa. Dur-
ing the year 1919 about 3 million gallons of alcohol
was produced there; during the following year the
output fell to about 800,000 galls., owing to a de-
creasing production of sugar. There was conse-
quently a corresponding rise in the price of alcohol,
so that it was being quoted at about 8s. per gallon.
— (Z. anaew. Chem., July 2, 1920.)
The Soda Industry. — The Japanese soda industry
began with the erection of the Kabushiki Kaish'a
alkali works in Ozaka in 1880, and in spite of the
fact that the chief raw material for the industry —
salt — was made a State monoply in 1908, thus forc-
ing the manufacturers to pay prices that were more
than double those current in Europe and America,
the industry has developed sufficiently to be able to
supply 30 per cent, of the needs of the country, the
remaining 70 per cent, being imported. There
are now 20 soda works in Japan, 10 of which have
been founded since 1918. Nine works use the elec-
trolytic process, five the Leblanc process, and one
both of these processes, whilst three employ the
ani7nonia-soda process. Figures showing the rela-
tion of production to consumption (in 1000 kin) are
given below (kin = 132 lb.) : —
Production.
Consumption
Caustic soda
. 1913
953C
36.560
1917
36.560
65.252
Calcined soda
. 1913
4756
73,826
1917
4782
95.640
Sodium sulphate .
. 1913
2139
3139
1917
3603
3603
Soda crystals
. 1913
—
9989
After the armistice the Japanese soda industry
was forced either to decrease or suspend production,
with the result that the price of caustic soda fell
from 38 to 8 sen (100 sen = 2s. 0^d.) a pound, and,
owing to over-production, bleaching powder was
selling at 4'05 sen a pound, although its price has
now improved. Most of the raw materials required
for the soda industry — salt, sodium sulphate, lime,
sodium bisulphate, and saltpetre — have to be im-
ported, the requirements for 1920 being estimated
at: — Salt, 67,167 metric tons; coal and coal dust,
9576 t. ; sulphuric acid, 17,791 t. ; sodium bisulphate,
1488 t. ; Chili saltpetre, 33 t. In 1917, 110 million
kin of soda was imported, two-thirds of which came
from the United States and 660,000 kin from Eng-
land, the imports from the latter country having
since shown signs of increasing. It has been pro-
posed to protect the Japanese caustic soda industry
by raising the import duty from 70 sen per 100 kin
to 25 per cent, ad, valorem, but the best guarantee
for its future would be a decrease in the price of
salt.— (Chem. Ind., July 7, 1920.)
The Lead and Zinc Industry. — Lead is usually found
in Japan as galena associated with zinc blende. The
output of lead ore from 1913 to 1918 in Japan was
as follows (long tons) : —
Tons.
£
Tons.
£
1913
. 3747
. 63.297
. 1916
. 11.281
. 384,785
1914
. 4526
. 84.752 .
. 1917
. 15,682
. 579,949
1915 .
. 4718 .
. 100.028 .
. 1918 .
. 10.599 .
. 425.451
The Okayama Prefecture has the biggest lead
production, 3381 tons having been mined in 1918.
Producers and smelters were buoyed up by the high
prices ruling during the war and by the expecta-
tion of a world shortage in the metal. These hopes
have not been fulfilled, and owing to the increased
cost of labour and materials, combined with re-
newal of European competition in the Indian and
East Indian paint markets, the output has fallen
considerably since 1917, and many companies,
especially the smaller and less economically man-
aged, are in financial difficulties. Prices for Aus-
tralian lead in Yokohama were highest at £3'165
per picul (133'28 lb.) in September. 1918, compared
with £1-202 in June, 1914, and £2715 in March,
1920. The cost of production is estimated at 33s.
per picul at the smelters at the present time.
The imports of lead products from 1915 to 1918
were as follows : —
Lead ingots
Other forms
Lead ore.
and slabs.
of lead.
Tons.
Tons.
Tons.
1915 ..
. . Unknown .
14.444
1283
1916 . .
. . Unknown .
20.638
1590
1917 . .
. . 22.554
15.636
700
1918 . .
3566
63.697
640
1919 . .
147
35,457
Unknown
In 1915, Japan imported 10,982 t. of lead slabs
and ingots from Australia and 2585 t. from the
United States ; in 1919 the figures were 14,449 and
12,160 t. respectively. The Japanese lead con-
sumption was estimated at 19,533 t. in 1914 and
at 64,293 t. in 1918.
The imports of white lead and litharge were as
follows:— 1916, 144 t. ; 1917, 6i t.; 1918, 8 t. ; 1919,
95 t.
290 B
REVIEW.
[Aug. 31, 1920.
Previous to 1913 no zinc ore was smelted in
Japan ; the production since then is given in the
following table: —
Reflucd zinc.
Value.
Value.
Tons.
£
Tons.
£
1813
.. 34.128 ..
97,061 .
—
—
1914
.. 13.915 ..
28,926 .
5866 .
140.250
1915
. . 6024 . .
30.118 .
20.964 .
. 1,326.900
1916
.. 2152 ..
18.753 .
38.684 .
. 2.778.100
1917
160 . .
2790 .
64.284 .
. 2.766.550
1918
—
—
39,598 .
. 1.819.400
1 grains.
Sheets.
Waste.
Zinc white.
2896 . .
540 .
4967
.. 283
3223 . .
650 .
1965
.. 258
4470 ..
1203 .
729
.. 43
2430 . .
1331 .
724
.. 222
5638 . .
1403 .
323
.. 95
The largest zinc mine is the Hikoshima in the
Yamaguchi Prefecture, which produced in 1918
12,354 t. of zinc and 103 t. of lead. The estimated
consumption of zinc in Japan rose from 11,389 t.
in 1914 to 27,126 t. in 1918, since when, however,
it has considerably decreased.
Owing to the great demand for zinc in Great
Britain and Russia, prices rose abnormally at the
beginning of the war, but have been going down
again since 1916, whilst working costs have tended
to rise. Hence many of the newer companies are
in financial difficulties, and the output has there-
fore seriously fallen off. The estimated cost of
production of refined zinc at the smelters is about
45s. 6d. per picul, and the price of 98% zinc per
picul has varied from 25s. 9d. in June, 1914, to
114s. in December, 1918, and since then has been
round about 50s., but rose to 58s. in March, 1920.
The principal producing districts and their outputs
for 1918 are: — Yamaguchi Prefecture, 12,300 t;
Fukuka and Okayama Prefectures with over
8000 t. each. The following table shows the im-
ports of zinc products into Japan during the last
five years in long tons : —
Ingots, slabs
Ore.
1915 .. Unknown
1916 .. Unknown
1917 . . 92.610
1918 .. 59.401
1919 .. 27.610
The exports of zinc and zinc ore from Japan are
shown below in long tons: —
Zinc ore. Zinc ingots and slabs.
1915 6363 .. Unknown
1916 2172 .. 23.029
1917 162 .. 36.542
1918 5 .. 16.848
1919 Unknown . . 5638
In the mining of lead and zinc the smaller com-
panies use primitive hand methods, but the opera-
tions of the larger companies compare favourably
with those used in the States; 2364 miners are
employed in zinc mining and 1046 in lead mining.
The leading companies pay their miners an averago
of 3s. per day with two holidays a month; the
underground miners work 56 hours, and the sur-
face workers 77 hours per week. — (U.S. Com. Hep.,
May 24, 1920.)
CANADA.
Maple Sugar in Quebec. — The production of maple
sugar in the province of Quebec has trebled during
the last year. This improvement may be ascribed
not only to the increased price of cane and beet
sugar, but also to the establishment of sugar schools
by the Government and the giving of lectures by
sugar experts in the chief centres of sugar produc-
tion. So far three such schools have been started,
with the object of giving instruction in the most
up-to-date methods of producing sugar and syrup.
The total production of maple sugar during 1919
is estimated at 13,000 tons, whereas during 1911 it
was only 4500 tons. — (Dcuts. Zuckerind., May 28,
1920.)
The Paper Industry. — In 1901 there were in the
Province of Quebec 10 mills representing a capital
of $1,000,000. According to the latest statistics,
there are now 31 mills owned by companies with a
total capital of $100,000,000. At the present time,
not including the money spent on improvements,
enlargements, etc., a sum amounting to $15,000,000
is being spent on the erection of new factories con-
nected with this industry.
A paper mill is about to bo erected in Sas-
katchewan at a cost of £200,000, and will utilise
waste straw, of which large quantities are available,
as raw material. It is believed that the necessary
fuel can be obtained from the lignite fields in south-
ern Saskatchewan. This will be the second straw-
paper plant to be established in Canada. — (Official.)
SOUTH AFRICA.
Fibre Factory in Rhodesia. — A new company, the
Northern Rhodesia Fibre Co., has been established
at Umtali for the purpose of utilising the fibres of
Hibiscus cannabinus and other plants. Several
hundred tons of wild fibre have been collected this
year, and it is reported that Hibiscus will be grown
over large areas for next season, as the company
will pay £10 per ton for good fibre. The services
of an expert have been obtained; and farmers with
large acreages of fibre will be instructed, free of
cost, how to ret and handle the fibre. — (S. African
J. Ind., June, 1920.)
Iron and Steel Industry. — Market for Steel Goods. —
It is estimated that the country's annual require-
ments of iron and steel goods include 77,000 tons
of rails; 25,000 tons of fencing standards; 21,000
tons of bar, bolt, and rod iron ; 10,000 tons of plate
and sheet iron; besides smaller amounts of angles,
beams, castings, etc., making in all 175,000 tons.
lleserves of Iron Ore. — Iron ore deposits include
three of the first magnitude containing a variety
of ores. There are the siliceous ironstones of the
Pretoria series, the titaniferous magnetites (suit-
able for manufacturing spiegeleisen) of the Bush-
veld complex, and the haematite deposits in the
Rustenburg District; whilst the breccia deposits of
Griqualand West probably contain millions of tons
of commercial ore. Reserves of clayband ore are
found in the Pretoria town lands.
Flux. — Pure limestone deposits occur, but are
commercially inaccessible. Dolomite, however,
exists in unlimited quantities, and has been used
successfully with coke low in sulphur.
Fuel. — Large coal fields are available with good
coking coal produced at a cost of about 5s. 8d.
per ton.
Cost. — The cost of producing 200 tons of pig
iion per day in Pretoria is estimated at £2 4s. 9$d.
per ton, plus 10s. for capital charges.
Labour. — Highly-skilled labour requires to be im-
ported, but there is a good supply of semi-skilled
white labour.
Water Supply. — Geological conditions favour the
maintenance of a good water supply, and pro-
vision is being made for a consumption of 250,000
gallons per day. — (S. African J. Ind., June, 1920.)
New Enterprises. — The Pretoria Iron Mines, Ltd.,
has been taken over by the South African Iron and
Steel Corporation with a capital of £1,500,000. A
fully equipped modern plant, consisting of coke
ovens with recovery plant, furnaces and rolling
mills for the manufacture of pig iron, wrought iron,
and steel, is to be erected. The site is on one of the
largest iron deposits, and in close proximity to the
Transvaal coal fields. A Natal undertaking at
Newcastle also hopes to be producing shortly. On
August 13, the Union House of Assembly confirmed
the draft agreement made between the Pretoria
company and the Government, by which, for a
period of 17 years, the Government railways will
purchase 50 per cent, of their requirements in rails,
etc., from the company at imported cost. — (Finan-
cial Times, June 21, Aug. 16, 1920.)
GENERAL.
Radium Supplies. — Since Mme. Curie discovered
radium, in 1898, the total amount of radium that
has been produced is about 120 gm., and supplies
Vol. XXXIX.. No. 16.]
REVIEW.
are steadily increasing. The total output of the
Standard Chemical Co. (Pittsburgh, Pa.) up to 1920
is reported to be 50 gm. of radium element, and
although its present output is only 18 gm. per year,
the company ia said to be prepared to produce
50 gm. of radium element yearly, should the demand
justify it. Since 1913 three new radium factories
have been started in America and several in France,
where an average of 18 gm. of radium per annum
was produced during the war. — (.7. Rontgen Soc,
July, 1920.)
Ban tes Supplies. — The importation of barytes de-
creased considerably during the war, falling to
1500 tons in 1917—18. In 1919, the amount in-
creased to 20,000 tons. These imports were for the
most part of fine white ground barytes, the home
product being of lower quality. Owing to cheap
rate of transport along the Rhine in pre-war days,
it was possible to market German barytes at a
cheaper rate in this country than the native article.
Furthermore the foreign material was of better
colour. Alterations and improvements in methods
now being carried out offer prospects of improved
quality and increased consumption of the home
product. — (India Rubber J., July 3, 1920.)
Para Rubber-Seed Oil. — Investigations at the Im-
perial Institute have shown that Para rubber seeds
contain considerable amounts of a drying oil, to the
extent of 20 per cent, in the seeds and 45 per cent,
in the air-dried kernels. The residual (decorticated)
cake is comparable in nutritive value and digesti-
bility to linseed and decorticated cottonseed cakes,
and should find a ready sale as a feeding-stuff.
When the large area now under rubber is considered
it is evident that large quantities of kernels could
be obtained, but up to the present no trustworthy
statistics as to the costs of collection and yield of
seed have been furnished. Para rubber seed and
cake are worth quite two-thirds of the values of
linseed oil and cake. (Cf. J., 1919, 330 h.) — (Bull.
Imp. Inst., Oct.-Dec, 1919.)
National Association of Industrial Chemists. — At the
meeting of the Executive Council held on August 7,
it was stated that the outlook for many industrial
chemists is distinctly discouraging. The number of
unemployed chemists is increasing very rapidly,
and there is evidently a great slump coming in the
engineering and allied industries in which chemists
are chiefly employed. A large amount of work has
been done in connexion with the Employment
Bureau, but it was pointed out that, unless chemists
were more united and enabled the Council to secure
their co-operation, little could be done to help them.
A considerable amount of time has been devoted
to the improvement of the status and salaries of
members, and definite arrangements have been
made whereby a considerable number of firms has
agreed to consult the Association's officials when
requiring fresh chemists and in the event of dis-
putes between the firms and their chemical staffs.
A number of firms has also undertaken to consult
the Association in all matters relating to chemists,
including appointments, salaries, and hours and
conditions of work. A committee of the Association
has issued a report giving a schedule of minimum
salaries for chemists of various ages.
Mr. A. B. Searle was elected president of the
Association and Mr. J. W. Marchant was appointed
secretary. In order to cope with the large amount
of propaganda work required, it was decided to
appoint an organising secretary.
The Research Association ol British Rubber and
Tyre Manufacturers notifies that laboratory accom-
modation has been secured in the Chemical De-
partment at University College, London ; also that
Mr. H. Tiltman has been appointed research
assistant.
Patents in Sweden. — The new Swedish Law (No.
294) of June 18, 1920, provides that requests for
the reconsideration of a patent application which
has been refused or rejected during the period
August 1, 1914, to June 30, 1920, by reason of the
failure of the applicant to answer objections by the
patent authorities or writs of opposition, or re-
quests for the restoration of a patent which has
expired during the same period by reason of non-
payment of renewal fees, may be made to the patent
authorities before July 1, 1921. It is also provided
that the above-mentioned period shall not be
reckoned in the period of three years within which
a patent must be worked in Sweden. The Crown is
empowered, subject to reciprocal treatment, to
decree that the provisions of the Law shall apply,
wholly or partly, in favour of nationals of a foreign
State.— (Bd. of Trade J., July 29, 1920.)
Italian Patent Rights and the War. — The Royal
Decree No. 279, of March 7, 1920, provides that
owners of Italian patents still in force who have not
paid the prescribed fees or have not worked the
patents during the war, can obtain prolongation on
payment of the fees in abeyance. If any person has
worked such a suspended patent in good faith
during the period July 31, 1914 to December 31,
1918, he can continue to do so without fear of in-
fringement. Those who have exploited enemy
patents during the war can continue to do so for
one year after the date when the Peace Treaty
comes into force, after which they will be required
to compensate the owner of such patent should they
require to work it for a further period. The
Decree, which also regulates the question of priority
of application, thus extends to the owners of
Italian patents the facilities provided for in the
Treaties of Versailles and St. Germain, but, con-
trary to recent Belgian and French laws, does not
prolong the life of patents for a period correspond-
ing to the years during which the patents were not
worked owing to the war. (Cf. J., 1920, 74 k). —
(G. di Chim. Ind. ed App., Apr. and June, 1920.)
Tarred Roads and Fish Life. — A large number of
trout and coarse fish died in the river Chess in
Buckinghamshire last winter. The surface of the
adjacent main road through the town of Chesham
had been tarred for the first time in its history in
the summer of 1919, and the subsequent fish mor-
tality was popularly connected therewith. The
matter has been looked into by a Departmental
Committee, which was appointed early in 1919
for the investigation of road tarring in relation to
injury to fisheries, and this Committee has now
issued a report on the destruction of fish in the
river Chess. The report states that neither the
road-tarring in Chesham, nor epidemic disease,
appears to have been responsible for the death of
the fish, which was probably due to a temporary
increase in the industrial pollution affecting the
arm of the river known as the Town Ditch — which
arm may now be regarded as an industrial sewer.
The Committee failed to obtain direct and con-
vincing evidence of the nature or source of this
increased industrial pollution, perhaps because the
matter was not brought to its notice until the wave
of mortality had nearly spent itself.
Rubber Situation in Indo-China. — The prohibition
on the export of rubber to any country but France,
which was imposed during the latter half of 1918
by the French Government, had a bad effect on
trade. This, coupled with deliveries of rubber of
irregular quality and appearance, assisted in the
crisis which led to the storage of 25,000,000 fr.
worth of rubber and nearly caused the plantations
to suspend work. The tension has now relaxed, and
the decision of the planters to reorganise the in-
dustry and establish a laboratory at Saigon should
make the prospects brighter. — (India Rubber
World, June, 1920.)
292 b
The World's Pyrites Production. — The world's
pyrites production is estimated (in metric tons) as
follows : —Norway, 475,000 t. ; Spain, 3,000,000 t. ;
Portugal, 600,000 t. ; United States, 350,000 t •
France, 300,000 t.; Italy, 250,000 t. ; Germany
220,000 t.; Canada, 140,000 t. ; Greece, 120,000 t ■
Hungary, 100,000 t.— (Mining J., May 29, 1920.) '
"Yield Value": A New Constant in Plastics.—
Important investigations on the plasticity of sub-
stances intermediate between solids and liquids
have recently been published by Bingham and
Green* and Perrott and Thiessen.t The former
writers have recognised that paints are classed
as plastic solids rather than as viscous liquids
the characteristic of plastic solids being the
existence of an additional factor in Poiseuille's
viscosity equation, to which the authors have given
the name "yield value." In simple language, the
yield value " represents the pressure which must
be applied before movement through a capillary
takes place. In the case of a truly viscous liquid,
such as thickened linseed oil, in spite of very
high viscosity, slow flow will take place from a de-
formed to a plane surface merely under the effect
of gravity, viscometric determinations showing a
constancy in the value of the product of pressure
and inverse of volume passed in unit time in
capillary viscometers. With plastic solids, how-
ever, a deformed surface retains its shape, and con-
formity with Poiseuille's equation as to the con-
stancy above referred to does not manifest itself
until a pressure has been applied in excess of such
yield value, and the value of the same deducted
from the recorded pressure. Both papers deal with
the subject in reference to paints, and that by
Perrott and Thiessen describes a special investiga-
tion of this physical property as applied to carbon
blacks.
The importance of the existence of yield values
and their determination will be readily recognised
by all paint technologists, the determination of
such constant placing in their hands a method,
long sought for, whereby the hitherto empirically
determined properties of "flow," " stringiness,"
etc., of paints may be investigated. The influence
of various pigments in paints and enamels as affect-
ing their behaviour on application is a field which
has not yet been investigated in a scientific manner,
and it is fair to predict that the publication of the
results of the investigations on yield value will help
to place on a scientific footing an industry in which
"rule of thumb" has too long held sway. Yield
values will also be of considerable importance in
connexion with tar and bituminous coatings.
A few words of warning are necessary to dis-
courage too sanguine hopes as to the significance of
results obtained by indiscriminate investigation of
a diversity of systems of plastics. The value of
viscosity determinations depends on the conforma-
tion of the liquid in a capillary to Poiseuille's law,
in that the velocity of the moving column of liquid
diminishes from a maximum in the centre to zero at
the walls; although it is probable that fair con-
formation to this law obtained in the experiments
described in both papers, in view of the necessarily
low yield values in paints of the usual consistency,
such a plastic system as, e.g., petroleum jelly,
would most probably so far depart from the law
that inconsistent results would be recorded. Never-
theless, it is conceivable that plastic solids may
approximate in their behaviour to true liquids
when the diameter of the capillary is small and
the velocity of flow therein so great that rigidity
of the column as a whole sive« way. This would
indicate that readings should be taken at points
considerably removed from the actual yield value.
• Proc. Amer. Soc. Testing Mat.. XIX.. 11. C10-664; this J.. 1920.
495 a.
t J. Ind. and Eng. Chem.. 1920. 12. 324-331 ; this J.. 1920, 377a.
REPORTS.
Report on the Destruction of Bacteria in Milk
by Electricity. By Prof. J. M. Beattie and
C. F. Lewis. Special Beport Series (No. 49)
of the Medical Research Committee, National
Health Insurance. Pp. 32. (London: H.M.
Stationery Office. 1920.) Price 9d.
The destruction of bacteria in milk by electricity
was found to be most effective with alternating
currents and using an apparatus in which the milk
was kept in constant flow, every portion of it re-
ceiving equal exposure to the current. It was
found that there was a speed of flow at which steri-
lisation takes place at a temperature which appar-
ently precludes the possibility of heat energy
taking any except a minor part in the bactericidal
action. Temperature is not considered to be the
factor determining sterilisation. Milk can be
freed from B. coli. and B. tubercolosis by the
electrical method without raising the temperature
higher than 63° — 64° C, the temperature effect
being very short in duration. Although the milk
was not absolutely sterilised, yet the percentage
reduction of the bacteria taken over a fortnight
was 99'93 and the keeping power of the product
was considerably increased. The taste of the milk
is unaltered by the treatment and, as far as
chemical examination can determine, its properties
are in no way impaired. The treated milk can be
described accurately as "raw milk" free from
pathogenic bacteria.
Thirty-seventh Report of the Comptroller-
General of Patents, Designs, and Trade
Marks, 1919. H.M. Stationery Office. 1920.
Price id.
The volume of business done by the Patent Office
in 1919 exceeded all previous records. The number
of patent applications filed was 32,853, which was
11,014 more than in 1918 and 2250 more than in
any of the previous 10 years. In the five years
immediately preceding the war, the average was
about 30,000, but in 1915-17 it fell to about 18,500.
Since the number of provisional applications was
also abnormally high, viz., 23,852, against 21,553
in 1909, it may be concluded that the remarkable
increase for 1919 was not due to cases from abroad
under the Peace Treaty, and that, generally, there
was a healthy activity in invention.
Designs applications were only 14,094, compared
with a pre-war average of about 37,000, and an
average of about 16,000 during the war. Trade-
mark applications showed a great increase, viz.,
12,479, against a pre-war average of about 10,000,
and a war average of about 6000.
Other indications of the enormous volume of busi-
ness transacted were the sales of patent specifica-
tions, which amounted to 247,387, and the number
of letters and correspondence forms despatched,
214,000 (or an average of four per case). There
were about four " hearings " (i.e., appeals from
the decision of the examiner) per day on the ques-
tion of anticipation of patents, but only two appeals
to the Law Officer.
The number of readers who made use of the
library was 98,618, compared with 65,076 in 1918,
and the approximate number of volumes (exclusive
of duplicates) was 177,100.
The statement of receipts and expenditure shows
that £364,380 was received in respect of patents
fees (renewals £247,408) and £7477 for designs fees.
The total receipts amounted to £404,474, and the
total expenditure to £350,150, leaving a net profit
of £54,324, which represented 13 per cent, on the
total receipts.
Vol. XXXIX.. No. 16]
Report on the Finance, Industry and Trade of
Peru at the Close of the Year 1919. By F. W.
Manners, Commercial Secretary to H..M.
Legation, Lima. Pp. 26. (Cmd. 769. 3d.)
London: H.A1. Stationery Office, 1920.
Practically no raw materials are imported into
Peru, as it is largely a country which produces
them for export, although a certain amount of
cotton and wool is manufactured. The chief agri-
cultural products, in order of importance, are
sugar, cotton, wool, hides and skins. Sugar is
grown in the irrigated valleys of the coastal belt,
and the estates are almost entirely owned by Peru-
vian capitalists and English and American firms.
The Peruvian sugar industry has the advantage
that planting and cutting continue throughout the
year, so that the mills can work continuously and
shipments can be made at any time. The price
of sugar rose from about 10s. per quintal f.o.b.
Peruvian port in 1913 to 51s. after the armistice,
the 1918 export being valued at £4,163,000. Cotton
is also grown in the irrigated coastal valleys, and
the area planted has increased of late owing to the
prevailing high prices. It is mostly of high quality,
the Metafifi variety rivalling Egyptian cotton and
appearing on the market at a different season of
the year, but it is largely shipped ungraded, and
thus fetches a lower price. Until recently, Great
Britain took about 75 per cent, of the crop, but
now the demands from the United States are in-
creasing. The value of the export in 1918 was
£3,761,000. The pre-war price of Peru soft cotton
(corresponding to American middlings) of 34s. per
quintal advanced to about 240s. in June, 1919.
Both sheep's and alpaca >vool are produced, and
each constitutes about half of the total export
which, for the last ten years, has averaged 5155
metric tons. Hides and skins are mainly produced
in the Arequipa district, and the export, chiefly
taken by the United States, was valued at £340,000
in 1916 and 1917, but only £170,000 in 1918. In
1918, rubber to the value of £323,000 was exported.
Peru is very rich in minerals, and with increased
transport facilities production would increase
enormously. The output of copper in 1914 and
1918 was 27,000 and 44,500 metric tons, respectively,
and the shipments for 1919 are estimated at
39,470 t. The chief producers are the American
Cerro de Pasco Copper Co. and the Backus and
Johnston Copper Co. ; the latter is extending its
plant so as to increase the copper output from
3000 t. to 4000 t. a month. The other producers
have a total monthly output of about 3000 t. Only
one petroleum field is being worked, but indications
have been found in the Montana district and
between Lake Titicaca and Cuzco. There are three
important petroleum companies, two of which refine
some 200,000 t. of crude petroleum per annum. The
total storage capacity available is 182,398 cb.
metres, and the total value of petroleum exported
was £1,415,000 in 1918. The production of silver
was 300 t. in 1918; it is found and shipped prin-
cipally with copper and lead sulphides. The out-
put of gold for the last ten years was 1358 kg., the
metal being usually found associated with other
ores. One of the two chief companies engaged in
gold mining is installing new machinery, and an
increased output is expected. There is an abund-
ance of coal in Peru, but its development is hindered
by lack of transport facilities. Practically only
one coalfield is worked, the average production be-
ing 309,918 t., against an import of 90,736 t. The
Minas Ragra mine, situated west of Cerro de Pasco,
is the chief vanadium mine in the world, there
being an estimated quantity of 36 million lb.
metallic content in sight. The ore averages 19 per
cent, metal, and the deposit is said to represent
95 per cent, of the total known vanadium in the
world. The export amounted to over 2787 t. in
1919 (2200 in 1918). The output of lead, which is
usually argentiferous and contains 600 — 700 oz. of
silver to the ton, averages 2381 tons. Tungsten,
molybdenum, antimony, bismuth and mercury all
occur in Peru, but are not now shipped to any ex-
tent owing to high freights and lack of market.
Salt and borax are mined, about 200 t. of the latter
being shipped yearly to Borax Consolidated, Ltd.
In 1918, the total imports and exports of Peru
amounted to £9,700,000 and £20,000,000 respec-
tively, the three principal exporting nations being
Great Britain, the United States and Germany. In
the year under review, the share of Great Britain
in the exports and imports was 3P7 and 162 per
cent, respectively (37'3 and 27"7 per cent, in 1914),
whereas that of the United States was 465 and 543
per cent. (347 and 325 per cent, in 1914). There
is a great demand for all British manufactured
articles, and as manufacturing is practically non-
existent in the country, there is a valuable oppor-
tunity for an increased trade with Peru. Com-
petition, especially with the United States and to
an increasing extent with Japan, was very great
during the war, and it is pointed out that the
market is becoming accustomed to the American
prices and quality, so that unless British goods
appear promptly and on a closely competitive basis
a certain amount of trade may be permanently lost.
The 1919 tariff was for revenue and applied equally
to all goods, the only case in which it was used
for protection being the flour-milling industry,
which is in British hands.
Report on the Commercial and Industrial Situa-
tion of Greece for the Year 1919. By E. C.
D. Rawlins, Commercial Secretary to H.B.M.
Legation, Athens. Pp. 42. (Cmd. 793. id.)
London: H.M. Stationery Office, 1920.
Though Greece has been handicapped by an al-
most continuous state of war from 1911 to 1919, the
country is fairly prosperous. The total imports
during 1918 were valued at 735,916,511 francs, the
imports for the period January — April, 1919, being
given as 382,379,965 francs. During this portion
of 1919, Great Britain supplied 28 per cent, of
the total imports, followed by the United States
with 20 per cent.j a figure which most probably
includes a proportion from Canada. The values of
some of the chief imports in 1918 were : — Vegetable
dyes and tanning materials, 3,420,050 fr. ; raw
minerals and metals, 19,263,026 fr. ; chemicals,
medicines, drugs, 55,147,866 fr. ; glass and pottery
products, 2,858,066 fr. Amongst the imports of
chemicals, caustic soda, carbonate of soda and
copper sulphate were formerly supplied by the
United Kingdom, but since the war the United
States has taken a large share of this, market.
There is a considerable demand for tanning ex-
tracts, chiefly South American quebracho, imported
via the United Kingdom, Havre and Marseilles, as
well as for chemical tanning preparations. The
dyeing industry is developing at Pira?us, and dye-
ing materials, formerly imported from Germany,
have for some time past been demanded from Eng-
land, but have been obtained with difficulty, owing
to restriction of export. The general position now
is that the United Kingdom has regained her
former lead in Greek trade, but to retain and in-
crease this lead it is necessary that United King-
dom manufacturers should pay more attention to
the requirements of the market, i.e., quote prices
c.i.f. Greek ports, not ex factory or f.o.b., and use
local currency, measures, etc.
The exports in 1918 and during the first four
months of 1919 amounted in value to 296,860,261 fr.
and 188,157,776 fr., respectively, Great Britain
taking the largest proportion (47,444,213 fr.), fol-
lowed by the United States (26,533,563 fr.).
Amongst the exports were : — Agricultural products
(including 23,244,800 kg. of olive oil), animal Bkins
and fats, wood products and fibre, raw materials
and metals, etc.
The leading industries of Greece are tanning and
soap-making, the total production being 654,800 kg.
of leather and 32,817,900 kg. of soap. A number
of minerals is mined, the output of ores in 1918
being as follows: — Iron, 67,890 metric tons; ferro-
manganese, 977 t. ; lead, 18,416 t. ; zinc, 4343 t. ;
nickel, 12,166 t. ; chrome, 10,890 t. ; magnesite,
39,340 t. ; lignite, 208,797 t. ; iron pyrites, 12,446 t.
The lignite is used industrially, mainly in com-
bination with coal or wood ; it is stated that
briquetting plant is to be erected. At present
8000 t. of iron pyrites is used for the production
of sulphuric acid, which is used for the manufac-
ture of fertilisers. Prom 33 to 50 per cent, of
the magnesite produced is exported as caustic
and twice-fired magnesia. The emery produced at
the Naxos mines was all taken by France during
the war, but the market is now free.
It is pointed out that public opinion in Greece
at present is very much in favour of Great Britain,
bo that it is an opportune moment for British
manufacturers to begin to open up trade relations
with that country. It should be noted that,
although trade mark regulations are in force, there
is no protection for patents in Greece.
PARLIAMENTARY NEWS.
HOUSE OF LORDS.
The Committee stage of the Ministry of Mines
Bill was taken on August 4. On Clause 1, pro-
viding for the appointment of a Minister of Mines,
the Marquess of Salisbury moved an amendment
proposing that the official appointed for this pur-
pose Bhould only hold the position of a Secretary
of the Board of Trade, and this was agreed to.
On August 11, during the third reading, two
amendments by Viscount Peel, proposing that the
mining industry should be administered by a Mines
Department of the Board of Trade under a Secre-
tary for Mines, and that the fund to be established
for improving the social conditions of the workers
should be allocated to districts, were also agreed
to, and the Bill, now known as the Mining Industry
Bill, was then passed.
The Dangerous Drugs Bill was read a third time
on August 9, and passed. The Lords' amendments
were agreed to by the House of Commons on
August 10.
HOUSE OF COMMONS.
British Empire Exhibition.
A resolution, moved by Mr. F. G. Kellaway, was
passed authorising the provision of a sum not ex-
ceeding £100,000 for the fulfilment of any guar-
antee against loss given by the Board of Trade in
respect of the holding of the British Empire Exhi-
bition, 1921. The guarantee will become operative
only if a further sum of £500,000 is guaranteed by
private interests. — (Aug. 10.)
Rubber Manufactures (Foreign Competition).
In a written reply to Mr. Jesson, Mr. Bridgeman
stated that he had no information as to the alleged
fact that American tyre and rubber footwear manu-
facturers allow a discount to British buyers of 50
per cent., whereas British manufacturers cannot
allow more than from 5 — 12£ per cent, under pre-
sent conditions ; however, he would be glad to
receive definite evidence on the subject. The goods
in question have not at any recent time been subject
to import duty, but the whole matter of dumping is
being considered by the Government. — (Aug. 11).
China Clay Exports.
Mr. Bridgeman, replying to Mr. Hailwood, stated
that the exports of china clay have declined from
629,703 tons in 1913 to 232,464 tons in 1918. Since
then there has been an improvement: — 286,543
tons was exported in 1919 and 211,636 tons for the
first six months of 1920. It is hoped that improved
transport facilities will accelerate the rate of pro-
gress.— (Aug. 11).
Manganese Ore Supplies.
In answer to Mr. Gutten, Sir R. Home stated
that the position as regards manganese supplies
had for some time past been receiving the con-
sideration of the Board of Trade in consultation
with the India Office, with the result that the im-
ports into the United Kingdom had shown a steady
improvement during the last three months. The
questions as to shipments to Antwerp and the sug-
gested import duty were matters for the India
Office and the Government of India.
Mr. Montagu informed Mr. Gutten that he had
asked the Government of India to take all possible
steps to facilitate the transport of manganese ore
to the ports. There were 74,374 tons of the ore at
Calcutta on July 10 and 9000 tons at Bombay on
July 30, and provision had been made for the car-
riage of 500 tons daily to the latter port. He was
aware that there are American and Japanese agen-
cies in India for buying ferro-manganese ore, but
he did not know that 33,650 tons had recently been
shipped from India to Antwerp and Dunkirk for
the use of foreign manufacturers. As regards the
suggested export duty, the Joint Select Committee
that considered the Government of India Act, 1920,
recommended that the Government of India should
have full liberty to devise those tariff arrangements
which best suit India's needs as part of the British
Empire, because a belief that India's fiscal policy is
dictated from Whitehall in the interests of Great
Britain would be dangerous. — (Aug. 16).
Ministry of Mines Bill.
The Lords' amendments to the Ministry of Mines
Bill were considered on August 16, and were
agreed to, with the exception that the clause limit-
ing the expenses of the new department to
£250,000, which was omitted by the Lords, was re-
inserted. An amendment moved by Sir R. Home,
providing that the salary of the new Secretary of
Mines should be limited to £1500 a year was
agreed to. — (Aug. 16.)
German Potash (Sales).
Replying to Sir R. Cooper, Sir R. Home said
that 4000 tons of 80 per cent, and 2500 tons of 90—
95 per cent, muriate of potash from Germany were
exported to the United States, as purchasers for
these particular grades could not be found in this
country. — (August 16.)
The Women and Young Persons (Employment in
Lead Processes) Bill was presented by Sir John
Bland on August 10.
The Fertilisers (Temporary Control of Export)
Bill was passed on August 10, and the Mining
Industry Act on August 16.
The Royal Assent has been signified to the
Finance Act, 1920 (August 4) ; the Dangerous
Drugs Act, 1920 (August 16); the Fertilisers
(Temporary Control of Export) Act, 1920
(August 16); and the Mining Industry Act, 1920
(August 16).
VoL XXXLX.. No. 16.]
295 b
COMPANY NEWS.
SALAR DEL CARMEN NITRATE CO., LTD.
The twenty-third annual meeting of this company
was held in London on July 8, Mr. W. H. Sillem
presiding.
The chairman said that the last year had heen
satisfactory in spite of the heavy accumulation of
nitrate stocks in Chile after the armistice and the
policy of the Allies to refuse shipping licences for
nitrate until Government surplus stock had been
disposed of. The world's requirements for the
coming season were estimated at about 2J million
tons, and the total quantity already contracted
for or sold exceeded 2 million tons. Of this amount,
1,600,000 tons had been sold at an average price
of rather over 16s. a quintal, and the average price
for the remainder was about 17s. per quintal. At the
beginning of the year the f .o.b. price of nitrate for
shipment over 1920 was lis. 3d. to 12s., and market
values had now increased to 15s. 6d. for spot, 16s.
7Jd. for July-September, and 17s. 3d. December-
March. A year ago it was pointed out that the
company need not fear the possible competition of
synthetic nitrogen products, and it could now be
said with confidence that the output of synthetic
nitrogen products was small and likely to remain
so for some time yet. In addition, under normal
trading conditions, Chilean nitrate could be put on
the market at a lower price than the synthetic pro-
duct. The world's production of all nitrogenous
materials in the period Julv 1, 1919, to June 30,
1920, was estimated at 3,630,000 tons, including
1,910,000 t. of Chilian nitrate, 970,000 t. of sulphate
of ammonia, and 750,000 t. of synthetic products.
The output for 1920-21 was estimated at 4,300,000 t.,
comprising 2,500,000 t. of Chilean nitrate, 950,000 t.
of sulphate of ammonia, and 850,000 t. of synthetic
products (including 600,000 t. produced in Ger-
many). As regards the project of Messrs. Brunner,
Mond and Co. for the manufacture of certain nitro-
genous substances, it appeared that no fertiliser was
likely to be provided by this source for two or three
years, when a production of some 100,000 t. a year
in terms of nitrate of soda might be available. As
by then the output of Chilean nitrate would pro-
bably surpass three million tons, competition from
this quarter can be regarded with composure.
In the past year the company produced 231,240
quintals of nitrate, which represented 7 months'
production. The net profit, including profit on sale
of iodine, was £9183, and a dividend of 5 per cent,
is payable, together with an interim dividend of
like amount in respect of the current year. The
outlook for 1920 is considered to be satisfactory.
ANGELA NITRATE CO., LTD.
The nineteenth annual general meeting was held
in London on July 15, with Mr. H. W. Morrison in
the chair.
In presenting the report, the chairman said that
the effect of income tax and excess profits duty on
English nitrate companies was very serious, in view
of the wasting nature of their assets, and it might
lead them to change their domicile to Chile. The
results of the past year were as good as could be
expected, seeing that as it was impossible to sell or
ship the nitrate the works had to be closed, and
nitrate was produced during only 6i months in
1919. The prospects for 1920 were promising, as
most of the company's production had been sold at
remunerative prices. There seemed to be small pro-
bability of increasing the output by erecting new
works on account of the difficulty of obtaining new
plant and its almost prohibitive cost, whilst pro-
duction was still further hampered by shortage in
the supplies of fuel oil.
On December 31, last, the company had stocks
of nitrate amounting to 217,613 quintals, which
were actually sold by the Nitrate Association on
that date, mostly for forward deliveries. A divi-
dend of 10 per cent, is payable, and stoppage ex-
penses and repairs have been written off, the re-
serve fund having been drawn on to the extent of
£5000.
Amalgamation of Nitrate Companies. — An
agreement has been made by which the Liverpool
Nitrate Co., Ltd., will take over the San Lorenzo
Nitrate Co., Ltd., and the Buena Ventura Nitrate
Co., Ltd. The terms of the agreements, which take
effect as from June 30, are, respectively, that the
shareholders in the San Lorenzo Nitrate Co., Ltd.,
will receive one 5s. share from the Liverpool Nitrate
Co., Ltd., in exchange for every £1 share of the
former company; and that the shareholders in the
Buena Ventura Nitrate Co., Ltd., will receive one
5s. share in the Liverpool Nitrate Co., Ltd., in
exchange for every seven shares in the former
company, plus a cash payment of 5s. in respect of
each share held by them.
OFFICIAL TRADE INTELLIGENCE.
(From the Board of Trade Journal for August 12
and 19.)
OPENINGS FOR BRITISH TRADE.
The following inquiries have been received at the
Department of Overseas Trade (Development and
Intelligence), 35, Old Queen Street, London, S.W. 1,
from firms, agents or individuals who desire to
represent U.K. manufacturers or exporters of the
goods specified. British firms may obtain the names
and addresses of the persons or firms referred to by
applying to the Department and quoting the
specific reference number.
Localitv of
Materials.
Reference
Firm or Agent.
number.
Canada
Lubricating oils and greases
Kapok, rubber, sheet tin. terne
211
plates, soap makers* materials. .
212
Glassware, crockery
213
216
China. £lass
223
Egypt
Iron, steel, leather, soap, chemi-
cals, paint, oils
226
Belgium
192
Colza, flax seed, linseed ,.
194
Brass bars, strips and sheets
195
Whale oil, cod oil, fish oil, pro-
ducts for the deglvccrination of
oils and the manufacture of fatty
acids
228
France
Chemicals, ammonia, basic slag . .
232
Netherlands
Electrolytic copper rods, sheets
236
Syria
Denatured spirit
238
Smyrna
Cneinicals, pharmaceutical pro-
240
United States
Porcelain, pottery
241
Charcoal iron sheets
242
Artificial silk, asbestos packing . .
202
do. & Uruguay..
Earthenware and cast iron pipes,
galvanised and black fencing
wire, copper and brass wire,
tubes and sheets, lubricating
oils and greases, colours, paint,
varnish, bar iron, tinplate.
antifriction metals, fireclay,
firebrick, asbestos packing.
cement, chemicals
203
Brazil
Paper, industrial chemicals, iron
204
constructional materials
205
Drugs, inks, leather
247
Chemicals, pharmaceutical pro-
249. 251
Chemicals, cement, tinplate
250
[Aug. 31, 1920.
Markets Sought.
A firm in Trinidad able to export cocoa, copra,
starch, and vanilla wishes to get into touch with
U.K. importers, [189.]
A firm in Smyrna wishes to hear from U.K. im-
porters of gum tragacanth and opium. [240.]
TARIFF. CUSTOMS. EXCISE.
Austria. — Export licences are now required for
chinaware, sodium sulphate and bisulphate and
terrar (enamel substitute).
Belgium. — Export licences are again required
for vegetable and mineral black.
Crimea. — An export tax has been levied on, inter
alia, linseed and salt.
Denmark. — Export prohibitions have been re-
moved from colours, hides, skins, linseed oil varnish,
manures, shellac, turpentine, and blue and green
vitriol.
The consent of the Ministry of Justice is not now
necessary for the export of linseed oil.
France. — The reduced rates of import duty on
newsprint paper and cellulose pulp continue in
force until December 31.
Germany. — The charges in respect of export
licences have been amended. Among the articles
affected are beer, chemicals, colours, perfumery,
leather, paper, glass and pottery.
Ferruginous mass for the purification of gas is
now subject to export licence.
Italy. — Export licences are not required until
further notice for certain spices, cocoa butter,
carnauba wax, gums, resins, pyrites, turpentine,
harmless dyes, soap colours, sulphur black, gypsum,
potassium chloride, tanning extracts, certain hides
and skins, certain waste metals, medicines (with
some exceptions), tiles, and cement bricks.
Japan. — The modifications of the tariff came into
force on August 1. Among the articles affected are
alcoholic beverages, alcohol, alcoholic medicinal pre-
parations, beef tallow, salicylic acid and derivatives
thereof, antifebrin, coal tar derivatives (with some
exceptions), artificial indigo, coal tar dyes, minerals
and manufactures thereof, and certain metals.
Japan (Corea). — A summary of the proposed
tariff changes is given in the issue for August 19.
Luxemburg. — The export taxes on cast iron and
semi-manufactured iron and steel have been reduced
as from August 1.
Export prohibitions include mineral hydro-
carbides, chemical and pharmaceutical products,
colouring materials, ores, metals, wood pulp, paper,
celluloid, hides, skins, leather, and fertilisers.
Mexico. — The rates of customs duty have been
amended as from July 1. Articles affected include
iron piping, sulphur, sulphuric acid, sulphurous
acid, carbonic acid, hydrochloric acid, nitric acid,
rubber tyres, bones, hoofs, sugar and molasses.
Newfoundland. — Among the articles affected by
the amendments to the Import and Export Duties
are raw leather, kerosene, oil cake and other cattle
food, bark, extract of bark, cutch, potassium di-
chromate, logwood, manures, sulphuric acid, print-
ing paper, printers' ink, sand, china and fireclay.
Norway. — Export licences are no longer required
for alcoholic beverages, fish guano, and unsweetened
condensed milk.
Serb-Croat-Slovene State. — The export is still
prohibited of, inter alia, edible fats and oils, sugar,
" soda, soda products, iron, and mineral oil.
TRADE NOTES.
hid.
Spain. — Printing paper may be imported duty
free as from August 9.
Switzerland. — A General Export Licence now
covers celluloid waste, glass jars, and pharmaceu-
tical products not specially mentioned in the tariff.
Chemical pulp is no longer covered by General
Export Licence.
United States.— Genera] Export Licence " P.B.F.
37 " now covers all goods from all countries except
synthetic organic chemicals and drugs, dyestuffs,
coal-tar products and intermediates.
BRITISH.
Mauritius in 1918. — The total imports in 1918 were
valued at Rs.42,921,250 (Rs. 42,094,708 in 1917), the
share of the United Kingdom and British Posses-
sions being respectively 16'3 and 70'2 per cent. (26
and 524 per cent, in 1917). The value of the
exports in 1918 was Rs.55,652,480 (Rs. 58,319,728 in
1917), of which the United Kingdom took 381 and
British Possessions 57'1 per cent. The area under
sugar showed a slight increase, but there is not
much scope for extension as practically all the land
suitable for the purpose is already under this crop.
In 1918, the sugar crop did not exceed 225,970 t.,
of which 183,222 metric tons, worth Rs.53,882,000,
was exported, as against 190,821 m.t., worth
Rs.54,539,232, in 1917. The description of sugar
manufactured is 95'5 per cent, of white and 4'5 per
cent, of low-grade sugar. Although the number of
sugar factories has decreased from 104 to 55 between
1892 and 1918, the total capacity is greater, owing
to the tendency to centralise the industry. The
output of aloe fibre was much restricted owing to
lack of tonnage; the export was 391 m.t., valued
at Rs. 140, 135. Some small areas were planted with
sisal, but the cultivation of this plant shows no
great progress. Other exports were : — Coconut oil,
966 t. (Rs.72,572); molasses, 8 t. (Rs.125); and
copra, 15 t. (Rs.400). The figures for molasses and
copra showed very large decreases. During the
year tobacco production showed an increase, but
little or no extension of tea growing has taken
place, in spite of preferential treatment for the
local product. An experimental plantation of limes
has been made and the results obtained indicate
that this might become a profitable industry in
Mauritius. — (Col. Bep.-Ann., No. 1036, June,
1920.)
FOREIGN.
Foreign Company News. — France. — During 1919,
The " Compagnie Nationale de Matieres Colorantes
et de Produits Chimiques " took over the " Societe
des Produits Chimiques et Colorantes Francais "
and, in consequence, has raised its capital to 71
million fr. The company has completed the erec-
tion of a large indigo works at Villiers St. Paul
and has obtained the use of a works at Oissel, near
Rouen. The output of the company's products has
increased rapidly, and bj April, 1920, it had
trebled. The net profit for 1919 was 3,912,499 fr,.
and the dividend payable 5 per cent., or 25 fr. per
share; 166,874 fr. was carried forward.
The capital of the " Societe anonyme des
Matieres Colorantes et Produits Chimiques de
Saint Denis " is to be raised from 7 to 24 million fr.,
by the creation of 68,000 new shares of 250 fr. each.
The " Societe I'Air Liquide " has declared a divi-
dend of 12 fr. per share; 2,768,594 fr. was allo-
cated for amortisation and reserves. M. Georges.
Claude, the retiring director, was re-elected. The
flotation was authorised of a loan amounting to
10 million fr.
A number of companies manufacturing artificial
silk have issued their reports; the net profits and
dividends for 1919 were as follows: — "La Soie
Artificielle " : 1,860,681 fr. (1,151,954); 56169 fr.
per share (3608 fr.); " Soie Artificielle d'Izieux " :
1.343,752 fr., 32 fr. per share; "Societe Arde-
choise de la Soie Viscose": 1,993,960 fr., 3695 fr.
per share.
The " Etablissements Chiris " is maintaining its
dividend at 6 per cent.; the net profit is 2,911,440
fr. (2,854.419 fr. in 1918).
The "Societe Produits Chimiques Coignet " has
made a net profit of 1,797,19,5 fr. (2,160,935 fr.); a
dividend of 85 fr. is payable.— (JR. Prod. Chim.,
July 31, 1920.)
Vol. XXXIX, No. 16.]
Germany. — It appears from the annual report of
the Deutsche Salpeterwerke A.-G. in Hamburg that
during the year 1918 no saltpetre was produced in
Chile and that no sale of reserves took place. The
total loss of the company for the year was
1,279,335 mk. The time during which the works
lay idle was utilised for working out improved
methods of manufacture, and some valuable results
wore obtained.
Chemical Trade of Switzerland in 1919. — Some of the
principal chemical products imported into and
exported from Switzerland during 1919 were as
follows : —
Imports. Exports,
metric tons, metric tons.
Alkaloids 21-2 .. 23-3
1918 5-5 . . 40
Aluminium sulphate, hydroxide, sodium
aluminate. etc 14628-5
Ammonia liq. 692-6 . . 46-8
Aniline and salts 796-3 .. 58-3
1918 1835-5 .. 49-2
Benzine 13654-9 . . —
1918 6703-7 .. —
Benzvl chloride, nitrobenzene, naph-
thol. etc 769-9 . . 68-7
Borax 2741 .. —
Calcium carbide 40.. 36891-6
1918 0-1 .. 75837-4
Caustic potash and soda 2895-2 . . 2-4
1918 3454-8 .. —
Chlorates, perehlorates, persulphates .. 27-7 .. 551-5
1918 0-2 .. 1452-5
Chloride of lime 6001 . . 328-4
Chlorine, liquid 1350 . . —
Chlorsulphonic acid, oleum . . . . 1053-9 . . —
1918 13461 .. —
Citric, acetic lactic, tartaric acids,
acetone, etc 998-7 . . 47-6
Coal-tar derivatives and intermediates . . 2399-9 . . 26-8
1918 3428-9 .. 30-9
Copper sulphate 1062-2 . . 1-6
1918 3185-3 .. 2-7
Formaldehvde, aldehydes, denatured . . — . . 72-8
1918 1630 . . 0-1
Glue and size 148-9 . . 179-3
1918 20-5 .. 97-2
Hydrochloric acid 11490 . . 91-4
Masnesium chloride 1980-7 . . 22-3
Nitric acid 279-0 .. 379-7
1918 4-8 .. —
Oils, ethereal 13-4 . . 3-3
Oil of turpentine .. .. .. .. 1544-5 .. 1-0
Oil of cloves, lavender.-camphor, etc. . . 244-6 . . 11-5
Phthalic acid, resorcinol . . . . . . 48-7 . . 1-7
1918 1170 ..
Pitch 22219-4 .. 14-4
1918 5706-7 .. 105-4
Potassium ferrocyanide, ferricyauide,
thiocyanate, cyanide, etc. . . . . 441-8 . . 67-5
Saccharin . . . . . . . . . . 5-0 . . 76-5
1918 — .. 47-4
Salicylic acid 76-3 . . 3-3
1918 22-5 .. 0-3
Soda, crystals . . . . . . . . 1-5 . . 12-7
Soda, calcined 101-7 . . 853-4
1918 839-9 .. 568-8
Sodium salts 3123-8 . . 2550-5
Spirits, denatured 2975-9 . . 0-8
Sulphates of iron and zinc . . . . 40-6 . . 4-4
1918 54-2 . . 01
Sulphur, all kinds 408-1 . . —
1918 6660-5 .. —
Sulphuric, sulphurous acids . . . . 2276-8 . . 84-1
1918 15750 .. 0-4
Tar 1360-2 .. 116-4
Tartar, erode 2-8 . . 47-6
Water glass 1647-4 .. 38-1
1918 1163-6 .. —
Dye and colour ware* : —
Alizarin, artificial 89-6 . . —
1918 16-9 .. —
Aniline dyes. etc. (unspecified) . . 221-9 . . 6457-9
1918 394-4 .. 4932-4
Chemical colours, prepared . . . . 83-1 . . 31*5
Cinnabar, ultramarine, Schwelnfurt
green, bronze colours, Paris blue . . 118-8 . . 15-6
1918 4110 .. 0-5
Indigo and indigo solution . . . . 18-7 . . 1647-6
1918 10-3 .. 936-5
Lithopone. etc, unprepared . . . . 299-1 . . 0*4
Logwood extract, etc 604-3 . . 123-2
Mineral colours (crude and manufac-
tured) 8815-5 .. 81-5
Pigment or lake dyes 84-7 . . 20-5
White lead, prepared 0-9 .. 4261
Zinc white, unprepared . . . . 392-9 . . 0-6
Technical fats and oils : —
Animal oils 444-5 .. 6-8
Castor oil. crude 162-5 . . 0-2
Technical Fats and Oils. — (continued.)
Coconut and palm oils, crude . . 2955-6 . . 826-1
1918 1077-5 .. —
Luiseed oil 2440-9 . . 319-3
_. . 1918 1208-0 .. —
Liquid fats and oils, unspecified . . 21461 . . 16-5
Lubricauts . . . . . . . . 214-9 *>4-6
.... .. 19i8 06-5 [I 2-8
Machine oils, unprepared . . . . 8421-9 . . 19-9
Olive, almond oils, olein . . . . 1302-9 '. [ 7-2
Paraffin and ceresin . . . . . . 980-8 '. '. 0-1
Resin oils.. .. .. .. .. 51-8 __ 2-0
Stearin, degras 161-0 \ '. 11-6
Varnish, lac, dryers 216-9 . . 162-7
,r ,. 1918 11-3 .. 8-3
Vaseline 168-1 .. 0-3
h ,:rt liters : —
Artificial manures, etc. . . . . 39601 . . 7555-7
Basic slag 46443-5 . . —
Bones, bone meal, crude phosphate . . 14858-8 . . 20-4
Manure salts (potash) 29336-3 . .
Potassium chloride . . . . . . 4775-7 . . n-2
Saltpetre, crude, ammonium salts .. 1078-2 1! 1-5
— (fihem. Ind., June 9 and 16, 1920.)
Resources of the Cali District, Columbia.— Cali is the
trade centre for the department of EI Valle, which
extends from the Central Cordillera on the east to
the Pacific on the west. In spite of its natural re-
sources, the development of this district has been
retarded, chiefly owing to the climate, which is
almost tropical, and to the lack and inferior quality
of labour. The chief industries are cattle raising
and sugar planting. Sugar is the most important
agricultural product and occupies an area of 19,760
acres, with a total annual output of some 5156 tons
of refined sugar, 1011 tons of unrefined sugar, and
3828 tons of molasses. It is estimated that, with
the use of scientific methods, and if sufficient capital
and labour could be obtained, the export of refined
sugar could be increased by 20,000 tons. Although
both climate and soil are suitable, all attempts to
grow cotton have failed. Coal is found in the area
between Guachinte to Punta Yumbo, a distance of
about 51 miles, and an annual output of about
36,000 tons is obtained. The proximity of this re-
serve to the Panama Canal makes it probable that
the industry will become very important; the coal is
bituminous, somewhat friable, but cokes well. The
development of this industry is held back by the
limited carrying capacity of the Pacific Railway
between Cali and Buenaventura. No other
minerals, except coal, are produced in the depart-
ment of El Valle, but its port, Buenaventura, is the
chief shipping centre for the rich platinum and
gold-mining district in the Choco Territory. Dur-
ing 1917 and 1918 the exports of platinum were 247
and 352 kg. respectively, and of gold dust 396 and
326 kg. respectively. There are practically no
manufactures in the department of El Valle. — (U S
Com. Hep., Apr. 22, 1920.)
REVIEWS.
Imperial Institute Monographs. Tin Ores. By
G. M. Da vies. Pp. 111. Manganese Ores.
By A. H. Curtis. Pp. 118. Tungsten Ores.
By R, H. Rastall and W. H. Wtlcockson.
Pp. 81. (London: John Murray. 1920.) Price
per volume, 3s. 6d. net.
These three monographs on mineral resources with
special reference to the British Empire have been
prepared under the direction of the Mineral Re-
sources Committee of the Imperial Institute with
the object of giving a general account of the occur-
rences and commercial utilisation of the more im-
portant minerals. Each monograph comprises three
chapters, dealing respectively with (1) the particu-
lar ores, their occurrence, character and uses, (2)
sources of supply within the Empire, and (3) foreign
sources of supply, and concluding with an adequate
list of references to the literature on the subject.
REVIEW.
Under each country are given tables showing
imports, exports and production, and short descrip-
tions of the geology and of the mineral occurrences.
The statistical information relative to market
prices, output and consumption, notoriously diffi-
cult to obtain in many cases, is well presented by
means of tables and diagrams and is, on the whole,
probably as accurate as was possible in the existing
circumstances although, especially in the case of
"Tin Ores," several unexplained discrepancies are
noticeable when the tables of exports and imports
are compared.
An effort has been made to include particulars
concerning new deposits or potential sources of
supply but, whilst much interesting information
has been collected from official and unofficial sources
and put into a convenient form for reference, it
varies in reliability, and little regard appears to
have been paid to the relative importance of such
occurrences. Mr. Curtis appears to have been the
most successful in overcoming these difficulties, and
his monograph throughout shows care in its com-
pilation.
The effect of the war upon the ore-minerals in
question is clearly brought out in all three cases.
The United States, the largest consumer of tin
but not a producer before the war, now takes the
place of Germany as a purchaser of Bolivian ores.
Practically all the tungsten ore produced within the
British Empire was taken by Germany before the
war; now there is more than adequate plant
capacity in England for this country's needs.
Brazilian manganese ores could not compete seri-
ously with those of Russia and India before the
war but, owing to the cutting off of the Russian
supplies and the Indian production being required
by Great Britain, the United States increased its
importation from Brazil, whose output of ore rose
from 70,000 tons in 1913 to 495,000 tons in 1916.
Much has been written in the press concerning the
war period increase of tungsten ores. The increase
in the world's production was approximately from
8000 tons in 1913 to 22,000 in 1917, a special feature
being the production of China, which is stated to
have risen from a negligible quantity before the
war to 1200 tons in 1917 and to over 4000 tons in
1918. As a matter of fact, China produced approxi-
mately 8000 tons in 1918 ; equal in amount to the
world's production in 1913.
William G. Wagner.
Animal and Vegetable Otls, Fats, and Waxes. By
Geoffrey Martin. Manuals of Chemical Tech
nology IX. Pp. 218. (London: Crosby lock-
wood and Son. 1920.1 Price 12s. 6d. net.
Several attempts have been made during recent
years to cover in a short treatise either the whole or
a considerable part of the wide field outlined by
the above title. The present attempt to deal with
the whole field of the nature, manufacture, analysis,
and uses of oils in the brief space of some two hun-
dred pages (including a good deal of space given up
to diagrams and illustrations) is obviously a bold
one, and the result cannot be said to be particu-
larly successful.
In spite of the concentration of a large amount
of information into a small space by the copious use
of small type, and by cutting down descriptions of
methods or processes so far as to render them fre-
quently of little use, valuable space is often wasted
by needless repetition. Chapter XI., for example,
dealing with analytical methods, is to a large extent
covered by Appendix II., consisting of a reprint of
the Report of the Committee of Analysts on
Standard Methods of Analysis of Seeds, etc., to the
Ministry of Pood.
The attempt to deal in five pages with the manu-
facture and analysis of butter is obviously futile,
especially as nearly two pages are devoted to tables
of tests for added colouring matter ; whilst the
chapter on margarine occupying six pages, and in-
cluding three pages of statistical information, is
also poor, although in this case there is more excuse,
as the literature of the subject is scanty and manu-
facturers are somewhat reticent as to details of
certain processes.
Chapter X., entitled "Varieties of Fats, Fatty
Oils, and Waxes," is, unfortunately, one of the
weakest in the book. A notable omission is to be
traced under castor oil, no reference being made in
the description of this oil to its characteristic acetyl
value, and, although figures for acetyl values of
various oils are given in the tables of analytical
constants, no reference is made to this constant in
the chapter on methods of analysis.
There is throughout an unfortunate lack of
system ; botanical names of plants furnishing oil-
seeds are sometimes given (in several cases inac-
curately), and in many other places are omitted,
whilst no serious attempt is made to indicate the
relative commercial importance of different oils.
The information is at times not so " up-to-date " as
it might be — e.g., no mention is made of the most
important modern source of whale oil, viz., the
South Atlantic fisheries, though less important
sources are referred to (p. 32).
One must confess relief at finding that the
author realises that edible oils may be manufac-
tured by the solvont extraction process, though
even now he appears hardly to realise, or else is re-
luctant to admit, that enormous quantities of edible
oils have been manufactured in this way for some
years past.
In spite of its many faults this book possesses re-
deeming features, such as the numerous diagrams
and illustrations of modern plant and machinery
(largely from machinery manufacturers' cata-
logues), the inclusion of brief descriptions of the
manufacture of fish oil and meal, and of the re-
covery of oil from engineering-shop waste, whilst
the important subjects of the hydrogenation of oils
and extraction of oils by solvents .appear to be dealt
with as well as it could be in the small space
available.
After a careful perusal of this book one is
tempted to ask, to what class of reader is it likely
to appeal most. It seems to be written in too con-
densed a form to prove of much value as a work of
reference to the technologist, manufacturer, or
chemist; it should, however, enable anyone with
little previous knowledge of oils to obtain rapidly,
and with a minimum of labour, a general idea of
the subject, and serve to indicate where more de-
tailed information is to be found.
Russell G. Pellt.
PUBLICATIONS RECEIVED.
Publications of the United States Bureau of
Mines. Department of the Interior. (Wash-
ington: Government Printing Office. 1920): —
Effects of Gasolene Removal on the Heating
Value of Natural Gas. By D. B. Dow.
Waste and Correct Use of Natural Gas in the
Home. By S. S. Wyer.
Approximate Quantitative Microscopy of
Pulverised Ores. By W. H. Coghtll and
J. P. Bonardi.
The MmERAL Industry of the British Empire
and Foreign Countries. War Period. Im-
perial Mineral Resources Bureau. London:
H.M. Stationery Office, 1920: —
Magnesite. Price Is. 3d.
Felspar. Price 6d.
Fuller's Earth. Price 6d.
Chrome Orb and Chromium. Price Is.
Vol. XXXIX., No. 17.;
REVIEW
[Sept. 15, 1920.
BRITISH ASSOCIATION FOR THE
ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE.
CARDIFF, 1920.
The 8Sth Annual Meeting of the British Associa-
tion was held from August 24 to 28 last in Cardiff
under the presidency of Prof. W. A. Herdman.
Despite the increased railway fares and a local
strike of municipal employees, the number of
members reached the satisfactory total of 1387, the
general and sectional meetings, social functions,
and excursions all being, in the main, well attended.
It would be difficult to conceive of a better environ-
ment than that afforded by Cathays Park, where
the accommodation provided in the City Hall, the
University College, and the Technical College was
all that could be desired. At the Inaugural
General Meeting, Prof. Herdman delivered the
presidential address on the subject of oceanography,
in the course of which he advocated the initiation
of a New Challenger Expedition. This proposal was
supported by resolutions passed by various sectional
committees, including that of Section B (Chem-
istry), and adopted by the General Committee; as
the Reseaich Department of the Admiralty regards
it with favour, it is probable that preparations for
its execution will be taken in hand in due course.
Prof. Herdman also pleaded for the establishment
and maintenance by the Local Authority of a
Marine Biological Station at Cardiff, a suggestion
which was well received by the Rt. Hon. the Lord
Mayor and the local press. The Evening Dis-
courses were delivered by Sir R. T. Glazebrook on
" Some Requirements of Modern Aircraft," and by
Sir A. D. Hall on " A Grain of Wheat from the
Field to the Table." At a special conference on
" Science Applied to Public Services," Prof. Herd-
man presiding, Mr. F. E. Smith, director of
research to the Admiralty, described the organisa-
tion, actual and prospective, of this new depart-
ment. An important feature of the scheme is the
provision for co-operation with other research
institutions and with independent workers, who
are to be remunerated for their services. Pending
the completion of a new laboratory at Teddington,
estimated to cost between £25,000 and £30,000,
work is being carried on at the National Physical
Laboratory with a staff of 28. Mr. Smith was
followed by other speakers from Government
Departments, each of whom described, and inferen-
tially eulogised, the work of his department, but
Prof. Stanley Gardiner, of the Ministry of
Agriculture and Fisheries, 6truck a critical note
in pleading for the raising of scientific men in
State employ to the rank of ordinary civil servants,
a status which they do not at present enjoy. The
subject of the status of scientific men, and their
emoluments, was also prominent at a meeting of
the National Union of Scientific Workers. Prof.
F. Soddy presided, and Major A. G. Church, the
secretary, in discussing the aims and organisation
of the Cnion, laid stress on the point that although
circumstances had rendered it advisable to register
as a trade union, there was no intention of adopting
any trade-union method, e.g., the strike, which was
subversive of industrial peace and progress.
A resolution was passed by Section I (Physiology)
urging the formation of a new section of Psych-
ology (at present a sub-section), and this was
endorsed by the General Committee, and remitted
to the Council for consideration. The criticism
emanating from an influential quarter that the
number of sections should be reduced rather than
increased has met with little support. It is felt
that although the discussion of general questions
and the popularisation of science are undoubtedly
among the chief objects of the Association, it
would be unwise to make any move which would
tend to discourage the attendance of specialists
and the presentation of contributions by them.
! On the other hand, it is generally recog-
| nised that it would be wise to hold more joint
meetings of cognate sections, for such always prove
attractive and useful, the joint meeting of Sections
A and B to discuss Isotopic Elements during this
meeting being a case in point. It has also been
suggested, with considerable force, that the popu-
larising function of the Association would be
facilitated by securing extended and better
publication of suitable matter in the non-technical
Press. On the whole, the daily press has served
the Association well, but better results would
undoubtedly accrue it the "copy" were supplied
by authors, and then suitably fashioned by a
journalist with some knowledge of science.
The addresses of the sectiona' presidents, which
have been published in a separate volume*, were,
with the exception of that by Mi. C. T. Heycock to
Section B, (c/. J., 1920, 285b) of but little direct
interest to the chemist, but, nevertheless, the
ubiquity of chemistry, to borrow Lord Moulton's
expression, was manifest in many of them.
In his address to the Mathematical and Physical
' Science Section, Prof. A. S. Eddington dealt with
the internal constitution of the stars, and came to
the conclusion that the source of a star's heat can-
not be accounted for by the energy of gravitational
attraction, rather has it to be ascribed to sub-
atomic energy set free within the star. The work
of Aston and Rutherford supports the view that the
stars are the crucibles in which the lighter atoms
which abound in the nebulae are compounded into
more complex elements. The end of this address
was devoted to an interesting disquisition on the
roles of hypothesis and speculation in the develop-
ment of a science. In the Engineering Section,
Prof. C. F. Jenkin urged an extensive revision of
the theory of the strength of materials in order
that anisotropic substances, like timber, might be
included, and for more research into the physical
properties of materials used by engineers. An
interesting address was given by Mr. J. Barcroft
to the Physiological Section on anoxaemia, or lack
of oxygen in the blood. Cases of anoxaemia may
be classified as follows : — (1) Anoxic, too little
oxygen pressure and too much reduced haemoglobin
in arterial blood, as in pneumonia ; (2) Anaemic,
too little haemoglobin, but normal oxygen pressure,
as in anaemia and carbon-monoxide poisoning; and
(3) Stagnant, normal oxygen pressure, but blood-
flow too slow, as in shock and back pressure. Prof.
F. W. Keeble addressed the Agricultural Section
on the subject of intensive cultivation, and in
regard to the important question of the relation of
the expert to the administrator in Government
Departments stated his conviction that no admin-
istrator, save the rare genius, can direct the expert,
but the latter, if he has a trained scientific mind
and fair administrative ability, can direct any but a
genius for administration. Work in a Government
office dealing with purely administrative matters
can be left to the trained administrator, but if it
be of a creative kind it must be directed by a mind
trained in the methods of scientific research.
The proceedings of the Chemical Section, which
were presided over by Mr. C. T. Heycock and
" managed " by Prof. C. H. Desch (who acted as
recorder in the absence, through an accident, of Dr.
A. Holt), covered a numbered of topical subjects
and were, on the whole, well attended. Captain
Deeborough's paper on " Industrial Alcohol,"
•The Advancement of Science. 1920. (London: John Murray.
1920.) Price 6a. net.
b2
» REVIEW.
[Sept- 15, 1920.
which is given elsewhere in this issue, dealt with
the practicability of producing alcohol direct from
agricultural products, and led to the conclusion that
the question of the manufacture from home-grown
products is still sub judice. In the discussion
Prof. C. H. Desch stated that experiments at
the works of the Skinningrove Iron Co. had
shown that about 70 per cent, of the ethylene
formed in the manufacture of coke was re-
coverable, and that 70 per cent, of this recovered
gas was convertible into alcohol. The results had
so far been obtained with an experimental installa-
tion, but a large-scale plant had just begun work-
ing, and it remained to be seen if the process was
an economic one. If the ethylene were recovered
from all the coal carbonised in this country, some
23 million gallons of alcohol could be obtained
yearly on the basis of the above figures of yield. A
resolution was passed by the Sectional Committee
endorsing the value of, and claiming support for,
such experiments as were being undertaken by
Capt. Desborough, and this was approved by the
General Committee and remitted to the Council.
To a symposium on " Lubrication " were con-
tributed papers by Messrs. H. M. Wells and J. E.
Southcombe, A. E. Dunstan and F. B. Thole, and
H. T. Tizard. The first of these dealt with the
authors' work on the effect of introducing small
amounts of free acid into mineral oil, whereby the
usual fatty oil used for blending purposes becomes
unnecessary and wasteful. Messrs. Dunstan and
Thole discussed the chemical nature of heavy
mineral oil, bringing out the point that the
" unsaturated " components of lubricating oil were
removable by means of sulphuric acid ; they
possessed iodine values which steadily increased
with the concentration of Wij's reagent, and with
time, but were unaffected by hydrogen in conjunc-
tion with nickel catalyst. They suggested the
possibility of the presence of closed saturated rings
which were opened up under the influence of acid
and iodine chloride. Mr. Tizard discussed the
nature of lubrication from the point of view of
adsorption phenomena, and criticised Southconibe's
falling-drop method of measuring interfacial
surface energy, pointing out that when mercury
fell through castor oil the droplets did not coalesce,
whereas through glycerol of the same viscosity and
drop number coalescence was observed.
Papers on tungsten and zinc were presented by
Mr. J. L. P. Vogel, Prof. Desch, and Mr. S. Field.
Mr. Vogel's paper on the tungsten industry fol-
lowed closely on the lines of his article in this
Journal (1920, 130 k), and that by Dr. Desch dealt
mainly with the manufacture of the ductile metal.
This is made by pressing the powder into rods and
sintering these together by heat produced by an
electric current, heating in hydrogen, swaging at
a very high temperature, and drawing, first hot and
then cold. So prepared, a wire of 0.0014 in.
diameter has a tensile strength of nearly 270 tons
per sq. in. The possibility of drawing cold depends
upon the grain size of the original sintered ingot,
and this is kept under control by microscopical
examination. In order to prevent undue growth of
grain, a small amount of thorium oxide is added to
the tungsten powder in making the original ingot.
Mr. S. Field contributed a long paper on " Electro-
lytic Zinc," in which he advocated the develop-
ment of the industry in this country, enumerated
the advantages of the electrolytic process, described
the various operations involved in its practice, and
gave the results of original work that had been
carried out at Swansea during the past four years.
Prof. W. A. Bone presented the Third Report
of the Committee on Fuel Economy, of which
an abstract is given on page 308 R of this issue, and
copies of the Report of the Committee on Absorp-
tion Spectra of Organic Compounds, drawn up by
the secretary, Prof. E. C. C. Baly, were distributed.
Other papers and communications contributed
were : — ' ' Researches on Atmospheric Pollution and
its Measurement," by Dr. J. S. Owens; " Research
Work at High Temperatures, and the Determina-
tion of Surface Tension and Electrical Conducitvity
between -100° and 1650° C.,"by Prof. F. M.Jaeger,
of the University of Groningen; and two short
papers by Dr. R. V. Stanford on methods of estimat-
ing (a) carbon in organic compounds by combustion,
and (b) amino acids, using very small quantities in
each case. The four afternoons were devoted to
visits to works in the neighbourhood.
Among the papers contributed to other Sections
which are of interest to chemists were : Section
C. : — "Crystal Structure," by Prof. W. L. Bragg;
Section E. : " The Iron Industry of South Wales,"
by Dr. A. E. Trueman ; Section G: — "Testing
Materials at High Temperatures," by Prof. F. C.
Lea; "Specific Heat and Dissociation in Internal
Combustion Engines," by H. T. Tizard; "The
Pneumatic Conveying of Materials," by Prof. W.
Cramp; Section I.: — "The Energy of the Human
Machine as Measured bv the Output of Carbon
Dioxide," by Prof. A. D. Waller; " On the Estima-
tion of Sugar in Blood," by Miss H. Walker, Prof.
A. R. Ling and Mr. E. A. Cooper; Sections K and
M:— " Soil Acidity," by Mr. E. A. Fisher.
The next meeting of the Association will be held
at Edinburgh from September 7-14, 1921, when Sir
Edward Thorpe will assume the presidency. The
1922 meeting will be held in Hull, that in 1923
probably in another northern city, and for 1924
theee are prospects of a meeting in Canada.
THE DYE-WORKS CHEMIST.
B. LEECH.
In the dyeing industry the gradual replacement
of natural by synthetic dyestuffs has led to the dis-
appearance of the old-time craftsman. The
materials which the old dyer used were of such un-
certain and variable composition, and the chemical
aspect of the processes he employed was so in-
completely understood, that experience and the
accumulation of detailed empirical knowledge were
of greater practical value than a knowledge of
chemistry. As in many other industries, the
necessary technical knowledge was carefully
guarded, and the possession of " trade secrets "
was the basis of commercial success. With the
introduction of synthetic dyestuffs the dyer was
offered materials which his previous experience had
not taught him how to use, and he was dependent
for the necessary information on the makers of the
new dyestuffs. In this way it came about that all
problems of the special application of the new dyes
was referred to the colour makers for solution, and
ultimately the dyer appealed to the colour maker
in all cases where a difficulty arose which appeared
to him to present a chemical problem. This state
of affairs is well illustrated by the reply recently
given by a number of dyers to an inquiry by a
local education committee as to the desirability of
starting classes in chemistry and dyeing in the
local technical school. The reply was to the effect
that the directions given by the colour makers for
the use of their dyes were so complete and simple
that no knowledge of chemistry was required by a
dyer ! This surely is a policy of despair as regards
the future of dyeing as an independent industry.
If the art of dyeing has become so simple that any-
one can carry it on without special training, com-
petition must inevitably reduce the dyer to the
position of the unskilled labourer. It would be
almost equally ridiculous to pretend that the issue
of drugs in tablet form, with pamphlets describing
their therapeutic value and giving directions for
[Vol. XXXIX.. No. 17.
REVIEW.
301 b
their administration, would make special training
unnecessary for the medical profession. Surely a
saner view would be to regard the new synthetic
dyestulfs as presenting wider opportunities for the
dyer's ingenuity and invention. The dyeing and
printing industries as a whole present a vastly
more complicated picture from the technical point
of view than that offered by these industries in the
days before the universal use of synthetic dyes.
The actual chemical materials now in use are much
greater in number and variety; at the same time
they are of greater chemical purity and less obscure
and uncertain in their properties. The conse-
quence is that the problems now presented to the
dyer, though of greater variety and complexity than
in the past, require for their solution a wide
knowledge of chemistry and kindred sciences rather
than the special and intimate experience of his
materials which the old craftsman possessed. Dye-
ing has, in short, become an applied science. Like
other industries, the dyeing industry is in a state
of transition, and very different stages of progress
are represented by different works. Thus we find a
large number of small dye-houses in which a very
limited number of processes is used and the equip-
ment is of the simplest ; very extensive works which
are specially equipped for mass production by a few
processes; and finally works with a highly complex
organisation for a great variety of processes.
Most dye-works of importance now employ a
chemist, but there is still room for very consider-
able progress in the direction of scientific organisa-
tion and control of the processes carried on. On
the one hand there is a deficiency in the supply of
adequately trained men, and on the other there is
a failure to appreciate the value of scientific con-
trol. The dye-house chemist is to-day employed
chiefly for the analysis and evaluation of materials
as a guide to the buying department, but it is
desirable that he should have a far greater share
in management and responsibility, and that
remuneration should be offered which would attract
men who are fit to take such responsibility and have
a place on the' board of directors. It is not
generally realised that a manager who possesses no
scientific training cannot employ a trained man
under him in such a way as to get the greatest
benefit from his services. Such a manager fails to
■see the opportunities for the application of scientific
method which are actually under his eyes, and the
problems which he passes on to the trained man are
most frequently presented in a form which pre-
cludes any likelihood of the latter drawing up a
report of real value. Given the trained man, the
only way in which to bring him into contact with
his work is to give him complete technical control
and a free hand. It is often far easier to solve a
technical problem than to explain it to a board of
untrained directors and teach them to arrange the
facts and draw the inference's in a scientific manner.
However, the supply of men capable of taking re-
sponsibility is very restricted, and a much broader
scientific education is needed in the technical
school. When Nature presents a technical problem
she has no regard for the examination syllabus. A
problem which at the first glance appears to be a
chemical one often involves a knowledge of physics
or biology for its solution. The first requirement
for the dye-works' chemist is a broad and thorough
training in scientific method. In addition to
chemistry he requires at least a sound knowledge of
physics and mathematics, and he must be familiar
with the technique of the microscope. The best
training for such a man is a broad scientific course
at a university, followed by special training in a
technical school. At present the university-trained
man knows too little of the technical side, and the
technical college man knows too little of the
scientific side.
It will now be interesting to pass in review some
of the features in dyeworks' management in which
the services of such a trained man, as suggested
above, would prove of considerable value. His
advice will be needed as to the plan and construc-
tion of buildings, the materials of the walls, roof,
floor, and drains, for wise decision on these points
involves a knowledge of the processes for which the
building is to be used. Ventilation (which is
I generally either very bad or immensely expensive),
i steam and power equipment, and the arrangements
I for artificial lighting also demand his attention.
Further, there is the important question of plant.
The modern tendency is to dye all textile materials
at as late a stage of manufacture as possible. If
goods can be woven " in the grey " and dyed in the
piece the output of a given number of looms is far
greater, and there is much less risk of damage than
if they are woven from dyed yarns. But piece-
dyeing involves a great variety of machinery, and
almost every one of the new fabrics which has
appeared in recent years requires special machinery
for dyeing and finishing. The problems involved in
devising means of dyeing expeditiously a new
fabric, having regard to the choice of dyestuffs and
contents and temperature of the dye-liquor to which
one ia restricted, and the final finish which the
fabric is required to have, are such as require an
intimate knowledge of the properties of the dye-
stuffs under very varied conditions, as well as of
the physical properties of the fabric and of the
materials which can be used in constructing the
special machinery. In this connexion it may be
remarked that the most conspicuous successes have
only been attained when the designer of the cloth
and the dyer have worked in close collaboration.
This invention of new fabrics will be a most im-
portant factor in enabling this country to maintain
its pre-eminence in the textile markets. Conditions
in other countries, notably the United States and
Japan, are very favourable to mass-production of
the more common and less complex fabrics, and the
British manufacturer is being forced more and more
to abandon the trade in the commoner and lower-
priced materials and to turn his attention to those
I which present greater technical difficulties in pro-
duction and command a higher price. The prob-
j lems before the dyer in this respect include not only
' those of dyeing itself, but involve the question of
I chemical or physical treatment of the fabrics in
very special ways, which, combined with the weave
and design, produce quite novel results. The
weighting of silk, mercerisation of cotton, and the
production of artificial fibres are instances to the
point. An interesting fabric consisting of a mohair
warp and wool weft, of fairly recent invention,
affords another illustration of the kind of possi-
bilities that are open. The mohair warp, as it
existed in the finished fabric, was too weak to
stand weaving ; the warp originally consisted of a
mixed yarn of mohair and cotton, and the latter
was entirely removed from the piece, after weaving,
by carbonisation.
Another valuable part of the work of the dye-
works' chemist is the detection of the cause of
damages which arise during one or another of the
processes and the prevention of the same. Such
problems almost always involve skill in chemical
microscopy, and experience in this special
technique is a valuable asset to the dyeworks'
chemist. Timely use of the microscope in this way
may lead to the early detection of an impurity in
one of the chemical materials used or a defect in
a machine and so prevent heavy loss.
The question of large production is one which
I involves in the dyeworks many intricate physical
and chemical problems. In the case of each fabric,
yarn, or fibre there is an optimum amount which
can profitably be dyed on one machine. It is
BEVIEW.
[Sept. 15. 1920.
generally possible to decide on the approximate
limitations without actual trial.
In the control of drying and finishing processes
the trained man will find many opportunities for
the application of his knowledge. To give a simple
example : — The difference in efficiency in the
ordinary drying stove achieved by the correct con-
trol of the ventilation, based on observations of a
wet and dry bulb thermometer, is very striking.
The finish of a cloth varies in a very remarkable
way with the conditions of the final drying,
namely, the previous and final moisture content of
the cloth, length of time taken, and the tempera-
ture at which drying is carried out. The difference
in effect between low and high temperature drying
is one of the problems which are ripe for thorough
investigation. The mixings, for finishing purposes,
of stiffening, softening, or thickening materials
and the like present a fine field of investigation to
the colloid chemist. The sizing of yarns before
weaving and the removal of the size before dyeing
may be included in the same class of problems.
Closely related are problems involving fermenta-
tion and the growth of moulds on fabrics and
fibres and the destructive effect of micro-organisms.
The production of materials with special physical
properties such as waterproofing, fireproofing,
making them impermeable to gases and resistant
to abnormal conditions, offers another large field of
scientific problems. Finally, it must not be for-
gotten that we are still very ignorant of what is
actually going on in the dye-bath when a textile
material is being dyed.
The above short sketch of the general character
of the work of a modern dyer will show that the
training suggested is by no means too wide or
liberal if the industry is to attain the rapidity of
progress necessary to keep this country at the
head of the textile trade. It will also be seen that
the occupation is one in which a man of high
education may find work which can be of great
commercial value, and is at the same time intel-
lectually interesting and satisfying.
INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.
A. P. H. DESBOROTJGH.
With the ever increasing consumption of petrol
we are approaching a stage in which the supply of
this commodity will not equal the demand. In con-
sequence we shall find that the price of petrol will
rise rapidly, and that in a comparatively few years
the cost of energy in this form will be out of all
proportion to that of energy in the form of solid
fuel. The most important use of petrol is its
employment as a fuel iu the internal combustion
engine. Therefore, the industrial problem which
demands immediate attention, is the finding of a
substitute available in considerable quantities and
suitable for use in these engines. Alcohol alone,
or in admixture with various substances such as
benzol or ether, has repeatedly shown its merit as
a liquid fuel, not only as a substitute for petrol,
hut actually as an industrial rival. Its future,
however, depends entirely upon the practicability
of producing it economically, and it is mainly to
this dominating aspect of the problem of industrial
alcohol that the following considerations are
directed.
Let us consider briefly the possible sources from
which alcohol may be obtained. As far as the
manufacture from calcium carbide is concerned, it
• Communicated by Section B (Chemistry) of the British Associa-
tion for the Advancement of Science. Cardiff, August, 1920.
is difficult to obtain definite information about costs
of production. The most concrete figures available
are given in a report (1918) on alcohol by the
German Government, according to which a firm at
Lonza, Switzerland, contracted to supply a recti-
fied alcohol to the Swiss Federal Government at
approximately Is. per gallon. It is important to
note that the report considers it problematic
whether the manufacture of alcohol from carbide
will ever be able to compete with that by the
fermentation process, and it is shown that, if con-
verted into calcium cyanamide and in this form
applied as fertiliser to a potato crop, the calcium
carbide would indirectly yield four times as much
alcohol as when converted into the alcohol direct.
The Lonza factory, however, is understood to have
been closed down, as the manufacture of alcohol
was found to be unprofitable. Lately it has been
suggested that considerable quantities of ethyl
alcohol may be produced from the ethylene present
in coke-oven gases. No information is available
as to the manufacturing costs of this alcohol, but
in estimates from the Skinningrove Iron Co. the
value of it is put at 2s. a gallon.
All other methods for the manufacture of ethyl
alcohol are based on the conversion of carbohy-
drates by fermentation, the carbohydrate being
cellulose, starch, or sugars. It is possible to get
reliable information as to cost, especially in the
cases of conversion from starch or sugar. For the
conversion of cellulose to alcohol several processes
have been worked out. There is the well-known
process of fermenting sulphite liquors which, in
countries of extensive timber and pulp production,
has attained considerable importance. According
to a report of the Honorary Advisory Council for
Scientific and Industrial Research of Canada, the
sulphite liquor from all the pulp mills in Canada
could supply 5 million gallons of 95% alcohol per
annum at a cost of about Is. 6d. a gallon. In the
Simonsen and the Classen processes, sawdust and
waste wood are digested with sulphurous and sul-
phuric acids, respectively, at high temperatures.
Part of the cellulose is thereby converted into
dextrose, which may be fermented. A factory in
the United States was working this process during
the war. Taking into account the enormous quan-
tities of waste cellulose materials which are pro-
duced annually all over the world, there is no doubt
that here is a potential source of large amounts of
alcohol, provided the serious difficulties met with
in dealing with the waste cellulose could be over-
come. It must be remembered that this material
is, more often than not, found in very inaccessible
places, and the cost of transport to the fermen-
tation factory would, usually, be considerable.
Another difficulty is the large quantities of mineral
acid required for hydrolysis of the cellulose, the
supplies of which would probably have to be
brought from afar. This objection applies equally
to Willstatter's hydrochloric acid treatment.
Other cheap sources of carbohydrates such as peat
or seaweed have been suggested and even investi-
gated on a small scale, but the extensive utilisation
of these materials is very problematical.
Coming to the more readily fermentable carbo-
hydrates (starch and sugar materials), let us con-
sider briefly the possibility of industrial alcohol
production in this direction.
To place alcohol on the market at, say, 3s. 2d.
per gallon retail, the manufacturer will have to sell
at 2s. 2d. per gall., one shilling being absorbed by
distribution and other charges. Now, is it possible
to manufacture 95% alcohol at 2s. 2d. per gall, and
still leave a sufficient margin of profit to the manu-
facturers?
The cost of manufacture of 1 gall, of 95% alcohol
by fermentation in a modern factory may be put
at 9d. per gall., including depreciation on plant.
If the wholesale price is 2s. 2d., there is there-
Vol. XXXIX.. No. 17.]
fore Is. 5d. left to pay for raw materials used, and
for interest on the capital invested in the factory.
Leaving 4d. per gall, for the latter purpose, there
is Is. Id. available to pay for the raw material
required for the production of 1 gall, of 95%
alcohol. As on an average 120 galls, are obtained
from one ton of fermentable carbohydrates, it will
be seen that the maximum price which can be
offered per ton of pure carbohydrates is £6 10s.,
supplied at the fermentation factory.
The table below gives the corresponding prices
(based on the carbohydrates present in the material)
for some of the more common crops : —
Material.
Fermentable carbohydrates (100%)
Jerusalem artichokes
Potatoes
Mangolds
Sugar-mangold (13% sugar)
Bice
Maximum price
payable per ton.
£6 10s.
£1 3s.
£1 3s.
lis.
17s.
£4 17s.
It is obvious that with present-day prices for,
say, artichokes, potatoes or mangolds, it would be
impossible to attempt the manufacture of cheap
alcohol.
Whether if is possible to bring the cost of mass-
production of the raw materials within the figure
stated above is the crux of the whole question. The
information available as to this question is in some
instances exceedingly meagre. For instance, in the
case of Jerusalem artichokes, estimates of yield per
acre vary from 5 tons to over 30 tons per acre.
Now, if the cost of mass cultivation is put at £23
per acre, it will be seen that a yield of 5 tons of
tubers to the acre would make it impossible to use
artichokes as raw material, whereas at the rate of
25 tons to the acre the production of alcohol from
this source could be regarded as economic. What
has been said about the artichokes holds good, more
or less, for the other materials mentioned. One
of them, however, deserves especial comment.
Maize is to-day offered in the open market at about
£20 — £25 a ton. This price, however, is as abnormal
as that of artichokes or those of most other food-
stuffs at the present time, but there is little doubt
that in certain South American countries, such as
Peru, where two or three crops of maize may be
harvested yearly, this raw material could be pro-
duced at a very much lower figure, somewhere in
the neighbourhood of £2 per ton. As the maximum
economic price for maize is £4 8s., it will be 6een
that here at least is a raw material which, in cer-
tain localities, is eminently suited for the manu-
facture of cheap alcohol, and it is stated to be in
use in South Africa at the present time.
I am fully aware of the objection that foodstuffs
ought not to be used for the manufacture of alcohol
while there is the present shortage of food supply.
I have been informed that in both Egypt and India
much land that was formerly employed for the pro-
duction of food has recently been utilised for grow-
ing cotton, which at the moment was commanding
higher prices, and that this was a matter of grave
concern to the respective Governments.
I would not for one moment suggest that the ob-
jection is not valid, so far as cultivated land already
in existence is concerned. There can be no such
objection, however, to the reclamation of waste
land. Indeed, owing to the need for rotation of
crops, land reclaimed for the purpose of growing
raw material for alcohol production would auto-
matically increase the food supply of the country.
I understand that in the south of England the
cost of reclamation, when carried out on a small
scale, is generally prohibitive, but that when it is
effected on a large scale by mechanical means, the >
same objection does not arise. May I emphasise in
this connexion, that in my opinion it is essential
that the producers of the raw material should also
have a direct interest in the manufacture of the
finished article ? In other words, if alcohol is to
be produced economically, a co-operative system
presents the most favourable chance of success.
As to the fertility of reclaimed heath land, I
would quote the following instance which has come
to my personal knowledge. On land of this descrip-
tion, in the neighbourhood of Bournemouth, a
small-holder has within the last few years reclaimed
3 acres of land, and during the past five years has
obtained an average crop of 14 tons of artichokes
per acre.
If, then, it may be assumed that carbohydrate
crops may be grown for alcohol production without
detriment to food supplies, the question arises as
to where land can be most suitably reclaimed.
Many people appear to think that the tropics are
the most suitable place, but available figures do
not entirely support this assumption with the ex-
ception, perhaps, of maize in certain climates.
Take for instance the case of the sweet potato,
which is one of the best known examples of prolific
tropical crops. According to good authority, the
average yield amounts to 4 — 6 tons per acre, or
barely that of the potato yield in England. Of
other materials, yam yields 4 — 5 tons per acre,
sugar sorghum 8 — 10 tons per acre, and sugar cane
10 — 15 tons per acre. As against this may be
quoted the following figures from temperate
climates: — Sugar beet 14 — 16 tons, and mangolds
24 — 30 tons. On the whole it would appear that
root crops are more prolific in a temperate than
a tropical climate.
It will thus be seen that the temperate zone can-
not, o priori, be excluded from the production of
carbohydrates on account of the inefficiency of the
soil to yield large quantities per unit of land.
This being so, there are certain advantages in
growing at any rate some portion of the total
quantity of the raw materials in this country. The
reclamation of waste land not only increases the
available food supply of the country (on account
of the need for rotation of crops), but also pro-
vides employment for a considerable number of
people. The alcohol produced in this manner
would also be independent of overseas transport.
At the Royal Naval Cordite Factory, Holton
Heath, we have for some time past been studying
the production of cheap alcohol, and the work is
now proceeding in conjunction with the Depart-
ment of Scientific and Industrial Research. The ex-
periments, however, are not sufficiently advanced to
warrant any useful deductions being made. In the
first place we have been, and still are, carrying out
cultural experiments to investigate the economics
of production. Several acres of heath land have
been reclaimed and have been planted with arti-
chokes, different plots receiving different treat-
ment. Experiments have also been carried out to
ascertain the nature and economic possibilities of
the cellulose contained in the artichoke stalks. We
are also growing a special beet introduced by M. de
Vilmorin for the manufacture of alcohol in France.
Further, we are now able to experiment with a
tuberous plant (a Helianthus), which grows in the
Andes at an autitude of about 6000 ft. and which
is already the subject of experiment in France.
This plant, Polymnia edulis, is said to produce
tubers of from 0'5 to 2 lb. weight, and to have
a sugar content comparing favourably with that
of mangolds'. Finally, the possibility of dealing
with cellulose on parallel lines to the Boulard pro-
cess is being studied. It remains to be seen whether
it will be possible to obtain an organism which will
convert cellulose into fermentable sugars.
To sum up the position, it appears that, though
it is perfectly certain that the total demand for
power alcohol can never be met solely by home pro-
duction, it is too early to say that the home manu-
facture is uneconomic.
REVIEW.
[Sept. 15. 1920.
NEWS AND NOTES.
AUSTRALIA.
Cement Works in Tasmania. — For a long time past
there has been a considerable shortage of cement
in the principal States of Australia, and this has
been severely felt in Tasmania. A large deposit of
limestone exists on Maria Island, which is situated
on the south-east coast of Tasmania. It is reported
to be of very high quality, and, provided other
materials are available, should justify the erection
of a cement plant. Coal is found in the neighbour-
hood of St. Mary's, but so far it has not been worked
owing to its poor quality. Shale is also plentiful
and within easy reach.
A company has been recently floated with which
such well-known men as Sir John Monash, Mr Bice
and Mr. Boas Kelly are associated, having for its
object the establishment of a cement works with a
capacity of approximately 50,000 tons per annum.
There is no doubt that extreme care will have to
be taken to avoid making initial mistakes. Trouble
has already been experienced in one plant in
Australia owing to the high and variable percentage
of ash which occurs in low-grade coals. Such ash,
almost invariably high in alumina, has proved an
endless source of worry owing to the tendency to
cut rings in the lining of the rotary kilns, besides
interfering with the uniformity of the final product.
The Zinc and Iron Industries. — The Electrolytic Co.
of Australasia has announced that within the next
few weeks the weekly output of electrolytic zinc
from the Risdon plant in Tasmania will be increased
from 100 to 140 tons, by the use in a portion of the
new largo plant of an extra 1750 h.p. of electric
energy to be supplied by the Tasmanian Govern-
ment, which has almost unlimited supplies. Con-
struction of the first half of the new 100-ton zinc
plant is being steadily advanced, and work on the
buildings and plant for the treatment of by-pro-
ducts and the development of subsidiary industries
are also proceeding.
The Austral Nail Co. is about to undertake the
manufacture of galvanised wire. The plant is to he
extensive, and will probably start working in about
six months. Up to the present the operations of
this company have been confined to the manufac-
ture of wire for nail making, black fencing wire,
and wire for general manufacturing purposes.
Steel supplies are still rather short, but normal con-
ditions are steadily being reached.
The future of iron production in Australia is con-
sidered to be promising. Large works are to be
constructed at Newcastle, mainly for the manufac-
ture of wire rope, for which all the raw materials
can be obtained in Australia. The Broken Hill
Proprietary Co., Ltd., is making extensive addi-
tions to its steel works at Port AVaratah, New South
Wales, at a cost of many millions.
Mining. — It is stated that a very rich discovery
of silver-lead ore has been made some 200 miles west
of Broken Hill, specimens obtained near the sur-
face showing about 82 per cent, lead and 35 oz.
silver. Promising ore was found near the same
locality in the late seventies. — (Official.)
SOUTH AFRICA.
New Talc Mine. — A new talc mine has been opened
in the Barberton district, where the resources of
talc are apparently capable of great expansion. The
new mine, known as the Scotia talc mine, lies to
the north of the Sheba railway bridge, and the de-
posits appear to be a series of beds up to 400 ft. in
thickness. Judging from the workings that have
been opened, a superior bed of talc, varying from
15 to 25 ft. thick, has been struck 400 ft. below the
outcrop. There appears to be a sufficient tonnage
in sight to establish a permanent industry, and the
working facilities are such that the mineral can be
delivered on the surface at the cost of a few shil-
lings a ton. The company's works are some two
miles away, with easy access by rail and road, and
a new plant capable of handling 500 tons a month
has been erected to deal with the output. Grades
of talc are produced that are suitable for industrial
as well as medicinal and toilet purposes. — (S.
African J. Ind., June, 1920.)
Association of Technical and Scientific Societies. — A
body has been formed which will be known as the
Associated Scientific and Technical Societies of
South Africa, and which will bring together eight
or ten of the chief technical societies in that
country into a common institution at Johannes-
burg. The necessary funds will be obtained by a
loan from the Chamber of Mines, by contributions
from the capital funds of each society, and by an
appeal to their respective members. — (Bd. of Trade
J., Aug. 5, 1920.)
CANADA.
Natural Gas. — It is reported that the San Joaquin
well in the Peace River district is yielding a steady
flow of 20 million cb. ft. of gas every 24 hours. The
well is now being capped, and drilling operations
are being carried out in search of further sources
of oil.— (Official.)
Oil Developments in Western Ontario. — For over
60 years the bulk of the oil produced in Ontario
has come from the corniferous formation at depths
varying from 250 — 500 feet. Large quantities of
high-grade oil have been produced, and now the
flow tends to settle down to a small but fairly steady
production. In 1917, a well sunk to a depth of
3185 feet at Dover, Kent County, Ontario, showed
the existence of a lower and entirely new gas and
oil horizon consisting of an extension of the new
Trenton formation from Ohio and Indiana across
Lake Erie and south-western Ontario. The product
from the new field is free from sulphur, and thus
has a higher market value than that from the
shallower wells. The 6uccess of this development
work has attracted much attention, and several
companies, including an English syndicate, will
complete deep wells during this summer.
Developments in New Brunswick. — Active exploita-
tion of the gypsum deposits and the oil and natural
gas fields of New Brunswick is anticipated during
the present year. The great demand for houses
throughout the Dominion has created an insistent
inquiry for gypsum, and although the adjoining
province of Nova Scotia is a big shipper of this
mineral to the United States, New Brunswick has
only made a few sample shipments. The New
Brunswick Gypsum Co., however, has made exten-
sive plans for the development of its gypsum
deposits at Hillsboro, on the shores of the Bay of
Fundy, and is planning a large export trade. The
company has several mills manufacturing plaster,
and the home market has in the past absorbed the
greater part of the output. American manu-
facturers are anxious to obtain the crude gypsum
for their mills, and although the province has large
deposits of the mineral, they are not being worked.
The development of this industry on a larger scale
is only a matter of capital and labour.
The D'Arcy Exploration Co., a subsidiary of the
Anglo-Persian Oil Co., will carry on extensive ex-
ploration work in the province in the hope of dis-
covering new natural gas fields. Borings made in the
Moncton district last year will be followed up and
extended, and preparations have been made for
boring at three different points this summer. The
fact that the Anglo-Persian Oil Co. has already
invested $300,000 in leases in the district would
indicate that its experts have considerable faith in
its possibilities. — (Agricultural and Industrial
Progress. May, 1920.)
Vol. XXXIX.. Xo. IT]
REVIEW.
FRANCE.
Industrial Notes. — Metallurgy. — There has been a
slight falling off in metallurgical business during
the holiday season. The production of cast iron is
steadily progressing, and the Comptoir de Longwy
will soon be in a position to meet the full require-
ments of the foundries in certain grades. The very
marked reduction in the prices of all metallurgical
products in Germany resulting from the recent-
measures adopted by the siderurgical association of
that country, and the reduction in prices in Bel-
gium, are bound to react on the French market.
With the approaching return of more normal con-
ditions of supply and demand, increased market
stability seems to be assured.
Great interest is being taken in a new process of
producing steel direct from the ore, and it is re-
ported that a company with a capital of 60 million
francs is being formed to exploit it on a large scale.
Particulars are lacking, but the main principle is
stated to be that of heating a mixture of ore, coal
and flux, all thoroughly pulverised, in a revolving
furnace, such as is used in the cement industry.
Among the objections brought against it are, that
whereas the chemical composition of a cement may
vary considerably, those of steel are restricted to
within much narrower limits; and the cost of break-
ing down and pulverising such large quantities of
raw materials will be very great. The author of the
process, M. Basset, has carried out experiments at
Dennemont, near Mantes-la-Ville, in a cement fac-
tory containing revolving furnaces 56 — 60 metres
long. He has produced ingots of cast iron, steel and
wrought iron, and the results seem encouraging.
There is no doubt that a process of this kind would
do much to free the country from constant grave
anxiety in regard to supplies of foreign coke.
Coal. — A question of immediate importance is
whether means of transport will be available to
carry the 1.600,000 tons of coal due to France,
under the Spa agreement. The transport authori-
ties state that it can be done, but the fact must
not be lost sight of that the quantity of coal now
imported into France is much greater than in
pre-war days, and that the available rolling-stock
and other means of transport are notably reduced.
To cope with present requirements the transport by
rail alone would have to be increased by 200 per
cent. During July the total amount of foreign coal
imported into France was 1,500,000 tons, to which
total America contributed 300,000 tons. It is
reckoned that on an average a French miner in pre-
war days raised 200 tons of coal a year. During
the war this figure came down to 135 tons, and now
it has dropped to 100 tons.
The Chemical Industry. — This industry has been
noticeably affected by the crisis prevailing in the
hide and textile industries. The unfavourable rates
of exchange do not allow trading with foreign
countries, including Germany, where the prices are
very high. This fact, coupled with difficulties re-
sulting from obstacles put in the way of a speedy
delivery of goods, makes trading with this country
very difficult. The United States is trying to com-
pete on the French market for the supply of dyes,
but the absence of fixed prices, delays in delivery,
and the lack of depots in France make the attempt
appear but very half-hearted.
Demand and consumption are diminishing, and
if a few materials are more abundant, requirements
in other respects are barely met. The position of
the industry is becoming critical.
Franco-German Synthetic-Ammonia Convention. — On
November 11, 1919, the French Minister of Indus-
trial Reconstruction signed a convention with the
Badisehe Anilin-und Soda Fabrik, with the object
of obtaining the assistance of the German company
in regard to the technical details necessary for the
economic working of the Haber patents owned by
that company but acquired by the French War
Minister under the Peace Treaty. As the period
during which the convention could be denounced
had expired, the agreement came into force on
April 1, 1920, and a Bill intended to carry it into
effect is now before the French parliament. The
Bill provides that the French Ministers of War and
Finance can jointly concede the benefits accruing
from the convention to a French individual or com-
pany, or failing that, to a French company in trust
on behalf of the State, such company to be assigned
a suitable portion of the National Powder Factory
at Toulouse. A credit of 10,000 francs will be opened
in order to provide for the initial cost of applying
the convention.
The convention is intended to secure national
independence as regards military requirements in
time of war and food production in time of peace,
and will enable a considerable portion of the ex-
penses incurred during the war to be recovered. —
(Eev. Prod. Chim., July 31, 1920.)
Electrochemical Industries in the Pyrenees. — The
water-power resources of the Pyrenees are being
rapidly developed, and about lo0,000 kw., or ten
times the quantity in 1914, is now being utilised.
In the Pyrenees, aluminium (1500 metric tons a
year) is manufactured at the Auzat works (Vic
d'Essos), carbide (4000 t. a year) at Auzat, at
Castelet on the Ariege and Boussens on the
Garonne. Cyanamide is to be made at a large State
factory on the plateau of Lannemezan ; it will con-
sume 50,000 h.p., and another, at Marignac, will
have a daily output of 120 t. of cyanamide, with a
consumption of 40,000 h.p. Nitric acid is made by
the Birkeland and Eyde process at the Soulom
works of the Norwegian Nitrogen Co. Chlorine,
calcium chloride and caustic soda are made electro-
lytically at Boussens, on the Garonne, utilising the
saline springs at Salies-du-Salat. Abrasives are
manufactured at the Sarrancolin works, which pro-
duces aloxite by melting bauxite in the electric fur-
nace, and at the Mercus works (near Foix), which
makes boron carbide. The electro-metallurgical
industry is also rapidly extending, particularly in
regard to the production of ferro-alloys. — (Schioeiz.
Chem.-Zeit., June 24, 1920.)
UNITED STATES.
Asphalt and Allied Substances in 1918. — The pro-
duction of asphalt in the United States in 1918 was
1,237,853 short tons, valued at §18,540,0:>2. Ihe
output is classed in two main categories — solid and
semi-solid (penetration less than 200) and liquid
(penetration greater than 200). The former cate-
gory includes binder for pavements, and the latter
road-oil and asphalt flux. The heavy residuals
from American and Mexican crude oils form the
great bulk of the petroleum asphalt produced,
whilst native asphalt is largely imported from
Trinidad (52,492 tons in 1918).
The following data give the asphalt production
abroad : —
Mexico (barrels of crude asphaltic base oil) :
1916, 40,545,712; 1917, 55.292,770; 1918, 63,S28,327.
Trinidad (native asphalt): 1916, 133,204 tons;
1917, 132,742 tons; 1918, 74,254 tons.
Venezuela (native asphalt): 1916, 49,176 tons;
1917, 54,410 tons ; 1918, 47,314 tons.
Austria (tons of ozokerite and asphalt) : 1911,
7541 ; 1912, 10,377.
France (tons of asphalt): 1911, 169,651; 1912,
311,763.
Germany (tons of asphalt): 1911, 81,880; 1912,
96.117.
Russia (tons of asphalt): 1909, 2418; 1910,
24,988.
Japan, Spain, and Italy were also producers. —
(U.S. Geol. Surv., Mar. 31, 1920.)
[Sept. 15. 1920.
Year.
Kin.
1916 .
. 5.530.547
1917 .
. 3.948.392
1918 .
. 2.605.550
England.
France.
America.
Kin.
Kin.
Kin.
1.151.000 .
. 1.113.000
. 2.310,000
902.000 .
. 1.104,000
. 2.569,000
834.000 .
414.000
. 2.815.000
848,000 .
414.000
. 3.814,000
lir.o.oiHi .
202.000
. 4.923,000
58l>,000 .
126.000
. 1,121.000
491.000 .
126,000
. 1.553,000
JAPAN.
Hydro-electric Power in Korea. — A large hydro-
electric power scheme, supported by the Oriental
Development Co., is contemplated, with the object
of utilising the River Hwangsu-wou, a tributary of
the river Yalu, in South Hamkyeng Province. The
capital will be 10 million yen (yen = 2s. Oid.), and it
is anticipated that there will be a large demand for
electric power, as South Hamkveng is rich in timber
and minerals.— {Bd. of Trade J., July 29, 1920.)
The Camphor Industry. — With the exception of an
annual export of about 200,000 kin (kin = r32 lb.)
from China and of the output of the synthetic pro-
duct in Europe and America, practically the whole
world's supply of camphor is controlled by Japan.
On account of the greatly increased demand from
Europe and America, Japan has been able to supply
only 60 — 70 per cent, of the requirements. The
consumption of camphor in Japan itself is shown
in the following table: —
Year. Kin.
1912 .. 2.521.000
1913 . . 2.775,344
1914 . . 4.060.968
1915 . . 5.729.335
The exports to the chief consuming countries from
1912 — 1918 were as follows : —
Year.
1912 . .
1913 ..
1914 ..
1915 . .
1916 . .
1917 ..
1918 . .
The demand is still in excess of the supply, and the
decrease in production has induced the authorities
to examine the question very carefully. The ex-
traction of camphor from the leaves will probably
be investigated shortly (c/. J., 1920, 76 e).— (Chem.
Ind., July 21, 1920.)
GENERAL.
The Textile Institute. — The Autumn Congress of
the Institute will be held in the premises of the
Royal Society of Arts, London, from September 30
to October 2, inclusive. The proceedings will open
with the delivery of the " Mather " Lecture, by
Prof. H. M. Lefroy, on " Insects as Controlling
Factors in the Supply of Cotton and Textile
Materials." On the morning of October 1, after an
address by the president (Sir Herbert Dixon,
Bart.), Mr. Oscar S. Hall, of Bury, will submit a
paper on "Woven Fabric: Achievements and Possi-
bilities," and exhibit an interesting collection of
fabrics produced on modern looms. Subsequently.
the Institute members will be entertained to lunch
by the Clothworkers' Company, at the Cloth-
workers' Hall, and later in the day there will be a
visit to the British Institute of Industrial Art at
Knightsbridge. On October 2, a visit will be paid
to the National Physical Laboratory.
The Foundation Fund, which was initiated in
1917 by Sir William Mather, has now reached
£11,000, and it is hoped to increase it to £50,000.
The " Mather " Lecture was instituted with
the object of promoting interest in the technical
and scientific aspects of the textile industries, and
a special gift of £2000 from Mr. J. Crompton, of
Manchester, has enabled the Institute to inaugur-
ate an annual competition in connexion with the
design and structure of woven fabrics. The Journal
of the Institute has been considerably developed,
more particularly with regard to the abstracting
and indexing of textile literature, and for this
work substantial assistance is being received from
the various textile research associations. The
Institute has sections in Yorkshire, Lancashire,
Ireland, and in the south of Scotland.
The Swiss Celluloid Industry. — Switzerland has a
modest celluloid industry of quite recent date. Be-
fore the war Germany was its chief provider of raw
celluloid and celluloid goods ; France could not com-
pete, and England exported but very little to
Switzerland. The war caused a revolution in the
Swiss celluloid market. For lack of raw celluloid,
several plants manufacturing celluloid goods had to
curtail production, but one decided to produce on
its own account, and in this it was supported by the
Swiss Government, which was in need of several
products of the celluloid industry.
Germany is still unable to export celluloid to
Switzerland, whilst France has succeeded in send-
ing considerable quantities of combs, as Paris sup-
plies Switzerland with most of her requirements in
this direction. The manufacture of hair decorations
and combs is a domestic industry, and several im-
portant Swiss firms are now making these goods.
The most important firm for general celluloid
goods is the Swiss Celluloid Goods Manufacturing
Co., of Zollikofen, near Berne. This firm began to
manufacture in 1907, and in 1917 it built a plant
for producing crude celluloid. Since then the pro-
duction has been constantly increasing, and a new
plant has been added at Worblaufen, where the
Swiss Government manufactures explosives. In
1913, the study and production of non-inflammable
celluloid was taken up by the Cellonite Co. (Dreyfus
and Co.), in Basle, which worked with the Dreyfus
patents, producing cellulose acetate, largely used
for aeroplane varnishes, gas masks, etc. During
the war the manufacture of cellulose acetate has
been transplanted by this firm into England,
France, Italy, and the United States. The diffi-
culties of obtaining supplies of camphor gave rise
to the erection of a new plant for the production of
synthetic camphor at Worblaufen, in the above-
mentioned Government nitrocellulose plant. This
was taken up by the Camphorn Co., Ltd., using
terebenthene oil as starting material.
The guncotton for the manufacture of crude cellu-
loid is produced by the new gunpowder works at
Wimmis (Canton Berne) belonging to the Swiss
Government. At present the daily production of
celluloid in Switzerland is less than 1000 kg.
Unfortunately, no official figures are available
in regard to exports and imports of celluloid, as in
the Swiss customs tariff no distinction is made
between celluloid and rubber. It may be noted,
however, that Germanv exported to Switzerland in
1913. 45,000 kg. of crude celluloid, valued at ap-
proximately 200,000 francs, and combs, buttons,
cloth, etc., worth about 900,000 francs.
The Glass Industry in Czecho-SIovakia. — In Czecho-
slovakia there are 156 glass factories, 15 of which
use wood as sole fuel, 21 wood and coal, and the
rest coal. There are also over 3500 independent
firms that finish partly-manufactured glass pro-
ducts, and a large amount of work is done in the
homes of the people. Before the war the hollow and
cast glass section of the industry produced an out-
put worth 120,500,000 kronen (par value of krone =
10d.); the present monthly output is about 25,000
metric tons, and will probably soon reach 35,000 t.,
as eighty per cent, of the production is exported.
In 1913 the window-glass section, including blown
mirror glass and photographic glass, produced
nearly 11 million sq. metres of glass and is now
working at 75 per cent, of capacity. The bottle-
making plants were working at 35 per cent, of
their capacity, which has recently been increased
to 240 million pieces. With the use of improved
plant and the construction of new factories, it is
expected that the normal pre-war capacity will be
surpassed by 50 per cent, when the industry can
obtain sufficient coal. The annual imports of raw
Vol. XXXIX.. No. 17.]
REVIEW.
materials used are: — Potash, 1000 metric tons;
nickel, 2 t. ; cobalt, 2 t. ; saltpetre, 600 t. ; Glauber's
salt, 12.000 t. ; boric acid, 240 t, ; selenium, 1200
kg.; and gold, 20 kg.— (U.S. Com. Hep., June 22,
1920)
The Industrial Situation in Belgium. — The industrial
situation in Belgium in May showed a decided
improvement over the position six months
previously ; in most cases production has increased,
and raw materials have been in better supply. The
delivery of industrial coal from Germany under
the terms of the Peace Treaty has now reached
about 55,000 tons a month, and larger deliveries
are expected. The home production of coal is still
insufficient for industrial purposes, although the
output of non-industrial coal is well above the 1914
rate, and a surplus is left for export to France.
Owing to the shortage of fuel and raw materials,
the iron and steel industry is still far from meeting
the home demand ; stocks on hand are scanty, prices
are continually fluctuating, wages are unstable,
and delivery can seldom be guaranteed. On May
1, 14 blast furnaces were in operation as against
52 before the war, and their combined daily output
amounted to 2165 metric tons.
The zinc industry is hampered by lack of ore, and
the plants are still suffering from the effect of war
damages, as reparation and reconstruction are held
back by difficulty in obtaining materials. The
output of zinc in April (6261 tons) was 36 per cent,
of the 1913 output.
The plate and window glass industries are in a
favourable position, for the output is higher than
in 1913, and could be still further increased if
sufficient coal and sodium sulphate were obtain-
able. There is an increasing tendency to sell all
varieties of glass for export as the prices are so
high that only countries with a favourable
exchange can afford to buy.
Thus the two chief factors delaying resumption
of Belgian production are lack of fuel and shortage
of raw materials. Once this shortage is remedied,
production in Belgium should increase rapidly, as
the labour situation is much more satisfactory
there than in any other belligerent country. —
(U.S. Com. Rep., June 30, 1920.)
Future of the Chemical Industry in China. — The
chemical industry of China is still in its infancy.
Those chemicals for which there is any demand,
such as sulphuric acid, alkalis, alcohol arid so forth,
are imported from Japan. The three sulphuric acid
factories which China possesses are not sufficient to
supply her daily requirements of sulphuric acid,
estimated to amount to about 1000 lb. As the
Chinese Government imposes moderate import
duties, there are good openings for trade in chemi-
cals with China and even for establishing native
industries, especially an alkali industry. — (Z.
angexo. Chem., July 2, 1920.)
CORRESPONDENCE.
THE ARTIFICIAL SILK INDUSTRY.
Sik, — I have read Mr. Briggs' letter in the
Journal of the Society of Chemical Industry for
August 31 with considerable interest, because he
has ascribed various statements in ray article in the
previous issue to the product of Messrs. The British
Cellulose Co., Ltd., and has then proceeded to
contradict them.
It 3eems to me clear that the statements with
regard to cellulose acetate silk describe, in a general
way, the properties of the various makes which
have, from time to time, been available — sum-
marising what is already well known to the people
concerned in the industry.
If the British Cellulose Company's product
should eventually prove to be something new in the
way of acetate silk, any future description of
artificial silk would naturally make mention of their
improvements; but, although I have been able to
test samples ascribed to them, I have not been able
to purchase any of their silk, and, therefore, cannot
comply with Mr. Briggs' demand that criticism
should be based on knowledge and experience of
their particular product, and give it special
mention.
I can only repeat that I have not yet obtained
from any source, British or foreign, an acetate silk
as strong in the wet condition as, nor with 70 per
cent of the dry strength of, some of the viscose
product. The latter is commonly used for warp, and
has been for a number of years, and it can be
obtained, if required, in fine counts which have a
greater covering power than the same count in
other artificial silk. With regard to the dyeing
properties, it will be observed tnat my statements
referred to dyeing by " ordinar" methods " ; I am
aware that acetate silk may be dyed by other
methods, although Mr. Briggs does not disclose the
easy and cheap processes to which he refers. — I am,
Sir, etc.,
Coventry. Leonard P. Wilson.
Sept. 9, 1920.
PERSONALIA.
Dr. J. C. Kernot has been appointed chief
research chemist to British Glues and Chemicals,
Ltd.
Dr. R. M. Caven, principal of the Technical
College, Darlington, has been elected to the chair
of inorganic and analytical chemistry in the Royal
Technical College, Glasgow.
Dr. J. Kenyon, of the British Dyestuffs Corpora-
tion research colony at Oxford University, has been
appointed head of the chemical department at the
Battersea Polytechnic.
Mr. R. S. Glennie, lecturer at the Battersea
Polytechnic, has been appointed chief lecturer in
pharmaceutics and materia medica at the Royal
Technical College, Glasgow.
Prof. J. B. Farmer, of the Imperial College of
Science and Technology, has been appointed a
member of the Advisory Council to the Committee
of the Privy Council for Scientific and Industrial
Research.
Mr. W. C. Bridgeman, M.P., has been appointed
the first Secretary of Mines under the new Mining
Industry Act, and Major Sir P. Lloyd-Graeme,
M.P., succeeds him as Parliamentary Secretary to
the Board of Trade. Mr. Bridgeman has appointed
Mr. E. A. Gowers as Permanent Under-Secretary
for Mines.
We regret to announce the death, on August 11,
of Mr. C. C. Moore, a member of this Society since
1887, and managing director of Charles Moore and
Co., Ltd., chemical manufacturers, of Lymm, near
Warrington.
Prof. Armand Gautier, who died recently at
Cannes, aged 83, was a chemist of more than
national repute, and also an authority on physi-
ology, hygiene, and therapeutics. Perhaps his
best-known researches were those on the thera-
peutic uses of arsenical compounds, and his most
widely read book that on the chemistry of the
living cell. Among other posts of honour, he
served as president of the Academy of Sciences
and of the Academy of Medicine.
KEVIEW.
[Sept. 15. 1920.
REPORTS.
FUEL ECONOMY.
Third Report op the Committee appointed by the
British Association for the Investigation of
Fuel Economy, the Utilisation of Coal, and
Smoke Prevention.
Since its reappointment (cf. J., 1919, 355 r), the
Committee has been investigating (a) present
official methods of obtaining coal mining statistics,
(b) the effect of the war upon our coal exports, (c)
the constitution of coal, (d) low temperature car-
bonisation, (e) thermal efficiencies of carbonisation
and gasification systems and of the utilisation of
fuel, and (f) sources of supply of liquid fuels.
Coal Outputs and Prices. — According to informa-
tion supplied by the Board of Trade, the estimated
output of coal in the United Kingdom during 1919
was 229,668,000 tons, or 197'5 tons per person em-
ployed in the mines. The pithead prices per ton of
coal raised in 1913 and in July, 1919, respectively,
were as follows : —
Average
On July 10,
for 1913.
1919
s. d.
s. d.
Labour
6 4
19 6J
Timber and Stores
1 0
S 2t
Other Costa
0 11
1 2t
Royalties
0 6i
0 6}
Owners' Profits
1 5
1 2
Compensation
—
0 3J
Administration, etc.
—
0 2J
Total
10 1J
26 0J
The average cost per ton of coal raised during the
year ended March 31, 1920, was 27s. 3id., so that
the pithead cost of coal has nearly trebled as a
result of the war. The amounts of coal exported
from the principal ports during each of the years
1913- — 1919 are given in tabular form; after the
Committee has collected information as to the
average prices obtained for this coal, the effect of
the war upon the export trade will be reviewed.
Standards of Gas Supplies. — The report refers to
the visit of a deputation from the Committee to the
President of the Board of Trade last February,
when its views upon gas standards were outlined
(cf. J., 1919, 191n). It was desired that the charge
for gas should be based upon the ascertained net
calorific value of the gas supplied rather than
upon its declared calorific value, as proposed by
the Fuel Research Board, and that a pressure not
less than two inches of water should be maintained
up to the exit of the consumer's meter. Importance
was attached to the maintenance of a constant gas
pressure and to the removal of cyanogen and
sulphur impurities from the gas. It was also con-
sidered that the inert constituents in gas should be
restricted, that no public supply should contain
less than 20 per cent, of methane or more than 20
per cent, of carbon monoxide, and that the gross
calorific value should not be less than 450 B.Th.U.
Several clauses relating to the supply of gas upon
the heat unit basis, the regulations as to gas supply
and the setting up of an inquiry upon the question
of limiting the proportion of carbon monoxide in
gas are reproduced from the Gas Regulation Bill
introduced last May. It is pointed out that in the
Committee stage the section limiting the amount of
incombustible constituents permissible in gas was
deleted and that this was made the subject of a
further inquiry by the Board of Trade.
Coal Mining Statistics. — Professor Louis drew
attention to the considerable variations in themodes
of arriving at official data concerning coal outputs
in various countries, and in a memorandum upon
the subject states that for most studies of coal min-
ing statistics the number of workers employed is
most important, but the methods of arriving
at this figure vary so widely in different countries
that many erroneous deductions and comparisons
have been made. In this country no definition
exists of " persons ordinarily employed " on mine
premises, with the consequence that different pits
arrive at the number of employees by widely
variable methods. In Canada a statement is made
of the actual amount of labour in terms of days
worked rather than the number of individuals en-
gaged, which is obviously the correct way of deal-
ing with the subject. The Canadian returns,
however, differ from ours by the inclusion of
coke-oven workers. In the United States and
in Belgium, information is collected as to the
average number of men employed during the year,
but there is lack of uniformity of method in com-
puting this average. In France the number of em-
ployees is considered to be the number of men on
the pay roll. It is thus obvious that in comparing
statistics one has to deal under the same heading
with two entirely different conceptions of the
number of employees.
The production of coal in this country included
until recently the stones and dirt sent up to the
bank and subsequently removed from the coal. An
allowance is now made for this, but the Home Office
instructions are vague, and the practice in making
up the return of output varies in different districts.
In some cases the coal consumed on the colliery and
by the miners is deducted, and in others the ton-
nage upon which royalty is paid is given. In
Canada the term " production " is restricted to
marketable coal, whilst the term "output" includes
everything drawn out from the colliery. Although
all coal-mining countries publish a return of fatal
accidents, there is no definition of what constitutes
a fatal accident, and this important matter is in a
chaotic condition. Attention is drawn to the im-
portance of summoning an international confer-
ence to determine the manner in which mineral
statistics shall be collected, tabulated, and issued.
Alcohol from Coke-Oven Gas. — Professor Bone
gives an outline of the Skinningrove process, de-
vised by Messrs. Bury and Ollander, for the produc-
tion of alcohol from debenzolised coke-oven gas (cf.
J., 1920, 94 a). Durham coking coal gives a gas
containing 20 — 2'5 per cent, defines consisting
chiefly of ethylene. This is absorbed by means of
95 per cent, sulphuric acid, and the ethyl hydrogen
sulphate thus formed is subsequently hydrolysed by
dilution of the acid with water, yielding alcohol and
sulphuric acid. It was found that at temperatures
between 60° and 80° C. the time of contact between
gas and acid required for a 70 per cent, absorption
of the ethyene was only 2J minutes, and that under
these conditions ethyl hydrogen sulphate was the
only product formed. At lower temperatures the
absorption is slow, and at higher temperatures de-
composition occurs. Prior to the ethylene absorp-
tion, tar, ammonia, naphthalene, benzol, sul-
phuretted hydrogen, higher olefines, and water
vapour are removed from the gas in the order
named. For the removal of sulphuretted hydrogen
it is proposed to utilise the sulphur dioxide arising
from the reduction of sulphuric acid during the
ethylene absorption. The propylene and other
higher olefines, together with 97 per cent, of the
water vapour, are removed from the gas by means
of 80 per cent, sulphuric acid at ordinary tempera-
tures. The removal of the ethylene is carried out
on the counter-current principle, the acid being
used until it has absorbed 5 per cent, by weight of
ethylene. The acid is then taken to a distilling
column, where it meets a current of steam, which
reduces its strength to 75 per cent, and hydrolyses
the ethyl hydrogen sulphate, the heat of dilution
being sufficient to effect the distillation of the
alcohol, which leaves the plant at 95 per cent.
Vol. XXXIX.. No. 17.]
REVIEW.
309 B
strength. The diluted acid is re-concentrated in a
Gaillard tower and is then ready for further ab-
sorption of ethylene.
Report on the Commercial Situation in Siam at
the Close of the Year 1919. By J. Crosby.
H.M. Acting Consul-General, Bangkok.
Fp. 20. London: H.M. Stationery Office, 1920.
ICmd. 795. 2d.]
During the official year April 1, 1918, to
March 31, 1919, the imports into Siam were valued
at £7,930,147, as against £6,962,334 in 1913-14.
It is difficult to arrive at an exact estimate of the
origin of the imports, as a large proportion of
British manufacturers is returned as having
arrived from Singapore, which is a port of trans-
shipment for European goods; but the following
percentage figures show the approximate distribu-
tion of imports in 1918-19 and in 1913-14, respec-
tively:— United Kingdom, 205 (2P5); Singa-
pore, 14-6 (17-1); Hongkong, 187 (160); United
States, 6"5 (32); and Japan, 11-6 (20) per cent.
The imports for the year 1919-20 are estimated to
be worth some £12,000,000. The feature of the
import trade during the year under review was
increased values and decreased quantities. Japan
has largely taken the place of Germany as
regards the supply of cheap manufacured goods
and, to a certain extent, that of the United
Kingdom, even in the matter of piece-goods,
whlist America has in some measure replaced
the United Kingdom and Germany in regard to
iron, steel and machinery. It is estimated, however,
that the United Kingdom will recover and even
improve its old position in this market, provided
that home manufacturers will quote firm prices
for forward contracts for reasonably prompt
acceptance, with terms of reasonably quick
delivery. During the year 1918-19 the exports
reached a total value of. £12,463,956, of which no
less than £10,161,260 (845,323 tons) represented
rice. Amongst the exports were teak, 36,930 t.,
£430,570; buffalo and cow hides, 2346 t., £130,265;
coal, 14,313 t., £94,848; and sapphires, £43,828.
As regards local industries, apart from rice and
timber milling, tin-mining, hitherto confined to the
central part of the Siamese Malay Peninsula, is
being gradually extended, chiefly by Australian
companies, over the greater part of Siam. Wolfram
mining is carried out mainly on the east coast, but
the output is still small ; certain amounts of rubies
and sapphires are mined. There are local factories
for the manufacture of cement, soap, leather, ice,
etc. Native industries include silk and cotton
weaving, and silk dyeing. In the main, although
Siam producees its own raw materials for such few
industries as it possesses, it is essentially a pro-
ducer of food and raw materials; manufactured
articles are almost exclusively imported.
OFFICIAL TRADE INTELLIGENCE.
GOVERNMENT 0BDERS AND NOTICES.
Dangerous Drugs and Firearms Acts, 1920. —
The Home Secretary has given notice of the
prospective issue of regulations concerning the
marking of packages containing raw opium
destined for exportation, and has issued an Order
deferring the coming into operation of Sections 1,
2, 3. 8, and 10 of the Firearms Act until November
1, 1920.
Prohibited Exports. — The following headings
have been removed from the list of prohibited
exports by order of the Board of Trade: — Calf
skins; hides, British and Irish.
Permitted Explosives. — The Home Secretary
has made an Order under the Coal Mines Act, 1911,
the effect of which is to add Super-Excellite No. 4,
and Monarkite No. 2, to the list of permitted
explosives.
(From the Board of Trade Journal for
August 26 and September 2.)
OPENINGS FOR BRITISH TRADE.
The following inquiries have been received at the
Department of Overseas Trade (Development and
Intelligence), 35, Old Queen Street, London,
S.W. 1, from firms, agents or individuals who
desire to represent U.K. manufacturers or exporters
of the goods specified. British firms may obtain
the names and addresses of the persons or firms
referred to by applying to the Department and
quoting the specific reference number.
Locality of firm ]
Materials.
Reference
or agent.
number.
|
Australia
Photographic supplier
304
Glassware
♦412/20
7/159
257
British India
Glass, china, paper
tilassware ..
259
Canada
Gelatin, food colours, cocoa-butter
substitute
265
Whiting, glue
268
Linseed oil, barium chloride, alu-
minium sulphate, cream of tar-
tar, tartaric acid substitutes.
sulphuric acid, 0-naphthol, lead
acetate, 6odium ferrocyanide.
heavy chemicals for paint, rub-
ber, paper and printing ink
manufacture
270
Paint, oil, varnish, glass
309
Industrial chemicals, heavy metals
iron, steel
311
Gold, bronze and aluminium paints
310
Iron and steel bars, black steel
sheets, chequered plates, gal-
vanised sheets, brass and copper
bars and sheets
312
Rapeseed oil
t
Copper sulphate, arsenic acid
t
South Airica
Asbestos and rubber goods, copper
wire, grease, graphite
274
Oil, paint, varnish
276
Glass, crockery
J
Belgium
Industrial chemicals, formol, acids,
oils
Heavy oils
320
321
France
Sugar
Chemicals for the tanning, dyeing
and paper making industries.
324
325
Germany
Vegetable oils, fats, was, shellac. .
326
Latvia
Iron and steel sheets and plates. .
Portugal . .
Pottery, paper, paint, varnish . .
288
Serb-Croat.SIovene
States
Oil, paint, varnish. .
290
Spain
Chemicals, colours, varnish, glass
Chemicals, aniline colours, varnish.
291
329
Near East
Leather, paper
331
Persia
Chemicals, dyes, perfumes, paint.
<
293
United States
Chemicals, dry colours, whiting.
clay
332
Mexico
Perfumery
336
Argentina
Metals and metal goods
Drugs, medicines, pharmaceutical
297
298
* The High Commissioner for Australia. Australia House. Strand.
London. W.C. 2.
t The Canadian Government Trade Commissioner. 73, Basinghall
Street. London. K.C. 2.
t The Trade Commissioner for the Union of South Africa, 90
Cannon Street. London. E.C. 4.
TARIFF, CUSTOMS, EXCISE.
Argentina. — The increased customs duties affect,
inter alia, galvanised iron, rubber and rubber
tubes, lead pipes, plates and ingots, red lead, white
lead, ebonite, glucose and mineral waters.
Australia. — Clay rings and asbestos string for use
in the manufacture of incandescent mantles may
be imported duty free under the British Prefer-
ential Tariff.
310 b
REVIEW.
[Sept. 15. 1920.
Customs duties when paid in bank notes must be
paid at 25 times the rate prescribed by the Tariff
effective as from August 5.
Belgium. — Export licences are again required for
residues of burnt iron pyrites.
British India. — The valuation of raw hides and
skins for export duty has been revised as from
August 14.
Cameroons. — The import, distribution, sale, dis-
posal and possession of " trade " and " injurious
spirits " are prohibited.
The rates of customs duty on spirits, wines and
perfumes have been amended.
Canada. — Recent customs decisions affect toluene,
xylene, copper bars and rods, " monopole " oil,
powdered wax and wrought or seamless iron or
steel tubes.
Ceylon. — The export of sugar, lubricating oils
and British specie is prohibited to all destinations.
Crimea. — The export of gold, silver and platinum
is prohibited except under licence.
Cyprus. — The law conferring a preference on
goods consigned from and grown, produced or
manufactured in the British Empire is set out in
the issue for August 26. Among the articles that
pay duty at two-thirds of the full rate are beer,
matches, soap, china, earthenware, and dyes.
Spirits of all sorts pay 95 per cent, of the full rate,
and all goods not specified in the schedule five-sixtht
of the full rate.
Federated Malay States. — The schedule of export
duty valuations may be seen at the Department.
Fiji. — The export of, inter alia, ammunition,
certain explosives, cocaine, opium, and gold and
silver coin is prohibited except under licence from
the Collector of Customs.
France. — The export and re-export of methyl
alcohol (crude and refined) and acetone are pro-
hibited except under conditions to be determined
by the Minister of Finance.
Gambia. — The import, distribution, sale and dis-
posal of "trade" and "injurious" spirits are
prohibited.
The import and distribution of opium are pro-
hibited except under certain conditions as from
July 1.
Japan (Korea). — The modifications of the Cus-
toms regime became effective on August 29.
Kedah. — The import of dyes is prohibited except
under licence.
Mexico. — The export duty on sugar has been in-
creased, and the previously existing import duties
on iron piping are to be re-enforced.
Mozambique. — Recent customs decisions affect
groundnuts, sesame seeds, mafura seeds and copra.
Norway. — Among the articles of " luxury " the
import of which is prohibited are certain kinds of
glassware, common pottery (except unglazed),
porcelain, biscuit ware, and wares of silver, gold
and platinum.
Austria. — The consumption and licence tax on
artificial sweetening substances has been increased
fourfold
Nyassaland Protectorate. — The export of ammu-
nition, certain explosives, cocaine, opium and silver
is prohibited to all destinations except the U.K. or
British Possessions or Protectorates.
Poland.- — Export permits are not required for,
inter alia, edible nuts (with some exceptions),
cocoa, spirits, beer, vinegar, mineral waters, horns,
mineral wax, certain kinds of earthenware, bottles,
lamp glasses, turpentine, sal-ammoniac, perfumes
(with some exceptions), zinc white, polishes, liquid
inks, and artificial silk.
Portugal. — Condensed milk may now be imported
under licence.
Itoumania.. — Petroleum products (with some ex-
ceptions) may as from August 1 be exported freely
on payment of the export taxes and commission on
a collective guarantee- being given by the factories
that home requirements will be fully satisfied.
Spain. — The import duty of 5 pesetas per 100 kg.
has been re-imposed on zinc bars, lumps, cakes and
scraps.
Straits Settlements. — The prohibition of the ex-
port of gold sovereigns is cancelled.
Tunis. — The export and re-export of cast iron,
scrap of cast and wrought iron and steel, and oil
cake are prohibited.
COMPANY NEWS.
SOUTH METROPOLITAN GAS CO.
A letter has been addressed to the shareholders
by the chairman, Dr. C. C. Carpenter, in which
reference is made to the successful passage of the
company's Bill through Parliament, acknowledg-
ment for assistance in this connexion being made to
Sir William Pope, Prof. H. Louis, Dr. E. F. Arm-
strong, and others. In accordance with the pro-
visions of the new Act, the sliding scale has now dis-
appeared from the company's charter, and divi-
dends have been fixed at 5 per cent, per annum in
respect of the issued, and at 6 per cent, in respect
of the unissued, ordinary stock. These rates are to
hold under all circumstances, and profits earned
beyond this will be divisible as to three-fourths to
the gas consumers, by way of reduction in price, and
as to one-fourth in equal parts to the shareholders
and co-partner employees. The transvaluation of
gas from an illuminating to a calorific basis — in the
promotion of which the company played a leading
part — is regarded as a reform of great promise,
as are also certain new, regulations which will
conduce to more effective purification. Owing
mainly to the need for more working capital
entailed by the higher costs of materials and labour,
the first favourable opportunity will be taken to
make a substantial issue of new capital.
BRITISH GLUES AND CHEMICALS, LTD.
The statutory meeting of this company (c/. J.,
1920, 189 R) was held in London on August 23, Mr.
W. S. Corder presiding.
The chairman said that the whole of the pre-
ference share issue had been allotted, as well as
850,001 of the 1,000,000 ordinary shares and
166,666 preference shares and 333,333 ordinary
shares had been allotted to the vendors in part pay-
ment of the purchase price. Subscriptions had
been paid, subject to calls in arrear, for 333,334 pre-
ference and 516,667 ordinary shares. The purchase
price, amounting to £760,528, had been paid in full,
the transfer of the properties from the old com-
panies to the new company having been completed.
No promotion expenses had been paid in connexion
with the formation of the company. The vendor
companies were in process of voluntary liquidation,
and new companies had been registered to preserve
the names and goodwills. The liquid assets ex-
ceeded the liabilities by over £450,000. The over-
seas trade of the company was rapidly increasing,
and sufficient orders were on the books to keep the
works going for some time; there were signs that
the demand would continue to increase.
Although the company was the largest one tl at
manufactured certain products in this country, it
did not constitute a monopoly, as there was a
number of competing firms. The company's fer-
tilisers were used for food production at home, and
its glues and gelatins were used in nearly every
trade The company's research department was
Vol. XXXIX.. Xo. 17.]
311 B
at the disposal of customers, so that their require-
ments could be investigated and accurately pro-
vided for.
British Pluvtcsin Co., Ltd., has been registered
as a private company with a capital of £1.250,000 in
£1 shares. An agreement is to be entered into with
Explosives Trades, Ltd., and the business to be
carried on will include waterproofing, manufacture
of imitation leather, linoleum, tarpaulins, water-
proof cloth, etc. The registered office is at 12,
Newton Street, Manchester.
TRADE NOTES.
BRITISH.
Gambia in 1918. — The total value of imports, ex-
cluding specie, into Gambia in 1918 amounted to
£919,426 (£697,052 in 191"), the origin of the im-
ports compared with 1917 being as follows: —
United Kingdom. 58; United States, 154 (7);
British Colonies, 153 (19) ; and France, 7'7 (12) per
cent. The exports were valued at £882,890
(£952.906 in 1917) and included : —Groundnuts,
56,489 tons (£800,319); palm kernels, 644 t.
35,103 hides (£51,520). The ground-
nut crop, which is the chief product of Gambia,
was only an average one and was mainly taken
(96 per cent.) by the United Kingdom. Similarly,
over 96 per cent, of the hides exported went to the
United Kingdom. The export of palm kernels was
6hared almost equally between France and its
possessions and the United Kingdom. In 1918, 26
tons of piassava. worth £930, was exported, as
against 15 t.. worth £550, in 1917. Of the total
exports, nearlv 94 per cent, went to the United
Kingdom. — (Col. Eep.-Ann., May, 1920.)
FOREIGN.
Foreign Company Jfews. — France. — Large amounts
of capital are being invested in the French chemical
industry, which is expected to become one of the
leading industries of the country. Among recent
flotations is that of the " Societe Alsacienne de
Produits Chimiques," with a capital of 16 million
francs, which will take over the Kestner works
at Thann-Mulhouse (Alsace), as well as a large
modern plant at La Rochelle. which formerly made
war chemicals but will now be used for the manu-
facture of synthetic camphor, sulphates of copper
and potash, and a brand of butterine. A number
of companies has recently been formed in connexion
with the chemical and oil industries ; amongst these
are: — "Societe Francaise Rotoczvn " (gasoline,
heavy oils, etc.), 23,000,000 fr. ; " Societe Pax "
(essential oils and other chemical products),
1.000.000 fr. ; " Societe Chimique et Industrielle des
Monazites " (chemicals, and the manufacture of
thorium, mesathorium, cerium, etc.), 2.500,000 fr. ;
"Societe des Hydrocarbures et Produits Indus-
tries," 10.000,000fr. ; " Societe de la Silice " (pul-
verised silicates, and a substitute for German
kieselsuhr), 600,000 fr— (U.S. Com. Sep., June
24, 1920.)
Italy. — A combine has been formed between <the
Societa Montecatini of Milan, the Societa Colle e
Concimi of Rome, and the Unione Italiana Concimi
of Milan. Of these companies the first produces
sulphur in Central Italy and Sicily, and the other
•two manufacture artificial fertilisers, especially
superphosphate. As a result of the fusion the
Societa Montecatini has raised its capital from 75
to 200 million lire (lira = 9Jd.). The support
of three large Italian banks has been assured. —
(Chem. lnd., June 2, 1920.)
Glass Trade of Hongkong — Since the war there
has been much competition in the glass trade of
Hongkong, the sources of the imports during 1918
and 1919 being as follows: — Window glass: Japan,
80% (58); Great Britain, 5% (27); United States,
15% (7); and Belgium, 4% (1919 only); plate glass:
Japan, 43% (nil); Great Britain 10% (40); United
States, 47% (59); glass ware: Japan, 80% (69);
Great Britain, 6% (16); United States, 3% (8);
China, 3% . Japan has thus lost considerably as its
product was faulty and unpopular. The total
values of the imports of all kinds of glass into Hong-
kong in 1918 and 1919 were £118,056 and £141,248
respectively. At present Great Britain, the United
States and Belgium are competing to get the better
class trade. — (U.S. Com. Bep., June 15, 1920.)
Dye Situation in Hongkong.— The situation of the
dye trade in Hongkong is very uncertain, though
its volume was greater in 1919 than 1918. Before
the war the trade consisted of vegetable dyes,
usually products either of China or of countries
with which China has long traded in such materials,
and artificial dyes, chiefly anilire dyes, and arti-
ficial indigo, which mostly came from Germany. The
United States and Switzerland had begun to build
up a considerable trade in aniline dyes and artificial
indigo when, in December, 1919, the Hongkong
Government, at the request of the British Imperial
Government, prohibited, save for re-export pur-
poses, the importation of artificial dyes not of
British manufacture. So far, British manufacturers
have not responded to the extent required by the
local market. The imports of dyeing materials in
1919 included:— Aniline dves, £64,013; artificial
indigo, £15,038; and natural indigo, £284. Of the
aniline colours imported in 1919, the United States
furnished 82 per cent., and Japan and Switzerland
7 and 4 per cent, respectively, whilst the United
States supplied 59 per cent, of the artificial indigo,
and north China the balance, mostly of American
origin. — (U.S. Com. Sep., June 10, 1920.)
Trade of Hongkong In Oils and Oilseeds. — The trade
in vegetable and essential oils as a whole showed
considerable expansion, the total value exported
amounting to £1,563,977 (£1,176,656 in 1918), but
there was a poor market in essential oils. Exports
of aniseed oil were valued at £135,763, essential oils
other than aniseed and cassia oils at £35,251, coco-
nut oil at £19.235, peanut oil at £728,610, other
vegetable oils £194,616, vegetable wax £52,489.
Aniseed oil, peanut oil, and tea oil were exported in
greatly increased quantities. The export of cassia
from Hongkong in 1919 assumed pre-war propor-
tions, the total value being £236,445, as against
£141,324 in 1918. Great Britain and the United
States took approximately one-third of the export,
Europe (especially France) about 14 per cent., and
India about 10 per cent. Export of cassia oil de-
creased from a value of £86,849 in 1918 to £74,158
in 1919^ of which Great Britain took 15, the United
States 72, Japan 8, and India 2 per cent. During
1919 the value of the wood oil shipped from Hong-
kong remained stationary at about £400,000; more
than half the export went to Great Britain, and the
rest to Japan, Australia and China. As wood oil
is now being shipped in bulk in tanks, the trade in
this oil is expected to develop rapidly, especially as
the use of bulk cargoes extends to China.
In 1919, exports of groundnuts amounted to
19,346 short tons, valued at £482.604, as compared
with 19,346 tons, worth £1,199,582, in 1918. The
supplies for the year came mainly from North
China, and considerable amounts were furnished by
Indo-China, the Straits Settlements, and Japan.
Of the total export. Great Britain took 12"5, United
States 25, and China 50 per cent. The decrease in
the 1919 export was due to the fact that supplies
from North China went largely to Japan. — \U.S.
Com. Rep.. Apr. 14, June 1, 7, 1920.)
REVIEW.
[Sept. 15. 1920.
Vegetable Oil Resources of the Shanghai District,
China. — The chief plants yielding vegetable oils in
China are beans, cotton seed, groundnuts, rapeseed,
sesamum seed, tea seed, and woodnuts, practically
all these being cultivated products. The quantities
of oil, oil-seeds, and oil-cake, in piculs of 133^ lb.,
exported from Shanghai during 1918 were: — Bean
oil, 5771 piculs (£14,320); cottonseed oil, 99,670
(£187,158) ; groundnut oil, 217,113 (£524,340) ; rape-
seed oil, 3818 (£13,332); sesamum-seed oil, 422
(£1069); tea oil, 886 (£2328); woodnut (filbert) oil,
658 (£1944) ; other vegetable oils, 25,070 (£42,214) ;
bean cake, 282 (£160) ; cotton seed, 75,195 (£25,837) ;
groundnuts, hulled 781,071 (£835,533), unhulled
10,953 (£9111); groundnut cake 71,125 (£34,280);
rapeseed, 243,471 (£205,592) ; and sesamum seed,
82,195 piculs (£83,180). The number of oil mills in
China is increasing, and those in Northern China
mainly treat soya bean, whilst those in central
China produce the other varieties of oil mentioned.
The oil mills do not work all the year round, as
there is not sufficient, seed available, and also the
high summer temperature causes the oil to become
rancid. The total capacity of the oil mills in
Shanghai amounts to about 5400 piculs (321 tons) a
day.— (U.S. Com. Rep., Apr. 26, 1920.)
Exports of Glycerin from the United States. — The
export of glvcerin from the United States in 1919
was 1982 short tons, valued at £238,196. The
amounts taken by the chief countries of destina-
tion are given in the following table: —
Destination.
Short tons.
Perctge. of total
Argentina . .
119-6
60
Brazil
23-5
11
British India
28-6
1-4
Canada
59-9
30
Chile
49-8
2-4
China
60-1
2-5
Cuba ,
54-5
2-7
Japati '
12295
11-3
Mexico
30-3
1-5
Norwiy
1320
6-6
Sweden
19-5
0-9
United Kingdom
11-3
05
— (U.S. Com. Sep.,
May 26, 1920.)
Consumption of Chemicals on the Trai
tsvaal Mines in
1919. — The values of the chief chemi
;als consumed
on the different mines in the Transva
il during 1919
are shown in the appended table : —
Chemicals.
Gold mines.
£
110.248
Other mines.
£
3997
Carbido
Cement
.. • 61.701
4554
Charcoal
457
6365
Chemicals, assay and
smelting
requisites
143.109
784
Cyanide
360.000
Disinfectants . .
35.221
3690
Explosives
. . 1,299.672
113,339
Lime (white) ..
121.477
829
Lubricants (oils)
126.020
32,703
Greases and tallows .
105.739
9448
Paint, tar. driers, etc
23,784
2635
Mcrcurv
48,560
Paraffln
23.420
2742
Tetrol
22.007
3664
Soap
12.510
977
Soda
2726
226
Zinc and zinc discs .
238.608
13
— (S. Afr. Engin., May, 1920.)
Rubber Trade in Norway. — Stocks of raw rubber
were very scanty prior to the war, and difficulties
of shipping rendered it necessary to shut down some
factories and curtail output until conditions became
easier with the conclusion of the Norwegian-
American Agreement in 1918. The annual require-
ments are estimated at 150 tons rubber and 200 to
250 tons balata, practically all of which is pur-
chased through the United Kingdom. Most fac-
tories at present are working on accumulated stocks.
Motor tyres are in demand, but engineering troubles
in Britain have enabled America to maintain the
lead obtained during the war. Cycle tyres are
mainly imported from Great Britain.
Goloshes are likely to be in demand owing to the
high price of leather. In this line Britain has lost
the high place held twenty-five years ago; owing
to the export of inferior material. It is anticipated
that the import duty on goloshes will be removed.
—(India-Rubber J., Aug. 7, 1920.)
REVIEWS.
THE GRETNA RECORD.
Preliminary Studies for H.M. Factory, Gretna,
and Study for an Installation of Phosgene
Manufacture. Pp. xvi. + \45. (London:
H.M. Stationery Office. 1920.) Price 15s. net.
The work done by the Department of Explosives
Supply has been generally claimed, at all events
by chemists, to be second to none other accom-
plished during the war. Although our chemical
industry, as a whole, was far from being in so
moribund a condition as many of its critics would
have us believe, yet we were seriously deficient in
factories and plant adapted for the production of
organic substances in quantity. Moreover, the war
soon developed into one of nations rather than of
armies, so that even the vast organisation and
elaborate preparations of the Central Powers on
the chemical side proved inadequate to supply the
altogether unprecedented quantities of chemical
munitions required by them. It is now a matter of
history that the D.E.S. from its very earliest begin-
nings under the wgis of Lord Moulton had the
courage to originate an ambitious and far-reaching
programme involving, in particular, the principle
of the construction, in the very shortest space of
time, of very large Government factories solely for
the production of chemical munitions. Questions of
economy of construction, cost of production, and
post-war applications of the plants did not come
into consideration, and the sites chosen were
selected without reference to their commercial
suitability.
Lord Moulton selected as his " master builder "
a man of outstanding personality — Kenneth
Quinan. One was impressed on meeting him, to
know him was to love him, and to work for him was
an inspiration. Little wonder, therefore, that the
team at Storey's Gate — all far too modest to wish
their names recalled here — worked early and late,
but always methodically and scientifically, and that
the great factories grew apace until the day came
when they produced their munitions " according
to plan."
Naturally, in the course of this work a large
amount of technical information of every variety
was produced and collected by the Factories Branch
of the D.E.S., and it became a favourite scheme of
Quinan's to have this made accessible after the war,
particularly to the younger chemists of the country.
His association with the best of our professoriate,
whose attributes he was wront to describe in charac-
teristic and flowery language, and his experience in
training the staff available for his factories, who
came to him largely without expert knowledge of
the work they had to do, possibly gave him special
insight into the ideal education for a technical
chemist. He often waxed enthusiastic in private
conversation over his schemes for training chemists,
and felt that the publication of the information
accumulated at the national expense would be of
the greatest value in helping both the growing
generation and those already in the industry, who
probably without exception were ready at all times
both to help the Factories Branch and to profit
by their experiences.
It is a very fortunate circumstance that the
authorities have seen their way to give effect to this
idea, and all concerned are to be congratulated on
their very broad-minded action. The selection and
Vol. XXXIX., No. IT]
REVIEW.
preparation of the information could scarcely have
been in better hands than those of Mr. William
Macnab, who, apart from his intimate connexion
with the Department throughout its whole existence,
has had a lengthy and varied acquaintance with
chemical industry and is fully in sympathy with the
ideals of some of the leading teachers and industrial
leaders who are striving to elevate British chemical
industry into its rightful position. His preface is
not the least valuable portion of the book and the
considered expression of opinion in it should receive
the widest possible publicity.
The first volume to be published deals with a
portion of the great Gretna Factory and with the
study of an installation for phosgene manufacture.
The problem at Gretna was to produce 30,000 tons
per annum of R.D.B. cordite involving the manu-
facture of the corresponding quantities of nitro-
glycerin and nitrocellulose which in turn required
cotton waste, dynamite glycerin and the necessary
acids for their nitration. Quinan's plan was to set
forth the quantities of materials required in the
different stages and the plant necessary for carry-
ing out the various operations. The usual draw-
ings were prepared, but elaborate explanatory
notes or descriptions were issued with each
drawing which are stated to have been of
the greatest help to those erecting the plant
and to those who had to run it. The book
contains these drawings and explanatory notes,
so that even the tyro can follow step by step
the development of the factory. Its value to the
student and to all other chemists and chemical
engineers inexperienced in the planning of large
chemical works is quite unique, and teachers with
this volume at their disposal should have a model
on which to base their instruction. Even the more
experienced cannot fail to profit from the study
of the Gretna methods and will no doubt pick up
many valuable points of detail. Criticism of such
a work in the ordinary sense is impossible and
would certainly be unprofitable, but it is of interest
to discuss some of -the broader issues which arise
particularly in connexion with the vexed question
of the chemical engineer which at the moment is
the most prominent matter in chemical circles.
Very frequently in the old days the chemist
stated the requirements of the process, indicating
the more obvious pitfalls due to the nature of the
chemicals to be used, and the engineer designed
and constructed the plant. This usually required
a good deal of modification before it worked, and by
the time the process was running smoothly the plant
was found to contain many faults which could have
been rectified by a closer understanding between
engineer and chemist, who, though co-operating
loyally, have as often as not failed really to under-
stand one another's difficulties. Generally, the
result was even less satisfactory when the chemist
had the larger say in the design, the plant being in
particular too frail to stand the usual rough usuage
at the hands of the British workman.
The chemical engineer, as some of us understand
his functions, should act as a connecting link
between chemist and engineer. Speaking the
language and, still more, in sympathy with the
mentality of both, he can understand the require-
ments of the chemist and translate them to the
engineer. Should he attempt to replace both,
disaster is likely to result since the viewpoint of
the two is bo different as to be almost irreconcilable.
His function is to be one of the team akin to the
half-back in football. In addition to knowing the
chemical and physical properties of substances and
how to design plant, to handle them he should be
possessed of a wide knowledge of every type of
special plant with their advantages and defects,
such as the motor enthusiast to-day seems to have
about the various makes of cars. It requires ex-
perience to acquire this, but the same may be said
of the motor car, about which knowledge seems to
be acquired without difficulty.
The properly trained chemical engineer in the
future will play a large part in staffing the works
both in control of processes and in the construction
department. This is not the place to discuss his
training, which is being earnestly considered by
several bodies ; it can be emphasised, however, that
the teachers of chemistry have been handicapped
by insufficient knowledge of the ideal factory in
the past, whereas in the future the Gretna book
will certainly go far towards supplying this
information. If read carefully and critically,
the story of the creation of the Gretna Works
gives the clear impression of thoroughly sound team
work, scientific work in the best sense, every detail
calmly and soberly considered, alternatives carefully
weighed, calculations made and verified, the whole
with a slow, relentless certainty detached from the
turmoil of war and yet leading to the production of
a great factory in record time, satisfactory in every
detail, yielding its products as calculated and
planned and playing a great part in our final
victory.
As the war developed, economy in materials
became as important as economy in man power,
and the demand for almost every conceivable
material became so great as to exhaust the pro-
ductive power of the world. Then it was that the
recovery of the spent acids and the prevention of
all kinds of waste became so necessary. The descrip-
tion of the details of this branch of the work and
the accompanying flow sheets are some of the most
valuable portions of the Gretna record; its careful
study should lead many others to overhaul processes
in which waste occurs to see whether under like
treatment this can be reduced.
Contrary to the public belief, profits in chemical
industry are cut very fine and the success or failure
of a process depends largely on the elimination or
utilisation of waste both in the form of actual
materials and in that of heat. The increase in the
cost of raw fuel and the deterioration of its quality
have a most serious consequence for chemical works
and far more attention will have to be paid to
avoid loss of heat in the future. The chemical
engineer specially trained in thermochemistry
will find a lucrative field for his investigations.
It is increasingly necessary to emphasise that
the chemical engineer, valuable as he is and will
be, cannot replace the chemist, particularly the
organic chemist. The experience of the writer has
taught him that men possessed of the true
mentality of the organic chemist are becoming
increasingly rare in spite of the fact that industry
needs them more than any other type of chemist,
and our teachers will be doing a great disservice if,
in the attempt to create chemical engineers, they
sacrifice the organic chemist.
The phosgene-plant studies will be particularly
valuable to students as they illustrate in the fullest
detail the plan adopted of contrasting two alterna-
tive methods of manufacture and the reasons for
giving the preference to one of these. Quinan was
a particular zealot in advocating the use of thermo-
chemical data in studying these problems, and the
problem detailed in the book forms a perfectly
admirable example of what can be done by the
scientific application of physico-chemical data.
The writer would have wished to have emphasised
some of the lessons and warnings contained in Mr.
Macnab's introduction, but as this is likely to be
widely reprinted it can adequately speak for itself.
A great service has been done to chemical
industry by the publication of this work, and
though it may take time before the harvest is
reaped from its seed, it is certain that this, harvest
in time will be a bounteous one.
E. P. Armstrong.
REVIEW.
[Sept. 15. 1820.
Fuel Production and Utilisation. By Dr. H. S.
Taylor. Industrial Chemistry Series, edited
by Dr. S. Rideal. Pp. xvi.+279. (London:
Bailliere, Tindall and Cox. 1920.) Price
10s. 6(i. net.
" Fuel Production and Utilisation " will be
found to be not the least useful of the valuable
series of books edited by Dr. S. Rideal dealing with
industrial chemistry. Although the author states
somewhat diffidently that the book " is addressed
more especially to the young college graduate," it
will prove of great help to all engaged in solving
problems relating to fuel, in that there is pre-
sented in delectable form a well-balanced and dis-
criminated compilation of references to authorities
on this most important national subject.
In spite of the author's close personal knowledge
of the subject, it is inevitable that where he relies
on long quotations from other publications there
will be an occasional repetition of inaccuracies. In
this volume there are fewer than usual, but they
exist and are instanced on p. 121, where it is stated,
on the authority of the Times Engineering Supple-
ment, that coke-oven gas is supplied from Tansley
Park to the Birmingham Gas Works, whereas it is
more correct to state that the Birmingham Gas
Works produces its own coke-oven gas and Tansley
Park supplies coke-oven gas to the Sheffield gas
undertaking.
The volume contains good sections, theoretically
and practically treated, on boiler firing, coal car-
bonisation, gasification (water gas, blast-furnace
gas, producer gas), residuals, lignite, peat, wood,
and- synthetic fuels. Most recent work is referred
to, but there is no reference made to colloidal fuel.
An excellent r&sumc of the position concerning the
use of powdered fuel is given in quotations from
Gadd and Coffin. Their analyses of the results so
far obtained indicate well-balanced judgments on a
difficult problem.
The author lays much stress on the necessity for
increased effort in the direction of fuel conserva-
tion, and points out that whereas 50 per cent, of
the known coal resources of the world is to be found
within the United States of America, only 26 per
cent, is present in Great Britain. In spite of this
low figure, in 1913 over 34 per cent, of the output
of Great Britain was employed for export, repre-
senting over 70 per cent, of the total seaborne coal
trade of the world. Everyone must agree on re-
flection that although this is a tremendous imme-
diate advantage, it is inevitable that it will be
eventually to the lasting disadvantage of the
country that is so prodigal with its natural re-
sources.
An interesting table appears on page 25 giving
the gross and net calorific values of various gases
and the calorific values per cubic foot of air-gas
mixture (theoretically proportioned). The figures
quoted for coal and coke-oven gas are open to ques-
tion because the differences between the net and
gross figures do not correspond with general prac-
tice, and the calculations for calorific value per cb.
ft. of air-gas and mixture are not understandable,
as they appear much too low and do not agree with
one's own calculations from data culled from the
same table.
Low-temperature carbonisation, which is being
boomed so much at the present time, is fully dealt
with by quotations from Evans, but in the re-
viewer's opinion there is no justification for the
statement that this process has recently become a
commercial success, for he is convinced that the
process cannot compete commercially with the
high-temperature processes of the present day, and
that the former can only be financially and com-
mercially successful after all attempts to produce a
coalite " by means of low temperature conditions
have been abandoned.
An interesting statement is made that the output
of carbonising plants is increased by about 10 per
cent, by the employment of outside producers rather
than the usual type of internal hot gas producer.
The author characterises the experimental
methods of the Gas Investigation Committee of the
Leeds University and Institution of Gas Engineers
as not being free from objection, but does not in-
dicate in what direction his criticism would lead
him. The committee, however, have given ample
and sufficient reasons for the methods they have
adopted, although there is no doubt that for other
purposes and other objects the methods would be
quite unsuitable.
The proposals of HelpB for the production of low-
grade gases at ridiculously low prices are lightly
touched upon, but it would be dangerous if the
readers of this most useful volume were to be
misled by any of the fallacious claims made by the
hustling progenitor of " Pleno " — who, however, is
not always wrong.
The author has achieved all his objects and more.
The book is opportune and rises to the occasion. It
should be found on the shelves of all those who are
in any way interested in the subject.
E. W. Smith.
PUBLICATIONS RECEIVED.
Preliminary Studies for H.M. Factory, Gretna,
and Study for an Installation of Phosgene
Manufacture. Department of Explosives Sup-
ply Ministry of Munitions. Pp. 145. (London :
H.M. Stationery Office. 1920.) Price 15s.
Die Zwischenprodukte der Teerfarbenfabrik-
ation. By Dr. Otto Lange. Pp. 645.
(Leipzig: Otto Spamer. 1920.) Prices: — Ger-
many, 135 mk. ( + 40%), bound 150 mk. (+40%).
England and Colonies, 80s., bound 90s.
A Kinetic Theory of Gases and Liquids. By
Dr. R. D. Kleeman. Pp. 272. (New York:
John Wiley and Sons, Inc.; London: Chapman
and Hall, Ltd. 1920.) Price 16s. 6d.
The Origin and Progress of the Caoutchouc or
India-Rubber Manufacture in England. By
Thomas Hancock. Centenary Edition. Pp. 72.
Reprinted for James Lyne Hancock, Ltd., 1920.
The Coal Fire. A Research by Margaret W.
Fishenden for the Manchester Corporation Air
Pollution Advisory Board. Fuel Research
Board, Department of Scientific and Industrial
Research. Special Report No. 3. Pp. 112.
(London: H.M. Stationery Office. 1920.)
Price 4*.
The Mineral Industry of the British Empire
and Foreign Countries. AVar Period. Im-
perial Mineral Resources Bureau. (London:
H.M. Stationery Office. 1920): —
Nitrates. Price 9rf.
Monazite. Price 6rf.
Borates. Price 9d.
Publications of the United States Geological
Survey. Department of the Interior.
(Washington: Government Printing Office
1920): —
Barytes and Barium Products in 1918. By
G. W. Stose.
Copper in 1917 (General Report). By B. S.
Butler.
Coal in 1918. Part A : Production. By C. E.
Lesher.
Felspar in 1918. By L. M. Beach.
Mica in 1918. By W. T. Sohalleb
Vol. XXXIX., No. 18.]
REVIEW
[Sept. 30. 1920.
RAIL CONVEYANCE OF CHEMICAL
COMMODITIES.
(RATES AND CONDITIONS.)
J. LUKES.
The questions of transportation of goods by rail-
way and of the costs incurred are of the utmost im-
portance to-day to the trading community in
general and to the chemical trade in particular ;
and the result of the unfettered power given to the
Minister by the Ministry of Transport Act, 1919,
has been unpleasantly revealed.
Increase of Bates. — Under the provisions of the
Transport Act, Section 3 (e), the rates and charges
were raised on January 15 this year by from 25 per
cent, to over 100 per cent., according to class and
on July 7, 1920, a further reference was made on
behalf of the Minister of Transport to the Statutory
Rates Advisory Committee concerning an interim
revision of rates and charges, and in connexion with
this the following extracts from the Terms of Re-
ference will be self-explanatory : —
" I am directed by the Minister of Transport to
inform you that since the issue of his directions on
December 20 and 23, 1919, to the railway companies
of the United Kingdom to increase their charges it
is estimated that the financial result of working
British Railways (including Ireland) will show a
deficiency as from April 1, 1920, at the rate of
£54,500,000 per annum, which includes increases of
£4,400,000 in salaries, ard wages which came into
force on July 1, under the provisions of the Sliding
Scale."
" The Minister accordingly desires the Com-
mittee to consider and advise him what increases
should be made in the rates, fares, tolls, dues, and
charges of such companies so as to yield by the end
of June, 1921, the total deficit which commenced
to accrue on April 1 last."
The amount x>{ additional money required in
Great Britain is computed for sixteen months to
be £66,000,000, and this sum is to be raised between
the time the new rates and fares are imposed and
July 31, 1921 (the date to which the period was
subsequently extended). It is estimated that the
sum to be collected from passenger fares in Great
Britain will be £17,000,000 for the period expiring
July 31, 1921, leaving £49,000,000 to be produced
in Great Britain from the rates and charges for the
carriage of minerals, merchandise, and live-stock
by goods and passenger trains. To provide this
sum in eleven months (i.e., from September 1, 1920,
to July 31, 1921) rates must be imposed to produce
£53.500.000 in a year. An increased revenue of
about £2,500,000 is required in Ireland.
The Rates Advisory Committee set up under
Section 21 of the Ministry of Transport Act, 1919,
has taken evidence, and its report, dated July 30,
1920, has been presented to the Minister (Command
Paper 886, price 2d.). According to the evidence
given before this committee, the proposals sub-
mitted by the railway companies for securing the
increased revenue required were to the effect that
all rates applicable prior to January 15, 1920,
should be increased by over 100 per cent., returned
empties by 200 per cent., small consignments by
150 per cent., and that no traffics should be ex-
cepted from these increases.
These proposals of the railway- companies have
been adopted in the main, except* that the rates for
manure in bulk, etc., to be used as agricultural
manure in the United Kingdom have been increased
by just over 50 per cent, (whereas higher flat rate
charges are to be levied on other traffic in Class C,
i.e., 9d. per ton instead of 6d. per ton, as originally
proposed), and the charges for returned empties are
to be increased by 100 per cent, and no more.
It must be understood that the above percentage
increases are upon rates which include amounts for
station accommodation, services, and in many in-
stances cartage, and that the total payable is there-
fore heavier than a larger percentage increase
would mean on a conveyance rate only. This factor
must be taken into consideration when comparisons
are made with increases in other countries, where
the railway authorities charge only for the services
performed.
Whilst it is felt by the public generally that some
measure of increased charge may be due to the re-
spective companies for railway conveyance, ter-
minal services, station accommodation, etc., which-
ever service or services may be performed for the
trader, it is essential that the rates and conditions
on which such increases are based should be equit-
able and reasonable. Unfortunately, such a posi-
tion does not exist in respect of the chemical indus-
tries, and the traders concerned have contended
for many years that the rates and conditions ap-
plicable to their commodities' were too high, un-
reasonable, and, indeed, onerous; hence it may be
well to define the pecular legal position in which
the chemical trade finds itself.
Legal Conditions and Bates for Dangerous Goods.
— The first stumbling block to the chemical manu-
facturer is to be found in Section 105 of the Rail-
way Clauses Consolidation Act, 1845, which enacts
that no person shall require the company to carry
upon the railway any aquafortis, oil of vitriol, or
any other goods which in the judgment of the com-
pany may be of a dangerous nature.
The second serious disability is that under Part
4 of the Railway Rates and Charges Order Con-
firmation Acts, 1891/1892, the railway companies
are empowered to charge for dangerous goods such
reasonable sum as they think fit in each case. Thus
they can decide finally as to what merchandise is
dangerous, charge what reasonable sum they think
fit, carry or refuse to carry; and it follows that if
they agree to accept chemical commodities for con-
veyance, they can stipulate the conditions under
which they will accept, and specify the nature of
all packages which are to be used in connexion with
the conveyance over the railway.
There is no doubt that the railway companies,
having been given these wide powers, have made
the utmost use of their opportunities, as the term
"dangerous goods" now includes practically all
chemical products, and embraces articles not only
of an explosive, inflammable, corrosive and poison-
ous nature, but also merchandise which is in any
slight manner objectionable under any extreme con-
ditions ; and the extent to which they have used
the power is amply demonstrated by the fact that
the regulations and conditions applicable to the
carriage of dangerous goods in the General Rail-
way Classification for the year 1890 occupied 38
pages, whilst in the Classification for 1920, out of a
total of 488 pages no less than 212 are taken up by
the special classification for so-called dangerous
goods.
This freedom in the matter of acceptation of
traffic and fixing of rates and conditions (with-
out statutory check and effective means of criticism)
was conferred upon the railways years before it was
realised that the chemical industry was indispen-
sable to the national interests, and it is seriously
questioned whether Germany would have out-
stripped this country in chemical production and
initiative (in the manner she did, as was made
clear by the war) had our railways not discouraged
the internal movement and interchange of
chemicals by levying charges which prohibited the
movement of heavy raw materials, except for very
REVIEW.
short distances, and restricted the transit of inter-
mediate and finished products hy imposing onerous
rates and conditions. It is beyond doubt that the
manufacturers found it better business to export
direct semi-manufactured chemical commodities to
foreign countries — particularly to Germany — to be
worked into the finished article there, rather than
to incur the expense of a series of movements by
rail in this country.
With the view of clearly illustrating the differ-
ence between rates for the conveyance of ordinary
merchandise under Part 1 and the sums payable
for dangerous goods under Part 4 of the Order Con-
firmation Acts 1891/1892, it should be understood
that prescribed amounts for service terminals and
station accommodation are set out in the Acts for
traffic in Part I. In the case of Class 2 traffic the
charges are : —
Terminal for station accommodation
is Is. 6d. per ton at each end 3 0
Loading at 8d. per ton . . . . 8
Unloading at Sd. per ton . . . . 8
Covering at 2d. per ton . . . . 2
Uncovering at 2d. per ton . . . . 2
Total
4 8
The consignor of traffic placed in the Statutory
Class 2 (scheduled to Part 1 of the Order) would
have some means of ascertaining what amount re-
presenting service terminals and station accommo-
dation was included in his rate (although the rail-
way companies endeavour to evade their responsi-
bility to disintegrate rates claimed or charged, even
upon receipt of a formal request addressed to the
secretary of the company). On the other hand, the
consignor of a commodity which the railway com-
panies have classified as dangerous and have in-
dicated in their special classification that the figure
shown against Class 2 in the Rate Books may be
taken as the reasonable sum they think fit to charge,
has no means of ascertaining what portion of the
sum represents terminals and accommodation, no
details being set out in the Acts under Part 4, as
in the case of Part 1. The result is that the rates
on Part 1 traffic, which apply at railway com-
pany's risk and include full service and station ter-
minals, provision of railway rolling stock, collection
at sending point and delivery at destination by
road cart, are equally applied at owner's risk as
" reasonable sums " to chemical merchandise in
Part 4 of the Provisional Orders, even when such
merchandise passes from private siding to private
siding in tank wagons provided by the traders, giv-
ing concentrated loads of from 8 tons to 20 tons per
truck.
This is a serious hindrance to chemical manufac-
turers who have provided their own private sidings,
and the railway companies go so far as to state that
it is not usual to make any siding allowances from
the sums they prescribe for dangerous goods, even
when relieved by the private-siding owner of load-
and unloading services, the provision of station
premises and rolling stock.
Contract Conditions. — In addition to the levying
of unreasonable rates or charges, the carriers en-
force special contract conditions in connexion with
chemical traffics; they require indemnities against
third-party risks under certain circumstances, and
(with a few exceptions) the merchandise is conveyed
only at the risk of the trader. The consignor is
bound to subscribe to consignment notes which
contain, in addition to the indemnity referred to,
conditions placing the sole risk tipon himself and
relieving the railway company of any loss of or
injury or delay to the said goods, and undertaking
that the goods will be removed at destination within
four hours (in the case of tank wagons, six hours)
— in default to pay 5s. per ton per hour — and if
not removed within twelve hours agreeing to the
railway company selling the goods in such a manner
and at such time as it thinks best. This means that
the charge for standage of a 20-ton tank wagon of
petrol would be £5 per hour.
Boiling Stock. — During recent years some thou-
sands of railway tank wagons have been built by
private traders and placed upon the railways; it is
contended that no adequate provision has been
made by the railway companies in their classifica-
tion for liquids conveyed in such vehicles, and that
in these cases the unreasonableness of the rates or
sums charged is most pronounced, particularly
the charge which is made, presumably by way of
insurance, in consequence of any slight risk which
may be left to the railway companies to bear,
through the alleged dangerous nature of the liquid
conveyed.
Premiums for Bisk. — It is surely a business pro-
position to assume that a small premium would
cover insurance for the limited measure of risk,
since explosives, inflammable, corrosive and poison-
ous liquids, properly packed in accordance with the
Home Office and railway companies' specifications,
are not far removed from ordinary merchandise,
and petrol and other inflammable liquids sent in
specially manufactured steel drums or in specially
constructed owner's tank wagons could not be fired
unless the drums or tanks were faulty, in which case
the railway companies would be relieved of all
responsibility by the conditions of contract; and it
is ludicrous to suggest that a poisonous liquid is
dangerous in a railway tank wagon. At the same
time the premiums demanded by the carriers for
the risks which do not in practice exist are enor-
mous, as illustrated by the following extract from
the General Railway Classification: —
Oils, not dangerous, in owners' tank
wagons, 8-ton loads ... ... ... Class C
Petrol or benzol, in specially constructed
owners' tank wagons, 8-ton loads ... Class 2
The following table shows the rates levied, prior
to September 1 last, between large centres in re-
spect of goods in the classes mentioned : —
Liverpool and\
London /
CLASS C.
Per ton.
s. d.
30 3
Class 2.
Per ton.
s. d.
. 55 6
Difference
Per ton.
s. d.
25 3
Leeds and ~\
Glasgow j
SO tl
62 1
.. 25 2
Bristol and\
Birmingham /
16 3
. 30 4
14 1
Cardiff and\
Sheffield /
33 3
. 65 5
32 2
The differences between the two rates show that
the carriers require unreasonably heavy sums for
insurance, and the rates themselves indicate what
the charge would be for the carriage of 20 tons in
a railway tank wagon.
Comparisons with Germany and America. — It
would not be quite fair to complete this article
without some definite reference to charges made
in Germany, as compared with charges (pre-war)
here; and the following comparisons will show the
position so far as benzol, toluol, and naphtha, in
owners' tank wagons, Inflammable Liquids Class
" A," flashing below 73° P., are concerned: —
50 Miles.
90 Miles.
130 Miles.
Per ton.
Per ton.
Per ton.
a. d.
s. d.
8. d.
Germany
.. 7 0.
10 0
14 0
England
15 0 .
. 21 6
26 0
In America, the Inter-State Commerce Commis-
sion, with the assistance of the Bureau of Ex-
plosives, controls the classification, rating and con-
ditions under which dangerous goods are conveyed,
and evidence recently given before the Rates Ad-
visory Committee illustrates the unreasonable
Vol. XXXIX.. >,o. IS.]
REVIEW.
317 b
manner in which the question of danger is dealt
with in this country. It appears that in America,
inflammable liquids, flashing over 80° F., are not
considered as dangerous liquids, whereas in this
country in a recent case before the Railway and
Canal Commission Court [Midland Railway and
Others v. Brotherton & Co., Ltd., and \Vm. Butler
& Co. (Bristol), Ltd. (c/. J., 1920, 187 b)], it was
declared that the railway companies did not aecept
150° F. as the dividing line between danger and
safety, and their contention was upheld by the
Court.
Dangerous or Son-Dangerous. — In arriving at a
decision as to whether the commodity is dangerous
or otherwise, the English railway companies are
guided by a body of chemists who, generally speak-
ing, have no works' experience of chemical pro-
cesses and products; they do not appear to con-
sider whether the merchandise is safe in the pack-
age in which it is conveyed, but what might happen
in case of a train accident or an accident to a con-
tainer. In the case of leakage of liquids not inflam-
mable under normal daily temperature, the com-
panies point out that there may be danger provided
the rays of the sun during the hottest day in
summer were to fall upon the leakage, and provided
that a man should at that psychological moment
drop a match or a lighted lamp on the liquid which
had so escaped. (It, of course, stands to reason that
unless the match or light were dropped at the
correct time the leakage may have evaporated
quickly in the rays of the sun).
Assistance for Key Industry. — It is the firm
opinion of a number of large chemical manufact-
urers that no real attention or assistance has been
given to this key industry so far as the carriers are
concerned, and it seems that the fact of extortionate
charges having been paid in the past is sufficient
guarantee for their continuance in the future —
quite overlooking the consideration that the conse-
quent cramping of trade and the driving of by-
products and semi-manufactured commodities
abroad are against.the best interests of the country,
and will not assist us in meeting the demand for
high explosives, should another war break out.
Bevision of Railway Bates. — Particulars of the
difficulties and the serious position in which the
chemical manufacturer is placed have been given
in evidence before the Statutory Rates Advisory
Committee in connexion with the hearing respect-
ing the general revision of railway rates and
charges. Trade witnesses have supported proposals
that an impartial Business Tribunal, easy of access
and inexpensive, should be appointed to have the
power of classifying merchandise of every descrip-
tion, including dangerous goods, and of deciding
the rates, charges, and conditions to be applied ;
and it has been particularly pointed out that the
railway companies should be permitted to charge
only for the services they actually perform, and
for the accommodation which is provided and used.
It is hoped that in the national interests the Com-
mittee will make such a recommendation to the
Minister of Transport as will accord the chemical
manufacturers and traders of this country some
right to be consulted in connexion with the convey-
ance of their merchandise and the cost ; and that
more reasonable and equitable terms will be ob-
tained in the future, so that British chemical manu-
facturers may enjoy a reasonable chance in com-
peting with traders in other countries \vhere the
conditions are more favourable in regard to railway
transport.
Patent Office Library. — On and after
October 1, 1920, the hours of opening will be from
10 a.m. to 9 p.m. (in lieu of 8 p.m. as hitherto),
except on Christmas Eve and Easter Eve, when the
closing hour will be 4 p.m.
LIQUID OXYGEN EXPLOSIVES.
J. THORBURN.
Liquid oxygen explosives, named "Oxyliquit,"
were first introduced in 1897 by Linde, whose pro-
cess for the commercial liquefaction of air, devel-
oped two years previously, rendered such
explosives possible. In free competition with
ordinary explosives they made no progress, but
during the war their use rapidly spread in German
industry, where they enjoyed a virtual monopoly
because ordinary explosives, or the raw materials
therefor, were reserved for military purposes.
Under the name " Sprengluft " they were exten-
sively used by the Germans in the iron, potash,
and non-fiery coal mines, and for tunnelling and
demolitions both civil and military.
Liquid oxygen for explosives should contain at
least 85 per cent, of oxygen, and usually contains
85 — 90 per cent., the remainder consisting princi-
pally of nitrogen. Its boiling point is -183° C. ;
consequently, in order to minimise loss by evapora-
tion in transit, it is produced as near as possible
to the site of the blasting operations. The lique-
faction plant is generally of the Linde, Claude, or
Heylandt type. The liquid oxygen is either stored
in a large vacuum-jacketed reservoir until re-
quired, or run directly from the plant into the
transport vessels. These are vacuum-jacketed,
spherical flasks of brass or steel with a capacity
usually of 15 — 25 litres, constructed on the prin-
ciple of the Dewar flask. As in this, the inner
walls of the vacuum jacket are silvered or polished,
and the vacuum is improved by placing a quantity
of highly absorptive charcoal in the jacket to
absorb residual air and the small quantity of air
which gradually leaks through the pores of the
metal. This is an application of Dewar's dis-
covery of the high absorptivity of charcoal for air
near the boiling point of the latter, the vacuum
being almost perfect so long as the vessel contains
liquid oxygen. The normal loss of oxygen by
evaporation from these vessels when new is under
(50 grams per hour. To keep them efficient they are
tested monthly, and when the loss from them exceeds
400 grams per hour they are returned to the
manufacturers to have their jackets re-evacuated.
The neck of the vessel is long and narrow, and
when upright the inner flask hangs freely within
the outer flask and touches it only along the line
of suspension near the mouth. On tilting the
vessel to pour out its contents the body of the inner
flask touches the outer at two points. The result-
ing admission of heat increases the rate of evapor-
ation of the liquid oxygen, and thereby produces
sufficient pressure in the flask to expel the liquid
contents quickly and steadily. For distribution
to the workings, the liquid oxygen is transferred to
five-litre vessels of similar construction.
The explosive is prepared by saturating an ab-
sorptive combustible, such as soot, lampblack or
cork-meal, with liquid oxygen. This may be done
in the borehole as in the Baldus-Kowastch process,
but saturation is often incomplete by this method,
with the result that on firing the shot the explosion
is only partial, and the remainder of the charge
may be thrown out burning. It has been found
better to prepare the explosive outside the bore-
hole as in the " Marsit " process. The absorbent
is filled into porous cylindrical envelopes, usually
of linen, paper or cardboard, to form cartridges
of convenient length and several millimetres less
in diameter than the borehole. A small quantity
of liquid oxygen is poured from a five-litre flask
into an " immersion " vessel, which is usually a
vacuum-jacketed cylinder of the proper size made
of glass, porcelain or metal, but galvanised sheet
iron vessels insulated with slag wool or the like
a2
[Sept. 30. 1920.
are sometimes used. The requisite number of ab-
sorbent cartridges are placed vertically in the ves-
sel, and cause rapid evaporation of its contents,
the vapour from which cools them thoroughly.
After this preliminary cooling, which saves oxygen
and occupies only a few minutes, the vessel i3
filled up with liquid oxygen, and when the immer-
sion has lasted ten to thirty minutes, the exact time
depending on the porosity of the absorbent and
envelopes used, saturation of the cartridges is
complete. They are lifted out by means of wooden
tongs and pushed with a wooden rod along an iron
gutter into the borehole, which must be quite
straight and clean. The detonator is inserted in
the last cartridge of the charge and the hole is
tamped with porous material, to allow the evapor-
ated oxygen to escape. The shot is then fired.
When clay is used for tamping, a ventilation chan-
nel is formed in it by rotating a thin brass rod in
the borehole during tamping. From the moment
of their removal from the immersion vessel, the
cartridges rapidly lose oyygen and with it their
explosive power. At the instant of firing, suffici-
ent oxygen should be present to prevent the forma-
tion of carbon monoxide. The interval between
saturation and firing should therefore be as short
as possible and, consequently, there is time to
prepare only two or three shots for each blast.
This constitutes a serious drawback to the pro-
cedure just described, which cannot be avoided if
ignition is effected by means of an ordinary fuse.
If, however, electrical ignition is employed, time
may be saved by completing the firing arrange-
ments while the saturation of the cartridges is in
progress. In applying this method, the detonator
is fixed in a short cylindrical wooden block which
is pushed to the bottom of the borehole, the deton-
ator projecting slightly from the block and point-
ing towards the mouth of the hole. The firing cable
is then connected to the detonator wires and the
electrical continuity of the firing circuit tested. Not
till then are the cartridges transferred from the
immersion vessel to the borehole. It only remains to
insert the tamping and fire the shot. By this pro-
cedure the loss by evaporation is minimised, hur-
ried working is rendered unnecessary, the risk of
misfires, due to faulty connexions, is diminished, a
greater explosive effect is obtained from the same
quantity of liquid oxygen, and a larger number of
shots can be fired simultaneously. Where con-
ditions permit, a further increase in the possible
number of simultaneous shots is effected by the
practice, sometimes followed in potash mines, of
using a wooden plug as tamping or doing without
tamping.
For exploding charges of liquid oxygen explo-
sives, fuse alone may often be used, but as a much
greater explosive effect is obtained with detona-
tors, these are generally employed. They may he
fired by means of ordinary fuse or electrically.
When fuse is used, a greater length is required
than with ordinary explosives as a precaution
against accelerated burning, caused by the fuse
cover igniting and burning more rapidly than the
core in the highly oxygenated atmosphere of the
borehole. The difficulties with fuse have led to
the adoption of electrical firing. Ordinary deton-
ators may be used if they are made so that the
liquid oxygen cannot enter them, and if they are
protected from direct cooling, e.g., by inserting
them in small wooden tubes, or if they are allowed
to remain only a relatively short time in contact
with the explosive.
A special detonator much larger than the ordin-
ary detonators has been devised, consisting of a
perforated iron or cardboard tube containing an
absorbent such as cork-meal mixed with an oil.
This detonator is explosive only when saturated
with liquid oxygen. It is inserted in one of the
cartridges constituting a charge, before they are
immersed, and is ignited by an ordinary electric
igniter.
For firing a series of shots successively, a method
which has proved satisfactory consists in inserting
a piece of fuse between the detonator and the elec-
tric igniter of each charge, the length of the fuse
being four cm. for the first and two cm. longer for
each successive shot. When the igniters are fired
simultaneously the shots follow at regular short
intervals. As a precaution against premature
ignitions due to sparking, the junction between
igniter and fuse is enclosed in a cylindrical wooden
block five cm. long. Alternatively, the fuse with
igniter is sometimes coiled up in sand in a cardboard
cylinder from which only the end of the detonator
and the wires of the igniter protrude.
Liquefaction plant and accessories for the pre-
paration and use of liquid oxygen explosives are
supplied by the Sprengluft G.m.b.H., Berlin, and
other firms.
Liquid oxygen explosives are stronger than black
powder and can be used instead of dynamite.
Their cost depends on their efficiency which in turn
depends very much on local and personal factors,
including the attitude and skill of the workers.
They are unsuitable for use in wet boreholes, shaft-
sinking, in quarries where the stone is required in
large blocks, and in fiery mines.
It is perhaps too early to forecast the future of
liquid oxygen explosives, but it is unlikely that,
under normal conditions, they will replace ordinary
explosives to any appreciable extent. Since the
war their importance has diminished owing to the
renewed possibility of obtaining ordinary explos-
ives. The existence of the necessary plant in
Germany might be expected to favour the prefer-
ence of liquid oxygen explosives there, but ordinary
explosives have already displaced them in some
districts. In Alsace Lorraine, on the other hand,
the situation is still obscure, owing to the in-
fluence of the French Government tax on explosives.
MEETINGS OF OTHER SOCIETIES.
THE INSTITUTE OF METALS.
The Autumn Meeting of the Institute of Metals was
held on September 15 and 16 at Barrow-in-Furness
under the presidency of Sir George Goodwin, and
was very well attended. The number of papers pre-
sented was so large that several of them had to be
taken as read, and the discussion of others cur-
tailed, although it is hoped that many written con-
tributions to the discussions will be received later.
On the practical side, Mr. H. B. Weeks, who also
acted as local hon. secretary, communicated an
account of the practice in brass-foundry work at
Messrs. Yickers' works, as a preliminary to the
visit which the members were enabled to make to
the foundry later in the day. Messrs. T. G. Bam-
ford and W. E. Ballard gave an account of experi-
ments to determine the influence of dissolved gases
on brass of high grade, and showed that the tem-
perature of pouring is the determining factor in
influencing the quality of the casting, and not the
maximum temperature to which the metal has been
exposed. Pouring at a temperature within 40° C.
of the liquidus will usually render the casting
porous. The authors described their experimental
methods for collecting and analysing the gas con-
tents of a brass. Mr. R. T. Rolfe discussed the
influence of arsenic and antimony on the proper-
ties of Admiralty gun metal, reaching the con-
Vol. XXXIX.. No. IS.]
319 b
elusion that both elements are deleterious, and that
large quantities cause unsoundness as well as brittle-
ness. Commander G. B. Allen described the ex-
periences of the Navy in regard to condensers,
especially under war conditions, and called atten-
tion to the importance of erosion by sandy particles
in bringing about deterioration of the tubes at the
inlet ends. Varnishing or coating the tubes would
probably have a good effect if the practical diffi-
culty of forming a uniform film could be overcome.
In the discussion on this paper, Dr. Bengough
stated that erosion plays a less important part in
shore plants, and that the initiation of corrosion
had not been traced to the presence of spills or
similar defects. He also suggested a modification
in the method of inserting the tubes into the fer-
rules in order to lessen the possibility of the ac-
cumulation of air bubbles.
On the more strictly scientific side, the principal
paper was that by Prof. H. C. H. Carpenter and
Miss C. F. Elam, on crystal growth and recrystal-
lisation in metals. This included a very extensive
series of observations, partly on aluminium, and
partly on an alloy of tin containing 1"5 per cent,
of antimony. This alloy has the convenient pro-
perty of marking each stage of grain growth by a
raised boundary on a polished surface, so that each
successive stage may be watched, and the results
photographed without confusion. The authors dis-
tinguish sharply between the growth of crystals by
gradual movement of their boundaries and re-
crystallisation, which implies complete re-orienta-
tion from new centres. They conclude that plastic
deformation is necessary for both, and that the
higher the temperature of heating, the less is the
amount of previous deformation which is required.
Large crystals do not necessarily grow at the ex-
pense of small. The matter is a controversial one,
and the authors, while showing the inadequacy of
existing explanations, are not yet prepared to
offer a complete hypothesis of their own. Dr. W.
Rosenhain criticised the conclusions of the paper,
and maintained the adequacy of his own explana-
tion. The subject was vigorously discussed, and
Dr. F. C. Thompson showed slides to prove that
in certain alloys general disintegration of a crystal
took place before the appearance of new crystals. It
was generally agreed that a further knowledge of
the intimate structure of crystals would be required
before a complete account of the process could be
given. Mr. F. Johnson described the appearance
of narrow twins, resembling Neumann lamella?, in
cold-worked beta brass, and Mr. J. H. S. Dickenson
gave an account of the intercrystalline fracture
of some brasses when brought into contact with
metals or alloys of low melting point while in a
fitate of tension. A good piece of thermal analysis
work was contributed by Mr. D. Hanson and Miss
M. L. V. Gayler on the alloys of magnesium and
aluminium. The system proved to be a difficult one,
owing to the very small crystallisation-interval in
the most important part of the series, hut the exist-
ence of two compounds has been clearly proved.
Two papers were taken as read, a confirmation by
Miss Bingham of the existence of three allotropic
modifications of zinc, and an account of the con-
stitution of alloys with a tin basis containing cop-
per and antimony by Dr. O. F. Hudson and Mr.
J. H. Darley.
The visits comprised the very extensive engineer-
ing and shipbuilding works of Messrs. Vickers,
including the airship-construction department, the
iron and steel works of the Barrow Haematite Co.,
and the Barrow Paper Mills. On the last afternoon
the members travelled by train to Lakeside and
made a steamer tour of Lake Windermere.
The Spring Meeting, 1921, will be held on March 9
and 10, in London, and the Mav Lecture will be
delivered by Prof. Thomas Turner on " Casting of
Metals."
SOCIETY OF DYERS AND COLOURISTS.
The first meeting of the Session 1920 — 1921 of the
Midlands Section of the Society was held in the
University College, Nottingham, on September 24,
when a lecture on " The Examination of Hydro-
carbon Oils " was given by Mr. L. Guy Radclitfe
(Manchester).
The well-known physical tests usually applied to
mineral oils were briefly referred to, emphasis being
laid on the correlation of the various tests and the
interpretations of the numerical data obtained
therefrom. The distinction between viscosity and
oiliness was discussed, mention being made of the
influence of free fatty acids on the efficiency of
lubrication. The Michell viscometer was shown and
described especially as a means for the rapid deter-
mination of viscosity in workshops. Following
remarks on the determination of flash point, the
difficulty of obtaining concordant results as to loss
in weight experienced on heating oils in air was
mentioned, and the opinion expressed that at pre-
sent there was not a really satisfactory apparatus
available for this purpose. In connexion with fuel
oils, the apparatus used for determining the tem-
perature of spontaneous ignition was described and
certain important generalisations were cited. In
dealing with the stability of mineral oils, special
attention was given to the ease with which such
oils undergo oxidation with the formation of solid
precipitates and the production of acidity; the
conditions favourable to such changes were detailed
and some account given of the nature of the
deleterious products. The lecture concluded with a
brief description of some machines used for deter-
mining the friction-reducing values of oils when
applied to bearings.
NEWS AND NOTES.
CANADA.
Copper and Nickel in Quebec. — It is reported that
lodes of copper and nickel ore extending from 100 —
140 ft. have been discovered in the Lac du
Bonnet mining district. The Dominion Govern-
ment has sent a survev party to make a report on
the whole field.— (Official.)
Antimony Development in New Brunswick. — An ex-
penditure of $750,000 in the development of the
antimony mines at Lake George, near Fredericton,
N.B., has been forecasted by the president of the
North American Antimony and Smelting Co., Ltd.
It is expected that shipments of the ore will be com-
menced early in the autumn. — (Bd. of Trade J.,
Aug. 5, 1920.)
Discovery of Arsenic in British Columbia. — A large
deposit of metallic arsenic is reported to have been
found on Alder Island belonging to the Queen Char-
lotte group. Hand-picked specimens show from 18
to 24 per cent, arsenic. This is the first known
occurrence of arsenic in British Columbia, although
it has been obtained for some years as a by-product
from the arseno-pyritic ores of the Hedley Gold
Mining Co.— (J. Ind. and Eng. Chem., Aug., 1920.)
The Fertiliser Industry. — The number of companies
in Canada making commercial fertilisers was 12 in
1917, and 15 in 1918, exclusive of slaughtering and
meat-packing plants producing fertilisers as by-
products. The assets and working capital ot these
15 companies were $ 3, 064,1 11 in 1918, or about 10
per cent, more than in 1917; 412 persons were em-
ployed, and the total salaries and wages paid
amounted to $370,091. Large quantities of fer-
tilisers are produced by the beet-sugar indust-y
and the chemical industry, whilst thousands of tens
[Sept. 30. 19M.
of ammonium sulphate are produced in coke-oven
plants and exported, mainly to the West Indies
and Southern States, as a fertiliser for sugar-cane
and cotton crops. Cyanamide has been produced
on a large scale in Canada in recent years and the
consumption is increasing, but the bulk of the out-
put is exported. Potash is made from wood ashes
on a small scale. The total value of the output of
the Canadian fertiliser industry in 1918 was
$2,558,007 ($2,295,075 in 1917), and included 27,985
tons of "complete" fertilisers, worth $1,238,064;
10,9.34 t. of " ammoniated " fertilisers, worth
$481,947; and 27,384 t. of basic slag, worth
$239,816. The total value of the materials used in
the year was $1,573,582.— (U.S. Com. Eep., July
10, 1920.)
Electric Reduction of Iron Ores. — Although the iron
ores of Ontario are known to be of considerable
extent, yet owing to their high sulphur content,
and the fact that they are usually siderite or mag-
netite, successful operation has never been attained
except in one or two cases. The scarcity of coal in
Ontario has been a factor restricting domestic pro-
duction, but there is abundant water-power. An
electric smelting method has been developed by Mr.
J. W. Moffatt, of Toronto, which makes use of both
a reduction furnace and an electric furnace working
in combination. The carbon monoxide given off
during the reduction is utilised to supply heat
for the reaction, so that, theoretically, no fuel be-
yond that needed for reduction is required. In
• actual practice, however, a small amount of heat
must be added. The ore is crushed and fed into the
reducing furnace and carbon added. The sulphur
is burnt off before reduction is allowed to take
place, and then the metallic iron is conveyed in
an air-tight conveyor to the electric furnace, where
it is melted down and refined. Master patents for
the process and the furnaces have been taken out
in Canada, the United States and other countries.
It is expected that arrangements will shortly be
made for the erection of a plant. A process for
the electric reduction of Ontario ores has also been
invented by Prof. A. Stansfield, of MeGill Univer-
sity, Montreal ; patents have been applied for, and
arrangements for large-scale working are being
considered.
AUSTRALIA.
Tasmanian Industries. — As Tasmania is constantly
suffering from either actual or threatened shortage
of coal, considerable interest is now being taken in
the country's own resources. Tests of coal mined
at Preolinna gave very good results in regard to
yields of gas and coke, and it is stated that this
field contains some 50 million tons of coal, which
include the best steam coal, gas coal, and Torbanite
shale.
Messrs. Hoskins, ironmasters of New South
Wales, are working towards the establishment of an
iron industry in Tasmania, and are stated to have
acquired the leases of areas on the west coast con-
taining deposits of magnetite and haematite. The
Government is investigating the question of utilis-
ing and developing the waters around Strahan for
use as a harbour.
The Emu Bay Railway Company of Tasmania,
which owns the railway line to Mount Bischoff,
has decided to enlarge its engineering workshop at
Burnie and to undertake general engineering work
for the public.
Active operations have begun in connexion with
the establishment of woollen mills at Launceston ;
and Messrs. Cadbury & Co., chocolate manufact-
urers, propose to erect a factory at Claremont, near
Hobart.
According to the latest returns, the population of
Tasmania was- 218,121 on March 31 last, a gain of
1370 in twelve months.— (Official.)
FRANCE.
Industrial Notes. — Metalluryy. — Work in the fac-
tories is progressing steadily in spite of the con-
tinued lull in business owing to the holiday season.
In Meurthe and Moselle the devastated works are
being actively reconstructed on the most modern
lines, and in Lorraine the blast furnaces at
Ottange, Redange, and Uckange will soon be in
working order. Speaking generally, there has
been a marked improvement in the supplies of raw
material and fuel during the last few weeks, and
prices remain firm.
Coal. — The output from the Sarre region is in-
creasing every month, and the supply of American
coal, which is coming in at the rate of 335,000 tons
monthly, is expected soon to reach 500,000 t. The
French production has been 2,143,000 t. of coal and
159,000 t. of coke, which represents an increase
of 50 per cent, over the average production from
January to May. The supply of German coal for
August reached the figure agreed to at the Sp,a Con-
ference, viz., 1,640,000 t. The actual deliveries
totalled 1,646,186 t., made up as follows (the
figures in brackets represent the quantities agreed
to) : Ruhr district, 1,457,988 t. (1,458,000); Aix-la-
Chapelle, 66,268 1. (64,000); Cologne basin, 121,430t.
(120,000).
The Chemical Industry. — A company termed
" La Societe des Cristalleries de 'Nancy " has been
formed to manufacture perfume bottles, which
were formerly imported. As the production of
natural and synthetic perfumes is making great
headway, the new company should find a ready
market for its products. Prices in the perfumery
market have reached such abnormal heights that
former big buyers, like America, are holding back.
The policy of high prices is deprecated by many as
being certain to lead to the establishment of large
perfume factories in foreign countries.
Cotton and Wool. — In the past France has im-
ported practically all her requirements in these
commodities, but recent experience has shown the
necessity for developing the potential resources of
the French colonial empire. In 1913, imports of
cotton amounted to 329,537 t., to which total the
U.S.A. contributed 78 per cent., Egypt 8, India 7,
and Great Britain 2 per cent. So far the attempts
to cultivate cotton in Indo-China, the French
Sudan, New Caledonia, and Madagascar have been
very sporadic. In regard to wool, 96 per cent, of
the supplies of which is imported, attempts to pro-
duce it have been made in Upper Senegal, Nigeria,
and more particularly in Morocco, whence 30,000 t.
is expected to be delivered in 1926.
Copra Production in Cochin-China. — Cochin-China is
the largest producer and exporter of copra in Indo-
China, the average export being about 7160 tons
a year, destined almost exclusively to France. The
coconut palm is cultivated in most of the villages
of Cochin-China, and plantations of 3600 and 3200
hectares (hectare = 2'47 acres) exist in the provinces
of Mytho and Bentre, whilst there are smaller
plantations in the provinces of Vinh-Long and
Gocong. During the war the few shipments re-
sulted in decreased production, and, by 1917, the-
exports only reached 2000 tons. The oil factory,
established near Saigon, in 1917, can treat 2000
tons of copra a year, and its production will shortly
be increased. About 1000 hectares of new planta-
tions will reach their full output in five or six years,
and will yield some 1500 or 1600 tons. It is esti-
mated that within the next twenty years Cochin-
China could produce sufficient copra to supply the
greater part of the needs of France. The industry
offers a wide field to both planters and capitalists, —
(Bd. of Trade J., May 13, 1920.)
Phosphate Deposits in Morocco.— The French Cham-
ber of Deputies has sanctioned the raising of a loan
of 744,140,000 francs by the Moroccan Government
Vol. XXXIX.. Xo. 18]
REVIEW.
for the purpose of exploiting the rich beds of phos-
phates discovered in the district of El Boroudj. —
(Rev. d. Prod. Chim., Aug. 31, 1920.)
Liquidation of the Alsatian Potash Mines. — On July
31 the French Chamber of Deputies sanctioned the
appropriation of 76 million francs for the purchase
and management by the State of the potash mines
in Alsace, and one million francs for preliminary
working expenses. As a consequence, the official
liquidator of the mines, who is chairman of the
Societe Commerciale des Potasses d'Alsace, has de-
cided to reduce the amount of potash salts allocated
for export during the last four months of this year,
and to render available for French agriculture
22.000 tons of potash (K.O) in excess of the amount
originallv provided for.— (Rev. d. Prod. Chim.,
Aug. 31. 1920.)
UNITED STATES.
The Future of the Use of Oxygen-enriched Air In
Metallurgy. — The possibility of applying oxygen to
various standard metallurgical operations, which
depends to a large extent on a relatively cheap
supply, was discussed by Dr. F. G. Cottrell in a
paper before the American Iron and Steel In-
stitute. The two modern processes in general
application for the production of oxygen are from
water by electrolysis, and from air by lique-
faction and distillation. The horse-power
in power consumption required for the first process
works out at 6000 h.p. hrs. per ton, and for the
second 60 h.p. hrs. per ton, £ ton of hydrogen and
3J tons of nitrogen being produced as by-products
in the two processes. These values are theoretical
limits based on 100 per cent, efficiency, but as both
processes involve reversible actions losses must be
allowed for. The actual efficiency of the electrolytic
process is 80 to 85 per cent. All available data
point to the liquefaction process as being the most
suitable for obtaining a cheap supply. Patents
for centrifugal separation have been taken out, but
none of them seems to overcome the many difficul-
ties encountered. A plant erected in Alabama dur-
ing the war for the fixation of nitrogen would,
if operated for oxygen, yield an output equal to
the present United States production of 130 tons
per day, one-quarter of which is produced by elec-
trolysis, and the remainder by liquefaction.
At present 95 per cent, of the above output is
used in torches and for cutting and welding opera-
tions. With an increased supply at a cheaper cost,
oxygen could be applied with advantage to increas-
ing the calorific intensity of the blast in blast fur-
naces, thereby effecting economy in fuel, to supply-
ing a strongly reducing atmosphere in the open-
hearth furnace using a smaller gas volume, to allow-
ing the use of low silicon iron in the Bessemer con-
vertor, and in general to many metallurgical opera-
tions involving volatilisation processes. — (Chem.
and Met. Eng., July 14, 1920.)
GENERAL.
Reported Discovery of New Potash Deposits in Spain.
— Potash mines containing carnallite and sylvine
embedded in rocksalt have been discovered near
Suria and Cardona, in the Province of Barcelona.
Provisional estimates fix the quantity of carnallite
at 2.550.000 metric tons and that of svlvine at
1,150,000 t — (Z. angew. Chem., Sept. 3, 1920.)
Discovery of Iron Ore in Iceland. — Prospecting near
Oenundarfjorden has disclosed an occurrence of ex-
ceptionally good iron ore with 70 per cent, of metal.
The discovery has aroused considerable interest in
Sweden, where a company has been formed to ex-
ploit it. The mineral potentialities of Iceland hr.ve
hitherto received but very little attention. — ('/,.
angew. Chem., Aug. 17, 1920.)
Reported Discovery of Copper Ore in Finland. — Two
mining companies, the Finland Copper Co. and the
Salla Mining Co., have purchased some large de-
posits of copper ore which have been discovered in
Kuolajarvi Parish in the Oulanka River valley in
northern Finland. Some claims are said to be very
rich in copper. There are also rich veins and pro-
bablv extensive deposits of sulphide ore in the same
locality.— (U.S. Com. Rep., July 21, 1920.)
Phosphate and Manganese Ores in the Society Islands.
— The only mineral mined in the Society Islands is
phosphate, which is produced and exported by a
single company, the Compagnie Francaise des
Phosphates (capital 11 million francs). This com-
pany, which owns all the mineral rights for the
Island of Makatea, 120 miles north of Tahiti, pro-
duced from 80,000—90,000 metric tons of 80 per
cent, phosphate a vear before the war, and about
40,000 t. in 1919. " Before the war the phosphate
was chiefly exported to San Francisco, France, and
Honolulu, but it is now shipped mainly to New
Zealand. The great difficulty is the lack of suit-
able labour, but as the French Government has
enacted a decree providing for the regulation and
importation of foreign labour, the production will
probably increase rapidly.
One island in the Society group is known to con-
tain manganese deposits, the commercial possibili-
ties of which are now being investigated on behalf
of the owner of the mineral rights. — (U.S. Com.
Rep., July 13, 1920.)
The Mineral Resources of Abyssinia. — Important de-
posits of coal, iron, oil, sulphur, gold, silver, copper,
and potash are reported to occur in Abyssinia, but,
with the exception of potash, none is worked on a
commercial scale. The potash deposits, situated
close to the Erythrean frontier, and about 46 miles
from the Red Sea, have been worked since 1915 by
an Italian company, the Societa Mineraria
Coloniale of Asmara, Erythrea ; they are estimated
to contain a million metric tons (90% K20), but the
annual output has never reached 4000 t. Iron ore
is widely distributed, and some rich deposits are
known, but are exploited only to a small extent by
the natives. Coal deposits also exist in several
localities, and certain of them are reported to be
worth working to supply fuel for the Sudan and
Abyssinia. A certain amount of salt is quarried by
the natives in the lowland desert plains between the
Abyssinian Plateau and the Red Sea, north of the
Straits of Bab-el-Mandeb. Copper and nickel de-
posits and clays suitable for aluminium extraction
are reported from Walego province, and indica-
tions of oil and sulphur from Shoa province;
asbestos is also stated to occur. The Abyssinian De-
velopment Syndicate, Ltd., a British company, is
now negotiating for concessions for the exploitation
of Abyssinian minerals. — (U.S. Com. Rep., June 10,
1920.)
Resources of Portugal. — One of the chief resources
of Portugal is cork, of which over 85,000 metric tons
is produced each year from 475,000 hectares of cork
oaks. This output is greater than the production
of all other countries combined (82,000 m.t.), and
much of the trade is in British hands (cf. J., 1920,
221 r). The production of olive oil is about 580.000
hectolitres and is only exceeded by that of Italv
and Spain. There are over 5200 mills and 16,300
presses in the country. Some 4 million kg. of rosin
are produced annually, about 750,000 kg. being
consumed by local industries. Many of the mines
are in British and other foreigner's hands, but re-
cently Portuguese companies with large capital have
been showing interest in the mining industry. In
1915 there were 26 coal mines, with a total produc-
tion of 150,000 t. The relative importance of the
metals produced in Portugal corresponds to the fol-
lowing sequence : — Wolf ram (annual output 2500 1.),
iron, copper, manganese, antimony, lead, tin, uran-
[Sept. 30. 1920.
ium, and gold. There are also deposits of clay, slate,
lime, asphalt, gypsunv, etc. Among Portuguese in-
dustries may be mentioned pottery, sugar refining,
and the manufacture of soap, oil, cattle food, and
cocoa. The linen industry is centred at Braga, the
thread being imported from Riga, Belgium, and
Italy ; it is half-bleached in Portugal and finished in
England.— (Bd. of Trade J., June 3, 1920.)
Zinc Smelting in Norway. — The electrolytic zinc
smelter, which will shortly be started at Glam-
fjord, is the first of its kind in Norway, and will, it
is anticipated, have the effect of stimulating the
development of new mines and of increasing the
production from old workings. The Norwegian
production of zinc ore during 1916 and 1917 was,
respectively, 121 and 296 short tons of sulphides,
containing 22 — 31 per cent, of zinc. — (U.S. Com.
Rep., July 12, 1920.)
The Danish Margarine Industry. — Prior to the
cessation of manufacture in 1918 there were about
50 margarine factories in Denmark, but since pro-
duction was resumed in 1919 the number has in-
creased to 58. The total output in 1919 was 39,600
metric tons, compared with 1200 t. in 1918, 33,200
t. in 1917, 56,500 t. in 1916, and an average of
42,700 t. for the period 1911-15. Exports in 1919
were 1500 t., and imports 300 t. The per capita
consumption in Denmark was about 330 lb. in
1912-14, 41-8 in 1915-16, 24"2 in 1917, and 27'9 in
1919; in 1918 margarine was not on sale. By far
the greater proportion of margarine is prepared
from vegetable oils and fats, and these are con-
tinuing to supplant animal fats in the manufacture.
(Z. angew. Chew.., June 29, 1920.)
Artificial Silk Manufacture in Poland. — It is stated
that the artificial silk factory at Tomaszow, estab-
lished some years before the war, will shortly start
work again. Great obstacles have been met with in
restarting the factory owing to the shortage of the
raw materials required, viz., cotton, ethyl alcohol,
ether, and sulphuric and nitric acids. The pre-war
daily output was 1500 kg., and it is now proposed to
start producing about 500 kg. a day. — (U.S. Cow,.
Hep., July 28, 1920.)
The Artificial Silk Industry in Italy. — It is an-
nounced that the Societa di Navigazione Italo-
Americana, which recently increased its capital and
is extending the scope of its activities, will shortly
construct several new plants for the manufacture
of artificial silk, which will probably be located at
Turin, Naples, Orbassano and Bra, and it is ex-
pected that at least 10,000 workers will be em-
ployed. The S.N. I. A. Co., through the controlling
interest which it holds in the " Cines Seta Artifi-
ciale " Co., the " Viscosa " Co. of Pavia, and the
" Societa Italiana della Viscosa " of Turin, already
holds the dominating interest in the Italian artifi-
cial silk industry. — (U.S. Com. Hep., July 26,
1920.)
" Cellulose " Alcohol in Switzerland. — A society has
been formed in Geneva with the object of establish-
ing a cellulose-alcohol industry in Switzerland.
Experiments are now being undertaken on the pro-
duction of alcohol from sawdust cellulose, those by
Terrisse having shown good results. It is thought
that the price of such alcohol would be much lower
than that from sugar-beets or than that of syn-
thetic alcohol, but it should not exceed 25 centimes
per kg., otherwise it could not compete with petrol,
which now costs l'lO fr. per kg. — (Z. annexe. Chem.,
June 15, 1920.)
The Glass Industry in the Saar Region. — The Glass-
works Vopelius and Wentzelschen, in Sulzbach, the
biggest undertaking of its kind, has resumed opera-
tions. The number of employees at present engaged
is 9000.— (Z. angew. Chem., Aug. 17, 1920.)
Iron and Steel in Chile. — The Commercial Secre-
tary to H.M. Legation at Santiago states that the
Altos Homos Iron and Steel Smelting Works, Val-
divia, erected by a French company in 1910, at a
cost of over 14 million pesos (peso = ls. 6d.), will
shortly recommence operations by undertaking a
series of experimental tests. The work will be
under the supervision of a Government Commission.
— (Bd. of Trade J., Sept. 2, 1920.)
Sugar-beet Cultivation in Chile. — The sugar refinery
in Penco has been conducting experiments with a
view to growing sugar beet for the manufacture of
sugar. About 3 tons of roots was worked up, and
it is claimed that the refined sugar obtained from
them was of a higher quality than that produced
from Peruvian raw sugar. Its composition is given
by the following analysis: — Polarisation, 99"30% ;
water, 0"12% ; glucose, 0-16% ; ash, 0'05% ; organic
matter, 0"37%. Provided that at least 60,000 acres
of land is available for cultivation, this refinery
is prepared to undertake the manufacture of beet
sugar on a large scale. — (Deuts. Zuckerind, May 7,
1920.)
A New Swiss Association of Chemists. — A repre-
sentative association of chemists, called the
" Schweizerischer Chemiker - Verband," was
founded on July 4 m Berne, to work for the im-
provement of the status of Swiss chemists. The de-
tails of its programme include the establishment of
an employment bureau and of a journal, pensions
and insurance, and legal protection (e.g., for in-
ventions).—(Chem.-Zeit., July 17, 1920.)
Chemical Industry in Germany. — The Berlin Cham-
ber of Commerce, in its report for 1920, states that
the chemical industry was more deranged by the
war than any other, and points to the manufactures
of explosives and nitrates as examples of the way in
which whole branches of the industry were trans-
formed and adapted to the use of new raw
materials. Increases in wages and in cost of
materials have resulted in -ever-increasing works
costs, and no relief is to be expected until the rate
of exchange and inflated values become normal
again. Government control of sulphuric acid and
other important chemicals has been very rigid, but
has not resulted in any great increase in produc-
tion. Hydrochloric acid was freed from control in
March, 1919, and some good export business was
done in this line. Ammonia and ammonia products
have been in great demand, but the raw materials
have been very scarce ; in the case of sulphate the
control price was too low to make the manufacture
profitable. In the dyestuff industry export was re-
sumed to Belgium and Italy immediately peace was
signed ; business with France is increasing, but
England and America are holding off. Doubt is
expressed as to the possibility of recovering trade
with America, as the latter has made such strides
with its own dye industry. In other foreign
markets Germany hopes to regain its former posi-
tion. The shortage of materials and labour
troubles have made it impossible to fill the orders
that are on hand. The pigment and dye industries
have formed combines for regulating prices and
allocating available raw materials. Foreign sales
have been made at higher prices in order to
neutralise the low rate of exchange. The paint and
varnish trades have been unable to meet demands.
Restriction on linseed oil is still retained, also the
prohibition of imported benzine. The drug in-
dustry has suffered from a general strike as well as
from the all-round shortage of materials. Many of
the smaller works have been shut down ; outside
interests obtained control of the small supplies
available, and profiteering was rife. It is note-
worthy that most of the big chemical firms have
made large profits in spite of small outputs, owing
to the high prices ruling. — (Bd. of Trade J.. Sept.
9, 1920.)
Vol. XXXIX.. No. 18.]
REVIEW.
A report on the condition of the German chemical
industry as in July last is given in the issue of
" Die Chemische Industrie " for September S. The
tale is a very doleful one. There is a general
scarcity of demand ; everywhere there is complaint
of the lack of coal and raw material; hours of work
have been curtailed in some factories, and prospects
generally are much worse. The retrogression in the
pharmaceutical and photographic branches is
especially marked, and only in the case of the
artificial fertiliser industry is any slight improve-
ment recorded.
Fuller's Earth (1913 — 1919) forms the subject of a
pamphlet (price 6d.) recently issued by the Imperial
Mineral Resources Bureau. England and the
United States are the chief producers, the output
for the two countries being respectively 31,609 tons
and 34.459 tons in 1913. and 23,290 tons and 75.41S
tons in 1918. The 1919 production of the United
Kingdom was 24,785 tons, of which 20,821 tons was
produced from the Surrey deposits in the Reigate
district and the remainder in Gloucester and Somer-
set. Australia and India both produce a few hundred
tons per annum. The American supplies are found
mainly at Quincy, Florida, and these furnish all
the earth required for the refining of mineral oils
throughout the States, whilst the Arkansas deposits
are u&ed wholly for edible oils.
The chief use of fuller's earth at the present time
is for the decolorisation and clarification of oils.
It is used also as a carrier for certain pigments,
as a filler for paper, as an ingredient of some soaps,
and it is also serviceable in detecting colouring
matters in certain food products. It appears to be
generally conceded that, whilst the U.S. product
is quite suitable for the refining of mineral oils, it
is inferior to the English for the refining of edible
oils and fats (c/. J., 1919, 456 k).
In an interesting appendix there is a reference to
communications from Dr. E. F. Armstrong and Dr.
J. W. Evans to the Bureau pointing out that the
nature and properties of fuller's earth require in-
vestigation. Little or nothing appears to be known
of any relationship that may exist between the
chemical or mineral composition of the earth and
its peculiar physical properties, and it seems desir-
able that this possible relationship should he
investigated.
Fuller's earth contains both amorphous and crys-
talline matter. The amorphous material, it is
stated, is probably closely similar to ordinary rock
clay, consisting essentially of a hydrated silicate of
aluminium with incompletely decomposed mineral
matter containing alkalis and other bases. The
crystalline components probably include various
mineral substances such as free silica and silicates
and some of the heavier detrital minerals such as
zircon. The colour may be due to disseminated
silicate of iron of the same type as glauconite. Dr.
A. H. Cox, who has studied this subject recentlv on
the penological side, is quoted as stating that when
examined microscopically, fuller's earth presents
certain features that at once distinguish it from
ordinary detrital clays, and he is of the opinion
that it represents a true precipitate.
If the difficult and many-sided problems connected
with fuller's earth could be solved, the results would
undoubtedly be of economic importance. Thev un-
doubtedly deserve attention as the object of a purely
scientific research involving the co-operation of the
chemist, the physicist, and the petrologist.
Revision of the Atomic Weight of Scandium. — The
Report of the International Committee on Atomic
Weights for 1920—1921, signed bv Prof. F. W.
Clarke. Sir T. E. Thorpe, and M. G. Urbain, re-
commends no alterations in the accepted values of
the atomic weights except in the case of that of
scandium, which should now be changed from 44'1
to 4o'l.
COMPANY NEWS.
CALICO PRINTERS' ASSOCIATION, LTD.
In his address to the 21st and 20th (adjourned)
general meetings at Manchester on September 15,
Mr. Lennox B. Lee, the chairman, said that the
shortage of colours during the past year had not
been less acute than during the critical years of
the war, and the colour users had only maintained
production by importing from Switzerland,
America, and Germany. The amalgamation of the
two chief colour makers, " a step taken under
Government pressure," was not to the advantage
of either the colour-making or colour-consuming
trades, for any scheme which aimed at setting up a
monopoly must disorganise the working mechanism
and esprit de corps of the associated firms, in-
crease overhead working costs, stifle healthy
rivalry, and provide opportunity for price inflation.
Despite difficulties, there had been some progress
in dye'production, but it did not follow from this
that an early or complete independence was near
at hand, and the need for continuing importation
was as insistent as ever. In discussing the four
alternative policies that have been suggested, viz.,
(1) free imports, (2) a tariff, (3) subsidy, and (4)
licensing, Mr. Lee stated that (1) was declared by
the Government to be inadmissible, (2) did not com-
mand general approval, but that (3) commended
itself as both safe and equitable. As the Govern-
ment had declined this policy, the directors had
suggested that, following the course adopted for
promoting cotton-growing in the Empire, the dye-
consumer might voluntarily place himself under
an assessment, based on the colour he uses, to form
a fund under State control out of which a drawback
could be accorded to home dye-manufacturers; but
this proposal had met with no support. The policy
of licensing (4) had been tried and found cumber-
some and inequitable. As, however, the Govern-
ment had expressed its intention to re-introduce
legislation based on the Imports and Exports Regu-
lation Bill, the following safeguards must be re-
garded as essential : —{a) The licensing committee
must consist of practical men with technical know-
ledge, who should be appointed, and in any case
approved, by the colour users, whose representatives
must be in a majority, (b) The colour-consuming
trades must be consulted as to the machinery to be
employed in carrying out the licensing system, and
the system chosen must be approved by them, (c)
The onus of proof as to the suitability of a British
colour to meet trade demands must lie on the colour
maker alone, and the evidence must satisfy a tech-
nical committee enjoying the confidence of the
colour users. Failing such proof, free and prompt
importation should be granted. (<T) The licensing
system should be definitely limited in respect of
duration, and be renewable only by fresh legisla-
tion. The whole history of the colour movement
had been biased by the steady, persistent pres-
sure put on the authorities by the colour-making
interests, and the Government had proved an
easy and, perhaps, not unwilling instrument.
The carrying out of the policy adopted was
left in the hands of a succession of high officials,
constantly coached by the colour-making interests.
It was worthy of note that the Government
and the advocates of protection had restricted
their argument concerning national security to
colour-making works, but plant for producing heavy
and fine chemicals was at least as important as
that in the dye factories. This limitation of the
claim for special protection emphasised the neces-
sity of not allowing the argument of public 6afety
to be used as a " stalking horse " for the promotion
of sectional interests.
The net profits of the Association for the two
years ended June, 1920, amounted to £1,216,960
(issued share capital £5,026,840, debentures
[Sept. 30. 1920.
£3,200,000), and the dividends paid or payable are
5 per cent, on the preference shares, and 5 and 10
per cent, on the ordinary shares for 1919 and 1920,
respectively. Balances at credit of depreciation
and reserve accounts total £2,398,694; and the
carry forward is £336,781, which compares with
£73,041 brought in.
AMERICAN CYANAMID CO.
The report for the fiscal year ended June 30, 1920,
states that the cyanamide plant at Niagara Falls
was working at full capacity throughout the year,
and that the eight old carbide furnaces were suc-
cessfully replaced in May last by two new and im-
proved furnaces. The manufacture of " Ammo-
phos " at Warners, New Jersey, the plant for which
has worked well but somewhat below capacity, can
now be regulated to produce, within certain limits,
fertiliser containing specific contents of both am-
monia and phosphoric acid ; production during the
past six months has been confined to a new grade of
material containing about 20 per cent, each of
ammonia and available phosphoric acid. Work at
the phosphate mines at Brewster, Florida, was seri-
ously curtailed for six months owing to labour
troubles, but during the past half-year normal out-
put has been attained and even exceeded. Demand
for the company's products has outstripped supply,
and some 7 million dollars' worth of the current
year's output has been contracted for at profitable
prices. The company has purchased a half interest
in the Owl Fumigating Corporation, which was
formed to produce liquid hydrocyanic acid from the
company's cyanide. The Corporation has erected
a new plant at Azusa, California, in the centre of
the citrus fruit industry, where the output will be
used for fumigating citrus trees. The entire pro-
cess has been patented. The company's cyanide
finds extensive use in the gold and silver mining
districts of the United States, Mexico, and Canada.
Gross sales in 1919-20 amounted to nearly 8J mil-
lion dollars, the gross profit upon which was over
2 millions and the net profit $1,716,360. The net
income, after payment of all taxes, etc., was
$1,525,877. Issued capital stands at $14,588,500, of
which $7,994,200 represents 6 per cent, cumulative
preference stock and the rest common stock.
LEVER BROTHERS, LTD.
• It is reported that the West African interests of
Lever Bros., Ltd., including the business of the
Niger Co., and those of the African and Eastern
Trade Corporation are to be brought under one
management. The Corporation, it is stated, will
issue 4 million new ordinary shares in exchange for
an equal number of 20 per cent. "A" preferred
ordinary shares in Lever Bros., Ltd.
NITRATE COMPANIES IN 1919.
A review of the performances of the chief
English nitrate-producing companies is rendered
difficult by the circumstance that the financial
year of some of them does not synchronise
with the calendar year. As the year 1919 was
notoriously a very bad one for the Chilean
nitrate industry, it follows that reports for 1918-19
necessarily make a better showing than those which
cover the whole period of 1919. After the con-
clusion of the armistice in 1918, the fortunes of the
companies took a decidedly unfavourable turn ; the
demand for nitrate for explosives manufacture
ceased, the British Government prohibited the com-
panies from dealing until its own large stocks had
been disposed of, many of the oficmas were closed
down, and shipping facilities became very re-
stricted. It was not until the Nitrate Producers'
Association was formed early in 1919 with the
object of centralising sales that any amelioration
set in. The price of nitrate gradually rose from
9s. per quintal of 101'4 lb. in September, 1919, to
17s. in February last. Although costs of production
have also risen, the selling price to-day leaves a
good average profit.
The eight chief companies whose financial year is
not co-terminous with the calendar year paid an
average dividend of 9'8 per cent, on the combined
share capital of £1,996,800 (shares and debentures,
£2,535,780), as against 15'1 per cent, for the pre-
vious twelve months; their debenture debts were
reduced bv £35,652, and reserve funds increased bv
nearly £75,000 to £609,017. Their total output of
nitrate was 3,705,483 quintals (7,678,896 q.), and
the average net profit per quintal was probably
29d. (22d.).
The production of the principal companies whose
outputs cover the calendar year 1919 amounted to
4,565,395 quintals (11,435,053 q. in 1918), but as the
profits obtained were in many cases derived from
the sale of nitrate held over from 1918, it is not
possible to deduce a figure approaching accuracy
for the average profit per quintal. The dividends
paid bv the companies averaged 8"3 per cent.,
against 14"5 per cent, for 1918. Eight of the 14
companies drew upon their carry-forward to enable
them to pay their dividend, and the aggregate
carry-forward of £574,460 was £219,441 lower than
a year previously. The total share and debenture
capital of these 14 companies — £4,327,500 — is con-
sidered extremely small in comparison with their
capacity. The total share capital of the 22 com-
panies is £5,885,750, upon which £521,705 was dis-
tributed in dividends, equal to about 8'9 per cent.,
compared with £868,490 and 149 per cent., respec-
tively, for the previous completed year. The fol-
lowing is a statistical summary of the perform-
ances of these 22 companies : —
1910
Companies.
Lagunas Synd.. 1018-19
Liverpool „
London „
Pan de Azuear
Santa Cataliua
Santiago „
New Tamarueal "
Rosario
Aguas Blancas.
Alianza
Angela
Anu'lo-Chilean
Barrenechea
Lagunas Nitrate
Lautaro
New Paccha
Salar del Carmen
San Lorenzo
San Patricio
Santa Rita
San Sebastian
Tarapaca
• Estimated.
Production,
Inc. or Dec.
Trading Profits.
Inc. or Dec.
Net Profit
Quintals.
%
£
£
498.797
—46
41.431
— °51
33.354
1.2S6.500 •
—26
167.575
— 6
S4.354
390,000 *
—51
42.591
— 23
7382
192,082
—72.6
22,766
— 73
15.462
134.895
—67
22.441
— 38
19.676
231,500
—54
45,080
+ 40
42.032
294,549
—76
24,051
18.813
677,160
—53
82,116
— 48
39,487
187.000
—74
t 13.935
—124
tl8,121
1.186,191
—41
78.803
— 83
70,904
239.613
—36
7485
— 85
t 1490
1,555,350
—32
157.907
— 7
77.685
37.000 «
—90
23.008
— 14
20.056
54.000 *
—89
26,417
— 35
14.244
753.000 •
—62
101.223
— 63
23,222
59,000
—89
t 15.678
—153
t21,073
231.000
—66
20.323
— 68
9183
105.000 •
—65
3516
— 85
tll.040
3877
— 04
2513
45.000 •
— 90
8212
— 34
5308
6000
—98
t 24.963
—290
t30,980
107,000
— S4
t 1895
—102
t 6463
—(So. Amer. J., Apr. 3, Sept. 4, 1920.)
Vol. XXXIX.. Xo. IS.]
REVIEW.
PERSONALIA.
Prof. E. Rutherford has been elected a member
of the Academy of Sciences, Amsterdam.
Prof. A. K. Dambergis, professor of pharma-
ceutical chemistry in the University of Athens, died
in June last, aged 62.
Mr. W. S. Curphy, Chief Inspector of Alkali, etc.
Works since 1910, has retired, and has been suc-
ceeded by Dr. T. Lewis Bailey.
Prof. V. J. Harding, a graduate of Manchester
University, has been appointed professor of
chemical pathology in the University of Toronto.
Mr. J. D. Fry, lecturer in physics at the Uni-
versity of Bristol, has been appointed to the staff
of the Research Association of British Rubber and
Tyre Manufacturers.
The sum of 1J million marks has been bequeathed
to the University of Frankfort by the New York
banker James Speyer, provided that the State also
makes a certain contribution.
We regret to announce the death early this vear
of Sir J. M. MacCullum, M.P., of the firm of Isdale
and MacCullum, soap manufacturers, of Paisley,
and an oiiginal member of this Society.
Dr. P. V. Pauli, one of the pioneers of the Ger-
man " heavy " chemical industry, died on
August 20, aged 84. The deceased spent several
years in this country in the early 'sixties, working
with the Union Alkali Works. Ltd., Evans and Mac-
Bride, and the Sulphate of Copper Company. In
1880 he joined the firm of Meister, Lucius and
Briining, was elected to the board of management,
and remained at the head of that undertaking until
he retired in 1900.
Prof. W. H. Ellis, whose death occurred recently
at Lake Joseph, Muskoka, Canada, served as chair-
man of the Canadian Section of this Society in
1906 — 1908 and as an ordinary member of Council
in 1908—1910. Born at Bakewell, Derbyshire, in
1845, he graduated at the University of Toronto in
arts and in medicine, where he later became pro-
fessor of applied chemistry and dean of the faculty
of applied science. He was public analyst for
Toronto for many years and a recognised authority
on toxicology.
The death of Sir William Mather, on September
18, in his eighty-third year, removes a successful
and influential worker for the cause of scientific
and technical education. In addition to serving
the interests of the Manchester University, the
Gordon College, Khartoum, and a number of other
educational institutions, he filled the office of
president of the British Science Guild and of the
Textile Institute. He introduced the eight-hour
day into the works of Messrs. Mather and Piatt, of
which firm he was chairman, and represented three
Parliamentary Divisions in Lancashire within the
period 1885—1904.
Mr. Henry Bassett, who joined this Society in
1884 and whose death took place on August 30, at
the age of 83, was one of the few remaining pupils
of Hofmann at the Royal College of Chemistry.
After serving many years as assistant to Mr. F. A.
Manning, he took up consulting work in London
in 1894, devoting his attention more particularly
to non-ferrous alloys and to the testing of anthra-
cene. He was the author of many communications
to the Chemical Society, including a paper in 1864
on ethyl orthocarbonate, and he carried out a
number of investigations on the corrosion of alloys,
ttc, in connexion with his work as consulting
chemist.
REPORTS.
Report ox the Work of the [Egyptian] Govern-
ment Analytical Laboratory and Assay Office
during the Period 1913 — 1919. By A. Lucas.
Ministry of Finance, Egypt, Pp. 57. Cairo:
Government Publications Office. 1920. Price
P.T.10.
This report of the work of the Egyptian Govern-
ment Laboratory is the first to be published since
1912; during the period covered by it the work has
been extended and reorganised under the Ministry
of Finance.
Inspection of Materials. — Samples consisting
chiefly of building materials, oils, paints, spirits,
paper, textiles, and waters were submitted for ex-
amination by almost every Government Depart-
ment. Wherever possible, specifications have been
drafted relating to materials tendered to the Go-
vernment, and contractors are being urged to
realise the importance of submitting genuine
samples of adequate size. Many samples of alcoholic
liquors were taken in pursuance of the military
proclamations intended to stop the sale of liquor
made from plain spirits and of various artificial
essences and extracts of chemical origin. Alcohol
is largely used in Egypt for household purposes,
and samples were taken for determination of the
strength ; more attention should be given to the
conditions of sale of all forms of alcohol. Tobacco
and cigarettes were occasionally found to be adul-
terated with foreign leaves, particularly banana
leaf. An increasing volume of chemico-legal work
is being undertaken for the Ministry of Justice in
connexion with the examination of documents,
counterfeit coins, dust and dirt found in connexion
with crime, clothes and fabrics, firearms, bombs and
bullets. In one case of 168 documents, examined
in connexion with a claim for land worth
£16,000,000, 163 were found to be forged. In regard
to the revision of a specification for kerosene, a
minimum flash point of 100° F. was adopted; the
proportion of samples flashing at 100° F. or over
increased from 21 per cent, in 1913 to 65'2 per cent,
in 1919. Much confidential work was done for the
Intelligence Department of the Army during the
war, and the Laboratory made 1000 chemical
igniters for flares and 100 incendiary bombs for a
special purpose.
Advisory Work. — Advice was given upon the
storage and handling of inflammable goods at Suez
Basin, Port Said, at a proposed petroleum store
near Cairo, and elsewhere. The occurrence of cotton
fires on railways was also investigated, and recom-
mendations made regarding smoking regulations
and protection, against sparks. . The denaturing of
alcohol and the use of arsenic in Egypt were also
subjects of inquiry. Over 3000 tons of sulphuric
acid was imported in 1919, and the manufacture of
this acid locally from imported raw materials is
recommended. As a result of laboratory investiga-
tions, the Government cement factory, having a
capacity of 50,000 tons per annum, has been started
in the Sudan; it is intended to use a mixture of
locally made charcoal and imported coke as a fuel.
Research Work. — A comprehensive examination of
Egyptian crude petroleums has been undertaken;
it has been shown that a fuel oil suitable for inter-
nal combustion engines can be made by distilling,
under conditions which ensure a moderate degree
of cracking, the black residue (mazut) which results
from the distillation of Hurghada crude oil. The
distillation of the crude oil is difficult because of the
admixture of salt water, but it has been found that
the emulsion can be broken up by the application
of high-tension electric current in suitably con-
structed apparatus. A new volumetric process for
assaying gold by means of mercurous nitrate has
been devised. Ortho-tolidine may be used as an
REVIEW.
indicator. (Cf. J., 1919, 269a.) An investigation
of a case of corrosion of concrete by sewage showed
that it was caused by the penetration of gaseous
sulphur compounds which were afterwards oxidised.
This may be prevented by artificial ventilation and
by applying a protective coating to the concrete
above the water line.
The Assay Office. — The Assay Law of 1916, under
which the hall-marking of gold and silver was made
compulsory, considerably increased the work of the
Assay Office, which has been reorganised and partly
centralised. The report gives a description of many
old marks of assayers that are now obsolete and of
the new standard hall-marks. Minor amendments
of the law and a more efficient inspection system are
still required to protect the public against fraud.
Report for the Year 1919 on the Conditions and
Prospects of British Trade with China. By
H. H. Fox, Commercial Counsellor at
Shanghai, with the assistance of C. A. W. Rose
and H. J. Brett, Commercial Secretaries at
Pekmg and Hongkong, respectively. (London:
H.M. Stationery Office. 1920.) [_Cmd. 853.
9d.]
Although China's industrial development — in
the modern sense — is of comparatively recent date,
rapid progress has been made, and there is every
indication that the country will become one of the
leading industrial nations. Almost every form of
raw material known to commerce is produced in
China, labour is plentiful and cheap, and labour
troubles are unknown ; but lack of communications,
unscientific treatment of raw materials, and
inefficient native management of factories seem to
indicate that foreign co-operation is still essential.
The future of the country depends very largely
upon the rapid extension of internal communica-
tions, and more especially of railways. The war
had no great effect upon China ; the loss of some
channels of trade was amply compensated for by
increased business with Japan and America, and
good advantage was taken of the world demand for
foodstuffs and raw materials. The country lost
indirectly by the absence of European guidance in
the development of trade and resources, but gained
indirectly by the realisation of the general back-
wardness of the Chinese people.
Mineral Wealth. — Recent investigations by
experts indicate that former estimates of the
mineral wealth of China were much exaggerated,
and that there are few large deposits, at least
within the areas at present accessible. It is prob-
able that China's potentialities depend on the
development of her industrial and agricultural
rather than of her mineral resources. Modern
mining methods are practically confined to coal
and iron, and even the deposits of iron ore do not
appear large when compared with deposits worked
in other countries. The output of coal in 1919 was
about 23 million tons, of which about 13 millions
was produced by modern methods. Iron ore is
most abundant in the Yangtse Valley, where the
Han Yeh Ping mines produced 600,000 tons in
1919; the ore from this source is smelted at Han-
yang and the resulting pig iron is exported mainly
to Japan. Much iron ore is known to exist in
Hupeh, Shantung, Shansi, and other Provinces.
Copper and tin are found extensively in the
province of Yunnan, the present output of tin
amounting to about 5 per cent, of the world's
production. The tin industry is entirely in
Chinese hands. Large amounts' of antimony are
produced, 272,989 piculs of regulus and crude being
exported in 1918. Gold, wolframite, silver,
mercury, asbestos, lead, zinc, nickel, mica, and
molybdenum also occur in considerable quantities.
Attempts to develop the production of petroleum
have met with little or no success.
Foreign Trade. — The total value of China's
foreign trade in 1919 was 1,277,807,092 Haikuan
taels (Hk. tael = 6s. 4d. in 1919; 2s. 81d. in 1914),
divided about equally between imports and exports.
The percentage distribution of trade in 1919 (and
in 1913) was as follows: — British Empire (including
Hongkong) 38-30 (48-00), United Kingdom 950
(1140), Japan 37"10 (1970), U.S.A. 1650 (760),
other countries ll'lO (2470).
Imports. — With a population of at least 350
millions, China's imports of foreign goods in 1919
averaged about 12s. 6d. per head, so that there is
obviously much room for great expansion. British
trade kwt much during the war, and now the lack
of supplies and in many cases the high prices of
United Kingdom goods are hindering recovery in
this market. However, British goods have a high
reputation for quality in China, and there is no
doubt but that they will secure their full share of
the trade.
The values in millions of taels of some of the
chief items imported in 1919 are appended. (3i
million taels = approx. £1,000,000).
Metals and minerals, 5661 ; cement, 161 ; chemi-
cal products (except soda, match-making materials,
medicines), l'CO; coal, 12'52; coal-tar dyes, 3'04 ;
artificial indigo, 1*31; vegetable indigo, 0'63; other
dyes, paints and paint oil, 305; glass and glass-
ware, 2'68; glue, 0'60; match-making materials
not paraffin wax), 1"73; medicines (including
cocaine and morphia), 5'47; oil, kerosene, 46'27; oil,
lubricating, 217; perfumery, etc., 1*72; soap and
materials for making, 3"33; soda, 3 11; wax,
paraffin, 126; cotton goods, 20979.
Dyes. — There has been a striking recovery in the
import trade of artificial indigo and of coal-tar dyes,
but the figures for 1919 are still far below those
for 1913. The consumption of synthetic indigo in
1913 amounted to 17,000 tons, and the subsequent
decline is due partly to increased cultivation of
natural indigo and partly to greater economy in
use. The pre-war price of synthetic indigo was 40
taels per picul (nearly 2s. per lb.), and it is now
120 — 140 taels for the same strength (6s. — 6s. 8d.
per lb.) This dye is now imported mainly from
Switzerland ; small amounts have been obtained
from America, and larger supplies are expected;
isolated shipments have been received from France ;
and latterly over 6,000 piculs of German indigo
(probably from old stocks accumulated at Dutch
ports) have arrived in Japanese ships. Small
shipments of British indigo, of very good quality,
have arrived at frequent intervals, but there is
need for greatly increased supplies. The leading
position in regard to coal-tar dyes is held by
America (Switzerland and Japan coming next),
whose dye-wares are satisfactory as to quality but
slow and uncertain in delivery, and, in certain
lines, inadequate in amount.
The Swiss products are also satisfactory and
insufficient in quantity The British coal-tar dyes
have been well received, but the quantities avail-
able are hopelessly inadequate ; in certain lines
British prices are considerably higher than
American. It is imperative that British manu-
facturers should take immediate advantage of the
present shortage of German dyes, for German
manufacturers are already beginning to recover
their hold upon this market.
Exports. — The chief features of the export trade
in 1919 were the enormous demand for oil-seeds
and oils, and the persistent inquiry for egg
products, particularly for liquid yolk ; there lias
been much speculation in the latter. The demand
for albumin also increased considerably, and the
quality of this product has been much improved
owing to the refusal of the United States to admit
any dried egg product containing more than 0'001
per cent, of zinc oxide. The export trade in silk
Vol. XXXIX.. No. 18.]
REVIEW.
was very profitable, but it is noteworthy that Japan
has easily outdistanced China in this business;
exports from Yokohama rase from 14,837 to 217,181
bales during the last 50 years, whereas those from
Shanghai increased only from 45,887 to 80,532
bales. The following are among the articles
exported in 1919, the values being given in millions
of taels : —
Commodity.
Value.
Commodity. Value.
Antimony, regulus
. 0.54
Groundnuts, shell . . 0.52
Pig iron
. 8.17
kernels .. 5.32
Iron ore
. 2.4U
Indigo, liquid . . . . 0.86
Tin. slabs
. 8.43
Vegetable oils (including
groundnut oil 13.94.
and wood oil 7.96) . . 46.27
Beancake
. 44.17
Essential oils . . . . 1.17
Camphor
. 1.59
Potterv. earthenware . . 0.75
Coal
Sesamum seed . . . . 15.57
Egg. albumin and volk
. 19.82
Skins and hides . . . . 22.19
Fibre-, hemp. jute.
ramie 4.22
Suggestions are made for developing British
trade in China, and valuable appendices are given
dealing with finance, labour conditions, co-opera-
tive enterprises, and British trade with Hong-
kong, etc.
Report ox the Commercial, Industrial, and
Financial Situation in Japan, 1914 to 1919.
By H. Thorne, Commercial Secretary to H.M.
Embassy, Tokyo. Pp. 75. London: H.M.
Stationery Office. 1920. [Cmd. 912. 9d.]
The geographical position of Japan during the
war enabled her to escape from many of its harm-
ful consequences, to take advantage of the great
commercial and industrial possibilities offered, and
to exchange her position as a debtor nation to one
of the few creditor nations of the world. Unfor-
tunately, many manufacturers, anxious to make
large profits rapidly, placed inferior goods on de-
nuded markets, a course of action which has had
baneful consequences since the armistice. Further,
the abundance of wealth led to the promotion of a
disproportionate number of companies, paying 60,
70, and even 100 per cent., at the expense of pro-
vision for future development. These conditions
have resulted in financial depression, but the
dangers have been seen and will most probably be
averted.
Natural 'Resources. — The natural wealth of
Japan is not great, and most of her industries de-
pend on foreign supplies of raw materials. There
is an abundance of raw silk, camphor and sugar are
supplied by Formosa, and copper by the main
island. Although abundant, coal is expensive, and
the question of future supplies is engaging atten-
tion. The rich deposits in Formosa are being
worked, but the output from this source will not
suffice to meet the ever-growing demand. Gold,
tungsten, and graphite are found chiefly in Korea;
sulphur is very widely distributed, but only the
high-grade deposits are worked. The output of
the chief minerals and metals for 1918 is given
below in long tons, except where otherwise
stated : —
Mineral Output of Japan in 1918.
Material.
Output.
Material.
Output.
Tons.
Tons.
Copper . .
88.729
Iron sulphide ore .
1.525
Lead
10.492
Chroruite ore
104
Tin
165
Manganese ore
821
Antimony
385
Sulphur
64,675
Zinc
22.497
Arsenic
14
Pig iron . .
176.521
Arsenic ores
12
Steel
18.048
Graphite
1.061
Molybdenum
1
Coal
. 27.580,954
O!!.
galls.
Silver
. 6.596.618
Petroleum . .
. 85.000.783
Labour. — In spite of great advances in cost,
labour in Japan is considerably cheaper than labour
in the west, but it is less efficient (the ratio is
stated to be from 2:3 to 1:2); working hours are
being reduced and labour-saving devices are little
used. Hence it is open to doubt whether the
actual cost of production of competitive goods is
lower in Japan than in England, and, in any case,
it is submitted that the difference in favour of
Japan is not sufficient to warrant apprehension.
The population of Japan proper was 56,851,300 at
the end of 1918, and it is increasing at the rate of
about 800,000 per annum.
Imports.— The imports in 1914 and 1919 were
valued at 595,735,725 yen and 2,173,459,880 yen,
respectively, those for the latter year including the
following : —
Imports into Japan during 1919.
Commodity. Amount. Value.
Dead, ingot, slab .. .. kin 59.705.900 10.S96.800
Tin. ingot, slab 5.023.900 6,953.600
Nickel, ingot, slab 2.845.300 4.139.200
Leather 1.917.300 5.388.200
Coal-tar dyes 2.094.200 10.72(1 find
Paper pulp 68.175.900 10.6S7.2OO
Hides and skins 25,715.400 15.460.000
Sodium nitrate, crude 109.510,000 13.838 000
Sugar piculs 4.548.000 58,183.600
Ammonium sulphate, crude .. .. 1.687.200 27 435 000
Oil cake 24.592.800 135.1SS;70O
Coal tons 699.700 18.5SS.200
Ores — 20,902.700
Kerosene oil galls. 37.359,100 21.675,600
kin,1.32 1b. pieul.132.27 lb. ven.2s. Old.
Over 50 per cent, of the imports consisted of raw
materials (including foodstuffs) and manufactured
goods represented only about 12 per cent, of the
total.
Before the war Japan was practically dependent
on Germany for dyestuff supplies, and the subse-
quent partial stoppage of German shipments caused
serious inconvenience, the imports falling from
about 6J million kin in 1913 to 222,000 kin in 1917
and 357,616 kin in 1918 (36,061 kin in 1919). How-
ever, the Government established the Japan Dye-
stuffs Manufacturing Co., Ltd. (Nippon Senryo
Seizo Kabushiki Kwaisha) to obviate this difficulty.
In September, 1919, this company was selling the
following dyestuffs: — Five sulphur colours, 11
direct, 5 basic, 6 acid, 2 acid mordants and 1 oxide.
It is stated that within a few years Japan will be
able to supply her own requirements in dystuffs,
with the exception of special products, such as vat
colours, and certain complex direct cotton colours.
The production of coal tar is said to be sufficient for
the purpose. During the past two years consider-
able quantities of American dyes have entered the
country, but it is generally reported that they are
not giving complete satisfaction. During 1918 the
United States supplied 723 per cent, of the total
import, and in 1919, 746 per cent. The importa-
tation of Swiss dyes shows signs of recovery. Now
that an agency of the British Dyestuffs Corporation
has been established in Japan, British dyes should
be properly represented on this market, and the
present is a most opportune time for their appear-
ance in large quantities. A Bill has been intro-
duced into the Diet providing for the increased pro-
tection of the local industry, and an ad valorem im-
port duty of 33 per cent, is contemplated.
During the war Japan became self-supporting in
regard to most of the heavy chemicals required for
industrial use, and has become a competitor on
foreign markets in many of them. Among the
chemicals most extensively manufactured and ex-
ported are. — Potassium bichromate, chlorate, per-
manganate, carbonate, nitrate, sulphate and ferro-
cyanide; bleaching powder; acetic, nitric, hydro-
chloric and sulphuric acids sulphate of iron ;
copper sulphate; magnesium carbonate; sodium
peroxide ; barium salts ; naphthalene, etc. Other
chemicals manufactured, but not exported, are
(Sept. 30, 1920.
caustic soda (60 per cent.), glycerin, salicylic acid,
yellow phosphorus, formaldehyde, aniline salts,
acetate of lime, and sulphate of ammonia. The
manufacture of carbolic acid is still in its infancy.
Importance is attached to the registering of
trade marks in Japan, and it is pointed out that in
cases where big or complicated businesses are
handled, the best course is to act through esta-
blished British firms in Japan if direct representa-
tion is not available, rather than through native
houses.
Exports. — During the war Japan supplied the
Allies with large quantities of copper, antimony,
graphite, fish oils, starches, cotton waste, chemicals,
etc. ; and the following goods were exported in in-
creased quantities : Sugar, paper, coal, iron and
steel manufactures, porcelain, glassware, enamel
ware, cement, matches, etc. Of the above articles
it is thought that the trade in glassware and
matches is most likely to be retained, particularly
in India, Java, China, and South America.
The total exports in 1919 were valued at
2,098,872,617 yen (591,101,461 yen in 1914), and
among the separate items were : —
Exports from
Japan in 1915
Material.
Weight.
Value.
kin.
yen.
Coal
2.000.700
37,723,600
Fish and whale oil
10.070.300
3,042.900
Sulphur
47.780.600
2,035.500
Camphor
2.031.300
7.883,900
Celluloid
1.000.000
2,210.000
Copper, ingots and slabs . .
32,406.300
19.647,200
Zinc, ingots and slabs
9,471.900
2.935,800
Pottery
22,629,800
Glass and manufactures of
19.680,700
Sugar, refined
109.500,600
21,627.300
Matches (gross)
41.550,000
32.968.300
28.622,400
623,618.500
Report on the Trade of Australia for the Year
1919. By S. W. B. McGregor, H.M. Senior
Trade Commissioner in Australia. Pp. 59.
H.M. Stationery Office, 1920. [Cmd. 960. 6d.]
The heavy expenditure of public money for war
purposes in Australia is now coming to an end, and
though the financial position and conditions gene-
rally are such as to give cause for some anxiety as
to the future, against these can be set the compara-
tively undeveloped state of the country, which
leaves room for ample work for generations to come.
The imports in 1913 and 1918-19 were valued at
£79,749,653 and £86,116,434, respectively, the pro-
portions furnished by the chief countries of origin
being United Kingdom, 5182 and 3642; United
States, 1368 and 2863; and Japan, 119 and 8'64
per cent. If the totals are based on the competi-
tive imports, i.e., excluding those not manufac-
tured in the United Kingdom, the proportions be-
come: — United Kingdom, 63'2 and 4661; United
States, 11-8 and 2938; and Japan, 11-08 (1918-19
only) per cent.. The values of some of the chief
imports in 1918-19, together with the percentage
furnished by the United Kingdom in each case,
were: — Ores and metals, £705,387 (429); earthen-
ware, cement, china and glass, £1,467,886 (26"4) ;
leather and manufactures of, £684,510 (290) ; india-
rubber and manufactures of, £1,173,045 (25"4) ;
ammunition and explosives, £732,300 (43"2) ;
chemicals, £3,871,353 (39"5) ; paints and varnishes,
£553,554 (33'6) ; oils, fats and waxes, £273,846
(6"5). British manufacturers are advised to im-
prove their commercial organisation, taking great
care in the choice of local agents and overseas
representatives ; it is alleged that tGey lack enter-
prise and are indifferent to the special needs of
Australian trade. As local manufactures are in-
creasing, fuller advantage should be taken of the
Trade Commissioner Service, and it is suggested
that the feeling of Australians towards British
manufacturers and traders might be improved by
propaganda, either national or carried out by trade
associations, with the object of showing the domin-
ant part played by the United Kingdom in the
trade and commerce of the world in the past, and
the similar position it may occupy in the future.
Strenuous efforts are being made by various Ameri-
can organisations to capture Australian trade, but
American methods have in many cases not given
satisfaction, and, in addition, trade in this direc-
tion is being restricted by the adverse exchange.
It is stated that Japan will probably lose the bulk
of its trade with Australia as the trading methods
employed and the quality of the goods supplied
have continued to be unsatisfactory.
The value of the mineral output in 1918 was
£26,155,649 (£25,590,839 in 1918), and included: —
Gold, £5,408,157; silver and lead, £6,104,977;
copper, £4,464,787; tin, £1,432,294; coal,
£6,123,747; various, £2,621,687. The policy of
treating all metallic ores within the Common-
wealth so that the resultant metals can be
marketed in the refined state, has been continued,
and several new works have been established for
this purpose. Industry has been much hindered by
labour unrest.
As regards agricultural produce, the yield of cane
sugar in 1917-18 was 327,589 tons (193,037 t. in
1916-17), but the beet-sugar industry has made
little progress; only 14,487 t. of sugar-beet was pro-
duced in 1917-18.
The local production of manufactured goods in
Australia continues to develop, and will probably
have the effect of changing the character of the
British goods imported rather than bringing about
a decrease in their value. Under normal conditions
there is every prospect of a gradually increasing
value of imports into Australia from the United
Kingdom. Although a number of British manu-
facturers is known to be seriously considering the
establishment of branch factories in Australia, little
has been done as yet. (Cf. J., 1919, 420 R; 1920, 12
38, 116, 167, 202, 218 and 236 r.)
Report of the Government Chemist upon the
avork of the government laboratory for
the Year ended March 31, 1920. With Appen-
dices. Pp. 18. London: H.M. Stationery
Office. [Cmd. 881. 3d.]
Full of interesting matter, the Report deals with
the chemical work done wholly, or in part, for 23
Government departments and other public bodies
in Great Britain and Ireland.
Some 368,898 samples were examined during the
year representing an increase of nearly 80,000 on
the preceding year, and the principal increase was
due to goods liable to customs duty such as wines,
sugar, tea, and cocoa preparations.
The figures indicate a further revival in trade
after the return to peace conditions as against last
year, but the revival is masked somewhat by further
large decreases in samples from the War Depart-
ments. Of beer, 25,489 samples were examined
and 323 of materials used in brewing for duty
charge, whilst 8,890 samples drawn from 7,93*8
fermenting vessels by local officers of Customs and
Excise were examined as a check on assessment of
beer duty. Sour beer, which was mostly destroyed
later, furnished 770 samples, a considerable in-
crease (81) on last year's figure. No evidence was
obtained of dilution of beer.
Of so-called non-alcoholic beers, herb beers, etc.,
212 samples were examined and all contained
alcohol (from 2 — 5% of proof spirit, and one as
much as 9'6%).
Of beer exported on drawback, 15,352 samples
were analysed, compared with 8425 in the previous
year, showing a return to pre-war conditions; but
Vol. XXXIX.. No. IS.]
REVIEW.
only 133 samples of imported beer were examined
as compared with 10,000 samples for the year ended
March 31, 1914. Very little foreign beer is im-
ported at present.
Of 969 samples of beer and brewing materials
tested for arsenic, five only were found to contain
more than the limits laid down by the Royal Com-
mission on Arsenical Poisoning, viz., one hundredth
of a grain of arsenious oxide per pound of solids or
per gallon of liquid. All the 282 samples of malt
and sugar tested were satisfactory, and of 619
samples of beer and wort three only exceeded the
limits for arsenic. Imported cider and perry fur-
nished 44 samples. 20 of which were classed as Spirit
Preparations, and all the seven home-produced
samples " did not consist solely of fermented apple
juice." Duty was remitted on seven ciders too
sour to be saleable.
Of table waters, 20 samples of mineral and spa
waters, 333 of cordials, syrups, fruit juices, and
essences, and 102 of non-alcoholic wines were
examined under the Finance Acts, 1916.
Of spirits, 955 samples of fermented wash, 19 of
fusel oil, 29 of grog. 16 of illicitly distilled spirits,
1,359 of compounded spirits for export and 18,125
of spiritous preparations for export. 25,00" of im-
ported spirits and spiritous preparations were ex-
amined ; 864 samples of wood naphtha and mineral
naphtha and 65 of petroleum ether and other de-
naturing substances. 32 samples of pure alcohol and
20 of specially denatured alcohol. The care taken
in the control of duty-free spirits and the large
volume of work entailed are indicated.
In the assessment of wine duties 143,544 samples
were tested. The great bulk of the revenue from
sugar is derived from refined sugar, but the im-
ported goods, and goods for drawback or exporta-
tion containing sugar include such a great variety
of articles containing, besides sugar, glucose,
molasses, saccharin, etc., that standard rates of
duty for such articles have been fixed wherever
practicable, samples only being taken in case of
doubt. Some 36.441 such samples were examined as
compared with 23,777 last year.
Some hundreds of samples of glucose were also
examined.
Saccharin carries a heavy duty, being about 500
times sweeter than sugar, and it has to be searched
for in all preparations likely to contain it. Its
manufacture in this country was resumed in 1917,
and 253 samples were examined in the year under
review.
Of tobacco, 10,234 samples for home consumption
and 13,797 for drawback on export were examined ;
and many thousands of offal tobacco for manufac-
ture of nicotine, sheep dips, etc.
Tea is examined at the port of entry by inspec-
tors, and doubtful samples are sent to the labora-
tory; the quantitv imported was 500.000.000 lb., as
compared with 370.000,000 lb. in 1914, and 16,562
samples were examined, 40 per cent, being con-
demned on account of accidental foreign matter ;
coffee, cocoa, matches, etc. were also examined.
Hydrometers and other graduated vessels were
tested, 2.591 such tests being made.
It is interesting to note that of the 1000 or more
samples of milk and milk products examined for
the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries none con-
tained preservatives, and there was no evidence of
the presence of foreien fat in any of the samples
of imported butter. Substantial work was done for
the War Department, 4,322 samples of all descrip-
tions of food being examined.
Many interesting investigations were made, as
for instance, that for potash production for the
Board of Trade, the examination of road drainage
for toxic constituents from tar for the Joint Com-
mittees of the Ministries of Fisheries and Trans-
port, the extraction of radium of luminous dials,
compass cards, etc., for the Ministry of Munitions,
and the disposal of waste from the flax factories for
the Office of Works, London.
A few interesting details are given of cases in
which the Government Chemist acted as referee
under the Sale of Food and Drugs Acts and Fer-
tilisers and Feeding Stuffs Act.
OFFICIAL TRADE INTELLIGENCE.
(From the Board of Trade Journal for September
9 and 16.)
OPENINGS FOR BRITISH TRADE.
The following inquiries have been received at the
Department of Overseas Trade (Development and
Intelligence), 35, Old Queen Street, London, S.W. 1.
from firms, agents, or individuals who desire to re-
present U.K. manufacturers or exporters of the
goods specified. British firms may obtain the
names and addresses of the persons or firms referred
to by applying to the Department and quoting the
specific reference number.
Locality of
Reference
Firm or Agent.
Materials.
Number.
British India
Metals, paints, dyes, paper, glass
338
Ceiuent-makine machinery
339
Earthenware, glassware
363
Iron, steel, metals
364
British W. Indies
Glass
345
376
Canada . .
Patent medicines
341
Glass, china, pottery
366
New Zealand . .
Linseed oil, matches
371
South Africa . .
Galvanised iron, fencing wire . .
374
Earthenware, crockery, china . .
375
Belgium
348
377
Dantzig
Sanitary porcelain
349
Denmark
Paper
378
Soda ash, calcined Glauber's salt
379
Asbestos
380
France
Raw materials for the manu-
facture of perfumery
383
Germany
Oils for soap manufacture
384
Italy
Cellulose, caustic soda, sodium
sulphide
386
Spain
Nitrates, sulphates, superphos-
phates
353
Switzerland
Pigments, varnish
354
Turkey
Paper, chemicals
388
United States . .
China, glass, pottery, drug
sundries
391
Brazil
Cement
392
Mexico
Chemicals, white lead, paint
397
TARIFF. CUSTOMS. EXCISE.
United Kingdom. — The revised regulations
governing the preferential rates of customs duties
on goods consigned from and grown, produced, or
manufactured in the British Empire are set out in
the issue for September 9. Among the goods to be
considered as manufactured articles are refined
sugar, glucose, syrup, molasses, and saccharin.
Argentina. — The excise taxes on alcoholic bever-
ages, alcohol, and matches have been amended.
Australia. — Recent customs decisions affect alu-
minium sheet for use in the manufacture of motor-
car running boards, brass tubing -fa in. and under
in diameter, and clear ruby mica.
Austria. — Modifications of export restrictions
affect certain kinds of paper, candles, and soap.
Bolivia. — A copy of the new tariff may be seen at
the Department.
Brazil. — The import duties on certain kinds of
colours, inks, varnishes, and cement have been
reduced by 20 per cent, as from September 1.
Costa Pica. — Recent tariff modifications affect
condensed milk. lard, perfumery, and certain kinds
of glassware and earthenware.
330 b
REVIEW.
Finland. — Export licences are no longer required
for, inter alia, bark (with some exceptions), pig
iron, asbestos, mica, tar water, and pitch oil.
The conditions affecting import and currency
licences are given in the issue of September 9.
French Cameroons. — The customs regime of
French Equatorial Africa is to apply to the French
Cameroons.
Germany. — Certain maize products capable of
being used as cattle foods may be imported without
licence as from September 1.
Coconut fibres, agave, and similar fibres may only
be imported only under licence.
The taxes on imported beer, wines, spirits,
vinegar, acetic acid, ethers, and matches are set
out in the issue for September 16.
Certain minerals and stones have been removed
from the " Export Free List."
Italy. — Beta-naphthol, shoemaker's glue, and
medicated olive oil may be exported without
licence, but licences are required for galvanised,
coppered, and tinned iron wire and plates.
Japan. — Mineral oils with a density exceeding
0'904 at 15° C, to be used directly as fuel, may be
imported duty free.
The amended rates of import duty affect ivory
nuts, alcoholic beverages, salt, olive oil, animal
fats, vegetable tallow or wax, licorice, ipecacuanha
root, cassia and cinnamon bark, cinchona bark,
coca, jaborandi and patchouli leaves, gentian root,
rhubarb, extract of mix vomica, ergot of rye, cloves,
bromine, picric acid, salicylic and acetyl-salicylic
acids, salicylate of soda, sodio-theobromine, hydro-
bromic acid, bromides, alcohol, antifebrin, aniline
hydrochloride, coal-tar derivatives (with some ex-
ceptions), coal-tar dyes, artificial indigo, pitch,
asphalt, asbestos, minerals, ores, platinum metals,
and certain metal wastes.
Luxembourg. — Among the articles that may be
exported without licence are alcoholic beverages,
asbestos, tanning bark, cork, rosin, asphalt, cement,
candles, polishes, wax, white lead, emery, graphite,
lubricating oils, lithopone, incandescent mantles,
mastic, red lead, ochre, plaster, sand, lime, phar-
maceutical products, celluloid, cardboard, and coal
tar.
Norway. — The import is prohibited of. inter alia,
perfumes, perfumed soap, and chocolate.
Portugal. — The export restrictions have recently
been modified. Export licences are required for
lard, olive oil, sugar, charcoal, phosphorus matches,
and certain hides and skins. Export surtaxes have
been amended on turpentine, whale oil, oils and oil-
seeds, wood pulp, chicory root, resins, and " sucata
de cupro-nicquel."
Lard, olive oil, margarine, and edible vegetable
fats may be imported duty free as from Sep-
tember 6.
Tthodeaia.- — Recent customs decisions affect black
Badminton dve, fat liquor, fustic and hematine
crystals, novolineum and solignum (wood preserva-
tives).
Spain. — The reduced rate of import duty on
sucar is applicable until December 31.
Sweden. — Export prohibitions have been with-
drawn from carbon bisulphide and certain hides
and skins.
United States. — Recent customs decisions affect
hvdrogenated fish oils, crushed limestone, and ferro-
silicon.
TRADE NOTES.
GOVERNMENT ORDERS AND NOTICES.
Prohibited Exports. — The Board of Trade
(Licensing Section) has notified the removal of the
following from the list of prohibited exports: —
Linseed ; ergot of rye, and the liquid extract of
ergot; tea.
BRITISH.
The Gold Coast in 1918. — The total value of the
imports into the Gold Coast during 1919 was
£2,919,915 (£3,219,099 in 1917) and included: —
Coal, 10,663 tons (£55,332); earthenware, £10,302;
gunpowder, 54 t. (£8428); petroleum oil, 893,606
galls. (£74,048); salt, 6633 t. (£53,840); soap,
1950 t. (£88,691); perfumery, £24,658. The
increases in value of the salt and soap imported
were mainly due to enhanced prices. The United
Kingdom supplied 73 per cent, of the value of
the imports, and the United States 21 per cent.
The total value of the exports was £2,641,927, and
included:— Cocoa, 66,343 tons (£1,796,985); kola
nuts, 5913 t. (£262,144); copra, 99 t. (£2722);
auriferous bv-products, 37,501 lb. (worth £22,316
in 1917); palm kernels, 8933 t. (£152,921); palm oil,
670,867 galls (£83,689); rubber, 621 t. (£57,006);
specie (£146,305 in 1917). The United Kingdom
took 47 per cent. (65 in 1917) of the imports, the
United States 37, and France 3 per cent. The
exports of palm kernels and oil showed large
increases, partly owing to the fact that freight was
not available for cocoa, so that the natives paid
more attention to palm products, because these
commanded higher prices and were privileged as
regards shipping. For these reasons the produc-
tion of cocoa fell by 27 per cent. The prohibition of
the importation of rubber into the United Kingdom
led to a decrease in the export of this article, and,
though the United States took an increased
amount, this did not compensate for the loss in the
United Kingdom market. Cocoa, the chief product
of the colony, suffered greatly because it was not
placed on trie priority list during the war, but it
is now recovering, and the Gold Coast will soon
recover its position as the greatest cocoa-producing
country in the world. As regards the mineral
wealth, in addition to gold mining, the large
manganese deposits on the Dagwin extension
concessions were worked throughout the year, and
30,292 tons was shipped. — (Col. Bep.-Ann.,
No. 1029. March, 1920.)
FOREIGN.
The Nitrate Situation. — Reports forwarded by
H.M. Commercial Secretary at Santiago to the
Department of Overseas Trade, and by H.M. Con-
sul at Antofagasta, state that no large sales of
nitrate have been made since the early part of this
year. The total production for the first six months
of 1920 was 26,158,367 quintals (quintal = 101-44 lb.)
or 1,184,600 long tons; exports, which were dis-
tributed about equally between England and the
United States, amounted to 33,173,982 q. or
1,502,400 t. ; and stocks at June 30 were calculated
at about 970,000 t., of which 830,000 t. belonged to
members of the Nitrate Association and the re-
mainder chiefly to Americans and Germans. Pro-
duction and exports for the past three years were
as follows: —
1917-18.
1918-19.
1919-20.
Qtls.
Qtls.
Qtls.
Production .
64.773.489 .
. 50,707.926 .
. 42.551.77
Export
63.325.382 .
. 39.007.083 .
. 47.904.23
In pre-war days the total exports amounted to
45 — 50 million q. The sales to date made by the
Association for delivery from July 1920 to April
1921, amount to 1,343,000 t., at an average price
of 16s. 5d. per quintal. Although the demand for
nitrate continues brisk, transport and labour diffi-
culties are causing the Association to consider the
limitation of further forward sales. Fuel has be-
come very scarce. Coal is unobtainable from the
United Kingdom and difficult to procure from the
Vol. XXXIX., Xo. IS.]
REVIEW.
States; Australian coal is not economical for use
in oficinds, and cannot be depended upon ; owing
to continued strikes Chilean coal is not available,
and it is also uneconomical ; oil fuel is becoming
increasingly scarce. The Commercial Secretary is
informed that several British nitrate oficinas have
one year's production awaiting rail transport.
Owing to these difficulties, future production is not
expected to exceed present output. The average
cost on board is reported to be 12s. per quintal
(maximum), and it appears that large profits are
being and will be made. New factories arc to be
erected in the course of a year at Los Dones. The
various national interests in the industry an;
approximated as follows: Chilean, 36%; British.
33 ; German, 18%; Yugo-Slav, 10%; and Ameri-
can, 2%.
Trade of the United States in 1919.— The total value
of the imports into the United States in 1919 was
£780,800,000, and that of the exports £1,550,000.
The distribution of the trade between the chief
countries is given in the appended table in millions
of pounds sterling (on the basis of $5 to the £) : —
Imports from.
£
61-8
Exports to
£
451-8
United Kingdom . .
Canada
98-9
140-5
Australia
9-6
18-9
New Zealand
4-3
5.6
British India
280
13-5
British Africa
13-2
11-S
Argentina . .
39-8
30-7
Belgium
1-5
73-6
Brazil
46- 7
22-6
Egypt
7-9
3-0
Straits Settlements
29-2
2-4
30-9
21-1
Cuba
83-7
53-4
France
24-8
191-9
21
18-3
Italy
11-8
87-3
Japan
82-0
72-9
0014
1-5
13-9
23-7
11
25-1
0-93
8-5
0-46
0-0
1-4
0-0
fl-3
4-2
0-20
5 0
1-3
2-3
0-25
0-11
331
45-3
6-3
68-7
24-0
19-7
101
1-2
2-4
1-9
70
4-2
0-0G5 .
0-2!
0083 .
40
0049 .
31
0-44
1-3
Some details concerning the trade in chemicals and
allied products are given below: —
Imports. Exports
£ £
Cement
Chemicals
Coal and coke
Colours, dyes, paint, varnish
1 "yewoods, tanning bark, etc.
Earthrnware. ehinaware, etc.
Fertilisers
Glass
Gunpowder and explosives
Matches
Metals, unwrought
Oils, mineral
Oils, vegetable
Ores and concentrates
Perfumery, essential oils, etc.
Resins, gums and wax
Salt
Soaps, candles, etc.
Starch
Sulphur
Wood pulp 7-4 . . 6 0
— (U.S. Com. Sep., June 24, 1920.)
The Cement Market in Spain. — Spanish manufac-
turers control the local cement market, as price is
the chief factor and quality is of little account.
During the war imports of cement from Belgium
and England ceased, and the domestic cement in-
dustry was able to develop unhampered by com-
petition. Cement is chiefly produced at Barcelona
and Bilbao, and the leading Spanish company is
tin- " Compafiia General de Asfaltos y Portland
' Asland '," with a capital of 14 million pesetas
(peseta = 9 Jd.). This company is at present not
working at more than 50 per cent, of the capacity
of its three plants, but in 1919 it produced 86,134
metric tons of cement, or about 40 per cent, of the
Spanish output. It is evident therefore that home
demands can be supplied without recourse to im-
portation.— (U.S. Com. Sep., July 24, 1920.)
Allotments of Formosan Camphor. — H.M. Consul
at Tamsui reports that the allotments of camphor
for the September quarter are: — United Kingdom,
900 piculs; U.S.A., 2475 piculs; Prance, 365 piculs
(picul = 132.3 lb.). It is believed that the Monopoly
Bureau will in future cease to supply crude camphor
to foreign refiners and will sell them fixed amounts
of refined camphor through the Japan Refined
Camphor Co. at 10 per cent, below market price. —
(Bd. of Trade J., Sept. 2, 1920.)
REVIEW.
Chemical Fertilisers and Parasiticides. By S.
Hoare Collins. Industrial Chemistry Series,
edited by Dr. S. Rideal. pp. ce». + 273. (Lon-
don: Balliere, Tmdall and Cox. 1920.) Price
10s. 6d. net.
This is a book which should take the place of
many text books, and at the same time be read by
the man who wants special information on matters
not contained in the ordinary treatise. Mr.
Collins has a great experience as an agricultural
chemist and as a teacher, and his book will appeal
to many for whom some of the treatises on artificial
manures, their manufacture and uses, are of too
scientific a character. To the agricultural student
this book will be welcome, as it will give him a fresh
aspect from which to regard the subject, and will
bring to him a knowledge of industrial processes
which yield by-products of value to the agriculturist
and also offer him the most up-to-date information
as to the progress science is making in bringing in
atmospheric and other sources of fertilising elements
of prime importance to the production of farm crops.
Increased production is the order of the day, and
one of the chief factors of increased production is
the right use of fertilisers. The successful farmer
has been described as the man who does the right
thing at the right time, and, it may be added, who
uses the right material, whether variety of crop,
food, manure, labour, or implement, for the purpose
for which it is best suited under the conditions
which obtain on the particular farm. A century
ago artificial manures were dubbed "stinking
chemicals " by the same farming community which
at an earlier date condemned turnips as " vege-
tables only fitted for a gentleman's garden," but
knowledge has advanced far since then, and there
are few, if any, farmers to-day who could do with-
out these formerly despised adjuncts to their busi-
ness.
Part I. of this volume deals briefly with the need
for fertilisers and with the effects on plant growth
of nitrogen, potash, and phosphates; Part II. with
the sources of fertilisers and with some of the
methods of dealing with the raw materials. On
page 40 the statement of the composition of kainit
is rightly stated, but on p. 168 the composition
given may prove misleading. The chapter on fuel
by-products will, it is hoped, have to be rewritten in
a few years when our present methods of wasting
coal have been abandoned. Section VI., dealing
with the utilisation of atmospheric nitrogen, is of
great interest and, taken with Part III., Section I.,
is a comprehensive review of existing methods. Tho
provision of a cheap source of power is, of course,
essential to the economic production of nitrates
from the atmosphere, but there is no reasou why in
England, as in Germany and Denmark, the devel-
opment of the industry should not be considerably
expedited. A fair chemical knowledge is required
to follow the author in his descriptions of the manu-
facture of the inorganic and organic nitrogenous
fertilisers (tho last heading including calcium
REVIEW.
[Sept. 30. 1920.
cyanamide), but the ordinary reader can gain a
good insight into these manufactures even if he has
to skip the purely chemical paragraphs. There is
no doubt that the student will gain a far better
appreciation of the nature and use of fertilisers if
he has an acquaintance with the methods of manu-
facture, and the writer does not remember reading a
treatise on artificial manures where so much atten-
tion is paid to the manufacturing processes and the
underlying principles. The chapter on valuation
of fertilisers should be studied by every buyer of
artificials who wishes to gain a knowledge of their
values and uses from sources other than the state-
ments of those whose business it is to sell these com-
modities, and the farmer can gain much useful in-
formation in a small space by reading Sections II.
and III. of Part IV. The section devoted to in-
secticides and fungicides is necessarily somewhat
sketchy, but enough information is given to inform
the farmer or fruit grower as to the functions of the
various preparations.
A very comprehensive reference bibliography is
given at the end of each section so that any par-
ticular aspect of the subject can be thoroughly ex-
plored by the reader who requires wider and more
detailed information. Mr. Collins' book bears the
impress of a writer of wide experience and reading,
of a knowledge not only of the requirements of the
agriculturist but of how they can best be satisfied,
and of the commercial means taken to satisfy them.
It can thus be recommended to everyone connected
with the industry of farming who wishes to stimu-
late increased production by the utilisation of every
means which mechanical or chemical science can
afford.
M. J. R. Dunstan.
PUBLICATIONS RECEIVED.
OBITUARY.
ALFRED EVANS FLETCHER.
By the death of Alfred E. Fletcher in his 94th
year, technology has lost an active worker who was
closely associated over an exceptionally long period
with the progress and control of chemical indus-
tries. Although it is now nearly 30 years since he
retired from the position of Chief Inspector under
the Alkali, etc. Works Regulation Act, his success-
ful labours in this capacity contributed in a large
measure both towards the development of the im-
portant work of this Department, and also towards
its recognition and appreciation by chemical manu-
facturers.
Fletcher was trained originally as an engineer,
but subsequently turned his attention towards
chemistry, in which subject he received his training
at University College, London. In 1863 he was ap-
pointed as assistant to the late Dr. Angus Smith,
the first Chief Inspector under the Alkali Act, whom
he subsequently succeeded in 1884. His official
duties brought before him the need for improved
methods of analytical control, and it was in this
connexion that he devised his well-known aspirator
for the rapid extraction and analysis of flue gases
and his anemometer, both of which instruments
have proved of outstanding value and application.
Among other scientific work he was closely associ-
ated with the Scottish Office in the administration
nf the Rivers Pollution Act, and took an active
part in the earliest attempts to mitigate atmos-
pheric pollution from coal smoke.
Despite his advanced years Fletcher retained
much interest in the progress of science and
teehnnlogv after his retirement, and remained
associated with this Society, of which he was an
original member, until a few years ago.
A Treatise on Chemistry. By the Right Hon. Sin
H. E. Roscoe and C. Schorlemmer. Vol. I. —
The Non-Metallic Elements. Fifth edition,
completely revised by Dr. .1. C. Cain, with 226
illustrations. Pp. 968. (London: MaciniUan.
and Co., Ltd. 1920.) Price 30s.
The Manufacture op Sugar from the Cane and
Beet. By T. H. P. Heriot. Monographs on
Industrial Chemistry, edited by Sir E. TnoRr-E.
Pp. 426. (London: Longmans, Green and Co.
1920.) Price 24s.
Margarine. By W. Clayton. Monographs on In-
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Pp. 187. (London: Tjongmans, Green and Co.
1920.) Price Us.
The Chemical Analysis of Steel-works' Ma-
terials. By F. Ibbotson. Pp. 296. (London:
Longmans, Green and Co. 1920.) Price 21s.
Organic Chemistry. By Dr. A. Killen Macbeth.
Pp. 235. (London: Longmans, Green and Co.
1920.) Price 6s. 6d.
Catalysis. By E. Jobling. Text-books of Chemi-
cal Research and Engineering, edited by
W. P. Dreaper. Pp. vii + 144. (London: J.
and A. Churchill. 1920.) Price Is. 6d.
Ceramic Industries Pocket Book. By A. B.
Searle. Pp. 267. (London: Sir Isaac Pitman
and Sons, Ltd. 1920.) Price 8s. 6d.
Modern Explosives. By S. I. Levy. Pp. 109.
(London: Sir Isaac Pitman and Sons, Ltd.
1920.) Price 3s.
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1919-20. Pp. 120. (London: H.M. Stationery
Office. 1920.) [Cmd. 905.] Price Is.
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Great Britain. Vol. XVI. Refractory
Materials, Etc. Petrography and Chemistry.
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Bradley. Memoirs of the Geological Survey.
(London: H. M. Stationery Office. 1920.)
Price 5s.
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MoNOGRAPHIAS DO SeRVICO GeoLOGICO E MlNERA-
logico do Brasil. Vol. I. 1913. Vol. II. 1919.
Boletim do Ministerio da Agricultura, Industria
e Commercio do Brasil. Year VII., January —
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Janeiro: Servico de Informacoes.)
The Department of Industrial and Scientific
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R. Kanthack. (Price £2 5s.) This and other
publications of the Department are obtainable at
H.M. Stationery Office, Imperial House, Kingswav,
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and from E. Ponsonbv, Ltd., 116, Grafton Street,
Dublin.
Vol. XXXIX. No. 19.J
REVIEW
[Oct. 13, 1920.
THE ROLE OF ANTIMONY
TROPICAL MEDICINE.
IN
R. G. FARGHER.
It is perhaps not generally realised that of tlie
14 million square miles of territory which con-
gtatate the British Empire something like one half
lies within the tropics. In these tropical areas.
often densely populated with peoples of primitive
habits and with little regard for hygiene, it is not
surprising that disease should be rife. Though
much is being done to introduce preventive and
sanitary measures, progress in this direction, which
must be coincident with the education and co-
operation of the peoples themselves, is of necessity
slow, and for many years to come the methods of
dealing with tropical diseases will probably be cura-
tive rather than preventive. Special interest
attaches, therefore, to studies in chemotherapy
such as that presented by the use of antimony
derivatives in certain diseases of parasitic origin.
The suggestion that antimony might be employed
usefully in medicine has generally been attributed
to the hypothetical Basil Valentine. Certain it is
that the author of " Triumphwagen des Antimonii "
was the advocate of treatment as heroic as any
that modern medicine has to offer, so the inference
that he recommended antimony for internal use
requires but little justification. The attitude of
his contemporaries was distinctly antagonistic, and
so strong was the opinion that the poisonous proper-
ties of the metalloid were incompatible with its
internal use that it is recorded that all graduates in
medicine at Heidelberg were required to register
an oath never to employ it. Nevertheless, under
the influence of his teaching, it came to be looked
upon as a universal panacea, and towards the end
of the 17th centnry more than a hundred prepara-
tions of the metal were in more or less common use.
Tartar emetic, examined first by the Dutch phy-
sician Mynsicht and afterwards more accurately by
Glauber, had already been employed in medicine
by the ingenious medium of drinking wine which
had been allowed to stand in an antimony goblet.
Its use in the treatment of trypanosomiasis was
first proposed by Nicolle and Mesnil, but to the
English workers, Plimmer and Thomson, attaches
the credit of the earliest work. Employing potas-
sium and sodium antimonyl tartrates they were
impressed by the wonderful sterilising effect of sub-
cutaneous injections in experimental rats heavily
infected with trypanosomes. Their results seemed
to Manson to be of sufficient promise to warrant
trial on human subjects, but the extreme local re-
action precluded their effective employment. The
check was of short duration, as the discovery of
the intravenous route, first announced in 1909 by
Broden and Rodhain, and claimed independently by
Leboeuf, quickly led, in the hands of Martin and
Barre. to the basis of the present most effective
mode of combating sleeping sickness — the combined
use of atoxyl intramuscularly and tartar emetic
intravenously. The exaggerated claims made for
this combination are to be regretted, as experience
has shown that though success may be anticipated
when treatment is commenced in the early or try-
panosome fever stage of the disease, it is more
rarely attained in the later or sleeping sickness
stage, a conclusion of particular importance when
it is remembered that the early symptoms are less
pronounced in the coloured than in the white races,
and that it is to the former that the disease presents
so terrible a menace.
In other tropical diseases greater success has
attended the presentation of antimony. Thus, in
external and internal leishmaniasis the results of
numerous observers, commencing with Machadtf
and Vianna in Brazil, leave little doubt as to its-
specificity. In bilharziasis, only too prevalent
amongst the Egyptian fellaheen, specific action has
been proved, and Christopherson concludes that as
the shell of the bilharzia ovum is permeable to
tartar emetic, sterilisation resulting, the action is
also prophylactic. Good results have been obtained
in the treament of granuloma, filariasis, guinea
worm, papilloma, yaws, relapsing fever and cerebro-
spinal fever. Rogers has claimed the utility of
tartar emetic in malaria, but he is practically un-
supported by other workers, and the conclusion may
be drawn, with Greig, that in this case antimony
is only appreciably efficacious when toxic doses are
presented, the drug acting rather as a general
protoplasmic poison than as a specific for the
malarial parasite.
The foregoing brief summary will suffice to indi-
cate the therapeutic importance antimony has
assumed during the past decade. The number of
its derivatives which has reclied the stage of
clinical trial, however, is extremely limited, and is
restricted to the variation of tartar emetic by the
replacement of potassium by sodium, lithium, or
ammonium ; Martindale's preparation of anti-
mqnious oxide ; Ranken's finely-divided metallic
antimony; and one or two relatively unimportant
" colloidal " preparations.
The reason is not far to seek. Until recently, the
simple organic compounds of antimony which, from
analogy with arsenic, might have attracted atten-
tion, were only obtainable by cumbrous methods
and, even when prepared, were not, chemically
speaking, inviting. Thus, the sodium method is
complicated by the greater tendency of antimony, as
compared with arsenic, to pass from the tervalent
to the quinquivalent condition, and is of limited
application. It consists essentially in the inter-
action of an aromatic halogen compound with
antimony trichloride in presence of sodium. The
Grignard reaction, in essence the combination of an
aryl magnesium halide with an antimony trihalide,
gives rise again mainly to the triarylstibine or its
dihalogen derivatives, and the conversion of these
into the presumably more promising monoaryl-
stibinic acid derivatives involves several stages and
problematical yields.
The extension of the Bart reaction to the prepara-
tion of aromatic antimonials is, at all events in
laboratory practice, of greater promise, as diazo-
tised amines readily couple with sodium antimonite
in alkaline solution, with or without the presence of
a catalyst such as copper powder, with replacement
of the diazonium group by the stibinic acid residue.
Covered by several patents by the German firm of
von Heyden, there appears to be some claim for
independent discovery by English workers. A
number of derivatives of phenylstibinic acid pre-
pared in this way has been tried experimentally in
trypanosome-infected animals by Lange, Uhlen-
huth, Mulger, and others, the results indicating
that the conclusions arrived at from the study of
the organic arsenicals as to the influence of sub-
stituents in the benzene nucleus cannot be applied
to the antimony derivatives, which therefore pre-
sent a new problem in chemotherapy. This view
has been supported, for example, by the compara-
tive inefficacy of the antimony analogues of atoxyl
and salvarsan. and naturally, though no doubt
illogically, the more precarious tenure of antimony
in the organic nucleus has been suggested as the
cause. Little evidence is available as to the relative
stability of the two groups, but the assumption of
lesser stability probably implies that the same de-
toxicating effect cannot be expected from the
organic combination of antimony as has been
achieved in the case of arsenic. Of the compounds
so far examined, sodium p-acetylaminophenyl-
REVIEW.
[Oct. 15. 1920.
stibinate (stihacetin) appears the most promising,
and of it alone are clinical results available,
Caronia stating that it is efficacious in the form of
leishmaniasis encountered in the Mediterranean
area, whilst results of English workers indicate a
possible value in trypanosomiasis.
In general, therefore, study of the literature of
the aromatic antimonials reveals many difficulties
in the way of their successful employment in
medicine. With few exceptions non-crystalline,
yielding non-crystalline metallic salts of dubious
composition, their preparation and purification pre-
sent problems as difficult as any encountered in the
more complex arsenicals, and though antimony, as
at present administered " in large doses over pro-
longed periods produces fatty changes in the liver
and kidneys which may seriously damage the resist-
ing powers of* the patient and even cause death "
(Low), supersession by the true organic antimonials
will necessitate the demonstration of more con-
siderable advantages than have yet been claimed.
Nevertheless, it would be idle to suggest that
their further examination may not yield results of
importance, and though in expert hands the use
of tartar emetic is now happily free from many
of the difficulties and dangers which confronted
earlier workers, more favourable means of present-
ing antimony undoubtedly remain one of the press-
ing problems of tropical medicine. The solution
is not merely of humanitarian and scientific
interest ; from a purely utilitarian standpoint it
possesses a very real economic importance.
THE COAL FIRE.
^ ith the object of diminishing the smoke
nuisance in Manchester, a committee of the cor-
poration, in a spirit of far-sighted and eminently
practical inquiry which might well commend itself
to other municipalities, appointed some few years
ago an " air pollution advisory board " to inquire
into the efficiency of domestic fire-places. The exe-
cutive was composed of factory managers, local men
of science, city councillors, and others. Under their
auspices and that of the Fuel Research Roard, Dr.
Margaret Fishenden, late Reyer Fellow of the Uni-
versity of Manchester, was appointed to undertake
the research which has been in part financed by the
Department of Scientific and Industrial Research.
The results are embodied in a very full report on
" The Coal Fire," which has been published for the
Fuel Research Hoard by H.M. Stationery Office.'
In view of the facts that of the 190 million tons of
coal which are consumed in the United Kingdom
annually rather more than 40 millions, or about one-
fifth, is burnt on the domestic hearth,2 and that the
domestic chimney is responsible for much the largest
proportion of soot of a peculiarly tarry and adhesive
nature, any improvement which would lead either to
the more economic use of coal by increasing its heat-
ing efficiency, or to diminished emission of smoke,
would be of untold advantage to the community.
The report is therefore of peculiar value, as up
to the present no very trustworthy information on
the subject has been forthcoming.
The method employed has been substantially that
used in the Leeds tests in the investigation of gas
fires.'
The radiant efficiency was estimated by the per-
centage of R.Th.U. in the fuel used in radiation in
the following way : —
1 The Coal Fire. A Research, bv M. W. Fishenden, D So.
London. H.M. Stationery Office. 1920. Price. 4s. net.
[ ' Journal of the lioval Soi-ietv of Arts, 1917, p. 136.
* Reports of the Gas Heating Research Committee of the Leeds
University. 1909 and 1910.
An imaginary hemisphere, of which the radiating
surface is the centre, is mapped into areas by lines
of latitude and longitude 20° apart, so that in all
there are 81 areas, which naturally vary in dimen-
sions, being largest at the equator and decreasing
towards the poles The amount of radiation falling
on the central area is estimated by means of a
radiometer, the total amount calculated in B.Th.U.
being determined from the lighting of the fire until
its extinction. The radiation falling on the other
surfaces of the hemisphere was determined by com-
paring the readings of a thermopile placed in the
centre of each area and adjusted on a pivoted metal
" line of latitude." It was found unnecessary to
go through the whole series in each experiment, as
" the distribution factor," as it is termed, varies
very little for the same grate. This factor is the
sum of the relative values of the thermopile readings
corrected for the different areas, taking the central
area as unity, and was found to be 32'5 In the first
grate investigated. The " radiant efficiency " for
this grate is given by the expression: —
RX 32-ff
c X100.
in which R is the total heat absorbed by the radio-
meter from start to finish expressed in B.Th.U.,
and C is the calorific value of the fuel in B.Th.U.
Thus, the expression represents the percentage of
B.Th.U. utilised in radiation.
A variety of grates was examined in this way with
varying rate of air-current regulated by a damper,
and with coal of different qualities and in different
states of aggregation, patent fuel preparations,
anthracite, coke carbonised at high and low tem-
peratures, and briquettes.
In addition to these determinations, measure-
ments were made of heat absorbed by the air passing
up the chimney from different kinds of fuel, and of
the effect of restricting the draught. The heating
of the air of the room under different conditions of
draught was also estimated. Without discussing
these observations in detail we may give briefly the
author's summary.
There was little alteration in the radiant effi-
ciency of coal; it varied from 195 to 24 per cent.,
burnt in different types of grate, which showed no
advantage in favour of the modern grate (crushed
coal — slack — lowered the efficiency from 24 to 20
per cent.), nor was the radiant efficiency affected by
the rate of combustion. With other kinds of fuel,
however, a notable increase was observed, anthra-
cite giving 27, coke 28"5, the low-temperature coke
34 and 31, as compared with coal at 24. Briquettes,
on the other hand, gave 19 per cent, efficiency.
Although the total radiation showed a compara-
tively small range of variation, the design of the
grate affected its distribution, a vertical radiating
surface having an advantage for the occupant over
a Horizontal one. Subject to considerable varia-
tion, the average value of the air flow was 19000
cb. ft. per hour, the temperature of the flue at the
ceiling level being 105° F., as compared with 53° F.
for that of the entrant air.
The author estimates that in the case of a coal fire
burning with a full draught giving 22 per cent,
radiation, about 52 per cent, of the heat of com-
bustion is lost in passing up the flue, so that the
heat absorbed by the brickwork would not
amount to more than 20 per cent. For an outer
flue this is mainly wasted. With restricted
draught, on the other hand, the flue loss could
be reduced to about 13 per cent. The difference
of 39 per cent, is ascribed by the author to he\t
dissipated by conduction through the flue wails
owing to the lowered rate of air flow. The
importance of building flues on inner walls becomes
obvious, as well as the advantage of restricting the
draught, which thereby diminishes the flow of cold
Vol. XXXIX.. No. 19.]
REVIEW.
air through the room and lowers the rate of com-
bustion. The author also draws attention to the
radical importance of a grate being as little re-
cessed as possible, so that no obstacle should screen
off the radiation. In conclusion, Dr. Fishenden
refers to the relative cost of coal, gas, and elec-
tricity. Taking the heating efficiency of coal (in-
cluding heating of air, walls, and brickwork) as at
least 30 per cent, the modern gas fire at 60 per
cent, and the electric heater at 100 per cent., and
assuming coal to cost 45s. per ton, gas 4s. 6d. per
1000 cb. ft., and electric power at Id! per unit, the
cost of a coal fire for continuous heating is only
about oue-third that of a good gas fire, and one-
fifth that of an electric fire of equal heating
capacity.
CANADIAN OPPORTUNITIES IN
INDUSTRIAL CHEMISTRY.
In addressing the third Annual Convention of
Canadian Chemists on the above subject, Mr. S. J.
Cook, chemist-in-charge of the Chemical and Min-
ing Dh ision, Domiuicu Bureau of Statistics,
instanced two general methods of ascertaining
where practical industrial opportunities exist, viz.,
by studying lists of imports, and by examination of
chemical plant with a view to determining where
economies could be effected. In connexion with the
former he gave the following list of the more im-
portant chemical imports into Canada during the
twelve months ended March 31, 1920: —
Value.
Drugs, medicinal and pharmaceutical preparat
ons . . 4.325.160
Dyeing and tanning materials
6.626.110
Explosives
556,836
Cellulose products
2,489.189
Fertilisers
1.200.233
Soaps, perfumes and cosmetics
2.634,118
Inorganic chemicals
6.666.785
All other drugs, dyes and chemicals
6.883.926
Total
Dealing with more specific problems, Mr. Cook
referred to the ineconomy occurring at cyana-
mide plants, where the oxygen isolated from
the air is not utilised, and then to the great loss of
sulphur, amounting now to over 300,000 tons yearly,
which is allowed to escape in the roasting of the
nickel-copper ore in the Sudbury district. During
the period 1915-19 inclusive, Canada imported sul-
phur to the value of $6,349,467, and sulphuric acid
worth 8353,656. Freight rates for transport of sul-
phur dioxide in tank cars from Sudbury are pro-
hibitive, but it is worth considering whether the
liquefied gas could not be transported by a pipe-
line to the lake shore and there used in the sulphite-
pulp plants, or made into acid for shipment in tank
steamers. A million tons of pulp wood will yield
over a million tons of mechanical pulp, but only half
that quantity of sulphite pulp. Analyses of sulphite
liquors from Canadian mills show that they contain
as high a percentage of sugar as those produced in
Europe. They should yield at least 1 per cent, of
alcohol by volume, but they are still being run
into the rivers and streams.
In the history of the American Chemical Society
only three papers have been contributed on Cellu-
lose. Canada has a Forests Products Laboratory,
but no chemists are employed. No attempt has
been made in Canada to manufacture artificial
silk from wood pulp. The wheat straw of the
prairies is regularly burnt; some day it will be
used for paper manufacture at Saskatchewan.
Canada is making progress in the field of hydro-
electric development; some 12 per cent, of the avail-
able water-power has been developed, but the poten-
tialities remain enormous.
The four stages of a country's development have
been specified as follows: — (1) Capital must be im-
ported, (2) raw materials are exported, (3) finished
products are exported, (4) capital is exported for
developing new countries. Canada is hovering
between (2) and (3), and the next advance must be
made in the direction of diminishing the exporta-
tion of materials in the raw state. To effect this
the training of Canadian chemists must be made
more intensive, and all branches of the industry
must co-operate in a whole-hearted manner.
NEWS FROM THE SECTIONS.
MANCHESTFR.
The 1920-21 session was opened on October 1 by
a lecture on " The Structure of the Molecule in
Crystalline Solids," by Prof. W. L. Bragg, of Man-
chester University. The chairman, Mr. John Allan,
presided, and over 200 members attended.
It has become more and more difficult to define
the dividing line between physics and chemistry as
the extent of our knowledge has increased. Both
sciences have a common goal, for if we can arrive
at the structure of the individual atoms we can
explain their physical and chemical properties, and
it is in the advance towards this end that the two
sciences converge.
The physical conception of the atom is that of a
number of negatively charged electrons grouped
around an excessively small positively charged
nucleus, the number of electrons being such that
the positive and negative charges neutralise each
other. The number of the electrons is found to
increase steadily in passing from one element to the
next in the series of known elements. Hydrogen
has one electron, helium two, lithium three, and so
on, the most complex element, uranium, having
ninety-two electrons around its nucleus. Certain
physical properties show a regular progression with
the number of the electrons, and have led to the
idea of the " atomic number " as a fundamental
constant, a number which expresses the position
of the element in the series. The concept of atomic
number conjoined with the periodic nature of the
chemical properties of the elements leads to the
inference that the electrons are arranged in a series
of spherical shells around the nucleus. The end of
each period marks the completion of a shell, the
next electron added in passing to the first element
of a new period marks the commencement of a new
shell. It is the outermost incomplete shell which is
believed to determine the chemical properties of
the elements ; those which have corresponding
numbers of electrons in their outer shells have
similar chemical properties, and occur in the same
vertical column in the periodic table. Those atoms
which have complete outer shells possess great
stability and have no tendency to combine with
other atoms; they form the group of elements
known as the inert gases. The chemical affinities of
other elements represent the tendency of the outer
shells to revert to a more stable form.
In this attempt to realise greater stability, the
atoms group themselves together into the molecules
of a chemical compound. By a study of crystalline
structure we can examine the manner in which this
is done in the case of solid bodies. The structures
of a number of the simpler crystalline forms have
been determined, and the arrangement and the dis-
tances apart of the atoms in the molecule have been
b2
REVIEW.
Oct. 15. 19ZVI.
deduced. These relations throw some light on the
nature of the inter-atomic forces. Two classes of
chemical combinations, already indicated in many
other ways, are clearly distinguished. In the first
class the atoms take up a more stable configuration
by parting with, or taking up, electrons until their
outer shells hare the same number of electrons as
the inert gases. In doing this they necessarily
acquire a positive or negative charge ; they become
" ions," and the solid body is held together by the
attraction of the oppositely charged ions. In other
cases an atom acquires the requisite number of elec-
trons for stability by holding a certain number of
electrons in common with another atom, and the
forces which now act as a link are of the same
nature as those which bind the individual electrons
to either atom. The crystalline structures reveal
the existence of these two types of atomic linking.
In the first class of compounds the forces holding
the atoms together can be calculated in terms of the
charges on the ions and their distances apart, and
these forces are in numerical agreement with the
known chemical energy of combination. The forces
which come into play when atoms share electrons
cannot be calculated so simply ; it is, however, hoped
that from the chemical energy we may be able to
calculate the forces holding the electrons of the
atom in place, and so arrive at a clearer conception
of the atomic structure.
BRISTOL AND SOUTH WALES.
The third session of this Section was opened on
October 7 at the University, Bristol, Mr. E. Walls,
the chairman, presiding. Prof. A. M. Tyndall
gave an address on "The Chemical Elements:
Fresh Light on an Old Problem," in which he
treated mainly of the work of Thomson. Ruther-
ford, Aston, and others, on the structure of matter.
MEETINGS OF OTHER SOCIETIES.
THE IRON AND STEEL INSTITUTE.
The Autumn Meeting of the Iron and Steel
Institute was held in Cardiff on September 21 — 24.
A large number of papers had been submitted for
this meeting, but only six were read. The first
paper, by Mr. Walter Dixon, described the develop-
ment of the electrical equipment at the works of
the Ebbw Vale Steel, Iron, and Coal Co., Ltd. This
installation represents the development of the elec-
trical industry in its relation to the iron, steel, and
coal trades during the last twenty years. The
paper describes the power stations, the methods
of distribution and transmission, and the uses of
electricity in the works. The members of the Insti-
tute had, a day or two later, an opportunity of
visiting the works and inspecting the installation.
A paper by Dr. W. Rosenhain and Mr. D.Hanson
described a number of cases of failure of mild
steel in which fracture had taken place by separa-
tion of the ferrite crystals from one another, and
not, as is more usual, by rupture of the crystals
themselves. They pointed out a number of features
common to all these cases, notably that they had
all occurred when the metal was subjected to
" internal stress " at a slightly elevated tempera-
ture. They consider that these cases are similar
to those which are well known in non-ferrous alloys,
especially alpha-brass, where the phenomenon is
known as " season cracking." They pointed out
the danger which might arise in the case of such
articles as steam boilers, where the necessary con-
ditions for this type of failure might occur. A
paper by Mr. and Mrs. D. Hanson described an
investigation into the constitution of the alloys
of iron and nickel. The authors had confined them-
selves to the study of the changes which take place
in the solid state in these alloys, and had given
special attention to (1) the effect of nickel on the
critical points of iron, and (2) the verification of
Osmond's hypothesis of the nickel-iron alloys. This
hypothesis postulated the existence of a stable re-
versible equilibrium which was only obtained under
certain favourable conditions of cooling through
the critical temperature range ; with the rates of
cooling ordinarily obtained the alloys remained in
a meta-stable state. By adopting special precau-
tions the authors were able to verify Osmond "s
hypothesis, and to prove the reversibility of the
transformation. They have also determined the
equilibrium diagram. Messrs. A. Hutchinson and
E. Bury described the rough cleaning of blast-
furnace gas at Skinningrove by the Lodge electro-
static process, which, apparently, differs but very
slightly from the Cottrell process. The plant,
which has only been working for about four months,
shows every sign of being quite successful, though
the cost compared with other methods cannot yet
be finally indicated. A reduction of the dust con-
tent from .5 or 6 grains per cubic metre to 08 to IT
grams has been obtained with comparatively small
loss of the original sensible heat, and with a low
expenditure of power. The authors predict that
the process will prove of great commercial value,
not only for the purpose indicated, but for many
chemical processes. It is of interest to notice that
this phenomenon, which was but a short time ago
considered as a matter of purely scientific interest,
is now finding extended application (cf. J., 1918,
3*9 r). A paper by Mr. W. W. Hollings dealt with
the variations in the heat supplied to the blast fur-
nace, and their effects on the fuel consumption. As
a result of a theoretical discussion of the factors
concerned, the author concluded that for countries
with a low average absolute moisture, such as Eng-
land, it does not pay to instal dry-blast; that the
crushing of the materials of the charge to a uniform
size may be expected to result in a considerable
economy of the fuel required per ton of pig iron,
and that the process of blowing with oxygen-
enriched air is not likely to result in any appreci-
able saving for a small percentage increase in the
oxygen content. A paper by Mr. C. G. Carlisle
described the manufacture and quality of " electric
steel."
During the four days that the Institute was
present in Cardiff a number of works and objects of
interest in the district was inspected. Special
mention mav be made of the Margani Works of
Messrs. Baldwins, Ltd.. at Port Talbot, where the
visitors were shown one of the most complete and
modern equipments, including blast furnaces, coke
ovens, steel furnaces and rolling mills.
PERSONALIA.
Dr. J. G. Gray has been appointed to the new
Cargill chair oi applied physics in the University
of Glasgow.
Prof. A. B. Macallum, professor of biochemistry
in the University of Toronto, has been elected to
the new chair of biochemistry in the McGill Uni-
versity, Montreal.
Mr. L. G. Killby has been appointed secretary
t.i the Empire Cotton Growing Committee. Sir.
Killby took First-class Honours in Chemistry at
Oxford University, served in France as a chemist
in the field, and is now superintendent of the
department of technology in the City and Guilds
of London Institute.
Vol. XXXIX.. No. 19.1
REVIEW.
Dr. J. Newton Friend has been appointed head
of the chemistry department of the Municipal
Technical School, Birmingham, in succession to
Dr. 1 . Slater Price.
Dr. E. K. Rideal. who has been " visiting " pro-
fessor of chemistry in the University of Illinois
during the past year, has been elected to a fellow-
ship at Trinity Hall, Cambridge.
Mr. T. D. Owen, a leading Welsh metallurgist,
has given £10,000 to the University College of
Ninth Wales for the establishment of a chair of
electrical engineering and hydro-electrics.
The sum of £2000 has been given by Mr. W. J.
Matheson, of New York, towards the foundation of
a bursary or bursaries for students taking Honours
in chemistry at United College, St. Andrews.
The chair of aeronautical science at the R.A.F.
Cadet College, Cranwell, has been filled by the
appointment of Dr. O. S. Sinnatt, lecturer in
mechanical engineering at King's College, London.
.Mi. John Gray has resigned the viee-ehairnian-
ship of Lever Brothers, Ltd., and assumed the
chairmanship of the two associated companies, Wil-
liam Gossage and Sons, Ltd., and John Knight,
Ltd. The chairman and directors of the first-named
company entertained Mr. and Mrs. Gray at dinner
on September 23, and presented Mr. Gray with a
gift of silver in recognition of his services.
Prof. F. Knoop, of Freiburg, has been elected to
the chair of physiological chemistry in the Univer-
sity of Leipzig, and Dr. H. Matthes to the ordinary
professorship of pharmacy in the University of
Konigsberg. Dr. F. Ehrlich and Dr. J. Meyer have
been appointed ordinary professors of biochemistry
and chemistry, respectively, at the University of
Breslau. and Drs. E. Ebler and K. Mannich ordin-
ary professors of inorganic and analytical, and
pharmaceutical chemistry, respectively, at Frank-
fort University.
Dr. H. N. Morse, professor of inorganic and
analytical chemistry at John Hopkins University,
U.S.A.. died recently in his 72nd year.
Prof. Italo Giglioli, professor of agricultural
chemistry in the University of Pisa, and formerly
chief of the Bureau of Agricultural Intelligence of
the International Institute of Agriculture, Rome,
died on October 1.
The death is announced of F. P. E. de Lalande,
whose name is connected with the development of
the technical use of hydrosulphites, and who is
stated to have been the first to prepare purpurin
by the oxidation of alizarin with manganese dioxide
and sulphuric acid.
W« record with regret the death at New York
of Mr. R. W. Moore on July 31 at the age of 58.
Mr. Moore joined this Society in 1899, and from
1898 to 1910 was head chemist to the United States'
Customs Service, after which he was engaged in
industrial practice.
Mr. D. H. Nagel, who died on September 27 at
the age of 57, was trained at Aberdeen University,
and after serving as assistant to Prof. H. B. Dixon
and Sir John Conroy at Manchester, proceeded to
Oxford, where he devoted himself to the teaching
of chemistry and to administrative work. As head
of the laboratory shared by Trinity and Balliol Col-
leges for nearly 20 years, he was responsible for
the training of a large number of Oxford students,
mainly in physical chemistry, and his wide experi-
ence of the natural sciences joined with a tactful
and sympathetic temperament made him an invalu-
able member and chairman of the Board of Faculty
of Natural Science and of many other academic
bodies with which he was associated.
NEWS AND NOTES.
UNITED STATES.
Rubber from Candleweed.— A plant in Arizona is
producing a ton of crude rubber per day from the
oeotillo, or candleweed, which grows wild in great
abundance in that part of the country. One ton of
the weed yields 200 lb. of gum and 90 lb. of a mar-
ketable tarry substance. The gum is said to lend
itself well to vulcanisation and to be suited for the
various uses to which rubber is put.
Selenium Oxychloride.— The Committee of the
National Research Council interested in finding
commercial uses for selenium and tellurium has re-
ported that Prof. V. Lenher, of the University of
Wisconsin, has found selium oxychloride to be
an excellent solvent for organic substances. At
present more than twenty research workers are in-
vestigating the possibility of large-scale manufac-
ture and studying its physical and chemical pro-
perties.
Evaporation Losses of Crude Petroleum. — The
Bureau of Mines reports that the evaporation of
crude oil during the few days when it is stored at
or near the wells before being taken by the pipe-line
causes an aggregate loss per year of about
122,100,000 gallons of gasoline in the American
mid-continental field alone This represents about
3 per cent, of the total gasoline production in the
United States from all fields and from all sources,
and no doubt constitutes one of the largest single
losses to which the oil is subjected.
Denatured Alcohol. — Hitherto the so-called No. 1
formula in which wood alcohol is used has been the
favoured one for denaturing ethyl alcohol. At the
present time there is an unusual demand for
formaldehyde for use in treating grain for smut,
and the diversion of large quantities of wood alcohol
to the manufacture of formaldehyde has led to the
suspension of the old denaturing formula. The
formula which will probably be favoured in the im-
mediate future provides for the use of benzol,
nitrobenzene, and steam-distilled pine oil. The
Treasury Department has recently published Regu-
lation No. 61, in which various approved formula?
are given.
Evaporation Research Laboratory. — The University
of Michigan has instituted for the investigation of
evaporation a laboratory equipped with vertical,
horizontal, semi-film evaporators, and miscel-
laneous equipment. The work to be conducted falls
into two classes, the first being purely theoretical
investigations into the principles of evaporator
design, and the second the solution of concrete
problems, such as the development of a particular
process or the evaporation of particular solutions.
As an example of the latter may be mentioned the
production of high-grade table salt from dilute
brine carrying larger amounts of calcium and mag-
nesium chloride than is considered practical in
ordinary salt manufacture. It is intended to carry
out on a semi-commercial scale tests of processes
which have been proved in the laboratory.
Briquetting of Oklahoma Coals. — Experiments have
recently been completed at the University of Okla-
homa on the briquetting of Oklahoma coals to
render them satisfactory as a domestic and indus-
trial fuel. An asphalt binder with penetration 20
and melting point 160° F. was employed, and both
washed and unwashed coal were made up into
briquettes after a series of experiments with various
pressures, other binders, and a consideration of
other variables. It was found that washing in-
creased the calorific value from 10,543 to 12,570
B.Th.U., i.e., about 20 per cent. Temperature and
REVIEW.
[Oct. 15. 1920.
moisture were also varied throughout the tests, the i
moisture content ranging from 3 to 10 per cent. As
a result of the work it was shown beyond doubt that
the Oklahoma soft coal can be successfully
briquetted to form a clean domestic fuel that will
stand rough usage and which will doubtless be satis-
factory in industrial use.
American Chemical Society. — At the 60th general
meeting, held in Chicago on September 7 — 11 last.
it was resolved to raise the annual subscription of
members from $ 10 to $15 (about £4 5s. at current
rate of exchange). The subscription for students
and graduates will be $10, but only $6 for those
who wish to receive only one of the three publica-
tions issued by the Society.
Aeroplane Propellers. — Recent tests with pro-
pellers made of sheets of duck coated with
" bakelite " (the condensation product of phenol
and formaldehyde) showed that the material pos-
sessed a number of useful properties, including
uniformity of texture, absence of warping, elas-
ticity, moisture-proof, oil-proof, freedom from
checking and splitting, and uniformity of all pro-
pellers made from the same mould. The propellers
were made by pressing together five or six coated
sheets to form a board, which was then shaped with
a saw and finally moulded under pressure at 350° F. ,
Strontium in 1918. — The chief use of strontium
compounds in the United States prior to the war
was in the manufacture of red fire in pyrotechnics,
but during the war they were employed in night
signals for military, naval, and transport purposes.
Whereas 2000 short tons of crude was sufficient to
meet the annual requirements before the war, it is
estimated that about 4000 tons was used in 1918.
Prior to 1915 the home deposits of ore had only
been mined in a few places and in very small quanti-
ties. No ore at all was mined in 1915, but 250
short tons was mined in 1916 and no less than
4305 tons in 1917. The 1918 production of ore was
only 400 tons of strontianite, which commanded a
price of about $50 per ton. The manufacture of
strontium salts, on the other hand, was greatly in-
creased, the manufacturing plants evidently using
stocks of both foreign and domestic crude ore pur-
chased in previous years. The production of stron-
tium nitrate, carbonate, chloride, and oxalate in
1916 was 2,006,000 lb. ; in 1917, 2,499,676 lb. ; and in
1918, 4,927,000 lb.— (U.S. Geol. Surv., Mar. 30,
1920.)
Asbestos in 1918. — The asbestos mined and sold in
the United States in 1918 amounted to 802 short i
tons, valued at $121,687, which is about 48 per cent,
of the quantity and 24 per cent, of the value of the
product marketed in 1917. Not being classed as a
war mineral, the production was hampered by
scarcity of labour and restraints of trade.
The United States is the world's largest manu-
facturer of objects made of asbestos. The total
imports of unmanufactured asbestos in 1918
amounted to 137,700 6hort tons, of which nearly 98
per cent, came from Canada and the remaining 2 ■
per cent, came chiefly from South Africa. The im-
ports from Canada constituted about 95 per cent, of
the total asbestos mined and sold in Canada in 1918,
which amounted to 141,462 short tons. The total
output for South Africa during 1918 amounted to
12,248 short tons.
It is interesting to note that Canada has fur-
nished for many years the larger part of the world's
supply of asbestos. It is wholly chrysotile asbestos.
Russia has for many years ranked next to Canada
in the production of asbestos from similar deposits,
but has lately lost its rank to South Africa, where
asbestos occurs in greater variety, viz., chrysotile,
crocidolite, and amosite. Considerable deposits of
asbestos have been reported and to some extent
worked in Australia, Italy, Mongolia, New Zea- '
land, Tasmania, the Philippine Islands, Cyprus,
India, and Japan, but in general these countries
supply but a small part of the asbestos of the world.
(U.S. Geol. Surv., Mar. 20, 1920.)
FRANCE.
Industrial Notes. — Metallurgy.— In the first six
months of 1920, 1,973,400 metric tons of iron ore
was exported, Germany taking 673,026 t., Belgium
604,129 t., and Great Britain and other countries
696,258 t. Prices show a great increase ; the Briey
ore, for example, is now selling at 25 francs a ton,,
compared with 5—6 fr. in 1913. Of the 148 blast
furnaces in eastern France, 67 are in operation with
a daily yield of 10,858 t. ; in the Longwy and Nancy
districts the output is 4948 t., or about 52 per cent,
of that on July 1, 1914.
Coal. — Thanks to the due arrival of the promised
supplies from Germany, the coal situation is show-
ing a great improvement, and much credit is due to-
the railway companies for having transported more
than half the German consignments with prompti-
tude and efficiency. There will be no control of the
distribution of imported American coal except as
regards such quantities which have been earmarked
to make good the deficiency arising from the
diminished importation from England.
Chemical Industry. — The market for chemical
products is showing a slight improvement, and
there are some indications of renewed activity.
Production, however, is still below the mark, par-
ticularly in regard to dyewares. Great activity is
apparent in the manufacture of cellulose acetate
and of various other organic products. " La Societe
Anonyme des Procedes Biochimiques Pierre Maze "
(23, Rue du Pont-Neuf, Paris) has been formed,
with a capital of 1£ million francs, to produce lactic
acid by fermentation, which will be sold by "La
Societe Francaise des Laboratoires de Produits
Organiques " (1. Rue Gretry, Paris), with a capital
of 500,000 fr. The ceramic industry is also making
good progress, and two new companies, " La Com-
pagnie Francaise des Produits Ceramiques " and
" La Societe Anonyme de la Ceramique Francaise "
(capital 2,500,000 fr.) have recently been estab-
lished.
Petroleum. — A course of lectures on petroleum
will be held in the University of Strasbourg, which
will extend over twelve months and be conducted in
conjunction with an optional course of practical
training at Pechelbronn.
Sugar. — The price of sugar in Paris has risen
from 3'45 fr. to 557 — 6'00 fr. per kg. since its sale
has been decontrolled. The consumption in France
is estimated at 750,000 t., and as the combined pro-
duction of France and colonies will be about 520,000
t., and 100,000 t. will have to be exported to the
non-producing areas of the Empire, it follows that
some 330,000 t. will have to be imported. There
should be no difficulty in obtaining this amount
from non-European sources, though perhaps some
will be obtainable from Czecho-Slovakia, where
there is an estimated surplus of 400,000 t.
Resources of Senegal. — Some of the natural re-
sources and products of Senegal are being exploited
to a certain extent. The only minerals that are
regularly worked are gold and salt; the former
occurs in the Faleme valley, and the output is
valued at some 600.000 fr. : the latter is obtained
from salt lakes in Lower Senegal, and as the output
is insufficient to meet the local demand, a certain
amount of salt has been extracted from sea-water.
About 700 tons of the titanium ore, ilmenite, was
extracted from the sands on the Rufisque coast.
The chief crop and source of wealth in the
country is groundnuts, the production of which
amounted to 234,884 metric tons in 1918 and 222,523
tons in 1919, the 1920 crop being estimated at
Vol. XXXIX.. No. 19.)
REVIEW.
839 s
275,000 t. In 1918 the exports included 2032 t. of
hides and 1607 t. of palm kernels from Kazamanza.
The production of kapok, gum. and rubber could be
greatly increased. Large areas are covered with a
species of palm tree and with baobobs : the fruit of
the former could be used as imitation ivory, whilst
the fibres and bark of the latter could be utilised
for the production of cellulose pulp and alcohol,
respectively.— (Be v . Prod. Chim., June 30, 1920.)
AUSTRALIA.
The Oil Agreement Act. 1920. — In order to create
and develop a mineral oil refining industry in Aus-
tralia, an agreement has been made between the
Commonwealth Government and the Anglo-Persian
Oil Co. by which the latter has arranged to erect
a refinery in Australia and to supply the Common-
wealth with 200,000 tons of crude oil per annum
until oil is found in Australia or other territories
of the Commonwealth. The distribution of capital
between the refinery company and the Government
is so arranged that the latter will always have a
majority in number and value of shares. No action
affecting the constitution or independence of the
company or the disposal of refined products is to be
taken without the Government's consent. The
Government agrees to prevent unfair import com-
petition, to refund customs duties paid by the com-
pany on crude mineral oil refined in Australia,
and to introduce legislation for the imposition of
customs duties on crude mineral oil whenever
necessary to stop unfair competition. The Common-
wealth has the option of purchasing the whole of
the oil company's interests in the refinery com-
pany at the end of 15 years from the completion of
the first refinery, or within one month of the oil
company being liquidated.
Boring operations in Papua are to he placed in
charge of the company, and financed out of the sum
of £100.000 to be contributed by the Imperial and
Commonwealth Governments. — (Bd. of Trade J.,
Sept. 16. 1920.)
Mineral Production of New South Wales in 1919. —
According to the Annual Report of the Department
of Mines of New South Wales, the value of the
mineral production for 1919 was £9,882.366 (the
lowest since 1911). as against £14.419,352 for 1918.
the highest recorded in the history of the State.
Over 90 per cent, of the decrease was due to the
suspended production of silver, lead, and zinc at the
Broken Hill mines. The production of coal was
*. 631.554 t., i.e., 431,622 t. less than in 1918. It is
6tated that the output per person employed is
rather more than double that for Great Britain,
largely owing to thicker seams. The coal trade of
the State has good prospects in view of the world
shortage. The quantitv of coke produced was
424,773 t., as against 608,492 t. in the previous
year. It is evident that the small coal is being
turned to better account and not wasted or used for
road-making. The Western District was the only
producer of oil shale during the past year, the
output being 25,453 t.
The output of silver, lead, and zinc, including
ore and concentrates not smelted in the State,
was r— Silver, 1,232,710 oz. fine; lead, 11,497 t. ;
silver-lead concentrates, 64,243 t. : carbonate ore,
13.746 t.; zinc concentrates, 72.294 t. Copper was
produced to the value of £139,296 (£696,580 in
191R1. the decrease being due mainly to the collapse
of the market and the shipping strike. The out-
put of tin was valued at £416,623, compared with
£548.876 in 1918.
The production of other minerals in 1919 in-
cluded : — Antimony, 86.75 t. (metal content) ; bis-
muth metal and concentrates, 19'5 t. (31 t. in
1918); gold. 65.839 oz. fine (87,445 oz. in 1918):
platinum, 213-25 oz. (chiefly from the Fifield
Division); molybdenite, 658 t. ; 6cheelite, 80 t. ;
wolfram, 135 t. The whole of the alunite pro-
duced— 2485 t. — was obtained by the Australian
Alum Co. in the Bullahdelah Division.
SOUTH AFRICA.
Industrial Progress. — In his presidential address to
the Annual Convention of the South African Feder-
ated Chamber of Industries, Mr. G. E. Saunders
stated that the value of the industrial output of
the Union in 1918 showed an increase of £20,000,000
compared with that in 1915-16, and the annual total
must now be considerably over £61,000,000. These
figures did not include the output of the mines,
which was valued at £48,000,000. One of the most
important industries in the country was sugar, and
the new season's crop, estimated at 170,000 tons,
afforded evidence of remarkable progress. The
leather industry had also developed greatly, and
leather had been exported to the United Kingdom
market, where it was reported to be equal to the
best Australian leather. Developments had taken
place in the textile industry, and attention was
being paid to the commercial utilisation of wild
jute (Hibiscus cannatiinus), \ hich grew wild in
many parts of the Union. About 250.000 acres was
under wattle in Natal. Among new industries
which had recently been established in the country
were aluminium, argol and cream of tartar, am-
monia, asbestos-cement, patent fuel, dextrin,
gluten, lanolin, mica goods, rubber, tartaric acid,
and these would probably be supplemented in the
near future by white lead, acetic acid, dyes, and
paper pulp. — (S. African J. Ind., July, 1920.)
CANADA.
Mineral Output of British Columbia in 1919. —
According to the Annual Report of the Minister of
Mines (Columbia) for 1919, the mineral prodution
of the province, valued at $33. 296,313, showed a
decrease of about 20 per cent, over 1919, but this
decline is without significance since the 1919 pro-
duction was almost a record one, and the even
larger productions of the years 1916-17-18 were
due to the war. Generally, the outlook for
1920 is most reassuring. The opening of new
camps in the Portland Canal district has been the
outstanding event of the past few months, and
there is no doubt that this district will be subjected
to extensive prospecting and development this year.
The lead produced in 1919 amounted to
29,475,9681b., valued at $1,526,855, compared with
14,423,693 lb., worth $1,401,252, in 1918. The
output of copper was 42,459.339 lb., worth
$7,939,896, which was 19,024,415 lb. lower than in
1918, and 47 per cent, less in value. The zinc pro-
duction was 56.737,651 lb., compared with
41,772,916 lb. in 1918; its value, $3,540,429, repre-
sented an increase of about 22 per cent, over that
for 1918. The only output of platinum reported
during 1919 was about $1500 worth from the Simil-
kameen District. About 600 tons of manganese
ore, containing ever 50 per cent, manganese and
less than 20 per cent, silica, was shipped from the
Cowichan District, and about 100 tons of high-
grade ore from Kaslo. About 5000 tons of fluor-
spar was produced in the Grand Forks Division and
120 tons of magnesium sulphate in the Osoyoos
Division. Seven hundred and fifty tons of this
mineral was shipped from deposits near Clinton,
and 140 tons from near Basque. Deposits of hydro-
magnesite in the Clinton Division, which are re-
ported to be large and of great purity, have
attracted considerable attention during the past
year. A production of arsenic valued at $21,000
was made by the Nickel Plate Mine during 1919.
The gross production of coal in 1919 was 2,408,948
lonrr tons, of which 141,407 tons was made into
coke.
REVIEW.
GENERAL.
University of Cambridge. — The recent extensions to
the metallurgical department, which have been
made with the generous assistance of the Gold-
smiths' Company, were formally opened on
October 5 by Mr.' R. M, Tabor, Prime Warden of
the Company. The new laboratories, which will be
under the direction of Mr. C. T. Heycock, the
University reader in metallurgy, include rooms for
analytical and general metallurgy, gold and silver
assaying, pyroinetric and metallographic research,
and a balance-room.
University of Birmingham. — The Council and
Senate of the University are appealing for £500,000
in order to make extensions to meet the ever-
increasing number of students, particularly in the
faculty of applied science. The Chemistry Depart-
ment has been removed from Mason College to a
site at Bournbrook, where army huts have been
erected to serve as temporary laboratories, etc.
Speaking at Birmingham on October 8, Mr.
Austen Chamberlain said that the Government pro-
posed to increase the grant in aid of university
education from £1,000,000 to £1,500,000 for a term
of years.
Research in Malleable Cast Iron. — The British Grey
and Malleable Cast Iron Research Association was
formally established at a meeting held in Birming-
ham on September 30, and a provisional council
was appointed with Mr. T. Vickers (Lincoln's Inn.
Birmingham) as secretary. In explaining the ob-
jects of the Association, Sir Frank Heath referred
to the success of research institutions in the United
States, and said it was claimed that malleable cast-
ings could be made there with a tensile strength
50 per cent, greater than was possible in this
country. If true, that was a serioiis matter.
Ammonium Sulphate as a Weed Killer. — Experi-
ments in Worcestershire have led to the conclusion
that under certain circumstances a solution of sul-
phate of ammonia can be used with advantage as a
weed killer. Three strengths of solution were used,
viz., 1 cwt., 1% cwt., and 2 cwt., respectively, in 60
galls, of water per acre, and in the case of the corn
buttercup (Ranunculus arvensis) the strongest solu-
tion killed 75 and crippled 20 per cent., the medium
solution killed 50 and crippled 20 per cent., whilst
the weakest solution had little effect save as a fer-
tiliser. The solution made in this way from com-
mercial sulphate of ammonia will also kill the weed
known as spurrey (Spergula arvensis), but it is
pointed out that the remedy should only be used on
weeds in cereal crops and in fine weather. —
(Official.)
Magnesite (1913—1919). (Imperial Mineral He-
sources Bureau, pp. 42. price \s. 3d.). — The world's
supplies of magnesite before the war were drawn
chiefly from Austria-Hungary and Greece. The ex-
ports of the former were of refractory or sintered
magnesia (obtained by calcining at high tempera-
tures), and those from Greece of raw magnesite and
lightly-calcined or caustic magnesia for use in the
manufacture of oxyehloride cement. During the
war the loss of exports from the enemy countries
was compensated for by a remarkable increase in
the American and Canadian production.
In 1918 the production of the United States
amounted to 210,168 metric tons, but fell to 147,005
tons in 1919; the Canadian production showed an
even greater decline from 46,489 tons to 9020 tons.
The British Empire production rose from about
4J per cent, of the world's output to about 15 per
cent, in 1918. The imports into the United King-
dom of magnesite for 1917 and 1918 are given by
the Ministry of Munitions as equivalent to 95.045
tons valued at £73.943 and 43,672 tons valued at
£21,024, respective! v.
Apart from the use of magnesia as a refractory
and as a cement, large amounts of caustic magnesia
have been made into magnesium bisulphite for use
in the manufacture of paper from wood pulp.
Magnesite also has a use in the manufacture of
carbon dioxide. The early efforts of British mag-
nesia-brick manufacturers to substitute Grecian for
Austrian sinter during the war were unsuccessful,
but towards the close they were confident that they
would be able to produce bricks from Grecian sinter
that would defy the competition of bricks made
from the Austrian product. Arrangements have
been made for the supply of Grecian magnesite to
manufacturers in Great Britain, and it is expected
that British manufacturers will take advantage of
the experience gained during the war.
The kilns used in Greece for calcining the raw
magnesite are large gas-fired shaft kilns. Various
improvements have been introduced in recent years.
such as Morgan gas generators, pressure and ex-
haust fans, and Steiger kilns. Experiments made
with rotary kilns of the Fellner and Ziegler type did
not meet with great success. The latest type of
sintering kiln requires about 46 cwts. of coal per
ton of sinter produced, the old type of bottle kiln
requiring 6 to 7 cwts. per ton.
Much useful information is given concerning the
minerals of economic importance and the proper-
ties and analyses of calcined and raw magnesite.
Hydro-electric Developments in . Switzerland. — There
is a tendency in Switzerland towards increasing the
number of artificial lakes in order to secure a re-
serve of water power to meet the increasing demand
for cheaper electric power. The Swiss Hydro-
Economic Union estimates the total energy output
of Swiss power stations at about 1"2 to 1'3 milliard
kw. hrs., or about 300 kw. hrs. per inhabitant per
year ; it has recently published a general scheme of
exploitation involving an annual production of 2
to 3 milliard kw. hrs. A new power station, with
an output of 50,000 h.p. was completed near Alten-
Goesgen in 1917; the power station of Eglisau, with
an output of 30,000 horse-power, is on the point of
completion, and a station at Muhlberg on the
Aare, having an output of 32,000 horse-power, will
be finished this autumn. Power stations are also
under construction at Ritom, Barberine and
Am Steg, and further development of already exist-
ing hydro-electric establishments are contemplated
at Oberhasle, Rossens, La Plaine, and near
Wildegg. The more satisfactory distribution and
utilisation of available supplies are being con-
sidered by a number of societies, of which the two
principal have headquarters at Lausanne and
Berne respectively. The power of the Swiss water
resources still available is estimated at about 20
milliard kw. hrs. per annum, which would be amply
sufficient for the entire electrification of the
country. Up to the end of 1918 twenty-seven con-
cessions for export of electric current had been
granted. The exported energy amounted to about
132,000 h.p., the countries supplied being Germany,
Italy, and France.— (Bd. of Trade J., Sept. 9, 1920.)
The Italian Paper Industry.— The Italian paper
industry owes its development to the use of water
power. Most of the mills are situated in the three
northern provinces, and of 133 mills existent in
1914, 25 can produce their own pulp, 10 manufac-
ture pulp or cardboard, and 11 produce exclusively
high-class papers. Before the war nearly 80 per
cent, of the wood pulp used was imported from
Germany and Austria. The entrance of Italy into
the war closed this source of supply, and with the
difficulties of sea transportation almost insuper-
able, Italian paper mills found themselves in a
serious position. Imports of paper stock fell from
97,648 metric tons in 1914 to 30,563 t. in 1917.
Attention has naturally turned to increasing
home production. Straw has been more extensively
«M. xxxix, so. 19.;
REVIEW.
Used, whilst poplar trees, which grow rapidly and
give a good pulp, have been planted in large
numbers. Even so, it is only by continual imports
that a sufficient supply can be obtained. In 1917
the Italian Government assumed control of the
paper industry to ensure an adequate supply of
newsprint paper. Manufacturers were compelled
to produce a specified quantity of newsprint per
mouth at a definite maximum price, and a charge
was mad.' on every ton of paper produced other
than newsprint. The revenue from the latter
was utilised in reducing the price of newsprint.
These war-time restrictions are still in force, and
the shortage of paper continues very pronounced.
The specialities of the Italian paper industry are
cigarette paper, hand-made and imitation hand-
made paper, and straw wrappings. — (U.S. Com.
Hep.. July 23, 1920.)
Reorganisation of Chemical Societies in Germany. —
The " Emil Fischer Society " was founded on June
15 last for the encouragement of chemical research.
It is taking the place of the " Verein zur Forderung
Chemischer Forschung," a society founded prior
to the war, and which, in conjunction with the
"Kaiser Wilhelm-Gesellschaft zur Forderung der
Wissenschaften," organised the formation of the
" Kaiser Wilhehn Institut fur Chemie." which has
been unable to continue owing to lack of funds.
On June 16 another new organisation, the
" Adolph Baeyer Society" was founded with the
object of securing the continuance of the publica-
tions of the German Chemical Societv. which in-
clude: (1) The "Berichte"; (2) Chemisches Zen-
tralblatt; (3) General Index to Berichte and
Zentralblatt : (4) " Beilstein " ; (5) Supplementary
volumes to "Beilstein "; (6) the "Lexicon of In-
organic Compounds " ; and (7) the " Literatur-
Register " of Organic Chemistry. The cost of pre-
paring and issuing these publications, which are
held to constitute the very foundation of chemical
science and industry, is now exceedingly heavy.
and the raising of adequate capital to ensure their
future is considered imperative. Although valu-
able contributions have been intimated, and many
existing societies have joined the Adolph Baeyer
Society, a great deal still remains to be done.
The technical-scientific section of the Union of
German Ceramic Trades (Verband keramiseher
Gewerbe in Deutschland), which was founded in
1913. has now been changed into the German
Ceramic Society (Deutsche Keramische Gesell-
schaft). A special feature of the policy of the new
society will be to foster close co-operation between
scientific and State institutions and all branches of
the ceramic industry. The Government Porcelain
Factory in Berlin and the corresponding Experi-
mental Station at Charlottenburg have definitely
promised support, and other institutions will un-
doubtedly follow their lead.
It has recently been decided to establish a re-
search institute for the German cement industrv. —
(Z. angew. Chem., Aug. 27, 1920.)
Swedish Sulphite Cellulose Industry.— The produc-
tion, which had fallen from 771,302 metric tons in
1916 to 476,307 t. in 1918, has now risen to 581,167
t., which represents 69 per cent, of the normal.
The demand for sulphite cellulose, especially on
the part of British paper manufacturers, is good.
The increased demand may be partly accounted
for by the total absence of the Canadian supplv.
which is being whollv absorbed by the United States
market.— (Z. angew. Chem., Sept. 3. 1920.)
The Mineral Resources ol Armenia. — The mining
industry of Russian Armenia is represented by 22
companies, working deposits of copper ore, rock
salt, and iron pyrites. The average annual pro-
duction from 1911 to 1913 was 154,900 metric tons
of copper ore from 13 mines, 10,000 t. of iron
pyrites (4 mines), 25.400 t. of rock salt (5 mines).
and 6614 t. of metallic copper was produced by 7
smelters. The output of rock salt and iron pyrites
represented the whole production of Transcaucasia
and the production of copper amounted to 20 per
cent, of the total for Russia. Among other
minerals that occur in Armenia are lead and silver,
gold, zinc, molybdenum, antimony, cobalt, man-
ganese, chromium, arsenic, and coal ; there are six
oil wells, six salt springs, and deposits of barytes.
phosphates, asbestos, etc. — (l-S. Com. Rep., July 8,
1920.)
Motor Alcohol in Hawaii. — Progress is being made
in Hawaii in the production of alcohol from molasses
and the waste of pineapple canneries. The amount
of waste molasses produced there in a year is about
135,000 tons, a quantity which, it is stated, would
yield some nine million gallons of motor fuel when
treated by the new Foster process. A company has
been formed to take over the patent rights of the
latter, and it is hoped that sufficient power alcohol
will be produced on the island to render unneces-
sary the importation of gasoline. — (U.S. Com. Sep..
July 2, 1920.)
New Sugar Industry in Honduras. — A sugar in-
dustry is about to be initiated in Honduras. One
company will grow the sugar-cane, a second will
prepare it for shipment, and a third will provide for
its transport to the United States. Another com-
pany, with a capital of £400,000, will instal a sugar
mill designed initially to crush 1500 tons of cane
per 24 hours, but capable of being extended to treat
6000 tons. The company which will grow the cane
owns 30,000 acres of land between the Chamelecon
and Ulna rivers, two-thirds of which is admirably
suited to the crop. The centre of the industry will
be at Lima, which will be joined up to the National
Railway— (U.S. Com. Hep.. July I. 1920.)
CORRESPONDENCE.
RAIL CONVEYANCE OF CHEMICAL
COMMODITIES.
Sir, — I have read Mr. Lukes' paper in your issue
of September 30 with some interest and some mis-
giving. He is interested in the coal-tar branch
of chemistry, and seeks to wrest something from
the present state of flux into which the war has
thrown British railways ; but others have to con-
sider what the effects of adopting his suggestions
would tie on other branches of our industry. It is
clear from what one has read that railways have
to become self-supporting; they must charge such
dues as will bring them in sufficient to pay their
costs, interest on their capital, and a dividend.
If we assume this to be represented by 100, and if
the commodities dealt with be 100, one commodity
would pay 1 / 100 of the revenue if it were spread
evenly and the quantities were equal. There
appear, however, to be good reasons why the spread
of the revenue should not be even, as sand obviously
cannot pay what drapery can pay ; but it should be
fair. It is here that I find fault with Mr. Lukes'
presentation of the case; he quotes oils as in Cla^s C
and petrol as in Class 2,' and alleges that the differ-
ence between Class C and Class 2 rates is for the
difference in risk; but I understand that this is
not so. Petrol has a much higher price than cotton
oil or whale oil, and a great part of that difference
is due to the different values of the two. Does Mr.
Lukes seriously think that the difference between
the rates charged on sand and drapery is due solely
to risk with the one not present with the other?
Personally I cannot see "any good reason why petrol
should not pay twice as much carriage as whale oil ;
it can so much better stand it. The spread of the
REVIEW.
[Oct. 15. 1920.
rates, I have said, should be fair; and as all busi-
nesses have been built on a certain spread which
has existed many years, it can be fairly presumed
that the spread has gravitated to something
approaching all-round fairness. Mr. Lukes' sugges-
tions upset all this and seek to pull down the trans-
port costs of expensive distillates, but — and this is of
the utmost importance — who is going to pay more
that his branch of the trade may get off for less?
It is certain that the revenue must be found by
some one or more groups ; and why should bleaching
chemicals, for instance, be pushed up in order that
petrol may come down ? It is of no use to reply that
bleaching chemicals need not go up; they might;
something would have to go up, and if it were not
bleaching chemicals, it would be something else.
By all means let us have such adjustments as we
can reasonably obtain, but I am old enough to
remember the shock of 1893, when a disturbance
of railway rates, which we fondly hoped would lead
to cheaper transport, produced a chaos that re-
sulted in an all-round advance of about 5 per
cent., and thus restored the old balance of things
and left the spread of the burden where it was
before. — I am, Sir, etc.,
John Bullock .
London, Oct. 1, 1920.
Sir, — In the above letter, Mr. J. Bullock accuses
me of seeking to wrest some improper advantage
for what he terms " expensive distillates," and the
specific point on which he finds fault with my re-
presentation of the case is that I place the differ-
ence in carriage between non-dangerous oils in
Class C and dangerous oils (petrol and benzol) in
Class 2 as a premium charged by the railway com-
pany to cover the risk. He says the difference in
charge is not to cover risk, and suggests that the
value is the determining factor. One would like
to ask in what way the value of a liquid conveyed
in owner's tank wagons affects the railway com-
panies when carried at the sole risk of the trader?
(Incidentally it may be mentioned that in America,
benzol, naphtha, cottonseed oil. castor oil, etc., are
carried in the same class in tank cars, and the cost
in this country of conveying a tank of non-
dangerous oil is the same as that of conveying a
tank of dangerous oil between the same points.)
To substantiate his case re values, he mentions
cotton oil and whale oil, and says that petrol should
pay twice as much carriage as whale oil because " it
can stand it so much better." These oils are. how-
ever, more expensive than petrol or benzol, the fol-
lowing being the current prices : —
Whale oil . . £78 per ton All chargeable as oils not
Cottonseed oil . . £76 ., ., dangerous. Class C. in owner's
Linseed oil . . £80 „ ., tank wagons.
Rapeseed oil . . £88 „ ,,
Petrol or Benzol . . £56 „ „ Chargeable Class 2. in owner's
tank wagons.
Oils, dangerous and non-dangerous, conveyed in
tank wagons, are fairly comparable traffics, but
sand and drapery, referred to by Mr. Bullock, are
not comparable, the conditions under which they
are conveyed being quite different; and if the
classification is to depend on values, why should
petrol or benzol at a value of £56 per ton be
charged in the same class as confectionery at £560
per ton, whilst cloth in bales in Class 3 varies from
£900 to £3120 per ton?
Mr. Bullock considers that businesses have been
built up on a certain spread of rates, and thinks
that the result has been fairly equitable. That the
Minister of Transport does not share this view is
proved by the following extracts from his Statement
as to Railways, 1920 (Command Paper 654, p. 5) : —
" Rates. — Having completed their inquiry into
the temporary increase of rates necessary to restore
the financial equilibrium of the railways, the Rates
Advisory Committee are now embarking upon the
larger and more important question of a thorough
and scientific revision of the basis of railway rates
and charges. Such a revision is overdue both in
the interests of the traders and the railways.
" The present Parliamentary classification of
goods for the purpose of conveyance charges is at
least 30 years old, and although an endeavour is
made to keep the working classification up to date,
there are undoubtedly certain anomalies owing to
changed conditions of trade, new uses of materials,
etc.
" In originally determining the class, it is evi-
dent that the value of the goods was largely
taken into consideration, and although this should
probably enter into the question, it is for con-
sideration whether more weight should not be given
to the cost of the service and the conditions under
which the traffic is conveyed as to quantity, bulk,
regularity of flow, method of packing, etc.
" Class rates have been provided for the various
classes on a more or less uniform scale throughout
the country, but not more than 25 per cent, of the
total business is carried at these class rates, the
remainder being carried at what are known as ' ex-
ceptional ' rates, which are lower than the class
rates. These exceptional rates are really specific
rates for a certain commodity between a pair of
stations (sometimes for specific quantities), and in
framing them a variety of considerations have been
taken into account, such as the risk of loss or
damage, the method of packing, the quantities in
which the commodity moves, .... etc.
" The general result has been that a most com-
plex system of varying rates has been built up,
there being probably hundreds of millions of
different rates on the railway companies' books,
with inevitable anomalies.
" At all recent inquiries into railway matters
there has been considerable agitation on the part
of the traders to have the cost of cartage eliminated
from the rates. There are also objections to the
present practice from the railway companies' point
of view, and these have been particularly empha-
sised in recent years owing to the fact that the cost
of cartage has increased out of all relation to other
railway costs. . . . Other anomalies arise from
different causes, and it will be evident that a re-
classification and simplification is most desirable."
(The italics are mine.)
Although value may have some bearing on classi-
fication, the cost of the service to the railway com-
pany is. in my opinion, the first consideration.
The shock of 1893, which Mr. Bullock so well re-
members, did not leave the old balance of things
as it stood prior to that date ; schedules to the
Orders Confirmation Acts of 1891 — 1892 set out a
new classification of merchandise, which consider-
ably altered the charges previously applicable to
many articles of commerce; and it is significant
that at that time practically no provision was made
for the conveyance of traffics in owner's tank
wagons; but thirty years have passed, and during
that time the railway companies have decided
whether they will convey dangerous goods, deter-
mined the charges and conditions applicable, etc.,
whereas the charges for whale oil. cottonseed oil.
sand, and drapery were set up by an impartial
tribunal — even at that date.
Whether Mr. Bullock desires the present condi-
tions to remain or not is immaterial ; the Minister
of Transport has sent a Reference to the Rates
Advisory Committee to inquire into and recommend
a general revision, and all that I am asking for is
that sand, drapery, whale oil, cottonseed oil, petrol,
benzol, and goods of every description should be
fairly classified by an impartial business tribunal.
— I am, Sir, etc.,
J. Lukes.
Leeds, Oct. 8, 1920.
Vol. XX XIX.. No. 19.)
REVIEW.
REPORTS.
Report of the Committee of the Privy Council
for Scientific ano Industrial Research, 1919
1920. Pp. 120. London: H.3I. Stationery
Office. 1920. [Cmrf. 905. Is.]
The fifth annual report of the Advisory Council to
the Committee of the Privy Council covers the
period August 1, 1919 — July 31, 1920, and includes
a review of the live years' work. The subject
matter relates to : — I. The encouragement of the
individual research worker; II. The organisation
of national industry into co-operative research
associations; III. The direction of research for
national purposes; and TV. The aiding of suitable
researches undertaken by scientific and professional
organisations.
I. The new research associations — essentially
" man-consuming agencies " — are finding it difficult
to secure scientific staffs of the necessary ability;
the supply of research workers is the function of
the Universities, to which the Department cannot
make grants-in-aid, but it can and does assist in-
dividual workers in them. Since the establishment
of the Department, grants hare been made to 136
students, 89 independent workers, and 48 research
assistants, exclusive of 38 grants for clerical and
laboratory assistants and 49 for equipment. Ninety-
seven professors have assisted in the selection of the
recipients of these grants. Whereas only £3207
was distributed in grants in 1916-17, the amount
for 1919-20 was £26,700, and it is anticipated that
£45,000 will be needed next year. No conditions
are attached to these grants when the sole aim is
the extension of knowledge, but the Department
must be consulted when commercial exploitation of
discoveries is contemplated. In choosing recipients,
scientific capacity is the only criterion, the aim
being to assist promising workers as well as promis-
ing lines of inquiry. No attempt is made to control
research.
II. The policy of the Committee is to finance
industrial research from the £1.000,000 granted by
Parliament in 1916 until conviction is brought to
each industry of the necessity for scientific research.
When this result is achieved a research association
is formed by co-operative action among the firms
in the industry (wherever possible), and the associa-
tion then launched is partially financed by the
Department for five years, the idea being that each
association shall ultimately finance itself. Thus
the cotton industry hopes to raise £250.000. and
other industries are following suit. Eighteen
research associations have been established (9 dur-
ing the past year) and 5 others will shortly come
into being. The 18 associations have guaranteed
to raise £38,400 annually for five years, but it is
expected that this will be greatly exceeded, as the
10 already at work raised an aggregate of £40,000
from 2300 members in their first year. Of the
million fund, £63,800 has been expended in grants:
commitments for existing associations total
£450.000. and for those approved a further
£120.000; whilst the total commitments are ex-
pected shortly to reach £800,000.
III. In connexion with researches of direct and
great national importance, a report has been fur-
nished by the Fuel Research Board for the vears
1918-19 (ef. J.. 1919, 151 r) ; Prof. P. Purcell,'Peat
Investigating Officer to that Board, has been work-
ing on the machine-cutting and winning of peat
during the past 18 months ; a report has been pub-
lished on pulverised coal (cf. J., 1919, 190 r), and
further work is being proceeded with. The Food
Investigation Board has issued two reports, and
the new low-temperature research station at Cam-
bridge has received a grant from, and will be main-
tained by, the Department. A Building (Materials
and Construction) Research Board has been estab-
lished and is working in close co-operation with the
Ministry of Health and other State Departments.
The extension of the activities of the National
Physical Laboratory (brought under the Depart-
ment in 1918) mav be gauged from the increase in
its income from £40,000 in 1914 to £203,000 in the
current financial year. At the instance of the
Government the Department has recently initiated
the formation of a series of co-ordinating boards
to deal with the scientific work of the fighting ser-
vices. Boards for chemistry, physics and engineer-
ing, and the Radio Research Board formed the
nucleus of the scheme, which has been placed under
the direction of Mr. H. T. Tizard, of Oxford Uni-
versity. The Department is also responsible for
boards or committees dealing with tin and tungsten,
lubrication, mine-rescue apparatus, atmospheric
conditions in deep and hot mines, oxygen, gas
cylinders, adhesives, and aluminium corrosion.
Committees dealing with the following subjects
have been dissolved : — Metallurgy, glass and optical
instruments, illuminating engineering, abrasives
and polishing powders, vitreoi.3 compounds and
cements for lenses and prisms, standardisation of
the elements of optical design, anti-glare glass,
i lubricants and lubrication, chemistry of lubricants,
copper and zinc, brass and copper castings, Irish
| peat, building materials, zirconium, and chemistry
of food and cooking.
IV. One of the Department's first activities was
to prevent important researches being abandoned
by making grants-in-aid to scientific and profes-
sional societies; and this policy has been continued.
Grants recommended to 32 bodies for 69 researches
totalled £68,816. Among the researches subsidised
are, or were, the deterioration of sea structures
(Institution of Civil Engineers), the de-gumming
of silk (Silk Association), the efficiency of the open
fire (cf. p. 334 of this issue), laboratory and optical
glass (Institute of Chemistry), colour sensitiser dyes
(Royal Society), etc.
The remainder of the Report deals at greater
length with the various problems previously out-
I lined, and with the results of researches.
Some interesting results are given of the work of
the Food Investigation Board. The Meat Com-
mittee has found that beef, which has hitherto been
preserved by chilling, can, like mutton, also be
frozen in such a way as to preserve the qualities of
the fresh meat, but it has not been possible to apply
this discovery on a commercial scale for want of
apparatus. The bacteriology of putrefaction has
been investigated and some results indicated, and
further progress on the growth of moulds is re-
ported, especially under cold storage conditions. It
has been shown that the fungus causing " black
spot" in meat will grow and spore at -5° C. An
important point for breeders is that dried blood
added in small amounts to the diet of pigs causes
a remarkable increase in the rate of fattening. By
employing artificial atmospheres in storage
chambers, the life of fruit may be lengthened
greatly. The chemistry of the ripening process of
fruit has been investigated with special reference
to the changes in pectin, and the limits of tempera-
ture within which fruit moulds will grow have been
| ascertained. A process for the synthesis of glycerol
has been discovered, and the physiological proper-
i ties of fats in which glycerol has been replaced by
other polyhydric alcohols have been determined.
Experiments have been made on the production of
an edible oil from linseed oil, the production of
oils by vegetables has been studied, and a mono-
graph on the unsaturated monobasic acids related
J to fats has been completed. The work of the Lubri-
I cants and Lubrication Inquiry Committee is to be
published shortly, and will include a bibliography
j of the commercial, physical and engineering aspects
[Oct. 15. 1920.
of lubrication (also to be published separately),
abstracts or papers (chemical) on lubrication,
researches on fundamental problems, monographs
on cutting and on solid lubricants, etc. The Zir-
conium Inquiry Committee investigated the pre-
paration of ferro-zirconium and zirconium steels.
Great difficulty was experienced in obtaining a true
alloy, but 50 ib. batches of a ferro-zirconium steel
containing considerable proportions of carbon and
zirconium carbide were made. The Committee
failed to ascertain any source of supply of ferro-
zirconium with low contents of carbon and silicon,
or any evidence that the addition of zirconium to
steel confers on it any beneficial quality, or that
light armour of enemy origin contained zirconium ;
hence the alleged use by the enemy of zirconium
steels of remarkable hardness for aeroplanes and
tanks was held to be disproved. Other interesting
researches referred to are : — Separation of tin from
its ores by volatilisation as chloride ; size and weight
of oxygen cylinders for hospitals ; stresses in gas
cylinders ; efficiency of cooking stoves ; technical
problems relating to the preservation and restora-
tion of antique objects in the British Museum, in-
cluding the examination of alloys 2000 to 4000
years old, and disintegration of leaden objects, by
Dr. Alexander Scott, etc.
The Report concludes with a statement concern-
ing the attitude of the Department towards the
many learned societies which are experiencing diffi-
culties in publishing scientific matter owing to
increased cost of printing, paper, etc., and which
solicit State aid to meet them : — " It is not possible
for us to recommend a grant for this purpose with-
out any estimate of the cost to public funds which
would result from the general adoption of such a
policy." "A grant which reduced the sale price of
scientific publications below the cost of production
would in effect be a grant for the assistance of a
particular section of the community and, as a
permanent arrangement, would be at least as diffi-
cult to defend as other trade subsidies."
Forty-Fourth Annual Report of H.M. Inspectors
op Explosives, 1919. London: H.M. Sta-
tionery Office, 1920. [Cmd. 841. 3d.]
The number of explosives factories now on the
books is 147; during 1919 one new licence was
granted, and 37 were surrendered. The number of
magazines is 452, of which 14 are in disuse ; four
new licences have been issued and 12 have been
surrendered.
The accidents reported during the year numbered
430, causing 58 deaths and injuries to 502 persons.
This is a return to pre-war conditions, the averages
for the years 1905 to 1914 being: Accidents, 434"5 ;
deaths, 56'1 ; and injuries, 4339. There were 65
accidents in factories, causing 8 deaths and in-
juries to 31 persons; six of the fatalities occurred
during the breaking up of ammunition.
Messrs. F. H. and P. V. Dupre, chemical ad-
visers, examined 349 samples during the year, and
of these 57 were reported as unsatisfactory, the
fault in the majority of instances being an excessive
proportion of moisture. A brief resume is given of
such special research work in connexion with ful-
minate of mercury as they think may be of general
interest. The points touched upon are as follows : —
Sensitiveness of fulminate of mercury to direct per-
cussion ; influence of foreign matter derived during
manufacture on the sensitiveness of the fulminate;
sensitiveness of moist fulminate and chlorate mix-
tures ; sensitiveness of fulminate, chlorate, and
antimony sulphide mixtures; velocity and energy of
blow required to detonate 6.6.4 mixtures ; effect of
pressure on the detonation of fulminate ; the work-
ing of counterweight controlled presses; jelly bag
mixers; destruction of fulminate.
An Order in Council, dated June 25, 1919.
exempted di-nitrophenol from the provisions of the
Explosives Act, subject to the observance of the
conditions of the Order. By an Order in Council
under the Revenue Act, 1909, the fees in respect of
importation licences were increased by 20 per cent.
An Order of Secretary of State brings all acetylene-
compressing stations under supervision. Two new
explosives were placed on the Permitted List, and
the definitions of three were amended. The Order
of Novmber 14 substituted a new schedule of ex-
plosives, which excluded many explosives not now
actively used.
In connexion with the use of explosives in coal
mines, a series of experiments at the Rotherham
Testing Station was begun, using natural methane
instead of coal gas.
Report on the Trade of South Africa for the
Year 1919. By W. G. Wickham, H.M. Senior
Trade Commissioner in South Africa. Pp. 50.
London: H.M. Stationery Office, 1920. [Cmd.
956. 6c*.]
The year under review was one of disappointment,
inasmuch as English manufacturers failed to re-
establish trade upon as satisfactory a basis as had
been anticipated during 1918; they have been un-
able to quote firm either for price or delivery.
There had been over-importation of many classes of
goods during 1918, and after the armistice pur-
chases almost ceased in anticipation of lower prices
and free supplies. Manufacturers have failed to
realise the importance of economical and scientific
distribution, and have aggrieved co-operative
societies and others because of the lack of credit
facilities. The year was disastrous to agriculture
because of drought followed by floods early in 1920.
Labour conditions in all industries were unsettled
owing to the unchecked rise in the cost of living; ;
there is an acute shortage of housing, and until
1920 rents and the prices of foodstuffs and imported
products were controlled by speculators. In many
parts of the country there is a serious shortage
of native labour.
High freight rates have caused a relatively high
demand for the best quality goods in most trades,
but in many cases stocks are so low that the con-
sumer has little choice. For the re-establishment
of industries more machinery and power plant,
better transport facilities (including the supply of
more locomotives and rolling stock), and agricul-
tural supplies, such as fertilisers and fencing
material, are urgently needed. Trade conditions
are especially influenced by the price of gold, and
although the price was increased in the middle of
1919, stability in the relative values of gold and
other commodities has not yet been reached.
Agriculture. — The country is almost entirely de-
pendent on imports for implements, fertilisers, dips,
sprays and other requisites. The soils mostly
require phosphatic fertilisers, only small quantities
of nitrogenous guano being used ; sulphate of
ammonia is exported from Natal. A small deposit
of phosphatic guano in the South-West Protectorate
was purchased by the Government, but shipping
difficulties delayed distribution. The annual re-
quirement of superphosphate is 35.000 tons and of
basic slag 10,000 t. ; only 11,000 tons of all fertilisers
was imported in 1919, but increased supplies are
now forthcoming. The scarcity of arsenite of soda
for cattle dipping and of lime and sulphur for sheep
dipping has now been overcome. Materials for
spraying fruit trees have been expensive, but th -re
was no marked shortage. Supplies of tinplate for
dairy utensils have improved.
Imports. — Trade has been lost by the United
Kingdom and gained by the Fnited States in almost
all branches ; there is no sign of renewed German
Vol. -XXXIX., No. 19.)
REVIEW.
competition, and Japan has lost ground. Linoleum
imports valued at £42,000 represented only one-
sixth of the normal quantity; paper and stationery
amounted to £2,180.000, but owing to the enormous
advance in prices this cannot be compared with that
of a normal year. Importations of candles, soap,
blasting compounds and chemicals into Southern
Rhodesia showed considerable decreases, that of
sodium cyanide alone amounting to 986.010 lb. less
than in 1918. Trade in the following classes of goods.
has been practically captured by the United States
(hiring and since the war, the figures denoting the
percentage of total imports in each line taken by
that country in 1919: — Drugs, etc.: phosphoric
acid 87, potash compounds 77, unenumerated 20;
dyes and tanning materials 40; plate and window
glass 50 (each) ; rubber manufactures 37 ; scientific
instruments 21; glue 56; starch 50; U.S.A. and
Canada combined : varnish 43, white lead 86, red
lead 72, all other paints 32 (British, pre-war, 90).
Japan supplied one-half the china imported, and
India is beginning to supply hides and linseed oil
in addition to paraffin wax.
Exports. — The increase in the value of exports is
due mainly to higher prices rather than increased
quantities. Hides and skins valued at £4,971,650
were exported, compared with £2,010,000 in 1913,
the respective weights being 71,300,000 lb. and
62,500,000 lb. The value of the diamond exports
was £11,500,000, or nearly as much as in 1913. In
1913, wattle bark worth' £309,000 was exported,
mainly to Germany ; the total value of exports is
now £600,000, 13-75 million lb. of extract having
been exported from the recently established fac-
tories in Natal. There a--e prospects of increased
trade in coal as transport facilities have improved,
1.400,000 tons of bunker coal and 1,092,000 tons of
cargo coal being exported last year.
Manufacturers are urged to join the South
African Association of British Manufacturers
formed last December on the lines of similar organ-
isations in Australia, New Zealand, and Canada.
Report on the Post- War Economic and Industrial
Situaton or Denmark. Department of Over-
seas Trade. London: H.M. Stationery Office.
1920. [Cmd. 955. 4d.].
The early years of the war brought prosperity to
Denmark, for her agricultural products were in
great demand at increased prices, and her mer-
chant trade and shipping obtained greatly en-
hanced profits. With the progress of the war, how-
ever, trade continuously diminished, and by the
the middle of 1918 it had almost come to a standstill.
The margarine industry was particularly hard hit
by the shortage of raw materials (c/. J., 1920,
322 r), and other manufactures greatly affected by
the same cause were textiles, wool, soap, glass,
rope, fertilisers, spirits, and beer. But little
success was achieved in the production of substi-
tutes. Although much wealth was accumulated in
the prosperous period of the war, recovery after
the armistice has been more difficult and slower
than was expected, owing, in part, to the continued
isolation of Russia, to currency depreciation in
neighbouring Baltic countries, and to labour diffi-
culties at home.
During 1919 every effort was made to replenish
stocks. The oil-pressing industry and margarine
factories were well employed, but, generally speak-
ing, all industries suffered from the high price and
scarcity of fuel. Available supplies of the latter are
only about 50 per cent, of the pre-war annual
average (3,000,000 t. of coal and 2,300,000 t. of coke,
practically all from the United Kingdom), and,
consequently, attempts have been made to import
American coal, which, however, is slightly higher in
price than the British. This situation "has led to
attention being paid to the development of the local
peat resources, especially in regard to the quality
of the peat sold, and to the use of oil as fuel.
The export trade in agricultural produce im-
proved during 1919, but the importation of feeding-
stuffs was below the pre-war average, and that of
fertilisers was still less. The imports of fertilisers
in 1919 were: Raw phosphate, 3500 tons; super-
phosphate, 6600 t. ; artificial nitrate, 3600 t. ; Chile
saltpetre, 4800 t. ; other fertilisers, 10,700 t. The
sugar production was fairly successful, home re-
quirements being covered and a small amount
(3900 t.) exported. The leather industry is suffer-
ing from a depression of the market due to the
enormous quantities of American under leathers
brought in during 1919 for re-export to Germany
and the Baltic markets.
By the end of 1919 the Danish market was over-
stocked with practically every class of goods, and
as the great excess of imports over exports had
practically exhausted Danish credits abroad, the
outlook at present is not hopeful. Under normal
conditions practically all classes of British goods
find a market in Denmark, so that even if there is
little prospect of immediate business, British firms
should not lose touch with their Danish connexions.
In general, it may be said that, with the high
prices of raw materials on the world market and
the high scale of wages ruling in the country,
Danish industry as a whole has difficult times ahead.
Report on Economic Conditions and Prospects of
Rumania at the end of 1919. By A. Adams,
Commercial Secretary to H. B. M. Legation,
Bucarest. London: H.M. Stationery Office.
[Cmd.. 828. 9d.]
From the industrial standpoint the best developed
industries in Rumania are the petroleum, sugar,
and timber industries. Before the partial destruc-
tion of the petroleum industry in December, 1916,
there were 962 producing wells and 341 drilling
wells, with a total daily production of 5000 tons.
When the Germans left in December, 1918, these
figures had fallen to 437,200 and 3000 respectively,
and stocks had been reduced from 1,500,000 t. to
300,000 t. As the pipe-lines were badly damaged
and railway transport was very inadequate, little
or no oil could be exported during 1919. The
smaller companies that do not refine could not
obtain new equipment, and were awaiting compen-
sation for damage done in 1916; they also suffered
from the fact that the Government paid the refiners
in local currency about 100 per cent, above pre-
war normal exchange instead of many hundreds
per cent. Until the Royal Decree, issued during
the latter part of 1919, prohibited the purchase of
oil lands, oil shares were booming on the Bucarest
stock exchange, and although the actual industry
was practically stagnant, a dozen new Rumanian
oil companies were formed and nearly 100 million
lei (lei = 9£d.) was subscribed in the country, a fact
without precedent. Thus during 1919 the oil indus-
try was extremely unsettled ; field and refining
activities were held up for lack of transport ; the
rich companies were preparing ambitious schemes;
and the smaller companies, including all the British
companies, were occupied almost solely with their
claims for compensation. The actual exports
were:— Petrol, 26,188 t. ; benzine, 2024 t. ; gas oil,
4778 t. ; fuel oil, 1200 t. ; and crude petrol. 3600 t.
All this was shipped on the Danube. Under more
normal conditions the future of Rumanian oil
should be very hopeful, as there still remain some
35,000 acres of proved and 350,000 acres of probable
oil lands as yet untouched, and new wells are fre-
quently being found. In 1913 the production of raw
petroleum was 1,885,619 tons, and the export of
petroleum and petroleum products 1,036,000 t.,
compared with about 37,700 t. exported in 1919.
346 R
REVIEW.
Oct. 15. 1920
As regards general trade, the total imports into
Rumania in 1912 were worth about £25,500,000,
and it is expected that with the accession of the
new provinces this amount will at least be doubled.
Therefore British exporters should attempt to gain
a hold on the market before German and Austrian
goods can compete, and even if the trade at first
be small, it will expand with the economic growth
of the country and futu-e rewards will be great.
The suggestion is made that British manufacturers
should pay more attention to the appearance and
packing of their goods, as these are the favourite
criteria of the Rumanian consumer.
OFFICIAL TRADE INTELLIGENCE.
(From the Board of Trade Journal for September
23 and 30 and October 7.)
OPENINGS FOR BRITISH TRADE.
The following inquiries have been received at the
Department of Overseas Trade (Development and
Intelligence), 35, Old Queen Street, London, S.W.I,
from firms, agents, or individuals who desire to
represent U.K. manufacturers or exporters of the
goods specified. British firms may obtain the
names and addresses of the persons or firms re-
ferred to by applying to the Department and
quoting the specific reference number.
Locality of
Reference
Finn or Agent.
Materials.
Number.
Australia
Chalk, wax dry colours, shellac.
enamel
443
Dyes. gums, oils, varnish
444
British India . .
Cement
Cement, glass, bottles, paint, var-
421.422
nish, soap
445
Metals
446
British West
Indies . .
Paint, varnish, soap
462
Canada
Glass, pottery
453
Cyprus
Glass, earthenware
410
Newfoundland
Tinplate
463
New Zealand . .
Paper
405
Heavy chemicals
458
Leather
459
South Africa . .
Metals, galvanised goods, rope
Galvanised iron roofing, leather.
424
*
Belgium
427
Germany
Oils, fats
415
Hides, skins, rubber
433
Spain
(Canary Isles)
Chemical fertilisers
473
China
Machinery for oil mills, tool-steel.
dyes, paint, glass, chemicals
417
United States. .
Charcoal, iron sheets
439
Minerals, ores
475
China, earthenware
476
Argentina
Glassware, pottery
418
Do. Chile, Peru
Perfumes, soaps
482
Brazil
Light chemicals, cement, paper . .
479
Central America
Chemicals, drugs, glass, crockery . .
486
Hawaii
Perfumes, soaps, inks
477
Peru
Linseed oil. paint, industrial chem-
icals
433
Uruguay
Paper, iron, steel, glass, earthenware.
oils, glue, shellac, chemicals
485
Trade Commissioner, 90.
Markets Sought. — A firm in Nova Scotia able to
export barytes wishes to hear from importers in
the United Kingdom.
A Canadian firm desires to get into touch with
U.K. importers of pulpwood.
[Inquiries to the Canadian Government Trade
Commissioner, 73, Basinghall St., London, E.C. 2.]
A firm in Czecho-Slovakia wishes to hear from
U.K. importers of glassware and mineral colours.
[412.]
A firm at Salonika desires to get into touch with
importers of scrap metals. [435.]
TARIFF. CUSTOMS. EXCISE.
Antigua. — The export of sugar is prohibited save
with the consent of the Governor.
Argentina. — The general provisions of the Law
No. 11,022 increasing the customs duties came into
force on July 1 with some exceptions.
It is proposed to suspend for one year the export
duties on hides and skins.
Australia. — The customs and excise duties on
beer and spirits have been increased.
Ammonium chloride for galvanising may be im-
ported duty free under the British Preferential
Tariff.
The export is now permitted of, inter alia, hides,
leather, rubber, celluloid, certain acids, alkalis and
salts, chlorine, bromine, iodine, certain tar distil-
lates, acetones, methyl and ethyl alcohols, ether,
glycerin, oils, fats, resins, turpentine, camphor,
wood tar, tanning substances, lubricants, bones,
soap, cork, asbestos, carborundum, mineral oils,
and tinplate.
Austria. — The consumption duties have been
increased on alcoholic beverages, mineral waters,
sugar, matches, and mineral oils.
Belgium. — Articles 4 to 13 of the Law of June 10
relating to the method of assessing and levying the
ad valorem, duties came into force on October 1.
The import of sugar (except molasses) is pro-
hibited.
Export licences are still required for alcohol,
matches, foods (with some exceptions, including
cocoa and edible oils), oilcakes, and soap.
Belgian Congo. — The import duties on spirits
have been increased.
The export of gum copal containing more than
3 per cent, of gangue, earth, broken stone, vege-
table waste, or other foreign substances is pro-
hibited.
Canada. — The revised regulations governing the
import, export, and inspection of preserved fruits,
vegetables, and milk are set out in the issue of
October 7.
Chile. — It is proposed to double the export duty
on boric acid and borates.
France. — A supplementary " Turnover Tax " on
imports of l'l per cent, has been levied, with
some exceptions which include pharmaceutical
specialities.
Greece. — All restrictions on the import of copper
sulphate have been removed.
Particulars of the statistical duties on imports
and exports are given in the issue of September 30.
Latvia. — The import of flax and linseed is duty-
free, but coconut oil and white tinplate are subject
to a duty of 5 per cent, ad valorem.
Export duties have been levied on, inter alia,
hides, chemicals, toilet soap, cement, glass, flax,
linseed, and scrap iron.
The import is prohibited of alcoholic beverages
(except wines), articles of gold, silver, and bronze,
perfumes, toilet soap, and patent leather.
Madagascar. — The " coefficients of increase " on
tinplate and cardboard have been modified.
Madeira. — Molasses containing not more than 55
per cent, of saccharose may be imported by manu-
facturers of sugar and alcohol up to 2000 metric
tons at a duty of 60 centavos per 100 kg.
Nero Caledonia (French). — An export duty of 5
per cent, ad valorem has been levied on tallow.
New Zealand. — Recent customs decisions affect
asbestos cord, "double nickel salts," cryolite,
felspar and fluorspar powders, lead oxide, and
quartz powder.
Vol. XXXIX.. Xo. 19.]
Nigeria. — The import duty on spirits is fixed at
15s. per imperial gallon, with an additional 5d. for
every degree in excess of a strength of 40 per cent.
Northern Rhodesia. — The Customs Amendment
and Excise Duties Extension Proclamation, 1915,
continues in force until July 31, 1921.
Norway. — The import of hides and skins is pro-
hibited.
Salvador. — The complete text of the law relating
to the sale of pharmaceutical preparations may be
seen at the Department.
Serb-< roat-Slovene State. — The monopoly tax on
6alt and petroleum has been increased.
South Africa. — It is proposed to amend the
customs duties on, inter alia, asphalt, bitumen,
pitch, heavy oil, fertilisers, paper, certain ammo-
nium salts, and dyes.
Southern Rhodesia. — The customs and excise
duties on spirits, perfumes, medicinal and toilet
preparations containing over 3 per cent, of proof
spirit have been amended
Spain. — Among the articles which pay a new
" container " tax of 10 centimos per receptacle on
importation are patent medicines and mineral
waters.
For the month of October the rate of surcharge
in respect of import duties when paid in Spanish
silver or in notes of the Bank of Spain is fixed at
29-18 per cent.
Svedeit. — The suspension of the customs duties
on lard, margarine, and condensed milk is extended
to November 30.
Switzerland. — A general export licence covers
castor oil, boric acid, borax, certain acetates,
nramonium chloride, oxalic acid, potassium oxalate,
ether, acetic ether, arsenite of soda, sodium sul-
phite and bisulphite.
TRADE NOTES.
BRITISH.
Trade of Dominica in 1919. — The returns of
Dominica show a very favourable balance of trade
during 1919, the value of the exports having in-
creased by £53,430, while the imports were of the
same value as in 1918. The exports reached in
value the highest figure vet recorded, being
£256,789 as compared with £209,305 in 1918 ; of this
total the lime industry contributed £194,022, and
cocoa £37,293.
The lime industry is the premier industry of the
colony and has made rapid strides during the past
few years. Ten years ago the value of the crop was
only £36,952, and now it is approximately £200,000.
The bulk of the crop is converted into concentrated
lime juice. There has been a decline in the output
of citrate of lime for some years, but a demand
arose in 1919 and a very much larger quantity than
usual was manufactured. During 1919 products of
the lime were exported as follows : —
Product. Quantity. Value.
Concentrated lime juice
Raw lime juice . .
Green limes
PicHed lime*
Citrtate of lime
Essential oil of limes
Otto of limes
galls
166. 718
293.31 2
21.384
. . CWts. 6.772 38.593
.... — 13.737
.... — 9.320
In the last twenty years there has been a decline
in the cultivation of cocoa. At one time the
quantity exported was upwards of 600 tons, but in
1917 it had dropped to 150 tons. Since then an
improvement has taken place, over 200 tons being
exported in 1918 and 369 tons in 1919.— (Bull. Dept.
Trade and Com., Canada, Aug. 16, 1920.)
The Paint and Varnish Industry in Canada. — An
advance chapter of " Chemicals" and Allied Pro-
ducts in Canada in 1918 " has recently been issued
by the Dominion Bureau of Statistics. Canada
(Mining, Metallurgical, and Chemical Division),
which contains very complete data concerning the
paint and varnish industry. The total assets of
this industry in 1918 were valued at $15,784,610.
and the number of wage-earners was 1388, exclusive
of 614 engaged in administrative or clerical posi-
tions. The principal materials used were valued at
$9,203,530, and from them paints and varnishes
valued at §17.678,049 were manufactured. In the
same year Canada imported over 6 million dollars'
worth of paints, varnishes, and materials used in
the industry ; of this sum one million was spent in
gums, nearly two million in zinc white, and over
one million dollars in rosin. The report can be
obtained gratis on application to the Dominion
Bureau of Statistics, Ottawa.
FOREIGN.
Chemical Industry of Basle. — The growth of the
chemical industry in Basle during the last five years
can be readily appreciated from *he subjoined table,
which gives the exports of chemical products in
millions of francs: —
1915. 1916. 1917. 1918. 1919.
Aniline dyes and indigo 31.2 57.8 97.6 98.0 136 0
Drugs and perfumery 24.5 32.2 33.7 29.5 39.9
During 1919, despite the abnormal exchange
rates, the chemical works were kept busy supply-
ing France and Belgium with dyestuffs; in fact the
demand greatly exceeded the supply. Inability to
increase output was due to transport difficulties,
lack of raw materials, notably coal, and the intro-
duction of the 8-hour working' day. Manufacturers
of artificial indigo, though hampered by the scar-
city and high price of aniline oil, and faced with
considerable British and American competition,
were able to double the previous year's exports.
Tannin extracts were in good demand, and
sufficient raw material of good quality was obtain-
able. The position with regard to pharmaceutical
chemicals was satisfactory : orders from armies in
the field practically ceased, but the eastern Euro-
pean countries entered the market, though the
effects of German competition began to make them-
selves felt. The market for patent medicines, how-
ever, was far from satisfactory, the low fluctuating
exchange macj^ the conditions of sale difficult, and
the price often prohibitive, whilst the general un-
certainty with regard to the legal rights concern-
ing trade marks and trade names introduced other
complications.
A report from the Commercial Secretary to H.M.
Legation at Berne states that there has been a
slump in the market in some parts of the world,
notably the East, but the present demand for
aniline dyes exceeds the available supply. Despite
slight variations in the price of raw materials, the
price of colours has remained fairly constant dur-
ing the latter half of the year. — (Bd. of Trade -/.,
Sept. 16, 1920.)
Bulgarian Otto of Roses.— From 1900 to 1912, the
area devoted to the production of otto of roses in
Bulgaria was 20,000 acres, but by 1919 it had fallen
to 15,000 acres. Similarly, the average yearly pro-
duction decreased from 126,800 oz. in 1900—1912 to
52,000 oz. in 1919, and further decreases are ex-
pected as much of the land is now growing tobacco
and cereals. Owing to the inability to export dur-
ing the war, stocks in hand amounted to 275,000 oz.,
about 40 per cent, of which was of poor quality. A
third of the stocks was exchanged in 1919 with the
United States for necessities of life, and it is
estimated that only 50,000 oz. of otto, worth about
£100.000, is now available. The recent decline in
prices is attributed to the accumulation of stocks in
REVIEW.
England and America, and in the latter country,
where stocks sufficient for three or four years are
said to exist, the situation is complicated hy the
fact that in many cases otto of roses has been re-
placed by the synthetic product. However, al-
though otto of roses, hy mason of its more delicate
perfume, will always be fble to compete with the
artificial product, it is suggested that the best way
to protect the industry lies in centralisation, there-
by avoiding unnecessary expenses. — (Chem. Ind.,
May 26; Z. aiujew. Chem., Sept. 21, 1920.)
Italian Production of Copper Sulphate in 1920. — The
requirement of Italy in copper sulphate varies from
70,000—75,000 metric tons per annum. The pro-
duction in 1920, up to June 15, was 73,000 t., and
that for the whole working year, which continues
until July 15, is estimated at about 80,000 t. As
15,000 t. was left over from 1919, the needs of the
Italian vine growers are amply secured for 1920. —
(U.S. Com. Sep., Sept. 3, 1920.)
Foreign Company News. — Holland. — A company
with a capital of 5 million florins (florin = Is. 8d.)
has been established at the Hague for the purpose
of manufacturing coal-tar dyes.
France.— The " Produits Azotes " company is to
increase its capital from 10 to 20 million fr., and
the "Enterprises Simon Carves" from 8 to 12
million fr.
The " Societe Chimique de Garland has ratified
the proposal to absorb the " Societe Electro-Metal-
lurgie du Zinc," and will double its present capital
of 1,600,000 fr. by the issue of 16,000 shares of
100 fr. each, 2000 shares being reserved for the
shareholders of the latter company.— (B. Prod.
(Mm., Sept. 15, 1920.)
A syndicate, entitled " Union des Produeteurs et
des Consommateurs pour le Developpement en
France de l'lndustrie des Produits Chimiques,
Pharmaeeutiques de Synthese, Sels de Quinine et
Ecorces de Quinquina," has been founded at Paris
to purchase, import, distribute, and dispose of
chemical-pharmaceutical products, and to assist
scientific institutions, including State-owned and
private research laboratories. — (Z. angeic. Chem.,
Sept. 3, 1920.)
United States of America. — One of the largest
chemical manufacturing corporations of the world
will result from the projected amalgamation of the
General Chemical Co.. the Barrett Co., the National
Aniline and Chemical Co., the Solvaf Process Co.,
and the Semet-Solvay Co. The new company will
be known as the Allied Chemical and Dye Corpora-
tion, and, it is stated, its capital will not exceed
$65,000,000 in 7 per cent, cumulative preference
shares and 3 million shares of common stock.
New Japanese Duty on DyestuBs. — The Japanese
Diet recently passed a new duty on dyestuffs,
which will now be charged 35 per cent, ad valorem,
instead of only a few sen a pound. In the case of
costly dyes this means a rise in price of several hun-
dreds per cent., though the duty was specially de-
signed to protect Japanese makers of the cheaper
sorts. The result is to all intents a tax on Japanese
printed goods, and it seems probable that foreign
dye makers will only be harmed to the extent to
which the Japanese export trade in coloured goods
suffers (cf. J., 1920, 327 b).— (Ch. of Comm. J.,
Sept. 10, 1920.)
Economic Conditions in Cuba. — Now that the grind-
ing of cane of the 1919-20 sugar crop has finished, it
is possible to estimate its quantity. This is placed at
3,650,000 tons, compared with 3,971,594 t. in 1918-
19, the decrease being caused mainly by deficient
rainfall, but partly by fires. Owing to the excep-
tional conditions in the sugar market, Cuba con-
tinues to experience unparalleled prosperity ; but in
view of the increased salaries paid to civil servants
it has been found necessary to impose additional
taxation, including new taxes on stamps and bills
of exchange, a 6 per cent, tax on mining profits, a
profits tax of 4 per cent, on industrial undertakings;
and a tax on sugar.
In 1919 the share of the United States in Cuban
trade was over 76 per cent, for both exports and
imports ; the United Kingdom took about 14 per-
cent, of the exports and supplied less than 3 per
cent, of the imports; the position in the latter
respect appears to be slowly improving. — (Bd. of
Trade J., Sept. 9, 16, 1920.)
The Uyuni Mining District in Bolivia. — The Uyuni
District of Bolivia, which lies almost midway be-
tween Antofagasta and La Paz, is an important
mining centre. The Pulcayo mines are among the
most importantj and produce silver, lead, zinc, and
copper. A British company, with headquarters
and reduction plant at Quechisla, owns mines at
Chocaya, Chorolque, and Tasna, and produces bis-
muth ' (of which it has a virtual monopoly in
Bolivia), tin, silver, and antimony; tin is also pro-
duced by a Chilean company with mines near Cho-
caya. The mines buy large quantities of goods,
such as lumber, cement, oils, galvanised iron, dyna-
mite, tools, and machinery, practically all of which
are of American origin. All the trade of this dis-
trict passes through Antofagasta. — (U.S. Com.
Sep., July 20, 1920.)
Brazilian Rubber Trade. — According to a report in
Willmar's "Brazilian Review" there has been a
decrease in the output of raw rubber from Brazil
! during the first six months of 1920. Of 18,203 tons
| exported from the Amazon basin, 9849 tons have
been of fine quality, 1007 tons of medium, 3175 of,
I coarse, and 4172 tons of caucho. Compared with
the corresponding period of last year there has
been a decrease of 8'7 per cent., or 1690 tons. This
is accounted for by the fall in exports to Europe of
2000 tons and an increase in American consumption
of 701 tons. Of the total exported, 30'4 per cent,
went to Europe and 696 per cent, to the United
States, and of fine Para Europe took 44'2 and
America 55'8 per cent. In the case of the caucho
America consumed 88'8 per cent, and Europe only
11-2 per cent.— (India-Bubber J., Sept. 4, 1920.)
Paraguay in 1919. — The chief source of wealth in
Paraguay is the cattle industry, and though farm-
ing is in an undeveloped state, with proper encour-
agement sugar and cotton crops should become im-
portant, both climate and soil being favourable.
The production of refined sugar in 1919 was
2,490,393 kg., against 561.820 'kg. in 1917, and
2,559,000 kg. in 1914 ; the annual consumption of
sugar is about 3 million kg. The cotton crop only
averages about 1000 — 2000 bales of lint cotton, and
therefore cannot be considered of much commercial
importance. Attempts are being made, however, to
encourage the cultivation of the crop and to im-
prove market conditions.
The exports in 1919 were valued at 14,816,117
pesos (peso = 3s. lljd.) and included: — Tallow,
483,729 kg. ; orange oil, 37,976 kg. ; quebracho ex-
tract, 32,876,077 kg. ; groundnuts, 23.841 kg. (1918) ;
and 256,958 hides. Of the exports Argentina took
56. Spain 10, and the United Kingdom 4'6 per cent.
The value of the imports in 1919 was 15,835,970.
pesos, some of the chief items being: — Chemicals,
drugs, mineral oils, and paints, 805,494 pesos;
china, earthenware, and glassware, 125,013 pesos;
hides and skins, tanned, 61,656 pesos. Argentina
furnished 42'8 per cent, of the imports, a large pro-
portion not being of Argentine origin, whilst the
United Kingdom and the United States furnished
24'7 and 172 per cent., respectively. — (U.S. Com.
Bep. Suppl., July 22, 1920.)
The Resources of Tumaco, Colombia. — Tumaco,
Colombia, is the trade centre for the district south
of Popayan in the Department of Cauca and for
the Department of Narino. Amongst the products
Vol. XXXIX.. No. 19.]
REVIEW.
of the region served by Tumaco are rubber, chicle,
corozonuts and gold dust, but lack of labour and
transport facilities makes exploitation difficult.
The value of the exports from Tumaco in 1918 was
£247,380, and included corozonuts £49,174, rubber
£45,191, and gold dust £32,048, all of which were
taken by the United States. The exports for the
first six months of 1919 were valued at £115,073, of
which the United States took 82 per cent. — (U.S.
Com. Bep., May 28, 1920.)
Coal-Tar Dyes in Argentina. — The following table
gives the importations of aniline dyes (in kilo-
grammes) into the Argentine Republic during the
period 1910—1918: —
Germany
Belgium
United Kingdom .
France
Italy
Switzerland
United States
Other countries . .
1910-14.
848.032
29,554
8.063
52.664
26.942
42,969
3.961
6.372
1915.
2.365
641
4.401
316
1.504
18.550
7.513
2,181
37,371
1916.
117
1.877
2.880
113
22.376
27.292
10.258
64.913
1917.
40
1.397
3,381
736
24.241
97.109
5.795
132.699
1918.
7.593
10.067
15.835
247.257
3.676
Total (kg.) ..
1.018.557
284.428
REVIEWS.
Food Inspection and Analysis. By A. E. Leach.
Bevised and enlarged by A. L. AVinton. Fourth
edition.. Pp. 1099, with 41 plates. (New York:
John lYiley and Sons, Inc.; London: Chapman
and Hall, Ltd. 1920.) Price 45s. net.
This new edition, the fourth within sixteen years,
retains the order, arrangement, and most of the
illustrations of the old, and apart from the inser-
tion of new matter, the most conspicuous change is
the substitution of footnotes for lists of references
at the end of each chapter.
The book is naturally written from the American
standpoint, and although the scientific problems
confronting the American public analyst are
similar to those arising here, the widely different
laws and methods of administration in the two
countries are necessarily reflected in the contents
of a book of this kind.
The American public analyst, with the authority
of a powerful Government Department behind him,
is obviously more favourably situated than his con-
frere over here, who is hampered by worn-out laws
and the vagaries of apathetic or even hostile local
authorities. The outstanding feature, however, of
the American system of food control is the existence
of legal standards or definitions of purity for all
the important articles of food, which although not
framed so as to exclude all forms of adulteration,
nevertheless serve to cut a number of Gordian knots
which in this country have to be unravelled by the
costly machinery of the law. About 70 such stan-
dards have now been fixed, and although some are
merely verbal definitions, the majority embodies
analytical figures with which the articles have to
comply, thus greatly simplifying the routine work.
Nothing like a critical review is possible in the
short space at our disposal. The thorough and
practical spirit in which the book is written will
impress the reader at once. Essential details are
rarely omitted, and references to other sources of
information are numerous, but it is difficult to
avoid disappointment at the comparatively scant
attention paid to the literature of this country,
which may with justice claim to be one of the
pioneers in this branch of chemistry. The omissions
in this respect seriously detract from the value of
the book, especially to British readers. Although
the American and Canadian bulletins are constantly
referred to, the official publications of our Govern-
ment are rarely mentioned. The revised alcohol
tables of Sir Edward Thorpe, the new Original
Gravity tables of Thorpe and Brown (1915), the
Report of the Commission on Potable Spirits (1909),
that of the Commission on Arsenical Poisoning
(1903), and the mass of work by Chapman and
others on this important subject all appear to have
escaped notice, as well as a number of the valuable
reports of the Local Government Board, including
the following: " On Tin in Certain Canned Foods "
(1908), " On the Facing of Rice " (1909), " On Cal-
cium Sulphate in Baking Powders and Self-raising
Flours " (1911), " On the Bleaching of Flour " and
" On the Addition of Improvers to Flour " (1911),
and reports on condensed and dried milks issued
in 1914 and 1918.
Apart from official documents, recent English
papers dealing with the methods for the detection
or estimation of arachidic acid, tannin, caffein, and
saccharin, and much new informative work on the
analysis of margarine mixtures and on cocoa and
cocoa-shell powder have been entirely overlooked,
and the book is the poorer as the result.
If omissions such as these be disregarded, the new
issue is deserving of the highest praise. There is
hardly a subject within the scope of the title which
has not been dealt with, and with very few excep-
tions space has been allotted with excellent dis-
crimination to the innumerable topics included in
such a comprehensive work. Occasionally the
American genius for mechanical appliances has been
allowed to run riot ; some of the photomicrographic
illustrations are too confused and indistinct to
convey any useful information, and at times our
etymologists will be shocked by the spelling; but
these are small defects in what is, after all, the best
single volume on the subject in our language.
Cecil H. Cribb.
The Extra Pharmacopoeia. By W. Harrison
Martindale and W. Winn Westcott. Seven-
teenth edition in two volumes. Vol. I. Pp.
1115. (London: H. K. Lewis and Co., Ltd.
1920.) Price 27s. net, post free 27s. 6d.
This little pocket volume is truly a " multuni in
parvo," containing as it does the fullest informa-
tion on every drug and chemical used in medicine,
with references to its composition, properties, and
therapeutic uses. It is essentially the physician's
vade mecum, but comprises details useful to the
pharmacist and the manufacturer. The new edi-
tion is thoroughly up-to-date, and, among other
topics, deals with the treatment of wounds by the
newer antiseptics largely used during the war, such
as eusol, acriflavine, malachite green, chloramine,
etc. Sections are included on vaccines and serums,
colloidal metals, arsenobenzol, vitamines, and
organotherapy. The chief materia medica are
arranged alphabetically, the preparations of each
being under the heading of the drug. A thera-
peutic index of diseases and the remedies employed
therein occupies some 60 pages and an excellent
general index covering nearly 100 pages completes
the volume.
Particular attention is drawn to the organic syn-
thetic remedies introduced before the war by
German chemical manufacturers, who simul-
taneously registered an invented name as a trade
mark, the effect of which was to create a complete
monopoly of manufacture. The objects of the
Patent, Designs and Trade Marks Act (1914) and
the new Act of 1919 are briefly set out and a list of
the medicinal drugs is given, the trade marks of
which have been avofded. Scattered through the
volume are the chemical names of many of these
organic chemicals, with references to the patent
REVIEW.
literature, their chemical composition, and in many
cases details of manufacture based on actual ex-
perience. The prescribing of these drugs by their
chemical names would greatly assist in giving pre-
ference to British products.
The analytical and bacteriological sections will be
dealt with in Volume II., which will be published
shortly.
It is somewhat difficult to criticise fairly such a
mass of information as is presented in this book. A
close study of it, however, has revealed few
printer's errors, and the proof-reading appears to
have been very carefully done.
The arrangement of the work is excellent, the
details are concise to a degree, and no unnecessary
matter has been included. To the practitioner and
the pharmacist this volume is essential for daily re-
ference, and to the consulting chemist we can
thoroughly recommend it as a most useful addition
to his library.
C. T. Bennett.
Les Collo'ides Metaxliques : Proprietes et Pre-
parations. By Paul Bary. Pp. inii. + 95.
(Paris: JDunod. 1920.) Price 5/r. 50cts.
Beyond a theoretical introduction, which might
have been written ten years ago, and some descrip-
tions of apparatus for the electric dispersion of
metals, designed by the author, this book contains
hardly anything which is not to be found in Sved-
berg's classical " Die Methoden zur Herstellung
kolloider Lbsungen anorganischer Stoffe." It is
also necessarily much less complete, since the latter
work runs to 499 pages of text, of which probably
two-thirds is devoted to metal sols. Almost a third
of the book under review is taken up with electric
methods of dispersion, the importance of which
hardly justifies such a ratio Within its limitations
the treatment is clear and simple, and the work
may possibly be of some slight use to readers who
do not read German.
The author's desire to avoid reference to modern
German authorities sometimes leads him into
strange courses. Thus the standard method of deter-
mining the size of ultramicroscopic particles is
credited to Poschl ( I), the author of a small intro-
duction to the subject. In many cases names are
wrongly given, e.g., Helmoltz instead of Helmholtz,
Kutspert and Kiistpert instead of Kuspert, Oesch-
ner instead of Oechsner, Wohler instead of Wohler,
etc.
The last chapter, as appears to be the fashion,
is devoted to " applications," of which however,
only two are treated, viz., catalysis and therapeutic
applications. A table giving "Catalytic reactions
obtained with platinum and metals of the platinum
group" fills six pages, although from internal
evidence most of the investigations quoted were
certainly not carried out with colloidal metals. The
remarks on the therapeutic uses of metal sols lack
all authority and repeat statements which have
become familiar from what might be called trade
literature, e.g., that "only those colloidal suspen-
sion which clearly show Brownian movement are
considered efficacious." The object of such asser-
tions is primarily to " epater les bourgeois," and
it would be interesting to know what attitude their
authors take towards the manufacture and use of
a standard preparation like " Ferrum hydroxy-
datum dialysatum " or of amieroscopic palladium
sol, in neither of which particles — nor, a fortiori,
Brownian movement — are visible.
Emil Hatschek.
Corrigendum. — The period covered by the statis-
tics for Canadian trade on p. 136 R (Apr. 15,1920)
should be Jan. 1919 to Jan. 1920.
OBITUARY.
F. C. TIPLER.
We regret to record the death, at the age of 56,
of Frederick Charles Tipler, for 21 years chief
chemist to the London and North Western Rail-
way Companj-. He was recognised as an authority
on all chemical matters affecting the railways.
His last work was in connexion with oil-fired
locomotives, his experiments being interrupted
last May by the illness which terminated fatally
on September 20. He had been a member of this
Society since 1894, and his death is a distinct loss
to applied chemistry.
PUBLICATIONS RECEIVED.
Electro-Deposition of Metals. By G. Langbein.
Translated, with additions, by W. T. Brannt.
Eighth edition, revised and enlarged. Pp.
863. (London: Hodder and Stoughton, Ltd.
1920.) Price 42s.
The Principles of the Phase Theory. By D. A.
Clibbens. Pp. 382. (London: Macmillan and
Co., Ltd. 1920.) Price 25s.
The Carbohydrates and Alcohol. By S. Rideal
and Associates. Industrial Chemistry Series,
edited by Dr. S. Rideai,. Pp. 219. (London:
Ballicre, Tindall and Cox. 1920.) Price
12s. 6d.
A Laboratory Outline of General Chemistry. By
H. N. McCoy and E. M. Terry. Pp. 155.
(New York and London: McGraw-Hill Book
Co., Inc. 1920.) Price 7s. 6d.
Memoirs and Proceedings of the Manchester
Literary and Philosophical Society. Vol 63,
1918—1919. Price 12s.
Digest of Comments on the Pharmacopoeia of the
United States of America and on the
National Formulary for 1915 and 1916. By
A. G. DuMez, Hygienk Laboratory United
States Treasury Department. Bulletins Nos.
118andll9. (Washington: Government Print-
ing Office. 1919.)
Publications of the United States Bureau of
Mines. (Washington : Government Printing
Office. 1919): —
Removal of the Lighter Hydrocarbons from
Petroleum by Continuous Distillation. By
J. M. Wadstvorth.
Experiment Stations of the Bureau of Mines.
By Van H. Manning.
Determination of Molybdenum. By J. P.
Bonardi and E. P. Barrett. (Tech. Paver
230.)
The Properties of Some Stoneware Clays.
By H. G. Schurecht. (Tech. Paper 233.)
Indicators for Carbon Dioxide and Oxygen
in Air and Flue Gas. By L. H. Milligan,
D. O. Crites, and W. S. Wilson. (Tech.
Paper 238.)
Publications of the United States Geological
Survey. (Washington: Government Printing
Office. 1919): —
Mineral Resources of the United States,
1916. Part I., Metals; Part II., Non-
Metals.
Bibliography of the Metals of the Platinum
Group, 1748— 1917. Bu J. L. Howe and H. C
Holtz. (Bulletin 694.)
The Analysis of Silicate and Carbonate
Rocks. By W. F. Hillebrand. (Bulletin 700.)
Vol. XXXIX. No. 20.]
REVIEW
[Oci. 30, 1920.
CHEMICAL STANDARD SAMPLES.
C. O. BANNISTER.
During recent years a considerable amount of
interest has been taken in the question of the
supply, certification, and distribution of chemical
standard samples, and this interest has been shared
by several of the British societies directly or in-
directly interested in particular branches of ana-
lytical chemistry. The Iron and Steel Institute has
committees engaged in the preparation of iron and
steel standards; these are probably the most im-
portant at the present time owing to the fact that
similar standards have for years been largely used
in steel-works laboratories, and their function and
value are therefore well understood. The Institute
of Metals has a committee considering standards
for non-ferrous metals ; the Institute of Chemistry
and the Society of Public Analysts have also com-
mittees appointed to consider the desirability of
making provision for supplies of standard chemical
substances, and have issued a preliminary report
(J. Inst. Chem., 1920, 169). The Society of
Chemical Industry has been represented at a con-
ference dealing with the subject, and at a meeting
of the Birmingham Section a paper on Chemical
Standards by Messrs. C. H. and N. D. Ridsdale
was read and discussed (cf. J., 1919, 15 t). The
first serious attempt to undertake the preparation
of a series of standard samples of steel was the
result of a suggestion made at the Bath meeting
of the British Association, in 1888, by Prof. J. W.
Langley. The object was to prepare international
standards to control the analysis of iron and steel,
and a committee was formed which published re-
ports during the following five years. This com-
mittee co-operated with similar committees in
6everal of the most important iron-producing
countries, and definite instructions were agreed to
in respect of the method of preparation and pre-
servation of the samples obtained. As a result of
this committee's work, five samples were prepared,
four by Prof. Langley and one by Dr. Stead.
The samples were submitted to several prominent
authorities in this and other countries, and the
results obtained were found to be in close agree-
ment. These samples, in the form of drillings
contained in hermetically sealed glass tubes to
prevent oxidation, were retained in the custody of
the British Association, and are still available as
standards. One serious objection to these samples
is that they are too coarse for the requirements of
modern methods of analysis. In considering the
further development of standard samples, it must
be remembered that these have been prepared for
special purposes by many professional chemists,
and have been largely used to clear up discrepancies
which have been found to occur on the same sample
from time to time between one laboratory and
another. In the majority of cases these standard
samples have been prepared and very carefully
analysed in one laboratory only, but in a few cases
the prepared samples have been analysed by
several independent chemists in order to obtain
authoritative results.
After the issue of the international standard
samples of steel by the British Association the most
important series was prepared by the American
Foundrymen's Association. These consisted of four
sets of standardised pig irons, and were placed under
the control of the Bureau of Standards, Washing-
ton, in 1905, thus acting as a commencement to
what has proved to be an important branch of the
work of the Bureau. From this date the Bureau
has been actively engaged in the preparation,
examination and supply of standard samples of
iron, many classes of steel, various alloys, etc.
In this country much work has been done by
Messrs. Ridsdale, of Middlesbrough,* who have been
actively engaged not only in advocating an ex-
tended use of standard samples, but also in pre-
paring and issuing such samples after analysis by
representative co-operating chemists, together with
certificates showing results obtained and methods
used. Messrs. Ridsdale have done pioneer work
as the organisers of a movement for the supply of
standards which have an authoritative value to
chemists interested in iron and steel analysis, and
have been fortunate in obtaining the active support
of many steel chemists of repute both in this
country and abroad. As this organisation actually
issued 1826 portions of standard samples between
September, 1916, and September, 1919, it will be
realised that it has been responsible for most of the
supply of certified standards in this country.
The value of properly prepared standard samples
is undoubted, but unfortunately the discussion of
the subject has frequently been confused by the in-
troduction of questions relating to the standardisa-
tion of methods of analysis, questions upon which
the opinions of well-qualified and competent
chemists are not in agreement.
The chief uses of standards are for checking ana-
lytical work and methods of analysis, for settling
and avoiding disputes, for standardising volumetric
solutions, and for the trial and development of new
methods of analysis. It is thus evident that stan-
dards may he an invaluable aid to the advancement
of methods of analysis. On the other hand, the in-
troduction of standardised methods of analysis,
unless revised frequently, is liable to have a re-
tarding effect on improvements, as they find their
way into specifications which may be used for years
and thus become irksome to independent qualified
chemists.
For the standards to be of any value whatever,
great care is necessary in their selection, prepara-
tion, and analysis, and this has been recognised
from the first. Homogeneity is of the utmost im-
portance in the original material, and has always
received very careful attention. Fortunately our
present knowledge of the possibility of segregation
in steels and other alloys, and of methods for de-
tecting it in the original ingots or billets, minimises
the probability of segregation affecting the final
samples. The size and nature of the final samples
are also of considerable importance and have not
always received the necessary care. In the case of
metalliferous samples, drillings, millings, or turn-
ings are most suitable, and these should be of such a
size that they may be weighed out readily to de-
finite accurate amounts, should be attacked quickly
by acids and. in the case of steel samples, should
be capable of being burnt throughout in the com-
bustion furnace during the determination of
carbon.
In some cases it is found that in preparing
particles sufficiently small a considerable amount of
dust is produced, the analysis of which varies con-
siderably from that of the main sample in the case
of some of the constituents. The best practice is
to sieve off this dust during the preparation of the
samples, as it should be remembered that the
problem is to prepare homogeneous standards and
not necessarily that the standards should represent
the original material.
The analytical results reported as representing
the standards are of paramount importance, and
in all the organised attempts to prepare standard
samples great care has been taken to obtain authori-
tative figures. The British Association standards
were submitted to five well-known chemists in this
* See Report on the First Three Years' Working of the Movement.
Tuhlishecl hv the Oreanisprs. British Chemical Standards. 3 Wilson
Street, MiddlesbrouRh, 1920.
REVIEW.
country whose results were in close agreement and,
in addition to this, were analysed by a number of
chemists in each of the countries interested in the
matter, and so became true standards of inter-
national value. In the case of the Bureau of Stan-
dards' samples, the analyses are made by com-
mercial chemists, works chemists, and the Bureau
chemists, and not until concordant results have
been obtained are the samples issued. Messrs.
Ridsdale have from the first recognised the im-
perative necessity of results which buyers, sellers,
and independent chemists would accept, and have
obtained analyses from referee analysts, works
chemists, users' chemists, and in many cases from
Government chemists also. The committees of the
Iron and Steel Institute are following on similar
lines in order to obtain results as accurate as
possible.
The American Bureau has not confined its atten-
tion to standards of iron and steel but has prepared
samples of various ores, including those of iron,
manganese, zinc, etc., and has also taken up the
important question of the supply of materials of
great purity for various purposes. As an example
of the necessity of the latter, may be mentioned the
use of pure metals for the calibration of pyro-
meters, etc., and in this connexion the Bureau
already supplies pure tin, zinc, aluminium, and
copper. It has been proposed that the National
Physical Laboratory should supply the needs of this
country in this direction. The Bureau also sup-
plies pure chemicals — for example, sucrose as a
Calorimetric and saccharimetric standard, and ben-
zoicacid and naphthalene as calorimetric standards.
It seems desirable that similar substances, standard-
ised and guaranteed of a definite degree of purity,
should be available in this country also. Lastly
may be mentioned the supply of cement of standard
fineness by the Bureau. This standard is supplied
at a very cheap rate and is of great value for test-
ing sieves. Only those who know the difficulties of
obtaining sieves of uniform mesh at the present
time will realise the value of a reliable standard
of fineness, especially in the case of sieves used to
control the fineness of material subject to a rigid
specification.
The history of Messrs. Ridsdale's enterprise here
and of the activities of the Bureau of Standards in
America indicate that there is a field for the de-
velopment of this work, and it is to be hoped that
the interest being taken in the matter by the
various societies will eventuate in something
definitely useful. The active demand for American
and British chemical standards is proved by the fact
that several of those already issued have been ex-
hausted and replaced, in spite of the fact that large
quantities were prepared in the first instance.
THE CELLULOID INDUSTRY.
F. SPROXTON.
The employment of celluloid in the arts and
manufactures during the comparatively short time
6ince its discovery in 1855 has continually in-
creased, and it now extends to many industries
where the general public would hardly expect to
find it. Originally it was looked upon chiefly as a
material in which it was possible to imitate various
expensive natural products, such as ivory and tor-
toiseshell ; but, as has happened in so many other
cases, cheapened production and the inventiveness
of manufacturers have made outlets for the com-
modity which were not foreseen by its discoverers.
History has repeated itself in this respect in the
case of more than one " celluloid substitute," which
has failed to replace celluloid, but has found room
for economic existence by the side of it. The chief
raw materials of celluloid manufacture are cotton
cellulose, sulphuric and nitric acids, camphor, and
alcohol, so that the United States, Egypt, Spain,
Chile, Japan, China, and the West Indies all con-
tribute, directly or indirectly, to the production
of the material. Disturbances of trade in any of
these countries affect the celluloid manufacturer.
The process of manufacture consists briefly in
nitrating cotton cellulose, usually in the form of
paper, with a mixture of sulphuric and nitric acids,
the nitrogen in the nitrocellulose produced amount-
ing on the average to 10'7 per cent. The nitrocellu-
lose is bleached, thoroughly washed and dried, and
then gelatinised with a mixture of camphor and
alcohol which converts it into a stiff jelly. At this
stage the pigments and dyes required for producing
coloured materials are added. The material is
manipulated on hot rollers and pressed into blocks
or extruded from special machines in the form of
tubes or rods. The blocks are sliced on planing
machines into sheets which are seasoned in warm
stoves to drive off excess of volatile solvent. Season-
ing is completed when the loss of weight has become
inappreciable. A high polish can be imparted by
pressing the sheets between heated polished plates.
An important section of the industry is the utilisa-
tion of scrap celluloid, which is sorted over,
softened in appropriate solvents, and re-worked in
the same manner as new celluloid.
The demand for celluloid in normal times varies
in proportion to its cost more largely than is the
case with most commodities. If it were expensive,
it would compete only with comparatively scarce
natural materials such as real tortoiseshell and
ivory, which are used principally in the manufac-
ture of articles of luxury. Cheap celluloid, partly
in virtue of its adaptability to various industrial
operations, competes with ebonite, glass, metals
and wood, and the demand is correspondingly en-
larged. It is used for such diverse purposes as
cutlery handles ; articles of toilet such as combs,
brushes and mirrors; pumps, mudguards, wind-
screens, and other motor and cycle accessories; tele-
phone mouthpieces, eyelets for boots and shoes,
accumulator cases, cutting plates for the stationery
trade, and as a component of other articles such
as scientific and drawing instruments.
Celluloid cinematograph film absorbs a large
quantity of celluloid, but it is made from a more
highly-nitrated cellulose, and the proportion of
camphor in it is considerably smaller than in ordin-
ary celluloid. This accounts for the greater fierce-
ness with which it burns. The inflammability of
celluloid is fortunately well known, and this fact
is in itself no inconsiderable safeguard against
accidents. The whole question of the danger due
to the inflammability of celluloid was investigated
by a Departmental Committee of the Home Office
in 1913.
The extent to which celluloid was used as a war
material was a surprise even to many of those en-
gaged in the industry. For a considerable time
England was the only one of the Allied countries
in Europe where the manufacture was carried on,
and the demand for accumulator cases, eyepieces
and transparent screens absorbed a very large pro-
portion of the output. If the manufacture of
celluloid had not been carried on vigorously in Eng-
land prior to the war, it would probably have
achieved the doubtful honour of being described as
a " key " industry.
In times of peace, celluloid is manufactured in
the United States, Germany, and France, as well as
in the United Kingdom. The industry is also bein^
developed in Japan (c/. J., 1920," 14 r, 176 r).
There is therefore no lack of internal com-
petition. Its chief external competitors are
vulcanite and ebonite, and casein products such
Tol. XXXIX. , Xo. 20.}
353 R
as galalith. These products are made from
casein hardened with formaldehyde, and though
they hare many mechanical disadvantages com-
pared with celluloid, they compete strongly in
the manufacture of coarse articles such as buttons
and cheap combs. The phenol-formaldehyde con-
densation products, of which " bakelite " is a type,
surpass celluloid in transparency, but tend to be
brittle and resinous. They have found other out-
lets, c.o., in the manufacture of electrical insula-
tors, which do not seriously affect the demand for
celluloid. Viscose, which at first glance would
appear to be a serious competitor to celluloid, is
affected by water, and the difficulties attending its
conversion into massive form have not been over-
come; it has, however, found unlimited scope in
the manufacture of artificial silk. Lastly, there is
acetylcellulose or cellulose acetate, to which public-
attention has been drawn for a variety of reasons
during the last two years, although it has been
known for at least twelve. No one is more alive
than the celluloid manufacturer to the fact that
the chief, almost the only, drawback to celluloid
as an article of commerce is its inflammability,
and no one examines a new material which claims
to eliminate this drawback with more care or with
a keener appreciation of what such a material
would be worth if the claims made for it could be
substantiated.
The properties of ordinary celluloid which create
the demand for it are chiefly its capacity for taking
delicate colours, its low specific gravity, its adapt-
ability for operations such as sawing, turning.
drilling, polishing, moulding and blowing, its
toughness and elasticity, its uniformity, and its
comparatively low cost. Acetylcellulose fails chiefly
in respect of uniformity, toughness, and cost. The
lack of uniformity may be due to the difficulty of
accurate temperature control during acetylation of
the cellulose. As is generally known, acetylcellulose
is soluble in the acetylation mixture, so that the
product of acetylation is a highly viscous solution
of acetylcellulose in acetic acid. Temperature
control under such conditions is a matter of
extreme difficulty. The want of toughness, using
that word to signify a combination of tensile
strength and elasticity without brittleness, is pro-
bably due to the length of time required for
acetylation and the profound disintegration which
the parent cellulose structure must undergo during
the process. The chief ultimate product of the
aeetolysis of cellulose is an esterified sugar, and
although in the preparation of acetylcellulose the
degradation of the cellulose is stopped long before
this point is reached, the transition from colloid to
crystalloid has progressed considerably further than
is the case in celluloid manufacture. Hence, as
would be expected, the brittleness which one associ-
ates with the crystalline state of matter begins to
show itself, and the addition of " softeners " creates
the quality known in the trade as " leatheriness "
in proportion as it reduces the brittleness. The
effect on output of want of uniformity and defici-
ency in strength, in a factory devoted to the rapid
manufacture of celluloid articles on up-to-date
machines, is evident.
Lastly, there is the question of cost. The yield
of acetylcellulose is rather greater than that of
nitrocellulose from the same weight of cellulose, but
this is more than set off bv the higher cost of acetic
anhydride and acetic acid compared with that of
nitric acid. The cost of the fillers used in the
manufacture of acetylcellulose material (corre-
sponding to the camphor in celluloid) may. in some
conditions of the market, reduce the relative price
a little, but it is still considerably higher than that
of celluloid, and, quite apart from manufacturing
difficulties, commercial experience shows that the
public will pay very little, if any, more for articles
of non-inflammable celluloid. The position at present
is that acetylcellulose must be regarded as a
material whose capacity for competing with cellu-
loid in the manufacture of solid articles is not
proved. Its possibilities cannot be denied, but the
smallness of the impression it has made on the
position of ordinary celluloid in a campaign of
twelve years has a significance which cannot be
overlooked.
Acetylcellulose has, however, come into consider-
able prominence as the base of aeroplane dopes.
The reasons for the preference given to it over
nitrocellulose for the purpose are stated to be its
non-inflammability, and the property it imparts to
dopes of shrinking considerably during drying,
thereby drawing the fabric taut. The problem of
producing a nitrocellulose dope with this property
was, however, never placed before the celluloid
industry during the war, so that probably it was
on account of its non-inflammability that the pre-
ference was, quite rightly; given to it. The de-
velopment of civil aviation will no doubt favourably
affect its production
Of recent years the growth of colloid chemistry
has attracted to the celluloid industry a degree of
attention which celluloid chemists find somewhat
embarrassing. The truth is tnat technique in the
celluloid industry is far ahead of theory. The in-
dustrial chemist who works with gases, liquids or
crystalline solids has at his disposal a mass of exact
data, expressed in more or less exact laws, which
give some notion how to proceed when faced with
a new problem. The celluloid chemist has few
scientific data at his disposal, and most of the data
he has are only qualitative. The manufacture of
celluloid itself (apart from solutions of celluloid) is
confined to the most difficult zone of the colloid
state, namely, the transition from a viscous gel to
a solid. Hence the chemistry of celluloid manu-
facture is directed chiefly to the analytical control
of raw materials and the maintenance of the exact
conditions of reaction shown to be best by many
years of experience.
The most interesting chemical fact in the indus-
try is the unchallenged position of natural or syn-
thetic camphor as the solid " solvent " for celluloid.
The position rests on a unique combination of pro-
perties. It is a ketone, which in alcoholic solution
forms a strong solvent for a wide range of nitro-
celluloses. It is colourless, and remains so on ex-
posure to light. Its solubility in every organii
solvent is a great technical convenience, and its
odour is pleasant to all but a few patentees of sub-
stitutes. Many other compounds have been pro-
posed from time to time to replace camphor in
celluloid, some of which have been employed in
comparatively small quantities, but camphor is still
as much of a necessity to the industry as ever,
and it is greatly to be regretted that the culti-
vation of the camphor laurel has not been seriously
developed in some part of the British Empire.
NEWS FROM THE SECTIONS.
MANCHESTER.
The Annual Dinner of the Section will be held at
the Grand Hotel, Manchester, on Friday, Novem-
ber 26, at 7 p.m. It is anticipate.) that the
President of the Society, the Lord Mayor and
Lady Mayoress of Manchester, and the Mayor and
Mayoress of Salford will be present. Ladies are
specially invited to accompany members. As the
accommodation will be limited, applications for
tickets, with remittance (12s. 6d. each, exclusive
of wine), should be made at once to Mr. L. Guy
Radciiffe, at the College of Technology, Manchester.
REVIEW.
CANADA.
For the first time in its history the Canadian
National Exhibition included this year a section
devoted to industrial chemistry. The exhibition is
held each year at Toronto, and as the attendance is
now annually over one million, several chemical and
allied manufacturers of the Dominion, aided by the
Canadian Section of the Society of Chemical In-
dustry, decided that the time had come when the
chemical industries should be represented. Accord-
ingly a section was secured in the Industrial Build-
ing, and a number of firms sent attractive exhibits.
The Society of Chemical Industry had a stand at
the entrance to the Section with a representative
in attendance, the exhibitors and exhibits being as
follows: — Watson Jack and Co., dyes and colours;
Canadian Laboratory Supplies, Ltd., apparatus;
T. E. O'Reilly, Ltd., general chemicals and phar-
maceutical preparations; Brunner, Mond (Canada),
Ltd., alkalis; Canadian Salt Co., caustic soda, etc.;
International Nickel Co. of Canada, Ltd., nickel,
etc. ; Hiram Walker and Sons, Metal Products,
Ltd., electric furnaces and nickel alloys; Ontario
Oil and Turpentine Co., Ltd., Canadian natural
magnesium sulphate, B.P. ; Canadian Industrial
Alcohol Co., Ltd., alcohol; Nichols Chemical Co.,
Ltd., heavy chemicals; Abbott Laboratories, phar-
maceutical preparations ; and the National Electro-
Products Co., oxygen and hydrogen gases. The
exhibit was such a success that for next year a
committee has already been formed with a view
to enlarging the section and including metallurgical
and engineering exhibits.
MEETINGS OF OTHER SOCIETIES.
SOCIETY OF DYERS AND COLOURISTS.
Addressing this society in the capacity of presi-
dent, at Bradford, on October 15, the Right Hon.
Lord Moulton referred to his indebtedness to many
dyers and colourists during the war, but criticised
them because they had never raised their pursuits to
the status of a great chemical industry. The basic im-
portance of dyeing to the textile trades and to the
country's export trade depended upon the applica-
tion of chemistry, yet in the past this industry had
been dominated too much by rule of thumb (cf. J.,
1920, 301 r) ; dyers must ally themselves more
closely with the great body of chemists, secure the
permanency of their industry by substituting scien-
tific research for empiricism, and liberate them-
selves from the bondage of dependence upon foreign
manufacturers. The war had taught us that every
nation must be prepared at a pinch to stand alone,
and that of all the industrial sciences chemistry was
about the most important and the one which we
had most neglected. This neglect was no doubt to be
ascribed to the lack of self-assertion and unity
among chemists. We must realise that the whole
of the past war was based on chemistry (the iron
industry supplying the means of using the chemists'
materials). Had it not been for the exploits of
German chemists, the victory would have gone to us
within the first three or four months, and if the
next war were conducted on the lines of the last,
particularly as regards the use of toxic substances,
and it found us in a similar state of unprepared-
ness, it would be over long before the danger could
be met. England had to be made a great chemical
nation. The chemical industry had to be prepared
to receive the men now in training at the uni-
versities; and, above all, it was necessary to dispel
any illusion that industrial chemistry was in any
way inferior to laboratory chemistry. Their tasks
were the same, and as it was industrial chemistry
which ultimately brought national wealth and pros-
perity, it must be duly honoured and duly studied.
In regard to industrial troubles Lord Moulton
said that the indiscriminate snatching of wages
largely resulted in the workmen taking away the
value of the wages of other workmen by making
prices rise. The belief that reduced output could
be beneficial to the working classes was an insane
delusion, and it behoved societies and industries,
as well as individuals, to see that labour was made
more fertile, an end which could be achieved by
the provision of adequate apparatus, supplies, and
organisation.
INSTITUTION OF PETROLEUM
TECHNOLOGISTS.
At the first meeting of the winter session of the
above Institution, held in the Rooms of the Royal
Society of Arts on October 19, a lecture on " Coal
as a Future Source of Oil Fuel Supply " was given
by Sir Arthur Duckham, in the course of which he
dealt with the development of the use of various
fuels from the time when heat was supplied by wood
and light by animal or vegetable products, down
to the present time when heat and light are de-
pendent on the supplies of coal and petroleum ; and
he predicted that the time is not far distant when
coal or solid fuels as such will be entirely replaced
by liquid or gaseous fuels. The demands for these
will call for further development in the primary
utilisation of our coal supplies, in order to obtain
the largest possible combined production of liquid
and gaseous fuels. The author then described
the developments which have taken place in the
utilisation of coal for the manufacture of gas
and for the manufacture of liquid fuel, and
touched upon the various methods of carbonisation
now in general use. In regard to future develop-
ments, the lecturer laid stress on the fact that,
owing to the general congestion of transport, it
would in the near future be unprofitable to trans-
port solid fuel from the source to the consumer,
and suggested that the solution of this problem lies
in the carbonisation of coal at the source, with sub-
sequent transport of liquid and gaseous fuels
through pipe-lines to the consumer.
By the ideal system (from the standpoint of liquid
and gaseous fuel production) coal should be com-
pletely gasified, preferably in one vessel, in such a
way that the maximum amount of volatile con-
stituents would be recovered in liquid form and
without having undergone any serious " cracking."
The gas should be stripped of all saturated hydro-
carbons, and the maximum amount of nitrogen in
the coal recovered. The plant should be designed
to work with any coal and be composed of one or
more vertical retorts superimposed on a water-gas
producer. The coal should be fully converted into
coke before it enters the producer, and the latter
should be so built as to obviate the formation of
hard clinker.
In the discussion Sir J. Cadman said that he con-
sidered the time was ripe for the trial of the sug-
gestion made by the late Sir W. Ramsay as to the
carbonisation of coal in situ. Mr. Cunningham
Craig suggested the establishment of central car-
bonising stations, which should be erected with due
regard to the transport to them of coal, and from
them of the fuels produced, both gaseous and
liquid, claiming that at such stations more efficient
working could be obtained than by carbonising at
the individual collieries. Other speakers dealt
with the question of the quality of oil produced,
and indicated the necessity for further research
work. In reply. Sir Arthur Duckham stated that,
as an engineer, he considered Ramsay's suggestion
was entirely unpractical, for as soon as one portion
of the coal was gasified in situ, the roof, losing its
support, would fall in and automatically stop opera-
Vol. XXXIX., No. 20.]
355
tions. He did not consider the erection of central
retorting stations, which would treat coal from
the various districts, to be a feasible one ; but pos-
sibly the erection of carbonising units to treat the
coal from one district, which would be of fairly
constant composition and would require no radical
changes from time to time, would give a method of
retorting more efficient than either retorting at in-
dividual collieries or at large central stations.
ALCOHOL AS A MOTOR FUEL.
On October 18, Prof. H. B. Dixon delivered a
lecture entitled " Researches on Alcohol as a Motor
Fuel" to the Conference convened by the Imperial
Motor Transport Council. The Right Hon. Walter
H. Long presided.
The object of the researches, which were under-
taken at the request of the Departmental Com-
mittee on Power Alcohol, was to obtain data for
comparing alcohol with petrol and other hydro-
carbons as a fuel for motor and other small engines,
and to determine how far the properties of alcohol
are modified by admixture with other volatile
liquids.
On account of the small vapour pressure of
alcohol at low temperatures, it is difficult to start
off from cold when it is used in an ordinary petrol
engine. This difficulty can be overcome in several
ways, but it may be avoided by mixing with the
alcohol another liquid which will readily form an
explosive gas with air in the cold. Vapour-pressure
curves for various temperatures have been ascer-
tained for pure alcohol, pentane, hexane, ether,
and for mixtures of 80% alcohol and 20% hexane,
80% alcohol and 20% ether, for natalite (45% ether
and 55% alcohol), and of 80% alcohol and 20%
benzene. The last-named mixture is remarkable
for the fact that its vapour pressure is above that
of either constituent ; no difficulty has been found
in starting up from cold with it in motor and aero
engines. Owing to the high heat of evaporation of
alcohol, it is necessary to warm the intake when
using alcohol mixtures by passing all or a part of
the exhaust gases round it. The addition of water
to an alcohol-benzene mixture results in the liquid
separating into two layers, the denser aqueous
liquid containing less benzene, and the lighter
liquid containing more benzene, than the original
mixture. Also the solubility of benzene in alcohol
diminishes with falling temperature. A large
number of determinations has been carried out to
find the separation-temperatures of various alcohol-
benzene and alcohol-hexane mixtures on addition of
water ; as a result it was decided to use mixtures
containing 20 — 30% by volume of benzene for the
further experiments.
The ignition-temperatures of alcohol and other
vapours have been determined by heating at
atmospheric pressure, and by adiabatic compres-
sion. In the first method, the vapour and the air
or oxygen were heated separately by passing them
upwards through two concentric tubes fitted into a
long electrical furnace, the temperature of which
could be slowly raised and accurately measured,
special precautions being taken to counteract the
catalytic action of heated solids on the ignition
temperature in oxygen. The ignition-temperature
of alcohol vapour was found to be 510° — 515° C. in
oxvgen and 595° — 600° C. in air, and of pentane
550° C. and 560°— 570° C, respectively. Ether pre-
sented a quite abnormal property ; when all con-
tact with solids was avoided it fired below 240° C.
in oxygen, but had to be heated to nearly 580° C.
before it would inflame immediately in air. The
second method was to compress mixtures of the
vapour with air or oxygen in a steel cylinder
(maintained in most cases at 50° C.) by means of
a falling weight driving in an air-tight piston.
Owing to discrepancies in the recorded values of the
specific heats of the vapours, difficulty was experi-
enced in calculating the ignition-temperatures from
the observed compressions, but the results from
alcohol and pentane were found to agree with those
obtained by the first method. The results for ether
were very consistent and definite, but were much
lower with air and much higher with oxygen than
those found with the heated tube at atmospheric
pressure.
Photographic observations on the movements of
flame through explosive mixtures showed that the
alcohol flame starts faster than the hexane, pentane,
and ether flames, which keep close together, whilst
the benzene flame is left far behind ; but the
alcohol flame does not increase its pace like the
others. In all cases of firing by adiabatic compres-
sion it was found that the flame starts compara-
tively gently, and does not set up detonation
immediately. As detonation must be avoided in
the internal-combustion engine, investigations were
made into the conditions undei which it can lie set
up in alcohol and other vapours. Measurements
were made on the rates of the explosion-wave in
vapours of alcohol, pentane, benzene, and ether,
when mixed with varying volumes of oxygen, and
with oxygen and nitrogen in varying proportions.
The results showed that there was no marked
difference between the four fuels ; the ether mix-
tures gave slightly the fastest rates, and alcohol
the slowest, under similar conditions.
The main conclusion drawn by Prof. Dixon from
his researches — which are by no means finished — is
that alcohol possesses most of the properties
required in a motor fuel. As compared with
petrol, its lower calorific value is almost compen-
sated by the greater compression at which it can
be used, and this property (of high ignition-
temperature under compression) is hardly altered
by admixture with 20 per cent, of benzene, or of
petrol itself. Such a mixture readily starts in the
cold, and has been shown to run very smoothly in
an engine.
PERSONALIA.
Dr. H. W. Brownsdon has succeeded the late Mr.
L. P. Wilson as chairman of the Birmingham
Section of this Society, and Prof. G. T. Morgan has
been elected a vice-chairman in his stead.
Dr. W. Pauli has been appointed professor of
bio-physical chemistry in the University of Vienna.
It is announced that Dr. O. Kamm, of the Uni-
versity of Illinois, has been appointed director of
the chemical research department of Messrs. Parke,
Davis and Co.
Dr. V. K. Krieble, assistant professor of
chemistry at McGill University, has succeeded Dr.
R. C. Riggs as Scoville professor of chemistry at
Trinity College, Hartford, Connecticut.
Dr. F. E. Rowland, assistant professor of
chemistry at the University of Kansas, has been
appointed head of the department of chemical
engineering at the Oregon Agricultural College.
The death is announced of W. H. T. Harloff, the
well-known sugar technologist, at the age of 49.
His principal book, which has been translated into
English and Spanish, is the " Handleiding voor
Tropische Witsuikerfabricatie," now in its fourth
edition.
REVIEW.
[Oct. 30, 1920.
NEWS AND NOTES.
UNITED STATES.
Gasoline Substitutes. — As in Great Britain, bo in
America, steps are being taken to encourage the
discovery of a satisfactory gasoline substitute. There
have been gasoline famines in some of the Western
States, purchasers being allowed only one or two
gallons at a time. A Bill has been introduced into
Congress to appropriate $250,000 to the research in
question, and it is proposed to carry on the work
along four different lines : — (1) By seeking methods
for increasing the recovery of oil from oilfields ; (2)
by developing processes for making synthetic gaso-
line from heavy oils; (3) by encouraging the develop-
ment of processes for making gasoline and gasoline
substitutes from oil shales, coals, lignites, and
peats; and (4) by the development of processes for
making alcohols, ethers, etc., from waste vegetable
material.
Potash Situation. — The American potash industry
is showing considerable promise at the present
time, as the whole output for 1920 has already been
contracted for, and terms are being offered for the
ensuing year. The industry, though hindered by
labour troubles and difficulty in obtaining
materials, has benefited from the refusal of the
German potash syndicate to quote prices at Ameri-
can ports. Large new plants are being built at New
Brunswick, N.J., and at Searles Lake, Utah, where
the producers have reduced the borax content of
their potash to 0'5 per cent. Potash produced at
Searles Lake had previously caused damage to crops
on account of its borax content, but it is stated
that the borax content could easily have been
lowered had its harmful nature been known.- —
(Chem. and Met. Eng., Sept. 29, 1920.)
Bulking Values and Yields of Pigments and Liquids
used in Paint and Enamel Manufacture. — The Cost
Accounting Committee of the U.S. Paint Manufac-
turers' Association has published (Circular No. 104)
a very comprehensive account of the specific gravi-
ties of pigments and paint media used by American
paint grinders. The circular is intended to enable
manufacturers to calculate the bulk or gallonage of
paint produced from any pigment. The authors,
Messrs. H. A. Gardner and H. C. Parks, have
standardised methods for the determination of the
specific gravities of dry pigments, paint products
and paint media, and in connexion with the former
they give special directions for removing the last
traces of occluded air by subjecting the pigment,
contained in a special form of pyknometer under
dry kerosene, to a vacuum of at least 3 mm., a
lesser exhaustion having been shown to yield incon-
sistent results. Attention is drawn to the desir-
ability of manufacturers checking the yields of
paint products reported by the factory by means
of the bulks calculated from the specific gravities
of the constituents and those yielded in practice.
The specific gravity of different makes of the same
pigment varies greatly, different batches of the
6ame make varying also, but to a lesser degree.
Tables are given comprising the specific gravities
of practically all the pigments used in American
paint-grinding practice, together with the weight
per solid U.S. gallon (833 lb. of water) and its
reciprocal of solid bulk per lb. In many cases the
pigment manufacturers have voluntarily submitted
information as to the details of composition of their
product, which has been included in the tables.
The circular is of considerable interest, as it gives
the first comprehensive table of specific gravities
of the pigments published, whilst the inclusion of
the composition of a number of modern pigments
fills a want that has been felt by progressive paint
grinders for some time past.
Chromite in 1918. — In 1916 the domestic produc-
tion of chromite of all grades was 47,035 long tons,
valued at $ 14 — $20 per ton. In 1917, notwithstand-
ing the strong demand and the advance in the
average price to $24, the shipments declined by
about 3000 tons. Extraordinary inducements were
held out to miners in the spring of 1918 to meet
the urgent demand for chromite, and the total
quantity mined and shipped in the United States
amounted to 82,430 long tons, valued at nearly
$4,000,000. Later in the year victory stopped the
demand for this ore, and producers were left with
heavy bills to pay for the cost of production and
with large stocks on hand of unsaleable chromite
of declining value. These and similar losses led to
the passing by Congress of a War Minerals Belief
Bill, providing for a commission which is now ad-
justing claims in respect of war minerals.
The imports of chromite amounted to 100,142
long tons, or 28,079 tons more than in 1917. Large
imports came by land from Canada, and 27,868 tons
was supplied by the neighbouring countries of Cuba,
Brazil and Guatemala. — (r^.»S'. Geol. Surv., May 15,
1920.)
CANADA.
The Coal Situation. — The coal shortage, which a
few weeks ago seriously threatened Canadian in-
dustries, has now become less acute, although
domestic coal is still in short supply and at a high
price ($17 — $19 per ton). The Canadian Branches
of the Society of Chemical Industry have many
times urged an increased development of the
country's coal resources. That such representations
have not been entirely unsuccessful may be gathered
from the fact that the output from Canadian mines
during the first three months of this year was
nearly half a. million tons greater than in the corres-
ponding period of 1919. Should the present rate
of production be maintained, the output for 1920
will exceed that of the record year 1913, when
15,532,878 t. was produced. During the past five
years Canada has imported bituminous coal from
the United States in annual amounts varying from
9 million tons in 1915 to 17J million t. in 1918; im-
ports of anthracite during this period have varied
from 4 to 5j million t.
According to the Times of October 15, negotia-
tions are pending for the sale to the British Ad-
miralty of 200 sq. miles of coal land belonging to
the Ground Hog estate, which contains the largest
smokeless steam coal deposit in the world. The
Ground Hog property is in British Columbia, at
the head of the Portland Canal, about 700 miles
north of Vancouver.
Graphite. — A report on the graphite industry of
Canada by H. S. Spence, has been issued by the
Mines Branch of the Dominion Department of
Mines. After dealing with the mode of occurrence,
origin, composition, and economic importance of
graphite ores, the deposits found in Canada are
described. The graphite occurrences that have
hitherto received any measure of attention lie in
the eastern area of the country, and the number
of graphite mines and mills in operation during the
last few years is about six, with an average annual
production of 2438 tons, chiefly milled graphite.
In a full account of the wet and dry methods of
concentration it is stated that the latter have
mostly been discarded in favour of the film or other
flotation process ; methods of refining are also
dealt with. The manufacture of artificial graphite
and the uses of graphite in industry receive full
attention. About 75 per cent, of the world's pro-
duction of natural graphite is utilised in the manu-
facture of crucibles, the remainder being used for
lubricants (10%), pencils (7%), foundry facing and
stove polish (5%), and paints (3%). The uses of
the artificial product include the preparation of
electrodes, lubricants, paints, dry batteries, and
Vol. XXXIX., No. 20.]
REVIEW.
boiler-scale preventives. A review of the sources
of the world's supplies of graphite is given, and it
is of interest to note that, although graphite is
very widely distributed, the bulk of the production
in 1916 came from three countries. Austria pro-
duced 54.501 short tons (1913). Cevlon 37,420 t.,
Madagascar 28,080 t., Korea 18.704 t.. Italy
9017 t.. Germany 13.263 t. (1913). and the United
States 8088 t. The final chapter is devoted to the
determination of the carbon content of graphite
and graphite ores, and a bibliography of Canadian
graphite is given as an appendix.
AUSTRALIA.
Castor Oil Production in Queensland. — Much experi-
mental work on the cultivation of the castor oil
plant is being carried out by the Queensland Agri-
cultural Department. Mr. D. Jones, the cotton
expert, in drawing attention to the suitability of
Queensland for this purpose, states that there is
no reason why the State should not provide the
country's requirements, amounting to about 4000
tons of beans a year, and in addition be able to
export considerable quantities. Queensland beans
have been grown containing from 46 to 52 per
cent, of oil. The experimental work was proving
satisfactory {cf. J., 1920, 111b).— (Ind. Austral'.,
July 22. 1920.)
The Broken Hill Field. — According to the official
report of the inquiry into the Broken Hill labour
question, the underground workers have been
offered a 44-hour instead of a 48-hour week, and
an increase in day pay from 13s. to 15s.. as against
20e. demanded. The terms have been accepted by
the mine-owners, but the attitude of the men is
not yet known. The Broken Hill Proprietary is
about to raise its capital by £3,500,000, in order
to provide for a great expansion of its iron and
steel business at Newcastle, N.S.W. Among the
projected extensions are a fourth blast furnace,
together with coke ovens and by-product plant, a
sulphuric acid plant for the supply of acid used in
the production of sulphate of ammonia, a duplex
steel plant, a rod mill, locomotives and other rail-
way plant, etc.— {Mining Mag., Oct., 1920.)
FRANCE.
Industrial Notes. — Metallurgy. — As a direct result
of the fall in the price of coke, the " Comptoir
Siderurgique de France " has decided to make
corresponding decreases in the prices of cast iron
and steel which will amount to an average reduction
of 20 per cent, on existing prices. The lowering of
the price of coke is, however, subject to the com-
plete fulfilment of the terms of the Spa Agree-
ment, and in the case of cast iron and steel will
only hold good until December 31 next. Also, the
new prices are subject to revision up to the end of
the year.
It is reported that an arrangement will soon be
made between France and Germany, according to
which France will send siliceous cast iron to Ger-
many in exchange for coke, such coke to be
reckoned as outside the quantities due under the
Peace Treaty.
Coal. — The shadow of the coal strike in Great
Britain is causing much anxiety, but the continued
influx of German coal in excess of the stipulated
quantities is satisfactory, as is also the report
that the production in Upper Silesia is 20 per cent.
and that in Westphalia 31 per cent, greater than
in the corresponding period of 1919. Unfortun-
ately there is much congestion on the French rail-
ways, and if it cannot be removed the country will
suffer, because, by the Spa Agreement, France is
responsible for the transport of the German coal
supplies, and tonnage not conveyed cannot be car-
ried forward to the account of the following month.
From January 1 to July 31, 1920, the total avail-
able supply of solid fuel was 24,146,783 t. of coal
and 515.933 t. of lignite.
Chemical Industry. — As a result of the overflow-
ing of the River Arc (Savoy), the numerous electro-
chemical factories deriving water power from it
have suffered greatly, the damage to the Alais and
Camargue works alone being estimated at several
million francs. The waters of this river are ver\
muddy, and when they are suddenly turned into
torrents their abrasive power is very greatly in-
creased. A couple of months must elapse before
the works thus affected can be put into full working
order.
German competition in the chemical market is
daily increasing, and chemicals such as potassium
salts, carbonates, sulphates, permanganates, ferro-
cyanides. sulphocyanides, bichromates and elimin-
ates are being offered at prices far below those ob-
taining in France. Belgian chemical products are
also appearing in the market.
Successful attempts are being made to utilise
several chemical war products. Owing to the
scarcity and prohibitive price of formalin, chloro-
picrin and " yperite " have successfully replaced
it as an insecticide and disinfectant. Cordite can
also be transformed into a fer iliser containing 6
per cent, of nitrogen and about 20 per cent, of
moisture. TNT finds application in the dye and
perfume industries.
Utilisation of Tidal Energy. — The latest step in
the direction of fuel economy is a scheme for har-
nessing tidal energy which has been initiated, and
is being supported, by the Ministry of Public
Works. Preliminary work is being carried out at
La Landriais, on the river Ranee, about 8 km. from
St. Malo (Brittany), where two natural basins
exist, one on each side of the river, which are filled
by the incoming tide. The idea is to provide a
constant head of water and a continuous supply
of energy, the amount of which is estimated at
150 million kw.-hrs., equivalent to 250.000 t. of
coal, per annum.
Position of the Dye Industry in France. — The
"Union des Producteurs et des Consommateurs
pour le Developpement de PIndustrie des Matieres
Colorantes en France " has recently issued a report
which states that in spite of every effort to satisfy
the urgent home demand for dyes, delay in the
ratification of the Peace Treaty has necessitated
purchasing direct from Germany, and during the
period July — December, 1919, 1093 tons of dye-
stuffs were purchased by the Union from this
source. The dyestuffs were invoiced in terms of the
French franc, instead of the Swiss franc, thus
affording an advantage to the Union. The dyes
were distributed among users at the lowest possible
price, and as nearly as possible in accordance with
the users' individual requirements. The claims of
the industrial centres at Roubaix and Tourcoing
were taken into due consideration, and the geo-
graphical distribution was as follows (metric
tons):— Nord 323, Alsace 42, Paris 51, Lyons 31,
Rouen 29, Vosges 37 and other localities 71. —
(Chem. Ind., Oct. «, 1920.)
JAPAN.
The Sulphuric Acid Industry. — The development of
the sulphuric acid industry has made great progress
during the last decade. Whereas in 1910 the pro-
duction was less than 90 long tons, in 1915 it rose
to 219,643 t. and in 1918 to 566,607 t. The pro-
duction for 1919 is estimated at over 580,357 t. In
1915 and 1916 the exports increased verv greatly
(1915, 5913 t. ; 1916, 11,165 t.), largely owing to
the demand from Russia ; since then they have
receded, and last year only 2390 t. was shipped
abroad. The chief countries which derive supplies
from Japan are China, Dutch India, Straits Settle-
ments and Hongkong. Egypt imported a little sul-
phuric acid from Japan in 1917 and 1918. The
important trade with Australia is expected to be
seriously affected by the new Australian customs
tariff. At the end of May the position of the
Japanese industry was not good. Owing to the
high cost of production, the factories refuse to
accept the low prices offered by buyers, in spite of
the general market weakness. — (Chem. Ind.,
Oct. 6, 1920.)
BRITISH INDIA.
Mineral Resources. — The General Report of the
Geological Survey of India for 1919 contains an
account of the various economic inquiries conducted
during the year with a view to furthering the de-
velopment of the mineral resources of the country.
Bauxite. — Attention has been paid to Indian
bauxite, and schemes have been considered for the
manufacture of alumina, and even of aluminium,
in India. It was decided to examine all the well-
known bauxite deposits, and it is hoped that the
field work will be completed by the end of the
season 1919-20. The output of bauxite in 1918 was
1192 tons, entirely from Jubbulpore.
Chromite. — In consequence of the discovery of
chromite near Fort Sandeman in Baluchistan, it
was decided to resume the survey of the Zhob and
neighbouring areas. The first discovery of chromite
in Zhob was made nearly twenty years ago, but
since then no systematic exploration has been
undertaken. Average samples of the Fort Sande-
man chromite yielded 43'62% Cr203, and although
these only represented second-grade ores, they are
of importance as proving the presence of chrome-
bearing basic rocks and suggesting the possibility
of further discoveries. The production during
1918 was 57,769 tons.
Coal. — During the survey of the Tenasserim valley,
the Kawmapyin-Theindaw coalfield was re-visited,
but little new information resulted. All the samples
taken indicated very poor material, carrying about
30% ash, but samples taken at Kyankmithwe were
found to cake strongly and to contain only 3'77%
ash. At the request of the Madras Government, the
Beddadanol coalfield in the Godavari district was
visited and sites fixed for deep borings. The pro-
duction of Indian coal has steadily increased in
recent years, but the coal resources of the country
have not yet been fully exploited. In 1918 the pro-
duction rose to over 20 million tons.
Copper. — During investigations at Fort Sande-
man, Baluchistan, a supposed copper lode occurring
in the neighbourhood was examined, but the de-
posit appears to be a poor one. Attempts to work
commercially the indigenous deposits of this mineral
have met with very limited success so far. A cer-
tain amount of argentiferous copper ore occurs in
association with the lead-zinc ore bodies of the
Bawdwin mines in the Northern Shan States of
Burma, and the existence of considerable quantities
of copper in Sikkim has been established, but it
remains to be seen whether its extraction is com-
mercially possible. The output of copper in 1918
amounted to 3619 tons.
Iron. — The recent discoveries of iron ore in the
southern parts of Singhbhum having resulted in a
large number of applications for prospecting
licences and mining leases, it was decided to
examine the ferruginous belt. The results show
that the iron ore usually occurs at or near the top
of hills, the most important being in the range run-
ning from about 3 miles south-west of Gua to the
Kolhan Keonjhar boundary east of Naogaon.
Similar ranges run from the Duargui stream to the
Karo river near Ghatkuri, and again from the Karo
river, east of Salai, to the east of Chota Nigra.
The Kolhan heematites usually contain : — iron,
64% ; phosphorus, 003 to 0'08%, and, in some cases,
0T5%. The sulphur content is usually below 003%.
Traces of titanium are also found occasionally in
the ore. Samples from the better parts of the ore-
deposits contain as much as 68 — 69% iron. Little
prospecting work has been done hitherto on the
deposits, but enough is known to justify the belief
that the quantities available will run into hundreds
of millions of tons. In most cases, the chief obstacle
to development lies in the difficult and inaccessible
nature of the country.
Kaolin. — Extensive examination of the China
clay deposits of Upper Burma proved the existence
of very large quantities of clay eminently suitable
for the manufacture of porcelain. The raw sand
is said to contain about 60% of free silica, 25 — 30%
of kaolin, and to be very free from iron and alkalis.
Laboratory tests indicated that the plasticity,
refractoriness, and colour of the levigated material
were good.
Soda. — An inquiry has recently been made into
the soda deposits and industry in Sind. Prior to
this little was known regarding the nature and
extent of these deposits. The salt obtained is a
crude trona known locally as chaniho, and is used
for washing and dyeing clothes, for hardening
treacle, for the preparation of molasses from sugar
cane, but principally as a yeast in the manufacture
of papars or pulse biscuits. The total output in
Sind averages approximately 1000 tons per annum.
Sulphur. — Early in 1919 the old sulphur mines
near Sanni in Baluchistan were examined, but the
results showed that there was likely to be only a
small amount of sulphur available.
Tin. — A good show of tin was found in the
streams adjoining the Tenasserim river (Tavoy)
from the west. Tin mining is now a well-established
industrv in Burma, the output of 1918 amounting
to 15,607 cwt.
Mining. — A school of mines and geology is to be
established by the Indian Government at Dhan-
baid, in the coal-mining district of Behar and
Orissa, and a principal and senior professor of
mining are soon to be appointed. A mining and
metallurgical soeietv has been formed at th.» Kolar
goldfield.— (Mining 'Mag. , Oct.. 1920.)
GENERAL.
October Meeting of Council. — At the first meeting
of the new Council, held on October 15, Sir William
Pope, president, was accorded a hearty welcome by
the members, and he in turn expressed the gratifi-
cation of the Council at Mr. John Gray's presence
among them again after his serious illness. In view
of the increase in the annual subscription, which is
to take effect from January next, it is very satis-
factory to note that 118 new members were elected,
which is the record number for the past 12 years
at least ; 46 of the applications came from Shaw-
inigan Falls, Canada, where the formation of a new
Section has been sanctioned by the Council. An
application was unanimously approved for the
dissolution of the present Canadian Section, and
for the conversion of the branches at Montreal,
Ottawa, and Toronto into independent Sections.
The Society has now five Canadian Sections, viz.,
at Vancouver, Shawinigan Falls, and at the three
centres above mentioned. There has been formed
an Executive Committee for Canada consisting of
the chairmen and honorary secretaries of the five
Sections, whose business it will be to make arrange-
ments for the Annual Convention of Chemists, and
to take charge of matters affecting chemical in-
dustry that require action by the Dominion Govern-
ment. The vacancy in the list of vice-presidents,
caused by the election of Prof. H. Louis as lion,
foreign secretary, has been filled by the election
of Mr. T. H. Wardleworth, of Montreal. Members
were elected to the seven standing committees
which were inaugurated under Mr. John Gray's
scheme (c/. J., Mar. 15, 1920), and a list of these
will be given in an early issue of the Journal.
Vol. XXXIX., No. 20.]
REVIEW.
359 R
Chemical Industry Club. — The report of the Com-
mittee for the year ended August 30, 1920, records
steady progress; the net gain of 101 brings the
membership number up to 715, and the Hon.
Treasurer intimates a surplus of £133, which com-
pares with a debit balance of £55 a year ago. As
the accommodation in the premises at Whitehall
Court is still in excess of the attendance, the Com-
mittee would be glad to welcome new members. The
Federal Council for Pure and Applied Chemistry,
being in full sympathy with the objects of the Club,,
has co-opted Mr. H. E. Coley, the Secretary, and
the Committee has co-opted three members of the
Council, viz.. Sir William Pope, Dr. C. A. Keane,
and Mr. E. V. Evans. Owing to the rapid growth
of the Club and the increasing pressure of work
on its honorary officers, an assistant secretary has
been appointed in the person of Capt. R. P. C.
Harvey, M.C. The Club's rooms have been made
use of by several of the chemical and allied societies,
and the Committee looks forward to a new year of
increased activity and of usefulness to all who will
take advantage of the exceptional facilities offered.
Arrangements are being made for the holding of the
second Annual Dinner at the Connaught Rooms,
W.C., on Friday, October 29.
Streatfeild Memorial Lecture. — The third annual
lecture to commemorate the work of the late E. C.
Streatfeild at the Finsbury Technical College was
delivered by Mr. J. H. Coste, an old student, at
the College on October 14, the subject being " The
Gases Dissolved in Water."
The first part of the lecture dealt with the purely
physical aspects of the subject, special reference
being made to the historic work of Henry, Dalton,
and Bunsen. A short account was given of
Adeney's work on the rates of absorption of atmo-
spheric oxygen and nitrogen by air-free water, and
of the work of Wrinkler, Roscoe, and Dittmar on
the correlation of temperature with the volumes of
gases dissolved by distilled water and sea water.
Sir John Murray's calculation that the seas of the
globe contain some 10 billion tons of dissolved
oxygen and 120 billion tons of carbon dioxide was
quoted, and after the two general methods of deter-
mining the solubility of gases in water had been
outlined, a description was given of a method of
collecting water samples so as to avoid access of
extraneous air. The latter part of the address
contained references to the role played by dissolved
oxygen in biological and certain industrial pro-
cesses. The importance of dissolved air to sub-
aqueous life was emphasised, and the importance
of dissolved oxygen in respiration, in the treat-
ment of sewage and of public water supplies, and
in the corrosion of iron in hot-water radiators
and in steam-raising systems received due treat-
ment. The lecturer concluded with a powerful
protest against the projected closure of the Fins-
bury Technical College in July, 1921, and his
remarks were warmly supported by the chairman,
Prof. H. E. Armstrong, by Prof. G. T. Morgan,
Mr. Julian L. Baker, and other speakers. The
Streatfeild medal was presented to Mr. Coste, and
the Streatfeild prize to Mr. D. G. Murdock.
Investigations at Rothamsted. — Among the investi-
gations now in progress at Rothamsted, one, on the
relations of fertilisers to plant growth, seems to
foreshadow the possibility that the soil may contain
unexpected chemically active substances which may
play an important part in determining high soil
fertility. With regard to the effect of organic
manures on plant growth, no evidence has been
found that these are more effective than nitrates
or ammonium salts, or that they leave residues of
much value in the soil. Whilst their high price is
to some extent justified by their freedom from the
harmful effects shown under certain conditions by
ordinary artificial fertilisers, this advantage will
become less as these secondary effects are better
understood. Although weakness in the stems of
cereals and grasses is usually ascribed to lack of
potash, investigation has indicated that potassium
salts tend to weaken rather than strengthen the
anatomical structure of the stems. A new applica-
tion of soil analysis has been made, in the reclama-
tion of waste land, in which the analysis of the
waste-land soil was compared with that of adjoining
cultivated land of a similar type. The differences
found between the two sets of data made it possible
to indicate what changes must be brought about in
the waste land to bring it up to the level of the
cultivated land.
Examination of accumulated data on the nitrate
content of water percolating through drain gauges,
and on the loss of nitrogen from the Rothamsted
unmanured plots, lead to the conclusion that part
of the ammonia and nitrate produced in the soil
must normally be at once converted into some in-
soluble form, which subsequently becomes recon-
verted into nitrate. The nitrogen immohiliser con-
cerned is of biological nature. A new and im-
portant factor has been discovered in connexion
with soil population and partial sterilisation. The
ineffectiveness of certain steril'sing agents, e.g.,
naphthalene and thiocyanates, has been traced to
the readiness with which they are decomposed by
some of the soil organisms, and search is now being
made for retarding agents which will delay but not
prevent the decomposition. An interesting rela-
tionship has been traced between biochemical
activity in the soil and the ammonia content of
rain, the maximum ammonia content synchronising
with the greatest biological activity.— -{Official.)
Oil Exploration in Great Britain. — A recent official
statement in regard to the progress of the oil-
drilling operations during the current year gives
information concerning seven borings in Derby-
shire, two in Staffordshire, and two in Scotland.
In addition to the Hardstoft horing, which still
continues to yield 7 barrels a day, indications of
oil have been found in the Ironville bore No. 1 at
3650 ft. in the Carboniferous Limestone series.
One bore has been suspended and another
abandoned. One of the bores (Apedale) in Stafford-
shire has also been abandoned, but a new one is to
be sunk near by. At West Calder (Scotland) a
depth of 3844 ft has been reached after encounter-
ing a slight show of oil at 3705 ft. — (Mining Mag.,
Oct., 1920.)
Tungsten in Italy. — With the redemption of
Venezia Tridentina (Trentino), Italy has acquired
a deposit of tungsten, a mineral which has hitherto
been imported. The new mine is situated at Bedo-
vina, in the Fiemme valley, near Predazzo, and it
is estimated that there is about 180,000 metric tons
of mineral in sight, corresponding to 2160 t. of
copper and 450 t. of tungsten trioxide. — (Gior. di
Chim. Ind. ed App., Aug., 1920.)
Sulphur Situation in Italy. — The war imposed a
serious check on the development of the Italian
sulphur industry, and production declined from
330,000 short tons in 1914 to 180,000 t. in 1919,
owing to the labour shortage and the difficulty of
maintaining the mechanical equipment of the mines. ■
Before the war labour cost 80 — 85 lire (lira = 95d.)
per ton of sulphur mined in Sicily, as against 420 —
430 lire per ton in May, 1920. Similarly, pre-war
prices of from 110 — 115 lire per ton f.o.b. Sicilian
ports rose to 650 lire in May, 1920, whilst the
sulphur tax plus the cost of administering the
sulphur consortium increased from 850 to 70 lire
per ton. The sale of Italian sulphur, 90 per cent,
of which is produced in Sicily, is now practically
limited to the vine-growing regions of Southern
Europe. Unusually trying conditions surround
labour in the Sicilian mines, and the sulphur has to
be recovered by a wasteful process owing to the cost
and scarcity of fuel (cf. J., 1920, 258 R, 275 r).—
(U.S. Com. Sep., July 1, 1920.)
Mineral Exploration in Switzerland. — Iron. — The
Commission appointed to investigate the deposits
of iron ore in the Frick Valley (Frickthal, Canton
Aargau) completed its experimental work at the
end of August with very satisfactory results, the
existence of deposits of very high-grade ore over
17 ft. thick being proved. Exploration is to be
started at once (cf. J., 1920, 185 r). Another de-
posit in the Canton of Soleure (parish of Rienberg)
is now being explored.
Coal. — Although the winning of anthracitic coal
of good quality for certain purposes is proceeding
satisfactorily in the Canton of Valais, and lignite
mining is being carried on in the Canton of Berne
(Goldiwyl), borings put down in other parts of the
country have so far proved unsuccessful. Attempts
to reach the continuation of the Alsatian coal de-
posits at Buix were a failure. Notwithstanding
the many disappointments and the heavy expendi-
ture incurred, prospecting is to be continued. Geo-
logists, however, are of the opinion that even if the
coal strata were struck, they would be so deep and
the temperature so high (over 50° C.) that practical
exploitation would be impossible.
Potash. — As the well-known Alsatian potash de-
posits are situated within a comparatively short
distance of the frontier, it was thought that potash
might be found in the neighbouring Swiss territory,
especially as at Schweizerhalle, Rheinfelden, a few
miles east of Basle, there are important deposits
of rock salt which have been worked on a large scale
for many years. With this object in view, a boring
was put down at Allschwil, near Basle, not far
from the Alsatian frontier. Bock salt was found
after passing through the very deep Jurassic forma-
tion, but no trace of potassium salts was discovered.
Sodium Sulphate Manufacture in Belgium. — The Bel-
gian glass factories need some 80,000 metric tons
of sodium sulphate annually, and a further 10,000
is required for the production of sulphides,
Glauber's salt, etc. As the home supply does not
exceed 30,000 t., and it is desired to reduce pur-
chases in Germany and England, two companies
(the Societe des Cuivres, Metaux et Produits
Chimiques d'Hemixem and the Societe des Ver-
reries des Hamendes) have decided to erect a
sodium sulphate factory. — (Chem. Ind., Oct. 6,
1920.)
Lubricating Oil from Asphalt in Asia Minor. — It is
reported that, in order to meet the shortage of
lubricating oil in 1916, the directors of the Syrian
and Hedjaz railways distilled the bituminous lime-
stones (asphalt) which occur abundantly in Syrii.
and Palestine. A special distillation plant was set
up and oil was obtained at a cost of 3'45 piastres
per kg. (3"4d. per lb.). Thirty distinct deposits of
bituminous schists are known between Aleppo and
the Red Sea, the most important of which is that of
Mekarine, on account of its size and high oil-
content.— (17..S. Com. Bep., Sept. 2, 1920.)
The Tanning Industry in Spain. — The Spanish tan-
ning industry is of some importance, for prior to
the war there were about 1500 plants, with a total
of 100,000 workmen. Most of the tanneries are
very small, and not one has a technical director or
a chemist. The old method of tanning skins for
soles and kips is still in use, but since the war
chrome tanning of sheep, goat, and calf skins has
been introduced, without, however, reaching ex-
cellence in the products owing to the lack of modern
machinery. Two companies prepare tanning ex-
tracts, mostly from dry Argentine quebracho, mixed
with extracts of chestnut, sumac, pine, cork oak,
etc. Large amounts of tannin extract are imported
from South America and Northern France, and
some chestnut extract and oak wood are imported
from Italy. The number of important tanneries in
Spain is small compared with the population,
roughly 20 millions. A tanning school attached to
the University of Barcelona was founded by a small
group of manufacturers, but only six or eight
students enter the school each year, and these
usually leave without a diploma, as they desire to do
the practical work without acquiring a scientific
foundation.— (U.S. Com. Hep., Aug. 6, 1920.)
Production of Non-dusty Calcium Cyanamide. — Over
one hundred suggestions were sent in for the prize
offered by the Prussian Ministry of Agriculture for
the best process for overcoming the dusty nature
of cyanamide, but not one was considered satis-
factory. The dustiness and corrosive nature of
this substance are mainly due to the presence of
free lime and unchanged calcium carbide. The
suggested use of water is not practical, as the lime,
being "dead-burnt," combines but slowly with it,
and the resulting calcium hydroxide leads ulti-
mately to the formation of dicyandiamide, which is
injurious to plants, and to loss of nitrogen as
ammonia.
There are also practical technical difficulties
attending the use of small amounts of cyanamide
and efficient cooling, and if too little water be used
the granules soon fall to powder. Von Stutzer's
suggestion to add colloidal matter, e.g., bog-iron
ore, involves the use of large amounts — up to 100
per cent. — of the added substance, and the use of
solutions of iron and aluminium salts, molasses,
cellulose lye, magnesium and calcium chlorides,
etc., is expensive and leads to the occurrence of
undesirable subsidiary reactions. There appear,
however, to be prospects for the use of iron and
aluminium solutions ; but the most likely method is
the addition of 3 — 4 per cent, of heavy tar oil.
which almost completely prevents physical disin-
tegration, although it does not counteract the
caustic action. — (Chem. Ind.t May 26, 1920.)
Felspar (1913 — 1919). (Imperial Mineral Besouri.es
Tiureau, pp. 16, price 6d.) — Felspar is used chiefly
in the manufacture of pottery both in the body and
in the glaze, although its use in the manufacture
of glass and, particularly, chemical ware is steadily
growing. English porcelain has a flux composed
partly of felspar and partly of bone ash, and the
Continental hard porcelain is very closely related to
the English stoneware and other types of vitreous
body used in making insulators, chemical plant, etc.
Felspar is an important constituent of most
enamels used for coating kitchen utensils and other
metal wares, and it has also uses in the manufacture
of artificial teeth and as a flux in the manufacture
of carborundum and emery wheels.
The world's production is about 250,000 tons per
annum. The United States is the greatest pro-
ducer with about 100,000 tons per annum. The
production of the United Kingdom in 1919 was
48,651 tons, of which Cornwall supplied 4.3,043 tons
as " China stone" or " Cornish stone," which may
be considered a natural mixture of felspar and
quartz with kaolin, fluorspar, white mica, and topaz
as accessory minerals. Most of the felspar quarried
for industrial purposes is orthoclase or microcline
occurring as crystalline masses. In order that de-
posits may be worked at a profit they must be
very favourably situated for transport. It must be
possible to use the simplest quarrying methods, and
it is desirable that a deposit should have a thick-
ness of quite 25 feet. In America a haul of more
than two or three miles to the railway would render
most of the low-grade deposits quite unprofitable.
Moreover, felspar should be obtainable free from
such deleterious minerals as mica, garnet, tourma-
line, hornblende, apatite, and pyrites. Ferru-
ginous impurity is objectionable as it discolours the
finished product. As a rule, a felspar may contain
Vol. XXXIX., Xo. 20.]
REVIEW.
up to 20 per cent, of quartz, but some manu-
facturers of porcelain specify 5 per cent, as the
maximum. Much research work has been carried
out, and many patents applied for in connexion
with the utilisation of the potash content as a fer-
tiliser, but no commercial application has yet re-
sulted. The usual appendix gives references to the
technical literature on the subject.
Talc and Soapstone in 1918. — The world's produc-
tion of talc in 1918 amounted to 296,478 metric
tons, of which the United States furnished
173,706 t., France 57,588 t., and Italy 23,951 t. The
American production, chiefly from Vermont, New
York, and California, was valued at over 2 million
dollars, and represented a decrease of 4 per cent,
in quantity and an increase of 11 per cent, in value
compared with the previous year. The United
States is well supplied with low and middle grades
of talc suitable for paper, but is deficient in high-
grade material suitable for toilet powder, pencils
and burner tips. During 1918 that country im-
ported 14,169 short tons of talc (269,497 in 1917),
96 per cent, of which came from Ontario, Canada.
the remainder being chiefly high-grade material
from Italy, with a. small amount from France.
French talc is of excellent quality ; about 80 per
cent, of the output comes from Ariege, near the
Pyrenees, whilst " French chalk " comes from the
Toulon district. The production of talc in France
was 66,000 metric tons in 1913, and it is anticipated
that this figure will be again reached when produc-
tion is fully resumed. Italian talc is highly prized
for its purity, and is chiefly used in the manufac-
ture of toilet powder, though some of it is suffi-
ciently compact for use as burner tips; the chief
region of production is in the Alps to the west of
Turin, and the total output represented about 8 per
cent, of the world's production in 1918. Other
sources of talc include Austria, Norway, Spain, Ger-
many, India, and South Africa.
Soapstone, or steatite, is a massive crystalline
rock composed chiefly, but not wholly, of talc, the
grains of the latter being bound together by associ-
ated mineral matter. It is a soft mineral, and
when mined losses by breakage are said to be as
much as 90 per cent. The world's production in
1918 was 16.204 metric tons, of which the United
States supplied 15,268 t. (mainly from Virginia),
the rest. 936 t.. coming from England, where pro-
duction (begun in 1912) is increasing. France,
Spain, and Germany also produce it, but the output
is usually classified with talc. Soapstone is used,
especially in the United States, for making laundry
tubs and laboratorv tables, hoods, and tanks.—
(U.S. Geol. Sxirv.. Mar. 23, 1920.)
Borax Industry in Czecho-Slovakia. — An English
firm has erected a new borax factory in Czecho-
slovakia, and production is expected within a short
period.— (Chem. Ind., Sept. 22, 1920.)
PARLIAMENTARY NEWS.
Imports of German Dyes ami Chemicals.
In the House of Commons, on October 20, Sir
P. Lloyd Greame, in answer to Major Barnes, stated
that the import of German synthetic dyestuffs,
including intermediates, in the first nine months
of this year amounted to 1574 tons, worth
£1,399,027, and included 877 tons consigned under
the reparation clauses of the Peace Treaty. Details
of the chemicals imported from Germany were only
available for the period January-June," 1920. No
chemicals other than dyestuffs had been received by
way of reparation.
LEGAL INTELLIGENCE.
Donations for Scientific Research. W. Wynn
Evans v. Brunner, Mond and Co., Ltd.
In this action, which was commenced on October
15 in the Chancery Court, Mr. W. W. Evans, of
Wrexham, applied on behalf of himself and a few
other shareholders for an interim injunction to re-
strain Brunner, Mond and Co. from distributing
the sum of £100,000 to British universities and
other scientific institutions for the furtherance of
scientific education and research, as authorised at
an extraordinary meeting of shareholders held on
August 5, 1920.
The plaintiff contended that the resolution was
ultra vires because it was outside the main objects
of the company's memorandum and articles of
association. He was aware of the words in the
memorandum — " the doing of all such business and
things as may be conducive to the attainment of
the objects of the company," but held that they
did not cover such expenditure as was now pro-
posed. The directors in their affidavit 6aid that
the company's business required the scientific aid
and trained assistance which could only be obtained
from efficient schools and universities, and these
institutions must therefore be supported finan-
cially. But how far should this principle be
applied? All firms required clerks, but that would
not justify them in giving money to any institu-
tions which taught reading, writing, and arith-
metic.
Counsel for the company gave an undertaking
that no part of the money would be expended on
the object specified until the action was decided,
and Mr. Justice Eve said that he would hear the
action at a very earlv date.
Alleged Infringement of Society's Charter.
A. B. Jenkin o. The Pharmaceutical Society of
Great Britain.
In the Chancery Division, on October 19, Mr. A. H.
Jenkin, a member of the Council of the Pharma-
ceutical Society, brought a friendly action to test
that Society's power to embark on certain under-
takings which he contended were bevond its power.
because they would benefit the employing members
of the Society as distinguished from the employed,
and would not benefit the members as a whole
The complaint was that the Society had taken part
in the promotion of an Industrial Council Com-
mittee for the Drug Trade which had for its objects
the regulation of wages, hours and working condi-
tions in the industry, and the adoption of methods
for the inclusion of employers and employees in
their respective organisations. Further, the
Society threatened to undertake a variety of other
things, including the functions of an employers'
association, the provision of an employment re-
gister, and a register of unsatisfactory employees.
These things were ultra vires because they were in
the interest of employers alone; they were not con-
templated by the Charter, and even if they had
been contemplated in 1843, they could not be used
for the benefit of one class of members only.
The defence submitted that as one of the objects
mentioned in the Society's Charter was the pro-
tection of those who carried on the business of
chemists and druggists, these matters were not
ultra vires, and that the Society would not be likely
to go beyond what was necessary for trade pro-
tection. But even if they were ultra vires, the acts
complained of were not illegal. Judgment was
reserved.
362 b
[Oct. 30, 1920.
REPORTS.
Mines and Quarries : General Report, with
Statistics, 1919. By the Chief Inspector of
Mines. Pt. I. — Divisional Statistics. Pp. 25.
London: E.M. Stationery Office. [Cmd. 925.]
Price 3s.
The number of mines operated in 1919 was 2943
under the Coal Mines Act, and 495 under the
Metalliferous Mines Regulation Act, compared with
2801 and 474, respectively, in the previous year.
There were, in addition, 5135 quarries at work
(4362 in 1918), making a grand total of 8573 mines
and quarries, or 936 more than in the preceding
twelve months. The total number of workers em-
ployed in or at the mines and quarries was 1,270,050,
of which nearly 94 per cent, was employed under
the Coal Mines Act, and the number of deaths from
accidents was 1229, the corresponding totals for
1918 being 1,072,903 and 1487, respectively. The
accident death-rate under the Coal Mines Act was
0-94 per 1000, compared with 1"39 per 1000 in 1918.
The output of minerals from all sources in the
United Kingdom was as follows : —
Summary of Output of Minerals from Mines,
Quarries, and Brine Wells.
Description of mineral. Total output. Total.
1919. 1918.
Tons. Tons.
Alum shale 4848 . . 6231
Antimony ore . . . . . - — • ■ 1
Arsenic 2527 .. 2349
Arsenical pyrites 75 . . 477
Barium (compounds) . . . . 60.0S7 . . 66.360
Bauxite 9221 .. 9589
Bog ore 3045 . . 603
Chalk 2.629.406 . . 2,304.248
Chert, flint. &c 50.082 . . 54.518
Chromite of iron . . . . . . 150 . . 140
Clays* and shale 7.765.965 . . 6.003.787
Coal 229.779.517 .. 227.748.654
Copper ore and copper precipitate 372 . . 1213$
Fluor spar 36.860 . . 53.498
Gravel and sand 2.048.427 . . 2.022.567
Gypsum 220.003 .. 178,734
Igneous rocks 4.387.703 . . 3.961.524
Iron ore 12.254_.195 .. 14.613.032
Iron pyrites . . . . . . . . 7336 . . 22.195
Lead ore 13.868 . . 14.784
Lignite .. .. .. .- — •■ 150
Limestone (other than chalk) .. 9.537.495 .. 10.156.603
Manganese ore 12.078 . . 17.456
Natural gas (cb. ft. 90.000) (cb. ft. 85.000)
Ochre, umber. &c 10.547 . . 9480
Oil shale 2.763.875 . . 3.0S0.S67
Phosphate of lime . . . . . . ■ — . - 3372
Bock salt 90.938 .. 113.881
Salt from brine 1.817.142 .. 1.862.130
Sandstone 1,699.853 . . 1.553.151
Slate 164.098 .. 110.197
Soapstone
Sulphate of strouti.i
Tin ore (dressed)
Tungsten ores
Zinc ore
Total 275.384.528 .. 27S.988.449J
* Including china clay, china stone, and mica clay.
688 . . 936
1872 . . 1014
5156 . . 6378
166 . . 302
6933 . . 9025
Annual Report of the Chief Inspector of Fac-
tories and Workshops, 1919. Pp. 124. London:
R.M. Stationery Office. 1920. [Cmd. 941.
is. 6dj
The first year after the conclusion of peace was
noteworthy for the remarkable completeness of the
transition from war to civil production, and for
the wonderful smoothness with which th.e change
was accomplished. The most marked features of
this transformation were the gradual withdrawal,
now nearly complete, of women from industry, and
the resumption of the manufacture of ordinary
articles of commerce. The inspectors' reports
record, without exception, how unprecedented
were the inquiries for goods, and how great was
the (unsatisfied) demand for building and plant
with a view to extension. Throughout the country
there appears to have been a general conversion of
workshops into factories using mechanical power,
the number of the former decreasing by 8060 and
that of the latter increasing by 12,396. The use
of electrical power has greatly extended. Among
the industries which underwent noteworthy de-
velopment were glass manufacture, flax cultivation
and de-seeding, and substantial progress is reported
in the manufacture of dyes and fine chemicals in
the North-East Division.
Fatal accidents increased from 1287 in 1914 to
1385 in 1919, and non-fatal accidents, which were
probably not fully reported, decreased from 158,585
to 124,632. The worst explosion of the year hap-
pened in an oil-tank steamer at Cardiff. Light
crude oil was stored, improperly, in the coffer-dam
and leaked into the fore-peak tank, where it mixed
with air and was ignited by a naked light. An
explosion which occurred in the manufacture of
phosphor bronze was due to the stoppage of the
flow of molten phosphorus passing down a plum-
bago pipe into a crucible of molten metal ; and two
fatal explosions took place in the manufacture of
synthetic acetic acid owing to the formation of
copper acetylide resulting from the action of free
acetylene on copper. An unexplained explosion
occurred in a machine for polishing powdered
aluminium (cf. J., 1920, 201 r), and a violent ex-
plosion happened during the grinding of anachrome
brown in an electrically-driven drum containing
loose iron bars. Other explosions took place in the
reduction of nitrobenzene to benzidene with nascent
hydrogen, in the purification of salicylic acid by
sublimation in a current of hot air, etc. The rules
and regulations in regard to safety precautions in
chemical works are stated to be quite inadequate,
and it is hoped that the new regulations drafted
before the war will soon be issued.
The reported cases of lead poisoning numbered
207, compared with 144 in 1918 and an average of
522 in 1912 — 1914. The industry which is now re-
garded as offering the greatest risk of plumbism
is the manufacture of electric accumulators. After
perusal of some 25,000 reports, the Chief Inspector
re-affirms his conviction that locally applied ex-
haust ventilation is the sheet anchor in the pro-
tection of workers from leady dust and fume, and
that these alone are the operating causes. The
recommendations of the International Labour Con-
ference in regard to the employment of women and
young persons under 18 in lead processes are de-
tailed (cf. J., 1920, 68 r). Among other cases of
industrial diseases may be noted the poisoning of
a man employed in the drying and finishing room
for phosphorus sesquisulphide ; in this case there
would only be exposure to phosphorus fumes when
firing occurred. Of seven cases of mercurial poison-
ing, three occurred in the manufacture of philoso-
phical instruments. Poisoning by TNT lead to
three fatal cases of toxic jaundice. Accidents due
to escape of gas included the following: — Carbon
monoxide, 85 (12 fatal); chlorine, 9; benzol,
naphtha, aniline, 9; ammonia, 8; sulphur dioxide,
7 ; and 3 each for carbon dioxide, hydrogen sul-
phide, and arsine.
In a chapter on " Employment : Hours of
Work," it is stated that the inspectors' reports
show that the shortening of the working hours,
which now rarely exceed 48 per week, has had a
beneficial effect on the operatives, not only on their
health, but also on punctuality and discipline. The
reports show wide differences of opinion as to the
effect of shortened hours on production, but it may
be said that where output depends almost entirely
on the speed of machinery, it is reduced in a pro-
portion nearly, if not quite, equal to the reduction
in hours. In machine operations requiring con-
stant attention, output has not suffered to this ex-
tent, and in exceptional cases has not been affected
Vol. XXXIX., No. 20]
363 R
at all. In processes where output is mainly or
entirely dependent upon the exertion of the worker,
there is frequently no loss at all. A few of the
reports indicate a very unfavourable result of
shortening the hours of work, for which no adequate
explanation has, as a rule, been given.
Report of the Food Investigation Board, 1919.
Department of Scientific and Industrial Be-"
Search. Pp. 36. London: II. M. Stationery
Office. Price 6d.
This report gives an interesting account of the
work being carried out under the guidance of the
various committees which deal with certain im-
portant branches of food investigation. The greater
part of the research work during the year 1919 was
devoted to studying the preservation of food by
cold. Dr. A. Harden has investigated the effect of
cold storage upon the accessory food factor which
occurs in butter (" fat soluble A " or growth factor),
and has found that there is no material loss of this
substance during 12 months' storage of the butter at
a temperature of -8° to -15° C. — an observation
which is of considerable practical importance.
The work of the Fish Preservation Committee has
been somewhat restricted owing to the small
freezing plant available for research purposes, but
in spite of this considerable progress is recorded.
Miss I. H. Green has made an extensive study of
the bacteria which occur in the herring. Her re-
sults indicate that the number of bacteria present
in herrings which have been frozen in brine is less
than that in herrings frozen in the air. This is
believed to be due to many bacteria being killed by
the cold brine before they are able to spore. She
has also ascertained that ungutted herrings have
more satisfactory keeping properties than those
which have been gutted. Reference has already
been made to the work of the Meat Committee,
which has now obtained much valuable information
on the freezing of meat and on the processes of
putrefaction (cf. J., 1920, 343 r). The anferobic
spore-bearing bacilli have been made the subject of
a special investigation, since they undoubtedly play
an important part in the process of putrefaction.
The difficulty in cultivating these organisms is
well known, so that a description of the prepara-
tion of a simple and cheap culture medium which
gives good results will be appreciated. The En-
gineering Committee also reports valuable pro-
gress. Mr. G. C. Hodsdon and Prof. C. H. Lees
were appointed a sub-committee to draw up a
bibliography dealing with refrigeration and cold
storage. This has now been completed, and forms
the special Report No. 2 of the Food Investigation
Board. A sub-committee on insulation devoted
itself very largely to an examination of the common
insulating materials, nearly all of which have now
been tested over a long range of temperature. It
is also paying attention to the laws governing the
heat transmission from the walls of a room to the
air. The sub-committee on refrigerator cars and
barges has continued its experiments during the
year, and trial runs with insulated cars have been
made on the Great Western and Midland Railways.
The work which has been carried out by the
Fruit and Vegetable Committee and the Oils and
I ats Committee has alreadv received some notice
(cf. J., 1920, 343 r), but mention should be made
of the interesting research by Dr. Maclean on the
production and nature of yeast fat. Both the
quantity and the character of the fat appear to
be influenced by the conditions under which the
organism grows, and further studies are being made
to throw more light on this subject. The Canned
Food Committee began work during 1919. and this
has already yielded promising results, which form
the subject of a special report by Dr. W. G. Savage
(Special Report, No. 3, F.I.B.) on the methods used
for the inspection of canned food and their re-
liability for this purpose.
Report on the Economic and Financial Situation
op Egypt for 1919. By E. H. Mulock R.M.
Commercial Agent, Cairo. Pp. 24. London-
H.M. Stationery Office. 1920. \_Cmd. 843. 3d.}
The present financial prosperity of Egypt is due
to the favourable balance of trade in the period
1913—1917 and in 1919, to the money brought in
by the Expeditionary Force, to fortunes made by
speculators in uncontrolled commodities, and to the
phenomenal rise in the value of cotton.
Natural Resources.— The agricultural products
include cotton, cereal and fodder crops, and among
the exports are comparatively small quantities of
barley, beans, groundnuts, maize, wheat, raw
wool, vegetables and fruit, and since 1917, raw flax.
Statistics of mineral production are not available
for 1919, but the following are the amounts in
metric tons for 1918 and 1913 (in brackets)-
Phosphate rock 31,147 (104,450) petroleum 281,885
(12,786), gold (oz. fine) 2856 (4602), nitrate shale
4o20 (4740). In addition to the above, the follow-
ing are now being exploited : —Building stones,
day, gypsum, natron, salt, and turquoise. The
existence has been proved of alum, copper ores,
emeralds (beryl), granite, iron ores, ornamental
stones, and sulphur. There are large quantities of
manganese ores in the Sinai region, and 27,498 tons
of manganese-iron ore was produced in 1918.
Fuel.— Egypt has also its fuel problem. Cotton-
seed cake is no longer available, coal is expensive
and hard to obtain, and the supply of Egyptian
mazout very uncertain. Cotton sticks proved their
value as fuel during the war, and should be obtain-
able in greater quantity owing to the increased
acreage under cotton, but the solution of the fuel
problem will probably lie in the importation of
crude oil.
Imports. — The total imports during 1919
amounted to £E47,409,717, of which the United
Kingdom supplied £E21, 8-10.957, or 461 per cent
and the British Empire a total of £E27,607,951, or
over 58 per cent. (1 £E = £1 Is. 6d. at par). Com-
parison of the import trade of 1919 with that of
previous years is not possible in many cases as the
customs statistics have been reclassified in accord-
ance with those of the United Kingdom. The
values of the chief materials in 1919 and the per-
centage furnished by the United Kingdom were: —
Dyes, tanning materials and colours, £E691,000
(27-4%, including colours worth £E85,048) ; chemi-
cals, medicines and perfumes, £E3,345,751 (24'1%,
including soap £E289, 964, sulphuric acid £E444, 493,
caustic soda £E51,710, etc.). There has been a
phenomenal increase of late in the trade with
Japan, the value of goods imported from that
country being :—£E70,704 in 1913, £E332,642 in
1916, £E2,533,967 in 1918, and £E1,729,164 in 1919.
Openings for British Trade. — The following
British goods would sell well in Egypt (the nature
of the demand and the chief competitor are given
in parentheses): — Cement (big; Belgium); chemi-
cals, including alum, ammonia, aniline salts, bi-
carbonates of potash and soda, caustic soda, cream
of tartar, copperas, soda crystals, sulphate of
ammonia, tartaric acid, etc. ; china and glassware
(big ; Japan) ; plate glass (good) ; aniline dyes (big,
especially blue and black); glue (constant); syn-
thetic indigo (big); natural indigo (steady); paint,
including colours, enamels, oils and varnishes (con-
stant); starch (good); ultramarine (poor; chiefly
France) ; zinc white (good) ; window-glass (good ;
Belgium supremacy challenged by only two United
Kingdom firms).
REVIEW.
Exports. — The increase in exports for 1919 over
those in 1918 was mainly due to increased ship-
ments of more valuable cotton. Of the total value
for 1919, viz., £E75, 888.321, the United Kingdom
took 53 per cent, and the British Empire 543 per
cent. Exports to Great Britain consisted chiefly
of raw cotton, cotton seed, onions, cottonseed cake,
eggs, cigarettes, raw wool, hides and skins, and raw
Report on the Commerce and Industry of
Norway to the End of 1919. By C. L. Pai-s,
Commercial Secretary to H.M. Legation,
Christiania. Pp. 128. London: H.M. Sta-
tmnvry Office. 1920. [Cmd. 839. Is.]
The exceptional prosperity enjoyed by Norway
during the war enabled her to build up a strong
financial position and so to enter well equipped on
the period of depression which followed the
armistice The depression continued throughout
1919, but it has since become less acute as labour
costs have also risen in other countries. At one
time German competition caused anxiety, but this
has largely disappeared since the German Govern-
ment has taken steps to control exports ; however,
Norwegian manufacturers are Still asking for in-
creased tariff protection, existing duties being held
to be quite inadequate to protect home industries.
The large adverse balance of trade in 1919 caused
much apprehension, but many of the goods im-
ported in that year had been stored for considerable
periods for Norwegian account.
Minerals. — Exports of iron ore and iron ore con-
centrates diminished steadily from 311,433 metric-
tons in 1914 to 25,680 t. in 1919. owing to the loss
of the German market during the war period, to
difficulties in regard to payment by Germans, and
to high cost of production in 1919. At the end of
last year the large iron mines held big stocks and
were practically closed down. Owing to German
shortage of steel-hardening materials, there was
a great increase in the production and export of
Norwegian molybdenite during the war, the export
figures being:— 1912, 3 tons; 1914, 87t. ; 1916, 140t, ;
1917, 201 t. Shipments were practically stopped
by Allied action in 1918, when many mines were
closed down. In 1919 the demand disappeared and
the industry seems to have become extinct. Simi-
larly, the chromite industry enjoyed a period of
great prosperity from 1914 to 1917 and then became
inactive. CFor pyrites industry, cf. J., 1920. 77 r).
Fuel and 1Yater Power. — The present position in
regard to supplies of coal is said to be very satis-
factory; 1,740.000 tons was imported in 1919,
stocks are estimated at 500,000 tons, and future
annual requirements at two million tons. Ameri-
can coal has lately entered this market, but it is
somewhat dearer than British. About 90.000 tons
of coal, of which one-third was of inferior quality,
was imported from Spitzbergen in 1919. The ques-
tion of a national supply of electricity is under
investigation by a special Commission, which is
expected to report this year. Many new municipal
power schemes were initiated during the war, but
the many Government schemes do not appear so
far to have made much headway.
Chemical Industry. — The war stimulated the pro-
duction of chemicals, but many of the new fac-
tories have failed to withstand competition. It is
reported that German alum, sulphate of alumina,
potash salts, Epsom salts, sulphuric, oxalic and
hydrochloric acids are selling at lower prices than
those of any other country. The two chemicals
which are being exported from England are
chloride of lime and sulphate of soda, whilst Bel-
gium, possibly by agreement with British pro-
ducers, controls the market for caustic soda and
soda ash. Prior to 1914, drugs and fine chemicals
were mainly imported from Germany, owing to the
fact that the Germans adapted their wares to the
needs of the Norwegian market, and to lower
prices. After the German embargo of December,
1914, English goods were imported for a time in
very large quantities, but their quality was gener-
ally far from satisfactory. During 1916-17, when
importation from England became difficult, Ameri-
can goods appeared, but the importation ceased
when the United States entered the war. Since
the armistice imports, mainly from America, have
been large, and stocks have been replenished.
During the war period there was a continual
shortage of fertilisers, but thanks to the home pro-
duction of artificial nitrate the difficulties were
overcome. The Government is still granting large
subsidies to this industry, and the consumption of
home-produced nitrate was 8286 t. in 1914-15,
19,490 t. in 1916-17, 53,399 t. in 1917-18, and
49,000 t. in 1918-19.
The electrochemical industry experienced unpre-
cedented prosperity throughout the war period ;
two large carbide plants were erected, aluminium
extraction was started, and the existing aluminium
factories under French control extended their
operations. With the end of the war the demand
for electro-chemical products greatly decreased, and
the present position and prospects of the industry
are not bright, labour troubles and shortage of coal
being the outstanding difficulties. Norway has two
superphosphate works, one near Christiania, which
produced 3500 t. annually before the war, but is
being extended to turn out 20,000 t. this year, and
a new factory which started up at Bergen in 1917,
now being enlarged to produce 60,000 — 70.000 t.
The following statistics of exports indicate the
trend of the electrochemical industry during recent
Carbide . .
Cyanamide
i Nitrate of lime . .
Nitrate of ammonia
; Aluminium
Zinc
I Ferro-ckrome
Metric Tons.
1914. 1916. 1918. 1919.
63.723 58.432 41,772 26.599
13.719 13.152 10 9930
75.176 46.001 53,625 63.880
11.959 59.639 49.588 5163
2942 4488 6834 3120
16.517 28.149 3390 3950
2796 2875 — —
6144 25.256 16,861 2458
Practically all the requirements in metals, ferrous
and non-ferrous, have to be met by importation.
This trade was very largely in British hands
(American zinc sheets excepted) during 1919. and
prospects for British manufacturers are held to be
of the brightest if they will send Norway what she
«ants and not what thev think she ought to have.
GOVERNMENT ORDERS AND NOTICES.
The following Orders have been made by the
Board of Trade under the Defence of the Realm
Regulations : —
Coal Emergency Order, 1920. — The supply of
coal for household purpose's is limited to 1 cwt. per
week, but none may be supplied if the stock in
hand exceeds 10 cwt. Factories, workshops, and
business premises are restricted to a maximum of
50 per cent, of the weekly average quantity of coal
consumed in the four weeks preceding October 16,
unless special permission be granted by the local
authority. Power is given to district coal and
coke supplies committees to regulate the supply and
distribution of, or to requistion, existing stocks of
coal within their area of jurisdiction.
Gas and Coal (Emergency) Order, 1920. — Gaa
undertakings may not use a greater amount of coal
than is sufficient to produce gas of 450 B.Th.U. per
cb. ft. ; they may reduce the gas pressure at
Vol. XXXIX, No. 20.]
REVIEW.
certain periods of the day or night after notification
to the local authority and consumers.
Lighting, Heating, and Power (Emergency)
Order, 1920. — The consumption of gas and elec-
tricity for public lighting is to be reduced to a
minimum, and lighting for the purpose of advertise-
ment is forbidden.
Prohibited Exports. — Raw flax has been re-
moved from the list of prohibited exports as from
October 21.
OFFICIAL TRADE INTELLIGENCE.
(From the Board of Trade Journal for October 14
and 21.)
OPENINGS FOR BRITISH TRADE.
The following inquiries have been received at the
Department of Overseas Trade (Development and
Intelligence), 35, Old Queen Street, London, S.W. 1,
from firms, agents, or individuals who desire to
represent U.K. manufacturers or exporters of the
goods specified. British firms may obtain the
names and addresses of the persons or firms referred
to by applying to the Department and quoting the
specific reference number.
Locality of
Keference
Firm or Agent.
Materials.
Number.
Australia
Glassware, crockery, iron, steel . .
526
China
•412/20/7/253
British India . .
Tanning materials, metals
490
Canada
531
Ceylon
495
Egypt
496
Newfoundland . .
497
China, earthenware
499
South Africa . .
Taint
533
Belgium
Earthenware
504
506
Printers' and lithographers' sup-
plies ..
508
Latvia
Paper, ink
511
Netherlands ..
Paper
512
Portugal
Iron, steel, tin, tinplate, chemi-
cals, perfumery
514
Spain
Glass
Tanning extracts, leather, packing
515
paper
543
Boot polish
544
France
Minerals, metaLs. chemicals
536
Germany
Oils for soap making
538
Algeria
Paper, printing ink
517
Morocco
Candles, cement
549
China
Bar Iron, drugs, china
518
United States . .
Optical Instruments
551
Argent ina
554
Chile
Chemicals, dyes
520
Cuba
"Whisky, beer, rope, twine
521
Ecuador
Paint, cement, paper, tinplate.
leather, china, pottery
523
Markets Sought. — A firm in Canada wishes to
get into touch with U.K. importers of heavy melt-
ing steel and No. 1 wrought-iron scrap.
A firm in Canada able to export pure Venice tur-
pentine and Burgundy pitch wishes to hear from
importers in the U.K.
[Inquiries to the Canadian Government Trade
Commissioner, 73, Basinghall Street, E.C. 2.]
TARIFF. CUSTOMS. EXCISE.
Australia. — Recent customs decisions affect the
classification of " Boron Compo," alumino-ferric,
gold paint, nichrome wine, copper sheets and circles
for vacuum pans, and the following articles when
Used fur making porcelain enamel, viz., borax,
boric acid, red lead, bicarbonates of potash and
soda, ammonium carbonate, nitre, cobalt, calcined
magnesia, and whiting.
Bulgaria. — Among the additional articles that
may be imported without previous authorisation are
linseed oil, industrial fats and oils (not perfumed),
rosin, gums, paraffin wax, mineral lighting oils,
varnish, caustic soda, sodium bicarbonate, petrol,
ether, gasoline, benzene, chemicals not specially
mentioned, cork, emery powder, crucibles, retorts,
bottles, lead and iron pipes, yeast, paper waste.
Canada. — Recent customs decisions affect benzol,
solvent naphtha, 10 per cent, iridium-platinum in
sheets, and steel bars.
Cyprus. — Customs duties have been amended on,
inter alia, petroleum, salt, wines, spirits, aniseed,
and linseed.
Fiji. — The export of sugar is prohibited, except
under licence, as from August 16.
Greece. — A stamp tax of 10 lepta per drachma of
the retail selling price has been levied on per-
fumery and pharmaceutical specialities.
Italy. — The suspension of the import duty on
newsprint paper continues in force until Decem-
ber 31.
Morocco (French Zone). — Export duties have been
abolished on antimony sulphide, ores (except lead),
sea salt, and rock salt.
Netherlands. — Export prohibitions have been
withdrawn from potato sago, potato starch, dextrin,
glucose, and grape sugar.
New Caledonia (French). — The rate of export
duty on tallow is fixed at 8 per cent, ad valorem.
Palestine. — Certain building materials, including
iron and steel bars, galvanised or corrugated sheets
and plates, window glass, roofing tiles, and cement,
pay reduced rates of import duty for the present.
Peru. — The new customs tariff became operative
on October 15.
Serb-Croat-Slovene State.— A list of goods the
export of which is permitted may be seen at the De-
partment.
Among the articles that may be imported duty
free under certain conditions are lubricating oils,
motor spirit, building materials, and chemicals for
making dyes and paints.
Switzerland. — The export of lead, lead wire,
sheets and pipes, and dextrin, is now covered by
general export licence, but the general export
licence for oilcake has been abrogated as from Sep-
tember 20.
Turkey. — The export of salt is now permitted.
Uruguay. — The full text of the decree regulating
the import, export, and sale of opium and its de-
rivatives may be seen at the Department.
COMPANY NEWS.
ENGLISH OILFIELDS, LTD.
The directors have issued a long report by the
company's scientific consultants on the oil-shale de-
posits in Norfolk, of which the following is a brief
summary: —
All former estimates of the extent of the oil-shale
deposits were too conservative ; the field appears to
be almost unlimited, for numerous test borings
have shown that rich seams continue below 300 ft.
Much valuable material occurs at such shallow
depths that it can be removed by means of
mechanical diggers. The shale in the two shallow
commercial scams already opened up is of excellent
quality, and sufficient reserves are in sight for the
employment of opencast mining for many years to
come ; the cost of such shale delivered at the works
will not exceed 5s. per ton. After many trials a
highly effective commercial retort has been devised
by Mr. J. Black, late works manager to the Oak-
bank Oil Co., and this has given yields of oil
b2
366 r
BEVIEW.
greater than those obtained in the laboratory.
The average yield of crude oil obtained with the
new retort is 38 galls, per dry ton, to which must
be added a further 3 galls, from "scrubbing."
Tests on core samples of shale have given an average
yield of 22'6 lb. of ammonia per dry ton. With re-
gard to refining, on the basis of a total yield of
33 galls, of crude oil per ton, the yield of refined
products per dry ton is 30J galls., composed of
motor spirit 7, kerosene 9£, lubricating oil 9, solid
bituminous residue 5 galls (50 lb.). The motor
spirit contains 02 per cent, of sulphur, and a
mileage test with it gave 37 miles per gall., com-
pared with 33 for a well-known brand of No. 1
spirit. Among the most valuable of the by-products
from the crude oil is ichthyol, of which some 12 tons
per day should be recoverable from 1000 tons of
shale, yielding a daily profit of at least £1344. A
very conservative estimate of the prospective profits
from oil, ammonium sulphate, and ichthyol exceeds
£3 per dry ton of shale treated. The presence of
free oil in the shale measures has been proved, and
there is clear evidence of its occurrence in payable
quantities at lower depths.
TRADE NOTES.
BRITISH.
The Bahamas in 1918-19.— There was a marked im-
provement in agriculture in the Bahamas during
the year, cultivation having been extended and the
harvest plentiful. The chief industry is the pro-
duction of sisal, which is grown almost everywhere
and it is hoped that the Sisal Inspection and Grad-
ing Act will ensure a greater demand for it in
foreign markets. The export for the year was
3447 tons, worth £154,231. Efforts are being made
to encourage the plantation of coconuts; the export
of sponges is of considerable importance, attention
is being paid to their culture and valuable results
are expected.
The imports during the year ended March 31,
1919, were valued at £367,180 (£493,584 in 1917), of
which the United Kingdom supplied 53 per cent.,
Canada 17, British Possessions 10-4, and the United
States 817 per cent. The decrease in trade (3'4 per
cent.) with the United Kingdom was due to the
difficulty of obtaining goods, their high cost and
increased transport charges. Exports were valued
at £278,171 (£402,477 in 1917), and were distributed
as follows:— United Kingdom 62, Canada 17
British West Indies 0"8, and the United States 827
per cent. The large decrease is due to the small
demand for the staple exports, sponge and sisal —
(Col. Iiep.-Ann., No. 1033, April, 1920.)
FOREIGN.
Trade of Italy in 1919.— The provisional statistics
of Italian foreign trade in 1919 show a very lar<*c
unfavourable trade balance, which, apparently
was considerably higher than in 1918.
The total imports in 1919 amounted to 16,5528
million lire (Iira = 9Jd.), compared with 16,0393
million lire in 1918. The values of the chief im-
ports in 1918 and 1919 are given below in millions
of lire : —
Chemical products, resins and perfumes 1.4R5 wifi
Colours and tanning extracts .. 47:1 -.1)4
!,:,ot,on 1.591.021
skins (..jt; - 1,,
Minerals, metals and manufactures of 2 7nr.Vi.10
\ I'Kctalile fibres (hemp. flax. jute, etc.) lr.o'sr.r,
btones. earths, pottery, glass and
crystals . . . . , , j 570 ogg
Indiarul.l.er. guttapercha and'manu- ' '
factures of
Precious metals . . . , '.[ * \ 705";
mi. cir,
1919.
804.219
137,423
1.964,463
859.649
2.624.033
208,317
1.781,047
157.808
The quantities of some of the principal imports
were, in metric tons: — Gums and resins, 18,391;
hides, 42,384; indiarubber, raw and scrap, 12,036;
oilseeds, 30,461 ; fixed oils for industrial use,
24,511 ; mineral oils (except petroleum) and resins,
214,082; acids, 16,822; paraffin and wax, 19,516;
other chemical products, 19,807 ; colours, colouring
extracts and varnishes, 5493; petroleum, 94,112;
manufactures of indiarubber and gutta percha,
2357. Of the total imports the United States sup-
plied 44T per cent., Great Britain 14, Argentina
85, and France 4'2 per cent.
The exports for 1919 were valued at 51895
million lire (33447 million lire in 1918), and in-
cluded (metric tons) : — Raw hemp, 38,085; zinc ore,
5787; sulphur, 53,866; refined sulphur, 66,591;
olive oil, 7468; essential oils and essences, 11,207;
acids, 17,026; citrate of lime, 3458; casein, 8238;
soap, 5304; and paper, 10,508. France took 21 '6
per cent, of the exports, Great Britain 128, Swit-
zerland 123, and the United States 87 per cent. —
(Bull. Vept. Trade and Com. Canada, Jvly 5, 12,
1920.)
REVIEWS.
A Treatise on Chemistry. By the Right Hon.
Sir H. E. Roscoe, F.R.S., and C. Schorlem-
mer, F.R.S. Vol. I. The Non-Metallic
Elements. Fifth edition, completely revised
by Dr. J. C. Cain. Pp. xu.+968. (London:
Macmillan and Co., Ltd. 1920.) Price 30s. net.
A multiplicity of text-books and treatises on any
branch of science may be regarded as a pretty fair
indication of the appreciation in which that
science is held in the country producing them. If
we may judge, therefore, from this point of view,
there is no valid ground for dissatisfaction with
the estimation in which chemical science is held
among the chief English-speaking communities. In
this respect England and America are as one.
The leading publishing houses of both countries
have their branch establishments and agencies on
both sides " the water," and their productions cir-
culate on each continent, without let or hindrance,
to an extent depending on their intrinsic merits
or timeliness of appearance.
It has become a truism to say that the lessons
of the last few years have opened our eyes to
many shortcomings. That we have come through
our trial so well says more for the innate benius and
capacity of our people than it does for the educa-
tional training which prepared us for it. We
recognise now that had the nation been better
equipped, the ordeal would have been neither so pro-
longed nor so full of nxiety as it actually was. The
public recognition of the influence of Science upon
national wellbeing is to be seen in the unprece-
dented influx of our youth into our Universities,
polytechnics, and secondary schools. All theses
places are full to overflowing, and the capacity of
our chemical, physical, and engineering laboratories
is being strained to the utmost.
Good text-books therefore are, and will be, more
than ever in request. The publishers of the work
under review were well advised to take time by the
forelock and prepare for the inevitable demand.
This book has now had an existence of nearly half
a century, and its position in public estimation
is well assured. It may be said to have had its
origin in the extraordinary sucess which attended
its projector's " Lessons in Elementary Chemistry, '
first published by the Macmillans in 1866. That
little work has gone through edition after edition.
It has been translated into almost every European
Vol. XXXIX., No. 20.]
REVIEW.
367 r
and some Eastern languages, and, as translated by
Schorleiumer and published by Vieweg, has been
extensively used in German schools and colleges.
This well-tested faculty of being able to put to-
gether a readable and well-proportioned text-book
on general chemistry induced Roscoe to plan the
far more ambitious "Treatise," the first volume
of which, now under review, is in its fifth edition.
The work first appeared in 1877, and fresh impres-
sions were struck off at frequent intervals until
1894, when the book was completely revised and
reprinted. It was once more brought up to date in
1905, and again in 1911. Its revision and the cor-
rection of its proof-sheets was the last considerable
piece of literary work upon which Roscoe, then in
his 79th year, engaged.
The undertaking, as originally designed, in con-
junction with Roscoe's colleague Schorlemmer, who
was to be more immediately responsible for the
organic section, was planned on a scale which may
justly be described as magnificent. In its format
and general get-up, in the wealth and excellence
of its illustrations, it reflected the broad-minded
character and lofty views of its author. It was
to appear simultaneously in England and Ger-
many. The English work was never completed.
Partly owing to Schorlemmer's death in 1892, but
mainly to tbe very limited demand for a compre-
hensive work on organic chemistry which existed in
this country forty years ago, that division of the
book never got beyond a limited section of the
aromatic compounds. The German edition was.
however, completed by the late Professor Bruhl, of
Heidelberg, but it has not been thought expedient,
as a publishing venture, to issue an English equiva-
lent.
It is interesting to compare the present volume
with its predecessor of 1877 and to note the
changes which upwards of forty years of progress
have necessitated. To begin with, the size of the
book has grown from 771 to 968 pages. But this
increase in bulk gives a very partial and inadequate
idea of the actual amount of new matter. In the
occasional resetting of the work considerable com-
pression has been exercised, with a view of pre-
venting the volume from becoming unwieldy and
awkward to handle. Moreover, much that ought
to be embodied in the text is relegated to foot-
notes, which in many cases do not go beyond mere
bibliographical references. These are of no prac-
tical value to the student with little facility of
access to a comprehensive library. As regards the
historical introduction no very great changes have
been made. It is still to a large extent based upon
Kopp's Gesehiehte, with additions and corrections
due to subsequent commentators. But it only
carries the story to within a century of our own
time, and accordingly omits all reference to what
is of the greatest value and interest to those who
would wish to trace, even in broad outline, the
modern development of the science. No doubt this
subsequent history is of great complexity and diffi-
cult of simple treatment. But the question arises
whether in view of the existence of the many excel-
lent histories of chemistry we now possess, most
of them published since 1877, it is worth while to
retain the partial and incomplete account which
prefaces the volume. When the work is again reset,
it is worth consideration whether the space which
might be gained by its omission might not be better
employed by the inclusion of matter at present
hidden away in footnotes. A book which approaches
1000 8yo pages tends to become irksome to handle,
and this question of space will, with time, become
increasingly pressing. Something might be gained
by the omission of the very elementary matter
which finds a place among the earlier pages of the
book. With the more general introduction of the
teaching of chemistry into our schools the pupil
is made familiar with such fundamental concep-
tions as the indestructibility of matter, the nature
of chemical action, the value of the experimental
method, etc., and he learns of these and similar
basic principles in text-books costing much less
than 30s. Of course, even much that may be con-
sidered fundamental and elementary is by no means
immutable, but no hint of possible or prospective
developments is contained in the section referred
to which remains in this respect exactly as written
more than 40 years ago.
Excellent as the illustrations are, it may be
doubted whether in the interests of space all of
them should be retained. Some are obsolete and
possess only a limited historical interest; others
occupy a needless amount of room. One recognises
lecture-table apparatus, devised half a century ago
by Roscoe's faithful famulus Heywood, well known
to Owens' College men, much of which has been
replaced, in lecture illustrations, by other and
simpler contrivances. The arrangement shown on
p. 620 no longer represents the process by which
phosphorus is manufactured, although a short
description is given of the Readman Parker-
Robinson system. No account is afforded of the
Frasch process of extracting sulphur which has
been so extraordinarily success cul in America,
although it is stated that the output of American
sulphur exceeds that of Sicily.
The general plan of the work is so sound that no
pains should be spared to maintain its position as
the leading treatise in the language. This position
can only be assured by timely revision and the ex-
cision of obsolete matter. Roscoe during his life-
time acted wisely in associating himself with
younger men, in whom he had confidence, in this
business of revision. He thereby contrived to im-
part to his work a perennial modernity and to
render it, as far as possible, a faithful reflex of the
spirit and knowledge of the time.
Dr. Cain, in bringing out this new edition, has
had no light task, and, on the whole, he may be
congratulated on the manner in which he has ful-
filled it. In striving, as he says, reverently to pre-
serve the general character and style of the book
he has had to contend with the proverbial incon-
venience of putting new wine into old bottles.
Nevertheless he has succeeded in incorporating or
noting practically everything of importance con-
cerning the non-metallic elements and their com-
pounds which has appeared since the last edition
was published, although we venture to think the
"tyranny of space" has compelled him here and
there to express himself less fully than he could
have wished.
T. E. Thorpe.
Technical Methods op Ore Analysis. By A. H.
Low. Eighth edition, revised and enlarged.
Pp. 338. (New York: J. Wiley and Sons, Inc.:
London: Chapman and Hall, Ltd. 1919.)
Price 10s. net.
The new edition of this already well-known and
useful book contains several additions which will
be of interest to those dealing with the analyses of
the particular elements referred to, especially those
on uranium, tungsten, molybdenum and potassium.
The author has in many cases taken great pains
to give minute details for the successful carrying
out of the methods described, and added many per-
sonal observations of value to the operator; but
it is to be regretted that although the book is
intended for the student as well as for the technical
chemist, no mention is made in certain cases of
well-known and much used methods or variation of
methods. As instances one might mention the quick
and accurate distillation method for arsenic, which
is particularly useful for the determination of com-
paratively small amounts in certain ores, and more
especially in some metals and alloys (the analysis
368 b
REVIEW.
of the latter being dealt with to some extent in
the book as well as ores). Again, in the case of
gravimetric phosphorus determinations, the author
always finishes by weighing the ammonium phospho-
molybdate on a tared Gooch crucible, an ad-
mittedly accurate method, but no reference is made
to the exact and easy method of finishing by con-
version to lead molybdate with which a student will
often get better results than by weighing the
phospho-molybdate, owing to the ease with which
the precipitate can be handled and ignited, and
the fact that the phosphorus equivalent is even
smaller than in the former method. In the case of
molybdenum, again, no reference is made to gravi-
metric assay by determination as lead molybdate.
With regard to the additional matter in the
appendix, it may be pointed out that in what is
described as " Watt's " method for determining
tungsten in ores, a certain amount of tungsten is
almost invariably retained in the residues under the
conditions of opening up, when using ammonia for
extraction, whether the ore be completely opened
up or not, and that for the re-treatment 25 per
cent, caustic soda solution should be used, the
residues being digested on the hot plate until com-
pletely decomposed, and the 6mall remaining
amount of tungsten estimated by the usual mercur-
ous nitrate method, in place of the aqua-regia and
ammonia re-treatment. With some types of
tungsten ore, especially those containing titanium
minerals, a low result would be obtained by Watt's
method as described.
In the note on uranium on page 376 of the
appendix, it is stated that a yellow filtrate from
the ammonium uranate indicates incomplete pre-
cipitation. This is true, but it might be pointed
out that the solution need not be noticeably yellow
to hold sufficient uranium (especially if the bulk
has increased appreciably by the addition of wash-
ings) to render the result of a 1 or 2 per cent,
carnotite ore appreciably low ; and that it is safer
to treat the filtrate in any case by acidifying
slightly, boiling, and precipitating again with
ammonia, using water perfectly free from carbonic
anhydride throughout, and allowing to settle and
examining the bottom of the flask after five
or ten minutes for any further small quantity of
ammonium uranate. On the same page there is
a printer's error in line 22 (U30, instead of U3Os)
and repeated on line 28; but speaking generally the
book is well and clearly written, and contains but
few clerical or printer's errors.
Benedict Kitto.
Cocoa and Chocolate: Their History from
Plantation to Consumer. By A. TV. Knapp.
(London: Chapman and Hall, Lti. 1920.)
Price 12s. 6d. net.
Mr. Knapp, research chemist to Messrs. Cadbury
Bros., has written an entertaining but thoroughly
well-informed work on the history, cultivation,
and manufacture of cocoa. In a happy vein he
discourses of the Spaniards' discovery of the choco-
late beverage in Mexico and of the dainty seven-
teenth century chocolate houses in London. Even
the statistical matter is enlivened by a ready
imagination and by the use of diagrams. Illustra-
tions, maps, and diagrams are alike admirable.
For the general reader this is quite the best book
that has yet appeared, and the technical reader
will find much of interest, including frequent re-
ferences in the text to scientific and agricultural
publications, and an excellent bibliography. Mr.
Knapp is equally at home on the plantation and in
the factory ; on the Gold Coast or in the West
Indian Islands. In his vivid descriptions of the
orchards, the collection of pods, and curing of beans
he has succeeded, as no previous writer has done,
in conveying something of the remarkable charm of
the cocoa grove. A humorous dialogue between a
planter and manufacturer brings out the special
qualities of cocoa beans desired by the latter. The
rapid growth of the cultivation of cocoa by peasant
proprietors on the Gold Coast is described ; it con-
stitutes one of the most remarkable chapters in the
chronicles of tropical agriculture.
We offer two slight criticisms. The illustration
of a criollo cocoa-pod, given on p. 27, is scarcely
typical, and the least satisfactory section of the
book is, perhaps, that on cocoa fermentation. Fol-
lowing the description of the alcoholic fermenta-
tion with yeasts, no allusion is made to the im-
portant part played by acetic acid bacteria in the
normal course of fermentation, if this is prolonged
beyond the third or fourth day.
OBITUARY.
LEONARD PHILIP WILSON.
By the sudden and unexpected death of Leonard
P. Wilson on October 16, after an operation for
appendicitis, applied chemistry is deprived of an
investigator of the first rank, and the societies
with which he was associated have lost a valued
member.
Mr. Wilson, who was born in 1879, was educated
at St. Dunstan's College, Catford, and gained a
Clothworkers' Scholarship to the City and Guilds'
Central Technical College, South Kensington,
where he became Leathersellers' Research Fellow
and Associate in 1899 and Fellow in 1912. After
holding appointments with Messrs. Wilkinson, Hey-
wood, and Clarke and the Vacuum Oil Company, he
joined Messrs. Courtaulds. Coventry, as chemist in
1906, and at his death was the chief chemist on the
staff. The development of the artificial silk in-
dustry and of Messrs. Courtaulds shows the part
played by Mr. Wilson in the investigation of the
problems of the industry. He was the author of
numerous patents and papers in connexion with
artificial silk and other subjects, and served on the
Patents Committee of the Association of British
Chemical Manufacturers. Mr. Wilson took great
interest in the welfare of local scientific societies,
and as chairman of the Birmingham Section of the
Society of Chemical Industry he won the respect
and admiration of all the members. The value of
his services was recognised in his appointment last
year as one of the vice-presidents of the Society.
R. S. Morrell.
PUBLICATIONS RECEIVED.
Third Report on Colloid Chemistry and its
General and Industrial Applications. British
Association for the Advancement of Science.
Department of Scientific and Industrial Be-
search. Pp. 154. (London: 11.31. Stationery
Office. 1920.) Price 2s. 6d.
Plantation Rubber and the Testing of Rubber.
By G. Stafford Whitby. Monographs on In-
dustrial Chemistry, edited by Sir E. Thorpe.
Pp. 559. (London: Longmans, Green and Co.
1920.) Price 28s.
Hoo Cannel. By F. S. Sinnatt and M. Barash.
Bulletin 6, The Lancashire and Cheshire Coal
Besearch Association, 1920. Price Is.
Vol. XXXIX. No. 21.]
REVIEW
INov. 15, 1920.
PRESIDENT'S ADDRESS TO
LONDON SECTION.
THE
Sill WILLIAM J. POPE.
This is the first occasion on which I have had the
pleasure of addressing a sectional meeting since,
the Society of Chemical Industry did me the honour
of electing me as its president at the Annual Meet-
ing in June. I should like to take this opportunity
not only to express my appreciation of this action
of the Society, but also to assure you that I fully
realise the responsibilities attaching to the posi-
tion which you have called me to fill.
At the present moment, when our Society is
entering upon a new year of its activities, it is
probably desirable that attention should be drawn
to some of the more urgent matters which will
occupy us during the immediate future. You are
aware, of course, that we have now in existence a
Federal Council for Pure and Applied Chemistry,
composed of nominees of about twenty of the chief
societies concerned with chemistry and its applica-
tions, which has, as its purpose, the treatment of
those chemical interests which are common to all
our societies and which cannot be said to be the
specific care of any particular body. It was to be
foreseen that the constituent societies would 6elect
their nominees from among their most active and
experienced members so as to ensure that the
common interests should be properly cultivated.
We all of us recognise that if chemistry is to take
the place it should in the public eye, the provision
of a commodious central Chemical House is essential
to the expansion of our corporate interests;
that Central House requires to be munificently
provided with meeting rooms and library accom-
modation, more especially in the interests of the
younger chemists. We require also an organisation
for the preparation and publication of collective
chemical summaries : summaries conceived upon
some carefully-thought-out and convenient plan.
These two objects — the Central House and the
bibliography scheme — will involve a capital ex-
penditure of something like £500,000, and the
Federal Council has devoted much time and
thought to their consideration. In this project
we arc fortunate in having the leadership
of Lord Moulton, who had such unique oppor-
tunities during the war of realising how vital
co-operative action in chemistry and its applica-
tions is to the well-being of the nation. Com-
menting upon Professor Louis' stirring presi-
dential address at our annual meeting last
year. The Times said of conditions during the
war: — "The country required chemistry and was
prepared to pay for it. It got what it required.
Our need of research in chemistry and of applied
chemistry is even greater in peace than in war. We
can get them if we will pay for them." In this
important lay expression of opinion it is suggested,
as it has been suggested in many other quarters,
that we should apply to the State for money; the
State helps those who help themselves, and I do
not doubt that most of us feel that we should ex-
haust all other sources of financial aid before dip-
ping into the public purse.
Another great problem which our large chemical
societies now have to face is that of the cost of
publication of periodical journals and of abstracts.
It is perhaps hardly realised by many of our mem-
bers that whilst in 1919 each member subscribed
£1 10s. to the Society, the Society spent about £5
per member ; advertisements in our Journal
amounted to about £2 10s. per member, and a good
part of the remaining £1 was paid for by a deficit
on the year's working. The great bulk of the £5
per member was expended on the production of the
Journal, and although the member received a very
substantial bonus on his subscription of 30s., it was
clear that the annual subscription had to be in-
creased. The only ways, in my opinion, for ob-
viating a further increase in the annual subscrip-
tion are to spare no efforts in securing new members
and to enhance still further the usefulness of our
Journal; the latter question is now before the
Federal Council, and I hope that the large chemical
societies will shortly be invited to confer upon the
possibility of some co-operative publication scheme.
The foregoing matters are all in train, but I
should call your attention to one activity of the
Federal Council which has been carried to a success-
ful result. Following our example, practically all the
Allies have formed each its own Federal Chemical
Council, and these have all become federated as
one large international organisation for the cul-
tivation of universal chemical interests. This larger
body is the Union Internationale de Chimie, which
held its last annual meeting in July, in Rome ; a
report of this meeting has already appeared in our
Journal (p. 251 r).
THE PHOTOGRAPHY OF COLOURED AND
OF DISTANT OBJECTS.
The ordinary photographic plate is sensitive only
to blue and violet light, i.e., to the rays of shorter
wave-length in the visual spectrum. When an
image of some parti-coloured scene is thrown on to
the photographic plate it receives much the same
impression as we should obtain on viewing the
scene through deep-blue spectacles. This limitation
of light-action to a short range of the visual spec-
trum leads to photographic misrepresentations.
Long experience has led us to see nothing ridi-
culous in a photograph as such ; we instinctively re-
cognise the reproduction as a photograph, and see
nothing absurdly anomalous in the manner in which
the colours are represented in monotone. A photo-
graph of a patch of primroses shows the bright
yellow centre of the flower as black ; similarly, a
red rose photographs as black, and the deep-blue
violet as white. By photographing the visual
spectrum on an ordinary plate we can readily
obtain a record of the range of wave-lengths of
light to which the plate is sensitive. During the
early seventies it was observed by Vogel, Water-
house, and others that the incorporation of certain
dyestuffs with the sensitive photographic film
renders the plate sensitive to light other than blue
and violet ; thus, Erythrosine, Rose bengale, and
Acridine Orange extend the sensitiveness of the
plate into the green region of the spectrum. Ethyl
Red, one of the cyanine dyestuffs, was then found to
confer sensitiveness even to red light.
The discovery that the photographic plate can
be rendered sensitive to comparatively long light-
waves was of prime importance, but the extra-
sensitiveness conferred was limited and accom-
panied by other disadvantages, such as liability to
fog, and it did not, in consequence, find immediate
widespread applications. A really substantial de-
velopment of the discovery was made by the in-
troduction of an isocyanine dyestuff in 1903 by
Meister, Lucius, und Bruning, under the name of
Pinaverdol; this substance sensitises the photo-
graphic plate right through the green and well
into the red region of the spectrum. In 1905 the
same firm introduced another allied dyestuff, Pina-
cyanol, which sensitises far into the red, although
not so well in the green region. Both these dye-
stuffs are easy to apply to the photographic plate,
and their use is not accompanied by the disad-
vantages of the former sensitisers.
A base is now provided for a successful attack
upon two problems. The first is to obtain a correct
370 r
REVIEW.
[Nov. 15, 1920.
representation in monotone of coloured objects ;
and the second to devise satisfactory reproductions
in colour of parti-coloured objects. The first object
can be attained by rendering the plate sensitive to
the entire visual spectrum by the application of
Pinaverdol and Pinacyanol, and interposing a
yellowish or greenish coloured filter so as to
diminish the amount of blue light which gets
through to the plate during exposure.
A plate prepared with the sensitising dyestuffs
is described as a " panchromatic " plate, and a
series of pictures showing first a photographic re-
production in colour of a scene, and then the mono-
tone reproduction on an ordinary plate, on a pan-
chromatic plate, and, lastly, on a panchromatic-
plate with the interposition of the colour filter,
shows the progress which has been made in photo-
graphic representation in monochrome.
The second object, the reproduction of the actual
colours, is technically more difficult and has pro-
vided a subject for the exhibition of vast ingenuity
and skill. In 1861 Clerk Maxwell, when Cavendish
Professor in Cambridge, pointed out that by
dividing the visual spectrum into three consecutive
fractions, making three photographs of the
coloured object through light filters corresponding
to this sub-division of the spectrum, reproducing
the three pictures in appropriate colours, and then
superposing the three coloured prints, a photograph
in natural colours would result. In due time this
observation led to the very beautiful Sanger-
Shephard process of colour photography. Another
method of attacking the same problem originated
with Professor Joly, of Dublin; he prepared a
transparent grating ruled with alternate lines of
three colours representing the division of the visual
spectrum into three parts, and made one negative
by exposing the photographic plate with its sensi-
tive surface in contact with the grating. After
development a print is made on glass and then
bound up in contact with a ruled grating in colours
corresponding with those used in preparing the
negative. It is obvious that this specific method
for producing a photograph in colours is capable of
development, principally in the direction of pre-
paring more minutely reticulated gratings; one of
the developments of the Joly process consists in the
substitution of a three-colour grating in squares
for the Joly ruled grating.
Another method for carrying out the spirit of
the Joly process may now be mentioned. It is clear
that the preparation of the reticulated grating pre-
sents technical difficulties. These are overcome in
the process devised by the Lumiere Brothers by a
particular method of construction. Three batches
of starch granules are dyed each in one of the three
colours corresponding to the triple division of the
visual spectrum already referred to; these dyed
granules are then thoroughly mixed in appropriate
proportions and a single layer of the mixture is
squeezed on to the surface of a panchromatic plate.
The plate is exposed in the camera to the image
of the parti-coloured scene through the pattern of
starch granules. The plate is then developed, the
deposited silver removed, and the residual silver
halide converted into metallic silver ; a picture in
colours residts. As an illustration of the fidelity of
colour reproduction possible by the starch granule
process, it is noteworthy that it expresses excel-
lently well the interference colours shown by birds
and beetles.
We may now turn from these technical applica-
tions of sensitising dyestuffs to consider briefly one
or two of the purely scientific questions involved.
At present we do not know why these substances
exert the sensitising action described, hut one point
can be clearly demonstrated. The silver halogen
salt absorbs the dyestuff ; this can be shown by
precipitating silver bromide from a solution con-
taining the dye. Fsing a particular sensitiser of
the Pinaverdol or Pinacyanol class we can show that
the extra-sensitiveness conferred contains two
maxima in the green and red ; these maxima are, in
individual cases, situated more or less far towards
the longer wave-length end of the spectrum. A
general relationship exists between the position of
these maxima and the two maxima observed in the
absorption spectra of the dyes in aqueous solution.
When the extra-sensitisation maxima are found
furthest towards the red, the absorption spectrum
maxima also lie furthest towards the red ; the eon-
verse is also true. It is to he noted that we do not
know the absorption spectra of the silver halide
dyed by the sensitiser, but it is very significant
that the qualitative relation just noted exists be-
tween the sensitising action on the plate and the
absorption spectrum of the dye.
AVe turn next to the chemical constitutions of the
chief sensitising dyestuffs. Six years ago the con-
stitutions of Pinaverdol ana Pinacyanol were not
known with certainty, but the work of my col-
league, Dr. W. H. Mills, and others leaves little
doubt as to the accuracy of the constitutional
formula? now generally accepted. An inspection of
these constitutional formulas indicates the possi-
bility of introducing substituting groups in many
positions in the molecule; and during the last few-
years Dr. Mills and I have prepared some fifty or
more substitution products of these two types of
compound and have, with some degree of precision,
traced the relation between sensitising action and
their constitution.
I turn now to my last point. The atmosphere is
not penetrated with equal facility by light of all
colours, or of all wave lengths. The rays of short
wave-length, the blue and violet, are most readily
absorbed and diffused by the air, and, in passing
from short to longer wave-lengths, through the
green and yellow to the red, the absorptive and
diffusing effect of the atmosphere becomes pro-
gressively less and less. A simple demonstration of
the truth of this statement is presented to us every
day. AVhen the sun is high it appears white or
bluish-white, and its outline is sharp ; but as the sun
declines it appears yellow and loses its sharpness of
definition. Just before the sun falls below the
horizon it is bright red and shows a hazy outline.
So that with perpendicular incidence the sun's
light reaches us with but little absorption of the
blue rays by the short length of atmosphere through
which it has to pass. As the sun declines the blue
is absorbed by the longer stretch of air, and just at
the setting the atmospheric path through which the
sun's rays reach us is so long that the blue, green,
and yellow are absorbed and diffused and nothing
reaches us but the red light. The same thing
happens in a fog; if the fog is slight the sun
appears yellow and not sharply defined, but if the
fog is dense the sun shows red, and its circle is very
indistinctly defined.
These facts, based upon common observations,
have a very important bearing. If a distant view
is photographed on an ordinary plate sensitive only
to the blue and violet, absorption and diffusion of
the light is considerable ; the resulting photograph
is thus more or less ill-defined. But since the atmo-
sphere is penetrated to a far greater extent by the
red rays, it follows that if a spectroseopieally pure
red filter is placed between the lens and the object,
the resulting photograph will reveal far more detail.
In the air photographic service ordinary plates
were used during the early part of the war, but
as time went on the ordinary plate became more
and more completely replaced by the panchromatic
plate. At the armistice about 80 per cent, of the
plates used in our air service was panchromatic.
Until the outbreak of war all the sensitising dye-
stuffs used throughout the world were made by
Germany; outside the Central Powers practically
no information was available as to the methods of
Vol. TTYTT., No. 21.]
REVIEW.
371 b
preparation and constitution of these sensitisers,
and the outbreak of hostilities found us deprived
of sources for these essential materials.
An investigation carried out by Dr. Mills and
myself put us in possession of methods of manufac-
ture and of details concerning the constitution of
both Pinaverdol and Pinacyanol, and the whole of
the supplies of these two compounds required by
the photographic air services of the Allies through-
out the war were produced (as Sensitol Green and
Sensitol Red) in the chemical laboratory of the.
University of Cambridge.
The production of these substances in this
country and the familiarity gained by our technical
chemists in dealing with them resulted in very sub-
stantial progress being made in panchromatic
photography. The best commercial panchromatic
plates previously available required about three
times the exposure for red as for blue light, but
those now available require less exposure for red
than for blue. In consequence of this progress pan-
chromatic plates were produced which could be
used in air photography with an exposure through
a spectrosoopieally pure red screen of only 001 of a
second. This fact is of great importance in war
aerial photography, but it will certainly become of
far greater value now that aerial photography is
becoming essential in surveying and topography.
RAIL CONVEYANCE OF CHEMICAL
COMMODITIES.
(ANOTHER POINT OF VIEW.)
L. ARCHBUTT.
In a recent issue of this Journal, (Sept. 30, p.
315 b) Mr. J. Lukes has discussed the increased
railway rates and charges as they affect the chemical
trade. He tells us that from his point of view the
chemical trade has been very unfairly treated, and
for this he lays the blame at the door of the railway
companies. He charges the railway companies,
first, with having regarded practically all
"Chemicals" as "Dangerous Goods," and then
with having taken advantage of their statutory
powers to charge for these goods rates which are
excessive, "unreasonable," and even "onerous";
he even suggests that the Germans outstripped us
in the chemical industry before the war because of
the restrictions placed by the railway companies
on the movement of chemicals in this country. It
will perhaps be of interest if some of Mr. Lukes'
charges are examined in detail.
Are the Bates on Chemicals Unreasonable? — The
statutory maximum rates on non-dangerous goods,
which include many staple products of the chemical
industry, were fixed by Parliament in 1891/1892.
Some of these rates have since been reduced by the
railway companies, and large numbers of special
low rates have been given as the result of repre-
sentations made to the railway companies by the
chemical trade.
Lena! Conditions and Fates for Danaerous Goods.
— Section 105 of the Railway Clauses Consolidation
Act 1845. to which Mr. Lukes refers, was enacted
in the common interest, and the railway companies
may refuse to carry goods which in their judgment
are dangerous ; but the companies have never abused
their rights under this section, and do in fact carry
large quantities of dangerous goods.
It is a sore point with Mr. Lukes that the decision
as to what goods are dangerous under the conditions
ot railway transit should rest with the railway com-
panies. Would any other arrangement be just or
reasonable, seeing that the railway companies are
responsible for the safety of the public, of their
staffs and of the property entrusted to them ? It
must be admitted that the companies with their vast
experience of goods in transit really are the only
qualified authority on the subject.
The companies are, however, bound by law to
exercise their judgment bona fide, and in the only
three test cases heard before the Railway and Canal
Commissioners in which the writer was interested,
in two of which Mr. Lukes also was concerned, the
Court decided that the railway companies did arrive
at their decision in good faith and on good grounds.
Is not the decision of His Majesty's judges suffi-
cient ?
Having accepted dangerous goods for conveyance,
Part 4 of the Railway Rates and Charges Order Con-
firmation Acts, 1891/1892, enacts that the charges
made for the conveyance must be reasonable, and
the trader has a remedy if he considers the charges
excessive.
It is alleged that the railway companies have
made such use of their opportunities under the
Act that they have included " practically all chemi-
cal products " within the term " Dangerous Goods."
This assertion is wildly incorrect, as a casual glance
at the Classification will show. The number of
chemical products specifically named in the white
pages of the General Railway Classification of Goods,
i.e., goods carried without special regulations, far
exceeds the number listed as dangerous goods, and
a closer examination will show that the number of
chemical products classed as dangerous holds a yet
smaller relationship to the whole, since a great
number of chemicals having no dangerous proper-
ties and requiring no special regulations as to con-
ditions of carriage are grouped together, without
being specifically mentioned, under the generic entry
which appears in the white portion of the Classifica-
tion, viz.: — "Chemicals, not dangerous, corrosive
or explosive. The "Alkali" List and "Packed
Manure" List include a large number of staple
products of the chemical trade which have been
carried for many years as ordinary goods at ex-
ceptionally low rates. It may be that Mr. Lukes
when speaking of " practically all chemical pro-
ducts " had his horizon limited by benzol, toluol,
naphtha and the like, but the heavy chemical m-
dustry is a large and important one also.
Mr. Lukes not only charges the railway com-
panies with having gone to the utmost limit of
their powers in branding "practically all chemicals"
as dangerous goods, but lie cites the growth of the
Dangerous Goods Section of the General Railway
Classification of Goods since 1890 as evidence. Now
in 1890 there was no Special Classification of Dan-
gerous Goods as it exists to-day. The list of 1890
included a few explosives, a few highly inflammable
liquids, and a few chemicals, in no sort of methodi-
cal arrangement, and it was full of inconsistencies.
To-day we have an ordered list, arranged in
sections. .4ft Authorised Explosives are to-day
carried by railway and are provided for in the
Classification. Inflammable Liquids are arranged in
two classes, those flashing below and those not
flashing below 73° F. (close test), Dangerous, Cor-
rosive and Poisonous Chemicals are divided into two
sections, section 1 including the more dangerous
articles, section 2 those less dangerous, and under
the heading of Miscellaneous Goods are grouped
articles such as Charcoal and Oily Rags, liable to
spontaneous ignition, Matches, Compressed Gases,
etc. The list has grown, not because the railway
companies " have made the utmost use of their
opportunities," but mainly owing to the inclusion
of goods having properties which have led to
accidents. Mr. Lukes lays stress upon the large
number of pages in the Dangerous Goods Section,
but he does not state that of the 212 pages exactly
one half is taken up by the Index, By-laws, Govern-
ment Orders, Consignment Notes, Specifications of
a2
REVIEW.
[Nov. 15. 1920.
Packages, etc., that of the remaining half the
greater part is taken up by the Packing Conditions,
etc., and that the actual number of entries (which
includes all Authorised Explosives) is only a small
fraction of the total number of the entries in the
whole book. He omits to mention that whilst on
some pages of the Dangerous Goods Section only
one or two articles are mentioned, 30 to 50 articles
are to be found on nearly every white page, and
he makes no reference to the fact that Explosives
alone account for more than half the total number
of entries in the Dangerous Goods Section. In the
1890 list the total number of Explosives was
18 entries on one page, whilst in the list as it
appears to-day no fewer than 457 entries appear on
16 pages. The growth of the list is, indeed, to a
great extent due to the inventive genius of chemists,
which has been especially fruitful in this (Ex-
plosives) section of the Dangerous Goods. It must
also be noted that the rates charged for the carriage
of dangerous goods have not been generally raised,
as Mr. Lukes' remarks would lead one to infer, as a
consequence of their transference from the white
to the yellow pages ; only the conditions aro
amended, in order to ensure safe conveyance. In
a great many cases, the transference has been made
mainly to inform the railway companies' staffs as
to the character of the goods and the precautions
which must be taken in dealing with them to pre-
vent accidents and damage to other goods.
Bates cm Dangerous Goods. — As a chemist, I am
not able to deal with Mr. Lukes' statements under
this head, but a railway colleague expert in rates,
whom 1 have consulted, informs me that Mr. Lukes
confuses "Charge" with "Class." My friend
remarks: — "Certain non-dangerous merchandise
is included in Class 2, and the Acts of 1891 and
1892 contain the maximum rates applicable to the
traffic in Class 2 divided into charges for Convey-
ance. Station Terminals and Service Terminals.
The actual rates on the rate books for traffic in
Class 2 (often considerably below the maximum
rates) as a rule also include collection and delivery.
Petrol in owner's tank wagons is, however, not in
Class 2, as Mr. Lukes suggests, and the General
Railway Classification says in respect of it ' Charge
Class 2 rate, with the conditions Owner's risk,
Station to Station,' which is just a convenient way
of naming a rate without incurring the delay in-
volved in arranging and issuing an exceptional rate
in every case. In effect, there is no difference
between charging traffic at a Class 2 rate of 20s.,
substituting for its ordinary conditions special con-
ditions, and charging it at an exceptional rate of
20s., recorded with those same special conditions.
" Let us imagine that all Dangerous Goods now
charged at Class 2 rates with S. to S., Owner's risk,
conditions, were included in Class 2 and subjected
to allowances for the services included in the Class
Rates but not performed on Dangerous Goods, that
would mean a loss of revenue on that traffic. How
would that loss be redeemed? It could only be
made good by imposing it on other goods ; for
example, the less Benzol pays the more must Alkali
pay, but the heavy branch of the chemical industry
may have some views on the relative claims of their
goods to consideration.
" The same considerations arise, in connexion
with private sidings, e.g.: —
" A line is opened, stations are built, and the
accommodation is increased as the traffic develops,
until one day a firm using one of the stations finds
its business has so increased that it will be an
economy for it to put down a private siding. This
is constructed, and one-fifth of the tonnage for
which the station has been equipped is transferred
to the siding ; if the one-fifth is to be relieved of
any part of the station expenses, the remaining
traffic of the railway must take it if the revenue
is to be maintained; if the revenue is not main-
tained, efficiency is at once crippled."
Decline of the British, and Growth of the German
Coal-tar Colour Industry. — The suggestion that the
British railways crippled the chemical industry in
this country and incidentally helped to develop that
of Germany is equally incorrect, and will be assessed
at its proper value by members of this Society.
The British manufacturers apparently found it
better business to export their semi-manufactured
chemical commodities to a country where the chemi-
cal industry was in such a highly-developed state
that the works receiving these commodities could
put them through all processes without having to
" incur the expense of a series of movements by
rail." Why, therefore, blame the British railways
because the trade was so concentrated in Germany
that a " series of movements by rail " waa
eliminated?
Contract Conditions. — The special contract con-
ditions and indemnity clauses to which Mr. Lukes
takes such serious exception apply, as a rule, in the
case of explosives and specially dangerous traffics,
and the trader only renders himself liable to penal-
ties if he does not comply with the specified con-
ditions as to packing, etc., which the railway com-
panies consider necessary to ensure safety. It may
be, and no doubt is very largely due to these con-
ditions and regulations that in this country we
have had so few serious accidents, whilst in
America, especially prior to the establishment of
the Bureau of Explosives, appalling accidents
occurred.
Boiling Stock. — Under this heading Mr. Lukes
makes sweeping charges of unreasonable railway
rates, but many instances might be quoted of
special low rates which have been given for traffic
in Owner's Tank Wagons to meet traders' require-
ments; to mention only two, Crude Naphtha and
Fuel Oil, the rates on which are much lower in
tank wagons than in steel barrels. Mr. Lukes does
not show that adequate provision has not been
made for traffic in private owner's wagons, the
empty haulage and manipulation of which is a very
serious item of expense.
Comparison with Germany and America. — It may
interest Mr. Lukes to know that the serious acci-
dents which were occurring in America in the trans-
port of Dangerous Goods led to the establishment
of the Bureau of Explosives in 1907, and Col. Taylor
came over here on purpose to etudy our British
regulations. Conditions arc, of course, very
different in the two countries, but one instance
occurs to me in which the American regulations
are more severe than ours. All glass carboys there
have to be boxed and to withstand a swing test. It
is very difficult, if not quite impossible, to make a
fair comparison between the rates of one country
and another; the ideals, the economics, the geo-
graphy and the conditions may be so entirely
different. Mr. Lukes' figures are much too vague
to be of any service as comparisons. To be of any
value one requires to know what the various rates
include, whether they are fairly representative, and
whether the German rates belong to the preferential
class or not. It will be remembered (by many with
lasting bitterness) that the German chemical in-
dustry was prostituted, as well as subsidised
through the railways, to further the greatest
scheme of world domination ever witnessed.
Mr. Lukes' reference to the recent case in the
Railway and Canal Commission Court is quite mis-
leading. He says "it was declared that the rail-
way companies did not accept 150° P. as the divid-
ing line between danger and safety, and their con-
tention was upheld by the Court." Mr. Lukes
knows that the traffic in dispute flashed at 100° F.,
or only a few degrees above this, and his statement
should be compared with the following remarks
which were made by Mr. Justice Lush in delivering
Vol. XXXIX.. No. 21.]
REVIEW.
his judgment: — "The case for the defendants
really is that if the flash-point of an oil like this
is over 1003 F., which is true of this product, there
is no danger in carrying it. The railway companies
and their advisers and witnesses place the limit
of a safe flash-point at 150° F. Most of these 20
samples have a flash-point only slightly over 100° F.,
and the Highest is 130°. Other authorities 6eem,
from the documents in evidence before us, to take
the same view as to 150° being the proper line of
demarcation. The railway companies are quite
entitled to take the view which they have taken,
that that is the correct view. That they have not
acted in bad faith in taking it is obviously true."
Dangerous or yon-Dangerous. — Mr. Lukes is very
much disturbed because the English railway com-
panies are guided by a body of chemists who he
says, " generally speaking, have no works' experi-
ence of chemical processes and products ; they do
not appear to consider whether the merchandise is
safe m the package in which it is conveyed, but
what might happen in case of a train accident or
an accident to a container." Works' experience,
which, by the way, many of T:he chemists have, is
excellent in its place, but is not a prime qualifica-
tion in connexion with railway transport. The first
and foremost qualification in this connexion is ex-
perience of commodities in transit and knowledge
of the hazards, both human and mechanical, which
are involved. A carboy of corrosive acid may be
relatively harmless when standing in a works where
all the employees know its exact nature, and the
proper appliances are available instantly in case
of accident. It is a very different thing when
handed over to the servants of a railway company
to be carried from one part of the country to
another in company with a thousand other articles.
The escape of acid may render all sorts of effects
possible, some of them most serious. If the rail-
way companies' advisers did not consider what
might happen in the case of train accidents or the
use of leaky containers they would be quite incom-
petent to give advice. Mr. Justice Lush said,
referring to the heavy naphtha which was the sub-
ject of the dispute in the Law Courts to which
Mr. Lukes has referred:- — "If securely packed so
that no leakage could possibly take place the risk
might, no doubt, be treated as very small. But the
question is, what the true character of the oil itself
is. not what the danger is if it cannot escape from
the receptacle that holds it," and further on in the
same judgment he says " the defendants strongly
rely on there having been no accident in the car-
riage of these goods when not properly declared,
but that is only one element to be considered. The
companies may have been fortunate in not having
an accident. The fact that none has occurred does
not prove that there was never any risk. The chief
element, or one of the chief elements, of danger
which the railway companies regard as serious is
this, that if vapour should be given off, which with
the flash-point I have mentioned may well happen,
and were to ignite, most serious consequences would
follow, and what might have been a small fire, easily
controlled, would rapidly become a serious con-
flagration through the naphtha coming in contact
with other goods on the companies' wagons or
premises." Has Mr. Lukes ever heard of the Aber-
gele accident in 1868, when the Irish mail ran into
a goods train carrying barrels of paraffin oil which
became ignited and led to 33 persons being burned
to death? Such appalling accidents arising from
the transport of dangerous goods on British rail-
ways have fortunately been few in number, and thi3
has largely been due to the companies' vigilance ;
but accidents serious enough in their way do fre-
quently occur with dangerous goods (the recent con-
tamination of foodstuffs by leakage of arsenical
weed-killer from a faulty package will be fresh in
mind) and demonstrate that the manufacturer does
not always appreciate the dangers of a substance
from a railway transport point of view, although
he may know all about it from his own works' point
of view.
Assistance for Key Industry. — Mr. Lukes com-
plains that no real attention or assistance has been
given to the chemical industry so far as carriers are
concerned, but I may remind him that many days
have been spent during the past few months in
classifying dye-intermediates in order to help the
dye industry, and that an endeavour has been made
to fix uniform rates and conditions for as many as
possible of these important products. The assist-
ance of " key " industries for State purposes is,
however, not the province of a railway company.
Revision of Railway Rates. — Mr. Lukes is anxious
that what he calls an " impartial business tri-
bunal," easy of access and inexpensive, should be
appointed with the power to classify merchandise
of every description, including dangerous goods. If
it should be decided to establish yet another tri-
bunal, I hope that Mr. Lukes will find as much
patient attention and consideration given to these
matters, and as much desire to meet the require-
ments of traders, as has been given during my ex-
perience of nearly 30 years by the Chemists' and
Dangerous Goods Committees of the Railway Clear-
ing House. Our practice has been for a long time
past, whenever serious complaints regarding im-
portant matters have come before us, to arrange
interviews with the traders concerned, and in most
cases we have been able to fix regulations which
have removed the difficulties.
In concluding this article I have to thank several
of my railway colleagues who have given me the
benefit of their suggestions. One of them
remarks : — " An adequate revenue for railway com-
panies has to be found from somewhere, and it is
largely a matter of indifference where it comes
from. If the heavy chemical trade is prepared to
pay more, it may be that it could be arranged for
the light chemical trade to pay less; also, if the
users of stations were prepared to shoulder the
whole of the terminal costs, siding traffic might be
free of it, but this is certain, that the benzol, toluol
and naphtha industry cannot have its charges
greatly reduced without somebody bearing the
burden they drop, and it will have to be proved
that they are in a worse position than others, and
entitled to greater consideration in consequence,
before this is likely to occur."
PROBLEMS AWAITING SOLUTION;
The address which Prof. W. D. Bancroft de-
livered, as chairman, to the Division of Chemistry
and Chemical Technology of the National Research
Council (U.S.A.), and which is published in the
Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry
for September (pp. 911 — 918), contains many sug-
gestive remarks concerning problems of scientific
and technological importance which lie within the
borderlands of chemistry and one or more other
sciences. Some of these problems are briefly out-
lined below : —
It is weli known that, in general, flour with more
gluten makes a better loaf than flour with less
gluten, whilst certain flours with a relatively low
gluten-content make quite as good loaves as other
flours with larger amounts of gluten. To account
for this the bakers have assumed the existence of
strong and weak glutens, but this does not seem
consistent with their similarity or identity of
chemical composition. Stateness in bread is
apparently due to a displacement in the distribu-
tion of the water-content between the gluten and
A3
REVIEW.
the starch, and it is an interesting problem in
colloid chemistry to see if this can be prevented in
an easy and economical way. Again, the variations
in quality between home-made and bakers' bread
call for an investigation of the conditions for pro-
ducing any desired quality of bread on a large scale.
Strange as it may seem, no use has yet been made
of the microscope in studying bread and bread-
making.
The change-over from the box to the cup method
of tapping trees for turpentine resulted in an in-
creased annual yield, but the flow diminished until
after six or seven weekly chippings had been made.
According to Tschirch, the wounding of a tree leads
to the formation of numerous and much larger
resin ducts, and it was at first thought that this
might explain the temporarily diminished flow. It
has, however, since been found that the secondary
ducts are only formed in the summer wood, whereas
the cups are made in the early spring. No ex-
planation of the cause of the shortage of resin flow
in the cups or of overcoming this shortage by
making a preliminary chipping during the winter,
has yet been found. It is quite possible that some
other method of stimulating the tree might be more
effective, both in regard to yield of turpentine and
the length of the life of the tree. The tapping of
rubber trees is somewhat similar in the phenome-
non of wound response, and the yield of shellac is
also due to resin exudation from trees pierced by
certain insects.
According to the hypothesis advanced to explain
the toxicity of "mustard gas" (cf. J., 1919, 7r),
the important factors concerned are the lipoid solu-
bility, the water solubility, the volatility, and the
rate of hydrolysis, and these considerations should
prove fertile in elucidating the toxic action of other
substances. No explanation has been offered of the
action of lachrymatory gases, and why, for ex-
ample, bromine compounds are more virulent than
the corresponding chlorine compounds, and why one
particular chlorine compound is as effective as any
bromine compound. Such problems open the way
to the biochemical study of blisters and burns and
other chemotherapic problems.
The general belief among medical men that
variations in the body weight depend directly upon
variations in food and exercise appears to need re-
vision. The evidence shows that at any given
moment any given person has a definite or normal
body weight which he tends to hold and which does
not vary unless there are large variations in the
amounts of food and exercise. Thus it is practically
impossible to fatten a normally thin man and diffi-
cult to reduce the weight of a normally fat man.
Such considerations lead to the conclusion that
there is some regulatory mechanism tending to
keep the body weight at normal value, correspond-
ing to the mechanism which regulates the body
temperature ; and if it were possible to change the
regulator voluntarily and easily the results would
be of enormous importance medically.
The question of the plasticity of clay is still await-
ing investigation. There seems to be no doubt that
it is largely due to the presence of a gelatinous
film around the clay particles, but nothing is
known as to what prevents these films from losing
their power to take up water after being dried in
the sun. The problem of whether the kaolin which
results from the weathering of felspars is a definite
compound or not is still unsolved ; and it is abun-
dantly clear that the chemical, optical, catalytic,
and adsorptive properties of clay need renewed and
careful study with a view to their co-ordination.
The isolation and utilisation of the constituents
of coal tar are dependent upon their preparation in
a pure state and the determination of their pro-
perties. This is not so simple as it appears. Pro-
bably but few chemists in the United States know
the correct melting-point of anthracene; that of
carbazole, as given in the literature, is in error by
7°. The melting-points of mixtures of carbazole
and anthracene are known to very few. Adequate
tests for the purity of organic products should be
worked out and more attention paid to physical
tests, e.g., the form of the melting-point or solu-
bility curve, the magnetic rotation, dielectric con-
stant, critical data, and the electric and magnetic
birefringence. The spectrometer should be em-
ployed for standardising colours, and a spectro-
photometer be devised for detecting commercial
mixtures.
Among other problems described or referred to
are structural colours, sedimentary rocks, and the
origin and artificial preparation of dolomite,
pressure phenomena inside the earth, surface
colours, Brownian movements, quicksands, metallic
lustre, etc.
NEWS FROM THE SECTIONS.
AMERICA.
At the first meeting of the new session, held in
New York on October 8, Professor Marston T.
Bogert presented the Grasselli Medal to Dr. Alien
Rogers, the lion, local secretary.
In making the presentation, Professor Bogert
explained that the medal had been instituted by
the Grasselli Chemical Company, of Cleveland,
Ohio, and was awarded annually to the author of
the paper presented before the American Section
of the Society of Chemical Industry which, in the
opinion of the Medal Committee, contained the
most useful suggestions in applied chemistry. The
paper for which the present medal was given was
"Industrial Uses for the Shark and Porpoise"
(cf. J., 1920, 9 t), which contained, in addition to
much original information, an account of some
entirely new processes dealing with the production
of fine leathers, fertilisers, and the recovery of oils
from the skins, etc., of these animals. Professor
Bogert then gave an outline of the career of the
recipient, dealing with his work at the Universities
of Maine and Pennsylvania, as a leather chemist
with the Oakes Manufacturing Co., and as professor
of industrial chemistry at the Pratt Institute, N.Y.
During the war, Major Rogers was placed in charge
of the Industrial Relations Branch of the Chemical
Warfare Service.
Dr. Allen Rogers, in returning thanks for the
award, stated that, in reference to the subject
matter of his award, a fairly large plant was in
operation at Morehead City, North Carolina, where
the fish are caught, the skins removed, the livers
rendered for oil, and the flesh converted into
fertiliser stock. Another plant was located at
Sanibal Island, Florida, and at the tannery in
Newark, New Jersey, about 1000 skins were being
treated weekly. Plans were now being prepared
for establishing other stations at various points
along the Atlantic and Pacific coasts, and existing
plants were to be greatly enlarged. Specimens of
the leather and oil were exhibited, and Dr. Roger3
intimated that he hoped to be able to present
further results of his investigations at an early
date.
NEWCASTLE.
At the initial sessional meeting, held on October
20, Dr. J. H. Paterson, the chairman, delivered an
address on the problem of fuel economy, concerni'.g
which, he said, there was an extraordinary lack of
published information, especially in regard to the
financial aspect, except in the case of gas produc-
tion. Much attention had been paid to the
Vol. XXXIX.. Xo. 21.]
boiler, but practically none to other furnaces, and
the urgent need was to obtain data from manufac-
turers, guaranteed as to accuracy, and to correlate
them. Research was particularly required on re-
heating and other metallurgical furnaces. More
attention must be directed to the control and
limitation of the amount of air passing through a
furnace ; and the fact that the bigger the coal the
more air it required for combustion made out a
case for the burning of fine coal. The question of
using oxygen, not stored in cylinders, was worthy
of consideration ; in Canada such oxygen was being
produced on a large scale at 3 cents per 100,000
cb. ft.
GLASGOW.
On October 26, Dr. John A. Cranston delivered
a lecture at the Royal Technical College on
" Modern Developments of the Atomic Theory," in
which he traced the influence of the discoveries of
radio-activity, X-rays, and of the electron theory
upon the theory of the structure of the atom. The
lecturer pointed out how the convergence of work
in several fields of research had led to the establish-
ment of the fundamental nature of atomic numbers,
and he indicated aspects of the problem of atomic
structure which resulted from work on light and
mass spectra. Rutherford's work on artificial
transmutation was also reviewed.
with men in similar occupations is an "important
factor in training, and this Society provides faci-
lities for the interchange 'of ideas which the
industrial chemist should on no account neglect.
(2) This paper discussed the chief defects in
steam boilers and economisers from the points of
view of plant and practice, and advocated the use
of steam whenever possible in order that its latent
heat may be utilised for heating and drying. For
example, power should be obtained from high-pres-
sure engines exhausting into steam mains at
50 — 60 lb. per sq. inch, from which it can be drawn
off for heating purposes.
EDINBURGH AND EAST OF SCOTLAND.
The first ordinary meeting of the new session
was held in the hall of the Pharmaceutical Society,
Edinburgh, on October 26, Dr. H. E. Watt pre-
siding. The chairman of the section, Dr. D. S.
Jerdan, read two papers; the one on " The Evolu-
tion of the Industrial Chemist," and the other on
" The Causes of Loss in Steam Boilers and Plant
Using Steam."
(1) The speaker dealt with the desirability of
applying, so far as possible, the principle of
selection by those concerned in education, in order
to secure that only the most suitable men should
pass on to higher training in chemistry with a view
to entering chemical industry. The present system
of selection by written examination possesses well-
known defects, which can be supplemented only by
a careful study of the student's capacities by those
in charge of his education, a responsibility which
few teachers take upon themselves. It is of the
greatest importance that the spirit of inquiry
should be fostered during the period of home and
school education. The opinion was expressed that
specialised study in any particular branch of
chemical industry should not begin during the
university or college course, but should be deferred
until the man enters the particular industry to
which he intends to devote himself. The chief
forms of capacity required in the industrial
chemist are common sense, memory, an alert brain,
resource in emergency, a mechanical turn of mind,
power of applying his training to large-scale
manufacture, and the habit of industry. Although
most of these qualities may be cultivated, some are
innate and cannot be acquired: hence the funda-
mental importance of an accurate estimation of the
character of a man before he enters upon any course
of chemical education. At every stage in the
chemist's career it jb his natural capacity which
determines hi3 progress far more than the equip-
ment with which he is provided by his training.
This is particularly noticeable when he comes to be
placed in charge of manufacturing operations and
given the management of men. The education of
the industrial chemist is just beginning when he
has completed his college course, a fact that is far
too often completely overlooked. Social intercourse
NOTTINGHAM.
The opening meeting of the session was held at
the University College on October 27, when the
chairman, Mr. J. H. Dunford, gave an address on
" Animal By-products," the efficient utilisation of
which played an important part in ensuring the
national welfare during the war.
After explaining that the waste from a carcase,
i.e., the portion not directly edible, amounted to
nearly half the total weight, tue lecturer detailed
the uses to which this material was put ranging
from extracts of physiological fluids, such as pan-
creatin, gall, thyroid, etc., to the large bulk pro-
ducts— blood and bone charcoal, glue, and fer-
tilisers. From blood is obtained not only haemo-
globin and blood charcoal, which was found to be an
extraordinarily effective absorbent for dusting gan-
grenous wounds, but also serum albumin for use in
the light leather industry. The coagulated blood is
drained on sieves, and to 100 lb. of the serum is
added 1 lb. of turpentine, which forms a sediment
with the mucilage and acts as a preservative. The
serum is kept for some time at 122°, rising to 212°
F.. and finally at 100° F. The moist fibrin residue,
oxidised with pyrolusite and sulphuric acid, gives
butyric acid esters used in flavouring. To the
Premier belongs the credit of having induced the
War Office to enter into relations with the Bone
Users' Trade in 1916. whereby the bone waste of
camps was saved to the nation to such good effect
that in 1917. £750.000 was paid over to the camp
units for this material, which yielded 15,000 tons
of grease and 1400 tons of glycerin, or sufficient to
supply the propellant for over 14 million shells. The
process of glue-making was then described in some
detail, from the preliminary degreasing of the
bones in the closed degreasers. The loss of solvent
benzene in the author's works amounted to only
1J galls, per ton of matter degreased per year.
MANCHESTER.
Two papers were read at the meeting held on
November 5, when Mr. John Allan presided.
Capt. F. S. Sinnatt, with Messrs. A. Grounds and
F. Bayley, presented a paper on " The Inorganic
Constituents of Lancashire Coals," containing an
account of work on the white partings (ankerites)
occurring in certain typical Lancashire coals. These
partings consist of calcium carbonate in which the
base is replaced by varying proportions of mag-
nesium, ferrous iron, and manganese. The maxi-
mum content of ferrous carbonate found was 30 per
cent., and triat of manganese carbonate 1'8 per
cent. The importance of a knowledge of these con-
stituents was explained, and it was pointed out
that the manganese may act as a catalyst when the
ankerites, and perhaps also when the coal sub-
stance, undergo oxidation. Experiment has shown
that the percentage of carbon dioxide found in coal
cannot be accounted for entirely by the proportion
of bases present in the inorganic constituents. The
iron in coal appears to exist as iron pyrites, and the
remainder entirely in the ferrous condition. The
bearings of these observations on the storage, fu~i-
876 R
REVIEW.
[Nov. 15. 1920.
bility of the ash, and the heating of the coal in the
goaf in coal mines, were also discussed.
The second paper was by Messrs. S. J. Peachey
and A. Skipsey on " A New Process for the Vulcani-
sation of Rubber." The process consists in treating
the rubber alternately with sulphur dioxide and
hydrogen sulphide, which interact and produce a
highly active (probably atomic) form of sulphur that
directly combines with and vulcanises the rubber.
As the process is a cold one and does not involve the
use of sulphur chloride, it renders possible the use
of a large variety of organic filling and colouring
agents, most of which are unaffected by exposure to
the gases named. Technically the process is of
immediate importance in that rubber can be used
as a binding agent for materials such as cork dust
and wood meal, the mixings after being sheeted and
vulcanised forming a cheap and excellent material
for floor covering. Leather waste can similarly be
converted into a re-formed leather suitable for use
in the manufacture of boots, shoes, and upholstery.
Shoddy waste yields a felt-like material which
should find many uses. The new process applies
also to the vulcanisation of dissolved rubber, and
application of the gas-vulcanised solution gives very
good results in repair work.
MEETINGS OF OTHER SOCIETIES.
FARADAY AND PHYSICAL SOCIETIES.
On various occasions the Faraday Society has
rendered valuable service by arranging discussions
on scientific topics which are of especial importance
to those concerned in industry ; and its latest meet-
ing, held jointly with the Physical Society on
October 25, afforded a very useful contribution to
the subject of colloids and their industrial appli-
cations. The excellent attendance of about 300,
many of whom had come from a distance, was
significant of the general interest now being taken
in physical and colloidal chemistry.
There was an embarassment of riches in the wide
diversity of the topics presented, so that for the
most part there was no time for discussion proper
to develop, and the proceedings took the form of a
symposium. This was emphasised by the value of
the real discussion that did begin on nitro-cellulose
and cellulose acetate. Hence although in some
cases valuable information and expressions of
opinion furnished material for harmonising con-
flicting views, in others the matter brought for-
ward did not fructify into a consensus of opinion
or bring out crucial differences in Buch a way as to
serve as a guidance to the non-specialist.
Prof. T. Svedberg, one of the best known of the
continental authorities, contributed an introduc-
tory review of some of the more important aspects
of colloid chemistry.
Prof. F. G. Donnan followed with a brief account
of emulsions, a subject which he regarded as being
partly closed, although he went on to indicate
some of the matters that require further stud.y,
such as the conditions under which reversal of
phase takes place in concentrated emulsions, i.e.,
the conversion of oil-in-water into water-in-oil, or
vice versa. He emphasised the value of the sharp
change in conductivity, which, as Clayton sug-
gested, indicates when reversal is effected. Mr. W.
Clayton communicated a paper containing interest-
ing details of the factors involved in the manu-
facture of margarine. This is an emulsion of the
oil-in-water type containing about 4 parts of oil to
1 part of aqueous milk serum. Slight alterations in
the mechanical treatment are sufficient to lead to
an unintentional reversal of phase producing an
emulsion which does not possess the properties of
saleable margarine. Mr. S. Bhatnagar presented
some quantitative data on emulsions, the reversal of
which is caused by the addition of electrolytes.
It appears that the effectiveness of electrolytes in-
creases with valency, although the differences are
by no means as striking as those to which we are
accustomed in the study of colloids. Larger quan-
tities are required to bring about reversal if the
emulsions are dilute. The discussion was distinctly
unfavourable to the view that the reversal of phase
was directly due to the electrolyte, on account of
the greater probability of its affecting the pro-
tective colloid or emulsifying agent.
Mr. E. Hatschek, in his introductory remarks,
emphasised the importance of the study and con-
sideration of non-aqueous gels. He then gave a
brief but complete account of the work hitherto
carried out on the mechanical, optical, and elastic
properties of gels. He gave striking photographs
showing that the optical anisotropy produced by
stress shows no sign of relaxation long after the
mechanical strain has disappeared. Finally, he
urged the importance of a study of swelling in non-
aqueous solvents in which ionisation does not occur.
Prof. H. R. Proctor thereupon outlined his well-
known explanation of the swelling of gelatine gels,
which he ascribes entirely to ionisation effects.
Mr. S. Bradford's paper presented some of the
evidence for the view that crystallisation pheno-
mena can occur in aqueous gelatin, and he argued
that gelatinisation could be called an extreme case
of crystallisation. Dr. J. Barratt, from his work on
fibrinogen hydrosol, supported a view which has
been advanced independently during the last eight
years by various workers, to the effect that gels
have a fibrillary, filamentous, or streptococcic
structure which is usually invisible under the ultra-
microscope. Prof. J. W. McBain, in adducing ex-
perimental work upon soap systems in the three
quite distinct states in which they can exist, viz.,
transparent fluid sols, transparent elastic gels, and
opaque solid curds, supported the hypothesis that
gels have this invisible filamentous structure. The
identity of soap sols and gels in all save mechanical
properties, in particular their identity in con-
ductivity, appeared to be irreconcilable with any
other hypothesis of gel structure. Moreover, the
sharp line of distinction between the gels and curds
indicates that only curds and coagula are formed by
any process analogous to crystallisation. Prof.
Svedberg mentioned a striking instance of a dilute
alcosol of cadmium which repeatedly gelatinised,
but reverted to sol whenever it was gently stirred.
Sir Herbert Jackson addressed the meeting on
glass and pyrosols, mentioning interesting details
ranging over a wide field. In connexion with the
view that glass is not merely an undercooled liquid,
but has a special gelatinous structure, Dr. M.
Travers summarised measurements showing that its
properties exhibit a discontinuity at a temperature
about 70° below its softening point.
The evening session was opened by an address by
Sir Robert Robertson on nitrocellulose, in which
he dealt almost entirely with the empirical re-
lationships that have been found in connexion with
viscosity. Mr. F. Sproxton, speaking as a manu-
facturer, reviewed the chemical and physical
notions that have been put forward in suggested
explanation of the very numerous empirical ob-
servations. Dr. G. Barr and Mr. L. Bircumshaw con-
tributed further experimental results upon the vis-
cosities of cellulose acetate in mixtures of acetone
with other solvents. This was followed by an
animated discussion, in which it soon became ev.-
dent that the most urgent practical need is purely
theoretical work, in order to correlate by any kind
of working hypothesis the vast amount of purely
empirical information. Indeed, in the whole field
of colloidal chemistry technical experience has far
Vol. XXXIX.. \o. 21.]
377 R
outdistanced scientific explanation. Another
urgent need is the development of exact and un-
ambiguous methods of study ; the more distinctively
colloidal the phenomenon the less tangible are the
available methcds of investigation.
The discussion on rubber, which was opened by
Mr. B. D. Porritt, also brought out many facts of
practical importance, particularly with regard to
tackiness, perishing, and the effect of light upon the
viscosity of the solutions. This was followed by Mr.
J. N. Mukherjee's important paper embodying a
quantitative study of the charges of colloidal
particles as influenced by electrolytes. Mr.
Clayton's paper dealt with the similar effects pro-
duced by non-electrolytes and emulsoids.
After Prof. A. W. Porter had briefly defined the
nature of cataphoresis and endosmosis. and Prof.
McBain had communicated some preliminary
results, using a simplified theory of the latter. Dr.
W. R. Ormandy summarised valuable information
with regard to applications on the industrial scale
to clay, peat, silica, tanning, ore separation, anti-
diphtheritic serum, gelatin, and the separation of
oil and water from each other.
The full value of the discussion will only he
realised by studying the printed report, which,
most fortunately, is being made available at the
low price of 2s. 6d. by the Department of Scientific
and Industrial Research. The book will contain a
number of additional papers, such as those of Pauli
and Freundlich, as well as contributions to the dis-
cussions submitted in writing, and it will form an
invaluable source of information for those interested
in any of the extraordinarily large number of
industrial topics considered.
CHEMICAL SOCIETY.
On October 28, Dr. M. O. Forster delivered the
Emil Fischer Memorial Lecture to a very large
audience gathered at the Institution of Mechanical
Engineers, S.W. Sir James J. Dobbie, president,
was in the chair.
In describing Fischer's personality, the lecturer
referred to his unswerving singleness of purpose,
his enthusiasm, his impatience of trivialities, and
the goodness of heart which lay concealed beneath a
somewhat severe manner. As a scientific investi-
gator, Fischer was remarkable for his keen insight,
unflagging energy, and extraordinarv manipulative
skill (cf. J., 1919, 322 k). In attempting to sum-
marise the results of Fischer's investigations, the
lecturer had no easy task, but he succeeded in
giving a clear and logical exposition of his work on
phenylhydrazine and derivatives, on the triphenyl-
methane colouring matters, the carbohydrates,
glucosides and depsides, the synthesis of gallo-
tannic acid, the purine derivatives, amino-acids,
polypeptides, and proteins, the fundamental im-
portance of his work to the science of biochemistry
being duly emphasised. Lastly, his relations to
chemical technology, in peace and in war (c/. J.,
1920, 41 r), were described, and the opinion ex-
pressed that Fischer's greatest contribution in this
direction was, probably, the stream of young
chemists which passed regularly from his laboratory
to the factories. The lecture is printed in full in
the October issue of the Journal of the Chemical
Society.
At the meeting held on November 4. at Burling-
ton House, W., Sir J. J. Dobbie presiding, 113
certificates for admission to the Fellowship were
read a first time, and of the 18 communications on
the agenda 7 were read in abstract.
Sir W. J. Pope and collaborators presented three
papers. The first dealt with the preparation of
triphenylarsine and diphenylarsenious salts by new
methods; the second described the interaction of
ethylene and selenium monochloride and the isola-
tion of the selenium analogue of " mustard gas " ;
and the third treated of the preparation and
properties of carbonyl chloride. The combination
of carbon monoxide and chlorine, in presence of
suitably prepared charcoal as catalyst, was stated
to proceed practically instantaneously at 14° C.„
whereas in technical manufacture the temperature
rises to about 400° C, at which much of the product
undergoes dissociation. The density, melting-
point, and the vapour pressure curve have been
determined within wide ranges of temperature.
Mr. G. van B. Gilmour outlined a new method of
estimating certain sugars and polyatomic alcohols
based upon the fact that varying but definite
amounts of these substances are required to inhibit
hydrolysis in the titration of boric acid with caustic
alkali in aqueous solution. Prof. J. C. Irvine
described investigations on the relationship of
inulin to fructose ; and on the conversion of cellu-
lose into methylglucoside, a yield of about 85 per
cent, being obtained by the method used. Prof.
G. T. Morgan's paper dealt with the acetylacetones
of selenium and tellurium, prepared by the inter-
action of acetylacetone with t'ie respective tetra-
chlorides ; and that by Dr. E. B. Maxted on the
influence of lead on the catalytic activity of
platinum showed that its action as a catalyst
"poison" is strictly similar to that of hydrogen
sulphide.
SOCIETY OF PUBLIC ANALYSTS.
The opening meeting of the session was held at
Burlington House, W., on November 3. Mr. A.
Smetham presided.
In a paper on " The Gravimetric Estimation of
Bismuth as Phosphate and its Applications in Ore
Analysis," Dr. W. R. Schoeller and Mr. E. F.
Waterhouse described a modification of the method
for the gravimetric estimation of bismuth as phos-
phate. Details were also given of a process for
determining bismuth in ores, in which the lead is
removed by iron wire, the copper, arsenic, and anti-
mony are extracted as sulphides with sodium
cyanide and sulphide, and the bismuth then con-
verted into phosphate and weighed. The authors
agree with Moser that the phosphate method is the
best to use in the great majority of cases.
Mr. P. J. Fryer read a paper on "The Time
Factor in Saponification " dealing with determina-
tions of the rate of saponification of various oils and
fats under specific conditions, with a view to ascer-
taining whether such differences in rate were suffi-
ciently great to serve as the basis of an analytical
method for identifying individual oils and fats.
An apparatus for collecting samples of water at
great depths was described by Mr. W. T. Burgess.
The device, which is suitable for collecting samples
from very deep wells or borings of small diameter,
consists of a stout glass vacuum tube protected by
a cylindrical casing through which water can freely
pass; at the required depth the upper end of the
exhausted tube is broken by a plunger operated by
a falling weight.
A paper on " The Position of Analytical
Chemistry in France" was contributed by Mr. V.
Cofman.
BRITISH ASSOCIATION OF CHEMISTS.
The third annual meeting of the British Associa-
tion of Chemists was held on October 30, at Man-
chester, Mr. W. E. Kav presiding in the absence of
the president, Prof. j. W. Hinchley. The total
membership is now 1153, as compared with 759 at
the beginning of the year, and ten sections have
been organised in Great Britain. The Association
was registered under the Trade Union Acts in
August, and membership is open to both employers
and employees.
REVIEW.
[Nov. 15. 1920.
The annual report of the Council refers to the
growing appreciation of the market value of the
chemist and to the recognition among chemists
themselves of the economic value of a strong pro-
fessional organisation. An Appointments Bureau
has been established, legal advice given on general
agreements and agreements with respect to patents,
and in connexion with the Whitley Councils a com-
mittee has devoted much time to secure federated
action by professional, technical, and scientific
workers. Cases of inadequate remuneration have
been investigated and action taken. In most cases
the employers have met the Association sympa-
thetically, and matters have been satisfactorily ad-
justed. The Council considers that the misappre-
hension in the public mind in regard to the term
" chemist " should be cleared up by legal action,
if necessary. A committee has been appointed to
investigate the question and to suggest to the
Council a specific line of action for securing the
co-operation of the pharmaceutical and other
scientific bodies with the object of defining the
future legal position of the chemist and his pro-
fession, and of securing legislation to prevent un-
qualified men from practising.
Dr. H. Levinstein, presiding at the annual
dinner, expressed his sympathy with the general
objects of the Association. Chemistry was an
honourable profession, but the chemist in this
country did not obtain the status which other pro-
fessional people enjoyed. With the principal object
of the Association, viz., to raise the status of the
properly qualified professional chemist, he was in
the fullest agreement. In the effort to secure this
status one suggestion was to form a close association
with the Institute of Chemistry, which had per-
formed great services for chemists in the past, but
which by reason of its charter was unable to fulfil
certain of the functions of the Association. This
view had been substantiated by Mr. Justice
Peterson's recent decision in the case of the Phar-
maceutical Society (c/. i. and J., 1920, 361 r). Deal-
ing with some points in the piopaganda literature
issued by the Association, Dr. Levinstein said it
was against the interest of chemists to impose on
their employers conditions which were not econo-
mically sound. Something had been said of the re-
muneration of research chemists. He did not re-
member any case in which chemists had not been
remunerated for any invention for which they were
responsible. It would be well to look at the other
side. To-day it cost about £700 a year to employ
one research chemist. Some works employed ten,
which meant £35,000 for five years. The capital
had been sunk, but there was no certainty of an
invention in the period which would give an ade-
quate return. If one resulted, then it would have
to cover the cost of the researches which did not
materialise. It was therefore only fair that the
employer should be ahle to restrict a chemist from
leaving him directly he had made a profitable dis-
covery, or from making free use of information
acquired by him in running plant or processes pro-
bably designed and worked out by others. Agree-
ments should be fair both to employer and em-
ployee. In proposing the health of the Association,
Dr. Levinstein expressed confidence that its mem-
bers would not forget that they were a body of pro-
fessional men, and that they would set a high
example of what a trade union ought to be.
ROYAL SOCIETY.
The following papers, among others, were read
at the meeting held on November 4: — "Dilation
and Compression of Liquid Carbonic Acid " : Prof.
C. F. Jenkin ; " Radiations in Explosions of Hydro-
gen and Air " : Mr. W. T. David ; " Photochemical
Investigations of the Photographic Plate " : Dr.
R. E. Slade and Mr. G. I. Higson.
NEWS AND NOTES.
AUSTRALIA.
Industrial News Items. — Work at the Broken Hill
mines is expected to be resumed at an early date.
In giving evidence at an inquiry relating to a
44-hour week, a witness stated that it was possible
to earn £44 per fortnight at the Broken Hill Steel
Works at Newcastle, N.S.W., yet the company was
seriously short of labour.
The Commonwealth Government has guaranteed
£6 per ton for standard flax grown in the season
1921. The Flax Committee hopes to declare a fur-
ther substantial dividend on the 1918 crop, growers
of which have alreadv received £7 per ton. —
{Official.)
Glass Bottle Manufacture in Tasmania. — The Mel-
bourne Glass Bottle Works Co., Ltd., is to erect
immediately a factory near Hobart, which it is
hoped, will be brought to the production stage hy
the end of this year. It is intended to supply all
the requirements of Tasmania and to export to
New Zealand. Extensions to the company's works
at Spotswood have been delayed by shortage of
material, but this has now been remedied, and an
increased output of 75 per cent, is foreshadowed.
In consequence of the coal shortage the company
has lately been refusing all export orders. — (Ind.
Austral., Sept. 2, 1920.)
Discovery of Cobalt Ore in Queensland. — The
Imperial Mineral Resources Bureau announces the
recent receipt of a report by the Queensland
Government Geologist on a deposit of high-grade
cobalt ore which is of especial interest in view of
the more extended use to which cobalt has been put
during recent years. The deposit is located near
Selwyn, in the Cloncurry district of Queensland.
The cobalt ore, which occurs at the contact of
diorite and schists, consists of cobaltite (sulph-
arsenide of cobalt) and erythrito or " cobalt
bloom " (hydrous arsenate of cobalt). A picked
sample of the cobaltite recently assayed for the De-
partment of Mines gave the following compo-
sition:— Arsenic 40'2%, sulphur 15'8%, cobalt
33-1%, nickel nil, iron 2"1%, insoluble (chiefly SiOJ
8-3%.
CANADA.
Saskatchewan's Bureau of Industries. — The province
of Saskatchewan has instituted a bureau of in-
dustries, which has for its object the development
of known resources within the province rather than
the exploration of unknown ones. The practic-
ability of every industry which might appear pos-
sible of development, because of the presence of raw
material or other favourable conditions, will be in-
vestigated by the Bureau. The clay industry will
bo taken first, geological surveys having indicated
that the province has some of the most valuable
clay deposits in the world. Manufactured bricks
have hitherto been imported in large quantities
from Manitoba, Alberta, and the United States.
Existing plants in the province cannot supply the
demand, and it is held that the industry can be
developed not only to supply home needs but also
to engage in export. The lumber industry will
also be considered. No advantage, for instance,
has yet been taken of the immense possibilities of
pulp manufacture, a question of prime importance
in view of the universal shortage of newsprint.
Coal-mining has possibilities of greater development
notwithstanding there are 51 coal mines in the pro-
vince producing 300,000 tons per year. The
Dominion Government, in conjunction with the pro-
vincial governments of Manitoba and Saskatche-
wan, has erected a plant at Estevan, Saskatchewan,
for the briquetting of provincial lignite, and this
Vol. XXXIX.. Xo. 21.1
REVIEW.
will be producing by the end of the year. The
Bureau will also investigate the tremendous water
powers of the northern rivers, and the more
economical transmission of electrical power over
long distances. Numerous indications of oil and
natural gas, which hare never been adequately sur-
v.'v, .1, will receive full attention with a view to ex-
ploitation.— (Aijric. Ind. Prog. Canada, Oct., 1920.)
Denaturing Alcohol at the Distilleries. — By amend-
ments made to the Inland Revenue Act, :he de-
naturing of alcohol, which was formerly carried on
only at the denaturing plant of the Inland Revenue
Department at Ottawa, may now be done by the
distiller. This is regarded by leading chemical
manufacturers and by the Canadian Section of the
Society of Chemical Industry as a decided advance
in the development of industrial alcohol manufac-
ture in Canada. It is hoped that under the new
conditions the money saved in freight between
Ottawa and the distilling plants will lead in time
to a reduction in the price of alcohol, which is now
very high.
Shipment from the distilleries to permit holders
may be made only in respect of grade No. 1, con-
sisting of 80% ethyl alcohol and 20% methyl alcohol ;
or of grade No. 1 benzine, consisting of 90% ethyl
alcohol, 9 % methyl alcohol, and 1% commercial
benzine. Hospitals and universities holding per-
mits to have grade No. 1 " special " in possession
and use may receive denatured alcohol composed of
90% ethyl alcohol and 10% methyl alcohol. Grade
No. 2, consisting of 70% ethyl and 30% methyl
alcohol, may be shipped without restriction.
BRITISH INDIA.
The Oleo-resin Industry. — In a report on forest
administration in the Punjab during 1918-19, the
Conservator of Forests states that the Indian oleo-
resin industry for the production of rosin and tur-
pentine can now be accepted as an established
source of supply of these articles, which not only
meets the Indian demand, but has every prospect
of rapidly building up a sound export business. A
second Ropar's unit has been ordered for the Jallo
factory, where, during the year 1918-19, 28,778
maunds of resin was distilled, yielding 18,734
maunds of rosin and 52,701 galls, of turpentine.
A 3-unit factory is nearing completion at Bareilly,
in the United Provinces, and these two factories
will be able to handle 180,000 maunds of crude
resin annually. Attention is also being paid to the
standardisation of rosin and turpentine, whilst re-
search has opened up new prospects for the dis-
tillation of rosin for the production of rosin oil,
pinolene, pitch, and rosin gas. The demand for
rosin oil appears to be considerable, and the pros-
pects of this line of inquiry are promising (maund =
82'3 lb.).
Camphor Production in Burma. — A development of
importance to celluloid manufacturers is reported
from Burma, where a 650-acre camphor plantation
has been established at Yatsauk, Southern Shan
States, and is now producing on a commercial scale.
It is stated that a distilling plant is in operation,
and that a refining plant is being erected. — (Oil,
Paint and Drug Rep., Sept. 27, 1920.)
SOUTH AFRICA.
Reported Mineral Discoveries. — The discovery of a
series of gold-bearing reefs, one 12 ft. wide and
carrying high values, is reported from the Heidel-
berg district. It is also stated that valuable de-
posits of iron, platinum, and coal have been located
in the Cala district, Cape Colony, and that im-
portant firms are interested. — (Official.)
Manufacture of Chromium Compounds. — A factory
for the manufacture of chromium compounds has
been established at Viljoens Drift, Orange Free
State. At present only sodium chromate and bi-
chromate are being produced, but there is room for
considerable expansion, as large supplies of chrome
ore are available (cf. J., 1920, 237 r), and coal is
very much cheaper than in Great Britain. The
bichromate is used locally in the chrome tanning
of leather, and there is a possibility of opening an
export trade with Australia, a trial consignment
having been sent. — (Official).
UNITED STATES.
Synthetic Methyl Alcohol. — An unusual demand for
methyl alcohol for manufacturing organic accelera-
tors used in vulcanising rubber and for making
formaldehyde, coupled with a growing shortage of
wood for distillation, is stimulating research on
the synthesis of methyl alcohol. Natural methane
is being used as the starting material, and good
progress is recorded.
A New Colorimeter. — The first uf the colorimeters
devised in the research laboratory of the Eastman
Kodak Company has been shown and has created a
favourable impression. There are four standard-
ised wedges (minus red, minus blue, minus green,
and neutral) to measure intensity, and the position
of each wedge is noted upon a numerical scale so
that a simple, accurate record is possible. Various
attachments make the instrument adaptable for
liquids, solids, dyed materials, etc.
The Sixth National Exposition of Chemical Industries.
— Four hundred and fifty-seven exhibitors and an
attendance of more than 125,000 testify to the
success of the recent exhibition, the most encour-
aging features of which were the improvement in
the exhibits and the greater interest shown by the
public. Models such as are used to depict the
structure of organic compounds were made use of
to emphasise the relationships between dyes, medi-
cinals, explosives, and toxic gases. As on former
occasions, natural resources of interest to chemists
were attractively displayed by governments, rail-
ways, and cities. Next year the exhibition will be
held in a building, one floor of which has a greater
area than the four floors of the large building used
hitherto, and new features are to be expected.
Fireproofing of Wood. — At the Forest Products
Laboratory it has been found that the ordinary
" calcimine " is as satisfactory as any other type of
paint for decreasing the danger of fire spreading
from such small sources as sparks, cigarettes, etc.
Treatment with calcimine is best adapted for inside
uses, and although not so efficient as methods in-
volving impregnation of wood with chemicals under
pressure, it is much less expensive and therefore
applicable where small amounts of wood are in-
volved. For outside application the laboratory has
devised a coating with consists of zinc borate and
chrome green ground in linseed oil. This material
has retained its fire-resisting properties after three
years of exposure out of doors.
Coffee Research. — The Joint Coffee Trade Publicity
Committee has entered into an arrangement with
the Massachusetts Institute of Technology whereby
research will be conducted on coffee with respect to
its influence upon health and nutrition. It is in-
tended to determine the comparative amounts of
caffeine and other constituents in beverages pre-
pared by different methods, and the study will in-
clude the effect of water at different temperatures
and of different degrees of hardness, and of water
purified by the various standard methods. A study
will also be made of the effect produced by the
addition to prepared coffee of hot and cold milk,
cream, sugar, salt, and other materials. Various
volatile oils, tannin and other ingredients, espe-
cially astringent substances which give undesirable
flavours, will be included in the research, as well is
3S0r
REVIEW.
the effect of different degrees of roasting and of
granulation of the bean.
Molasses. — The brochure on molasses compiled by
C. J. West and published by Arthur D. Little, Inc.
(cf. J., 1920, 322 r) contains a bibliography of the
literature of the subject, which appears to be very
complete save for the omission of certain recent
patents, such as those for the utilisation of
molasses for the production of glycerin. The biblio-
graphy is preceded by a short descriptive account
of molasses from the chemical and industrial stand-
points, together with some statistics of production
and utilisation. In view of the interest now being
taken in the subject of motor fuels, it may be noted
that during the season 1918-19 the amount of
" blackstrap," or low-grade cane molasses produced
in the United States was 16.101,650 galls. (Ameri-
can); whilst 124,254,633 galls, was imported from
Cuba, 15,118,678 from Porto Rico, 11,065,996 from
Hawaii, and 5,820,054 from other countries. During
1919 the amount of molasses fermented was
123,498,693 galls., giving 75,407,357 galls, of
Cologne spirit and 816,103 galls, of rum.
The Coal Industry. — H.M. Commercial Secretary
at Washington reports that the coal production of
the United States increased from 531'6 million
short tons in 1915 to 544"3 million tons in 1919, the
output in the latter year consisting of 86,200,000 t.
of anthracite and 458,100,000 t. of bituminous coal.
The output of anthracite more than doubled in the
28 years before 1917, since when it has remained
stationary, and it seems that the production of
anthracite has reached its maximum. During the
same period, however, the output of bituminous
coal increased fourfold and has since tended to keep
pare with the country's industrial expansion. The
chief factors limiting supplies are labour shortage
and inadequate means of distribution. The aggre-
gate exports of both anthracite and bituminous
coal, which were never more than a very small pro-
portion of the total output, have been maintained
at a steady level. Exports of anthracite are prac-
tically confined to Canada, but during the last year
exports of bituminous coal have been diverted to
new fields. The subjoined table gives the exports
of bituminous coal in millions of long tons for the
fiscal years ended June 30, 1913, 1918, 1919, 1920: —
Exports of Bituminous Coal from the United States.
1913
1918
1919
1920
Canada
11.981
16.093
14.198
10.470
Italy
925
201
228
2863
Cuba
1274
1494
1002
1243
Argentina
39
247
234
934
Brazil
234
625
733
540
Other Countries
1630
1792
1754
5642
Total .. 16.083 21.052 18,149 19.857
The average output in short tonB per man em-
ploved in American mines for each year from 1912
to 1918 was:— For anthracite, 520,505, 504, 548, 646,
672 tons; and for bituminous coal, 837, 724, 794,
896, 915, 942 tons. The total cost of bituminous
coal at the pit was $2.77 per ton, including a labour
cost of $2.07. The average export prices per ton
in 1919 varied from $7.22— $8.80 for anthracite,
and $4.20— $5.13 for bituminous coal.— (Bd. of
Trade J., Oct. 7, 1920.)
JAPAN.
The Potassium Bichromate Industry. — The demand
for potassium bichromate in Japan has been
steadily increasing for some time past, and until
recently this article was entirely derived from over-
seas, the importation in 1912 exceeding 625 long
tons. The tremendous rise in price, however, from
0.17 to 2.00 yen per lb. (yen = 2s. 0}d.), caused the
manufacture to be taken up in the country, and at
present it is being made by eight important firms,
which command a total capital of 900,000 yen and
an output capacity of 1730 tons. The largest of
these firms is the Nippon Seiren Co., of Tokyo,
which is controlled by Dr. T. Tanahashi and which
also produces sodium silicate and peroxide, potas-
sium permanganate, aluminium sulphate, etc.
There were formerly many small undertakings
which converted imported sodium bichromate into
the potassium salt, but these have been completely
extinguished by the recent financial crises.
The main uses of this salt in Japan are for
making matches, dyes, in tanning, and for electric
cells. The official estimate of the country's demand
is 1116 tons per annum. The cost of production is
now so high that it is feared that unless protection
be granted the home manufacture will cease.
Japan produces its own chrome iron ore, but it is
of rather poor grade, ore containing 45 — 50 per
cent. Cr203 being rarely found. The output in
recent years has been (long tons): — 1309 in 1913,
2080-4 in 1914, 2943'3 in 1915, 8139'2 in 1916, and
8791-7 in 1917.
Beet-Sugar Industry. — The Hokkaido Sugar Manu-
facturing Co., the pioneer beet-sugar company of
Japan, owns 3500 acres of land, and obtains beets
from an additional 12,500 acres on contracts with
farmers, who are provided with seed and fertilisers
and paid at the rate of 8 yen per 1000 kin (16s. 4d.
per 1333 lb.). Seed is obtained from Utah, Idaho,
and Holland, and the crop is dealt with by mechani-
cal means. The factory has a capacity of 600 tons
a day, and it is anticipated that beets will be ob-
tained from an area of 22,500 acres in 1921. — (U.S.
Com. Sep., Sept. 7, 1920.)
FRANCE.
Industrial Notes. — Chemical Industry. — Owing to
difficulties in distributing the German chemical
products due to France under the Peace Treaty,
centres to regulate distribution, known as " comp-
toirs chimiques," have been established to ensure a
fr.irer distribution than has hitherto been the case.
One of these new centres is " Le comptoir d'appro-
visionnement des teintureries du Nord de la
France," with headquarters at Roubaix.
Good progress is being made in the production of
synthetic ammonia (cf. i.), and large sulphuric acid
and superphosphate plants are about to be erected
in Strasbourg by the Societe de St. Gobain. The
production of natural phosphate has been stimu-
lated in Algeria and Tunisia, the " Societe des
Phosphates Tunisiens " reporting an output of
34,200 tons in September last, which compares wtih
12,100 t. in September, 1919.
Coal. — One of the first effects of the coal strike in
Great Britain was a sudden rise in the price of
American coal imported into France. Deliveries
from Germany are regular, and about 97 per cent,
of the coal, coke, and briquettes promised has
been delivered, but the quality, especially that of
the coke, is very unsatisfactory, and measures are
being taken to effect an improvement. Production
in the Sarre district continues to increase and, pro-
vided that the present rate is maintained, it is
anticipated that the output for 1920 will total 10
million t., and 13 million t. for 1921, which was the
figure reached in 1913. Supplies from Belgium are
scanty, and only 54,000 t. was delivered during the
first fortnight of September.
Petroleum-. — The great difficulties experienced in
transporting petroleum from the oilfields have led to
the suggestion that it should be utilised in situ to
drive powerful Diesel engines for generating
electric current which could be conveyed at about
150.000 volts over wide tracts of country. It is
thought that this would be a cheaper method of
transport Elian the plan of laying pipe-lines for con-
veying mnzout and heavy oils.
Water Transport. — The scheme of constructing a
North-Eastern Canal to connect the North Sea ports
Vol. XXXIX.. Xo. 21.]
KEVIEW.
with the coalfields and industrial centres is again
attracting attention. The total length would be
about 254 km., and the cost is estimated at about
400 million francs.
The Claude Synthetic-Ammonia Process. — At an ex-
traordinary meeting of the " Societe l'Air
Liquide," held on October 8, M. Georges Claude
presented a report on the progress of his work.
Referring to the criticism made by members of the.
" Academie des Sciences " that the plant which they
had inspected in January last for producing a daily
yield of 100 — 150 litres of liquid ammonia was on
a laboratory scale. M. Claude stated that within a
few weeks he would invite the " Academie " to in-
spect a plant now producing 1 to 1'5 metric tons
daily. The output had thus been increased ten-
fold, and further progress was anticipated. — {Rev.
Prod. Chim., Oct. 15, 1920.)
GENERAL.
Register of Chemical Assistants. — The Institute of
Chemistry has initiated a Register of Chemical
Assistants to which only those who have matricu-
lated or passed an approved preliminary examina-
tion will be admitted. Parents of assistants are
required to testify that the youths are precluded
from taking a systematic four years' day course at
a recognised college, and to give an undertaking
that they will attend evening classes with a view
to obtaining a qualification. Members of the
Institute are asked to assist by making known tbeir
requirements to the Registrar, by encouraging and
promoting those of their registered assistants who
diligently follow evening courses, and generally by
doing all they can to remove the career of labora-
tory assistant from the list of " blind alley " occu-
pations. The Register is divided into three
grades: — A, youths who have passed an approved
preliminary examination; B, those who have also
completed studies of the standard of a first^year
University course; and C, those whose studies have
attained the standard of a completed second-year
University course".
Chemical Industry Club. — The annual meeting was
held in the Club Rooms on October 29, Dr. W. R.
Ormandy presiding. The accounts were passed,
the new committee elected, and various suggestions
were put forward with a view to increasing the
popularity of the club, more particularly in
connexion with the monthly meetings. It was
announced that the Rt. Hon. Lord Moulton, Sir
"William Pope, and Mr. Max Muspratt had accepted
invitations and would speak at the annual dinner,
to be held in the Connaught Rooms, W.C., on
Friday, November 19. Applications for tickets
should be sent, with remittance (15s.). as early as
possible to the hon. secretary at 2, Whitehall
Court, S.W. 1.
The Newcomen Society. — A new society bearing
this title has been formed for the study of the
history of engineering and technology. Local sec-
tions have been established in London and Birm-
ingham, and it is proposed to make a card index of
published information, and eventually to issue a
journal. The inaugural meeting was held at the
Patent Office, London, on November 6, when Mr.
E. W. Hulme, late librarian, read a paper entitled
" An Introduction to the Literature of Historical
Engineering to the Year 1640." Mr. A. Titley, of
Birmingham, is president, and Mr. H. W. Dickin-
son, of the Science Museum, South Kensington,
hon. 6ec. :ind treasurer.
The Calorific Valuation of Coal Gas. — The Metro-
politan Gas Referees, in a notification for the final
quarter of 1920, applicable only to the South Metro-
politan Gas Company, state that as the latter com-
pany has declared its intention under the new
Parliamentary powers of supplying gas of a calorific
value of 550 B.Th.U. gross per cubic foot, testingB
of the company's gas for illuminating power are
to cease, and the calorific value testings substituted
therefor are to be made thrice daily at intervals
of not less than three hours. These testings are
to be made with the Boys calorimeter, with which
the testing places are already provided, as the
Referees are not prepared at present to prescribe
for official testings a continuously recording calori-
meter. They will sanction the installation for
observation only of recording calorimeters of any
promising types.
Rubber-Seed Oil in the Federated Malay States. — In
the Report of the Agricultural Department of the
Federated Malay States for 1919, the Director of
Agriculture states that the experimental hydraulic
oil-expressing plant of the Department has been
lent to the Malayan Oil Mills, Ltd., a local com-
pany formed primarily to manufacture rubber-seed
oil. It has been ascertained that seed on storage
deteriorates and produces an oil containing up to
about 25 per cent, free fatty acids, and that such
oil is not generally suitable as J. substitute for lin-
seed oil. Further, this oil is not suitable for many
purposes owing to its slower drying power compared
with linseed oil, and it is necessary to prepare a
" boiled " oil for commercial purposes. Consider-
able progress has been made in the work of refining
the oil, but it is probable that the processes re-
quired can only be carried out in a factory under
the supervision of a trained chemist. Experiments
on the preparation of " boiled " oils have shown
that a satisfactory product can be obtained from
a raw oil free from fatty acids. A fuiiher problem,
namely, the prevention of the deterioration of seed
on storage, remains to be attacked. Freshly-col-
lected seed yields an oil with very low acid content.
Cassava Industry in British Guiana. — The large-
scale cultivation of the manioc, or cassava, is about
to be initiated in British Guiana by the Emido Co.,
Ltd., of Liverpool. This firm imports large quan-
tities of cassava into the United Kingdom for the
purpose of starch manufacture, etc., and it now
proposes to use it in the manufacture of soap {cf.
J., 1920, 34 r). — {Bull. Dept. Trade and Com.,
Canada, Sept. 13, 1920.)
Sugar Production in Jugo-SIavia. — The output of
refined sugar in Jugo-SIavia for 1920 is estimated
at 35,000 metric tons, compared with 10,000 t. in
1919, and a normal production of 60,000 t. As
60.000 t. represents the local consumption, 25,000 t.
will have to be imported. The shortage is due to
lack of sugar beets, the area under the crop being
43,283 acres, against a normal acreage of 77,968. —
{U.S. Com. Rep., Sept. 23, 1920.)
Cane-Sugar Production in Trinidad. — It is antici-
pated that the sugar-cane crop of Trinidad for the
new crop year will be 25 to 30 per cent, greater than
in 1919-20, when 58,416 tons- of sugar was made,
compared with 47.8-50 t. in 1918-19, and 70,891 t. in
1916-17. The high prices which have prevailed for
sugar have caused a great increase in the area
under cultivation, an'l there have also been im-
provements in the efficiency of local sugar factories
and a considerable extension of factory facilities. —
{U.S. Com. Rep., Sept. 22, 1920.)
Camphor in Foochow. China. — The position of
camphor in Foochow has improved considerably
since 1917 {cf. J., 1920, 185 r). as exports increased
from 56,533 lb. in 1918 to 931,600 lb. in 1919, and to
427,066 lb. during the first quarter of 1920. Stocks
of camphor and camphor oil at Foochow amounted
to 80,000 lb. and 40.000 lb. respectively, not in-
cluding 27,000 lb. held by the Government Camphor
Bureau. Prices are unusually low owing to
Government restrictions on production and distilla-
382 b
REVIEW.
tion and to lack of demand. The camphor is
initially distilled in the interior of the country, and
the camphor oil is sent to Foochow for redistillation.
—(U.S. Com. Rep., Aug. 18, 1920.)
Essential Oils in Southern Spain. — Most of the
essential oils, viz., rosemary, lavender, penny-
royal, thyme, spike, sweet-fennel, bitter-fennel,
sage, and marjoram, are extracted from the plants
which grow wild in the uncultivated regions of
the provinces of southern Spain. The total annual
production, which might be much increased, is
estimated as follows : — Rosemary, 150 metric tons ;
thyme, 100 t. ; spike, 50 — 100 t., other essences,
50 t. Small quantities of the following are obtained
from cultivated plants: — Rue, juniper, neroli
bigarde, marjoram, Spanish eucalyptus, geranium,
and Spanish rose. Production is intermittent,
depending largely on prices; and in many cases the
buyer has to furnish the producer with a still and
equipment, make an advance payment, and guar-
antee a fixed price for the output. — (U.S. Com.
Bep. Suppl., Aug. 17, 1920.
Cyanamide Production in Germany. — The output
capacity of the German cyanamide factories
amounts to about 600,000 metric tons per annum
and is distributed as follows: — Mitteldeutsche
Stickstoffwerke A.-G., Piesteritz, 175,000 t. ; Ober-
schlesische Stickstoffwerke A.-G., Chorzow, 150,000
t. ; A.-G. fiir Stickstoffdiinger, Knapsack, Gross-
Kayna, 140,000 t. ; Bayerische Stickstoffwerke
A.-G., Trostberg und Margaretenberg, 75,000 t. ;
Lonzawerke, Waklshut, 60,000 t. It is anticipated
than only 300,000 t. will be produced in 1920,
owing to lack of coal, which is likely to continue on
account of the exports required under the Peace
Treaty. Hence the urgent need for developing the
water-power resources of the country. — (Z. fiir
Sauerstoff- und Stickstoff-Ind., Aug., 1920.)
Attendance at German Universities. — During the
past summer a total of 89,000 students entered the
German universities, whilst 18,686 attended the 11
" Technische Hochschulen." In addition, there
were 12,000 students at the Higher Schools for
Agriculture, Veterinary Science, and Commerce,
and other institutions, making a grand total of
115,000 students, including about 7700 women at
the universities and 280 at the technical institu-
tions. The distribution of the students according
to courses, compared with that in the summer of
1914, was:— Medicine, 19,534 (16,048) ; mathematics
and natural science, 10,125 (8132) ; pharmacy, 952
(11,000); political science and agriculture, 10,335
(3876).— (Chem.-Z., Sept. 14, 1920.)
Dye Manufacture in Sweden. — The plane to build
up a native dye industry in Sweden have appar-
ently met with no success. The company — A.B.
Svensk Fargamnesindustri — founded in 1917 to
start the immediate manufacture of dyes and
chemicals, based on various Swedish inventions
and methods said to have been thoroughly proved
in practice, has never got under way, and so far
has only produced a few dye intermediates which
are saleable as finished pharmaceutical products.
The greater part of the 12 million kronor (krona =
Is. ljd.) capital has been lost, and the directors
have come to the conclusion that dye production
on a large scale is only possible in Sweden with
State aid. Attempts to raise more capital to keep
the company in being have been futile, and early
liquidation is anticipated. — (Z. angew. Chem
Sept. 8, 1920.)
The Italian Pumice Industry. — The seat of the
Italian pumice industry is the volcanic island of
Lipari, where 90 per cent, of the pumice mines
belongs to the municipality. The mining methods
employed are primitive, and drifts run into the hill-
sides are abandoned long before they are exhausted
owing to caving in, no props being used. Three
grades of pumice are produced, viz., chips, powder,
and lump. The export consists mainly of powder,
except to the United States, where the crude pumice
is imported and converted into pure powder,
Italian-ground pumice being considered of inferior
quality. Lump pumice is used mainly by carriage
and automobile makers, lithographers, platers, and
manufacturers of patent leather and enamel. The
pumice trade declined greatly during the war, but
exports are now rapidly increasing. During 1919,
18,244 metric tons was exported from Lipari, in-
cluding 3257 t. to France, 1451 t. to England and
7532 t. to the United States.— (U.S. Com. Hep.,
Aug. 18, 1920.)
Cinchona Bark from East Africa and the Cameroons.
— Samples of cinchona bark from East Africa were
examined at the Imperial Institute, and the con-
clusion arrived at was that bark of good quality
can be grown in East Africa, and that plantations
of the Cinchona Ledgeriana type should be ex-
tended in preference to Cinchona succirubra, as
bark from the latter has shown variation in its
content of total alkaloid and quinine. Bark from
experimental plantations established by the Ger-
mans in the Cameroons was found to yield more
quinine sulphate than average cinchona bark from
Java. It is possible, however, that when the trees
are regularly stripped for the production of bark
the yield of quinine may be diminished. The
number of trees in this colony is reported to be in-
sufficient to provide commercial quantities of the
bark.— (Bull. Imp. Inst., 18, No. 1, 1920.)
Minerals from Morocco. — In connexion with the
investigations conducted by a Commission sent out
by the Department of Overseas Trade as to the pos-
sibility and conditions of trade between Morocco
and the United Kingdom, a number of minerals
was forwarded to and examined by the Imperial
Institute. Several of the minerals were of pro-
mising character. Four samples of iron ore, mostly
haematite, collected near the Atlas Mountains,
varied from good-quality to high-grade ore, and
contained 546—68% of iron, 001— 0'04% of
phosphorus, and from nil to 0'062% of sulphur. A
sample of manganiferous iron ore was pronounced
to be of fairly good quality and suitable for the
production of pig iron or low manganese spiegel-
eisen; it contained Fe 51'25% ; MnO 4"99% ; SiOa
10-14%; P 0-03%; and S 0;09%. A pyrrhotite
nickel ore from Seba Lowajit contained traces of
monazite, and it is suggested that any heavy sands
in the vicinity should be examined to ascertain if
this mineral occurs in workable quantities ; the
sample contained Fe 389%, Ni 3-63%, and Cu
0'77%. Another mineral investigated gave
Ni 24-60%, Fe 2531, no copper, and As 14"95%. A
sample of iron ore from Emerzokan contained the
uranium mineral autunite. A good-quality lead
ore from the Atlas Mountains contained 67'45% of
lead and 8 oz. 10 dwt. of silver per ton ; and another
ore from the same district gave 1'54% of copper,
6 dwt. 3 gr. of gold, and 1 oz. 2 dwt. 21 gr. of silver
per ton. — (Bull. Imp. Inst., 18, No. 1, 1920.)
Rosario (Argentina) in 1919.— Considerable progress
has been made in the recovery from the trade de-
pression due to the war. Mining has revived, and
the Corporacion Minera Famatina, which produced
733 metric tons of copper in seven months, is anti-
cipating an output of 300 tons of metal per month.
Activity is being shown in lead and borax mining,
and developments are expected. The quebracho
industry had a very good year, exports of extrict
reaching 172,588 metric tons, compared with
124,710 t. in 1918; 51,264 t. of quebracho logs was
exported, but shipments are curtailed by high
freights. The quebracho extract industry is
dominated by the operations of the Forestal Land,
Vol. XXXIX.. No. 21.]
REVIEW.
Timber and Railways Co., Ltd., which has in-
creased its authorised capital to £7,000.000. The
sugar-cane plantations and mills were fully occu-
pied, the production for the whole of Argentina,
270,000 t., being sufficient to cover home consump-
tion, estimated at 234,222 t., for the first time. —
(U.S. Com. Sep., Suppl., June 24, 1920.)
Mineral Resources of Far-Eastern Siberia. — Gold,
iron, silver, lead, zinc, copper, coal, and petroleum
are among the mineral resources of the Amur,
Maritime and Anadyr provinces of Siberia. Gold
has been mostly worked in placer deposits, a total
of 13,305 lb. being produced in 1915, but it is hoped
that reef gold will be found and that production
will be intensified. Iron deposits have been known
for over 75 years, but have been somewhat neg-
lected in favour of gold. Magnetite deposits occur
in various districts, the chief being at Hielaya Gora,
where the total ore is estimated at 2,040,215 tons;
the Sergievsk and Sudzukhe deposits are said to
contain a further 243,745 tons. Haematite ores,
with from 35 to 65 per cent, of iron, are found in
the Little Khingan mountains. Some 2,708,250
tons are said to occur in the southern part of this
region, the northern part having scarcely been ex-
plored as yet. Bog ore occurs at Nicolaievsk, where
there is a deposit containing about 902,750 tons ot
ore, and in other areas of the Ussuri district. At
present, iron ore is produced only in the Olginsk
and Sergievsk districts, and it seems that a local
iron industry has not great prospects.
Deposits of silver, lead and zinc ores extend from
the Chukotsk peninsula to Korea, and from Trans-
baikalia to the Pacific. The total quantity of ore
may reach 2 million tons containing an average
of 12 per cent, lead, 17 per cent, zinc, and 280 g. of
silver per metric ton. A mill at Tetiukhe can treat
50;000 t. of ore annually; its output could easily be
raised to 63,000 t. lead, 7,200 t. zinc and 25.300 lb.
silver, and sulphuric acid could be manufactured.
Indications of copper are abundant, but so far the
ore is mined only in two deposits in the Ussuri dis-
trict, where the average metal content is T5%.
Deposits of antimony, arsenical ores, cinnabar,
mica, etc., are also known, but little has been done
to develop them. All kinds of coal are found in
the Russian Far East, including brown, bituminous,
long-flamed, and anthracite coals. The importance
of the deposits on the mainland is purelv local,
but the coal on the island of Sakhalin, where the
strata are similar to those in Japan. Canada and
Alaska, might become of importance in the future
as a source of freight and fuel for shipping. The
estimated reserve of coal in the Russian Far East
amounts to over 3000 million tons. Petroleum occur-
rences are known, but definite conclusions as to their
value cannot be drawn until careful investigation
has been made. — (Mining Mag., Sept. 1920.)
LEGAL INTELLIGENCE.
of members who cairied on the business of chemists
or pharmacists, did not justify the Society in under-
taking all kinds of insurance business as might be
done under the Society's proposals. Nor did the
Charter justify the Society in regulating the hours
of business, the wages and conditions of work in the
industry, and the prices at which articles were tc
be sold. Such action would in fact convert it into
a trade union, and such conversion was never con-
templated when the Charter was granted. Similarly
the Society was not entitled to spend money on
promoting and maintaining an Industrial Council
Committee to regulate the hours of business, wages
and conditions of work in the industry, and there
would be declarations to this effect.
Alleged Infringement of Society's Charter.—
-4- E. Jenkin v. The Pharmaceutical loiiety of
Great Britain.
In the Chancerv Division, on October 27. Mr.
Justice Peterson delivered his reserved judgment in
the action brought bv H. Jenkin against the Phar-
maceutical Society of Great Britain to test the
Society's right to embark upon certain projects
which it was contended would convert the Society
into an employers' trade union and not be for the
benefit of the members as a whole (cf. J., 1920, I
361 r). '
His Lordship held that the Society's Charter,
which mentioned as one of its objects the protection j
PERSONALIA.
Sir J. J. Dobbie has retired from the post of
Government Chemist.
Dr. V. Henri, of Paris, has l?en appointed pro-
fessor of physical chemistry in the University of
Zurich.
The degree of Master of Arts, honoris causa, has
been conferred on Prof. T. M. Lowry by the Uni-
versity of Cambridge.
Mr. C. A. Mitchell has been appointed to succeed
Mr. Julian L. Baker, now editor of the Journal of
the Institute of Brewing, as editor of The Analyst,
as from January next.
The chair of physiology at the Anderson College
of Medicine, Glasgow, has been filled by the
appointment of Dr. W. Morris, assistant to the
professor of physiology in the University of Glas-
gow.
Mr. F. J. Harlow, head of the department of
mathematics and physics at the Sir John Cass
Technical Institute, has been appointed to succeed
Dr. R. H. Pickard as principal of the Municipal
Technical College. Blackburn.
Following the appointment of Mr. P. J. Hartog
to the vice-chancellorship of the University of
Dacca, India, Dr. E. Deller, assistant secretary to
the Royal Society, has been appointed academic
registrar of the University of London.
Dr. F. V. Darbishire has succeeded Capt. H. J.
Page as head of the chemical department at the
Royal Horticultural Society's station at Wisley,
Surrey. Capt. Page has received an appointment
on the staff at Rothamsted.
Dr. F. Hofmeister, formerly professor of physio-
logical chemistry at Strasbourg, has been made
honorary professor in the University of Wiirzburg.
Dr. H. Immendorf has been appointed professor of
agricultural chemistry in the University of Jena.
The awards in the 1919-20 competition of the
Crompton Memorial Prize Scheme of the Textile
Institute for advanced students in design and
structure of woven fabrics include the first prize
to Mr. W. Smith, of Bolton (Manchester College of
Technology), and the second and third prizes to
Messrs. C. Nutter and R. Bailey, respectively, both
of the Nelson Municipal Technical School.
Prof. C. S. Sherrington, Waynflete professor of
physiology in the University of Oxford, has been
recommended for election to the presidency of the
Royal Society, in succession to Sir J. J. Thomson.
The recommendations for election to the Council
include, inter alia. Mr. J. Barcroft. Sir W. Bragg,
Dr. A. W. Crosslev, Prof. J. B. Farmer. Sir W.
Fletcher. Sir R. Hadfield. Sir W. Leishman, Prof.
J. W. Nicholson, and Prof. W. P. Wynne.
384 b
PARLIAMENTARY NEWS.
HOUSE OF COMMONS.
Limitation of Rubber Output.
In answer to Mr. A. Parkinson, Sir P. Lloyd-
Greame stated that he was aware of the proposed
reduction of 25 per cent, in the output of planta-
tion rubber consequent on the present and
prospective surplus and the difficulty of carrying
large stocks, but he had no power to prevent such
action being taken. — (Oct. 25.)
Overseas Trade Credits.
Mr. Kellaway, answering Major Barnes and
Mr. A. M. Samuel, stated that the total advances
made under the Overseas Trade (Credit and
Insurance) Act up to October 13 amounted to
£75,457 in respect of Finland, Rumania, Poland,
Czecho-Slovakia, and Jugo-Slavia. Credits had
been granted up to £451,000, but some had lapsed
or had not been fully used. Since the credit
advance on the value of the goods exported had
been increased from 80 to 100 per cent., the
Department of Overseas Trade had received many
applications for very large sums. — (Oct. 26.)
Motor Spirit Duties.
Mr. Chamberlain stated, in answer to Mr.
Jesson, that imported " Natalite " would pay the
Bame duty as other spirit mixtures, irrespective of
the denaturant used ; but plain spirits could be
imported duty-free when used as a source of power,
provided the differential duty had been paid, and
on condition that after importation the spirits
were denatured a3 power methylated spirits in an
approved manner. The question of the denaturants
to be used for this purpose was under considera-
tion. In the Finance Act of this year provision
was made for the payment in respect of spirits
(imported or home-made) denatured in this
country of an allowance which would have the effect
of cheapening production. Further legislative
proposals were being considered regarding the
modification of the existing restrictions on the
conditions of transport and distribution of spirits
intended for use in making power methylated
spirits, as far as this could be done without affecting
the revenue. — (Oct. 27, Nov. 1.)
Nationalisation of Mineral Royalties.
The Prime Minister informed Major Barnes and
Mr. Kiley that the Government intended to
introduce a Bill providing for the nationalisation
of mineral royalties early next session. — (Nov. 1.)
Railway Rates.
Sir E. Geddes, answering Mr. Higham, said that
owing to the los3 of revenue occasioned by the
miners' strike — estimated at from £2,000,000 to
£3,000,000 per week — and the operation of the
sliding scale for wages, there was no prospect of
any reduction in railway charges in the near
future; but the position would be carefully
reviewed before the Government gave up posses-
sion, in order to see that the charges were not
unduly high. — (Nov. 1.)
Women and Young Persons (Employment in Lead
Processes) Bill.
This Bill was read a second time on November 1.
As explained by the Home Secretary, it provides
for the carrying out of the full recommendations
made by the International Labour Conference at
Washington (cf. J., 1920, 4 r). The provisions
scarcely affect this country, because our standard
is higher than the minimum standard which the
Bill prescribes, but thi3 country is under an obliga-
tion to put the said recommendations upon its
Statute Book. The Bill was read the third time
and passed on November 5.
Imports from Germany.
Sir R. Home, replying to Mr. G. Terrell, said
that the imports of German goods into this country
during the nine months ended September 30, 1920,
amounted in value to £17,190,793 and included: —
Glassware, domestic and fancy, 69,983 cwt., worth
£386,139, and bottles and jars, 158,844 cwt., worth
£235,136; coal-tar dyestuffs, 31,487 cwt., worth
£1,399,027; and dressed leather (box and willow
calf), 2394 cwt. worth £311,087.— (Nov. 1.)
The Dyestuff and Other Key Industries.
In reply to questions put by Mr. E. Cecil and
Mr. Doyle, Sir R. Home stated that the imports
of dyestuffs and intermediates into this country
had increased very substantially during the last
few months, and a large proportion of them had
come from Germany. Proposals to protect the
synthetic dye-making industry for a time were to be
embodied in a Bill relating to key industries, which
would be introduced as soon as possible. The
system of controlling imports of foreign dystuffs by
means of licences had not been put in force, and it
would be advisable to deal with all the key indus-
tries together. Owing to foreign competition, other
key industries were in a more serious condition
than the dye industry. — (Nov. 1.)
Exports of Cement.
Replying to Major Prescott, Sir R. Home said
that the exports from the United Kingdom of
cement for building and engineering purposes
during 1913, 1919 and the first three quarters of
thi3 year were as follows: —
Average
Value. Value.
Quantity. F.o.b. Per ton.
Tons. £ s. d.
1913 747,736 1,273,080 31 6
1919 385,526 2,050,336 106 4
1920 : —
Jan.— March ... 130,771 713,370 109 1
April— June ... 149,770 848,547 113 4
July— Sept. ... 174,055 1,078,847 124 0
The increase in exports had been accompanied by
a very substantial increase in output. — (Nov. 1.)
Pithead Values of Coal.
In a written answer to Capt. Bagley, the Secre-
tary for Mines gave the following data showing the
percentage distribution between capital, labour,
and royalties of the total pithead values of the coal
sold in 1913, and during the first six months of
1920 : —
1913. 1920.
(Jan. -June)
Owners' profits ... 15 ... 6
Labour 63 ... 68
Royalties ... ... 4 ... 2
—(Nov. 3.)
Unemployment Statistics.
The Minister of Labour, in answer to Capt.
Terrell, has published in the Official Report a
statistical table dealing with unemployment as at
January and July of this year. During this period
the number of male workers in the chemical in-
dustries fell from 200,000 to 195,000, and that of
the female workers from 75,000 to 70,000; in the
metal industries the corresponding figures are
1,994,000 to 2,104,000 and 306,000 to 303,000. At
July, 1920, there were 6,520,000 males and 2,456,000
females engaged in private and municipal establish-
ments.— (Nov. 3.)
Vol. XXXIX.. Xo. 21]
REPORTS.
Report on the General Economic and Financial
Conditions of Brazil, 1919. By E. Hambloch,
Commercial Secretary to 77.il/. Embassy, Rio
de Janeiro. Pp. 63. 77. A/. Stationery Office.
1920. [Cmd. 840. 6d]
Although Brazil is a country with enormous
natural resources, its development is very back-
ward. Adequate transport facilities are lacking;
the country is sparsely populated, and 70 per cent,
of the people is illiterate; primary and technical
education are but little developed ; the country
suffers under heavy taxation and from the absence
of credit facilities ; and the northern districts are
subjected to severe droughts. The cost of living is
exceptionally high owing to the very heavy traffic.
Prior to 1914 the chief products were coffee,
rubber, cotton, sugar, cacao, tobacco, herva matte,
and hides and skins, but more recently attention
has been directed to the exploitation of manganese
and iron ores, and to 6ome extent to coal. No
country is richer in all kinds of timber than Brazil,
where 59 per cent, of the area is forest land. The
chief timbers exported are pine, massaranduba,
cedar, sebastiao de aruda, and acapu, the total
value of which increased from £80,000 in 1912 to
£230,000 in 1917. Cotton has been cultivated for
more than 200 years, and although the annual pro-
duction is over 80,000 tons per annum, thus making
Brazil the fifth largest cotton producer in the
world, only some 20,000 tons is exported, mainly to
the United Kingdom, the bulk being utilised by the
local mills (202, employing 78,186 workpeople). The
fibre is of very best quality, but selection, improved
cultivation, and proper grading are badly needed.
Attempts were made to introduce Sea Island
cotton in 1915, but although the experimental
planting was successful, the attempt was aban-
doned owing mainly to lack of adequate and com-
petent labour. Numerous cottonseed-oil factories
exist, but are for the most part poorly equipped;
about 20,000 t. of cotton seed is exported annually.
Brazil is almost entirely dependent on foreign
coal, of which some two million tons are imported
yearly. It was formerly supplied almost exclusively
by Great Britain, but latterly by the United
States. The somewhat inaccessible Candiota coal-
field, in the Rio Grande do Sul, contains very large
deposits, but the better situated Sao Jeronymo
field, near Porto Alegre, is the most abundant pro-
ducer, with a daily output of about 300 tons.
Iron ore occurs in abundance in Minas Geraes,
Sao Paulo, Santa Catharina, Bahia, Espirito
Santos, Matto Grasso, Goyaz, and Bio Grande do
Sul (c/. J., 1920, 115 r), and as various plans are
under way for the development of the deposits, the
industry will probably become one of the most im-
portant in the country. Large quantities of man-
ganese ore were exported during the war, the
amount shipped in 1917 being 500,000 t. (cf. J.,
1920, 288 r). The question of treating the iron and
manganese ores in the country, instead of exporting
them, is being examined, but the enormous capital
outlay that would be required, the fact that coal is
not found in the proximity of the ore deposits, and
the vast distances to be covered, constitute weighty
obstacles to such a proposal.
The deposits of petroleum in the States of Bahia,
Pernambueo. and especially Alagoas, are now under
investigation. The estimated area of the fields is
200.000 sq. km., and they are reported to lie close
to the sea shore and to vield oil of low sulphur con-
tent. In 1919, 120,000 tons of mineral oil was im-
ported, chiefly from Mexico and the United States.
Before the war a German syndirate purchased tin
mines at Sao Joao Baptista (Minas Geraes), and
is reported to be prepared to spend £6,000,000 in
installing smelting plant, etc., and in equipping a
port at Angra dos Reis, near Rio de Janeiro.
In recent years the import statistics have shown
a continuous reduction in volume, but an increase
in value ; thus in 1914 the imports were 3,300,000 t.,
worth £25,500,000, and in 1919, 2,779,000 t., valued
at £78,184,000. The export figures for these years
are:— 1,300,000 t., worth £46,800,000; and
1,908,000 t., worth £130,000,000 respectively. Ex-
ports of the following commodities have recently
increased: — Cotton, cacao, coffee, meat, tobacco,
hides, and oil-fruits; and the following have de-
creased:— Manganese ore, sugar, potatoes, manioc
flour, and beans. In 1919 Great Britain and
France took 80 per cent, of the raw cotton ex-
ported ; France took 24, the United States 30, and
the United Kingdom 20 per cent, of the sugar; and
the United States took 70 per cent, and the United
Kingdom 20 per cent, of the rubber exported. Great
Britain supplied 15, and the United States 50 per
cent, of the imports, which compares with 30 and
13 per cent, respectively in 1910. At present
British trade is facing severe competition from
American manufacturers, who have enormously in-
creased their hold on the market and are sparing
no efforts to maintain and increase it, though ham-
pered by the high exchange rt te of the dollar. The
Japanese are devoting considerable attention to
the Brazilian market, but it is considered unlikely
that they will gain a permanent footing. Prospects
of increasing trade between Brazil and Canada are
held to be very favourable. British Dyestuffs Cor-
poration, Ltd., is well represented in Brazil, and
future trade in coal-tar colours with Great Britain
should assume important proportions.
Report on Compulsory Adoption of the Metric
System in the United Kingdom. Submitted
by the Metric Committee of the Conjoint Board
of Scientific Societies. Published on the
authority of the Committee. Price Is.
The committee selected by the Conjoint Board to
report upon the advisability of a compulsory metric
system of weights and measures was appointed in
1916, and the present report was first prepared in
June, 1917, but not published until quite recently.
Sir J. J. Thompson was chairman, and the members
included M. le Due de Broglie, Sir R. Hadfield, Sir
P. Magnus, Prof. J. Perry, W. C. Unwin, W. W.
Watts, and Messrs. H. Wilson-Fox, A. R. Hinks,
and C. P. Sparks. The subject was considered not
only from the standpoint of science but also from
that of technical manufactures and industries. The
recommendations, fourteen in number, may be
briefly summarised as follows: —
The British system of units should be retained
for general purposes, without attempting to im-
prove their inter-relation, and no new fundamental
unit should be established ; the whole-hearted adop-
tion of the metric system would be preferable to
any such alteration.
A definite movement should be set on foot to
secure the use of the metric units as well as of the
British in compiling statistics, particularly when
British and foreign data have to be compared.
Quantities should be expressed in terms of a
single unit and /or in decimal parts of it, those
units which are not readily decimalised being dis-
carded. The pole, furlong, and league should be
done away with, and the link and chain should be
used only in determining areas. Apothecaries'
Weight should be completely abolished, and likewise
the grain, dram, stone, quarter, and hundredweight
of 112 lb. As general standard of capacity, the
gallon, with its subdivision into quarts and pints
for retail use, is recommended; the peck, bushel,
quarter, chaldron, and barrel are unwanted ; and
weight should be substituted for dry measure.
386 b
REVIEW.
Square rod or perch and the rood should he
abolished, and all areas given in acres or square feet.
The names of many of the multiples and sub-
multiples in the metric system should be omitted,
and the French proposal to reject the use of units
of capacity as distinct from units of volume should
be followed. Some of the names of the proposed
new French units (e.g., the sthene for the unit of
force) are inconvenient, but the word centesimal
might be adopted for the centigrade scale of tem-
perature.
The adoption of the metric system in the fine
chemical and drug trade should be made compulsory
forthwith.
No change is proposed in the existing system of
British coinage; and various suggestions are put
forward for making the above proposals legally
effective.
Sir J. J. Thomson, M. le Due de Broglie, and
Mr. C. P. Sparks did not sign the report.
Communications were received from 35 con-
stituent societies of the Conjoint Board with re-
ference to the recommendations, and a rough classi-
fication of these shows that 18 societies are in
general agreement with the Committee's views; 3
are not adverse (Electrical Engineers, Faraday
Society, and the Institute of Chemistry), and 3 are
unsympathetic (Physical and Royal Meteorological
Societies, Royal Society of Edinburgh), all of these
favouring a more thorough acceptance of the metric
system ; and 11 gave non-committal or incomplete
replies.
COMPANY NEWS.
Sulphate of Ammonia Association. — At the
sixth and last annual general meeting, held in
London on October 20, it was resolved unanimously
to wind up the Association and to transfer any
available assets to the British Sulphate of Ammonia
Federation, Ltd. (cf. J., 1920, 209 r\ on the under-
standing that the Federation shall expend the
money so received on the propaganda work hitherto
carried out by the Association. The balance-sheet
shows that at the close of the financial year, ended
June 30, 1920, there was an accumulated fund of
about £13,000. The total quantity of ammonium
sulphate delivered for home consumption during
this period was 233,500 tons, compared with
269,000 t. in 1918, when, however, nitrate was not
plentiful. There is a growing demand for neutral
sulphate, the production of which now amounts to
about 30,000 t. per annum.
Brimsdown Lead Co., Ltd. — The chief interest
of the meeting, held on October 29, lay in the pro-
posals put forward to compensate the holders of
cumulative preference shares for many years'
lack of dividends, by capitalising £62,000 of the
reserve fund (£166,019) and allotting to them two
ordinary shares of 5s. each for every preference
share held. These proposals were carried unani-
mously at an extraordinary meeting, after Sir J.
Brunner had explained the reasons which had led
the committee of shareholders, appointed last year,
to recommend them. As set out by the chairman,
Dr. S. Miall, at the preceding annual meeting, and
shown by the accounts, the company has taken ad-
vantage of the improved demand for white lead
and related products during the past 18 months,
and has much improved its financial position. After
allocating £24,045 to meet taxation, the net profit
for the year ended December 31, 1919, was about
£15,000 ; and after ratification of the new scheme,
it is proposed to pay the full dividend on the
preference shares for the current year.
TRADE NOTES.
BRITISH.
Canadian Starch and Glucose in 1918. — The Domin-
ion Bureau of Statistics reports that in 1918 there
were 12 Canadian plants producing starch and
glucose with a total asset value of $3,784,664. The
value of the materials used in the industry was
$4, 992, 705, of which maize alone accounted for
$3,858,312 (62,489 long tons). Chemicals, the chief
of which was hydrochloric acid, were used to the
value of $44,763. The total value of the products
of the starch and glucose industry was $7,620,864,
of which the main items were glucose (including all
syrups), valued at $4,191,098, and corn starch,
valued at $1,445,324. During the period Canada
exported 369"5 t. of starch, valued at *26,790 and
10,153 t. went to meet the home demand.
Gilbert and Ellice Islands in 1918— 1919.— The chief
products of these islands are phosphates and copra,
the exports of which amounted to 78,683 tons, worth
£78,683, and 5000 t., worth £60,000, respectively.
It is believed that a coconut-fibre industry might be
profitably established if proper plant were pro-
vided for combing and cleaning. The question of
freight, however, would present a difficulty, as
there is barely enough for the copra industry alone,
and the development of the islands in general is
hindered by lack of communications. The group
has largely recovered from the serious drought of
1915-18, and the replanting of desolated areas has
begun. The yield of copra is improving, and a rev-
ival took place in the phosphate industry of Ocean
Island.— (Col. Rep.— Ann., No. 1038, July, 1920.)
FOREIGN.
Chemical Trade of the United States in 1919-20,— The
exports of dyes and dyestuffs from the United
States during the fiscal year ended June 30, 1920,
were valued at £5,158,513 (assuming £1 = $5), as
against £3,573,073 and £3,384,377 in the two pre-
vious years. The total value of chemicals, drugs,
dyes, medicines, and acid exported was £39,801,985,
compared with £29,610,706 in 1918-19, the increase
being mainly due to larger exports of dyestuffs. Of
the dyestuffs Japan took £1,333,301 worth, British
India £666,708, China £610.653, Canada £557,899,
and the United Kingdom £384,488. The total im-
ports of drugs, dyes, and medicines amounted to
£35,593,905 (£30,045,037 in 1918-19), and included
coal-tar products worth £1,424,054 (£1,405,470 in
1918-19.— (Oil, Paint, Drug Hep., Aug. 16, 1920.)
Cinchona Trade of the Dutch East Indies.— The culti-
vation of the cinchona tree in the Dutch East Indies
dates from the middle of the nineteenth century,
and has given rise to an important trade. There
is only one quinine factory — the Bandongsche
Kinniefabriek, Bandoeng, Java— but the chief
Dutch buyers, representing some eight factories in
Holland, have contracted to take an annual quan-
tity of bark corresponding to 525 tons of quinine
sulphate at a minimum price of 5 cents ( = 2 cents
U.S.A.) per unit per cent. The exports of quinine
and cinchona bark by countries of destination in
1913 and 1919 were as follows (metric tons): —
1913. 1919.
Country. Quinine. Cinchona Quinine. Cinchona
bark. bark.
Netherlands . . 37 . . 7829 . . 202 . . 679
United States.. 3 .. — .. 66 * ! 1743
Great Britain.. — .. 262 .. 163 ]1 2313
Italy .. 15 .. — .. 1 .. 37
Beleium . . — . . 36 . . . .
British India . . 5 . . — . . 74 ! 1 223
Japan . . . . — . . — . . 45 . . 409
Other Countries 2 . . — . . 80 . .
Totals .. 62 .. 8127 .. 640 '. '. 5404
Exportation of quinine is increasing, but that
of cinchona bark decreasing. — (U.S. Com Her)..
Sept. 22, 1920.)
Vol. XXXIX., Xo. 21.]
REVIEW.
OFFICIAL TRADE INTELLIGENCE.
(From the Board of Trade Journal for October 28
and November 4.)
OPENINGS FOR BRITISH TRADE.
The following inquiries hare been received at the
Department of Overseas Trade (Development and
Intelligence). 35, Old Queen Street, London, -
S.W. 1, from firms, agents, or individuals who
desire to represent U.K. manufacturers or ex-
porters of the goods specified. British firms may
obtain the names and addresses of the persons or
firms referred to by applying to the Department
and quoting the specific reference number : —
Locality of
Jtaterials.
Reference
Armor agent.
number.
Belgium
White lead ground in oil, pow-
dered antimony. .
578
Dyes, oxides of cobalt and man-
ganese, sodium and potassium
bichromates, sal ammoniac . .
621
Petroleum derivatives, vegetable
oils, essences
623
Franco
Oil-seeds, cotton oil
626
Italy
Fats, grease
Chemicals, pharmaceutical pro-
627
ducts
628
Drugs, dves
629
Latvia
Steel
585
Oil, grease
586
Spain
Chemicals, drugs ..
632
Turkey
Paint, varnish (catalogues of) . .
590
Argentina
Glass, porcelain, earthenware
597
Uruguay
Chemicals, tinplate
639
Venezuela
Chemicals, diugs ..
640
Australia . .
Glass, china, earthenware
556
Paint, varnish
598
Tinplate, tinfoil, steel sheets, wire
rope
599
British East Africa
572
Canada
Patent medicines, stainless steel, .
561
Liquid and powdered soap
563
Crucible steel, high speed steel . .
603
Pig iron, cold-rolled strip steel.
brass sheets, rods and tubes.
tin. copper, spelter
605
China, crockery
606
China, disinfectants, imitation
leather
608
Malt extract, malt flour, malt
sugar
610
Iron, steel, zinc, zinc white.
lithopone. glass
614
Leather
Ceylon
Explosives for mining purposes. .
617
Hongkong . .
Leather, paper, metals, window
glass, chemicals, soap
574
Market Sought. — An agent in Algeria wishes to
sell a kieselguhr quarry in that country. [593.]
TARIFF. CUSTOMS. EXCISE.
Austria-. — The pre-war " conventional " tariff
rates apply to goods of any origin until Januarv 16,
1921.
Brunei (State of). — The customs duties on aerated
water, spirits, and dyes have been amended.
Candles, coconut oil, gambier, groundnuts,
spices, sugar, confectionery, and preserved foods
are now admitted duty free.
Canada. — No person may import margarine with-
out a licence from the Minister of Agriculture.
The revised regulations affecting the import of
hides, skins, and animal waste are set out in the
issue for November 4.
Chile. — It is proposed to increase the existing
customs duties by 30 per cent., except in the case
of sugar, oil, cocoa, and certain other foods.
Cyprus. — Among the articles that may be im-
ported duty free are fertilisers, pig iron, disin-
fectants, resin, petrol, benzine, and crude petro-
leum for fuel.
France and Algeria. — The prohibition of the im-
port of newsprint paper is extended to include all
paper on rolls as from November 1.
Among the articles the export of which is still
prohibited are turpentine, bauxite, and iron and
steel scrap.
The export prohibition on cast iron is revoked as
from October 21.
Germany. — The surtax when customs duties arc
paid in paper money is fixed at 900 per cent, as
from November 10.
Greece. — Newsprint paper is admitted duty free
until December 31.
Hungary. — Export duties have been levied on,
inter alia, certain seeds, hides, skins, vegetable
oils, spirits, glue, cement, broken glass, and de-
greased bones,
Italy. — Among the articles that pay increased
import duties as from September 26 are paper,
pasteboard, antimony, certain wares of iron, steel
or zinc, copper and brass gauze, scientific instru-
ments, porcelain, pottery, glassware, mineral
waters, benzol and other coal-tar oils, turpentine,
many metallic ores and salts, glycerin, ceresin,
quinine grease, dyes, colours, varnish, printing
ink, and vegetable fibres.
Jamacia. — The restrictions on the import of
foreign dyes have been temporarily suspended as
from August 23.
Luxemburg. — The export taxes on cast iron,
semi-manufactured iron and steel, iron ore, and iron
and ste<d scrap have been amended as from Novem-
ber 1.
Netherlands. — Paper of all kinds except old
paper and waste paper may now be exported with-
out licence.
Portugal. — The import duty on certain kinds of
paper has been reduced.
T)o. (Angola). — The export duties on hides, skins,
palm oil, palm kernels, rubber, oil-seeds, and wax
have been amended.
St. Lucia. — The revised schedule of export duties
may be seen at the Department.
St. Vincent. — The export of raw hides and skins
is prohibited as from August 18.
Salvador. — Gasoline and gasoline oil pay import
duty at the rate of 5 centavos (gold) per kg. as
from September 16.
Sweden. — The import of scrap iron and copper is
prohibited, except by permission of the Board of
Explosives, as from October 12.
Tanganyika Territory. — The import of prepared
opium is absolutely prohibited and of any opium
except by sea. All imported opium must be de-
posited in an approved store and not removed there-
from without written authority.
Tunis. — The export and re-export of methyl
alcohol and acetone are prohibited as from Septem-
ber 14.
Importation of cellulose pulp and newsprint
paper is prohibited as from September 9.
Turkey. — The export of olive oil soap is now per-
mitted.
GOVERNMENT ORDERS AND NOTICES.
Manufacture of White Lead, etc. — A notice has
been issued by the Home Secretary stating that he
proposes to make regulations dealing with the
manufacture of white compounds of lead (in-
cluding lead carbonate, sulphate, nitrate, and
acetate) in accordance with a draft which may be
obtained on application to the Factory Department,
Home Office, London, S.W. 1 ; and that any ob-
jections to the draft regulations must be sent to him
within 30 davs from October 22 last.
REVIEW.
[Nov. 15. 1920.
OBITUARY.
BERTRAM JAMES SMART.
We record with very great regret the death, on
September 4, of Mr. B. J. Smart at Sydney,
N.S.W., at the age of 38.
Smart was educated in England and began his
career as a chemist at Guy's Hospital, London,
where he served as assistant to Sir Thomas Steven-
son and to the late Dr. John Wade. He graduated
as B.Sc. in the University of London, and in 1901
obtained an appointment at Woolwich Arsenal
under Dr. O. Silberrad, with whom he investigated
the constitution of nitrogen iodide, the preparation
of p-bistriazobenzene, and the removal of nitrous
acid from concentrated nitric and sulphuric acid.
In 1910, jointly with Sir Robert Robertson, he pub-
lished an important paper on the significance of
the Abel heat-test of guncotton and nitroglycerin.
He then left England for an extended tour
in the Far East to inspect explosives stores, and
shortly after his return was appointed by the
Government of New South Wales to organise and
inspect the manufacture of iron and steel then
developing in that State. After serving two years
in this capacity, the same Government placed him
at the head of the Testing Branch of the Depart-
ment of Public Works (1915), which he very success-
fully developed. In 1914 he read, with J. T.
Philpot, a paper before the Sydney Section of this
Society on the volatilisation of arsenious acid from
aqueous solutions containing hydrochloric acid ; in
1917 he published papers on the microscopy of steel,
the permeability of concrete, and on heat-
insulating materials; in 1918 he contributed a
paper, with P. Pecover, to the Sydney Section on
the nitration of posidonia fibre, and in the current
year one on the analysis of Fibro-Cement.
As a scientific worker, Smart possessed all the
qualities which make for success, and he seldom
took up a problem without bringing to its solution
some new method of attack. He was held in high
esteem by all who came in contact with him, and
his work for this Society, particularly as chairman
of the Sydney Section "in 1918—1920, will long be
remembered with appreciation and gratitude by
his fellow members.
REVIEW.
The Physical Chemistry op the Metals. By
Rudolph Schenck. Translated and annotated
by R. S Dean. (New York: John Wiley rind
Sons, Inc.; London: Chapman and Hall, Ltd.
1919.) Price 17s. 6d. net.
Physical chemists are well aware of the fact that
some of the most fascinating applications of their
subject are to be found in the science of metallurgy,
and they have not been slow to make use of the
material thus provided to illustrate such problems
as those of the crystalline and amorphous states,
the crystallisation of liquid mixtures, and the
physical properties of solid solutions. The en-
deavour to follow up the problems suggested by
these applications of physical chemistry is, how-
ever, constantly thwarted by the difficulty of ex-
tracting from the large and scattered literature of
metallurgy just those details that are required to
furnish a solution. In many instances, indeed, the
information that is needed may be in the possession
of scientific metallurgists, but has never yet found
its way into the literature. For this reason every
teacher of physical chemistry will welcome the
appearance of a translation of Prof. Schenck's
book, supplemented as it is by additions and altera-
tions which bridge over the gap of eleven years be-
tween the original German text and the new
American edition of the book.
Much of the contents of this volume is necessarily
on familiar lines, but the author appears to have
developed a novel line of thought in recognising the
existence of a distinct group of quasi-metallic com-
pounds (including the oxides, sulphides, phosphides,
carbides, and arsenides of many heavy metals),
which simulate the metals in possessing metallic
lustre and some degree of metallic conductivity,
as well as in dissolving in liquid metals and fre-
quently forming solid solutions in crystalline
metals. These quasi-metallic compounds play a
part in practical metallurgy which is but little, if
at all, less important than that played by the alloys
of two or more metals. They also possess many
points of interest to the physical chemist, and it is
instructive to notice how the well-known laws of
solutions which were extended to alloys by the work
of Heycoek and others have now been applied to the
mixed sulphides; these have been known for many
years as important intermediate products in the
metallurgy of copper, nickel, etc., but which have
only recently been studied in the same way as the
alloys of pure metals. Much information in re-
ference to these mixtures has been collected and
presented in a convenient form in one of the
chapters of this volume.
The authors of the book are to be congratulated
especially on their success in finding suitable illus-
trations to make clear to the reader the reality of
the structures which they assign to various alloys.
The micrographs are inferior in beauty and in
technical excellence to those which have appeared in
some English books and journals, but it is doubtful
if an equally complete series, illustrating almost
every conceivable combination of phases that can
appear in simple alloys has been given previously.
The book may be heartily commended not only to
the .student of chemistry in general, but to metal-
lurgists who are interested in the scientific problems
arising from their technical practice, and to
physical chemists who are anxious to know how the
subject is being applied in other branches of science.
T. M. Lowry.
PUBLICATIONS RECEIVED.
The Determination of Hydrogen Ions. By W.
Mansfield Clark. Pp. 317. (Baltimore:
Williams and Wilkins Co. 1920.) Price, with
postage: U.S.A. $5, Canada $5.25, other coun-
tries |5.50.
Recent Advances in Phy'sical and Inorganic
Chemistry-. By Dr. A. W. Stewart. Fourth
edition. Pp. 286. (London: Tjongmans, Green
and Co. 1920.) Price. 18s.
The Volatile Oils. By E. Gildemeister and F.
Hoffmann. Second edition. Translated by
E. Kremers. Vol. II. Pp. 686. (London :
Longmans, Green and Co. Printed in 1916.
published in 1920.) Price 32s.
Handbook of Patent Law of all Countries. By
W. P. Thompson. Eighteenth edition. Pp.
157. (London: Stevens and Sons, Ltd. 1920.)
Price 6.s.
The Production of Platinum for 1919. Pp. 18.
The Production of Precious Stones for 1919.
Pp. 29. By G. F. Kunz. Preprints from
Mineral Industry. Vol. XXVIII. (New York:
McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., 1920.)
Vol. XXXIX. No. 22]
REVIEW
[Nov. 30, 1920.
THE DYESTUFF SITUATION.
When early in the war there arose an impera-
tive need for enormous supplies of exposives and
Lord Moulton was called in to organise and secure
their production, he found that the country was
practically destitute of the factories, the plant,
and the trained organic chemists and chemical
engineers necessary to produce them; and that
supplies of essential commodities like dyes, drugs.
scientific glass- and porcelain-ware were hopelessly
deficient by reason of our previous economic de-
pendence upon the Central Powers.
On the other hand, Germany was able to provide
herself with all the necessary munitions by rapidly
converting and extending her great dye establish-
ments into arsenals of war; moreover, she had a
very large number of trained chemists to fall back
upon, who were promptly sent hack from duty in
the field. Further, the perfected condition of her
industrial chemical organisation rendered easy
the development of a new form of chemical war-
fare, and enabled her to meet the menace of tin-
blockade by the production of synthetic nitrates
and synthetic rubber, and to provide a substitute
for ( ittou in the manufacture of nitroeotton. It
is now a matter of history, and one of the achieve-
ments of which we are most proud, how Lord
.Moulton and his advisers collected the necessary
scientific talent, mapped out a plan of production,
put it into execution, and succeeded in a wonder-
fully short time, considering the magnitude of the
task, in supplying our armies with the war chemi-
cals they required, thereby contributing very
materially to the ultimate ascendancy of the Allied
arms. The manufacture of dyes and intermediates
had also been taken in hand, but owing to the
superior claims of the fighting forces, the develop-
ment of this branch of national effort had, per-
force, to take a subordinate place, and hence at
the conclusion of hostilities the dye-making estab-
lishments were not in a position to meet the
country's requirements either in regard to quan-
tity or range of colours. Moreover, the demand
for the required type of chemist still remained un-
satisfied ; tin' trained organic chemist, unlike
Minerva, did not spring out of Jupiter's head.
In these circumstances, the country and the
Government rightfully came to the conclusion that
the dyestuff and other " key " industries had to
be protected until such time when they could
stand on their own feet; and promises of support
culminated in a statement made in Parliament, cm
May 15, 1918, by the then President of the Board
of Trade to the effect that the importation of all
foreign dye-stuffs would be put under a system of
licences for a period of not less than ten years
after the war. The system of prohibition except
under licence was introduced by Order-in-Council.
and every effort was made by the dye manufac-
turers to put their house in order and to meet the
country's requirements. In July. 1919. the great
dye establishments at Huddersfield and Blacklev
were brought under a unified control, in which
the Government was represented; and on the faith
of the promise of State assistance embodied in the
prospectus, the new company — British Dyestuil's
Corporation. Ltd. — appealed to the public for a
subscription of £5,000,000, a large part of which
was duly forthcoming. In DeeemhW, 1919, by
the now famous Sankey judgment, the method of
prohibiting importations by Order-in-Council was
held to be illegal, and thereupon, amidst Minis-
terial promises of immediate legislation to restore
the ttatui quo, the gates were flung open for the
unimpeded ingress of German dyes and chemicals,
Bohemian and German glass, porcelain-ware, and
other " ke;> " commodities. Favoured by the very
depreciated value of German currency, and assisted
by the gradual improvement m fuel supply and
labour conditions, Germany, bent upon regaining
her pre-war domination in this market, has been
steadily increasing her exports to this country,
and it is stated that at the present moment German
dyes to the value of £4,500,000 are lying in store
at Liverpool, and that workers are being dismissed
from the dye factories in large numbers. The posi-
tion has, therefore, become one of great urgency.
Since December last, when the abortive Imports
and Export Regulation Bill was withddrawn, and
until a few weeks ago, the Government has on
countless occasions expressed its intention to bring
in a new Bill at the earliest possible moment. On
November 1, the Home Secretary stated that the
dye industry would have to await a general measure
covering all " key " industries; and ten days later,
the Prime Minister intimated that the projected
Bill could not be introduced before next Session,
although he held out some hope that this decision
might be reversed if a non-contentious measure
were agreed upon.
This brings us to a consideration of the respective
claims of the dye-manufacturers and dye-con-
sumers. Both dye-makers and dye-users are agreed
that national safety demands the development of
home production, and that the dye-making indus-
try must receive some measure of support for a
term nt years. They differ in regard to the method
of assistance to be adopted. The textile manufac-
turers, or an important proportion of them, would
prefer a State subsidy, together with unrestricted
importation; the licensing system of 1919 they
found to be cumbersome, irritating, uncertain, to
involve delay, at times to be unfair, and they would,
naturally, prefer to have a majority on the
licensing board. Although admitting that the dye
industry has made substantial progress, they still
maintain that their requirements cannot be met
in full by home producers, more particularly in
regard to the supply of some of the essential special-
ised colours. Owing to the uncertainty in the de-
livery of these, they cannot accept orders for goods
which they may be unable to supply.
The dye-makers', and we may say the national,
point of view has been well expressed by Mr.
W. J. U. Wooleock before the Commercial Com-
mittee of the House of Commons. In dealing with
the question of national safety, Mr. Wooleock
said that the loss of £2,000,000 per annum, the
annual value of our dye trade, did not in itself
constitute a reason for the special treatment of
the industry; but if we lost the trade, we should
also lose the plant, the machinery, and the organic
chemists. In time, too, we should lose the textile
trade, valued at £240.000,000 per annum, for with
their half-century's experience and their elaborate
selling organisation, the German manufacturers
would not hesitate to strangle the British industry,
and once this had been accomplished, they would
hold our textile industry in the hollow of their
hands; they could charge any prices they liked
for their dyewares, and when occasion required
they would cut off the entire supply. Mr. Wool-
cock also reviewed the alternative systems of
licensing. The idea of a tariff is at once put out
of court by reason of the greatly depreciated Ger-
man exchange; to be effective the tariff would
have to lie of the order of several hundred per
cent. State subsidies are being withdrawn, and
they have an enervating effect. The proposal that
important dyes should be bought and sold by a
central bureau staffed by representatives of the
Government and by commercial and technical
experts would be costly, and would be killed by
390 »
REVIEW.
[Nov. 30, 1920.
the fact that we have no experts independent of
trade and technical connexions. Free importation
plus a subscription fee based upon the difference
in price between the home-made and foreign-made
dyewares would be merely a tariff system in dis-
guise ; no Parliament would entrust an outside body
with the right to fix and vary a tariff. The only
feasible, and the least objectionable form of assist-
ance is prohibition, except under licence, with the
proviso that licences should be freely granted, as
of right, unless the British manufacturer could
show cause why the dye in question should not be
admitted in unrestricted quantities.
This brief epitome of the origin and nature of
the present dye problem is given less in the in-
terests of our readers in this country, who should
be already familiar with it, than of those of our
members and subscribers — about one-third of the
total — who live beyond the seas. From it they will
gather that the re-born British dye-industry is
threatened with disaster, mainly owing to the
supineness of the Government and its failure to
fulfil the oft-repeated promise to protect those
industries that are vital to the country's safety in
time of war, and essential for its prosperity in
time of peace. Chemists and other scientific
workers will need no convincing; the public has
been kept well-informed by the daily press and
given the opportunity of re-learning the lesson
which we fondly hoped it had taken to heart during
the war; it only remains to impress the Govern-
ment with the urgency of the situation and to com-
pel it to act promptly. As experience has shown on
more than one occasion, some Governments lead
best when they are simultaneously pulled from the
front and driven from behind.
STAINLESS STEEL.
J. H. G. MONYPENNY.
The commercial utilisation of the non-corrodible
properties of steel containing about 12 per cent.
of chromium may be regarded as one of the out-
standing events in the metallurgical world during
the past decade. Steel, the most widely-used
metal, unfortunately corrodes rather easily, and
great precautions have to be taken to protect it,
especially in exposed positions. This is particu-
larly noticeable in such large engineering structures
as the great railway bridges over the Forth and
Tay, where painting is going on practically con-
tinuously. The production of a type of steel possess-
ing great resistance to corrosion has obviously a
great future, and one may safely say that, as yet,
onlv the fringe of the possibilities has been touched.
Stainless* steel contains essentially 11 to 14 per
cent, of chromium and, for most purposes, not more
than about 0"45 per cent, of carbon. It frequently
contains small amounts of nickel, say up to one per
cent., but this element has no beneficial effect on
the non-corrodible properties, whilst its presence, if
unsuspected, may cause trouble in the heat treat-
ment of the steel, since it has quite a considerable
effect on the position of the critical ranges of the
steel.
From a microscopic point of view, high-chromium
steels, such as stainless, have a great deal of
interest. Chromium has the effect of lowering the
eutectoid composition in steel to a considerable
extent. Whereas in ordinary steel about 0'9 per
cent, carbon is required to produce a structure con-
sisting entirely of pearlite, with 12 per cent.
•[The word "stainless" has been retained because it is in
general use; » unstainable " is. of course, the correct term.— ED.]
chromium the same effect is produced with ap-
proximately 0'3 per cent, carbon. Free carbide or
cementite appears when the carbon exceeds this
amount. In these steels, also, only part of the
carbide forming the pearlite goes into solution at
the lower critical temperature change on heating
(Acl), the rest dissolving progressively over a
range of some two hundred degrees.
The state of combination of the sulphur in these
steels requires further investigation. This element is
only evolved to a very small extent as sulphuretted
hydrogen on dissolving the steel in acids. The
evolution method cannot be applied for its estima-
tion, neither can one obtain an ordinary sulphur
print on bromide paper. For example, a steel
containing 0"07 per cent, sulphur only gave a very
faint print even after 15 minutes' contact with
bromide paper soaked in 10 per cent, hydrochloric
acid or 15 per cent, sulphuric acid. The print ob-
tained was different in type from an ordinary sul-
phur print in that the impression did not consist of
a series of dots but rather of a uniform stain.
Evidently the sulphur does not exist as separate
particles of either iron or manganese sulphide dis-
seminated through the mass of the steel ; appar-
ently it exists in solid solution.
Thermally, the effect of the chromium is to raise
the temperature at which the critical ranges occur.
The Acl point occurs in the range 800°— 830° C,
and on cooling sufficiently slowly to prevent any
hardening effects, the critical temperature change
on cooling (Arl) is found at about 750° C.
Stainless steel possesses notable air-hardening
properties. A sample one inch or so in diameter, if
allowed to cool freely in the air from 900° C, will
have a Brinell hardness number of the order of 500.
The capacity of the steel to harden increases with
the temperature to which it is heated. In other
words, the speed of cooling necessary to harden tho
steel becomes slower as the temperature to which it
is heated rises (providing the latter is, of course,
above the carbon change-point) ; also, slower rates
of cooling are necessary to soften or anneal the
steel when cooled from progressively higher tem-
peratures.
The property of air-hardening is very useful in a
steel. Apart from the obvious fact that less drastic
methods of quenching are required (with the
attendant lessened danger of cracks, warping, or
other undesirable attributes of water-quenching),
the slower rate of cooling necessary to harden the
steel permits samples of large section to be hardened
throughout. It also lessens the danger of soft spots
due to retarded quenching. Anyone who has had
experience in producing a glass-hard surface over
a considerable area in an article made of ordinary
carbon steel will appreciate the meaning of the last
sentence. Owing to its air-hardening properties,
however, the steel requires care during the course
of manufacture. Billets, bars, forgings or stamp-
ings are usually heated to at least 1000° C. before
any operations are carried out, and if the material
after being worked is allowed to cool down on the
shop floor it will, when cold, be in the hardened
condition and will be quite as liable to crack if
rapidly or unevenly heated again as any hardened
piece of tool steei. Being hard, it will require
softening before any chipping, filing or machining
can be done. These troubles, however, may lie
avoided by allowing the forged, rolled or stamped
article to cool slowly over the range 800° — 600° C.
in order that the carbon change may take place
and the steel thus becomes soft.
Stand esssteels which contain more carbon than that
indicated above, if quenched or air-cooled from high
temperatures, are comparatively soft to the Brin. 11
test owing to the production of austenite. Such
steels, though soft, are unmachinable, the material
becoming hard when stressed. Austenitic samples
also harden when tempered at about 600° C. ; for
Vol. XXXIX.. So. 22.]
instance, an actual sample had a Brincll hardness
number of 270 when water-quenched, and one of 444
after being tempered at 600° C. Such hardening
after tempering nas been noticed by several cutlery
manufacturers who have, by accident or otherwise,
hardened their knife blades from too high a tem-
perature. Such a practice, however, is not to be
recommended, as a coarse grain is thereby produced
in the blade.
Stainless steel is tempered in the same way as
ordinary steel, but higher temperatures are re-
quired. A corresponding series of temper colours
are formed at the higher temperatures necessary to
soften the steel. For example, the following colours
were obtained, at the temperatures indicated, on a
hardened sample of the steel : —
Straw 300° C.
Brown 400° C.
Reddish purple 500° C.
Light blue 600° C.
Bluish violet 650° C.
Greyish violet 700° C.
Grey 750° C.
Stainless steel has its maximum resistance to
•corrosion when in the hardened condition. It is
then practically unaffected by exposure to moist air,
fresh or salt water, or to such organic acids as
occur in fruits. Samples buried in soil for three
months have retained their original polish, and
others have been immersed in vinegar or salt water
for days without showing the slightest signs of
attack. Tempering the hardened sample up to
about 500° C. does not affect its resistance appreci-
ably. Such tempering has also little effect on its
hardness. Tempering at higher temperatures lowers
the resistance to corrosion, but even in the soft con-
dition the metal is only slowly attacked. Such soft
material, for example, is stained by vinegar, but a
sample weighing 60 grms. only lost 0004 g. after
3 weeks' immersion. A sample of nickel-chrome
steel hardened and tempered so as to give the same
tensile strength lost during the same time 25 times
as much.
Nitric acid, strong or weak, does not dissolve
stainless steel either in the hard or soft condition,
nor is the steel attacked by concentrated or dilute
solutions of ammonia, nor in a moist atmosphere
containing ammonia fumes. Sulphuric and hydro-
chloric acids attack it readily ; a ten per cent, solu-
tion of the latter in alcohol forms a convenient
etching reagent for microscopic work. Dilute
solutions of sulphuric acid, at ordinary tempera-
tures, attack stainless steel considerably faster
than ordinary mild steel.
The opinion has been held that the non-corrosible
properties of stainless steel are only obtained when
it is highly polished and that they are then con-
fined to the surface. This is not correct. It is well
known that metals in general have an increased
tendency to corrode after they have been cold-
worked. Stainless steel is no exception. Turnings
of this steel are in a highly distorted condition and
hence will rust. Similarly, the surface of a bar
from which heavy cuts have been taken is distorted
and is more likely to rust than one from which a
fine finishing cut has been taken. A ground or
polished surface will be still more immune. That
polish, however, is not essential is shown by the
resistance to corrosion of a fractured surface which
has been obtained without distortion.
In addition to its resistance to corroding influ-
ences, stainless steel does not scale to any extent
when heated at any temperature up to 800° —
850° C. A sample heated for 7 davs in the range
700°— 825° C. lost 0-7 per cent, "of its weight,
whereas a piece of ordinary steel heated with it lost
17 per cent.
The suitability of any new type of steel for use in
engineering work of any description is largely
judged by its behaviour under mechanical tests. A
short description of the results of such tests on
stainless steel will be of interest. After oil- or air-
hardening from a temperature of 900° C, followed
preferably by slight tempering at 200°— 400° C,
stainless steel has mechanical properties comparable
with those of the well-known " 100-ton " air-
hardening nickel-chrome steel. When tempered in
the range 650° — 750° C, it gives tests highly suit-
able for many engineering purposes. The values
obtained depend on the composition of the steel,
but in general are in the following ranges: —
Yield point
Maximum stress ...
Elongation
Reduction of area
Izod impact
30 — 55 tons per square inch.
45—65 „ ,, ,, „
15 — 28 per cent.
35 — 65 ,, ,,
25—70 foot-lb.
Tempering in this range of temperature (650° —
750° C.) is also interesting commercially in that the
hardness, and therefore the tensile strength, only
falls very slightly as the temperature increases.
When a number of articles has to be tempered to
produce a given tensile strength, quite a wide range
tempering temperature is permissible — obviously a
desirable thing commercially. On the other hand
the hardness falls very rapidly in the range 550° —
650° C, and the difficulties of tempering in this
range are correspondingly great.
During the war the great bulk of the stainless
steel produced was used for aeroplane valves. Its
value for this purpose lay, apart from its non-
scaling property, in its superior strength at a red
heat. • The exhaust valves, especially of some of the
large aero engines, frequently reach a tempera-
ture of 750° or 800° C, or even higher, and it is
necessary that the valve should have sufficient
strength at such a temperature to secure that the
stem does not elongate during running. Actual
tests obtained on testing mild steel and stainless
steel at high temperatures gave the following
figures : —
Tensile strength at Mild steel. Stainless steel.
600° C. 11-84 24-24
700° C. 6-8 1208
800° C. 5-04 664
850° C. 412 664
By increasing the carbon content of stainless
steel, still higher values may be obtained, e.g., 15 —
17 tons at 700° C. and 75 — 8'5 tons at 800° C.
The development of the uses of stainless steel
was very largely held up during the war, since prac-
tically the whole of the steel made was used for war
purposes. It may be confidently expected, how-
ever, that the near future will bring about a very
noticeable development in the number and variety
of its applications. It will also be found that stain-
less steel is not one steel but a group of steels. Just
as in the far-off days "steel " was regarded as a hard
product of iron, and little or no attempt was made
to grade it into harder or softer varieties, so at
present stainless steel is to most people a product
having only one distinct set of properties, many
regarding it solely as a special type of cutlery steel.
In times gone by, as the use of steel became more
general, it was realised that by varying the content
of carbon or manganese, steels of widely different
intrinsic hardness could be produced, and for each
purpose some definite " temper " of steel was best
suited. In the same way, as the use of stainless steel
becomes more general, it will be found that products
of different intrinsic hardness (corresponding to the
varieties of ordinary steel) can be produced, all of
them having the distinguishing property of great
resistance to corrosion, but varying among them-
selves as soft or mild steel differs from file steel.
For each use of stainless steel there will be an
optimum " temper."
bS
392b
REVIEW.
[Nov. 30. 1920.
THE CASTOR OIL INDUSTRY.
Under the above title a monograph by J. H.
Shrader has been issued by the U.S. Department
of Agriculture (Bulletin 867. Professional paper,
Sept. 3, 1920).
The normal annual consumption of castor oil in
the United States is over 2 million gallons, nearly
all of which is manufactured locally from imported
seed. The average imports of castor seed amounted
annually to about 834,000 bushels (46 lb.) during
the five years ending June, 1917. In 1917-18, owing
to tho great demand for castor oil for the lubrica-
tion of aircraft engines, the imports rose to over
li million bushels, of which 60 per cent, came from
India, 19 per cent, from South America, and 8 per
cent, from the West Indies. Castor seed was grown
locally in the United States, chiefly in Oklahoma,
Kansas, Missouri and Illinois, until about 1900,
when successful foreign competition appears to
have rendered cultivation unprofitable; and
although the activities of the Bureau of Aircraft
Production resulted in 1918 in the production of
5750 tons (250.000 bushels) of American castor
seed, the cessation of the war and the increased
world production of seed render the prospects of
castor seed as a permanent American crop some-
what doubtful.
In America, castor seed is bought on a standard
form of contract of the Linseed Oil Association of
New York City; 5 per cent, of the bags of a con-
signment is sampled, and allowances are made for
impurities (stones, husks, etc.) exceeding 3 per
cent., and also for excessive amounts of broken,
decorticated or " black " eeed (i.e., seed discoloured
by contact with water) which increase the acidity of
the oil; the maximum allowance being about 5 per
cent. At present it is not customary to value the
beans on their oil-content as ascertained by
analysis.
The treatment of castor seed in the manufacture
of oil differs somewhat from that of other oil-seeds,
owing largely to the soft non-fibrous nature of the
seed-kernels ; and although decorticated seed pro-
duces oil of paler colour and causes less wear to
machinery than whole seed, the majority of the
oil manufactured is now produced from whole seed.
The seed is not ground before crushing, as the
soft kernels make grinding difficult, or even un-
necessary, and the active lipase present renders
rapidity of working desirable. After the usual
preliminary removal of impurities by screening, the
seed is heated to about 110° F., with the object
of rendering more mobile the heavy viscous oil.
This is conveniently effected in a grain-dryer, in
which the seed is exposed on a series of 6teel
shelves to a current of hot air (with the introduc-
tion of steam when desirable), and from which the
seed can be discharged continuously or inter-
mittently. After heating, the seed is pressed imme-
diately in cage presses, such as are now commonly
used for various oil-seeds of high oil-content :
pressures on the ram of 4000 to 6000 lb. per square
inch are employed, and some mills are being con-
structed for pressures of 8000 lb. per sq. in.
In good practice, 46 lb. (1 bushel) of seed, con-
taining 45 per cent, of oil, yields about 156 lb.
of No. 1 cold pressed oil, leaving in the press-cake
4'3 lb. of oil which can only be extracted by means
of solvents. Castor seed is now treated successfully
in Anderson oil-expellers, and the unsatisfactory
results obtained in early attempts to use these
machines for castor-oil manufacture are attributed
to excessive wear caused by the hard seed-coats on
the cast steel used in the construction of early
machines. The cast steel has now been replaced by
case-hardened steel.
Expellers, such as are used for copra, having
three worm-flights on the pressing screw are satis-
factory. Comparatively low pressures are used for
castor seed, as high pressures lead to overheating
of the oil and contamination with meal. In prac-
tice a cake about 7-16 inch in thickness and con-
taining 12 — 15 per cent, of oil is obtained. In the
battery of 15 oil-expellers at the Government oil-mill
at Gainsville (Florida), each machine has worked
regularly about 800 lb. of seed per hour when set
to produce 15 lb. of oil per bushel (46 lb). After
several months work on castor seed, the machines
showed even less wear than is observed when work-
ing groundnuts, and out of a possible "take-up"
for wear of cones of 2i inches, only J inch was
necessary. Experiment showed that it was possible
to produce a good yield of oil by the treatment in
an oil-expeller of seed in the pod, but that the oil
was of gieen colour and therefore unacceptable in
ordinary trade, though suitable for lubrication and
capable of being bleached. Decorticated seed was
too soft to be worked in an oil-expeller without the
addition of some fibrous binder such as groundnut
husks. As there is a considerable amount of oil
(12 — 15 per cent.) in the cakes obtained from cage
presses or expellers, the material is treated with
solvents in either stationary or rotating extractors.
The types of extractors, solvent-iecovery stills, etc.,.
and the methods of working are similar to those
used for other oil-bearing materials, but rotary ex-
tractors are increasing in favour, as they obviate
imperfect extraction due to channelling and pack-
ing of the charge, are easy to work, and are less
costly in labour than stationary extractors. In
the latter there is a tendency for packing to occur
owing to the fine non-fibrous albuminous matter
of the kernels. This may be obviated by intro-
ducing the solvent from below and placing a layer
of hulls (seed coat) on the floor of the extractor
after covering the floor with burlap between wire-
netting. Although castor oil is not soluble in petro-
leum spirit (gasoline) at ordinary temperatures,
gentle heating effects solution readily. This solvent
is used in practice, and the residue after extraction
only contains up to 2 per cent, of oil. Solvent-ex-
tracted oil obtained from press cakes has a green
colour and is of No. 3 grade, but experiment indi-
cated that oil of apparently No. 1 grade could he
produced by bleaching the oil directly extracted
from castor seed.
No. 1 castor oil, obtained by pressing or ex-
pelling, is of pale colour and is generally sufficiently
low in acid content to be suitable for industrial
purposes without refining by mean', of alkali; pass-
ing a current of live steam into the oil coagulates
albuminous matter which can be filtered off. No. 3
oil is of dark colour and high acidity (generally
5 — 7 per cent, as oleic acid) ; the refining of such
oil with alkali is troublesome, as the soaps do not
break and settle readily, but only do so partly as
they tend to dissolve in the oil.
Bleaching of castor oil is usually effected by
agitation of the dry oil at about 200° F. with 2 — 4
per cent, of fullers earth for about J hour, followed
by agitation with 0'2 — 1"5 per cent, of decolorising
carbon and subsequent filtration. No satisfactory
method was found for bleaching commercial No. 3
oil, and this is attributed to the fixation of the
colour by heat and to the presence of iron salts in
the oil.
Engine tests of No. 1 hydraulic-pressed oil, No. 1
expeller oil, and No. 3 refined oil showed no differ-
ences in the lubricating values; and the physical
and chemical constants were practically identical,
colour being the only distinguishing feature.
On account of its intrinsic difference from any
other commercial vegetable oil. or by reason of its
relative cheapness, castor oil finds application in
many industries and manufactures, such as leather
dressing, Turkey-red dyeing, artificial leather,,
rubber substitute, linoleum, etc. Although largely
Vol. XXXIX.. No. 22.1
REVIEW.
replaced by less expensive mineral oil as a lubri-
cant, castor oil is still employed in the tropics for
heavy machinery, and is essential for the lubrica-
tion of rotary types of internal combustion engines.
The causes of its superiority for the latter pur-
poses appear still to be somewhat uncertain.
THE CHEMICAL INDUSTRY CLUB.
The second annual dinner was held at the Con-
naught Rooms, London, W.C., on November 19, Sir
William J. Pope presiding.
After the loyal toast had been honoured, Lord
Moulton, proposing " The Profession and Industry
of Chemistry,'1 said that this was one of the most
admirably expressed toasts he had ever known, as
it indicated that the most valuable movement in
recent years had been towards destroying the chasm
formerly supposed to exist between the professional
chemist and the chemical industry. The chemical
industry was founded on the work of the research
chemist, and there was really no separation between
the two. So far as the chemical industry as a whole
was concerned we were at a crisis in our history.
.and if England did not realise that it must become
a great chemical nation its future was gone. Unlike
most other nations, it was needful for England to
make large quantities of the substances required to
produce its food, for we might again have to stand
alone and satisfy our own food requirements. We
had just passed through such a period, and few
would realise, as he did, how we had then to rely
upon transport over thousands of miles of sub-
marine-haunted seas for the materials necessary to
too i production. Germany, through the develop-
ment of chemistry, was able to manufacture un-
limited quantities of nitrates. It was during that
time that he most felt the necessity for providing
against succour being cut off; and the principal
question to-day was whether we would begin in
earnest to manufacture nitrates from the atmo-
sphere. It was not mere knowledge that was
wanted, but sufficient manufacturers to bear the
burden should war again befall us. Next to the
ammonia industry, the development of the dye
industry was of the utmost importance if our
country was to maintain the position which it had
hitherto occupied.
.Mr. W. J. T". Woohock. M.P., responded and
said that a striking example of the interdenpend-
c me of the profession ami the industry of chemistry
had been afforded a short time ago. when a learned
society approached the Association of British
Chemical Manufacturers for information with
regard to its plans for ensuring supplies of research
chemicals. The profession was accordingly asked to
furnish a scheme and, as a result, a list was pre-
pared containing from 800 to 1000 research
chemicals, of which about 600 could now be supplied
through the Association. He asked that the ut-
most use should be made of these facilities. Makers
of chemical plant in this country were convinced
that the chemical manufacturer and chemical en-
gineer did not trouble to inquire for chemical plant
in this country and bought abroad, under the im-
pression that the plant available here was un-
reliable. Progress had, however, been made, as
the newly established Association of British
Chemical Plant Manufacturers and the chemical
manufacturers had met to ascertain each other's re-
quirements. Mr. Woolcock then reviewed the
present dyestuff situation and the various methods
that had been proposed for fostering the industry.
The only stumbling block at the moment was
the textile industry, and he believed that the
opposition from this source had been exaggerated.
It was a mistake to suppose that all textile manu-
facturers objected to the system of prohibition
except under licence. There was no hope for a
Government measure of a contentious nature, but
the position would be changed if an agreed Bill
were introduced. We had reached a stage at which
it was necessary to begin to educate the members
of the House of Commons, as they were really
anxious for information with regard to the chemical
industry. It was the duty of the industry to
supply this information, especially because it was
generally agreed that some sort' of Government
assistance was necessary for the dye and fine
chemical industries and because those' called in to
advise on the form of assistance to be given did not
entirely agree.
Br. M. O. Forster, in proposing " The Chemical
Industry Club" spoke of the remarkable and
unique attractions which it offered to its members,
and he then dealt at length with the dye ludustrv
and said he believed it would collapse very
shortly if Government help were not given. The
textile industry would run a serious risk of ex-
tinction once the German dye industry had re-
covered its world-wide monopoly. He had been in-
formed, on good authority, that German dves
valued at £4,500,000, equivalent to roughly one
year's supplies at pre-war rates, had been imported
since the armistice and were now store 1 in Liver-
pool. The dye industry was at a standstill; last
week the British Dyestuffs Corporation had to
dismiss 600 men, and the National Dyes Co. had
closed down its three factories. The situation was
due to Government inaction since the Sankey
judgment. As far as the Chemical Industrv Club
was concerned, he hoped that ere long chemistry m
this country would have a home which would give
accommodation to our numerous chemical societies
and also offer facilities comparable to those of the
Chemists' Club in New York. The Chemical In-
dustry Club had done invaluable service in filling
the gap until the new home was established.
In replying to the toast, Sir William Pope said
that the social needs of the chemical industry were
very large, and every chemist in the country should
associate Jiimself with the club. Its membership
was now 7(10. and last year there was a balance to
the good, an achievement which very few clubs in
London could show. During the war the public
had been given a lesson on the national value of the
chemical industry, but the teachers had not driven
that lesson home The disadvantages under which
chemists believed they had suffered in the past
were entirely due to their own misapprehension as
to what was needed in educating the public. He
hoped the club would be the beginning of the larger
organisation of which Dr. Forster had spoken. A
ereat appeal was being launched for funds to esta-
blish such a chemical home, where the scientific,
technical, and social aspects of industrv would be
catered for, and which would provide the facilities
essential to the great publication schemes in con-
nexion with chemical literature which had to be
undertaken in the near future. About £500,000
was needed for this purpose, and an appeal, now
being made privately, would no doubt shortly be
made publicly. When the magnitude of the capital
involved in the chemical industries of the Empire
was considered, the sum required seemed ridicu-
lously small, and it devolved upon every member
of the profession to do everything possible to ensure
the success of the appeal.
Thc> toast of "The Guests." proposed by Prof.
W. R. Hodckinson. was replied to bv Dr. E. J.
Russell and Dr. H. .T. Johnson, Worshipful Master
of the Company of Tallow Chandlers; and Prof.
F. G. Donnan gave the toast of " The Chairman."
REVIEW.
[Nov. 30. 1920.
NEWS FROM THE SECTIONS.
CANADIAN PACIFIC.
A joint meeting of the Canadian Pacific Section
ami the British Columbia Technical Association was
held on October 25. in the Board of Trade Audi-
torium, Vancouver, B.C., Mr. Noble W. Pirrie and
Mr. A. S. Wootton presiding in turn. Mr. J. A.
Dawson, Dominion Government Chemist, reported
on the recent Banff meeting of the Engineering In-
stitute of Canada, at which the relationships be-
tween chemists and other technical workers and
the need of extending the organisation to other
provinces of Canada were discussed.
A symposium on " Chemistry in the Community "
was opened by Dr. R. H. Clark, of the University
of British Columbia, with a paper on " Academic-
Chemical Research," in which he emphasised the
fact that chemical discoveries have been made
largely by university chemists, and that they have
frequently provided the germ from which great in-
dustries have sprung. Mr. G. S. Eldridge, in dis-
cussing the relationships of " Chemistry and Metal-
lurgy." laid stress upon the importance of chemical
analysis and control, with particular reference to
the discoveries of Bessemer, Siemens, and others,
and described recent developments in the manu-
facture of ferro-alloys and the electro-chemical
separation of metals at Trail, B.C. Under the
heading " Chemistry and Alloys." Mr. W. S. Bar-
wick discussed various types of brass and bronze,
the use of manganese bronze (better described as
manganese brass) for propeller blades of ships,
pumps, etc., and alloys containing aluminium, cal-
cium, magnesium, etc., in aeroplane manufacture.
The subject of " Chemistry and Agriculture " was
dealt with by Mr. TV. H. Hill. Dominion Agricul-
tural Chemist, and that of "Chemistry and Bio-
logy " by Mr. C. J. Berkeley, Biochemist at De-
parture Bay Biological Station. The latter de-
scribed his recent work on the respiration of clams
in the absence of air, and indicated the importance
of the problem as affecting existing ideas about
this fundamental chemical process.
Mr. H. Freeman, Secretary of the British
Columbia Committee of the Advisory Council for
Scientific and Industrial Research in Canada.
briefly referred to his discovery, while resident in
Vancouver, of the electrochemical process of making
cyanide from calcium cyanamide, and to its sub-
sequent development on an industrial scale at the
works of the American Cyanamide Company at
Niagara Falls, Ontario. Mr. Freeman then re-
viewed opportunities in the lumber, fish, and
mining industries of British Columbia, to which the
judicious application of chemical knowledge ia
essential for economic success. Much interest was
aroused by the announcement that the Canadian
Advisorv Council for Scientific and Industrial Re-
search had granted a sum of money towards the
cost of investigating a promising electrochemical
process for treating the complex zinc-lead ores of
British Columbia.
BRISTOL AND SOUTH WALES.
On November 4, at Bristol, Mr. J. Arthur
Reavell, chairman of the Chemical Engineering
Group, read a paper on " Evaporation Problems."
Mr. E. Walls presided and 39 members attended.
The lecturer passed in critical review a large
number of forms of apparatus, the earliest of which
dated from 1630. The defects of the earlier methods
of evaporating liquids in bulk, either in direct
heated or steam-heated pans, e.g., large cooling
effects, waste of vapour, etc., were pointed out.
The vacuum pan, said the lecturer, seemed to fasci-
nate many manufacturers who regarded the vacuum
as essential, but actually efficiency depended
entirely on the temperature difference between the
heating steam and the vapours in the condenser.
High-pressure steam in most cases gave better re-
sults without the necessity of a vacuum. Frothing
was a serious difficulty in vacuum evaporation,
whether single or multiple effect be used. The divi-
sion of effort in the case of a multiple-effect vacuum
evaporator was explained and various difficulties
described. The great advantages of film evapora-
tion were detailed and comparative figures of
efficiency were given for different types of evapora-
tors. The lecturer also discussed the utilisation of
waste vapours, at atmospheric pressure, from non-
vacuum evaporation and from other sources and
by re-compressing in rotary or direct acting com-
pressors; and he gave figures indicating the
economy obtained by using injector compressors,
in which a small quantity of high-pressure steam
raises the pressure and temperature of low-pressure
vapour.
The Section also held a meeting at Cardiff on
November 5, when Mr. A. Brennan read a paper
on "The Geology of the Mexican Oilfields." Prof.
C. M. Thompson presided. Geological investigation
of these fields is hampered by the extensive floods,
and the best method consists in digging pits with
a view to finding the anticlinals where the oil
always accumulates. Theories of the mode of forma-
tion of the oil and asphalt deposits were described,
and evoked an interesting discussion.
YORKSHLRE.
The first meeting of the session was held in Leeds
on November 8, Dr. L. L. Lloyd presiding in the
absence, through illness, of the chairman. Mr. S. H.
Davies. The main item on the agenda was a paper
on " Ochre Streams of the Valley of the Don and
Loxley," by Messrs. J. Hawarth and J. Evans.
The two valleys mentioned are situated in the
Sheffield district and lie between ridges upon
which outcrops of carboniferous strata are worked
for coal, fireclay, and ganistcr; and the effluents
from the adit workings give rise to the ochre
streams under consideration. Although analyses
of the waters of the twelve streams examined
showed considerable variations, the samples were
invariably acid in reaction and contained large
amounts (up to 130 parts per 100,000) of dissolved
iron. Water issuing from the immediate vicinity
of the mines contains a large proportion of the iron
as basic ferrous sulphate, which subsequently under-
goes oxidation and leads to deposition of ochre
(ferric oxide containing basic sulphate), so that
the water running into the mam river contains less
dissolved iron. The iron in solution emanates
from the pyrites and marcasite contained in the
coal seams. The deposition of the ochre is mainly
brought about by " iron bacteria." which decom-
pose the sulphate, forming ferric oxide and free
acid. These bacteria are remarkable in that they
require only most minute traces of organic matter
for their sustenance (c/. J., 1919, 486 r). The
authors, in pointing out the importance of the
phenomenon, stated that a pure-water supply some
two miles distant was rendered practically useless
for industrial purposes; and that the pollution was
permitted to continue as the effluents from mines
were specially excluded from the control of the
Rivers Board. The discussion which followed
centred a round the following points : — Iron bacteria; ;
the determination of acidity in the presence of
iron ; the removal of iron from ferruginous waters
to render them suitable for dyeing and tanning
purposes; the prevention of bacterial deposits in
water mains; and acidity in relation to "soap
hardness."
Vol. XXXIX.. No. 22.]
395 b
MEETINGS OF OTHER SOCIETIES.
INSTITUTION OF PETROLEUM
TECHNOLOGISTS.
At the meeting of the Institution held in the
rooms of the Royal Society of Arts on November 16,
papers on Colloidal Fuel were read bv Mr. Lindon
W. Bates and Mr. Haylett O'Neill. Colloidal
fuel, as defined by Mr. Bates, is "A stable mobile
atomisable fuel displaying colloidal characteristics,
comprising particles of solids, droplets of liquids or
minute bubbles of gases, or combinations thereof,
suspended in one or more varieties of liquid hydro-
carbons."
The particular colloidal fuel which was discussed
at the meeting consists of a suspension of coal in
petroleum residuum, the stability of the suspension
being maintained (1) by means of a " fixateur,"
which may be soap solution or lime-rosin greases;
or (2) by peptising the mixture by adding to it a
definite proportion of coal distillates, such as tars
and the middle fractions ; or (3) by grinding the
solid substances so that about 97 per cent, will pass
through a 100-mesh and at least 85 per cent,
through a 200-mesh screen. The authors claim
that by one of these methods it is possible to
suspend 55 per cent, of solid material in the liquid
ingredient, samples of the fuel containing 42 per
cent, of mixed coal and coke having remained
perfectly stable after 8 months' storage. According
to them, the addition of carbonaceous particles to
an oil, and the proper association of these com-
ponents, tend to raise materially the flash-point of
the oil, and reduce evaporation, and that owing to
this property the U.S. National Board of Fire
Underwriters gives colloidal fuel preferential rating
over plain fuel oil. It is further claimed that
colloidal fuel has a higher calorific power than
either of its principal constituents separately. For
example, using 65 per cent, of oil of 18,500 B.Th.U.
per lb. (equivalent to 177,600 B.Th.U. per imperial
gallon), and of sp. gr. 096, together with coal of
14,000 B.Th.U. per lb. and of sp. gr. T4, the result-
ing colloidal fuel has a calorific power of 182,800
B.Th.U. per imperial gallon, and is heavier than
water.
On the lecturers' assumption that Navy oil fuel
loses from 0'5 — 1 per cent, per month on storage,
then in 12 months there will be a loss on a million
tons of 60,000 to 120,000 tons of fuel oil. If. how-
ever, fuel oil is incorporated as colloidal fuel with
35 per cent, of coal, the amount of available fuel
would be 1,350,000 tons, and on this evaporation
losses would be entirely saved, thereby assisting in
the conservation of oil supplies.
The apparatus requiied for making colloidal fuel
is of a standard type, being somewhat similar to a
modern cement plant in its simplicity and arrange-
ment. At the present time the Smidth, Marcy, or
Newell combination tube-mills are used for the
liquid grinding of the coal in the oil. A demonstra-
tion plant is in course of erection at Stone Court on
the Thames, which, it is hoped, will become the
centre for the testing of coals for the production of
colloidal fuel. A further advantage claimed is that
the fuel can be kept under a water-seal for fire pre-
vention without risk of deterioration.
The discussion on these papers was deferred to a
meeting to be held on November 23.
work. This was followed by a short paper by Mr.
F. F. Renwick on the method of obtaining the first
derivative of the plate characteristic curve; he dis-
cussed the meaning of the curve and its possible
use in elucidating photographic problems.
Mr. Renwick, assisted by Mr. O. Bloch, then
gave an account with demonstrations of the pro-
cesses of white-light development and direct pro-
duction of positives as previously given by him
before the Liverpool Section of the Society of
Chemical Industry in May this year. He explained
also the so-called fogging action of very weak solu-
tions of iodides on photographic plates as being
in reality due to colour sensitising of the emulsion
followed by fogging by the dark-room lamp. This
is apparently the first time that colour-sensitising
has been noticed as produced by a colourless mineral
salt. A spectrograph was given showing the posi-
tion of the added sensitiveness. Considerable in-
terest was shown by the members in these accounts
of the action of iodides on photographic emulsions.
HOYAL PHOTOGRAPHIC SOCIETY.
At the meeting on November 16. arranged by the
Scientific and Technical Group, the first paper was
a short description by Mr. E. L. Turner, of the
L.C.C. School of Photo-engraving at Bolt Court, of
various time-saving devices in half-tone process
FARADAY SOCIETY AND INSTITUTE OF
METALS.
A successful meeting of the Faraday Society, con-
jointly with the Sheffield Section of the Institute of
Metals, was held on November 19 in the Mappin
Hall of the University of Sheffield, to discuss pro-
blems connected with the electroplating industry.
At the afternoon session, presided over by Prof.
C. H. Desch, several papers relating to metals other
than silver were read, whilst the evening session,
over which Mr. E. A. Smith presided, was devoted
to silver plating. Dr. L. Aitchison described the
properties of electrolytic coatings for the prevention
of corrosion, and Capt. AY. A. Thain gave an account
of several applications of electro-deposition in the
construction of aircraft, the most interesting being
the formation of the water jacket of an aeroplane-
engine cylinder by depositing copper on a tem-
porary mould of fusible metal built up around the
cylinder. Mr. Byron Carr described experiments
on the deposition of cobalt at high current densi-
ties, and showed excellent deposits of this metal,
which is highly resistant to atmospheric corrosion.
Mr. S. Field contributed two papers, dealing
respectively with the electrolytic refining of zinc,
and with the conditions under which alloys of
gold and silver are deposited from the mixed elec-
trolytes.
There was a large attendance at the evening
session, which was opened by Mr. W. R. Barclay
with a general paper, in which attention was called
to some early papers which are too little known,
and to the conditions which prevail in old silver
baths, the conductivity of which has been raised
by the accumulation of potassium carbonate and
other salts. The same conclusion was reached by
Messrs. G. B. Brook and L. W. Holmes as the
result of a large number of analyses and conduc-
tivity determinations. Mr. F. Mason urged the
adoption of higher current densities in silver-
plating, thus shortening the time of immersion in
the bath, but differences of opinion appeared among
the members as to the saving of time to be effected
in the factory by such a procedure. Mr. Brook also
advanced an explanation of the red patches some-
times seen on plated goods after polishing with
rouare. attributing them to the formation of
feathery crystals of silver, which became folded
over, so entangling the rouge. The discussion
showed, however, that although such an action
might occur in some cases, the explanation could
not be a general one, since the red patches will
appear on an article polished by one worker, and
not on an exactly similar object polished by another
hand ; moreover, similar patches are found on
articles of solid silver which have not been plated.
REVIEW.
[Xov. 30. 1920.
The keenest interest was shown in the discussion by
an audience which included a large number of prac-
tical .silver platers, and the results are likely to
be of great benefit to the industry, and to increase
the interest of platers in the scientific study oi
electro-metallurgy, for which a department exist-,
well equipped for teaching and research, in the
University of Sheffield.
PERSONALIA.
NATIONAL UNION OF SCIENTIFIC
WORKERS.
At the annual meeting of the council, held at
King's College, W.C., on November 13, the retiring
president. Dr. J. W. Evans, gave an address on
"Research at the Universities," in the course of
which he expressed dissatisfaction with the present
attitude of the Department of Scientific and In-
dustrial Research towards the scientific and tech-
nical faculties of our universities.
Since the. publication of its first report, the
Department appeared to have abandoned the more
fruitful policy of encouraging to the utmost the
research workers at the universities. The restric-
tive character of the present grants to individual
workers at such institutions tended to divorce
research from teaching. In his opinion this was a
fundamental error, since the best results in re-
search could only be achieved by those who devoted
sonic tin].- to teaching. Apparently, the Department
looked to the universities and technical colleges to
■maintain a supply of competent research workers
for the State-aided research associations rather
than to undertake industrial research for them-
selves. He urged that training in research should
play an important part in every university science
course, and he embodied this in a resolution which
was supported by Prof. F. Soddy, who stated that
Prof. W. H. Perkin had applied this principle to
the chemistry courses at Oxford University with
very gratifying results. Prof. Soddy also "stated
that since the president had prepared his address,
a complication had been brought about by a request
from the War Office that the universities should
undertake research connected with chemical war-
fare, both for offensive and defensive purposes; he
was glad that the Union had decided to appoint a
committee to investigate this matter.
Three resolutions were passed relating to the
Department of Scientific and Industrial Research,
the first of which condemned its policy in so far as.
by establishing and financing Research Associa-
tions, it was handing over to the private use of
" profit-seeking monopolies " valuable knowledge
obtained at the expense of the whole community.
and placing the Associations in a position to exploit
the scientific workers of the country for their own
benefit. Another resolution, which was also
adopted unanimously, proposed the following Bcale
of salaries, based on pre-war cost of living: — At
commencement of professional career, £180 per
annum; after five years' satisfactory service. £350
p.a.: for posts of professional standing. £800 p. a.
These salaries to be raised proportionately to in-
creased cost of living, and also in cases of excep-
tional ability, or where restrictive conditions in
regard to the publication and patenting of results
wvve imposed. Resolutions were also carried affirm-
ing that scientific workers in Government depart-
ments should receive status and remuneration not
lower than that of officials of the highest class in
the Civil Service; and that all possible steps should
be taken to bring before the Government the
necessity for rendering financial assistance to
learned societies.
Prof. L. Bairstow, professor of aero-dynamics at
the Imperial College, was elected president for the
ensuing year, and Prof. F. Soddy. president of the
research council.
Sir William Pope and Prof. H. Louis have been
elected honorary members of the Societe de Chimie
Industrielle. The roll of honorary members of this
society also includes the following — MM. A. Carnot,
J. Gil'iet. A. Haller, H. le Chatelier, L. Lindet, M.
Prud'homme, E. Reumaux, P. Sabatier, E.
Schneider, E. Solvay, and T. Schloesing.
Mr. C. S. Gibson, of Cambridge University, has
been appointed to the vacant chair of chemistry at
Guy's Hospital Medical School, University of
London.
Dr. C. E. Guillaume, director of the Interna-
tional Bureau of Weights and Measures at Sevres,
has been awarded the Nobel Prize for physics
for 1920.
Mr. G. Scott Robertson, of the East Anglian In-
stitute of Agriculture at Chelmsford, has been
appointed lecturer in agricultural chemistry in
Queen's University, Belfast.
The degree of D.Sc. in physics has Wen conferred
by the Senate of London University upon Mr.
J. S. G. Thomas, head of the physical department
of the South Metropolitan Gas Co.
Appointments to the Advisory Board of Industry
and Science of the I'nion ot South Africa include
that of Mr. K. B. Quinan to represent chemical in-
dustries, and Dr. W. A. Caldecott and Prof. G. H.
Stanley, representing metallurgy.
Through the initiative of Prof. P. A. Guye, of
Geneva, a Ramsay Memorial Fellowship of £300 for
three years has been founded by subscriptions re-
ceived from the Swiss Government and by private
donations. The first fellowship has been awarded
to M. Etienne Roux of Vich (Vaud), who has begun
work at Oxford under Prof. W. H. Perkin.
The gold medal of the Institution of Mining and
Metallurgy has been awarded to Sir T. K. Rose for
his contributions to metallurgical science, with
special reference to the metallurgy of gold. The
gold medal and premium of forty guineas of the
Consolidated Goldfields of South Africa, Ltd., have
been awarded to Mr. H. L. Sulman for his paper on
" A Contribution to the Study of Froth Flotation."
The following appointments, etc.. are announced
from the United States:— Dr. G. H. Cartledge,
to be professor of chemistry in the Johns Hopkins
University; Dr. A. Matthes, pharmacist, to be pro-
fessor of chemistry and pharmacy at the Wash-
ington University. Dr. E. F. Northrup has
resigned the chair of chemistry at Princetown
University, and Dr. H. E. Patten the post of
research chemist to the U.S. Bureau of Chemistry,
Agricultural Division; both of these have accepted
appointments in the industry.
The following awards have been made by the
President and Council of the Royal Society: — The
Copley Medal to Mr. Horace T. Brown, for his work
on the chemistry of carbohydrates, on the assimila-
tion of atmospheric carbon dioxide by leaves, and
on gaseous diffusion through small apertures; tin
Runiford Medal to Lord Raylcigh, for researches on
the properties of gases at high vacua; the Davy
Medal to Mr. C. T. Heycock, for his work in phy-
sical chemistry, especially on the composition and
constitution of alloys; the Darwin Medal to Prof.
R. H. Biffin, for his work on scientific principles
applied to the breeding of plants; and the Hughes
Medal to Prof. O. W. Richardson, for his work in
experimental physics, especially tlierinionics. The
Royal Medals have been awarded to Mr. Batesoo
(biology) and to Prof. G. H. Hardy (mathematics).
The death is announced of G. von Biinge, pro-
fessor of physiological chemistry in the University
of Basle.
Vol. XXXIX.. No. 22.]
REVIEW.
NEWS AND NOTES.
UNITED STATES.
Lignite. — The Bureau of Mines is to undertake
experiments in North Dakota on the briquetting
of lignite. The cost of the investigation will be
borne by private interests.
Carbon Tetrachloride as Fire-Extinguisher. — Owing
to the occurrence of fatal accidents due to the use
of carbon tetrachloride for extinguishing fires, the
Bureau of Mines has investigated the decomposi-
tion products of this substance, and found that they
contain phosgene, chlorine, and hydrogen chloride.
Hence it is recommended that persons using it for
this purpose in confined spaces should be protected
with gas-masks or other device. — (./. Franklin Inst.,
Oct., 1920.)
The Coal-Tar Industry in 1919. — The preliminary
report on the progress of the American coal-tar
industry during 1919 testifies to the success achieved
in extending the industry and in readjusting it to
peace conditions. This readjustment is clearly
traceable in the heavy decline in output of products
required mainly for military purposes, e.g., the ex-
plosives intermediates, phenol and chloro-benzene,
and the khaki-dye intermediates, meta-nitraniline
and meta-tolylenediamine ; and in the greatly in-
creased production of benzoic acid, ortho- and para-
toluidines. and other toluene derivatives, following
the release of restrictions on the use of this parent
substance.
Technical expansion is clearly discernible in the
appearance of new colours and drugs, and more
especially in the output of many new and more
complicated intermediates. The increase in the
number of intermediates, from approximately 140
in 1918 to 225 in 1919. included many substances of
which the manufacture is comparatively difficult,
the most striking example being, perhaps, the nine
new sulphonic-acid derivatives of the naphthols and
naphthylamines which became available during the
year. There was also a notable augmentation in out-
put of several of the older materials of this class,
f.i/.. of gamma acid, which was used mainly for the
production of Oxamine Black and Diamine Fast Red
F; and of H-acid, the bulk of which was probably
employed for Direct Deep Black E W. In the
anthracene series, the production of anthraquinone
increased tenfold, and five anthraquinone deriva-
tives were produced for the first time. As indicative
of the future supply of raw material, it may be
noted that an increase of 17 per cent, in the pro-
ductive capacity of the by-product coke ovens is
recorded. The position with regard to the availa-
bility of anthracene is, however, a cause of anxiety,
although a solution of present difficulties is being
sought both in modification of the tar-extraction
processes and in the synthesis of anthracene or
anthraquinone from readily available materials.
A very notable increase took place in the produc-
tion of indigo, the amount of the home product
being now well in advance of that imported during
1914. There was also a marked increase of output
in the classes of basic, acid, and direct dyes, accom-
panied, however, by a fall in the output of mordant
dyes and sulphur colours. Increased production of
the better types of dyes, at the expense of cheaper
varieties, improved the average quality, although
the average price remained the same as in 1918.
The total production of dyes amounted to 63
million lb., representing an increase of about 8 per
cent, compared with that in 1918, the value being
about 167,000,000. In general, the recorded statis-
tics of the industry during a year of transition
justify American belief in the future of the
industry. — (fihem and Met. Eng., Oct. 6, 1920.)
Organic Reagents. — The following organic com-
pounds are now available in quantity and in a pure
state for research purposes: — Amyl alcohol,
isobuty] and normal propyl alcohols, ethyl aceto-
acetate, and anhydrous ethyl and methyl acetates.
Barytes and Barium Products in 1918. — The total
quantity of crude barytes marketed m the United
States in 1918 was 155,368 short tons, valued at
£208,981. This represented a decrease of 25 per cent,
m quantity compared with 1917. which was due
to the scarcity and high cost of labour rather than
to a falling off in demand for barium products.
Imports of barytes declined from 35,840 t. in 1913
to nil in 1918. the cause being the cessation of
exports from Germany. The known and accessible
deposits of barytes in the United States are smaller
than those of Germany and more costly to mine;
when trade is resumed it is probable that the Ger-
man product will be cheaper than the American.
The chief of the producing States are Georgia and
.Missouri. About one-third of the barytes was
ground, refined and sold to manufacturers of paint,
etc., nearly half was made into lithopone, and the
rest was converted into chemical products. As re-
gards foreign production. Germany has large
deposits of high-grade barytes, much of which used
to be exported, whilst England has fairly large
deposits of barytes and workable deposits of
witherite, hut in the past has mainly relied upon
importation. Deposits are found in many other
countries, but exports from these sources to the
United States have been small. Large deposits of
barytes are reported at Bueycite, in eastern Cuba,
and it is anticipated that they will prove an im-
portant new source. — (U.S. tteol. Sun-.. June 28.
1920.)
FRANCE.
Industrial Notes.— Metallurgy.— Thanks to the
regular supply of German coke, metallurgical pro-
duction remains satisfactory and able to meet
present market requirements. The revocation of
the decree issued in July, which prohibited the ex-
port of pig iron, will have an important effect on
the trade balance of the country. The C'omite des
Forges is now considering the possibility of estab-
lishing uniform prices for metallurgical fuels so
that all French steelworks may enjoy equal advan-
tages. The first reconstructed blast furnace of the
Cie. des Forges et Acieries de la Marine et d'Home-
court, at Homecourt, has been blown in.
Coal and Water Power. — According to an esti-
mate of the Ministry of Public Works, the power
obtainable by harnessing the various watercourses
of France, including the Alsatian portion of the
Rhine, would be 3,230,000 h.-p., and if the power
derived from waterfalls be added to this, a total of
9 million h.-p. would be obtained; of this quantity
only 800,000 h.-p. was utilised prior to the war.
If the iron and steel industry is to develop to the
fullest extent, about 35 million tons of coal will be
required in excess of the 65 million t. now con-
sumed, of which some 41 million t. are produced in
France. The destruction of the collieries in
Northern France has entailed a loss of 20 million t.,
ami hence tie- total new requirements will he 7!)
million t., which will he reduced to 50 million t.
when the devastated collieries have been restored.
Were I he available water power to he utilised fully
and efficiently, it is officially estimated that 42
million t. of coal would lie saved, thus reducing the
deficit to 8 million t.
Chemical Industry.- German competition be-
comi s more marked every day, especially in regard
to plastic materials and celluloid, which are now
being offered on the French market at prices below
the cost of production in France. The low price
of German celluloid is due to the fact that the Ger-
man chemists are using a camphor substitute which
REVIEW.
[Xov. 30. 1920.
renders them independent of the Japanese product.
The high price of natural perfumes in France has
greatly curtailed their exportation and stimulated
the home manufacture of synthetic perfumes, which
are now competing successfully with the German,
Belgian, and British products.
Petroleum. — Petroleum has been discovered at
La Poix. near Clermont Fcrrand, by the Societe des
.Minis de Blanzy. This company is also prospect-
ing for petroleum in the Ambutrix district.
Sugar. — The production of sugar in France is
now 75 per cent, below the pre-war figures. Of the
210 sugar factories which existed in 1914, 170 were
situated in the war zone and of these 135 were
either partly or wholly destroyed. It is estimated
tha_t only 60 or 70 of the devastated factories will
be rebuilt and that their output will be about
250,000 tons. If the 290,000 tons obtainable from
non-devastated factories be added to this, the total
sugar production will be about, 540,000 t. The
reconstruction of the sugar industry is retarded by
the difficulty in obtaining plant, manufacturers
being already fully occupied with orders, many of
which are from cane-sugar manufacturers in the
colonies. Other difficulties include the shortage of
beets, the scarcity of labour, and the uncertainty of
obtaining State assistance.
BRITISH INDIA.
The Indigo Industry. — The total area in India sown
to indigo in 1920-21 is estimated at 181,400 acres
(233,800 acres in 1919-20), the distribution being as
follows: — Madras 54'3%, United Provinces 20%,
Bihar and Orissa 14-7%, Punjab 9'3%, Bengal 1%,
Bombay and Sind 06%. The total yield of dye
(excluding that from Bombay and Sind, for which
no estimate is available) is estimated at 24,600 cwt.,
or 4 per cent, less than the estimate for 1919-20,
when the actual production reached 35,700 cwt.
Weather conditions at sowing time were favourable
and the general state of the crop is reported to be
fair. The average yield per acre is expected to be
a little higher than that of last year. The appended
chart shows the estimated and actual acreage under
indigo during the last ten years: —
CANADA.
Pulp and Paper Industry. — It is announced that the
Provincial Government of Ontario has decided to
erect a pulp and paper mill near Ontario. The
reserves around Lake Nipigon, which cover an area
of 8480 sq. miles, will be drawn upon for supplies
of raw materials, and power will be obtained from
the Government hydro-electric plant at Cameron
Falls .—(U.S. Com. Sep., Oct. 19, 1920.)
SOUTH AFRICA.
Industrial News Items. — On account of the increas-
ing demand for industrial alcohol, another large
distillery has been established at Durban.
In consequence of the prosperous condition of the
glass industry in Durban, the acquisition of larger
premises and more efficient plant is contemplated.
The manufacture of paper from spent wattle bark
is under consideration, and the Department of
Mines and Industries, Pretoria, is seeking informa-
tion on the types of paper-making machinery most
suitable for treating this material. — (Official.)
Development of Oil-shale Deposits. — Oil-shale has
been known for some time past to occur in the
Ermelo, Wakkeistroom, Utrecht, and Impendible
districts (cf. J., 1918, 299 r), but it is only recently
that anything has been done to work the deposits,
some of which are now being developed by a private
company. These deposits are situated on the
northern slopes of the Castrol Nek Berg escarp-
ment, which forms the boundary between Natal and
the Transvaal, and the individual beds outcrop
nearly horizontally along the contour lines of the
mountain. The amount of oil-shale present is con-
sidered to be more than sufficient to justify the erec-
tion of a modern plant. As the working conditions
are ideal, the cost of winning should not exceed 12s.
per ton. Distillation costs are placed at the same
figure, and on the assumption that the yield would
be 25 galls, of crude oil per ton, the profit should be
approximately 50s. per ton. Similar shales stretch
intermittently over 200 miles along the outcrop,
and should the company prove successful, a large
industry will probably be developed. — (»S'. Afiican,
J. Ind., Aug., 1920.) '
TOTAL AREA OF INDIGO
Final figures.
Preliminary figures- ».-- — — -•
1911-12
Tbonsand
acres
1912-13 1913-U 1911-15 1915-16 1916-17 1917-18 1918-19 1919-20
1920-21
Thousand
1911-12 1912-13 1913-14 1914-16 1915-16 1916-17 1917-18 1918-19 1919-20 1920-21
—(Indian Trade J., Oct. 22,
Vol. XXXIX. No. 22.]
REVIEW.
GENERAL.
November Meeting of Council. — At the ordinary
meeting of Council held on November 12, sympathy
was expressed with the relatives of the late Mr.
Leonard P. AVilson. chairman of the Birmingham
Section. Sir John Brunner, Bart., was elected to fill
the vacancy in the list of vice-presidents and was
also nominated a member of the Government and
Parliamentary Committee. Thirty-three new mem-
bers were elected. 29 home. 1 colonial, and 3 foreign ;
there were 7 applicants for the special concession to
young men under 25 years. In response to a request
from the British Engineering Standards Associa-
tion that the Society should nominate two repre-
sentatives to serve on a sectional committee on
engineering, the Council asked the Chemical
Engineering Group to submit names for this pur-
pose. The report of the Publications Committee
stated that the separate sub-committees that
formerly controlled the Transactions and Abstracts,
the Review, and the Annual Reports had now been
amalgamated with the Publications Committee ;
that new procedure had been adopted with a view
to expediting business ; and that 7 members, who
are not members of the Council, had been co-opted.
The President submitted a statement which he had
prepared on behalf of the Federal Council for Pure
and Applied Chemistry embodying suggestions to
promote closer co-operation between this Society
and the Chemical Society in the matter of chemical
publications, in order thereby to effect greater
economy and increased efficiency.
Chrome Ore and Chromium (1913 — 1919). (Imperial
Mineral Resources Bureau. Pp. 29. Price Is.) —
Chrome iron ore (chromite) is used in chemical in-
dustry for the manufacture of potassium and
sodium chromates and bichromates, which are em-
ployed for tanning, dyeing, and other purposes.
The ore is used largely for making ferro-chromium,
which enters into the composition of alloy steels
used in the manufacture of armour plates, armour-
piercing projectiles, guns, the jaws of rock-crush-
ing machinery, etc. High-speed steels contain
from 3 to 5 per cent, of the metal, and the yearly
consumption in the United Kingdom for this pur-
pose alone is estimated at about 1500 tons.
A variety of chromium-iron alloy, containing
from 12 — 15 per cent, chromium is now extensively
used as a stainless and rustless steel capable of re-
sisting attack by fruit acids, sea air, and salt
water; it is also used in making cutlery, motor car
parts, etc.. and its application is likely to extend.
Another alloy, " stellite," consisting essentially of
cobalt and chromium, usually with small amounts
of various other metals, notably tungsten and
molybdenum, has found application in high-speed
cutting tools, and, being resistant to nitric acid, its
use has been suggested as a platinum substitute.
Chromite finds another important application in
the manufacture of chromite bricks for metal-
lurgical use as refractory material for lining fur-
naces. When used in this way a high degree of
purity is less essential, since the serpentine
(magnesium silicate) which is frequently present
as a matrix of the chromite or scattered inter-
stitially among the chromite grains, is itself fairly
refractory and serves as a ready-made bond. It
should be remarked, however, that high percentages
of silica and iron oxide are not desired in chrome
refractories.
Chromite is usually required in normal times to
contain about 50 per cent, of chromic oxide.
During the war the demand was so great that
material containing as little as 25 per cent, found
a market, and low-grade ore containing only 8 per
cent, of chromite was concentrated in Canada and
sold at a profit. •
Prior to the war, Rhodesia with 57,000 and New
Caledonia with 63,000 tons, together contributed
from 80 to 90 per cent, of the world's production.
Rhodesia, Canada, and New Caledonia each pro-
duced from 20.000 to 30.000 t. in 1918. India had
a production of about 60,000 t. . and the United
States over 80.000 t. of ore, but this last was of
low grade and produced at a cost which would pro-
bably prove unremunerative in normal times. Quite
interesting was the production of a few hundred
tons of ore in the Island of Unst, in the Shetlands.
The relative amounts of chromium ore used in the
United Kingdom for the different purposes is not
given, and is probably not the same in times of
peace as in war times. It is noteworthy that in
the United States, which is a large consumer, the
following was the War Trade Board's estimate of
that country's requirements for 1918: — For ferro-
chrome, 52 per cent.; chemicals, 31 per cent.; re-
fractories, 17 per cent.
The exports from the United Kingdom of the
potassium salts of the metal fell from 55.*46 cwt. in
1913 to 4334 cwt. in 1918, whilst those of the sodium
salts rose from a total of 48,527 to 81.693 cwt.
Electro-deposited Iron. — A correspondent, writing
in the Engineer of November 12, states that works
are being erected in England for the manufacture
of electrolytic-iron tubes. Although the process
originated in this country (Eng. Pat. 21,974, Oct.
19, 1898), it was first worked on an industrial scale
at Grenoble, where it is stated to have been very
successful.
Development of the German Chemical Industry in
1919. — The following table, w'hich has been compiled
from official statistics, gives the number of regis-
tered chemical plants in Germany during 1919, the
total number of employees, and the percentage de-
crease in the number of full-time workers compared
with 1918: —
Full-time
Section.
Plants.
Employees.
Workers.
Decrease ",,
Berlin
. 2518
68.393
7-31
Breslau
1235
26.377
20-84
Hamburg . .
2043
72.859
27-89
Cologne
2562
121,:>:'.7
31-85
264S
125.559
1204
Mannheim
1325
50.615
12SO
Frankfort a. M.
1081
51.198
2-70
Niirnberg . .
1I14S
. 15.060
37.623
13-35
Totals..
544,161
(avg.) 16-10
[The number of plants in the United Kingdom
inspected under the Alkali, etc., Act in 1919 was
222^ (c/. J., 1920, 276 e), and the number of workers
in the chemical industry during the first six months
of 1920 was 265,000 (c/. J., 1920, 3S4 r).]
In 1918 there were 15,204 plants, and the decrease
of 1'95 per cent, in 1919 is ascribed mainly to the
loss of Alsace-Lorraine. The appended table gives
statistics covering the period 1913 — 1919: —
Avenge
yearly
No. of
No. of Full-
Wages earned.
wage ot
Plants.
time Workers.
mk.
full-time
worker,
ink.
. . 1266
1913
. 15.042
.. 277. Cil
351.520.206
1914
15.014
245.980
313,508.108
1274
1915
14,914
.. 819,646
295,217.251
1344
1916
. 14.993
S82.78S.261
. 1493
1917 .
. 15,129
334.851
652.877.501
. 1950
1918 .
. 15.204
.. 360,256 ..
889.141.H25
. 2468
1919
. 15.060
. . 294. 766 . .
1,004.782.786
. 3612
— (Z. angew. Chem., Oct. 6, 1920.)
Synthetic Ammonia Works in Germany. — The syn-
thetic ammonia works at Oppau and Leuna are to
be transferred from the Badische Anilin- und Soda-
fabrik and brought into a new company with a
capital of 500 million marks, which will be held by
the firms comprising the " Interessengemein-
schaft."— (Z. angew. Chem., Not). 12, 1920.)
REVIEW.
[Nov. 30 1920.
The Swedish Iron Industry. — The Swedish iron and
steel industry was very prosperous throughout the
war, but depression set in after the armistice, the
production of pig iron falling from 720,000 metric
tons in 1918 to 528,000 tons in the following year,
.and the exports, of pig iron from 181,000 to 81,000
tons during the same period. The production of
various grades of iron and steel showed a corres-
ponding decrease, and exports, which previously
averaged 40,000 tons per annum, diminished to
18,000 tons in 1919. The market showed more
activity at the beginning of 1920, rising exports
indicating a better future. — (Techn. Mod., Oct.,
1920.)
Paper Production in Czecho-Slovakia. — According to
the Czecho-Slovakian Ministry of Commerce and
Industry, there are 234 paper and pulp mills in
Czecho-Slovakia, of which 85 make special grades
of paper, 54 cardboard, and 76 pulp (9 manu-
facture chemical pulp). In 1913 these mills sup-
plied 444 per cent, of the paper produced in what
was then the Austro-Hungarian Empire, and it is
estimated that Czecho-Slovakia should, after
supplying home needs, be able to export 50,000
metric tons of paper annually.
From April 15 to June 30, 1920, despite heavy
domestic demands, with a consequent restriction of
exports, paper held the first place among Czecho-
Slovakian exports, with a value of 163 million
Czecho-Slovakian crowns (1 crown was equivalent
to about 2 U.S.A. cents during this period). In
1919 paper exports totalled 181,148,385 crowns, im-
ports for the same year being valued at 75,468,706
ciowns. During January. February, and March,
102(1. 19,300 tons was exported, comprising 7100
tons of printings. 6500 tons of wrappings, 3400 tons
of cardboard, and 437 tons of cigarette paper. Im-
ports for this period amounted to 4450 tons.
As regards raw materials, Czecho-Slovakia has
an abundant supply of wood, but the available
supply of rags is insufficient to meet the demand.
Tinsin and sulphur are imported, the latter mainly
from Spain, Serbia, Greece, and Italy. The fur-
ther expansion of the Czecho-Slovak paper industry
is considerably hampered bv the shortage of coal. —
(U.S. Com. Bep., Sept. 9, 1920.)
The Potash Industry in Poland.— It is highly pro-
bable that when the frontiers of new Poland are
definitely determined, the salt and potash-bearing
districts of Steppenitz and Kalusz in eastern
Galicia will be allotted to that country. Hitherto
potash has only been mined at Kalusz, and expert
opinion is anything but unanimous in regard to the
industrial value of the occurrence. In 1910 a pri-
vate company put down two bore-holes with unsatis-
factory results, and it is very unlikely that the dis-
trict will be subjected to the thorough geological
examination which it deserves. The salt deposits
at Kalusz contain chlorides and sulphates of
potassium and magnesium, in the upper portion of
which sylvinite and kainite are present. The
kainite has a thickness of from 10 to 12 metres, and
in places 16 metres; its composition is as follows: —
1st Stratum. 2nd Stratum
Per lout . Per cent.
Potassium sulphate 20.23 .. 19.52
Potassium magnesium sulphate .. 14.45 .. 15 09
Sidium chloride 27.24 .. 27.53
Magnesium chloride 11.03 .. 10.64
Calcium sulphate, water, and in-
soluble 20 95 .. 27 22
There are, or have been, four distinct layers of
potassium salts. The uppermost sylvinite layer is
on the average about 2 metres thick, and its con-
tent of potassium chloride varies between 25 and
60 per cent. ; the second layer, 1'5 m. thick, con-
tains about 12 per cent, potassium chloride, and
occurs 30 m. below the kainite deposit. A third
deposit of sylvinite containing 42 per cent,
potassium chloride, constituted of two strata, and
of a total thickness of 12'5 m., was found at a depth
of 80 m. below the principal deposit. No figures
of production are available after 1912; in that year
20,566 metric tons was produced, compared with
16,500 in 1910, 8300 in 1907, 17,360 in 1905, and
6899 t. in 1900. It is improbable that the output
of potash from eastern Galicia will be of any conse-
quence in competitive foreign markets, and the
output from the mines at Kalusz. which are to a
j;reat extent exhausted, can have only local signifi-
cance.— (Chem. Ind., Oct. 6, 1920).
Discovery of Pyrites in Norway. — Rich deposits of
pyrites have been found in Kongsvold Hjerkinn in
West Norway, which extend over 1500 metres and
are estimated to contain about 8 million tons of
good ore. — (Z. angew. Chem., Nov. 5, 1920.)
Discovery of Cinnabar in Chile. — H.M. Consul at
Antofagasta reports the discovery of cinnabar in
the Aguas Blancas district, about 90 km. from
Antofagasta and adjacent to the railway. Claims
have been taken out over an area of one square
mile, and mining experts are making investiga-
tions.— (Official.)
The Mineral Output of Mexico. — According to the
" Iniciativa de la Ley de Ingresos " for 1920, the
mineral production of Mexico for the period
January — September in 1917, 1918, and 1919, was
as follows : —
Metals. 1917
Gold
Silver
Copper
Lead
Zinc
Antiinouv . .
Tin
Tungsten
Molybdenum
Uanganese . .
Mercury
1917. 1918. 1919.
metric tons metric tons metric tons
23-54 . . 25.31 . . 22.94
1306-99 . . 1944-51 . . 1949-67
50.ys.-i 92 . . 70.223-45 . . 50.893-61
64.124-75 .. 98,83715 .. 67,378-35
14.757-33 . . 20.09900 . . 8065-41
2640-54 . . 326S-55 . . 027-70
9-21 .. 13-54 .. 2-12
187-64 .. 149-49 .. 29-29
— .. 27-37 .. 2-36
73-39 . . 2878-38 . . 2849-98
3313 .. 163-60 .. 113-87
Arsenic .. 1284-82 .. 1881-01 .. 2188-33
Amorphous Graphite 42005 .. 6190-82 .. 5011-62
— (U.S. Com. Kep., Autj. 20, 1920.)
Proposed State Chemical Works in Uruguay. — A Bill
has been submitted to the Uruguayan National
Administrative Council with the object of extending
the activities of the Institute of Industrial Chemis-
try to the production of chemicals required in peace
time and indispensable for war purposes (cf. J..
1919, 114 r). The proposals include the erection of
a sulphuric acid works with a capacity of 25 metric-
tons a day, as it is thought that 2(1 tons a day will
be required when the (bone) superphosphate indus-
try is fully developed. Concerning the large
deposits of iron pyiites said to occur in various
areas, sufficient sulphur for a year's production of
acid will be stocked until more definite information
is available. At present the daily production of
sulphuric acid amounts to 4 t., and largely suf-
fices for requirements. Other- works to be estab-
lished include: — A nitric-acid plant, with a daily
capacity of 10 — 15 t.; a works lor the production
of crude benzol, xylene, and phenol; an electrolytic
caustic soda plant witli a capacity of 1 t. a day (one-
third of the requirements) and yielding chlorine
and hydrogen as by-products; a factory to produce
5 t. of sulphuric ether a day, a quantity far in
excess of the home consumption; and works for
the production of gunpowder and explosives, acetic
acid, glycerin, and for the preparation of cotton.
The total cost of the various works is estimated at
1' 463,000 (peso = 4s. 3d.), and five foreign technical
experts will be engaged for three years at a total
costof £5S12 per annum. The money required will be
provided by an import tax of 1 per cent, ad valorem
on all articles not of prime necessity, excluding the
plant and materials required for the different fac-
tories, which will be admitted duty free. In this
way some £74,375 would be rafced annually and
utilised for developing the scheme. — (C». of Conun.
J., tfov. 19, 1920.)
Vol. XXXIX., Xo. 221
PARLIAMENTARY NEWS.
HOUSE OF COMMONS.
Foreign Imports.
Sir R. Home stated, in reply to several qucs-
tions, that the effect of exchange fluctuations on
the dyestuffj glass, gas mantle, and other industries
was being examined, and the introduction of a Bill
to remedy the situation was under consideration.
There was no reason to suppose that French textile
manufacturers were placed in any unduly favour-
able position in respect of dyestuff supplies from
Germany. The total quantity of synthetic dye-
stuffs and intermediate products imported into the
United Kingdom from Holland, Belgium and Ger-
many in the first nine months of the year was
29S6 tons. It was assumed that dyestuffs imported
from Belgium and Holland were of German origin,
but in the ease of Swiss exports it was not possible
to estimate the proportion derived from Germany.
The Government had no information as to the
extent to which German manufacturers were ob-
taining monazite sand from India for the manu-
facture of gas mantles. The value of the imports
of glass and glass manufactures from British
Possessions and foreign countries for the first six
months of 1920 was £4.354,704, which compared
with imports from foreign countries worth
63, lss.9S3 during the year 1913, but the depre-
ciated value of currency at the present time should
l>e taken into account in comparing these values.
—(Nov. 8.)
Employment in the Glass Industry.
Replying to Capt. Terrell, Dr. Macnamara gave
the number of persons emploved in the glass trade
as 40,000 in July, 1914. 39,100 in July, 1919, and
4-3.400 at July 31, 1920.— (Nov. 8.)
Miners' Strike.
In a written answer to Sir J. Cory. Mr. Bridge-
man estimated the loss in coal output through the
coal strike at 13.000.000 to 15.000.000 tons, and
the loss in wages at £14.000.000 to £15.000,000.
The total number of unemployed receiving out-of-
work pay rose by about 270,000 between October 8
and November 4. and it was probable that the total
increase in the number of unemployed (excluding
those emploved at the coal mines) was at least
350,000.— (Nov. 8.)
Chemieal and Colour Supplies.
Sir P. Lloyd-Graeme informed Sir W. Barton
that no useful purpose would be served by setting
up a commission to examine the whole question of
the internal production and supply of chemicals and
colours and of the extent to which we are still de-
pendent on foreign supplies for the finer colours
and chemicals required for our export trade in
textiles, as the essential facts of the situation were
well known to the Government. — (Nov. 9.)
British Dyestuffs Corporation. Ltd.
In answer to Sir W. Barton, Sir P. Lloyd-
Greame said that the British Dyestuffs Corporation
was not. and would not be for some time, able to
produce the whole range of dyestuffs required in
this country; in view of the obstacles which had
to be overcome, there was no ground for dissatis-
faction with the progress made. Apart from two
representatives on the board of directors, the
Government had no control beyond that of other
shareholders over the internal management of the
company. — (Nov. 9.)
The Prime Minister informed Mr. Doyle that the
prospectus issued by the British Dyestuffs Corpora-
tion in July. 1919, quoted a statement made by the
President of the Board of Trade to the effect that
the importation of dyestuffs, except under licence,
was prohibited by Proclamation on February 24,
1919; this Proclamation, however, was rendered
void by the Sankey judgment. There was there-
fore at present no restriction on importation, and
the imports had increased during the current year.
The Government fully recognised its obligations
and would introduce suitable legislation at the
earliest possible moment, but no promise could be
given to deal with the matter during the pres ml
s —ion. In reply to further questions, Mr. Lloyd
George sand that the Government might reconsider
its decision if a non-contentious measure could be
introduced; in any case, it was proposed to deal
with this matter at the earliest possible moment
next Session. — (Nov. 11.)
Electricity Schemes.
Answering Mr. Seddon. Mr. A. Neal stated that
the Electricity Commissioners had provisionally de-
termined electricity districts for the chief indus-
trial areas of England and Wales, but, except in
the case of the Severn district, no scheme had vet
been submitted, as the time fixed for that purpose
had not expired, save in respect of the Mid-
Lancashire district. Inquiries would be held as
soon as schemes were submitted. A large number
of loans for electricity works had been sanctioned,
and these works were being actively proceeded with
in various places. — (Nov. 11.)
Chemical Warfare.
The Prime Minister stated, in reply to several
questions, that the subject of chemical warfare had
been under consideration by the Cabinet during
the past year, and that it would be raised at tha
Count il of the League of Nations. As other coun-
tries had been developing this method of warfare.
it was decided that our fighting services should
continue their researches and experiments, pend-
ing a pronouncement on the subject by the League.
This country could take no unnecessary risks; there
were other powerful countries not in the League.
and in one of these experiments were certainly
going on at the present time. — (Nov. 15.)
Parys Cupper Mine. Anglesey.
Replying to Sir O. Thomas, Sir P. Lloyd-Greame
said that the Parys copper mine. Anglesey, had
been frequently examined by experts, but that
although wide bodies of low-grade ore had been
found, the results obtained did not warrant further
expenditure for pump'ing out the water below adit
level, and for sampling the lodes at the bottom;
consequently the Government was not prepared t •
take action under the Mines Act, 1920. — (Nov. 17.)
Prices ejf Imported Chemicals.
In reply to Capt. Terrell. Sir P. Lloyd-Greame
inserted in the Official Report a statistical state-
ment giving the average prices of certain imported
articles for the periods Jan. -Sept., 1913, and Jan.-
Sept., 1920, which included those of the following
chemical commodities : —
Jan. -Sept., 1920. Inc. in value
Article. Value per unit. compared with
£ 1913
Chemicals ; — %
Alizarin . . cwt. . . 48'2 . . 9783
Cream of tartar ,. . . 12 2 . . 194 0
Ingido. synthetic .. . . 240 . . 640'7
Indigo, natural ,. .. 580 .. 332'8
Other sorts . . ., . . 39'7 . . 6311
Petroleum : —
Motor spirit . . 1000 sails. . . 109'6 . . 1892
Fuel oil 349 .. 6311
Basic slag . . ton . . 651 . . 233'8
Barytes, gound ewt. . . 0'474 . . 246"0
Cement, calcareous ton . . 7'41 . . 461*4
—(Nov. 18.)
REVIEW.
REPORTS.
Report on the Trade of the Dominion of New
Zealand. By R. W. Dalton, H.M. Trade
Commissioner in New Zealand. Pp. 44. H.M.
Stationery Office, 1920. [Cmd. 1008. 4,/.]
The present prosperity of New Zealand is due
very largely to the conditions created by the war,
and although it is foreseen that these conditions
will not last indefinitely, it seems probable that the
country will have time to readjust itself before a
slump occurs. For the last few years exports from
the Dominion have greatly exceeded imports, and
the accumulated wealth has put the country in a
strong purchasing position. The exports have
risen in value from 23 million sterling in 1913 up
to 52J million in 1919, the increase being largely
due to high prices and the stimulus to production
caused by the Imperial Government's purchase of
the whole of the main products. The import re-
turns are divided into two clauses : — (1) Those in
which United Kingdom manufacturers can com-
pete. (2) Those which for natural causes cannot
be produced in Britain. In 1919, of a total import
valued at £30,671,698, about 80 per cent, consisted
of goods in the competitive class, and it has been
in this class that the bulk of recent increases has
taken place.
The import trade held by the United Kingdom
since 1914 has fallen from 67 to 45 per cent, of the
total, and during the same period American trade
has increased from 11 to 27 per cent. There still
remains a distinct preference for goods of English
manufacture, and if the home producers will take
active steps, especially in the direction of more per-
sonal touch with the markets and of sending up-
to-date catalogues and literature, they should be
able to recover their pre-war position. Manufac-
turers should also make themselves familiar with
the various systems of shipping adopted by the
buying houses, and should realise the loyalty that
has been shown by their agents during the very
difficult period of the war. The detailed appendix
of imports by classes shows that the British exporter
has been gaining ground in the supply of photo-
graphic materials (sensitised surfaces and cameras).
Public utility schemes, which have been in abey-
ance since 1914, will be pursued extensively during
the next few years; they should offer good oppor-
tunities to British firms'. The important Govern-
ment scheme of electrical development in the North
Island is to be proceeded with almost immediately ;
and much-needed improvements in transport are to
be taken in hand.
The following table shows the comparative values
of imported drugs, chemicals, and druggists' wares
in the years 1918 and 1919: —
1918.
Non-
1919.
Non-
Com-
Com-
Com-
Com-
Origin.
Total.
petitive petitive
Total.
letitive
petitive
£
%
%
£
%
%
U.K.
415.788
.. 98
. . 2 .
488.376
.. 99
.. 1
181.508
.. 93
.. 7 .
201,948
4688
.. 52
..48 .
19.703
.. 20
.. 80
U.S.
243.575
.. 64
. . 36 .
280.075
.. 78
.. 22
82.764
.. 31
..69 .
47.243
.. 15
.. 85
Other C'tries
65,790
.. 57
.. 80
..43 .
..20 .
61.945
.. 72
.. 86
Total . .
994,173
1.099.290
.. 14
Dyes are included in the competitive class of
imports, and the following details refer to them : —
1918. Total. £49.284. U.K. 57%, U.S.A. 20%. Australia 11%.
1919. Total, £66.177. U.K. 50%. U.S.A. 32%. Australia 11%.
The total value of fertilisers imported during 1919
was £319,620, divided almost equally between
phosphates from Egypt an^ superphosphates from
Australia.
Report on the Economic and Industrial Situation
of the Argentine Republic in 1919. By
H. O. Chalkley, Commercial Secretary to
H.M. Legation, Buenos Ayres. Pp. 62.
London : H.M. Stationery Office, 1920. (Cmd.
895. 6rf.)
Argentina still retains its essentially agricultural
character, for its industrial development has been
retarded by lack of coal, iron, and water power, by
scarcity of skilled labour, and by the remunerative
returns afforded by capital invested in land. Never-
theless, industrial enterprise is by no means negli-
gible; meat refrigeration, flour milling, sugar and
wine production, dairying, brewing, lumbering,
and the production of quebracho extract are all of
considerable importance. The last-named industry,
the manufacture of glassware, soap, candles, vege-
table oils, chemicals, and firebrick made notable
progress during the war. Statistical returns show
that the sugar industry has fluctuated considerably
during recent years; in 1919 the estimated output
was 261,000 tons, which compares with 84,406 t. in
1916, 335,067 t. in 1914, and 146,303 t. in 1912.
The wine industry, which is centred in the pro-
vinces of Mendoza and San Juan, produces from 450
to 500 million litres annually. Minerals are widely
distributed, but mainly in sparsely populated dis-
tricts, and only wolfram, mica, and copper are, or
have recently been, worked. Petroleum is known to
occur in the districts of Jujuy, Salta, Mendoza, and
Neuquen ; the production from the oilfields of
Comodoro Rivadavia, hi Chubut, is stated to be
about 200,000 cb. m. per annum.
Capital invested in Argentine undertakings is
distributed as follows :— Argentine, £64,489,393 in
railways and commerce and £26,482,943 in in-
dustry; British, £272,249,601 and £16,190,948;
other foreign capital, £23,134,045 and £3,090,747
respectively. The effect of the war was to suspend
the influx of foreign capital and to retard public
utility schemes, but otherwise the country ex-
perienced great prosperity, the foreign debt being
largely liquidated and a very favourable trade
balance built up. Owing to labour unrest and
other causes, economic conditions were not satis-
factory in the first half of 1919, but the situation
improved in the second half, and the year 1920
opened with very satisfactory prospects.
The Argentine import trade is valued at about
£100.000,000, 31 per cent, of which was held by
the United Kingdom before the war, and 15 per
cent, by the United States ; in fact, of all the
Central and South American markets, that of
Argentina is by far the most valuable to British
manufacturers. At the end of 1919 the share of
the United States had risen to 33 per cent., and
that of the United Kingdom had fallen to 20 per
cent. Spain has 8 per cent., and Japan 6 per cent,
of the import trade, other European countries
scarcely competing at all. German manufacturers
of industrial machinery, hardware, heavy chemicals,
and coal-tar dyes are offering their wares at prices
below those now obtaining, but fixed dates for de-
livery are not guaranteed. British trade is en-
joying a preference of about 30 per cent, owing to
the depreciated value of sterling in Argentina, an
advantage of little avail if British firms cannot
execute orders within reasonable periods and at
competitive prices. Detailed reports may be con-
sulted at the Department of Overseas Trade that
should be valuable to manufacturers of, inter alia,
coal-tar dyes, blacking, candles, cement, chemicals
and drugs, plate and sheet glass, ink, paints,
colours and varnishes, sheep dips, and tinplate.
As the Argentine export trade consists mainly of
raw materials of prime necessity (animal, agricul-
tural, and forestal products), it experienced but
little inconvenience during the war, and new
markets were found in Japan and South Africa.
The increased value of the exports during the war
Vol. XXXTX.. No. 22.]
REVIEW.
period (about £100,000.000 in 1914, £114,000.000 in
1916, and £160.000,000 in 1918) was due more to
high prices than to increased quantities. (6'/. J.,
1920, 120 r, 221 r, 249 r.)
OFFICIAL TRADE INTELLIGENCE.
LEGAL INTELLIGENCE.
Donations for Scientific Research. TV. W'ynu
Evans v. Brunner, Mund and Co., Ltd.
The motion to restrain the directors of Brunner,
Mond and Co. from carrying out a resolution to
give £1U0,0U0 for scientific education and research
was heard before Mr. Justice Eve in the Chancery
Court on November 17, and decided in favour of
the company (e/. J., 1920, 361 r).
Plaintiff's contention was that the resolution was
ultra vires. If it had been proposed to confine the
expenditure to chemical science it would have been
a different matter. If the resolution were justified
it would be allowable to promote anything of politi-
cal expediency for the benefit of the community
generally. Counsel for the defence read an affidavit
from Mr. Roscoe Brunner, chairman, stating that
the operations of the company were closely bound
up with the advancement of science, and there was
the greatest difficulty in finding men sufficiently
equipped in pure science to undertake research
work. The proposed expenditure would be as pro-
fitable to the company as any that could be under-
taken. Counsel also read a letter to the Press by
Lord Moulton strongly advocating the expenditure,
and affidavits by all the directors justifying the
proposal. The reason they did not specify chemical
science was that they did not want men trained
with a narrow, specialised knowledge. They wanted
men with wide scientific grounding, for the com-
pany would give them all the specialised knowledge
they required. The company also at times sought
the help of university laboratories in the solution
of problems.
His Lordship, in giving judgment, said defend-
ants had established that the resolution was not
too general, and that the expenditure would be
likely to lead to the direct advantage of the com-
pany; therefore he refused to make any order.
Disallowance Claim Against Useless Plant.
Keeling and Walker, Ltd. v. The Sturtevant
Engineering Co., Ltd.
In the High Court, on November 13, Messrs.
Keeling and Walker, of Stoke-on-Trent, brought an
action against the Sturtevant Engineering Co., of
London, claiming damages in respect of a zinc-oxide
recovery plant supplied by the defendants and
alleged to be useless.
On behalf of the plaintiffs it was stated that the
defendants agreed to supply and erect, at plaintiffs'
works, a plant claimed to be the best on the market
and to recover oxide fumes at the rate of 250 lb.
per hour. The plant was an utter failure and was
accordingly removed. Plaintiffs claimed the return
of £2187 paid on account and £5040 for loss of
profits. The defence contended that the terms of
the contract precluded any claim for damages, and
that defendants would have made good any defects
in the plant if they had been given an opportunity
to do so.
In giving judgment, the Official Referee said
that the plant was to be regarded as goods supplied
and not as real property ; therefore the transaction
came under the provisions of the Sale of Goods Act
and the conditions of the contract. Judgment was
given for the defendants.
(From the Board of Trade Journal for November
11 and 18.)
OPENINGS FOR BRITISH TRADE.
The following inquiries have been received at the
Department of Overseas Trade (Development and
Intelligence), 35, Old Queen Street, London, S.W. 1,
from firms, agents or individuals who desire to
represent U.K. manufacturers or exporters of the
goods specified. British firms may obtain the
names and addresses of the persons or firms referred
to by applying to the Department and quoting
the specific reference number.
Locality of
Firm or Agent.
Materials.
Number.
Canada
Galvanised and black sheets, tin
plate, firebrick, fireclay, glue . .
6-13
Heaw chemicals
New Zealand . .
Paint, oil, druggists' sundries
Belgium
Paper, cardboard
France..
Chemicals, raw materials for manu-
facture of soap and nerfumery . .
684
Hungary
Iron, steel, fertilisers
635
Rumania
Hides, skins, quebracho, dyes, fish
oil, bone oil, egg and blood
albumin
Spain ..
Ammonium sulphate, oil-seeds, oil.
grease
65S
Sweden
Acetone, methyl and amyl alcohols,
pure alcohol, chemicals for paper
factories
Switzerland . .
Pharmaceutical chemicals
692
Japan
Paper, pulp, chemicals, dyes
694
Persia
Glass, crockerv
Philippine Is.. .
Paint, oil, rolling mill products
703
Peru
Cement, leather
667
United States. .
Galalith substitute, horn, ivory
nuts
666
Chemicals, vegetable oils . .
697
Paper of all kinds
699
Market Sought. — A Canadian company invites
inquiries for 5000 tons of edible corn starch.
Inquiries to the Canadian Government Trade
Commissioner.
TARIFF. CUSTOMS. EXCISE.
Austria. — Customs duties when paid in bank
notes have to paid at 33i times the rate prescribed
by the tariff, as from October 26.
Belgium.— Among the articles under the control
of the Ministry of Economic Affairs that require
export licences are semi-manufactured steel, flasks
and cylinders for compressed and liquefied gases,
bottles, cement, sodium carbonate, undressed hides
and skins, fertilisers, oil-seeds, precious metals,
metal scrap, newsprint paper, natural phosphate,
coal-tar distillates, coal tar, pitch, pyrites cinder,
and basic slag.
Import licences are required for ether and Ger-
man dyes.
Chile. — It is proposed to increase by 60 per cent,
the customs duty on beverages and perfumery. The
proposed increase on all other goods is 30 per cent.,
except on condensed milk, edible oils, lard, cocoa,
sugar, petrol, and mineral illuminating oil on which
the duty remains unchanged.
Crimea. — The export of drugs and scientific in-
struments is prohibited except under licence.
Egypt. — The import tariff valuations for iron
and steel manufactures are given in the issue for
November 11. The valuations have effect from
October 16 to December 15, or until denunciation.
France. — The customs duties on compound
medicines, not specified in the tariff, have been
increased.
France and Algeria. — The export prohibition of
and the export duty on spirits of turpentine are
postponed until March 1, 1921.
REVIEW.
Fr, rich Equatorial Africa. — The customs duty on
spirits (distilled beverages) has been increased to
800 francs per hectolitre of pure alcohol.
Latvia. — Among the articles considered to be
of prime importance, the import of which will be
assisted by the Government, are salt, drugs, metals,
oils, naphtha, sole leather, belting, and chemicals.
Mexico. — Import duties have been modified on
condensed milk, opium, alcoholic beverages, cocaine,
heroin, morphine, mineral waters, vinegar, soap.
Export duty amendments affect lard, coconuts,
copra, certain woods, platinum, sodium chloride.
Montserrat. — The import of cotton seed is pro-
hibited as from September 23.
Norway.— Completely dried or well-salted hides
and skins may be imported subject to inspection
by the municipal authority.
' Portugal. — The complete text of the export regu-
lations and surtaxes is given in the issue for Nov. 11.
Among the articles subject to export surtaxes
are alcohol, chemicals, medicines, pharmaceutical
specialities, chocolate, coal tar, rosin, copper pre-
cipitate, glue, gum resin, hides, skins, horns,
kaolin, medicinal plants, metals, metal scrap,
molasses, oil-cake, certain oils, ores, paper, rubber,
balata, gutta-percha, copper sulphate, tartar, tar-
taric acid, tin, turpentine, vegetable fibres, vinegar,
wax, and wool.
Rumania. — As from October 6, the export and
import duties have been modified, but in some
cases, e.<h, the duty on vegetable oils, the former
remain unchanged.
Sarawak. — The import duty has been amended
on alcoholic beverages, kerosene, salt, etc.
Export duties are now leviable at the rates in
force prior to February 26.
Spain. — Cement may be imported duty free as
from December 1.
Sweden. — Export prohibitions have been with-
drawn from certain oils and fatty acids, bees' wax,
vegetable wax, oil varnish, soft soap, Turkey-red oil,
hydrochloric acid, nitric acid, boric acid, citric acid,
tartaric acid, tartrates, iodine, iodides, oxides of
baryta, bleaching powder, calcium sulphate, potas-
sium and ammonium nitrates, acetates of iron and
chromium, arsenites of potash and soda, thorium
nitrate, tungstic acid, salts of zinc, copper, nickel
and load, mercury, silver nitrate, chlorides of sul-
phur and phosphorus, chromium sulphate, red lead,
cobalt oxide, and colours.
Trinidad. — The Customs Ordinance came into
force on Nov. 6. British foodstuffs, cattle foods,
cotton, and machinery are admitted duty free.
Turkey. — Export prohibitions have been removed
from zinc, lead, iron and tin.
TRADE NOTES.
GOVERNMENT ORDERS AND NOTICES.
Orders Canceixed. — The Coal Emergency Order,
the Lighting, Heating and Power Emergency
Order, the Gas and Coal Emergency Order, and the
Coal and Fuel Emergency Order, all of 1920, have
been revoked as from November 4.
Prohibited Exports. — Suet has been added to
the list of prohibited exports, and milk (sweetened,
condensed, or preserved), and fruit pulp have been
removed from it.
Licences for the export of the following goods,
granted prior to August, 1920, have been revoked
as from November 18, but applications may be made
for new licences: — Cocaine and its salts and pre-
parations; opium and its preparations; opium
alkaloids and their salts and preparations.
An open general licence has been issued for the
export of soap, ointment, tooth powder, and dis-
infectant (powder or liquid) not containing more
than 20 per cent, of coal-tar derivatives.
Canada's Exports and Imports. — For the twelve
months ending July, 1920, the value of Canadian
exports was §1,253,191,735, and that of the imports
was §1.264. 163,537, of which §24,250,000 repre-
sented chemicals.
St. Vincent in 1918-19.— All the Sea Island cotton
produced in this colony since 1917 has been bought
by the local Government on behalf of the Imperial
Government, and the ready and remunerative
market thus provided, together with successful
control of the eotton-stainer pest, has led to the
planting of 4583 acres, which compares with 345S
acres planted in 1917-18. The Government cotton
ginnery and granary continued to buy seed cotton
and maize on profit-sharing terms, a total of
386,431 lb. of Sea Island and 117,588 lb. of Marie
Galante seed cotton having been purchased. The
sugar and syrup industries, though small, have
been well maintained, and the groundnut crop is
becoming more important. The value of the im-
ports was £134,699, as against £122,114 in 1917;
the percentage proportions furnished by the differ-
ent countries in 1918 and 1917 were, respectively : —
United Kingdom, 39.4, 29.9; United States, 28.7,
31.5; and Canada, 20.3, 22.9. The exports were
valued at £195,205 (£99,734 in 1917), and in-
cluded: —Arrowroot, £95,828; cotton, £60,922;
cocoa, £6021 ; muscovado sugar, £3296 ; syrup and
molasses, £4796; and cassava starch, £3821. Of
the total exports, the United Kingdom took pro-
duce worth £144,619, British West Indies £29,171,
Canada £11,751, and the United States £4122.—
(Col. Rcp.-Ann., No. 1037, July, 1920.)
FOREIGN.
The Dutch Colour Trade. — The condition of the
lake, varnish and colour industry is very favour-
able and the export tiade is satisfactory, owing
more particularly to activity in the building trade
in areas devastated by the war. The imports of
colours and lakes in metric tons during January-
June, 1920, were as follows, the chief source being
given in parenthesis: — White lead 573 (Germany
276, America 85) ; zinc white 1969 (Germany 1636)';
red lead 525; ochre 565 (France 199, Germany 192);
other colours 1247; coal-tar colours 581 (Germany
456); ground colours 278; lakes 52 (Germany 35);
dryers and varnish 102 (England 6, United States
26). The exports for the same period and their
destinations were: — White lead 19; zinc white 1062
(Belgium 494, France 365); lithopone 3566 (Belgium
2793) ; ground colours 683 ; red lead 105 ; other
colours 1183 ; coal-tar colours 44 ; dryers and varnish
110 tuns.— (Rev. Prod. Chim., Oct'. 15, 1920.)
Foreign Company News. — France. — Among the new
companies that have recently been established
are: — " Les Distilleries d'Alsace," with a capital
of 5,000,000 fr., to exploit and treat wood and cellu-
lose materials, more particularly for the production
of ethyl alcohol, etc., by hydrolysis; " Societe pour
1' Industrie des Parfums Chimiques " (capital
1,000,000 fr.) for the manufacture of synthetic and
natural perfumes, particularly by the processes of
M. P. Otto; " Cie. Generale des Graisses Alimen-
taires " (capital 12,000,000 fr.) for the preparation
of oils, fats, and derivatives.
The capital of the " Manufacture des Glaces et
Prod nits Chimiques de Saint-Gobain, Chauny et
Cirey " is to be raised from 60 to 120 million francs,
to provide for further expansion. The company has
interests in the following undertakings: — Carl
Tiesch in Silesia; Enghels in Bohemia; Bichoux
Lambotte in Germany; Glaceries Neerlandaises in
Holland; and La Cristalleria Espanola in Spain.
The company also owns branch glass-works in
France, Germany (Mannheim and Stolberg), Italy
Vol. XXXIX. No. 22.]
REVIEW.
(Pisa), Belgium (Franiere), and 21 chemical works
in France, as well as deposits of pyrites and phos-
phates in North Africa, salt deposits at Ars-sur-
Meurthe, and deposits of pyrites in Spain. — (liev.
Prod. Chim., Oct. 15, 1920.)
United States. — It is announced that the Pitts-
burgh Plate Glass Co. is about to amalgamate with
the Columbia Chemical Co. (.capital $5,966,000), and
the Patton-Pitcairn Co. (capital $2,317,500), in pur-
suance of its policy to acquire interests in or control
of plants producing materials which it handles or
desires to handle. The consolidated company will
have a capital of $37,500,000, of which $30,734,000
will be issued immediatelv. — (Oil, Paint and Drug
Pep.. Sept. 27, 1920.)
Belgium. — The " Societe Generate des Minerals,"
of Liege, has increased its capital from 10 to 25
million francs.
Germany. — An amalgamation has been effected
between the Chemische Fabrik Rhenania, in Aachen,
and the Verein Chemischer Fabriken, in Mann-
heim. The title of the new company is " Rhenania,
Verein Chemischer Fabriken, Aachen-Mannheim,"
and its headquarters will be located at Aachen . —
{Z. angew. Chem., Oct. 22, 1920.)
REVIEWS.
COMPANY NEWS.
MAGADI SODA CO, LTD.
The ninth ordinary general meeting was held on
November 17 in London, Mr. S. Samuel presiding.
The chairman referred to the debit balance of
£96,832 in respect of the year ended December 31
last, and stated that the total amount now pro-
visionally put to trading loss was £197,731, the
largest items in which sum had been interest on
loans and debentures, and loss on exchange. Pro-
duction at Magadi had been delayed owing to non-
delivery of machinery due to strikes in this country,
but it had definitely begun on November 11 last. An
engineer's report spoke most favourably of the new
plant. The mechanical appliances for getting the
soda out of the lake were all in working order and,
if required, 1600 tons per day could be won with
the present outfit. Many inquiries had been re-
ceived for soda ash, and forward sales had been
made. Soda products still commanded high prices,
and new markets were continually being opened up.
The company's plant in Calcutta had been pro-
ducing caustic soda of the best quality that had
found a ready sale, and it was proposed to extend
it. Mr. Samuel added that he hoped that the
company would be able to finance the business
without raising further capital ; it possessed un-
limited supplies of natural soda, and if the machin-
ery came up to expectations, its future should be
secure.
Explosives Trades, Ltd. — At an extra-ordinary
meeting held on November 24 it was resolved to
change the name of the company to that of " Nobel
Industries, Limited."
Courtaulds, Ltd. — The directors have decided to
place a value of £7,806,087 upon the company's
American assets, to capitalise this sum together
with the existing capital reserve of £193,913, and
to distribute a bonus of two shares in respect of
each share now held.
British Oxygen Co., Ltd. — The report for the
year ended March 31, 1920, states that after de-
ducting £37,500 for the final dividend of 2s. per
share and a bonus of 6d. per share (making 17£ per
cent, for the year, free of tax), there remains a
balance of £132,044. It is proposed to alter the
memorandum of association in order to effect the
purchase of shares in the Sparklets and General
Manufacturing Co.
Plantation Rubber and the Testing of Rubber.
By G. Stafford AVhitby. Pp. xvi+559. With
8 plates and 48 diagrams. (London: Longmans,
Green and Co. 1920.) Price 28s. net.
This volume forms one of the series of Mono-
graphs on Industrial Chemistry edited by Sir
Edward Thorpe, and if the standard of the series
can be judged by the present publication, it may
be confidently asserted that these monographs will
occupy a prominent position in technical chemical
literature. Dr. Whitby, now assistant professor
at McGill University, Montreal, was for a number
of years chief chemist to one of the more important
groups of plantation rubber producers in Malaya,
and he is therefore particularly well qualified to
deal with the production, chemistry and general
technology of the rubber industry's raw material,
especially if we bear in mind the fact that at the
present time cultivated rubber forms some 90 per
cent, of the total output. The author, it may bo
said at once, has made the best use of his great ex-
perience, and has handled the subject not only with
skilful discrimination, but alsc in a sober, scholarly
and scientific fashion.
During the past ten years great strides have been
made in the methods of growing and preparing
plantation rubber, and many researches, 6ome of a
fundamental character, some dealing with techno-
logical or purely scientific detail, have been pub-
lished, and one aim of the author has obviously been
to collate and set forth the mass of this work in an
orderly and comprehensive manner. The work,
however, is by no means a mere compilation ; it is
a critical review illuminated by the author's own
experience and knowledge, and embodies, in addi-
tion, an account of much original research carried
out by him. The first part of the work — The Pre-
paration of Plantation Rubber — deals with the
rubber tree and the extraction, properties and
coagulation of latex; with the resin and protein;
with the various factory operations employed on the
plantation in the production of the different crepe,
sheet and other grades ; and finally with the import-
ant and interesting subjects of maturation and
variation. This (first) part of the volume forms
substantially a technical and scientific handbook
of the plantation rubber industry. Although many
other works have dealt with the same material,
none is so up-to-date, concise and comprehensive
as the one under review. In the second part of his
book, on " The Testing of Rubber," Dr. Whitby
breaks new ground so far as book literature is con-
cerned. We here find an account of practically all
the researches of any moment on the physical and
mechanical properties of rubber from the work of
Gough (published in the Manchester Philosophical
Memoirs in 1805) on thermal properties and elas-
ticity, down to the present day. One is astonished
at their number, but those who are not familiar
with the subject will be still more astonished at
what remains to be done. As the author indicates
in the preface, the value of many of the researches
carried out by physicists or engineers is sadly dis-
counted because, apparently. they regard
" rubber " as a stable entity, oblivious of the fact
that the properties of the vulcanised material may
be varied at will and within the widest ranges. As
often as not there is very little information to
guide us as to the nature of the rubber experi-
mented on, and, as a result, much laborious and
ingenious work while remaining suggestive is, so
far, unfruitful. A prominent feature of Dr.
Whitby's book is the excellent bibliography, which
alone should render it worth the purchase price to
the rubber chemist or technologist. Here and there
a few typographical errors are apparent, for in-
stance in the bihliosrraphy we find " Alexrod " for
Axelrod, and " Bobiloff " for Bobilioff, but on the
[Nov. 30. 1920.
whole the work has been carefully edited and pro-
duced, and is a credit to the general editor of the
series and to the publishers.
Philip Schidrowitz.
The Chemical Analysis of Steel-Works' Ma-
terials. By F. Ibbotbon. Pp. viii + 296.
(London: Longmans, Green and Co. 1920.)
Price 21s. net.
The reappearance of this classic work on the
analysis of steel-works' materials and products will
be heartily welcomed by everyone interested in the
analytical side of ferrous metallurgy. For reasons
stated in the preface, the voluminous bibliography
and sections on pyrometry and microscopy, which
were included in the earlier edition, have been
omitted in the new. The author is to be con-
gratulated on the manner in which he has arranged
the subject matter ; the introductory chapter deal-
ing with general processes is followed by sections
on the analysis of steel and pig iron, steel-making
alloys, ores, refractories, slags, fuels, and boiler
water, scales, etc. The various problems treated
are first discussed from the theoretical point of view,
and then the practical details of the various
methods are given in the section following. Pro-
cedure is expressed concisely yet without the omis-
sion of essential detail, full reference is made to the
influence of other elements, and almost all well-
known methods are mentioned, including those for
the determination of uranium, zirconium, etc.
In view of its great importance, sampling should
have received greater attention ; very few sections
of iron or steel are entirely homogeneous, and not
enough stress has been laid upon the care needed in
taking representative samples. In the determina-
tion of carbon (p. 29) it is not good laboratory prac-
tice to use only drillings caught between 30- and
60-mesh sieves and to reject the remainder. Nor
can the volumetric method for determining sulphur
in pig iron and alloy steels (pp. 74, 75) be termed
" quite satisfactory " without qualification. The
passage on p. 67 dealing with the acidity of the
ferric solution in the gravimetric estimation of
sulphur is badly expressed and would be clearer if
carefully paraphrased.
The author has a peculiar liking for the
"acetate" separation of iron, and also the "lead
molybdate " precipitation, these procedures being
recommended wherever possible. An alternative
method might have been given for the determina-
tion of cobalt, e.g., the separation of nickel and
cobalt from iron by Rothe's method, with the subse-
quent separation of cobalt from chromium by
caustic soda and bromine; or the precipitation of
iron from sulphate solution by pouring into a large
excess of ammonia. The section on ferro-alloys is
extremely valuable. Arsenic, copper and zinc are
neither rare nor unimportant impurities in iron
ores (p. 221), and bichromate is preferably standard-
ised against pure iron and against an ore of known
iron content. Such well-known and frequently
used methods for the determination of manganese
as those of Volhard and Pattinson are omitted, and,
contrary to the experience of many chemists, the
author regards as satisfactory the determination of
tin by iodine, after reduction with powdered anti-
mony. The very accurate gas-testing apparatus of
Bone and Wheeler, and that of Hempel, are de-
scribed in detail, but no mention is made of the
Orsat apparatus, or of that of Stead which is used
in most ironworks. The position of the delivery
tube in the determination of nitrogen in coal
(p. 271) calls for comment; and " ferric chloride "
should read " ferrous " on p. 230, line 4.
Apart from the comparatively unimportant
points referred to, it is not possible to praise this
work too highly. Very great care has been taken
in selecting and correlating the really important
methods of analysis from a huge mass of material,
and the arrangement of the book as a whole is ex-
cellent. It is far ahead of any published work
dealing with the analysis of steel-works' materials,
and should be in the possession of every iron- and
steel-works' chemist.
Ernest W. Jackson.
PUBLICATIONS RECEIVED.
The Application op Dyestuffs. By Dr. J. M.
Matthews. Pp. 768. (New York: John
Wiley and Sons, Inc.; London: C n and
Hall, Ltd. 1920.) Price $10.
Organic Chemistry for Advanced jents.
Part I., Reactions; Part II., Structure;
Part III., Synthesis. By J. B. C -n. Third
edition. Pp. 366, 435, and 37£ (London:
Edwin Arnold. 1920.) Price 54s.
Nucleic Acids : Their Chemical Properties and
Physiological Conduct. By Dr. Walter
Jones. Second edition. Pp. 150. (London:
Longmans, Green and Co. 1920.) Price 9s.
Public Health Chemical Analybis. By A.
Forster and R. C. Frederick. Pp. 305.
(London: Constable and Co., Ltd. 1920.)
Price 21s.
Coal in Great Britain. By Dr. Walcot Gibson.
Pp. 311. (London: Edward Arnold. 1920.)
Price 21s.
The Canada Year Book. 1919. Canada, Dominion
Bureau of Statistics. Pp. 697. (Ottawa:
Thomas Mulvey. 1920.)
Annual Report of the Department of Agricul-
ture of the Colony of Mauritius fop. 1919.
(Port Louis: Government Printer. 1919.^
The Crude Botanical Drug Industry. United
States Tariff Commission, Tariff Information
Series, No. 19. (Washington: Government
Printing Office. 1920.)
The Castor-Oil Industry. By J. H. Shrader.
Pp. 40. United States Department of Agricul-
ture. Bulletin No. 867. (Washington:
Government Printing Office. 1920.)
The Effect of Addition Agents in Flotation.
Part II. By M. H. Tiiornberry and H. T.
Mann. Technical Bulletin. School of Mines
ami Metallurgy, University of Missouri, No-
vember, 1919.
Publications of the United States Geological
Survey-, Department of the Interior. (Wash-
ington: Government Printing Office. 1920): —
Mineral Production of the United States in
1917. By H. D. McCaskey and M. B.
Clark
Nickel in 1918. By F. L. Hess.
Gold and Silver in 1918. By J. P. Duni.op.
Cobalt, Molybdenum, Tantalum, Titanium,
Radium, Uranium, and Vanadium in 1918.
By F. L. Hess.
Lime in 1918. By G. F. Loughlin and H. Insley.
Clay-working Industries, Silica Brick, and
Building Operations in the Larger Cities
in 1918. By J. Middleton.
Peat in 1919. By K. W. Cottrell.
Natural-Gas Gasoline. By E. G. Sievers.
Abrasive Materials in 1918. By F. J. Katz.
Vol. XXXIX.. No. 23]
REVIEW
[Dec. 15. 1920.
ANNUAL GENERAL MEETING, 1921.
The Council has accepted the very cordial invita-
tion of the Montreal Section of the Society to hold
the Annual General Meeting next year in Montreal.-
It is hoped that there will be a large and repre-
sentative attendance of members from this country.
Inquiries are being made concerning the probable
cost to a home member of attending the meeting,
and the information obtained will be duly inti-
mated in an early issue of the Journal.
It is proposed to hold the Annual Meeting on
Monday, August 29, and it is suggested that visitors
should arrive in Montreal on the preceding Satur-
day - in the words of the chairman of the
Mor tion, " they may have a day or two
to ret. ootor round the island, or play a little
golf." ine provisional programme is as follows: —
Monday, - 'j. 29, to Wednesday, Aug. 31 — Annual
Mee' of the Society in Montreal.
Wednesd. Aug. 31, 11 p.m. — Special train to
Grand Mere and Shawinigan Falls.
Thursday, Sept. 1. — At Grand Mere and Shaw-
inigan Falls.
Thursday night. Sept. 1. — Special train, Shawinigan
Falls to Ottawa.
Friday, Sept. 2. — At Ottawa.
Friday night, Sept. 2. — Special train to Toronto.
Saturday, Sept. 3. — At Toronto.
Sunday, Sept. 4. — Boat across Lake Ontario and by
Gorge route to Niagara.
Mondav, Sept. 5. — Niagara Falls District, Canadian
Side.
Tuesday, Sept. 6. — Niagara Falls, American Side,
with visits to such of the large electrochemical
plants as may be of interest.
Tuesday night, Sept. 6.— Train to New York.
Wednesday. Sept. 7, to Saturday, Sept. 10.— Meet-
ing of the Society of Chemical Industry with
the American Section and the American
Chemical Society.
Monday, Sept. 12, to Thursday, Sept. 15. — Chemi-
cal Exhibition at the Eighth Coast Artillery
Armoury, New York.
The meeting in New York will be held at the
invitation of the American Section of the Society
and will afford an opportunity for meeting members
of the American Chemical Society during the week
prior to the Exhibition. The Committee of the
Exhibition has very kindly arranged to advance the
date of opening by a week in order to meet the con-
venience of the members of this Society.
Further information regarding the meeting will
be published later.
BRITISH CHEMICAL PLANT
MANUFACTURERS' ASSOCIATION.
On the initiative of the Association of British
Chemical Manufacturers (A.B.C.M.) the first prac-
tical step has been made towards developing the
manufacture of chemical plant in this country by
the foundation of the British Chemical Plant Manu-
facturer:.' Association with the following objects: —
To promote closer co-operation between manufac-
turers of chemical plant and the interchange of
information among its members and to co-operate
with the A.B.C.M. in order that British chemicals
shall be made with British plant. To form a
medium for placing before the Government the
views of British chemical plant manufacturers on
matters affecting their industry. To affiliate or
co-operate with any other body striving for in-
dustrial efficiency or the advancement of applied
chemistry or metallurgy, or the industrial or com-
mercial interests of the King's Dominions in con-
nexion with chemical plant manufacture.
The officers are as follows : — Chairman, Mr. J. H.
Rawson (Wiclnes Iron Foundry Co.) ; vice-chair-
man, Mr. L. M. G. Fraser (W. j. Fraser and Co.);
treasurer, Mr. E. A. Alliott (Manlove, Alliott and
Co.); and secretary, Mr. W. J. U. Wooleock, M.P.
The executive committee includes the above and : —
Mr. It. B. Blizzard (T. and C. Clark and Co.). Mr.
T. Broadbent (T. Broadbent and Sons), Dr. H. T.
Bush (Huntington, Heberlein and Co.), Mr. J.
Robinson (Mather and Piatt). Dr. R. Seligman
(Aluminium Plant and Vessel Co.), Mr. E. C.
Watkins (W. Neill and Sons), Mr. W. W. Wright
(Cannon Iron Foundries). •
Twenty-two firms have become members of the
Association.
NITRE CAKE
1915—1919.
H. T. CALVERT AND E. H. MORRIS.
Before the war the production of nitre cake in
the United Kingdom, estimated at less than 2000
tons per month, was easily utilised, mainly in salt-
cake furnaces for the production of salt-cake and
hydrochloric acid. During the first year of the
war, however, increasing quantities were made
month by month, and it was not possible to utilise
these quantities in the usual way, with the result
that makers had to find suitable tips on which to
dump.
The firms which had to resort to this wasteful pro-
cedure were mainly Admiralty contractors making
guncotton and, to a less extent, contractors making
TNT and picric acid for the Ministry of Munitions,
for the production of high explosives at that date
had not reached the high figures of 1916 and 1917.
In the case of Government factories this dumping
was in the hands of contractors, to whom as much
as £1 per ton was being paid to remove the nitre
cake, but the contractors refused to accept re-
sponsibility for any damage resulting from acid
drainage from the dumps. The possibility of such
damage to domestic water supplies, to supplies for
watering cattle and horses, to fishing and oyster
interests, and to vegetation was by no mean';
remote, and the superintendent of one of the
Government factories lamented that whilst he and
his staff had devoted much time and thought to
the question of nitre cake they were no nearer a
solution than they were when the production first
began to increase, and that an appeal to the Royal
Society for assistance had only resulted in a state-
ment of chemical facts all of which were well known
to them.
In August, 1915, the Admiralty appealed to the
learned societies for suggestions, and in the issue
of the Journal of the Society of Chemical Industry
for August 31. 1915, a joint committee of these
societies passed on the appeal to the chemists of the
country. The suggestions evoked were forwarded
to the Admiralty, and thence to the Ministry of
Munitions, and were published in the issues of the
Journal for November 30, 1915, and January 31,
1916. The advisers of the Government Depart-
ments to whom the matter was referred were, how-
ever, more impressed with the difficulties of intro-
ducing new processes than with the advantages to
408 n
REVIEW.
be gained by adopting them, and the suggestions |
were turned down as impracticable. No serious
damage had yet resulted from the practice of dump-
ing, and hence neither Government contractor nor
Government Department was being driven to find
another method of disposal and to embark upon a
new venture.
In the meantime the Acid Supplies Branch of the
Explosives Department of the Ministry of Muni-
tions had realised that the sulphuric acid plant in
the country was not sufficient to meet the in-
creasing demands for acid for the manufacture of
explosives and at the same time to meet the de-
mands for trade processes, the products of many of
which were, equally with explosives, essential for
carrying on the war. The manufacturers of acid
were being requested to forward adequate supplies
to the explosives works, with the result that their
ordinary trade customers were often short of
supplies. Steps had already been taken to increase
output by operating existing plant to the fullest
possible extent and by arranging for the erection
of new plant at acid makers' works and at Govern-
ment factories, but the acid position still remained
the bottle neck through which the output of ex-
plosives had to pass. It was realised towards the
end of 1915 that this position could be considerably
relieved if the nitre cake which was being wasted
oould be brought into use as a substitute for acid
in trade processes, and as in many of these acid
only performs a crude function or is used in dilute
form so that solid nitre cake or a solution of nitre
cake furnishes an effective substitute, the Ex-
plosives Department undertook a campaign to en-
list the sympathy and assistance of those manu-
facturers who were being left short of acid supplies.
The increasing production at Government factories,
which ultimately reached two-thirds of the total
production in the country, was an additional reason
for this campaign, as it afforded a possibility of dis-
posing of the nitre cake at a very much less cost
than that of dumping, with the attendant dangers.
The Department did not lose sight of other
national advantages to be derived from the substi-
tution of acid by nitre cake. Pyrites, from which
sulphuric acid is made, had to be imported under
most difficult circumstances at a time when the
economical use of every ton of shipping was of vital
importance, so that by using as much as 26,000 tons
of nitre cake in a single month the country saved
during that month the import of some 6000 tons of
pyrites. Had it been necessary to supply for trade
purposes this acid in the form of sulphuric acid,
some 8000 tons of 100 per cent, acid would have
had to be made at a time when every plant in the
country was working at its fullest capacity and at
a time when the erection of much Government sul-
phuric acid plant was already a cause of anxiety
to the sulphuric acid manufacturers of the country.
The use of nitre cake, therefore, saved the erection
of Government acid plant capable of producing at
the rate of 8000 tons of 100 per cent, sulphuric
acid per month.
The first trade to be approached in the campaign
already mentioned was the woollen industry, in
which acid was used in pre-war days to the extent
of 20,000 tons of 100 per cent, acid per month for
the recovery of grease from wool suds and soapy
liquors produced in the scouring of wool and the
manufacture of cloth. Acid was used for the same
purpose by several Corporations for the recovery of
grease from sewage. Preliminary experiments,
carried out at the instigation of the Ministry of
Munitions by a committee of Yorkshire manufac-
turers, demonstrated the possibility of using nitre
cake for this purpose, and the Explosives Depart-
ment thereupon undertook to organise the trans-
port, supply, and sale of nitre cake produced at
Government factories. A short account of this
organisation may prove of interest.
The United Kingdom was mapped out into eight
districts : — London and South-Eastern Counties,
Western Counties (including South of England and
South Wales), Lancashire and Cheshire (including
North Wales), Yorkshire, Midlands, North of Eng-
land, Scotland, and Ireland, and the consumption
of acid for trade purposes in each of these districts
was carefully scrutinised in the monthly returns
furnished to the Department by the acid makers
and dealers. It was at once evident that the areas
in which nitre cake was produced in greatest quan-
tity did not coincide with the areas in which the
possibilities of using it as a substitute for acid
were greatest, and the Department had to give
attention to the question of transport.
Railway Wagons. — The assistance of the Railway
Executive Committee was enlisted, and the Depart-
ment purchased second-hand railway wagons for
the traffic. The lining of the wagons with lead,
pitch, acid-resisting paint, or bitumastic composi-
tion was considered, but it was decided, as the
wagons were already second-hand and could not in
any case be expected to have a long life, and in
view of the urgency of the position, that they should
be put into traffic at once. Wrhen the nitre cake
was exposed to rain on the journey experience
showed that the acid drainage on to the laminated
buffer springs caused these to become brittle so
that they snapped. This was a heavy item in the
repairs, and steps were taken to cover the springs
with sheet lead. At a later date converted wagons
with self-contained buffer springs were obtained,
and the repairs to these wagons were much less.
Finally, some of the wagons were provided with
hinged roofs like salt wagons or with lifting roofs,
and this type of wagon proved most satisfactory
The action of the nitre cake on the woodwork of
the wagon was not so great as had been expected,
and many of the wagons ran for two and a half
years. At the signing of the armistice in Novem-
ber, 1918, the number of wagons running in nitre
cake traffic from Government factories was over a
thousand.
Production and Consumption of Nitre Cake. —
During 1916, pressure was gradually brought to bear
upon the trades using acid to substitute nitre cake
as far as possible, and the Department undertook
to supply in truck loads to customers' railway
station at a uniform price of 12s. 6d. per ton, a
price which barely covered the cost of carriage.
The price was raised after some months to 17s. 6d.,
and later to 25s. per ton. Maximum prices for
sulphuric acid had been fixed by the Ministry of
Munitions in the meantime, and it was considered
that users should pay a price comparable with that
of the acid which nitre cake was replacing.
By the end of 1916 the total production of nitre
cake in the United Kingdom had reached over
30,000 tons per month, of which rather less than
half was being produced at Government factories.
The amount which was being used had risen
gradually from 2000 to 18,000 tons per month at the
end of the year. During 1917, the monthly produc-
tion continued to increase and reached 42,000 tons
in November of that year, though the average
monthly production during 1917 was 36,000 tons,
and the average monthly use 22.000 tons, with a
maximum use of 26,000 tons in November. After
this date the increased use of ammonium nitrate
resulted in a decreased production of picric acid
with a consequent reduced production of nitre cake,
and during the first ten months of 1918 the average
monthly production was 27,500 tons, and the
amount used 22,500 tons per month, or over 80 per
cent.
It may be of interest, as indicating how varia-
tions in the demands of the explosives programme
were borne more heavily by Government factories
than by private firms, to note the monthly varia-
tions in the production of nitre cake at these two
Vol. XXXIX.. No. 23.)
REVIEW.
classes of works. During 1917, the average monthly-
production at Government factories was 17,000
tons, with a maximum of 23,500 and a minimum of
14,000, or a variation of 9500; whereas at private
works the average monthly production was 19,000
tons, with a maximum of 22,000 and a minimum of
15,600, or a variation of 6100.
It is also of interest to note that, although during.
1918 only rather over 80 per cent, of the nitre cake
produced was used, the remainder was produced
largely at private works which were situated in
remote districts, so that the utilisation of their
nitre cake would have involved very heavy trans-
port charges, and, moreover, they were able to wash
their waste products into the sea.
During the war nitre cake was made at 17
Government factories, but owing to the closing of
some of these in the more thickly populated areas,
only 12 were operating at the signing of the
armistice, one factory alone producing nearly 7000
tons in February, 1918, and nearly 5000 tons in
October, 1918. There were over 60 private works
where nitre cake was produced from the manu-
facture of nitric acid, but the production at some
20 of these was very small indeed, and at the largest
works about 2000 tons was made monthly.
In establishing a selling organisation for nitre
cake the Department was largely assisted by district
committees, each of which sent a representative to
a central advisory committee which met in London,
and in turn the Department rendered assistance
to private firms by hiring wagons for the transport
and by indicating the distribution of the nitre cake
which would involve as little use of national trans-
port facilities as possible, at a time when the rail-
ways were more than congested.
The post-war production of nitre cake in the
United Kingdom is estimated at 2600 tons per
month, about half of which is estimated to result
from the manufacture of nitric acid to be used in
the dyestuff industry.
Uses of Nitre Cake. — It has been already ex-
plained that the Department gradually brought
pressure to bear upon manufacturers who could use
nitre cake in place of acid in their trade processes,
and in June, 1917, a system of licensing supplies of
acid to users was inaugurated. This enabled the
Department to withhold acid from those firms which
had hitherto resisted pressure but which were able
to use nitre cake. These were, however, very few
in number, and it was considered that the only pos-
sibility of utilising the available surplus of nitre
cake was to extend its use to the fertiliser trades,
viz., superphosphate and sulphate of ammonia. Pre-
liminary experiments were carried out by various
firms and by Dr. E. J. Russell, Director of the
Rothamsted Experimental Station, and these
attained a measure of success, but the subsequent
reduced production of nitre cake rendered it un-
necessary to bring further pressure to bear on these
trades, especially as the substitution of nitre cake
for acid was not so easy as in the case of those
trades which ordinarily consumed acid in a very
dilute form.
Nitre cake is an acid sulphate of soda produced
either in the nitre pots at sulphuric acid works or
in the retorts in which nitrate of soda is heated with
sulphuric acid for the manufacture of nitric acid.
The nitre cake from " potting " did not increase
more than 50 per cent, on pre-war figures during
the war, but that from nitric acid manufacture in-
creased some twenty-fold, and of the nitric acid
made over 95 per cent, was used in the manufacture
of explosives, the consumption for other purposes
remaining practically constant at 1000 tons of 100
per cent, nitric acid per month.
It will thus be seen that it was the nitre cake from
the second source which caused the difficulty in dis-
posal. It usually has an acidity equivalent to 30
or 33 per cent, sulphuric acid, and is run molten
from tho retorts into shallow cast-iron trays, in
which it solidifies and is then broken by hand
labour and loaded for transport. The more strongly
acid nitre cakes absorb moisture and appear wet
more readily than those containing a smaller per-
centage of acid. Some of the Government fac-
tories were able to economise in the use of sulphuric
acid to such an extent as to produce a cake con-
taining only 28 per cent, acidity, but this was not
usual, and 30 per cent, should be considered an
average figure.
Nitre cake thus contains the equivalent of a
mixture of 30 per cent, of sulphuric acid and 70 per
cent, of sodium sulphate, and the ideal use would
be a process in which these two substances are re-
quired in the proportions stated. It must be con-
fessed that in most of the processes in which nitre
cake was employed during the war it was only the
sulphuric acid which was utilised, although in a
few, as will be noted later, the sulphate of soda was
also used.
At tho end of 1917, when nitre cake was being
utilised at the rate of 24,000 tc ns per month, the
distribution among the various trade processes was
somewhat as follows: —
Trade process.
Grease recovery
Bleaching and dyeinff . .
Metal pickling and cleauijis .
Hydrochloric acid manufacture
Mineral water manufacture
Miscellaneous
Consumption of nitre cake
(Tons per annum.)
72.000
"2.000
60.000
60.000
12.000
12.000
288.000
The miscellaneous processes in which nitre cake
was being used included the manufacture of glue
or manures from fleshings, hide scrap, leather dust,
and leather scrap, the manufacture of sodium sul-
phite, glass making, rubber regeneration, glycerin
manufacture, the preparation of bisulphate tablets
for sterilisation of water, the manufacture of fer-
tilisers (sulphate of ammonia and superphosphate),
" striking out " phenol and phenolic bodies, boric
acid manufacture, the production of Epsom salts,
dissolving zinc and copper ores, fluxing in metal
extraction, the manufacture of hydrogen and sul-
phuretted hydrogen, the preparation of tartaric
acid substitute, paper sizing, alum making, and
the extraction of rare earths.
Distribution. — When it was realised that nitre
cake would have to be transported over considerable
distances from Government factories to the con-
suming centres it was at first suggested that depots
or stores should be established by the Ministry at
convenient centres, and that the Ministry should
maintain stocks at these depots from which manu-
facturers could obtain their supplies by cart or
motor lorry. It was found, however, that manu-
facturers preferred to receive consignments to their
nearest railway station, so that it was decided, as
already stated, to forward the material in bulk in
truck loads of six or eight tons. In case a manu-
facturer was not in a position to receive so large a
quantity, arrangements were made for him to share
a truck load with other manufacturers in his neigh-
bourhood, or to consign the truck load of nitre cake
to a local chemical dealer, who undertook the dis-
tribution in smaller parcels. Later experience de-
monstrated the advantages which such depots
would have had, despite the double handling which
their maintenance would have involved. At times
either of fluctuating production or consumption of
nitre cake, when railway delays held up supplies,
when the closing of some factories necessitated a
redistribution of supplies, or during holidays which
did not synchronise at producing and consuming
works, they would have served as reservoirs to which
supplies could have been regulated according to
varying circumstances.
One such depot, capable of storing three to four
hundred tons, was established in Bolton for the
b2
Dec. 15. 1920.
purpose of supplying the Lancashire bleachers in
that district. It served a very useful purpose and
enabled manufacturers to obtain small supplies as
required. In the case of two Government fac-
tories, for instance, it enabled the whole of their
small and irregular production of nitre cake to be
sent for disposal.
In the case of several Government factories which
were situated in close proximity to or within a
few miles of the works using nitre cake, the Depart-
ment effected distribution by means of motor
lorries, the bodies of which were lined with sheet
lead.
The fact that there was one central distributing
organisation for the disposal of all the nitre cake
produced at Government factories made it possible
to maintain regular supplies to the consuming
trades, and the close touch which the Department
maintained with private makers through the dis-
trict committees must certainly be regarded as
having contributed in no small degree to the success
of the policy of the Acid Supplies Branch of the
Department.
At the cessation of hostilities in November, 1918,
the geographical distribution of the nitre cake pro-
duction and disposal was carefully estimated to be
somewhat as follows : —
tion as was available. In France the use of acid
for metal pickling was prohibited, doubtless because
the shortage of sulphuric acid was more acutely
felt there than in any other of the belligerent
countries.
Granulated Nitre Cake and Solution. — The
method of cooling nitre cake in shallow trays ex-
posed to the air has already been described. This
was recognised to be a cumbersome process in-
volving much manual labour for breaking and load-
ing, and hence attempts were made to introduce
improved methods. It was thought that if the
nitre cake could be produced in a clean powdered
form many of the prejudices against its use would
be overcome. This was accomplished in two ways —
either by playing upon a falling stream of molten
nitre cake with a current of compressed air, when
the particles congealed as small pellets during their
travel through the air, or by rabbling the molten
nitre cake in rabbling pans. Both these forms of
granulated nitre cake commanded a ready sale at a
price of 10s. per ton above that of the lump or
block form.
The granulated nitre cake had to be carried in
the railway wagons provided with roofs or packed
in casks, especially for shipment to Ireland or
Norway.
Tons per month.
Area.
Production.
Consumption
Exported from area.
Imported into area.
Dumped.
1. London . .
3400
2100
480
220 to Area 2
260 to Area 4
Nil
820
2. S. of England and South Wales
3300
3900
Nil
1420
220 from Area 1
960 from Area 3
240 from Area 5
820
3. Lancashire and X. Wales
6300
4600
2880
1920 to Area 4
960 to Area 2
1320
120 from Area 4
960 from Area 6
240 from Area 7
140
4. lorkshire
3900
7200
120
120 to Area 3
3700
1380 from Area 6
260 from Area 1
1920 from Area 3
140 from Area 7
280
3800
3350
240
240 to Area 2
Nil
210
0. North of England and Gretna
2700
280
2580
240 to Area 8
960 to Area 3
1380 to Area 4
180
180 from Area 7
20
3200
1900
560
180 to Area 6
240 to Area 3
140 to Area 4
Nil
740
540
300
Nil
240
240 from Area 6
480
27.140
23.630
3510
It must be borne in mind that with the closing
of the factories in thickly populated districts and
with the opening of new factories this distribution
was continually changing, and although the above
figures enly apply to the period mentioned, they
give some idea of the amount of traffic which had to
be organised for the transport of nitre cake.
Use in Other Countries. — It must be left to the
future to tell us exactly what use was made of nitre
cake during the war in enemy countries, but from
information obtained by the Intelligence Depart-
ment of the War Office the chief uses in Germany
were for metal pickling and in the manufacture of
fertilisers. It may be thought that with the pro-
duction of nitric acid either from the air or by the
oxidation of ammonia no nitre cake would be ob-
tained, but the indications are that some at least
of the nitric acid was absorbed by soda, and that
the resulting nitrate and nitrite of soda were de-
composed in the old-fashioned way.
With regard to our Allies, there was co-operation,
and the Department placed at the disposal of the
French and American Governments such informa-
At one of the factories the molten nitre cake from,
the stills was for a time run into large cast-iron coco
pans, where it solidified on cooling to large blocks
weighing a couple of tons each. The slow rate of
cooling of these blocks necessitated the provision
of such a large number of pans, and the resulting
product was so generally inacceptable to the users
that the method was abandoned.
Several firms undertook the sale of solutions of
nitre cake in carboys, and in this the main difficulty
was occasioned by the large number of breakages
due to the separation of Glauber's salt from the
nitre cake solution. The nitre cake was cither run
in the molten state into water or the solid cake was
washed with hot water and the resulting solution
cooled and run into carboys. There can be no
doubt that a notable service was rendered to the
Department by these firms, as this method of put-
ting nitre cake on the market involved no change
on the part of the user who had been accustomed to
handling sulphuric acid in carboys.
It is the opinion of the writers that the war-
time measures which were taken by the Acid Sup-
Vol. XXXIX., Ho. 23.]
REVIEW.
plies Branch of the Explosives Department of the
Ministry of Munitions for the utilisation of nitre
cake were not only of considerable assistance during
a period of national emergency, but that they were
»lso of distinct educational value, inasmuch as they
demonstrated the possibilities of utilising one of
che waste products of industry. The work which
was done will certainly lead to a demand for the
whole of the peace-time production of nitre cake.
jind it is hoped that the lesson learnt by both
makers and users may find application in other
directions. Finally, the achievement which has
here been outlined could not have been accom-
plished without the full and hearty co-operation of
all concerned, including makers and users of nitre
cake, the officials of all supply branches of the
Ministry of Munitions and of other Government
Departments.
NEWS FROM THE SECTIONS.
MANCHESTER.
The annual dinner was held at the Grand Hotel,
Manchester, on November 28, Mr. John Allan pre-
siding. Apologies for non-attendance were received
from the Rt. Hon. the Lord Mayor of Manchester
and the Mayor of Salford.
Councillor W. Cundiff, in proposing the toast of
" The Society of Chemical Industry and the Man-
chester Section," congratulated the Society upon
being the premier chemical industrial society of the
world, with a membership roll of nearly 7000. He
referred to Sir William Pope's former association
with the Manchester College of Technology and to
the valuable work he had done for the Minister of
Munitions during the war, and stated that the
Manchester (Bradford Road) Gasworks had de-
livered to the Ministry of Munitions during the
war 1.786,000 galls, of crude benzol, 840,000 galls.
of standard benzol, 268,000 galls, of toluol, 89,000
galls, of solvent naphtha, 9600 tons of concentrated
ammonia, and 5600 tons of concentrated sulphuric
acid.
Sir William Pope, in responding to the toast,
6aid that the Society of Chemical Industry w-as first
established in 1881, in Manchester, and shortly after
it established what it called a " Local Section " in
London, but the name was soon altered to that of
the " Metropolitan Section." They were proud of
the fact that their great Society started in Man-
chester, was conceived and launched by Manchester
men, and ever since had flourished and increased
enormously. After referring to the great work done
by Sir Henry Roscoe, Mr. Ivan Levinstein and
others. Sir W. Pope said that the Society was only
one among a number of others, and he felt that they
should endeavour to establish some sort of union
with the other large scientific, technical and chemi-
cal societies of the country so that they could all
act together when they wanted to " pull off " a
job in connexion with the Government. This was
particularly important at the present time. They
had all seen how during the past few years the
Government had vacillated over the important ques-
tion of the production and importation of coal-tar
dyes. If in this country we had a big chemical
organisation, an amalgamation of their Society with
the Chemical Society, the Association of British
Chemical Manufacturers, and kindred societies, we
should be in a position to go to the Government with
weight and authority and have a better chance of
obtaining legislation suitable for the needs of the
chemical industry.
Mr. John Allan also responded to the toast, and
said that the term " Manchester Section " really
covered a whole host of towns and villages through-
out Lancashire and Cheshire, and was an indication
of the virtue of amalgamation for the purpose of
mutual benefit.
Prof. F. L. Pyman proposed the toast of " The
Chemical Industries of the District," and Dr.
Levinstein, in responding, said that Manchester
and the surrounding district employed half the
chemical workers in the kingdom, and was the
centre in which by far the greatest amount or
original chemical research was being carried on ; the
reason of this was that Manchester had recently cre-
ated research institutions on a scale which had not
hitherto been known in this country. He referred
not only to the great laboratories which had been
built recently by the British Dyestuffs Corporation,
in which about 100 research chemists were em-
ployed, but also to the development of research in
other industries, particularly to the institution
which was being built at Didsbury by the Cotton
Research Association. The fact that Manchester
had become the centre of research on such a large
scale was due to the influence and teaching of the
School of chemistry at Owens College in years gone
by, an institution which was uni ;ue in this country.
There were two kinds of industry to-day, the staple
industries which relied for their success upon mass
production on very cheap lines, and the industries
which depended upon the novelty and uniqueness of
their products, as was the case in the dyestuff in-
dustry. To discover a new substance in a laboratory
was a comparatively easy task ; to produce on a
large scale required great outlay of capital and
extensive engineering and commercial organisation.
The industry he represented was perhaps very much
to blame because it had not succeeded in bringing
about that amalgamation of talent to which Sir
William Pope had referred for the purpose of
bringing pressure to bear upon the Government ;
but he would ask Sir William Pope, figuratively and
rhetorically, which Government did he mean? They
had had a pledge from three Governments, two
Prime Ministers and four Presidents of the Board
of Trade. What more could have been done?
NEWCASTLE.
At the meeting held on November 17, Dr. J. H.
Paterson presiding, Mr. F. H. Jennison read a
paper on " The Use of Tannic, Arsenious, and
Phosphoric Acids in the Production of Lake Pig-
ments from Basic Dyestuffs," the main object of
which was to emphasise the fact that tartar emetic
and tannic acid, usually the most effective preci-
pitants, are not always the best for producing
lakes from basic colours.
Lake colours are pigments obtained by precipi-
tation from dyestuffs and colouring matters.
Owing to their hard and horny nature, the lakes
obtained from certain dyestuffs are useless as pig-
ments; but if they are produced on a suitable base
or extender they give good pigments. Such bases
or extenders in use are barytes, china clay, bJanc
fixe, orange lead, aluminium hydrates and sulph-
hydrates, or mixtures of these. The physical pro-
perties of lakes are largely determined by the
nature of the base on which or with which they
have been produced. Vat colours, such as Durin-
dones and other Indanthrene colours, do not yield
true lakes ; they are pigments ground with ex-
tenders to make the most of their staining power.
Another class of pigments is produced by the ab-
sorption of basic colours by Green and White
Earths: these are much faster to light and alkalis
than lakes produced from the same colours by other
means. The lakes produced from the hydroxy-
anthraquinone series — known as the Alizarin colours
— can, however, be considered as types of true lake
pigment. Of the various metallic salts com-
mercially available for the production of lakes,
those of aluminium are by far the most effective.
REVIEW.
The author described, and illustrated by experi-
ments, the production of commercial lakes with
tannic acid and tartar emetic and with arsenious
and phosphoric acids; he also discussed the chemical
and physical properties of the various aluminium
hydrates and the conditions under which they
react with the acids named to yield lakes of the
required character.
NOTTINGHAM.
At the meeting held on November 24, Mr. J. H.
Dunford presiding, Messrs. J. M. Wilkie and W. A.
Kneightley presented a paper on the " Determina-
tion of Minute Amounts of Arsenic in the presence
of Large Amounts of Iron."
The authors are of the opinion that the Marsh
test in its original form must be abandoned, as it
involves some unknown and uncontrollable source
of error which has not been explained or overcome.
The estimation of small amounts of arsenic by
means of the lead electrode, as devised by one of
the authors, has been found sometimes to give
varying and low results; and the improved method
involving the reduction of all the arsenic present
to the arsenious state by means of glycerol was
described recently (f/. J., 1920, 179 k). Reduction
of the iron present to the ferrous state was also
shown to be necessary, and this is best effected by
adding five drops of a 10 per cent, solution of
potassium iodide, followed by a crystal of sodium
sulphite, whereby a solution is obtained with
glycerol and sulphuric acid which remains colour-
less on boiling. By this method the arsenic present
in solutions containing up to the equivalent of
0'3 gm. ferric oxide can be determined with
accuracy, and the results are not affected by the
presence of citric acid or sugar. Certain slight
changes in the method are necessary in special cases.
A paper on " The Present and Future Position
of the Chemical Societies of Great Britain " was
then read by Mr. H. D. Richmond.
LIVERPOOL.
Mr. A. E. Findley contributed a paper " On the
Corrosion of Coke-Oven Walls " at the first meeting
of the present session, held in Liverpool on Nov. 26.
The author has investigated the relative effects
of the salt, iron, and moisture, contained in the fine
coal used for coking upon the durability of the coke-
oven walls, and has arrived at the following con-
clusions : — (1) The durability of the fireclay walls
decreases as the salt content of the coking slack
increases; (2) the durability is further diminished
if both salt and iron contents are high ; (3) when
much iron and moisture are present, but only very
little salt, the durability of the walls is but very
slightly affected; and (4) the higher temperature
obtaining in the vertical flues of a regenerative-
oven system is conducive to deterioration of the
oven walls.
Experiments were carried out on the influence
of the presence of chloride (hydrogen, sodium, cal-
cium, magnesium) upon the volatilisation of the iron
content of coal, the solid being heated in a silica
tube to 900° — 950° C. in air, steam and air, coal gas,
and steam, air and hydrogen chloride. The maxi-
mum loss of iron occurred in the last-named atmos-
phere, and the losses observed with the solid
chlorides were too small to lead to definite con-
clusions.
In the discussion it was stated that the Belgian
coke-oven bricks imported before the war were by
far the most durable, and that when their price
became too high, the best quality Kentish bricks
were found to be a fairly good substitute; but al-
though these bricks were derived from the same
clay formation as the Belgian, they were far less
satisfactory.
MEETINGS OF OTHER SOCIETIES.
INSTITUTION OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERS.
"Sterilisation of Water by Chlorine Gas" was
the subject of a paper read by Capt. J. Stanley
Arthur before this Institution on November 19.
At the outbreak of war, water was treated in the
field in the water cart by precipitation with
aluminium sulphate, with or without the addition
of alkali, followed by filtration through a cloth-
covered cylinder and the addition of bleaching
powder. The control of this process was improved
by means of the Case method, which is described in
an appendix to the paper. Continuous processes
superseded the intermittent treatment, and the
plant therefor, mounted on a 3-ton motor lorry,
delivered up to 400 gallons of sterilised water per
hour ; excess of chlorine was removed by means of a
solution of sodium bisulphite.
The plant finally adopted as the standard for the
British Army involved the use of chlorine gas, and
the paper contains descriptions, with diagrams, of
the chlorinators of Darnell ( Amer. ' Pat. No.
1007647, Oct. 31, 1912), and of Messrs. Wallace and
Tiernan, of New York. Two types of apparatus
are made by the latter firm, viz., the direcWeed
type, in which chlorine is added directly to the
water, and the solution-feed type, in which chlorine
is added in aqueous solution.
Experimental tests made in 1916 on canal water,
at Brentford, Middlesex, led to the following con-
clusions:— Chlorine is a most efficient sterilising
agent for water; a direct-feed machine is extremely
satisfactory; the taste of water so treated is far
less marked that that of water sterilised with
bleaching powder. Sulphur dioxide gas was used
to remove the residual chlorine, and with this
modification the direci^feed form of the Wallace
and Tierman chlorinator was adopted as the
standard for all types of water purification plants
in the Army. These included portable plants built
on motor lorries, or barges, and stationary plants
on land. The process of purification is the same for
all types and includes : — Treatment with
aluminium sulphate, with addition of alkali when
necessary ; sedimentation ; filtration ; sterilisation
by chlorine gas ; and de-chlorination by sulphur
dioxide gas.
The preliminary chemical treatment is for turbid
waters, etc. ; and sedimentation in portable plants
is carried out in canvas dams, but in permanent
plants tanks are installed for this purpose. The
filters consist of cylindrical tanks filled with sharp
clean sand resting on a bed of graded gravel with
the usual facilities for washing. Sterilisation is com-
plete after 20 minutes contact of the chlorine with
the water in tanks, as shown by negative results
with the McConkey and Neutral Red agar tests.
The amount of sulphur dioxide to be added is deter-
mined by the potassium iodide and starch test. If
the water is to be carried for the use of troops, it is
thought best to leave about one half part of chlorine
per million to maintain sterility during transit, the
general experience being that all free chlorine dis-
appears by the time delivery of the water is made.
It is claimed that experience in the war showed
that water purification plants using chlorine are
extremely efficient, cheap, and simple to operate.
Liquid chlorine stored in cylinders is cheap, and
docs not deteriorate on keeping, in which respect it
is much superior to bleaching powder, the use of
which for water sterilisation in the East was
attended by many difficulties. Bromine bleaching
powder (a patented product) is available as a sub-
stitute for the ordinary commercial bleaching
powder, and as it does not decompose below 100° C,
its advantages for practical use are obvious.
Vol. XXXIX.. No. 23.]
REVIEW.
INSTITUTION OF PETROLEUM
TECHNOLOGISTS.
At an extra meeting of this Institution, held in
-London on November 23, the adjourned discussion
on the papers bv Messrs. Bates and O'Neill on
" Colloidal Fuel " («/. J., 1920, 395 r) was taken
first. Most of the speakers asked for information
concerning the stability of Colloidal Fuel on
storage, e.g., whether the de-stabilised fuel could
be re-stabilised by agitation.
Mr. N. A. Anfilogoff pointed out the difficulties
likely to be encountered in the transport and trans-
ference of such a fuel, such as the wear and tear
on pump valves, fittings, etc., and also the involved
necessity for altering filtering arrangements now
in use on fuel oil lines.
Dr. \V. R. Ormandy protested against the name
" colloidal " being used for a substance of this
type, suggesting that it more resembled an emul-
sion, and instancing the difference in character
between this substance and a true colloidal suspen-
sion. He also stated that by using 35 per cent,
of finely-ground coal with petroleum, it was possible
to make a mixture from which the solid particles
did not separate at all readily, but he had been
unable to obtain a suspension using a smaller pro-
portion of coal. Referring to the authors' sug-
gested use of cheap coal-tar compounds, he said
that at the present time there were no cheap coal-
tar compounds.
Mr. J. H. Anderson quoted figures showing that
colloidal fuel was less suitable for naval use than
fuel oil, owing to the fact that it increased the
dead-weight of fuel required to be carried, and
therefore left less capacity for dead-weight cargo.
Mr. A. E. Cockes, of the Admiralty, stated that
contrary to the authors' experience, there was no
loss from evaporation on storage cf fuel oil; he had
just had a tank measured in which oil had been
stored for some years, and no loss whatever had
occurred.
Mr. G. Bulkeley said that in view of the fact
that the United States authorities had considered
Colloidal Fuel sufficiently worthy of trial to allocate
a battleship for this purpose, it could not be lightly
dismissed, and that very probably there was a
future before it for use in railway locomotives.
Mr. H. Barriuger pointed out that even with the
present system of storing liquid in double bottoms,
difficulty was experienced in cleaning out the
deposits from fuel oil in these receptacles, and that
a deposit from Colloidal Fuel would be almost im-
possible to clean out ; therefore, in the absence of
convincing proof of the stability of the new fuel,
it could not be considered suitable for naval use.
Mr. Cunningham Craig said he looked forward to
the time when Colloidal Fuel would be in general
use in this country, and thereby conduce to the
conservation of our natural fuel resources; but he
objected to the word " colloidal " in this connexion.
Dr. M. B. Blackler deprecated so much discussion
on the subject of colloids as most of the speakers
who had used tho term had not the slightest idea
of how a colloid acted in technical practice. Mr.
Bates claimed to have made an advauce on the fuel
question, and it was up to him to prove that his
claims were justified.
Mr. L. W. Bates, in reply, affirmed his conviction
that time would prove the whole of his statements
to be correct, and gave recent instances of the
satisfactory use of this fuel after long storage.
If the fuel became de-stabilised it could not be re-
stabilised by simple agitation, but this could be
effected quite easily by adding more " fixateur."
No trouble had been experienced in connexion with
wear and tear of pump valves and fittings. He
admitted that the word " colloidal " was not an
ideal one, but it would serve in place of a better.
A more detailed reply will be published in the
Journal of the Institution.
A " Note on tho Lamp Method of Sulphur
Determination " was read by Messrs. J. S. Jackson
and J. Kewley, who described a modification of the
Esling lamp consisting in a wick composed of
capillary tubes instead of cotton strands; an
internal air-tube serving as a carburettor, the air
being blown over the surface of the fuel under test;
and a silica jet in place of the fusible glass jet
hitherto employed.
Messrs. E. Lawson Lomax and F. G. P. Remfrey
described the methods used by them in " The
Laboratory Testing of Oil Shale for Oil and
Ammonia Yields." Methods of retorting were
described and illustrated with diagrams, and the
refining of the small amounts of oil obtained by
distillation was discussed. Dr. Remfrey also con-
tributed a note on the weathering of shale, in which
he showed that on exposure subsequent to mining,
the oil-yield of the shale rose rather sharply to a
maximum within about 4 weeks, and then gradually
fell: and that by choosing the correct time for
retorting an increase in oil-yield varying from 9 to
20 per cent, can be obtained.
SOCIETY OF DYERS AND COLOURISTS.
Before the West Riding Section on November 25,
Dr. E. Fyleman read a paper on the " Standard-
isation of Dyestuff Intermediates," the chief points
in which were as follows: —
Mainly on account of the necessity for facing
foreign competition, it is important that the
various branches of the dyestuff industry should
co-operate as far as possible both with one another
and with dye-useis. To this end the standardisa-
tion of intermediates is desirable. The pharma-
copoeias of modern States are admirable examples
of the utility of such a standardisation of chemical
substances, and the dyestuff industry at present is
in much the same condition in this respect as drug
users would be without a pharmacopoeia. The
advantages of standarisation of intermediate?
would be: — (1) Practical identity of products from
all sources; (2) economy in manufacture of inter-
mediates resulting from definite knowledge of the
quality required ; (3) a definite recognised standard
for British products; (4) the pooling of knowledge
and expeiience between producer and consumer
resulting from the working of a standardising com-
mittee, and also improvements in analytical
methods ; and (5) the commercial advantages of
definite official specifications as to quality.
Attention is directed to possible metallic con-
tamination of products and the desirability of re-
ferring to this in specifications. Very little has
been published on methods of titration of the
commoner intermediates, and how. in the ordinary
methods of diazotisation and of coupling with
diazo-bodies, the exact conditions of titration must
be prescribed for each substance if consistent re-
sults are to be obtained. Methods of describing
the strength of such materials as naphthalene
hydro- and amino-sulphonic acid are discussed, and
the use of " gross " molecular weight, i.e., the
number of grams containing a gram-molecule of
active ingredient, is suggested. The general con-
siderations to be borne in mind in the standardisa-
tion of boiling point, melting point, setting point,
chemical stability, solubility, specific gravity, re-
fractive index, colour and characteristics dependent
on surface properties (i.e.. speed and ease of solu-
bility and reaction of solids and pastes) are dis-
cussed. To carry out these proposals, the author
recommends the formation of a standardisation
committee composed of representatives of dyers and
printers, manufacturers of dyes, of intermediates,
other manufacturers, and analysts. This com-
mittee would revise the standards periodically in
accordance with changing conditions. The reasons
414 R
REVIEW.
[Dee. 15. 1920.
usually urged against standardisation are that it
is unnecessary, and that it tends to conservatism
and to an upper as well as to a lower limit of excel-
lence. The first objection does not apply, and the
second difficulty would be prevented by the
periodical revision of standards to which the com-
mittee would be forced by the stress of foreign
competition.
SOCIETY OF PUBLIC ANALYSTS.
An ordinary meeting was held on December 1 at
the Chemical Society's Rooms. The president, Mr.
A. Smetham, referred with regret to the resigna-
tion of Mr. J. L. Baker from the editorship of The
Analyst after fifteen years' service.
In a paper on the estimation of theobromine, Mr.
R. V. Wadsworth criticised the ordinary processes
employed and put forward a new method based on
the use of calcined magnesia and extraction with
tetrachlorethane. The estimation of quantities of
chromium of the order of 001% was described by
Mr. B. S. Evans in a paper entitled " A New Pro-
cess for the Estimation of Small Quantities of
Chromium in Steels." The steel is dissolved in sul-
phuric acid, oxidised with nitric acid, and after
the addition of 25 gm. of ammonium phosphate the
liquid i3 boiled with excess of potassium perman-
ganate (to convert the chromium into chromate)
and then poured into excess of boiling caustic soda
solution acidified with acetic acid and made up to a
known volume; an aliquot part is filtered off and
made strongly acid with sulphuric acid. The
chromium is then determined colorimetrically by
matching with N/100 potassium dichromate solu-
tion. Good results are obtained with contents
ranging from 0003 to 150% of chromium. " Some
Notes on the Reactions between Fulminate of Mer-
cury and Sodium Hyposulphite " were contributed
by Messrs. P. V. and F. H. Dupre. The authors
described the titration of fulminate of mercury in
sodium hyposulphite, and discussed the retarding
effect of boric acid on the secondary reaction, which
leads to loss of alkalinity ; the evolution of heat and
its influence on the destruction of fulminate by
hyposulphite ; the effect of boric acid on heat evolu-
tion ; and the nature of the final products of the
reaction between fulminate and hyposulphite.
THE CHEMICAL SOCIETY.
At the ordinary meeting, held at Burlington
House on December 2, Sir J. J. Dobbie presiding,
147 new Fellows were elected and four papers were
read.
Sir Prafulla C. Ray described briefly the prepara-
tion of a number of complex platinum compounds
containing mercaptanic radicles in which the
platinum functions as a tervalent, quinquivalent,
sexvalent, or octavalent element. Mr. H. E. Cox
read a paper entitled " The Influence of the Solvent
on the Velocity of Certain Reactions. Pt. II.,
Temperature Coefficients. A Test of the Radiation
Hypothesis." The author has studied the tempera-
ture coefficients of the interaction of aniline and
bromoacetophenone and of sodium /3-naphthoxido
and ethyl iodide in a number of solvents, and he
draws the general conclusion that his work sup-
ports the radiation hypothesis, provided that the
specific character of the solvent used be taken into
consideration.
Dr. T. A. Henry contributed an account of
hyenanchin, isohyenanchin, and other constituents
of Hj/enanche glubosa, a toxic plant indigenous to
South Africa, where it is used for poisoning hyenas
and other animals. By extraction first with chloro-
form and then with alcohol a new phytosterol and a
new wax were obtained, together "with a yellow
colouring matter of the flavone series and the
neutral principles of hyenanchin and isohyenan-
chin. The properties of the last two substances
indicate that they belong to the group of non-
nitrogenous, convulsant poisons, which brings them
into close relationship with picrotoxinin, picrotin,
coriamyrtin, and tutin. Dr. W. S. Denham read a
paper on the Methylation of Cellulose. By modifi-
cations of the methods previously described, viz.,
the action of methyl sulphate on cotton impreg-
nated with sodium hydroxide, a series of methyl
ethers of cellulose has been obtained. The indica-
tions are that the ether of limiting methoxyl con-
tent is trimethyl cellulose, to which the most highly
methylated ether actually prepared approximates
in composition. The solvent action of Schweitzer's
reagent on methylated cellulose decreases as the
methoxyl content increases, and this reagent ha3
therefore been employed in the investigation of the
uniformity of methylation of various products.
NEWS AND NOTES.
UNITED STATES.
Gasoline from Natural Gas. — The charcoal process
for recovering gasoline from natural gas is stated
to co3t less to instal, to be cheaper to operate, and
to yield more and better gasoline than any other
process. It consists in passing the gas through
activated charcoal which adsorbs the gasoline, and
then recovering the latter by steam distillation.
Dietetic Value of the Flesh of Horses, Seals, Etc.—
Experiments have just been completed at the U.S.
Department of Agriculture which show that the
flesh of the horse, seal, kid, and rabbit are as
digestible as that of other better-known meats; and
also that in a mixed diet the meats above-mentioned
do not decrease the digestibility of the other con-
stituents of the diet.
Egg Preservation. — At the Oklahoma Agricultural
College it has been found that a thin coating of
aluminium soap is preferable to other media in use
for preserving eggs. The eggs are dipped into
dilute sulphuric acid and then immersed in a solu-
tion of the soap in a volatile solvent, such as gaso-
line or pentane. With the latter solvent only one
immersion is necessary.
" Physiological Reviews." — The American Physio-
logical Society will publish, as from January next,
a quarterly journal bearing the above title, which
will contain short but comprehensive articles deal-
ing with recent work in biochemistry, biophysics,
experimental pharmacology and pathology. The
selection of subjects and writers will be undertaken
by the editorial board.
Chaulmoogra Oil. — Research on the active prin-
ciples of chaulmoogra oil as a specific for leprosy
is to be encouraged by the United States Health
Service in connexion with the Louisiana Leper
Colony. It will be recalled that administration
of large effective doses was made possible by the
chemical preparation of salts of the two active
acid constituents of the oil, chaulmoogra and hydro-
carpic acids.
Detection of Fruit which has been Frozen. — Dehn
and Taylor have worked out a simple method of
finding out if a given fruit has been preserved by
freezing, by determining the ratio of sucrose to
invert sugar in the sample. The processes of ripen-
ing, rotting, and freezing promote inversion, but
inasmuch as invert sugar is consumed by moulds,
Vol. XXXIX.. Xo. 23.]
REVIEW.
yeasts, etc., to a greater extent than sucrose, this
method is not applicable to fruit which has been
kept in cold storage over too long a period.
Deterioration oi Sugar during Storage. — It is
claimed that the deterioration of raw sugar during
storage, caused by moulds and bacteria, may be
prevented if dry or superheated steam be used in
the final washing in the centrifuge instead of water.
The loss of the Cuban crop due to these organisms
is estimated at 1 per cent., or 70 million lb.
annually. A method has been devised whereby the
probability of loss on storage may be foreseen from
a microscopical examination and reference to a
curve plotted from observations.
Chemical Publications. — In his presidential address
to the American Chemical Society at Chicago in
September, Prof. W. A. Noyes reviewed the his-
tory, present position, and prospects of chemical
publications.
The plan adopted by the German Chemical
Society of issuing its abstract journal, the Zentral-
blatt, only to those who pay a separate subscrip-
tion for it has not been a success, as nearly one-
half of the members do not subscribe for it, and
the expense is therefore unduly excessive. When
the American Chemical Society launched its
abstract journal, Chemical Abstracts, in 1907,
it increased its membership dues by $3 and supplied
it to all members — a policy which has proved very
successful. This publication aims at giving an
abstract of every chemical article published in
the world, provided it contains new results, and
"it reaches this aim more nearly than any other
abstract journal now published."
The new, fourth, edition of Beilstein's handbook
of organic chemistry, now being issued, cost 250,000
marks before printing began, and the advisability
of preparing a similar work in English is to be
questioned ; such a work would take a staff of
twenty chemists five years to collect the materials,
and the cost might easily be two or three times
that of the German handbook. Our needs might be
better met by a different type of work, e.g., a book
giving all the classes of organic compounds with
their methods of preparation and properties, fol-
lowed by a selected list of the more important
compounds of each class with their physical
constants and references to the literature.
The series of chemical monographs now being
prepared under the auspices of the American
Chemical Society, are classified into scientific and
technical. In the latter series will appear one on
" Industrial Hydrogen," by H. S. Taylor, and one
on " Carbonisation of Coal," by H. C. Porter. A
monograph on " Enzymes," by K. G. Falk, will be
issued shortly, and other volumes in course of pre-
paration are " Organic Mercurials," by Dr. Whit-
more. " The Animal as a Converter," by H. P.
Armsby, and " Silicates," by R. B. Sosman.
The formula index which will appear for the first
time this year in Chemical Abstracts, has been
founded on a system more logical and consistent
than that of Richter. It has been devised by E. A.
Hill, of the U.S. Patent Office, and includes inor-
ganic as well as organic compounds.
The Editor of the Journal of Industrial and
Engineering Chemistry has expressed the difficul-
ties he experiences in resisting the constant pres-
sure put upon him to modify the scientific character
of that journal by adopting some of the practices
of trade publications. Such methods are not
essential for acquiring advertising business, and
the practice of including a wide variety of matter
so as to interest not only scientific men, but also
those in works, commerce, etc., conduces to this end.
Prof. Noyes reminds those who wish to receive
and pay for only one or two of the Society's publica-
tions that the cost of collecting material for them,
editing and type-setting is the same whatever the
number of journals printed, and that after this
initial work is done the cost per copy is only about
$2-3.50: moreover, any decrease in the circulation
of the industrial journal would seriously affect the
revenue from advertisements.
The address is printed in the November issue of
the Journal of the American Chemical Society.
BRITISH INDIA.
Estimated Sugar-cane Crop for 1920-21.— The total
area under sugar cane in India in 1920-21 is esti-
mated at 2,669,000 acres, a nominal increase of 2000
acres over the final estimate of last year. The
distribution of the producing area is as follows: —
United Provinces 52"4%, Punjab 16o%, Bihar and
Orissa 10'5%, Bengal 8"7%, Madias 4'2%, Bombay
and Siud 31%, Assam 1"4%, North-west Frontier
Province 1'3%, and Central Provinces and Behar
0-9%.. The present condition of the crop, on the
whole, is reported to be fair. — (Indian Tr. J., Oct.
29, 1920.)
CANADA.
Discovery of Sodium Sulphate in Saskatchewan. — A
lake containing sodium sulpha e and covering an
area of 250 acres is reported to have been dis-
covered near Radville in south-east Saskatchewan.
Local interests are preparing to market the sul-
phate, which is stated to be of about 96 per cent.
parity. This is the third sulphate lake that has
been found in Western Canada during the last two
years. — (Official.)
Forest Products Laboratories of Canada.— Referring
to the paper entitled "Canadian Opportunities in
Chemistrv." read bv Mr. S. J. Cook at the Third
Annual Convention of Canadian Chemists, of which
a short review appeared in our issue for October 15
(p. 335r), Mr. Cook writes that our rendering,
" Canada has a Forest Products Laboratory but
no chemists are employed," is liable to misinter-
pretation; the phrase he actually used was,
"... but the Dominion Government is too econo-
mical of the people's money to pay chemists to work
there." The Superintendent of the Laboratories
has also written to the effect that the laboratories
have alwavs had a first-class chemical staff,
although at' the present time (November 5) the force
is at a minimum (three men), owing to recent re-
organisation; and that the number is to be in-
creased at an early date.
SOUTH AFRICA.
White Sugar Manufacture in Natal. — In the Natal
sugar industry a good deal of trouble has always
been experienced in the clarification of the juice
obtained by crushing the Uba cane. Although this
variety of cane has proved the most suitable under
the particular climatic conditions prevailing in
South Africa, it gives juice which is so " gummy "
that the operations of filtering off the mud or pre-
cipitate obtained in clarification, and of subse-
quently boiling the syrup to grain, are both un-
usuallv slow. It has long been thought that a
more "thorough elimination of the impurities than
is afforded by ordinary sulphitation was necessary
in the case of such juices, and it is therefore of
interest to note that at the Mount Edgecombe
Estate the carbonisation process (as largely used
in Java, requiring 7 — 10 times the amount of lime
used in sulphitation) has been initiated. Very
favourable results are reported. Filtration was
found to be easy, and boiling to grain was accom-
plished in much less time than with syrup clarified
by sulphitation, whilst a good yield of brilliant
white sugar, possessing nearly all the qualities of a
refined sugar, was obtained. A disadvantage of
the process is the high cost of the limestone, which
has to be transported by rail to the neighbourhood
of the mills from a distant part of the colony. —
(.9. African J. Ind., Oct., 1920.)
REVIEW.
JAPAN.
The Arsenic Industry. — Fairly large deposits of
arsenical ores, carrying from 15 to 30 per cent, of
arsenic, are said to occur in the Prefectures of Oita,
Miyazaki, Hiroshima, Hyogo, Shimane, and Oka-
yama. The production of ore was 816 tons in 1918
and 952 t. in 1919, exclusive of ore converted into
arsenious oxide at the mines. Aisenious oxide, of
which 396 t. was produced in 1918 and 1278 t. in
1919, is obtained directly from the ore and also as a
by-product in copper and lead smelting; the former
method has been in use on a small scale for the last
ten years, but by-product recovery plant has been
installed only recently. The three largest pro-
ducers of white arsenic in Japan have a yearly
output of 840 tons (crude), 360 and 180 tons (re-
fined), respectively ; and the total capacity of the
industry is stated to be 4000 tons of arsenious oxide
per annum. Arsenious oxide is not imported into
Japan, but as it is only used locally to a small
extent in the preparation of medicines, insecticides,
and wall-paper, the greater part of the production
is available for export, chiefly to the United States,
Great Britain, Australia, and a little to the
Philippine Islands. A certificate of analysis is re-
quired for oxide intended for export. — (U.S. Com.
Sep., Oct. 27, 1920.)
FRANCE.
Industrial Notes. — Chemical Industry. — With the
exception of the soap makers, who are not working
at full capacity on account of the large stocks held
by the middlemen, there is great activity in the
chemical industry, as is evidenced by the customs
returns. In many cases, e.g., synthetic perfumes,
glucosides, condensed milk, resinous products,
bromine, chlorine, and calcium carbide, the imports
have been considerably reduced and in some in-
stances an exportable surplus has remained after
the home requirements have been met. German
competition, however, is beginning to be felt in
spite of the steps taken to prevent it ; this is shown
by the increasing importations and decreasing ex-
ports of sulphuric, nitric, and hydrochloric acids,
and of ammonia. The reason is to be sought for in
inefficient management, combined with the high
price of fuel and the difficulties of transport.
Coal. — During October, Germany supplied
1.145,000 tons of fuel, which is considerably less
than deliveries of previous months, and this is
causing some anxiety in the French industrial
world, particularly in the metallurgical industries,
as they are at present largely dependent on im-
ported German coal. In addition, it is rumoured
that the United States may cease exporting coal to
France. In these circumstances, attention is being
paid to the use of lignite briquettes as a ready-
source of present and future supply. Briquettes
made from lignite from the Cologne coalfield have
been found to have a content of 21 per cent,
oxygen and 44'9 per cent, of volatile matter. These
briquettes have already been used industrially, and
have given satisfactory and economic results.
During the first ten months of the present year, the
French production of coal amounted to 72,887,161
tons, which compares with 58,602,721 t. for the
same period in 1919 and 96,856,005 t. in 1913.
Metallurgy. — The demand for metallurgical pro-
ducts remain low, on account of accumulation of
stocks and restricted purchases. This state of
affairs is apparently world-wide, and has led to the
lowering of prices by Belgian and German pro-
ducers in order to secure orders from the United
Kingdom. The shortage of pig-iron in Germany
has induced a German syndicate to enter into nego-
tiations with French producers for supplies of phos-
phoric pig iron. The Comptoir Metallurgique
Luxembourgeois has opened a branch in Paris for
the sale of its products in France and French
colonies.
GENERAL.
The Finsbury Technical College. — The projected
closing of this college in July, 1921, has occasioned
very deep regret not only to a host of old students,
but to many others who are familiar with the ex-
cellent work which has been done there for nearly
forty years. For its size the Finsbury College has
furnished a remarkably high proportion of men
who are prominent to-day in British chemical
science and industry, and there can be no doubt
that their success has been largely due to the train-
ing they received at the College, training which has
not only been scientific and thorough, but which
has been imparted by teachers of marked in-
dividuality and initiative. With the object of
taking active steps to prevent the impending
closure, the Finsbury Technical College Defence
Committee has been formed, and all who wish to
support the movement are asked to send in their
applications (with entrance fee 2s. 6d.) to Dr.
Atkinson, Finsburv Technical College, Leonard
Street, E.C. 2.
Production of Fructose from Inulin. — In The Times
of November 15, under the attractive title " The
Sweetest Sugar." it is stated that Prof. Willaman,
of the University of Minnesota, has proposed that
artichokes should be cultivated on a large scale
with the object of adding to the world's supply of
sweetening material. The scheme outlined involves
the extraction of inulin from the "fresh tubers,"
and the subsequent hydrolysis of the polysaccharide
to give the simple sugar.
It is premature to criticise the proposal from the
economic point of view, but it is evident that some
of the statements attributed to Prof. Willaman
require correction; if they remain unchallenged, a
misleading impression may be given of the pro-
gress which has been made in this subject by British
chemists. Thus, in the report referred to, it is
stated that, " at present nothing is known as to
the commercial separation of inulin, or as to the
transformation of inulin into fructose, except on
a laboratory scale, and Prof. Willaman hopes to
direct the notice of technical chemists to research
on these processes." In reply, it may be pointed
out that, during the war, large quantities of inulin
and fructose were extracted from various plant
sources (including artichokes'), the work being con-
ducted for the British Government in the chemical
research laboratory of the University of St.
Andrews. As about 7J tons of raw material was
manipulated, the preparation can hardlv be de-
scribed as insignificant, and it may be added that,
for the past three years, Messrs. T. Kerfoot and
Co., Ltd., of Ashton-under-Lyne, have been extract-
ing inulin and convcrtfng it into fructose as a
factory operation. It is obvious that if technical
or research chemists act upon the suggestion
reported in The Times, they will find the field well
explored.
So far from our knowledge of the compounds in
question being imperfect, the chemistry of both
inulin and fructose has been actively investigated
in this country, and reference need only be made
to a paper recently read before the Chemical
Society by Prof. J. C. Irvine, which shows
that the determination of the constitution of
inulin has been far advanced. Another im-
portant point which must be borne in mind
in considering Prof. Willaman's reported state-
ment is that inulin, under customary treatment,
gives a poor yield of solid fructose, the bulk
of the product consisting of an uncrystallisable
svrup. These by-products are essentially auto-con-
densation compounds derived from " v-fructose,"
and it is by no means certain that such a material
could be used as an accessory foodstuff. This has
an important bearing on the statistics of the pro-
spective yield quoted in The Times.
Vol. XXXIX., No. 23.]
REVIEW.
The article furnishes a striking example of the
errors distributed by the daily press in dealing with
scientific subjects, errors which result in tue raising
of false hopes and in discrediting the foresight and
work of British chemists.
Nitrates (1913 — 1919).— (Imperial Mineral He-
sources Bureau. Pp. 28. Price 9d.). — The chief
value of this brochure lies in its statistical tables
dealing with the production of and trade in potas-
sium and sodium nitrates during the period of the
war. The data, which are confined to the British
Empire and Chile, show that, as in the past, the
nitiate industry is greatly stimulated by war con-
ditions. Thus the production of saltpetre in British
India rose from 14,446 tons in 1913 to 25,056 t. in
1916, and 24,741 t. in 1918; and the imports of
sodium nitrate into the United Kingdom increased
from 199,000 t. in 1914 to 388,000 t. in 1916, and
526,000 t. in 1918.
Apart from the occurrence of potassium nitrate
in British India, the British Empire appears to
possess only insignificant supplies of natural
nitrates, and it is disappointing to learn that the
deposits near Prieska in South Africa (cf. J., 1919,
360 t) have proved to be commercially valueless. In
June, 1920, the Bureau was informed by the In-
spector of Mines, Pretoria, that over 100 tons of
shale had given a recovery of about 2 tons of salt-
petre, the cost being excessive and resulting in a
large loss ; most of the nitre was obtained from the
outer 12 inches of crust, and at a depth of 4 —
5 ft. the yield amounted to about 1 lb. of nitrate
per ton of rock.
With regard to the duration of the nitrate de-
posits in Chile, the report of the Chilean Nitrate
Committee is quoted to the effect that the estimated
amount of sodium nitrate in the examined ground
is 245,300,000 tons, a quantity which is not likely
to be exhausted for 200 years. The production of
Chilean nitrate in recent years has been as follows
(metric tons) .-—1913, 2,773.552; 1914, 2,464,427;
1915, 1,763,639; 1916, 2.914.542; 1917, 3,013,517;
1918, 2,841,198; 1919, 1,672,374.
The " Caa-ehe " Plant as a Sweetening Agent The
" caa-ehe " (Stcvia Eebaudiana) is a plant belong-
ing to the Compositae which grows along the base
of the Amambay Hills in north-east Paraguay,
where it is used by the natives as a sweetening
agent. The sweet constituent is a glucoside named
estevin, which is accompanied in the plant by
another known as rebaudin, which is probably a
compound of estevin with potassium and sodium.
Estevin and rebaudin are stated to be, respectively,
150 and 180 times sweeter than cane sugar ; the
leaves are said to contain 2026 per cent., and the
entire plant 16 per cent, of the sweet principle.
The plant also contains a wax, resin, fatty oil, and
a bitter principle, which remain in the crude sweet
principle extracted from the plant; the bitter
principle, however, can easily be separated from the
glucoside. Although the plant does not grow well
from cuttings and is usually not reproduced from
seed, it is said to be propagated easily by division
of the stalk and from suckers. A plantation of
" caa-ehe "'has been established and is reported to
be in a position to supply plants. It has been stated
that the glucoside cannot be profitably extracted on
a commercial scale, and that the powdered leaves
would have to be used for sweetening purposes. —
(Bull. Imp. Inst., 18, No. 1, 1920.)
Salt Production in Holland. — The scarcity of salt in
Holland during the war led to the search for this
mineral, which was ultimately discovered in the
provinces of Gelderland and Overijssel. Production
began in August, 1919, and the output, which was
5244 tons in 1919, is now estimated to be at the rate
of 28,000 tons per annum, i.e., one-sixth of the
total Dutch consumption (170,000 t.).— (U.S. Com.
Bep., Sept. 15, 1920.)
Coal Production in Holland. — The Dutch production
of anthracite in 1919 was 3,401,546 metric tons, and
that of lignite 1,881,962 t.. compared with a total
production of 1,873,000 t. in 1913. The number of
miners increased from 18,250 in 1918 to 20,318 in
1919, wages were advanced by 37 per cent., and the
8-hour day was adopted, but the annual output per
man fell from 185 to 166 metric tons. Holland
. requires about 8,000,000 t. of coal per annum, and
therefore it is largely imported. During the first
quarter of 1920, Germany furnished 627,707 t. of
coal (264,210 in 1918) and' 135,675 t. of coke (70,186
in 1918), but Belgian exports decreased consider-
j ably, and as it has been impossible to obtain sup-
plies from England, the United States and South
Africa, the coal situation has become very serious. —
I (Techn. Mod., Oct., 1920.)
Lignite Production in Italy. — The Italian output of
; lignite began to increase after the outbreak of war
in 1914, and from 697,319 tons in 1913 it reached
1,702,880 t. in 1917 and 2,216,583 t. in 1918. Fol-
lowing the armistice there was a decline in produc-
tion, partly owing to the cessat'ori of war demands
and partly owing to the poor results obtained at
some of the mines. The largest production in 1918
was furnished by theArezzo mines, viz., 1,051,000 1.,
i and this was followed bv Perugia, Siena, and
j Grosseto, with 333,000, 219,000, and 135,000 t.,
! respectively. Before the war the reserve of lignite
in Italy was estimated at about 100 million t., but
i recent work has shown that the known deposits
; contain about 270 million t. (cf. J., 1919, 188 b).—
| (U.S. Com. Bep., Sept. 4, 1920.)
Dyestuff Requirements of Poland. — The development
of the Polish chemical industry prior to the war
; w-as rendered impossible by Russian policy and by
the favouritism shown to German industry by the
Austrian Government. United Poland, however,
has a highly developed textile industry, and for
I this the necessary dyestuffs and intermediates can-
not be obtained from Germany, partly on account
of the low value of Polish currency, and partly
owing to German obligations under the Peace
Treaty. It is estimated that 4862 tons of dyestuffs
is required annually, in addition to large quantities
of pharmaceutical chemicals ; and the Polish
Government, basing its claim on the devastation
wrought by Germany, is appealing to the Allies to
force that' country to furnish reparations in the
form of d3-estuffs and chemicals. — (Polish Ecnn.
Bull., Nov., 1920.)
The German Asbestos Industry. — Germany imported
prior to the war about 15,000 tons of asbestos per
annum, chiefly from Canada, Russia, and to a
smaller extent' from the United States, China, and
South Africa; owing to the favourable conditions
of importation, the home production was less than
2000 tons per annum. On account of shortage due
to the war, existing mines, such as those at Zoblitz
(Erzgebirge) were worked more intensively, and
deposits hitherto unexplored were opened up in
Thuringia, in the Reusser Oberland, and at Hebern-
dorf. The mineral usually occurs mixed with ochre
and sand as asbestos-earth, and is difficult to win.
As it has a short fibre and cannot be spun, it is
mainly used for boards, packing, etc. The great
homo demand for asbestos has not been met by in-
creased production, and imports have somewhat
diminished. It is reported that asbestos mines
have been opened, through German agency, at
Valtellina (Italy), Sterzing, Zillerthal, St. Gothard
(Tyrol), Mantern in Steiermark, and near New-
jansk in the Government of Perm (Russia).
A substitute known as " Deutsches Asbest " was
produced during the war, and other materials em-
ployed included a mixture of good-quality wool
waste, silk, cotton, and animal hair, about 10 pe-
cent, of magnesium chloride being added to these
418 b
REVIEW.
to reduce inflammability. There was a large output
of asbestos boards during the war, and at one time
it rose to a million square metres per month. — (Bd.
of Trade J., Oct. 14, 1920.)
The German Electro-technical Industry. — According
to a report of the Siemens, Schuckert, Henrich
Co., the German electro-technical industry, which
furnished 40 per cent, of the world's production in
1913, has been adversely affected by foreign com-
petition, strikes, a 50 per cent, decrease in orders,
high production costs, and labour unrest. The out-
put of electric lamp bulbs was 70 millions, and of
this amount only 25 per cent, was exported, com-
pared with 50 per cent, before the war. The pro-
vision of raw materials constitutes a problem in
itself, and the fuel shortage, due to the Spa agree-
ment, further complicates the situation. The de-
creased production has greatly increased working
costs, and although profits have risen they by no
means compensate for the advance in wages. —
(Techn. Mod., Oct., 1920.)
Resources of the Crimea. — The Crimean peninsula
has an area of 6,373.147 acres, and supports a popu-
lation of 808,900. Wheat, the principal product,
is grown over about one-half of the cultivated area.
The flax grown in the districts of Theodosia and
Eupatoria is used for the production of linseed oil.
There are enormous reserves of high-grade salt, of
which 560,549 tons was produced in 19l9. In addi-
tion to table salt, the lakes and deposits yield large
quantities of sodium sulphate and also bromide, the
production of pure bromide from Sakki alone
amounting to 36,100 lb. in 1916. Reserves of mag-
nesium chloride, estimated at about 1,620,000 tons,
are present in the Perekop district in lakes cut off
from the sea. Iron ore occurs in the Kertch dis-
trict, where the pre-war output amounted to
467,410 t. of ore with 40 per cent, of iron and 1 per
cent, of phosphorus ; the deposits are extensive ;
they lie on the surface and are situated near the
seaboard. Coal was recently discovered at
Beshonisk and is now being mined. Petroleum
occurs in the Kertch district, where a yield of about
650 tons was obtained before the war. The sulphur
deposits situated between Kertch and Theodosia
were worked prior to 1914. but have been abandoned
since the revolution. — (Busso-Brit. Ch. of Comm.
J., Aug., 1920.)
Mineral Resources of Bulgaria. — The mineral wealth
of Bulgaria has been known from very ancient
times, but mining was generally on a small scale
and of a primitive nature. Recently, however,
surveys have revealed considerable mineral re-
sources, and German interests have been actively
engaged in prospecting for coal and other minerals.
Prior to 1912, 40 concessions were granted for
various minerals, and since then a large number of
concessions has been granted for lignite and oil-
schist areas. There are large reserves of lignite,
with a calorific value between 2300 and 4500
heat units and good briquetting properties, and near
Sofia there is a very extensive basin containing
a black bituminous coal of a calorific value vary-
ing from 7000 to 8500 units. Several rich copper
deposits occur at Placalnitza (70 km. west of Sofia),
where a large smelting plant is operated by a
French company, and at Burgas, on the Black Sea.
Iron and manganese deposits are found in several
districts, usually under favourable conditions as
regards supplies of water power and fuel, but lack
of capital has hitherto prevented their exploita-
tion. There are numerous copper, zinc and lead
deposits, and gold has been found in several river
beds, whilst abundant supplies of granite, marble,
lithographic stone, fuller's earth, fire clay, various
ochres, etc., are available, but have not been
worked to anv extent. — (Ch. of Comm. J.,
Sept. 24, 1920.)'
PERSONALIA.
The Mackenzie Davidson medal of the Rbntgen
Society has been awarded to Dr. F. W. Aston tor
his work on isotopes.
Dr. F. Mollwo Perkin has been appointed Com-
mander of the British Empire (C.B.E.) for valuable
services rendered to various Departments of State.
Dr. R. H. Piekard, Principal of the Battersea
Polytechnic, has been appointed director of research
to the British Leather Manufacturers' Research
Association.
Mr. H. N. Thomson, of the International
Smelter, Tooele, Utah, has been called to the chair
of metallurgy in the University of British
Columbia, Vancouver.
Dr. Wilder D. Bancroft, professor of physical
chemistry at Cornell University, U.S.A., has been
appointed director of research to the Norton Com-
pany, Worcester, Massachusetts.
Dr. E. Anderson, professor of agricultural
chemistry in the Transvaal University College,
Pretoria, has been appointed to the chair of general
chemistry in the University of Nebraska.
Prof. H. MacLean, professor of chemical patho-
logy at St. Thomas's Hospital and a well-known
biochemist, has been appointed director of the
Clinical Medical Unit in the same institution.
Recent professorial appointments in Germany in-
clude that of Dr. G. Rasch, formerly of the Tech-
nical " Hochschule " at Aachen, to the post of
honorary ordinary professor of pure and applied
physics in the University of Heidelberg; of Dr. F.
Knoop, who recently declined the chair of physio-
logical chemistry at Leipzig University, as pro-
fessor of the same subject in the University of
Freiburg; and of Dr. F. Czapek, of the German
University at Prague, to succeed the late Prof.
W. Pfeffer in the chair of plant physiology in the
University of Leipsig.
The Salters' Institute of Industrial Chemistry
has awarded five fellowships for post-graduate study
in the laboratories indicated: — Mr. A. H. Adcoek
(Liverpool Universitv), Mr. J. A. Gentle (Oxford),
Mr. S. J. Saint (Reading), Mr. C. B. Taylor (Im-
perial College of Science and Technology), and Mr.
Donald Turner (Sheffield). Scholarships have been
awarded to Messrs. M. D. Forbes and G. M. Lowe
(Imperial College of Science and Technology),
A. W. Pritchard, and F. W. Turner (East London
College). Forty-five grants-in-aid have been awarded
to chemical assistants, occupied in factories in or
near London, to facilitate their further studies.
We record with regret the death, on December 5,
of Mr. P. S. U. Pickering, aged 62 years.
By the death of Sir William Abney, on December
3, at the age of 76, photographic science loses one
of its earliest and most prominent investigators.
Captain Abney, as he then was, did notable work at
the time when the collodion " wet " plate was being
superseded by the " dry " plate, and he wrote the
first practical treatise on the manufacture of sensi-
tive emulsions. Later he did much to further our
knowledge of colour photography by the three-
colour process. He was also prominent in the in-
vestigation of colour vision, and as early as 1872 he
was awarded the Rumford Medal of the Roval
Society for researches on radiation. Sir William
Abney was many times president of the Royal
Photographic Society, and he held various promi-
nent appointments in the Science and Art Depart-
ment, South Kensington, and at the Board of
Education.
Vol. XXXLS., No. 23.]
REVIEW.
419 b
The death is announced of Dr. S. J. Meltzer. head
of the department of physiology and pharmacology
in the Rockefeller Institute of Medical Research.
Mr. Charles E. Acker, who joined this Society in
1902, died on October 18, at Ossining, N.Y., at the
age of 52 years. Mr. Acker was a prolific inventor
in the field of electrochemistry and was awarded
the Elliott Cresson gold medal of the Franklin In-
stitute for an electrolytic process for the manufac-
ture of caustic soda. Latterly he had been identi-
fied, as vice-president of the Acker Process Co.,
with the development of the power resources of the
Niagara Falls.
PARLIAMENTARY NEWS.
HOUSE OF COMMONS.
German " Separation " Dyes.
Answering Major Barnes, Sir R. Home said that
the amount of German dyes delivered to this
country under the reparation clauses of the Peace
Treatv was about 560 tons last year, and about 1050
tons to the end of October, 1920.— (Nov. 22.)
Importation of Gas Mantles.
Sir R. Home, replying to Sir J. Remnant, stated
that the value of the imports of gas mantles from
January 1 to November 6, 1920, was £136.000, an
increase at the rate of 500 per cent, compared with
the same period in 1919. The loss in wages to
British workers due to these imports might be
50 per cent, of the total value. During the first
week of November, gas mantles valued at £3936
were imported, and their foreign origin was in
some cases not. indicated clearly. Legislation to
deal with key industries and to amend the Mer-
chandise Marks Act in accordance with the recom-
mendations of the Merchandise Marks Committee
would be introduced early next session. — (Nov. 22.)
Importation of Glass Goods.
In a statistical answer to Mr. A. Short, Sir R.
Home gave the total value of the glass and glass-
ware imported from all countries during the period
January 1,1919, to October 31, 1920, as £10,575.231,
including:— Plate and sheet glass, £3,014,261, of
which Belgium supplied 81T and the United States
5-8 per cent; glass bottles and 'jars, £3,060.201
(Netherlands 36:6, United States 241 per cent.);
other glass and glassware, £4,500,772 (Belgium
31-5, Germany 158, United States 151 percent.).—
(Nov. 23.)
Values of Soap-making Materials.
Replying to Major Barnes, Sir R. Home stated
that the values of soap-making materials had de-
creased, but no reduction had been made in the
price of soap. It was hoped that the sub-committee
now investigating combinations in the soap-making
industry would present its report before Christmas.
—(Nov. 29.)
Importation of Photographic Paper.
In reply to Mr. Grant, Sir R. Home said that he
was aware that the photographic base paper in-
dustry, which was developed during war time and
which is covered bv the Prime Minister's pledge in
regard to key industries, is seriously menaced by
foreign competition on account of the low rates of
exchange. It was hoped to introduce legislation
dealino- generally with key industries and other
matters of commercial policy as the first matter of
next session. — (Nov. 29.)
Ben-ol Production.
Sir R. Home, answering Mr. Brittain, gave the
average monthly production of refined benzol
during the first nine months of the current year
as about 1,650,000 galls., which compared with an
average monthly production of 2,200,000 galls,
during 1918. In his opinion the reduced output of
coal had had the effect of reducing the output of
by-products. — (Nov. 29.)
Electrical Power (Severn Scheme).
In a written answer, Sir E. Geddes informed Mr.
Jesson that it was proposed to combine the scheme
for a bridge over the Severn, with a scheme for the
generation of electrical power. It was estimated
that a continuous supply of 500,000 units could be
produced at a cost of a little over Jd. per unit.
The scheme, which ought to be referred to inde-
pendent experte before Parliamentary sanction is
sought, would find employment for 10,000 men for
seven years, but it was not sufficiently advanced
from a technical point of view for early adoption,
even if financial conditions did not arise. —
(Nov. 30.)
[The scheme referred to has been put forward by
the Ministry of Transport. It proposes to harness
the tidal waters of the Severn by erecting, at a
point where it is about 2£ miles wide, a barrage
in which turbines and generators would be in-
stalled. The generators would have a capacity
exceeding one million continuous h.-p., one-half of
which would be available for distiibution, and the
other half would be utilised for pumping water
from the river Wye to a high-level reservoir near
Tintern Abbey; so that when the turbines in the
dam were unable to operate, the water from the
reservoir would be used for driving a second set of
turbines.]
Canadian Oilfields.
Mr. Kellaway, in reply to Mr. Pennefather, said
that H.M. Trade Commissioner at Winnipeg had
reported that oil had not yet been discovered in
commercial quantities in Canada save at Fort Nor-
man on the Mackenzie River, 1.000 miles north of
Edmonton, where climatic and other conditions
tended to restrict immediate development. —
(Dec. 2.)
Dyestuffs (Import Begulation) Bill.
The Government Bill to safeguard the British
dyestuff industry was introduced by Sir R. Home,
the President of the Board of Trade, on December
2. It proposes to prohibit the importation into the
United Kingdom, for ten years only, of all syn-
thetic organic dyestuffs, colours and colouring
matters, and all organic intermediate products
used in the manufacture thereof. Goods imported
under the Act shall be subject to the provisions of
the Customs Consolidation Act. The Board of
Trade shall have power by licence to authorise the
importation of any of the' goods the importation of
which is proscribed by the Act; and in respect of
the granting of licences the Board shall be advised
by a committee constituted of five persons concerned
in the dye-using trades, three persons concerned in
the manufacture of dyestuffs, and three other
persons who are not directly concerned, one of
whom shall be appointed chairman by the Board.
The Board may charge in respect of a licence a fee
not exceeding' £5. The Act shall not apply to
goods imported for exportation after transit
through the United Kingdom or by way of tran-
shipment.
The second reading was agreed to on December 7,
after an amendment for its rejection had been lest
by 277 votes to 72.
REVIEW.
Dyestuff Imports.
Answering Mr. Lambert, Sir P. Lloyd-Greame
gave the total value of the imports of dyestuffs for
the period January to October, 1920, as £7,481,452,
which comprised intermediates (including aniline
oil and salt and phenylglycine) £636,068, finished
coal-tar dyes £5,267,076, dyeing extracts £1,484,786,
and natural indigo £93,522. During the same
period the total value of the exports of textiles in
the manufacture of which dves have or may have
been used was £317,770,896— (Dec. 6.)
The Dyestuff Industry.
Sir P. Lloyd-Greame, in a written answer to Mr.
Glanville, gave a list of the thirty-two principal
companies engaged in the manufacture of dyestuffs
in the United Kingdon ; and in another reply to the
same member he said that the terms of the new Bill
(cf. s.) had been arrived at after conferences with
the Calico Users' Association, the British Dyestuffs
Corporation, and the Association of British
Chemical Manufacturers, the last-named represent-
ing also the other dye-makers and the manufac-
turers of intermediates.
In reply to Mr. C. White, Sir P. Lloyd-Greame
stated that the following grants and loans had been
made to dye-makers: — Scottish Dyes, Ltd., a
grani>in-aid of £75,000 for general purposes, £4000
for research, and a further research grant up to
£1000 per annum for three years; J. B. and W. R.
Sharp, Ltd., a grant-in-aid of £10,000 and a loan of
£17,000; British Alizarine Co., Ltd., a grant-in-
aid of £107,000. A grant of £100,000 for research
had been made to the British Dyestuffs Corporation
in pursuance of an undertaking given to British
Dyes, Ltd., at the time of its formation. — (Dec. 6.)
GOVERNMENT ORDERS AND NOTICES.
Export of Photographic Chemicals. — The Board
of Trade has issued (December 2) an open general
licence for the export of photographic chemicals
containing not more than 20 per cent, of coal-tar
derivatives.
Export of Coal. — The Board of Trade (Licensing
Section) has given notice that, as from December 1,
the open general licence for export of coal (of De-
cember 18, 1919) is revoked. The Board has made
a new order, viz., the Coal (Bunkering and Export)
Prices Revocation Order and Direction, 1920, dated
November 24.
LEGAL INTELLIGENCE.
Capital Value of a Patent. Earner v. Inland
Revenue Commissioners.
The question of the capital value of a patent
from the standpoint of excess profits duty was con-
sidered by Mr. Justice Rowlatt in the Court of
Appeal on October 13.
The appellant took out a patent at a cost of £400
in 1917, and having made a net profit of £1740 in
a year partly by the use of it, he estimated its value
at £6000 for the purpose of excess profits duty.
The Revenue Commissioners, however, decided that
its value as an asset of business was £400, and the
appeal was against this decision.
In dismissing the appeal, his Lordship said that,
according to the Finance (No. 2) Act of 1915, the
value of the patent was to be taken as it appeared
to those who assessed it at the moment it became
an asset, and not as it appeared to someone who
could foresee its future worth.
OFFICIAL TRADE INTELLIGENCE.
(From the Board of Trade Journal for November
25 and December 2.)
OPENINGS FOR BRITISH TRADE.
The following inquiries have been received at the
Department of Overseas Trade (Development and
Intelligence), 35, Old Queen Street, London. S.W. 1,
from firms, agents, or individuals who desire to
represent U.K. manufacturers or exporters of the
goods specified. British firms may obtain the names
and addresses of the persons or firms referred to by
applying to the Department and quoting the
specific reference number.
Locality of
Reference
Finn or Agent.
Materials.
Number.
Canada
Synthetic oils, colours, perfumers'
raw materials
714
Chemicals, dves, colours, gums.
tanning materials
Egypt
Cement
768
Kenya Colony
Paint, oils
721
Rhodesia
China, glassware
723
South Africa
Glass bottles, toilet soap
716
Galvanised wire, corrugated iron
765
Austria- Hungary t
Czecho-Slovakia |
Heavy chemicals
725
Belgium
Tool steel
769
Denmark
Soda, shellac
731
Oils, asbestos
733
France
Tanners' chemicals, chemicals for
dyeing, dressing and bleaching
textiles
735
736
Latvia
Burnt magnesite, magnesium
chloride, water-glass, powdered
flint
773
Sweden
Heavy chemicals for paper, pulp.
glass and textile trades
745
Switzerland
Cocoa beans, petrol, paraffin
Pharmaceutical chemicals, disin-
746
fectants
747
China
Soap
778
United States
Bottles
782
Cuba
Crockery
754
Panama Republic .
Paper bags, crockery
755
Drugs
756
Argentina-Uruguay
Printed sheep skins, paint, var-
nish, galvanised sheets, carbon
papers
784
Brazil
Paint, enamel, varnish, polishes. .
786
Chile-Uruguav
Rubber tub ng
753
South America . .
All kinds of paper
787
Market Sought. — An agent in Rumania offers for
sale the mining rights of certain manganese and
iron ore deposits in the Krasso-Szoreny district.
[Inquiries to the Department.]
TARIFF. CUSTOMS. EXCISE.
Australia. — The import duty on oil of creosote
(beechwood) as a medicinal oil not compounded is
fixed at 3s. per dozen pint vessels under tlie British
Preferential Tariff.
Barbados. — The restrictions on the import of
foreign dyestuffs has been temporarily suspended
as from September 30.
The import of cotton seed is prohibited except
under licence as from September 2.
Brazil. — All export prohibitions have been re-
moved as from November 17.
Consumption duties, in addition to customs
duties, are levied on, inter alia, alcoholic beverages,
alcohol, perfumery, matches, salt, vinegar, acetic
acid, candles, certain kinds of glassware and
pottery, and sugar.
A stamp tax has been imposed on all pharma-
ceutical specialities.
Bulgaria. — The import is still prohibited of
spirits, cocoa, chocolate, volatile oils, perfumes,
" sterioptin," certain kinds of glass and porcelain,
and of various paper and metallic wares.
Vol. XXXIX., No. 23.]
REVIEW.
Gambia. — The export duty on groundnuts is fixed
at 20s. per ton. The customs duties on all food-
stuffs except kola nuts have been abolished.
Greece. — Export licences are still required for
condensed milk, explosives, matches, metals,
petroleum, salt, soap, and sugar.
Japan. — Export restrictions have been with-
drawn from pulp, printing paper (except " Lara "),
superphosphates and other fertilisers.
Luxemburg. — Export taxes on iron ores and iron
wares have been withdrawn as from November 14.
New Hebrides. — The import duty on spirits has
been raised to ISs. per proof gallon.
Portugal. — The full text of the Decree modifying
the import restrictions is given in the issue for
November 25.
In most cases the new surtaxes are the same as
those of the Decree of May 10, 1919, but that on
tin is reduced.
Among the articles now subject to import surtax
are skins, camphor, volatile oils, marble, alabaster,
tin, tin alloys, salt, alcoholic beverages, vinegar,
chocolate, porcelain, plate glass, fireworks, per-
fumery, and toilet soap.
Spain. — Importation of dry hides and skins is
permitted under certain conditions from all
countries, except Belgium, as from November 10.
Department of Overseas Trade. — The Department
of Overseas Trade (Development and Intelligence)
has published a handbook dealing with its organisa-
tion and activities, and containing a map showing
the location of British Commercial Officers through-
out the world. Mr. Kellaway has written an
introduction on the need of Government assist-
ance to — not interference with — commerce, and
this is followed by chapters on the various methods
by which that assistance is given, the organisation
overseas and at headquarters, the British Indus-
tries Fair, etc. The handbook will be supplied
gratis to United Kingdom merchants and manu-
facturers on application to the Department, at 35,
Old Queen Street, S.W. 1. (Ref. No.2092/TG.)
REPORT.
Report on the Economic, Financial, and Indus-
trial Conditions op Holland in 1919. By
R. V. Laming, Commercial Secretary to H.M.
Legation, The Blague. Pp. 114. London:
H.M. Stationery Office, 1920. [Cmd. 872. Is.]
The mineral resources of Holland include coal and
salt (cf. s., p. 417 r), which do not suffice for local
needs, extensive deposits of bog iron ore, moulder's
sand, and peat. The bog iron ore is exported to
some extent for gas purification, and during the
war moulder's sand was shipped extensively to this
country. Peat extraction was also intensively pur-
sued owing to the pressing need for fuel.
The Dutch industries recovered sooner than had
been expected from the stagnation of the war
period, but they were unable to take full advantage
of the return of trade on account of export restric-
tions and American competition in neighbouring
countries. Increased confidence, however, is being
shown by Dutch investors in the development of
home industries.
Chemical and Allied Industries. — Conditions in
the chemical industry were unfavourable during the
first six months; production decreased, the labour
question was acute, and towards the end of the
year there was an influx of cheap imports. The
manufacture of synthetic dyes developed consider-
ably, but the fertiliser industry suffered from
shortage of phosphates and pyrites, although there
was an increase in the production of sulphuric acid.
The pharmaceutical chemical industry improved
its position and benefited from a brisk demand from
both home and foreign markets. The paint fac-
tories were kept working at full capacity, and
prospects were considered good, provided the sup-
plies of raw materials from Germany (lithopone,
zinc white) and England were maintained. The
soap, wax, dextrin, and cement industries were un-
favourably affected by foreign competition, and the
oil-crushing mills suffered from high prices of raw
material, increased wages and freightage, and low
rates of exchange. Many oil mills were expected to
close down, and others were maintained by crush-
ing the raw material imported by the margarine
factories, as only linseed oil crushed from seed not
imported by the Government was free from export
restrictions; the demand for rapeseed oil decreased
owing to the greater demand for margarine for
cooking. The margarine industry had to meet a
continuous increase in the demand on the home and
foreign market, and its prospects were considered
good. An improvement took place in the glass
industry towards the end of the yearx and there
was a considerable home demand for bottles and
window glass. The manufacture of electric-lamp
bulbs continued to improve, and was not affected by
the adverse exchanges owing to the large demand
and the excellent quality of the output. The future
of the gas-mantle industry is regarded with
anxiety owing to foreign competition and the
closing of the chief market — the British Empire.
Although the match industry was not in a satis-
factory condition at the end of the year, the future
seemed more promising. The metallurgical in-
dustries benefited from a large home demand, and
foreign competition did not prove very severe. The
rubber, artificial silk, and textile industries were,
on the whole, fairly prosperous, but the leather
industry was practically at a standstill at the end
of the year. Sugar factories had a prosperous year,
and the cocoa and chocolate factories resumed
normal work, but after the home demand had been
satisfied and exports permitted, the adverse ex-
changes stopped business and led to a decline in
output.
Foreign Trade. — The exports in 1919 amounted
in value to £143,116,529 (taking the par value of
the florin as Is. 8d.), and included: — Margarine,
£5,352,314; minerals, metals, and products thereof,
£30,828,926; chemical products, drugs, and colours,
£2,440,744; oils, resin, wax, pitch, coal tar, and
products thereof, £9,418,595 ; hides, skins, leather,
and leatherwork, £4,292,707; earthenware, china-
ware, pottery, etc., £718,016; glass and manufac-
tures of, £1,138,182. The total imports were valued
at £246,138,182, and included :— Minerals, metals,
and products thereof, £81,380,992; chemical pro-
ducts, drugs, and colours, £3,811,983; oils, resin,
wax, pitch, coal tar, and products thereof,
£20,061,653; hides, skins, leather, etc., £5,812,727;
earthenware, chinaware, pottery, etc., £848,182;
glass and manufactures of, £659,597. Coal imports
amounted to 2,957,191 metric tons, worth
£11,464,023, including 772,922 tons from Germany,
1,079,449 tons from Belgium, 375,543 tons from
Great Britain, 663,536 tons from the United States,
and 64,802 ton3 from Canada.
In general the demand for British goods was
great for all classes of articles, and it is stated that
the unique opportunity during the past year for
obtaining a good hold on the Dutch market has
been taken advantage of by British firms, but keen
competition, especially from Germany and America,
will have to be met in the future. Although many
complaints were made regarding the refusal or de-
layed delivery of British goods, such complaints
were not so serious as those relating to American
orders. Germany was still the only source of supply
for acetic, nitric, and hydrochloric acids, caustic
potash, liquid carbon dioxide, sal ammoniac (75%),
lithopone, aniline, synthetic indigo, etc.
422 b
REVIEW.
TRADE NOTES.
FOREIGN.
The Projected American Dye Trust. — The import-
ance of the impending amalgamation of five of the
leading chemical companies in the United States
(cf. J., 1920, 348 r) under the title of the Allied
Chemical and Dye Corporation, with a capital of
some £60,0110,000, is enhanced by further informa-
tion that has become available. Of the associating
companies, the National Aniline and Chemical Co.
has the largest aniline plant in the United States
and carries dye production through from base to
tinal products'; the General Chemical Co. manu-
factures a large variety of chemicals ; the Barrett
Co. is one of the largest producers of roofing and
paving materials in the country and makes a
variety of coal-tar products ; the Semet-Solvay Co.
produces steel, copper, coke, lumber, gas, oils,
chemicals, etc., and through the Solvay Collieries
Co. has over 10,000 acres of coal land available in
West Virginia and Kentucky; and the Solvay Pro-
cess Co., in addition to producing soda products,
possesses extensive by-product coke plants, which
will provide the other companies with the necessary
supplies of raw materials. At present, the Ameri-
can output of dyes is about 30,000 tons per annum,
or roughly the' same as that of the British dye
factories.
Trade Conditions in Japan. — A report from H.M.
Commercial Counsellor at Tokyo states that
although the commercial situation in Japan will
probably grow worse before it gets better, the
country" as a whole is financially sound. The present
depression is due to extravagant speculation, ex-
cessive buying having resulted in the accumulation
of stocks for which there is no sale, particularly in
regard to cotton and textiles, fertilisers, caustic
soda, soda ash, carbolic acid and other chemicals,
tinplate, copper, etc. The value of the imported
fertilisers increased from about £7,000,000 in 1913
to about £19,000,000 in 1919, and during the first
seven months of 1920 it reached the record figure of
£20,000,000. This market has become much over-
stocked, great losses have been incurred, and largo
quantities have been re-exported. Of the many
new ironworks which were erected during the war,
it is said that not one is now paying its way, and
several have been dosed down. The normal export
of copper is about 40,000 tons yearly and the im-
ports nil ; in the first half of this year 3500 tons was
exported and 20,000 tons imported, with the result
that prices fell and copper had to be re-exported at
a considerable loss. The export trade is more hope-
ful, the figures for the period January to July
having practically reached the level attained for
the same period in 1918; and it is suggested that if
the Japanese will cut their losses and not try to
maintain prices at an unnatural level by decreasing
production, their trade may soon recover.
Proposed Japanese Duties on Chemicals and Dyes. —
The Japanese Chemical Industry Association has
started an inquiry into the need of instituting a
comprehensive tariff system for those chemical pro-
ducts which have not yet been protected (cf. J.,
1920, 348 b). The suggested duties include : —Car-
bolic acid, 35% ad valorem; potashes, 20%; gly-
cerin, 60% ; caustic soda, soda ash, and other
alkaline products, 25% ; acetate of lime, an increase
of 5% ad valorem on the present duty.
Japanese indigo merchants have taken steps to
prevent the importation of natural indigo from
British India and other countries for the next five
years. The local indigo industry, which revived
during the war owing to lack of foreign competi-
tion, is now severely menaced by the resumption of
imports from abroad. For the first six months of
1919 and 1920, the imports of natural indigo were
112 tons and 389 t., and of synthetic indigo, 701b.
and 53 t., respectively. — (Oil, Paint and Drug
Hep., Oct. 27, Nov. 11, 1920.)
The Tinplate Industry in Japan. — In spite of the
growing demand for tinplate, due to the develop-
ment of the petroleum and canning industries, the
home manufacture is still in its infancy on account
of lack of skilled labour, insufficient capital, and
high production costs. The following figures show
the imports of tinplate in recent years (the value
of the yen being taken at 2s.) : —
Tons. Value.
£
1911—1915 (average) 26,277 493,347
1916 39,305 1,008,370
1917 26,848 1,172,562
1918 29,311 2,683,671
1919 37,366 1,751,565
— (Bd. of Trade J., Oct. 27, 1920.)
Coal-Tar Dyes in Serbia. — Prior to the war the
Serbian trade in coal-tar dyes was controlled by
the Bayer and the Cassella companies, which main-
tained stocks in Belgrade and usually supplied con-
sumers with small quantities sent through the post
against cash payments. The stocks of these two
German companies have been purchased by a Ser-
bian undertaking, Tanaskovitch and Bogdanovitch,
which now practically monopolises the market. —
(U.S. Com. Hep., Sept. 20, 1920.)
Chemical Requirements of Rumania. — The chemical
industry of Rumania is very undeveloped and when
the country became a belligerent there were only
18 chemical factories of any size, and these works
were practically all managed by Austrian technolo-
gists. Konzelmann and Morsner A.-G., of Galatz,
is the largest undertaking and has a capital of
12 million lei (£48,000 on the basis of 25 lei to £1).
There are 14 firms located at Bucharest, having
capitals varying between £4000 and £30,000. The
two sulphuric-acid factories have a total capital
amounting to £80,000 ; they employ a maximum of
120 men, and their annual production is valued
at about £32,000. The local production of chemi-
cals does not meet the demand, and large quantities
have to be imported, chiefly from Germany, Aus-
tria, England, France and Belgium; imports in
1913 were as follows: — Chemical and medicinal
products, £486,520; perfumes, £74.080; paints and
varnishes, £106,200; explosives, £1.246,454; vege-
table oils, £48,580. Of the total value, £1,961,834,
Germany supplied 49'9, Austria-Hungary 38'4,
England 51. France 43, and Belgium 1"5 per cent.
Owing to her increased territory and larger popu-
lation, Rumania's requirements in chemicals will
now be very much greater. — (i'hrm. Ind., July 28,
30.— 1920.)
Trade of Mesopotamia. — The internal development
of Mesopotamia has already begun and trade con-
ditions have been stabilised to a certain extent.
The total imports, which have shown a marked
increase during the last two vears, were valued at
£12,266,666 (1399 lakhs of rupees) in 1919, and
included metals and ores worth £166,666 and soap
worth £153,333; exports, valued at £6,503,333, in-
cluded sugar (£533.333), spices (£63.333), and gum
(£66,666). Barley and dates form the bulk of the
agricultural produce exported, and wool constitutes
an important item in normal years. As one-half to
three-quarters of the goods imported into Mesopo-
tamia eventually teach Persia, as much attention
should be paid to Persian requirements as to tho^e
of Mesopotamia.— (Bd. of Trade J., Sept. 30,
1920.)
Corrigendum. — In the issue of November 30,
p. 396 R, line 60, in lieu of "professional," read
" professorial."
Vol. XXXIX., No. 23.]
REVIEW.
COMPANY NEWS.
BRITISH CELLULOSE AND CHEMICAL
MANUFACTURING CO., LTD.
According to the report of the directors, the
financial year ended June 30 last was one of great
•difficulty owing to the cessation of Government de-
mands for war products, for the manufacture of
which the factory at Spondou was primarily estab-
lished. The termination of the Government con-
tracts necessitated the development of new indus-
tries having commercial outlets commensurate with
the capital invested in the works. The installation
of a large silk plant was decided upon, for which the
raising of fresh capital became necessary. The issue
of preference capital in March was fully subscribed.
Constructional work has progressed as satisfactorily
as conditions have allowed, but manufacture was
only possible on a comparatively small scale, and the
output of carbide, celluloid " spondite," and
various chemicals was rendered unprofitable by the
dead weight of overhead charges applicable to the
whole undertaking. The position, it is stated, will
be remedied as soon as the output of silk reaches a
commercial level. Lt.-C'ol. W. Grant Morden,
Maj.-Gen. G. B. Hughes, and Mr. A. B. B. de
Tscharner have retired from the directorate.
The accounts presented summarise the results of
the transactions of the company and those of the
operating company (now in liquidation) since their
inception. They show a loss on the year's opera-
tions of £237,739, which reduces the balance at
credit of profit and loss to £85,007, and this sum is
recommended to be carried forward. Trading loss
accounts for £85,393, interest £96,821, general ex-
penses £57,521 and depreciation £1590 (less sundry
profits £3587). The issued capital at June 30 was
£6,543,269, of which £4,250.000 represents 74. per
cent, preference shares of £1 each. Property and
assets include: — Land, buildings plant, etc., at
cost, £3,286,938; preliminary expenses, £304,814;
goodwill, patents and patent rights, £1,884,678;
stocks, stores, etc., £296,093; and cash, £814,246.
REVIEWS.
Wetcarbonising, Ltd. — At a special meeting
held on December 2, the Rt. Hon. Gerald W.
Balfour presiding, it was resolved that the com-
pany should go into voluntary liquidation. The
liabilities aro placed at £372,000 (including
£200,000 to the Government), and the assets, im-
mediately realisable, at practically nil. The com-
pany held the exclusive right to a process of peat-
drying.
Low Temperature Carbonisation, Ltd. — Accord-
ing to a technical report on the company's process
as now operated at Barnsley, prepared by Major
H. L. Armstrong, managing director, the capacity
of the retorts is 25,000 tons per annum and that of
the by-products plant nearly 100,000 tons. The
company's engineers state that the plant is work-
ing very satisfactorily, and that the yields to be
expected are, from every ton of bituminous coal
carbonised, 14 cwt. of "coalite" smokeless fuel,
16 — 20 galls, of fuel oil, 3 galls, of motor spirit, gas
and sulphate of ammonia.
Chilean Nitrate Producers Association. — It is
reported that an arrangement has been arrived at
with the German nitrate producers (the German
Nitrate, Sloman, and Gildemeister companies)
whereby these will immediately join the Associa-
tion. The basis is said to be that the Association
will pay the German companies 3s. 6d. per quintal
on the 2 million quintals they have for sale, on the
understanding that the whole amount shall be with-
drawn from the market. If this arrangement be
ratified, the Association will represent about 97$
per cent, of the total nitrate production in Chile.
Electro-deposition of Metals. By G. Langbein.
Translated, with additions, by W. T. Brannt.
Eighth edition, revised and enlarged, l'p. 863.
(London: Rodder and Stougkton, Ltd. 1920.)
Price 42s. net.
This work is a new edition, considerably enlarged,
of Dr. George Langbein's handbook on the subject
originally published in Germany in 1886. It is
divided into four sections. The first gives a short
historical survey of the development of the art of
electro-deposition. The second deals with theo-
retical considerations, mainly in connexion with
magnetism and electricity. The third treats of
sources of current, simple cells, accumulators ami
dynamos, their construction and care. The fourth,
and considerably the largest, is almost entirely
practical and deals at length with most metals and
alloys in industrial use for ornamental and pro-
tective coatings. The subject of electrotypy (gal-
vauoplasty) is also given attention, and a fairly
complete glossary of chemicals and materials used
in the art forms a useful appendix. The work has
been deservedly popular, owing to the eminently
practical manner in which the subject is treated,
and the English translation has passed through
several previous editions.
The time had undoubtedly arrived for a consider-
able revision, and for the inclusion of new subject
matter, since much research work both scientific
and practical has been carried out during the last
ten years which needs embodiment in text-books
and works of reference. Unfortunately it cannot
be said that either revision or inclusion of- new
matter has been done in a satisfactory manner ; and
— particularly in view of its bulk and price— the
work is not worthy of its opportunities.
The serious criticism must be made that, although
claiming to be an up-to-date work of reference, the
book omits several published processes of import-
ance, such as the investigations carried out in 1913
by Kalmus and others on the electro-deposition of
cobalt — work which includes formula) for cobalt
plating much more efficient than those previously
in use. Several metals, such as chromium and
cadmium, are also omitted, and the treatment of
iron deposition is very unsatisfactory. Apparently
the editor has ignored the extensive researches on
this subject which have been carried out in the
United States, England, and Germany during the
present century. A further matter for criticism
is the space taken up in describing plant and
machinery of one particular firm's manufacture —
such descriptions being more in keeping with trade
catalogues, since there are few distinguishing
features to be traced.
The chief fault of the book is indeed that it is
bulky without being adequate. Many sections
might with advantage be abbreviated, and space
made for the inclusion in the text of more up-to-
date material. The last two decades have witnessed
great activity in the whole subject of the electro-
deposition of metals, and valuable results have been
published in recognised scientific journals. Yet for
the little new matter included, the editor appears
to have relied entirely on "quotations" from
popular trade magazines.
For the practical worker, however, the book con-
tains much of lasting value. Dr. Langbein was not
only a scientist, but a practical man dealing with
every-day problems of the technique of the de-
positors' art, and apart from the faults outlined
above (which one is disappointed to find), the work
remains what it has always been, a mine of valuable
and on the whole, within its limits, reliable informa-
tion.
W. R. Barclay.
424 R
REVIEW.
Manufacture of Sugar from the Cane and the
Beet. By T. H. P. Heriot. Monographs on
Industrial Chemistry, edited by Sir Edward
Thorpe. Pp. 426. (London: Longmans, Green
and Co. 1920.) Price 24s. net.
Sugar technologists are provided with a number
of excellent books which very fully treat their
subject from different points of view. Yet it seems
certain that there is room for a monograph which
would summarise in a critical spirit the more im-
portant part of the research carried out during
recent years in connexion with the chemistry of the
manufacture of sugar from the cane and the beet.
Such a book, there seems little doubt, would be
appreciated generally in the sugar world. In the
past, cane sugar manufacture has borrowed a good
deal from its sister industry ; and now the beet
factory chemist will not deny that he can find much
of interest in the records of his colleagues working
in the tropics.
Mr. Heriot's book can hardly be said to fill Buch
a lacuna in our literature ; and it must really be
pronounced as a disappointingly unoriginal contri-
bution. One is rather astonished to find that the
information it gives has been culled mainly (if not
entirely) from certain works published in English,
notably those of Prinsen Geerligs, Palmer, Ware,
and Newlands, all of which are very well known to
those engaged in the manufacture of sugar. There
need be no hesitation in stating that it adds nothing
of value to what has already been published on the
subject.
Apart from the unoriginal character of the
" monograph," criticisms may be urged on several
grounds. One of the most obvious of these is that
too much space is devoted to descriptions of plant
and accessories (largely attempted without the use
of illustrations), and to their mechanical operation;
whilst too little is allotted to what should be re-
garded as the essential purpose of the book, namely,
the discussion of the applied chemistry of the
various stages of processes of sugar manufacture.
As an example of this, it may be mentioned that the
important question of the chemical effect of liming
and carbonatation on the several constituents of
beet juice is dismissed in about two pages, although
this is a vital matter to the chemist, especially when
he is called upon to investigate the difficulties that
may arise in these operations. Yet upon this ques-
tion of the chemistry of the carbonatation process of
clarification, volumes containing much practical and
theoretical information of value have been written.1
It is probable, however, that the author has
intended his work to be regarded as an elementary
textbook on sugar manufacture in general for the
use of the young student. Judged in this light,
the result cannot be said to be successful. After a
careful perusal of the volume, the opinion of the
reviewer is that from the point of view of the
chemist the discussion here presented of the
rationale of the processes of manufacture leaves
much to be desired. The rather dull section on the
manufacture of white sugar, for example, is in un-
favourable contrast with the verv interesting and
lucid account given in Harloff and Schmidt's
manual on this branch of the industry. Again,
regarded from the point of view of a general intro-
ductory work, the volume before us is inadequately
illustrated ; whilst no references to articles in the
technical press are given to enable the reader to
enlarge his knowledge on the questions raised. In j
any case, it may be added, the student of cane- j
sugar manufacture has been very well catered for by !
Spencer's admirable handbook, in which the ex-
position of the theory and practice of the subject
is both fresh and clear.
1 Vide Sykora and Schiller's " Kilrzeefasste Chemie der Riibensaft-
Reinimins " : Wohryzek*s " Chemie der Zuckcrindustrle " : and
Stuyvaert's " Manuel de la Fabrication du Sucre de Betteraves."
As suggested above, Mr. Heriot appears to hava
missed his opportunity to supply a useful work on
the application of chemistry to the sugar industry.
He might very well have written one upon the lines
adopted by the Czecho-Slovakian author, Dr. Oskar
Wohryzek, in his valuable " Chemie der Zucker-
industrie," dealing, however, with cane as well as.
with beet sugar manufacture ; and thus have pro-
duced a work containing a large amount of infor-
mation unduplicated for the greater part in any
book published in the English language. Such a
treatise would probably have been welcomed by
students and practicians alike in both industries.
J. P. Ogilvie.
PUBLICATIONS RECEIVED.
A System of Physical Chemistry. Vol. II-
Thermodynamics. By W. C. McC. Lewis.
Pp. 454. (London: Longmans, Green and Co.
1920.) Price 15s.
The Yeasts. By A. Gcilliermond. Translated
and revised by F. W. Tanner. Pp. 424. (New
York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc.; London:
Chapman and Hall, Ltd. 1920.) Price 33s.
Geology of the Non-Metallic Mineral Deposits
other than silicates. vol. i. principles
of Salt Deposition. By A. W. Grabau. Pp.
435. (New York and London: McGraw-Hill
Book Co., Inc. 1920.) Price 30s.
Benzol, its Recovery, Rectification and Uses.
By S. E. Whitehead. Pp. 210. (London:
Benn Brothers, Ltd. 1920.) Price 12s. 6d.
The Platinum Metals. By A. D. Lumb. Imperial
Institute Monographs on Mineral Resources
with Special Reference to the British Empire.
Pp. 63. (London: John Murray. 1920.)
Price 3s. 6d.
Bamber's Rubber Calculator Book. In the
English and Metric Systems. Pp. 65. (London:
MacLaren and Sons, Ltd. 1920.) Price 6s.
Report of the Lubricants and Lubrication In-
quiry Committee. Advisory Council. Depart-
ment of Scientific and Industrial Research.
(London: H.M. Stationery Office.) Price 2s. 6d.
Publications of the United States Bureau of
Mines. (Washington: Government Printing
Office. 1919 and 1920.): —
Boiler, and Furnace Testing. By R. T. Strshm.
(Tech. Paper 240.)
Blow-holes, Porosity, and Unsoundness in
Aluminium-Alloy Casting. By R. J.
Anderson. (Tech. Paper 241, 1919.)
A Glossary of the Mining and Mineral In-
dustry. By A. H. Fay.
Absorption as Applied to Recovery of Gasoline
Left in Residual Gas from Compression
Plants. By W. P. Dykema and R. O. Neal.
(Tech. Paper 232.)
Accidents at Metallurgical Works in the
United States During 1918. By A. H. Fay.
(Tech. Paper 256.)
United States Geological Survey. Department^
of the Interior. (Washington: Government
Printing Office. 1920.): —
Cobalt, Molybdenum, Nickel, Titanium, Tung-
sten, Radium, Uranium, and Vanadium in
1917. By F. L. Hess.
Stone in 1918. By G. F. Loughlin and A. T.
Coons.
Thorium, Zirconium and Rare-earth Minerals.
in 1919. By W. T. Schalt.er.
Copper in 1918. By B. S. Butler.
Magnesium in 1919. By R. W. Stonb.
Vol. XXXIX., No. 24]
REVIEW
[Dec 31. 1920.
PRESENT POSITION OF THE FINE
CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
C. A. HILL.
The British fine chemical industry is to-day in a
critical position — a condition resulting from a com-
bination of circumstances. According as the
Government redeems its pledge or not, the industry
can either stabilise itself and become second to no
other fine chemical industry in the world, or,
alternatively, will sink back into its pre-war con-
dition, or something very nearly like it.
The chemical industry consists of two parts: — (1)
heavy chemicals, (2) fine chemicals. The former
has several main branches, such as the acid, the
alkali, and the soap industries; all of these were
well-developed and well-organised British industries
before the war. The latter has very many branches,
but none was well developed before the war, nor was
the industry organised. Dyes constitute a group of
fine chemicals, so large and important that they are
generally considered as a separate branch of chemi-
cal industry ; actually, however, they cannot be
thus divorced from the rest of the fine chemical in-
dustry. Parliament is legislating for the dye in-
dustry; it must also legislate for the remainder, and
no short-sighted policy should be allowed to inter-
fere in this important national question.
Comparatively few people outside the profession
of chemistry know what the fine chemical industry
is; still less do they know of its many and far-
reaching ramifications, by reason of which it is
essentially and truly a, " key " industry, and there-
fore of vital importance to the national welfare.
Before the war even chemists, generally, had rather
vague notions as to what precisely fine chemicals
are. How often has one heard such loose expres-
sions as " medicinal and fine chemicals " or " fine
chemicals and analytical reagents," and the like.
Indeed, a notorious Board of Trade memorandum,
born a little more than a year ago and now decently
interred, made use of the expression " analytical re-
agents and the following fine chemicals." " Fine
chemicals " is the term comprehensive of all fine
chemicals, and includes the various groups: — (1)
laboratory chemicals (i.e., analytical reagents and
research chemicals), (2) medicinal (cr pharmaceuti-
cal) chemicals, (3) photographic chemicals; together
with other groups according to taste.
It is now well known that whereas before the war
the manufacture of certain fine chemicals was satis-
factorily established in this country, in the large
sense, the fine chemical industry was essentially
German. There was no organised industry and no
organisation of manufacturers. To-day the Fine
Chemical Group of the Association of British
Chemical Manufacturers is numerically the strong-
est and possibly the most active in the Association.
The outbreak of war rudely awakened the country
to the fact that fine chemicals are products of
national importance, and, incidentally, that war
cannot be waged without them, so that many and
many a substance which we had until then con-
tentedly bought from Germany had to be manufac-
tured hurriedly with inappropriate plant and
almost regardless of cost. Some of these were
wanted for the immediate purposes of war, others
for the manufacture of munitions, yet others for
their medicinal properties. Arrangements
prompted by the action of the Institute of Chem-
istry and the Society of Public Analysts were made
for the supply of analytical reagents of requisite
and known purity. More recently the manufacture
of research chemicals has been systematically under-
taken, and is now approaching a satisfactory con-
dition. Good headway has been made by the
makers of photographic chemicals, and also by those
of synthetic perfumes and essences. The manufac-
ture of medicinal organic synthetic products has
made very considerable progress; those begun early
have been improved, perfected, and stabilised ; anil
many others have been added or were in course of
being added when the present impasse arose. It is
much to be able to say that we have never gone
short of essentials. British manufacturers have
proved that they can turn out products of first-rate
quality. Economy of manufacture, maximum
yields, with corresponding reduction of costs, were
following in due course, slowly, it is true, but never-
theless surelj-.
Rome was not built in a day. To train up an
army of skilled organic chemical workers requisite
to the fine chemical industry is a matter of years.
The British fine chemical industry — as we now
understand it — had to be initiated under war-time,
i.e., the worst possible, conditions. The early post-
war period afforded manufactuiers the first oppor-
tunity to stabilise their immature efforts, but it
was then that they experienced to the full the
difficulties of obtaining plant and of erecting build-
ings, long delays and high prices being the promin-
iri features. The efforts of the industry — a new one
— to expand were hindered by the dead weight of
the excess profits duty. Yet, despite all the
enormous difficulties, progress on the whole was
really good until the Sankey judgment, like a bomb-
shell, completely changed the situation. This,
helped by the anomalous position of foreign ex-
changes, has led to the swamping of the market
with German goods, a combination of circum-
stances which threatens defeat unless the Govern-
ment steps in promptly and redeems its pledge to
protect " key " industries.
Fine chemical manufacturers, after very full con-
sideration, have unanimously pronounced in favour
of prohibiting imports of fine chemicals except
under a system of licences, which should readily be
granted when British manufacturers are unable to
meet genuine demands for essential products.
This, it will be seen, is precisely similar to the
course it is proposed to adopt in the case of dyes:
a natural coincidence when it is borne in mind that
the fine chemical industry and the dye industry are
indissoluble linked together and must inevitably go
hand-in-hand. Indeed, one of the less obvious, but
by no means negligible, features of the fine chemical
industry is that it elaborate* the otherwise useless
bv-products of the dye industry, thereby giving em-
ployment to thousands of men. Incidentally, it
affords a training ground for chemists, technical
and industrial, which no other school can rival.
An amendment to the Dyestuffs (Import Regu-
lation) Bill was designed to exclude from the pro-
visions of the Act "synthetic organic products im-
ported mainly for medicinal or surgical purposes."
This attitude on the part of some of our legislators
does not augur well for the safeguarding of the
organic chemical industry, nor for the future of
tin- Empire. It is, indeed, a very short-sighted
policy which seeks to gain a small, problematical,
and temporary reduction in the cost of a certain
number of medicinal substances at the expense of
losing an industry already half-established, and
which if fully developed would make the nation
permanently self-supporting in the production of
curative agents. Moreover, the Bill provides for
the importation under licence of substances which
cannot he produced at home. It is this kind of
opposition, horn in ignorance and nourished in
apath.v, which confronts those who have the national
welfare at heart. It is to In- feared that there are
others remaining in the background and doing their
work covertly, who arc directly concerned that Fug-
[Dec. 31. 1920.
land shall not h&ve a fine chemical industry, and
who are doing all in their power to let her sink back
to her pre-war dependence upon Germany.
The many uses of fine chemicals in peace time,
which justify so fully the claim of the industry to
be regarded as a " key " industry, do not need to
be laboured here. Research chemicals for our
universities and teaching institutions, together
with analytical reagents for the same purposes and
for works' laboratories, have already been men-
tioned. The importance of the industry to medi-
cine and national health is not confined to the
supply of synthetic drugs, but rests also upon the
fact that the expansion of an organic chemical in-
dustry is intimately associated with developments
in biochemistry and in the most modern methods of
treating and preventing disease.
It cannot be too frequently nor too cogently in-
sisted upon that the nation which possesses fine
chemical and dye industries possesses potential
arsenals. for waging war, so that the nation which
does not possess them is ever at the mercy of nations
which do.
The present critical position of the fine chemical
industry is largely due to the lack of confidence
which manufacturers have in the Government. To-
day it is not too late to save the situation; soon it
will be.
RAIL CONVEYANCE OF CHEMICAL
COMMODITIES..
J. LUKES.
It was with satisfaction that I read the article
which appeared in the Journal of November 15,
written by Mr. L. Archbutt with the assistance of
several of his railway colleagues, including one
expert in rates, as those who may have compared
this reply with my remarks which appeared in the
issue of September 30 will have gathered that
although the trader who consigns dangerous goods
by rail may be wrong in his ideas, the railway
companies have the power to decide as to which
merchandise falls under this heading and to fix the
sum which has to be paid for carriage, whether
their views be right or wrong. Another inference I
feel sure the reader will draw is that if the railway
companies are so considerate and painstaking in
the interests of the trader, if their conditions of
carriage and the resultant charges are so mani-
festly reasonable, as suggested, they cannot possibly
have any objection to the establishment of an im-
partial business tribunal as a court of appeal.
The picture drawn so carefully by Mr. Archbutt
does not represent the facts, at least as I view
them, and the following remarks, whilst they may
not carry conviction to all, will bring out more
clearly the main point, namely, that the railway
companies are the judges in their own cases, which
is admittedly against the principle of British
fair play.
Are the Kates on Chemicals Unreasonable? —
Mr. Archbutt opens by stating that I charged the
railway companies with having regarded practically
all chemicals as dangerous goods, and then proceeds
to show that non-dangerous goods are charged in
accordance with the Statutory Orders, and takes
credit for the fact that some rates for such non-
dangerous goods have been reduced by the railway
companies. It was stated distinctly by me that
non-dangerous merchandise is scheduled in Part 1
of the Order Confirmation Acts 1891-1892. and that
the consignor would have means of ascertaining the
component parts of his rate.
Legal Conditions and Bates for Dangerous Goods.
— It was never suggested that the railway com-
panies had refused to convey dangerous goods, and
it is obvious that if they abused their rights, the
power given them " in ancient history " to refuse
to carry must have been withdrawn. Nevertheless,
as the law stands to-day (Clause 105 of the Railway
Clauses Act, 1845), the railway companies need not
carry any merchandise which in their judgment
may be of dangerous nature, and it is a sore point,
as stated (not only to myself but to all the traders
concerned) that the carriers are the sole judges of
what goods may be dangerous. (It should be noted
that it is not a question of the merchandise being
dangerous in fact, but dangerous in the opinion of
the railway company.)
The question is then raised as to whether any
other arrangement would be just and reasonable,
seeing that the railway companies are responsible
for the safety of the public, etc. Referring to
America, Mr. Archbutt says, "Accidents which
were occurring led to the establishment of the
Bureau of Explosives in 1907, and Col. Taylor came
oyer here on purpose to study our British regula-
tions."
The following quotation from the American
Inter-State Commerce Commission Regulation*
for the Transportation of Explosives and Other
Dangerous Articles by Freight and Express, Reg.
1706, 1918 edition, will show the status of the
Bureau of Explosives (the italics are mine) : —
" The Bureau for the safe transportation of ex-
plosives and other dangerous articles, hereinafter
called Bureau of Explosives, organised by the rail-
ways under the auspices of the American Railway
Association, is an efficient bureau in charge of an
expert chief inspector. The Bureau will make in-
spections and conduct investigations and will
confer with manufacturers and shippers with a
view to determining what specifications and regula-
tions will, within reasonable limits, afford the
highest degree of safety in packing and preparing
these dangerous articles for shipment and in trans-
porting the same. The Commission will seek to
avail itself of the expert knowledge thus developed,
and. in formulating amendments to these regula-
tions or specifications supplemental thereto, while
not bound thereby, will give due weight to such
expert opinions."
So the Bureau of Explosives organised by the
American railways must confer with manufacturers
and traders, and decisions rest not with the Bureau
but with the impartial tribunal, the Inter-State
Commerce Commission.
Reference is made to the American regulations
being more severe than our own, and it is stated
that " All glass carboys there have to be boxed and
to withstand a swing test," but nothing is stated
as to the limits of inflammability (over 80° F. is
considered safe in America — over 150° F. may be
thought safe in this country, but I refer to this
point later). Mr. Archbutt has omitted to state
that the American regulations provide that the
thickness of the glass carboys should not be less than
2-32 inch (whilst our British railways specify about
§ inch). Further, the American regulations do not
provide a swing test when iron-case outside con-
tainers are used for carboys; the regulations state
that special arrangements are made.
Mr. Archbutt refers to the only three test cases
heard before the Railway and Canal Commis-
sioners, and adds that the Court decided that the
railway companies did arrive at their decision in
good faith and on good grounds. The reader will
not overlook what the judges decided, viz., " that
the railway companies did arrive at their decision
in good faith . . . etc.," that is the railway com-
panies decided, and the Judges found that they
acted in good faith.
Vol. XXXIX.. Xo. 24.]
REVIEW.
The decisions in these cases may be summarised
as follows : —
(1) Iteckitts v. North-Eastern Railway.— The
Court decided that liquid metal polish having a
flash point of 80° — 85° F. is " dangerous goods "
within Part IV. of the Statutory Schedule.
The Hon. A. E. Gathorne Hardy— one of the Com-
missioners— said in his judgment: — "The article
carried may be regarded as very near the border
line as regards danger. The flash point is not
high, great care is exercised by the manufacturers
in manufacturing and securely closing the tin
vessels in which it is enclosed."
Sir James Woodhouse— the other Commissioner
said: "If the issue we had to determine were
simply one of fact, whether liquid metal polish is
dangerous for the purpose of railway transit, I
should, for my own part, after a careful considera-
tion of the evidence, regarding it purely from a
business point of view, come to the conclusion that
as an article of commerce very extensively used,
it is not a dangerous article for the railway
company to carry, because it involves nothing
beyond what I consider is an ordinary commercial
risk. ... By that Act (1845, section 105) the
railway company can refuse to carry goods of a
dangerous nature, and what goods come within
that description is left solely to their judgment to
determine. . . . If I am right in this view,
then it follows that though I think that as a fact
the goods are not dangerous for the purposes of
railway transit, yet it is open to the railway com-
panies to take upon their responsibility a different
view, and so long as the Court is satisfied that they
have arrived at their judgment in good faith, it is
conclusive."
(2) Traders' Traffic Conference v. Midland Sail-
way and Others. — The Traders contended that
benzol, toluol and naphtha flashing under 73° F.
were chargeable as Spirits of Tar under Class 2 of
the Statutory Classification, and admitted that the
goods were dangerous goods in opening their case.
(3) Midland, Great Western, and Lancashire and
Yorkshire Eailway Companies v. Brotherton and
Co., Ltd., and Wm. Butler and Co. (Bristol), Ltd. —
The railway companies applied for a declaration
that a tar product flashing not below 100° F.
was " dangerous goods " within Part TV. of the
schedules.
In his judgment, Mr. Justice Lush, in addition
to the quotations given, said: "The Legislature,
from the earliest times in the history of railway
legislation, quite clearly left it to the railway com-
panies to decide what goods are dangerous, and
enabled them to refuse to carry any goods which in
their judgment were dangerous."
It will, therefore, be seen that in one case —
(Reckitts v. North Eastern Railway) — one Com-
missioner stated that metal polish flashing between
80° F. and 85° F. was on the borderland of danger,
and another that metal polish so packed was not
dangerous in fact ; whereas in the ease of the tar
product flashing not below 100° F. no judgment was
given as regards danger.
It seems, therefore, of little use to ask, " Is not
the decision of His Majesty's judges sufficient? "
when they have now decided that they are pro-
hibited from judging whether any commodity is
dangerous, in fact.
Mr. Archbutt points out that Mr. Justice Lush
in his judgment said : " The railway companies and
their advisers and witnesses place the limit of a
safe flash point at 150° F." This should be com-
pared with the instructions given by the Bureau of
Explosives in America to its inspectors: — " An in-
flammable liquid, as defined by the Bureau of Ex-
plosives, does not mean any liquid that can be
burned. The meaning is restricted to liquids which
at ordinary temperatures give off inflammable
vapours. These vapours are not only inflammable,
but when mixed in proper proportions with air in
an enclosed space will explode with great violence,
if ignited by any means. This action is exactly
similar to the explosions caused by the ignition of
coal gas mixed with air in houses, cellars, sewers,
etc., which frequently occur through the accidental
escape of gas into enclosed spaces. Any liquid
' giving a flash point of 80° F. or less is classified as
an inflammable liquid.
" The flash point is determined by gradually
heating the liquid in question in a small open cup;
after each five degrees rise in temperature a small
flame is passed across the top of the cup about
i inch above the surface of the liquid. The lowest
temperature at which a flash passes over surface
of liquid is called the flash point. It will be readily
seen that the lower the flash point of any liquid,
the greater the risk in handling it."
It may he added that in America liquids flashing
above 80° F., open test, are carried and treated as
non-dangerous goods by the railway companies.
I must leave it to your readers to decide whether
tar products flashing not below 100° F. are really
dangerous in transit any more than other materials
are dangerous, such as paper, cotton and woollen
goods, hay, straw, and thousands of other articles.
Rates on Dangerous Goods. — With regard to the
rates chargeable, Mr. Archbutt states, " The Order
Confirmation Acts, 1891-1892, enacts that the
charges made for the conveyance must be reason-
able; " but the Act reads: " such reasonable sum
as the company may think fit in each case." Again,
we are told that the trader has a remedy if he
considers the charges excessive ; doubtless he has,
if he is prepared to contest his position, in con-
nexion with every rate for every commodity manu-
factured, through to the House of Lords.
I feel confident in leaving to the judgment of im-
partial persons the decision as to whether a
decidedly interested party should be the judge in
his own case to the extent indicated, when the
result of such judgment entails the payment to
him directly or indirectly of considerably increased
carriage charges, knowing the great reluctance of
the trader to appeal to the law courts in every case
of dispute.
Further, I maintain that in regard to commodi-
ties removed from the white pages or statutory
classification, to the yellow pages or dangerous
goods classification, the charges have been raised
directly or indirectly, the conditions having become
more onerous. A rather striking case arose recently
in connexion with trinitrotoluol, which for some
years past was not treated as an explosive during
conveyance, being charged at " Class 2 rates,
collected and delivered, company's risk." The
Home Office decided that the merchandise was to
be treated as an explosive during transit, and
although the increased cost of conveyance did not
add to the safety, the companies raised the class to
Class 5, plus 50%, station to station, owner's risk:
Class 2, collected Class 2, less
and delivered. cartage.
s. d.
68 4 per ton.
.'.".=200 9 per ton.
(The difference, £6 12s. 5d., per ton increase, would
not encourage trade.)
Spirits of tar appear in the Statutory Classifica-
tion under Class 2, company's risk; the judgment
referred to, viz., Traders' Traffic Conference v.
Midland Railway and Others, gave the companies
the right tocharge a higher rate at Class 3, owner's
risk. Also in the Tar Products case mentioned,
the judgment means that the railways charge as for
s. d.
Leeds to London ... 82 8
Leeds to London, Class 5. plus 50 ?
station to station
Heavy Naphtha, class 2, owner's risk, as against
Mineral Tar Oil, Class 1, company's risk.
The chief objection, however, to the insertion of
commodities in the dangerous portion of the classi-
fication is that the trader loses all statutory rights
over the rates and conditions; the "reasonable
sum " thought fit by the railway companies is not
subject to disintegration, and no allowance from
station rates is readily given to traders who have
provided private sidings at their own expense, and
relieved the companies of heavy capital expen-
diture, the cost of services, etc.
The explanation given to justify the application
of station rates to private sidings is interesting : —
a trader using the station provides a private
siding, and as one-fifth of the tonnage is diverted
to the siding, etc., the station is thus deprived of
traffic to that extent, although equipped to deal
with the whole business.
Evidence has recently been given in public by
the Chief Goods Manager of an important northern
railway company that, in round figures, there are
in Great Britain 10,000 private sidings and 7000
railway stations, and that the stations could not
deal with the whole traffic. The same Goods
Manager indicated that his company welcomed the
opening of private sidings on his line ; and the
advertisement to " build your works " adjacent to
so-and-so railway line is familiar to all.
The majority of railway stations has been so con-
gested that traffic has had to be refused, restricted
and regulated by the companies, to the great incon-
venience of the trading public, as everyone con-
cerned in transportation knows only too well.
Is it reasonable that a trader who has provided
a private siding (in fact a station of his own) at
his expense should pay the charges for station
accommodation and labour services as if he used the
railway station? If so, such a trader has to pay
twice, viz., for the provision and upkeep of his
siding, the wages of his staff, and for the railway
company's station and staff. The Private Siding
Act of 1904 gives the trader a right to a siding,
and the Order Confirmation Acts, 1891-1892 (which
Mr. Archbutt quotes), provides that the railway
companies cannot charge for station accommodation
and station services upon private-siding traffic; yet
they have made equivalent charges, and the expense
of an appeal to the Railway Commission Court is
necessary in most cases to get any abatement or
siding allowance ; and the manufacturer of so-called
dangerous chemicals is in a most difficult position,
as already explained, owing to Section 105 of the
L845 Act and to Part TV. of the Order Confirmation
Acts.
How can traders in dangerous goods use railway
stations? The companies raise what are admitted
to be penalty charges if stock is detained (see my
remarks under Contract Conditions) ; they do not
stare the commodities in their warehouses ; and it
is admitted that many stations could not provide
standage accommodation even for the many tank
and open wagons which the trader is forced to pro-
vide to conduct this particular class of business.
Contract Conditions. — Even Mr. Archbutt does
not try to justify all the conditions to which traders
have to submit. He omits any reference to the
charge of 5s. per ton per hour for standage of tank
wagons at stations (20-ton tank = £120 per day);
also the fact that the carriers are exempted from
responsiblity for loss, damage, misconveyance,
delay, or detention of the said goods, or a trailer's
truck or sheet, except in case of wilful miscon-
duct on the part of the company's servants.
It is, however, a fact that if a trader complies with
the railway companies' packing specifications he is
not at the present time responsible for third party
damages in case of accident, etc. Why should the
trader be responsible for train accidents or negli-
gence of railway companies' servants, over which
lie has no control whatever? The point as to the
responsibility for accidents, etc., has received public,
attention on various occasions, and it is referred to
in Mr. Russell Rea's Report, 1911, as follows: —
" We think that if they carry such goods (dangerous
or inflammable) they should not deprive the trader
of an opportunity of sending them on terms under
which the companies would be responsible for loss
or damage occurring as a result of their own negli-
gence, and not in consequence of the nature of the
goods."
Premiums for Bisk. — Rolling Stock. — It is notice-
able that although Mr. Archbutt found my figures
in regard to German rates too vague to be of
any service for comparison (although he admits
that the German chemical industry was prostituted
as well as subsidised through the railways), he
makes no reference to the rates, quoted by me,
chargeable by the English companies. He does
assert, however, under the heading Boiling Stock,
that the rates on crude naphtha and fuel oil in
tank wagons are lower than in steel barrels; but
is this not in accordance with the principle of the
Statutory Classification, which, although framed
in 1891 when tank wagons were little used as com-
pared with to-day, generally indicated a lower class
for liquids in tank wagons than when conveyed in
casks or drums?
Let us consider what this means; 20 tons of liquid
is conve3'ed in a tank wagon, costing about £900, ■
provided by the trader ; this would entail the U6e
of from 80 to 100 fifty-gallon drums, and the
provision by the railway companies of from 6
to 7 trucks for the full drums and 4 to 5 for the
returned empties. Surely it is only equitable to
make some difference in the rate, as although no
additional charge is made for the return of the
empty tank wagon, a large amount of haulage is
necessary for each empty railway truck; in fact, we
wore told quite recently in a railway manager's
evidence before the Rates Advisory Committee that
the statistics of the Ministry of Transport show that
in the case of coal and goods, if a wagon goes 70
miles on the outward journey loaded, on the average
it comes back 30 miles empty.
It is interesting to note in passing that for some
reason crude naphtha, whether flashing below, at,
or above 73° F. is chargeable at the same rate,
although naphtha, not crude, flashing below 73° F.
bears a higher charge than naphtha flashing at
73° F. and over. This is an illustration of the
application of " such reasonable sum as the com-
panies think fit," and my experience is that the
classification of crude naphtha, viz., Class C, plus
10 per cent., is too high, and is actually prohibiting
traffic from passing in many instances.
Panr/erous or Non-dangerous? — Mr. Archbutt
is entirely wrong in stating that I am disturbed
because the English railway companies are guided
by a body of chemists; what I do object to is
that the railways can finally decide what is
dangerous upon the advice of their chemists. It
seems to be entirely overlooked that the manufac-
turers' chemists have a much closer, and, I submit,
a better knowledge of the commodities they
specialise upon. These chemists have, as a rule,
the highest qualifications, they are familiar with
transportation throughout large works, through
cities, etc.. and their knowledge of the commodity
and its behaviour under all circumstances is suffi-
cient to enable them to judge of its safety during
rail transport. There is no doubt, however, that
difficulties will arise, not only with so-called danger-
ous goods, but with all classes of merchandise, in
the event of serious train accidents or of faulty
stowage into trucks by railway servants.
It must not be overlooked that this phase of the
question was fully considered by the Board of
Vol. XXXIX., No. 24.]
REVIEW.
Trade Conference on Railway Matters in 1909 —
'•Committee A reported that the existing
grievances arose from the unrestricted power of
the railway companies to decide what came under
this (dangerous) classification, and under what con-
ditions they should be carried. The Conference,
following the recommendations of the Committee,
suggested the appointment of an Advisory Expert
Committee to deal with the classification of dan-
gerous goods other than explosives. The terms of
the resolution adopted were as follows : —
"As regards dangerous goods, other than ex-
plosives (as to which no question was raised), it
is recommended that an advisory expert committee
be established, to which may be referred by the
Board of Trade questions at issue between traders
and the railway companies in connexion with the
inclusion of articles in the list of dangerous goods;
such a committee to be constituted of an expert
nominated by the Home Office, an expert nominated
by the Admiralty and Army Council, and an expert
nominated by the Board of Trade and Board of
Agriculture and Fisheries; the railway companies
and the traders concerned each to state their case
by means of experts, and the committee to recom-
mend whether the article in question should be in-
cluded in the list of dangerous goods, and, if so,
what conditions of packing and labelling should be
imposed.
" No such question should be referred to the Ad-
visory Expert Committee before it has been dealt
with by the railway companies parties to the Rail-
way Clearing House, or until the Board of Trade
gives a certificate that there has been unreasonable
delay on the part of the railway companies."
Mr. Archbutt complains that my reference to the
recent case in the Railway Commision Court is
quite misleading, and he quotes the words in the
judgment of Mr. Justice Lush, " The companies and
their advisers and witnesses place the limit of safe
Hash point at 150° F." During the hearing of the
case counsel for the. railway companies pointed out
that in 1891 three consignment notes existed, one
•of which was for products flashing over 150° F.,
and ho added, "because the railway companies never
recognised that 150° was in any way a limit of
safety." Further, giving evidence on behalf of
the railway companies, Mr. J. H. B. Jenkins, the
Great Eastern Company's chemist, replied to the
railway companies' counsel that in the opinion of
the companies, though the vapour is inflammable
above 150° F., close test, he thought it necessary to
treat it as dangerous goods. If the Judge intended
that 150° F. should be taken as the dividing line
and the railway companies accept this, they should
insert this flashpoint as the limit of inflammability
in their classification.
Assistance for Key Industry. — I am aware that
the classification of intermediate products for use
in colour manufacture has received considerable
attention recently, with a view to fixing uniform
rates and conditions, and although it is beside the
point, I fail to understand why railway companies,
assisted by the State, should not encourage key
industries for the national benefit. The point of
my argument was that extortionate charges are
demanded : the trade — far from being encouraged —
has to fight against prejudice and extreme views.
Revision of Railway Rotes. — There are now
reasons to suppose that an impartial tribunal will
fix the classification of dangerous goods; yet it is
not — and never has been — the traders' idea that the
Railway Chemists and Dangerous Goods Com-
mittee should give less patient attention and con-
sideration to these matters; it is essential that its
members should continue to apply -all their in-
genuity and experience to the problems which arise.
What the public asks is that the Committee shall
not have the power to decide finally the rate or
charge, or as to what is dangerous or not dan-
gerous.
It is conceded on all sides that the railway com-
panies should have an opportunity of earning an
adequate revenue, but is it not a more business-like
proposition to charge against all traders in propor-
tion to the cost to the railway for the accommoda-
tion provided and used, and the services rendered,
plus a reasonable margin for profit, than to suggest
that if light chemicals get some reduced charges,
heavy chemicals or other merchandise must bear
some increased burden?
Mr. Archbutt may take it, and I have the
authority of the Association of British Chemical
Manufacturers to say so, that the light and heavy
chemical manufacturers and others are willing to
pay their just proportion of railway charges
measured by the railway accommodation provided
and used, and the duties undertaken by the rail-
ways at the traders' request and for their conveni-
ence.
I have recently been reading with great interest
the report made by the chairman (Mr. Joseph B
Eastman), of the Special War Committee at the
Thirtieth Annual Convention of the National Asso-
ciation of Railway and Utilities Commissioners of
the United States of America. He advocates the
need for local public tribunals, and adds that
" Men wdio for years have viewed railroad policy in
the light of railroad interest do not overnight
become satisfactory exponents of the public in-
terest."
IMPRESSIONS OF THE AMERICAN
GLASS INDUSTRY, 1919-1920.
W. E. S. TURNER.
To the person wdio has some acquaintance with
the conditions of the glass industry in this country
there are several things w-hich come home with
great force when he comes into contact with the
corresponding industry in the United States. He
is, for example, impressed by the fact that nearly
all efforts are directed to the mass production of
articles for sale to the million, and wdiilst it is true
that America has become nearly self-supporting in
respect of articles of glassware, optical glass manu-
facture is still in its infancy, and glass of the
higher quality for table decoration and general
artistic purposes occupies a relatively smaller place
in the American glass industry than in our own.
As already stated, glass manufacture in the
States is, w-herever possible, confined to such
articles as can be produced in enormous quantities.
Not only so, but each manufacturer tends to
specialise in a limited number of types of one
particular form of glassware. For example, a glass-
bottle manufacturer will confine his attention as
far as possible to just a very few types of bottles;
one very large undertaking, having several factories
under its control, manufactures only wide-mouth
milk bottles, of which it produces an enormous
number.
This specialisation and high production are made
possible by the use of automatic devices at every
stage; and by limiting the number of types of
article, the design of the machinery becomes greatly
simplified. Automatic belts and various other
devices are in operation for the conveyance of
articles of glassware from the machine to the
annealing oven or lehr, whence they ara again
automatically transferred. Both the transfer from
the machine to the conveyor and from the conveyor
again to the annealing oven, are only possible
where all the articles are of one size and type.
Further, where the annealing oven carries one size
REVIEW.
only of a particular type of bottle it is possible
both to obtain the closest possible packing and to
adjust the temperature quite precisely.
Speaking generally, the American glass industry
can be regarded as divided into two main sections,
the first comprising those branches in which glass is
melted in pot furnaces and the second those in which
tank furnaces are employed. The works employing
pot furnaces are as a rule among the oldest in the
industry, and anyone who makes a prolonged and
thorough tour of the American factories will realise
that there are some which display rule-of-thumb
methods just as much as some of our own. In the
more modern plants, however, the loot furnaces
employed differ from our own in two respects. In
the first place, they are usually much larger and
hold 16 or 18 pots, each pot being of a large
capacity, e.g., 3000 lb. of a light lead metal, and
in the second place, recuperative furnaces find no
employment. Regenerative pot furnaces are every-
where in use. The writer was told that some 20
years ago an unsuccessful attempt was made to
introduce recuperative glass-pot furnaces. The
regenerative pot furnaces are very economical
when under scientific control. At two large
modern works the writer was told that it was the
regular practice to melt one ton of glass (in the
particular case in question for electric bulbs) by
the use of half a ton of coal, and one of the large
glass engineering firms undertakes to erect such a
furnace of sixteen pots, and to guarantee that it will
operate on eight tons of coal per day. This is far
and away better practice than is customary in our
own country, where the furnaces are small and
the size of the pot is also small as a rule.
The efficiency of the furnace is becoming an
important matter in the American glass industry.
Up to comparatively recently, natural gas has been
fairly abundant in Pennsylvania, Ohio and Indiana,
as well as in West Virginia, but its wasteful use
has so diminished the quantity available that it is
being conserved now in the interests mainly of
domestic users. In consequence, in the winter time
the gas pressure becomes so feeble that it is
essential to have some other fuel supply, either oil
or producer gas, available. Not only so, but in
Pennsylvania, Ohio and Indiana natural gas even
when available is now becoming too expensive for
use. For this reason many glass manufacturers are
installing gas producers, of which several types
compete for favour, namely, the Chapman,
the R. D. Wood and the Morgan, whilst the use of
the Chapman Agitator is rapidly spreading, and it
is frequently added even to the old type of station-
ary producer. It is now recognised that the cost
of fuel is going to play an important part in the
cost of production. In the Canadian factories,
indeed, at Toronto and Montreal, it is a serious
item in the cost. Coal which even only last year
cost $7J per ton is now being charged at $15.
The great tendency in American glass practice
is to get away from the use of glass pots and pot
furnaces and to make glass in tanks. At the
present time, the following types of glassware are
being made from glass melted in tank furnaces: —
Bottles of all types, chemical glassware including
tubing, glass tumblers, and other pressed glassware
in great variety, glass cooking ware, electric
Jbulbs, the commoner forms of illuminating ware
such as globes and shades, and even wine glasses
.and blanks for cutting or other forms of decoration.
The tank furnaces vary greatly in dimensions.
Generally speaking, they are no larger than corre-
sponding furnaces in this country, if as large.
Tank furnaces for window glass are an exception to
this, and the writer recently saw a new tank
furnace in America capable of holding about 1250
tons of molten glass. The capacity of a furnace,
however, is never stated in America in terms of
its deadweight contents as in this country, but
always in terms of its daily output or capacity for
output. This output reaches very large dimensions.
One furnace which the writer saw yielded 160,000
glass jars every 24 hours, of an average weight of
14 oz. In order to obtain such a huge output, the
melting-end of the furnace is usually longer and
narrower in proportion than in corresponding British
furnaces. Further, the batch mixture melted con-
tains more soda ash and less lime than has been
customary in this country. At least three advan-
tages ensue; in the first place, with this softer
batch the temperature required for melting is
usually lower than in furnaces at home. Secondly,
the rate of melting is increased, whilst the action
of the glass and of the melting batch materials is
less destructive of the refractory blocks composing
the furnace than in our own country where a more
corrosive batch and a somewhat higher temperature
have up to now been employed.
The outstanding contribution of America to the
glass industry of the world has been the applica-
tion of mechanical devices. This is shown by the
fact that all other countries have their eyes at the
moment turned on America for the supply of
machinery. Several illustrations may be given.
In tho glass-bottle industry machines were in opera-
tion in Great Britain earlier than in America, but
having once adopted machines, the Americans began
to make progress at an exceedingly rapid rate. To
America we owe at the moment the glass-bottle
making machines such as the Owens, the O'Neill,
the Lynch, the Miller and the Hartford-Fairmont,
all of which give very high production and are
coming into use in this country. The first-named
is capable of adaptation to making bottles from
about J oz. up to 15 gallons. The former it can
turn out at the rate of about 200 per minute, since
the machine in its latest type carries 15 arms, and
each of these arms can be provided with a triple
mould, producing therefore 45 bottles for each
revolution of the machine.
Whilst the Owens machine is fully automatic in
that it gathers its own glass from a special revolving
furnace fitted to the main melting furnace, the '
other machines are only semi-automatic. Labour
conditions and the desire for increased production
have, however, led to tho invention of feeding
devices by means of which tho glass is fed con-
tinuously from a tank furnace either by permitting
it to flow or by pumping or ladling it out and
separating the stream by shears into portions which
can be adjusted in weight suitably to the size of
the article required. Some of these feeding devices
have been highly successful and are coming into
wide use. Here again, at the moment, the only
practical devices on the market are all of American
origin.
Machines of the Miller, the Hartford-Fairmont,
and to some extent of the O'Neill type, are also
employed largely in making glass tumblers in
enormous quantities. Tho operation has also been
rendered automatic as in the case of bottles. The
glass is fed by an automatic feeding device into
one of the machines, the tumbler is taken out and
transferred mechanically to a belt which carries it
through the gas-fired chamber, so that tho surface
can bo given a fire polish. Subsequently the fire-
polished article can bo transferred mechanically to
an annealing oven. A single machine of the
Edward Miller type fed by the Tucker Reeves
feeding device has turned out 11,000 tumblers a
day, each of which was fire-finished. As several
such machines are in operation, fed from the tame
furnace, it will be seen that the output of such
articles is enormous. For containing preserves, a
very cheap type of tumbler is also made in great
numbers. These are not given a fire polish.
Electric light bulbs, especially the smaller sizes
in such abundant use, are now made by machinery.
Vol. XXXIX.. Xo. 2i.]
REVIEW.
The Empire machine is onry semi-automatic. It has
four arms and takes the place of a skilled workman
in so far as marvel-ins the gathered glass and blow-
ing it into a bulb are concerned. Such a machine
must be attended by a gatherer who collects the
glass required and by a taker-off who removes the
blowing iron with the finished bulb on it. This
machine is also designed to make blown tumblers,
lamp chimneys, etc.
The West lake machine is a fully automatic
machine. There are two types, one with 12 arms
and one with 24. With such a machine, the glass
is gathered mechanically, swung out, and subse-
quently blown mechanically, whilst additional
devices detach the blown bulb and convey it
through a short annealing oven. A machine "with
12 arms has a capacity of 100,000 bulbs per day.
Glass tubing is now drawn mechanically. Two
or three devices have been put into operation, the
most successful being the fully automatic device
originated by Dana and exploited by the Libbey
Owens Co. In this machine the glass flows in a
continuous stream from a furnace, either from a
pot or from a tank, on to a clay cylinder inclined
at an angle to the vertical. This cylinder, which
may be 5 or 6 in. in diameter and perhaps 18 in.
long, is kept rotating. The glass flows down the
cylinder, and would, unless otherwise treated, form
a solid mass as it poured over the ends, but it is
prevented from becoming solid by a current of air
blown through a water-cooled iron tube which passes
down inside the clay cylinder. The hollow conical-
shaped mass of glass so obtained is pulled by a
machine which therefore draws out the glass in the
form of tubing, the pulling or drawing machine
being situated perhaps 100 or more feet from the
revolving clay cylinder. Such a machine works
day in and day out, only stopping for repairs; and
more than 120 ft. per minute of tubing may be
drawn, dependent on the diameter of the tubing.
Finally, reference may be made to the Libbey
Owens Window -Glass plant operating on the
Colburn patent. The Libbey Owens Co. has
expended a very great deal of money on this par-
ticular process in working it up to the commercial
stage. The glass flows out of a tank furnace into
a shallow heated trough, and is drawn from there
continuously in a sheet, first of all in a vertical
direction for about 3 ft., and then over a roller in
a horizontal direction and down an annealing oven,
from which it issues, after travelling about 200 ft.,
as a perfectly plain cold sheet needing only to be
trimmed and to be cut into standard lengths.
Much scepticism in regard to this process existed
in the United States up to about 18 months ago,
but the progress of the invention has been so rapid
that the company has not only turned out a very
large quantity of commercial glassware, but its
orders are so heavy that it has recently doubled its
capacity from 6 furnaces to 12. whilst the plant has
been visited by engineers from many foreign
countries, including Japan, where the first factory
outside America is, the writer understands, already
being installed.
All these contrivances may seem typically
American. Indeed, they are, for the Americans
have shown in the glass industry such ingenuity
and cleverness, such freshness of ideas and patience
in working them out as to provide an object lesson
for the rest of the world. We can only hope that
engineers in this country will be stimulated to take
a greater interest in the home glass industry.
In conclusion, it may be said that on the actual
glass-making side also development is becoming
active largely through tho work of scientific inves-
tigators. It is sufficient to refer to the development
of really good selenium red glass, to the " day-
light " lamp, and to Pyrex glassware and other
glassware for cooking purposes.
SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY.
DECEMBER MEETING OF COUNCIL.
The monthly meeting of Council was held on
December 10, Sir William J. Pope presiding. The
draft programme of the Annual General Meeting
to be held in Montreal next year, as published in
our last issue (p. 407 e), was submitted and ap-
proved, as were also the draft Rules of the new
Section at Shawinigan Falls, Canada. This Section
was declared duly constituted, and it was reported
that Dr. F. W. Skirrow and Mr. F. E. Dickie were
to be the first chairman and secretary-treasurer,
respectively. The Society has now five separate
Sections in Canada.
The Council approved the recommendation of the
Finance Committee that after the issue of the
Journal for December 31, 1920, authors of papers
appearing in the Transactions should receive 50 re-
prints gratis, according to the practice formerly
in vogue but interrupted by stre-s of circumstances
arising out of the war.
On the report of the Publications Committee, the
proposal submitted by the chairman of the Federal
Council for Pure and Applied Chemistry to the
effect that the Society should nominate representa-
tives to confer with delegates of the Chemical
Society with a view to effecting more co-operation
in the matter of chemical publications was ap-
proved, and Sir W. Pope, Mr. E. V. Evans, Dr.
C. A. Keane, and Dr. S. Miall were appointed to
represent this Society (cf. report of November
meeting, p. 399 r). It was also reported that the
Publications Committee had drawn up a very com-
plete panel of referees to advise on the suitability of
papers submitted for insertion in the Transactions.
Following a communication received from tho
British Chemical Ware Manufacturers' Association,
a resolution was passed to the effect that legislation
to restrict the importation of foreign chemical,
scientific and illuminating glassware is urgently
needed in the interests of members of the Society
as consumers, and of the nation in general, in order
that the industry may be retained in this country.
It was decided to forward this resolution to the
President of the Board of Trade.
A communication was submitted from the Direc-
tor of the National Physical Laboratory regarding
the " Tests of Graduated Glassware " carried out
at the Laboratory, and Mr. J. L. Baker, Mr. F. H.
Carr, and Dr. Bernard Dyer were elected the
Society's representatives to confer with the Labora-
torv authorities on this matter.
Prof. A. R. Ling and Mr. J. W. Macdonald were
re-appointed the Society's representatives on the
British Empire Sugar Research Association, and
Mr. C. S. Garland was elected representative on
the Chemical Industries Sub-Committee of the Im-
perial Mineral Resources Bureau in place of Dr.
C. C. Carpenter resigned.
Thirtv-nine new members were elected, of whom
26 are home members, 8 colonial, 2 Indian, and 3
foreign.
NEWS FROM THE SECTIONS.
MANCHESTER.
The third meeting of the session was held on
December 3. with Mr. J. Allan in the chair. About
sixty-five members were present and two papers
were read. The first paper was by Prof. R. Robin-
son and Mr. F. H. Gornall on " Beta-trinitrotoluene
and its Derivatives." and was read by the former.
When crude trinitrotoluene, obtained by direct
nitration of toluene in stages, is washed with cold
alcohol almost ten per cent, of the material passes
REVIEW.
into solution, and when the latter is evaporated
the residue is found to consist mainly of the dinitro-
toluenes, especially 2.4-dinitrotoluene, and iso-
merides of 2.4.6-trinitrotoluene. The paper con-
tains an account of experiments undertaken to dis-
cover possible uses for the residues when produced
on a large scale.
The second paper, read by Mr. W. B. Hart, dealt
with the history and analytical value of the thalleio-
quin reaction for quinine (the addition of chlorine
or bromine to a solution of quinine in dilute sul-
phuric acid, and then ammonia, giving a green
colour due to thalleioquin). The author has deter-
mined the limits of concentration within which the
reaction takes place, the limit for qualitative pur-
poses being 1 part of quinine in 250,000 parts of
solution in a liquid 2} inches deep. For quantita-
tive work, so many variables are involved that ex-
cept under very rigid conditions and in very dilute
solutions no reliance can be placed upon the re-
action.
BIRMINGHAM.
The " Corrosion of Non-ferrous Metals and
Alloys" was the subject of a general discussion on
November 25, Dr. H. W. Brownsdon presiding.
Dr. Brownsdon, who opened the discussion, said
that the corrosion of non-ferrous metals and alloys
had only recently become the subject of organised
research. The corrosion of condenser tubes was
dealt with in the reports of the Corrosion Research
Committee, and the Brass and Copper Research
Association was about to initiate research on atmo-
spheric corrosion. The Cumberland process for
preventing corrosion (e/. J., 1907, 1206, and 1916,
"51) still remained the most definite achievement,
and its success pointed to electrolysis as underlying
certain forms of corrosion. The problem might be
solved by the preparation of a non-corrodible metal
or alloy by the metallurgist, or by the discovery of
a suitable protective coating by the chemist ; pro-
bably the greater chance of success lay with the
metallurgist. The ideal would be to obtain perfect
chemical and physical homogeneity, but this was
not possible in commercial metals or alloys. In a
physical sense no material could be homogeneous in
the crystalline state ; the physical properties of a
chemically pure crystalline metal or alloy would
vary in different erystallographic planes, and from
this point of view the study of corrosion in single or
idiomorphic metallic crystals would be of interest.
The inhibiting effect of a polished metal surface on
corrosion afforded strong support to the theory that
work caused some of the crystalline material to
break down into a form revealing modified physical
properties. If we could produce a finished metal
product with a greater thickness of " polish" than
that now obtainable it might be expected to exhibit
increased resistance to corrosion. This might be
clone by building up, by electrolytic deposition, suc-
cessive amorphous layers and polishing them. The
fact that the protective value of a depesited oxide
or salt was much enhanced by the subsequent appli-
cation of oil, paint, or similar medium, indicated
that the action of the former was probably more
mechanical than directly protective, and that it
formed in combination with the medium a much
stronger and more continuous protective coating
than either would form separatelv.
Dr. O. F. Hudson, of the Admiralty Research
Laboratories, discussed the corrosion of copper and
of 70:30 brass from the electrochemical standpoint
and emphasised the insufficiency of the electrolytic
theory to explain all kinds of metallic corrosion.
He believed that electrochemical action was never
the sole cause of corrosion, and in the case of
neutral or slightly alkaline solutions it was rela-
tively unimportant, the action in these cases being
almost entirely direct chemical action. Electro-
chemical action played a more important part in
acid liquids, but in these cases the metal failed by
general thinning rather than by pitting or localised
attack. The simplest remedy was to neutralise the
free acid. In his opinion there was little prospect
of discovering either an alloy or a protective layer
or scale which would resist corrosion under all con-
ditions.
Prof. T. Turner emphasised the superior non-
corrodible nature of polished metallic surfaces, and
expressed the opinion that little was to be expected
from the study of inter-metallic substances, owing
to the readiness with which they are dissolved by
acids and their often brittle and unworkable
nature.
Dr. G. F. Morrell gave the results of experiments
on the effect of varnishing aluminium and its alloys
in relation to their corrosion by water and sodium
chloride solution.
The discussion is to be resumed at a subsequent
meeting.
BRISTOL AND SOUTH WALES.
At the meeting held on December 2, at Bristol,
Mr. Ernest Walls in the chair, a paper on " The
Alkalinity of Soaps with reference to their Action
on the Skin," by F. C. Beedle and T. R. Bolam,
was read, in the absence of the authors, by Miss
M. E. Laing, and illustrated by photo-ultramicro-
graphs.
Following the paper there was shown a number
of attractive exhibits designed to illustrate the
chemical industries of the district. The local gas
company exhibited special drawings of plant,
samples of by-products, methods of testing, etc. ;
Messrs. Win. Butler and Co., a graded selection
of intermediate and finished products from tars,
resins and oils; and Messrs. John Hare and Co., a
selection of colours in various stages of treatment,
also white lead products and blocks illustrative of
processes used in oil-cloth manufacture. Messrs.
Capper, Pass and Sons sent samples of Chempur tin
accompanied by test pieces and tables of physical
constants, and Messrs. John Cox and Co.'s Suc-
cessors showed sole and patent leathers. A calorific
bomb in non-rusting steel, to replace the platinum-
lined bomb, was exhibited by Mr. Waterfall, and
Messrs. Christopher Thomas and Bros, displayed
soaps in various stages of manufacture, by-products,
candles and waxes. The United Alkali Co.'s pro-
ducts were shown accompanied by some freak cry-
stals of sal-ammoniac ; Messrs. Ferris and Co. dis-
played a large selection of raw materials together
with the various tinctures, extracts, etc., obtained
from them, and a unique pharmacist's outfit; and
Messrs. Pritchard and Co. sent an interesting series
of oil fractionations. The St. Anne's Board Mills
and the South AVales Cement Co. showed specimens
of their products, and Messrs. P. and S. Evans ex-
hibited a range of leathers, with samples of the
damage done to hides by flies. Specimens of fine
chemicals were supplied by Messrs. Evans, Gadd
and Co. ; colours, varnishes, enamels and waxes by
James Rudman and S. Willis and Co. ; vinegar
and vinegar products by Messrs. Purnell and
Panter; and the Bristol Refining Co. showed a case
of graded foodstuffs.
Another meeting of the Section was held at the
Engineers' Institute, Cardiff, on December 3, Prof.
C. M. Thompson presiding. In a paper on " The
AVorks Chemist : what he is and what he might be,"
Dr. R. V. Stanford discussed the training, func-
tions, status, value, prospects, and potentialities
of a chemist in relation to industry; he reviewed
the problems connected with scientific and indus-
trial research, and with works' control, comparing
the conditions prevailing in this country with those
in other lands. He emphasised the need of better
Vol. XXXIX.. No. 24.]
REVIEW.
appreciation of the chemist on the part of the em-
ployer and capitalist, and for greater commercial
outlook and capacity on the part of the chemists,
so that they might make their value to industry
more apparent.
EDINBURGH AND EAST OP SCOTLAND.
The December meeting of this Section was held
on the 7th inst. in the Hall of the Pharmaceutical
Society. Edinburgh. Dr. D. S. Jerdau presided,
and a paper on " The "Work of the Chemical Waste
Products Committee " was read by Principal A. P.
Laurie.
This committee was appointed under the
Munitions Inventions Department during the war
to make inquiries concerning the chemical waste
products available throughout the country, and to
make investigations with a view to their utilisation.
Numerous important investigations were carried
out, and the results of these made known to
interested manufacturers. Dr. Laurie referred
particularly to the work on sulphide of arsenic
residues from sulphuric-acid works. bauxite
residues, and the residues from the rectification of
benzol. He also instanced many interesting pro-
blems which were suggestive for future researches.
Several investigations were in progress when the
work of the Committee was stopped on the declara-
tion of the armistice. The results of these would
have been of incalculable value to the industry of
the country, and Dr. Laurie was strongly of" the
opinion that a permanent organisation should have
been set up by Government t'o continue this work.
(Cf. J., 1919. 231b.)
Mr. B. D. W. Luff then read the report of a
Joint Committee of the Local Sections of the Insti-
tute of Chemistry and the Society of Chemical In-
dustry which had been appointed to consider the
proposal to start a Scientific Club in Edinburgh.
Such a club would be open to all male members
of the various scientific societies in Edinburgh and
to all graduates in" science and medicine resident in
the district. The proposal was discussed, and the
feeling of the meeting was that there was need for
an organisation in Edinburgh which would provide
an opportunity- for social intercourse among all per-
sons of varied scientific interests. It was agreed
that the proposal be circulated among people
interested, and that a meeting should be called early
in the year to discuss details.
NOTTINGHAM.
The December meeting was devoted to the read-
ing and discussion of a paper on " Theory and Prac-
tice in Chemical Industry, with special reference to
Physical Chemistry " by Dr. E. B. R. Prideaux, of
"University College, Nottingham.
Although at the moment chemical industry is
labouring under troubles mainly of a political and
social nature, the frequent neglect of theory con-
stitutes an important, if minor, handicap. The
successful practical man, who is often an uncon-
scious theorist, would doubtless add to his efficiency
by studying the theories upon which his processes
are based, and the more empirical the branch of
chemistry, the greater the need for guiding
theories. For new points of view and working
hypotheses the industry is j'ust as dependent upon
academic work as formerly (cf. Sir W. Ramsay's
presidential address to this Society in 1904). In
view of the multiplicity of the new branches,
summarised under the term " physical chemistry,"
it was difficult for the student to know what to learn
and what to leave. Research in works' laboratories
involved the application of the results of " pure "
science, and for this a thorough grasp of theoretical
foundations during a college course was essential.
The author then gave a number of illustrations of
the applications of physical principles to various
branches of chemical technology and to the work
of an analytical laboratory.
In the discussion Mr. H. D. Richmond referred
to the importance of colloidal phenomena in dairy
chemistry, such as the adsorbed layer of colloidal
matter around fat globules, the rate of motion
of fat particles under centrifugal force, and the
preservation of the right hvdrion concentration in
condensed milk; and Mr. J. T. Wood spoke of the
need of investigating the action of the emulsion of
soap, oil and water used in oil tanning. In reply,
Dr. Prideaux described some of the difficulties he
had encountered in arranging short courses of lec-
tures on physical chemistry for evening students.
NEWCASTLE-ON-TYNE.
The Joint Committee of this Section and of Arm-
strong College has arranged a course of six lectures,
three to be given by Mr. E. Hatschek on " Colloids,'''
and three by Mr. L. Archbutt on '• Lubrication and
Lubricants." The lectures will be given in the
Chemical Lecture Theatre of Armstrong College,
Newcastle, on Wednesdavs, Januarv 12 and 19
February 2, 9. 23, and March 9. commencing at
<.•'!" p.m. Applications for tickets should be sent
to Mr. A. Trobridge (1, Brunswick Place. New-
castle), together with the appropriate remittance,
viz., 10s. 6d. for the course. 2s. 6d. for a single
lecture, but members of this Society and of certain
kindred societies can obtain tickets at half the above
prices.
MEETINGS OF OTHER SOCIETIES.
THE FARADAY SOCIETY.
The annual general meeting was held at Burling-
ton House, W., on December 13, when Prof. A. W.
Porter was elected president in succession to Sir
Robert Hadfield.
At the ordinary meeting which then followed,
Mr. A. L. Norbury read a paper on " The Electrical
Resistivity of Dilute Metallic Solid Solutions." In
discussing the general interpretation of resistivity
data, the author draws attention to the methods of
plotting the results, and shows that the type of
curve obtained by plotting resistivity against tem-
perature may vary considerably. Le Chatelier's in-
terpretation of Matthiessen's results for two mutu-
ally insoluble components indicates a linear relation
between conductivity and composition. In other
cases the resistivity-composition curve more nearjy
approaches a straight line. Schleicher, however,
has shown that the mechanical arrangements of
the constituents may have an important effect. The
author gives reasons for thinking that the initial
additions of salute to a metal solvent cause an
almost linear increase in the resistivity of the sol-
vent. The examination of a large number of solid
solutions confirms this view. The effect of cold
work and crystal size on resistivity, although appre-
ciable, is small. The author has collected a large
number of experimental data showing the effect of
l'O atomic per cent, of added element on the resis-
tivity of pure metals, viz., iron, nickel, cobalt, palla-
dium, platinum, copper, silver, gold, magiusium,
and cadmium. Some results for liquid copper,
sodium,, and potassium are also given. The author
can find no obvious analogy between solid solutions
and aqueous solutions. On the contrary, the atomic
effects are large or small according as the solute is
REVIEW.
far from or near to the solvent in the Periodic
Table. The bearing of the author's work on that of
AV. H. and W. L. Bragg on crystal structure is also
discussed.
A paper by Mr. W. E. Hughes described the
forms of electro-deposited iron and the effect of the
acidity of the bath on its structure. The structures
of deposited iron may be divided into two classes : —
(1) Normal, consisting of approximately equi-axed
grains, and (2) fibrous, in which the crystal struc-
ture is indefinite. In the latter case the appearance
suggests that " the deposit is composed of a mass
of threads or fibres situated at right angles to the
cathode surface." The fibrous structure is obtained
when the electro-deposition is carried out in a bath
containing free acid, or in a neutral bath which is
kept agitated. If the current is maintained for a
sufficient time to remove the free acid, the type of
the deposit changes. It is found that there are cer-
tain macroscopic features which correspond to de-
finite microstruetures; this is of use in controlling
the process.
A paper by Prof. E. D. Campbell (University of
Michigan) on "A Force Field Dissociation Theory
of Solution applied to some Properties of Steel "
was presented by Dr. A. E. Oxley.
INSTITUTION OF PETROLEUM
TECHNOLOGISTS.
At the meeting held on December 14, a paper on
the " Estimation of Sulphur by the Lamp Method,''
by F. Esling, was read in the author's absence by
Dr. A. E. Dunstan. The author did not claim
anything new in the general method, but described
a new form of lamp and absorption apparatus.
The lamp is made from blown glass and weighs
about 15 grms. The wick-holder, which is sealed to
the cap, passes almost to the bottom of the lamp,
preventing fractionation of the oil during the burn-
ing. A small stoppered side-tube is fitted to the
body of the lamp, by means of which absolute
alcohol or other solvents may be introduced in
order to ensure combustion of the whole of the oil.
The absorption apparatus consists of a U-tube, one
limb of which is packed with glass wool saturated
with V/16 solution of sodium carbonate. Esling
found that glass wool is usually strongly alkaline
and requires careful washing with acid and water
before use. The sulphur is estimated by titration
of the absorbent liquid, after washing out the bulbs,
against N 116 sulphuric acid, using methyl orange
as indicator and neutralising to a standard tint, or
by determining the sulphur gravimetrieally as
barium sulphate.
In the discussion Dr. Dunstan stated that he
preferred a silica wick-holder to a glass one, and
for absorption apparatus he used a tube of the
Orsat absorber type filled with glass tubing of very
naTrow bore, which gave practically perfect absorp-
tion.
Dr. F. B. Thole stated that difficulty was ex-
perienced in obtaining a smokeless flame with a
chimney of the size that Esling used, but this could
be obviated by using a larger chimney. He also
suggested that unless the whole of the oil under test
was consumed there was liability of adsorption of
sulphur compounds in the wick, also that the volu-
metric estimation always gave high results owing
to the formation of a small amount of nitric acid
during the combustion.
Mr. H. V. Mitchell, in comparing this method
with that of sulphur estimation in the ealorimetric
bomb, instanced cases where explosions had oc-
curred in using the bomb for the determination of
sulphur in petrols.
Mr. L. Lomax, who had made over a thousand
sulphur determinations bv means of the bomb with-
out any injury to the apparatus, stated that these
explosions were probably due to excessive initial
oxygen pressure in the bomb, or to the use of too
much petrol. He never employed 25 atmospheres
pressure as given by most workers, but only 10 atm.,
the combustion being complete with this pressure.
Dr. W. R. Ormandy stated that glass wool was
usually made from soft glass, and if quartz wool
were substituted the difficulty in regard to alkalin-
ity would disappear.
A paper on " Boring in Palestine " was read by
Capt. P. W. Mangin.
ROYAL PHOTOGRAPHIC SOCIETY.
At the meeting held on the 14th inst., arranged
by the Scientific and Technical Group, Mr. E. L.
Turner described the results of experiments by him-
self and Messrs. Smith and Hallam on the photo-
metric determination of the relationships obtain-
able between the reflection values of the original
and of the copy in photolithographic work. The
discrepancies are fairly considerable and are not
removed by any of the modifications so far ex-
amined. Mr. G. I. Higson, of the British Photo-
graphic Research Association described the use of
crossed wedges in photometric work, originallv
suggested by Luther in 1910, but adopted only to
a very small extent. The method of obtaining the
characteristic curve by printing through a wedge
copy and a wedge at right angles to it was explained
in detail, and the advantages which this method
has in some respects over the photometer method
were discussed and illustrated by lantern slides.
Some of the abnormalities quite definitely shown to
exist with some of the plates examined would have
been regarded as irregularities of material or errors
of experiment if found by photometric measure-
ment. Mr. E. K. Hunter exhibited a form of day-
light lamp used in process houses and in textile in-
dustries for colour estimation by artificial light. A
special tint of blue glass and a diffusing glass are
used to tone down the light of an arc lamp.
PERSONALIA.
Mr. Roscoe Brunner, chairman of Messrs.
Brunner, Mond and Co., Ltd., has been appointed
a director of the Allied Chemical and Dye Corpora-
tion, New York.
The Society of Dyers and Colourists has awarded
the medal of the Dyers Company to Mr. C. F. Cross
for his paper on " Colloidal Tannin Compounds
and their Applications."
Mr. E. A. Cappelen Smith, a member of this
Society since 1906, has been awarded the gold
medal of the American Mining and Metallurgical
Society for his work on hydrometallurgy.
Prof. J. C. Irvine has been appointed Principal
of the University of St. Andrews. Dr. Irvine was
educated at the Glasgow Technical College and the
Universities at St. Andrews and Leipzig, and has
been professor of chemistry at St. Andrews since
1909.
It is announced that Dr. W. Schlenk, of the
University of Vienna, has been offered a chair of
chemistry by the University of Berlin ; Dr. K.
Thomas has accepted the chair of physiological
chemistry in the University of Leipzig; and Prof. P.
Ehrenberg, director of the Institute of Agricultural
Chemistrv at Gbttingen has been appointed to
succeed Prof. Th. Pfeiffer at the University of
Breslau.
The death is reported of Dr. E. Ador, formerly
professor of chemistry in the University of Geneva,
at the age of seventy-five.
Vol. XXXIX.. Xo. 24.)
NEWS AND NOTES.
CANADA.
Developments in Chemical Manufactures. — Benzol. —
The benzol plant recently installed at the works of
the Steel Company of Canada, Ltd., is now pro-
ducing 4000 galls, of benzol a day, mainly for use
in the preparation of motor-fuel mixtures (c/. J.,
1920, 200 R).
Fertilisers. — It is announced that the Cross Fer-
tiliser Co. has purchased a 15-aere site at Wetland,
Ontario, where a factory for the manufacture of
chemical fertilisers will be erected next spring. The
company's factory at Sydney, Nova Scotia, is suffer-
ing from a deficient supply of basic slag.
Sodium Sulphate. — The deposit of sodium sul-
phate recently discovered at Fusilier. Saskatche-
wan, is being exploited by the Southern Alberta
Refineries, Ltd.. which is endeavouring to sell its
product in Eastern Canada. The 6alt could be mar-
keted throughout the Dominion if a reasonable
freight rate were obtainable ; the present rate is
nearly §17 per ton. The Salt and Potash Company
of Canada, Ltd.. is refining sodium sulphate, de-
rived from its deposit in Saskatchewan, at Kit-
chener, and successfully marketing it.
Arsenic. — An American company has been
organised to develop the mispickel ores that occur
in Hastings County, Ontario, but mining has not
yet begun.
The Petroleum Discovery in JJ.W. Canada. — Accord-
ing to Canadian oil experts, the public would be
well advised not to take too seriously the recent dis-
covery, by representatives of the Imperial Oil Co.,
of oil near Fort Xorman. 150 miles south of the
Arctic Circle. Although the oil appears to exist in
commercial quantities (cf. J., 1920, 419 k). the diffi-
culties of transport, if not insoluble, are very great,
the distance from the nearest railway being 1200
miles. It is authoritatively stated that a pipe line
to the railway would cost 850.000,000.
The Rubber Industry. — The Canadian rubber in-
dustry has been suffering from depression during
the last few months, but it is anticipated that con-
ditions will improve early in 1921. There are 32
rubber factories with a total capital of $45,000,000
and about 12.700 employees. The value of the raw
materials used in 1919 was §19.671,453, including
$6,221,362 for raw rubber, $652,734 for reclaimed
rubber, 97.650.727 for canvas. 81.624.772 for
chemical and mineral products, and §1.060.631 for
duck and other cotton products. The total value of
the output at the factory was §36.651.610, including
tyres worth $23,398,673.
SOUTH AFRICA.
Production of Natal Spirit in 1919.— The report of
the Union Superintendent of Excise for the year
1919 states that the production of Natal spirits
(produce of the sugar cane) decreased from
1,934.040 galls, in 1918 to 1.576,619 galls, in 1919,
mainly on account of the Imperial Government's
demand for spirits having ceased. The industry of
motor fuel, including ether used in its manufac-
ture, absorbed 397,402 galls, of spirits. It was
thought that the exportation of Natal spirit would
considerably decrease with the cessation of war
demands, but it is understood that markets have
been found in England and on the Continent which
will take all that can be spared from the African
market for some time to come, and projects are on
foot to augment the plant in all the five existing
distilleries.
A new regulation was published during the year
authorising the alternative use of Simonsen oil as
a denaturant for motor fuel (natalite), and this oil
is now being used in the proportion of O'o volume
with 05 volume of pyridine bases in every 100
volumes of the fuel.
From 202,750 galls, of spirit, 89,565 galls, of
ether was manufactured m 1919, and this quantity
was disposed of as follows : — For motor fuel, 82,351
galls.; wax hardening, 4015; anaesthetic ether,
612; paint manufacture, 201; exported, 912; medi-
cinal and industrial purposes, 652.
During the year permission was obtained by the
Natal Cane By-Products, Ltd., to manufacture
chloroform, and experiments have proved that
standard chloroform of sp. gr. T4S5 can be made
cheaply enough to compete with the imported
article. The same firm has also started the manu-
facture of absolute alcohol, and it is expected that
an export trade will be obtained in this commodity.
BRITISH INDIA.
Indian Crop Forecasts. — Sesamutn. — The second
official forecast states that the total area under
sesamum for the present season is about 2,221,000
acres, which compares with 2,220,000 acres a year
ago. The condition of the c-op is fair, on the
whole, weather conditions having been somewhat
unfavourable.
iriuundnuts. — According to the first forecast, the
total area sown to groundnuts is 1.44S.O00 acres,
against 1,274.000 acres twelve months ago, or an
increase of 14 per cent. Seventy-five per cent, of
the total area is in Madras, 13'5 per cent, in Burma,
and 105 per cent, in the presidency of Bombay.
Cotton. — The first forecast gives the total area
under cotton at 18.22S,000 acres, or 3 per cent, less
than the estimate a year ago. The decrease occurs
mainly in Mysore and Hyderabad, but increases of
I 35 per cent, and 16 per cent, are reported in the
North-West Frontier Province and in the Punjab,
respectively. Weather conditions have been only
moderately favourable, and hence the condition of
the crop is only fair.
Bice.-— A decrease of nearly 2 per cent, is re-
ported in the area under rice, the acreage now
being 74,18-5.000. Prospects are stated to be
generally good (first forecast).
Industrial Progress in the United Provinces. — The
influence of post-war conditions on industry is com-
mented on in the report of the Director of
Industries for 1919-20. The difficulty in obtaining
machinery and the restricted coal supply have
retarded development, and although capital is
1 available for industrial investments, its flow is
mainly directed to the more advanced industrial
centres. The export of hides has temporarily
fallen off, owing to the cessation of army demands
and the large stocks existing in Europe and
America, and prices have fallen to almost pre-war
j level. Up-to-date cotton mills have had more
orders than they could fill.
Continued progress is reported in the glass in-
dustry. A factory is being constructed near
Firozabad for the manufacture of sheet glass,
bottles, and bangles. The need of the moment,
however, is more up to-date furnaces and methods
of manufacture. Raw material is plentiful, and
tiio results achieved by chemical research with reh
justify the expectation that the sources of supply
may be increased. The increasing import figures
show that foreign competition is becoming a factor
to be reckoned with, and the Government is obtain-
ing the services of a glass expert to advise manu-
facturers in regard to machinery and processes of
manufacture.
There is a growing demand for liquid oils as a sub-
stitute for fat in the manufacture of soap, and the
prospects of this industry are bright. Experiments
made by the Industrial Chemist show that, when
mixed in the right proportion with other in-
gredients, neem oil loses its strong odour and can
l>e solidified, and as the raw material for the manu-
facture of this oil is plentiful, a new, cheap, and
KEVIEW.
[Dee. 31. 1920.
useful ingredient is rendered available in the
manufacture of soap. Further experiments point
to the possibility of utilising cotton seed in the
manufacture of vegetable butter, and the manu-
facture of casein from cotton seed on a commercial
scale would also appear to deserve attention.
A prosperous year is recorded in the essential oil
industry. Financial assistance by the Government
has enabled experiments to be carried out with a
view to improve the indigenous processes of manu-
facture and substantial help to the industry has
resulted. An improved type of still has been intro-
duced and experiments in the distillation of roses
continued. Results, however, were only fairly
satisfactory, and the Industrial Chemist is of
opinion that a higher percentage of essence cannot
be obtained without improvement in the flower
itself. Experiments with clove-stems showed that
with the improved type of still the stems can yield
an average of 4£ per cent, of oil with a high eugenol
content. It is suggested that although clove-stems
are not indigenous, their distillation could be
undertaken in India if a cheap supply of the
raw material from Africa or elsewhere could be
arranged.
The deputation to England early in 1920 to par-
ticipate in the British Industries Fair achieved
excellent results, and the success of the Indian Sec-
tion was reported to be entirely due to the articles
sent from the United Provinces. The various
•technical schools in the provinces had a satisfactory
year and the School of Printing and Dyeing at
Cawnpore continues to attract students from all
parts of India. A printing school is being estab-
lished temporarily at Farrukhabad and the organi-
sation of peripatetic instruction in dyeing is also
under consideration. The report of the principal
of the Weaving Institute at Benares concerning
the possibilities of peripatetic weaving schools and
methods of widening the scope of their activities is
being considered by Government. The appoint-
ment of Dr. Watson, chemist, as the first principal
of the Research Institute at Cawnpore marks an
important step towards the realisation of a scheme
which was postponed owing to the war.
AUSTRALIA.
Mineral Production in Tasmania during 1919. — The
Secretary of Mines in his report for the year ended
December, 1919, states that the aggregate value of
the minerals raised in Tasmania during the year
was £1,301,090, a decrease of £449,482 on the value
of the output for the previous year. The mining
industry was hampered very much owing to the
shipping strikes on the mainland, the influenza
epidemic, and the closing of the Sulphide Corpora-
tion's works at Cockle Creek, which was the only
market for the silver-lead ores of the western and
north-western districts. Another outlet has, how-
ever, since been obtained, and the ore is now being
purchased by a Melbourne firm for direct shipment
to England.
The quantity of silver produced was 525,343 oz.,
and of lead 2357 tons, the chief producers being the
Zeehan, Mt. Farrell, Magnet, and Mt. Claude
mines. Osmiridium is being won in the Savage
River, Mt. Steward, and Wilson River districts.
In the latter part of the year the Government
geologist made an exhaustive examination of the
osmiridium fields, and his report is awaited with
great interest. The production during the year
was 1669 oz., valued at £39,614. The King Island
Scheelite Co. treated 27,832 t. of ore and obtained
199 tons of scheelite from the only scheelite mine
now in operation. A very valuable clay and sand
deposit is being worked at Kingston, and high-grade
whitening, for which there is a big market, is being
produced. The production of other metals and
minerals was as follows (the figures in brackets de-
note the production for 1918) : — Gold 7686 oz.
(10,528 oz.); copper 5027 t., of which 5014 t. was
produced at the Mt. Lyell mine ; tin 1580 t. ; zinc
285 t. ; bismuth 177 t. ; wolfram 121 t. (155 t.); coal
66,253 t. (60,163 t.); barytes 399 t.; asbestos 51 t.
(2854 t.).
Sandalwood Oil in Western Australia. — The Western
Australian Government Gazette has published a
regulation which prohibits, except for distillation
within the State, the cutting or removal of sandal-
wood from certain districts included within a radius
of 200 miles from Carnarvon (North-West Division).
The timber from this area gives a higher yield of
oil than that growing on the goldfields, and it has
been reserved in order to ensure a continuous
supply of wood for the local sandalwood-oil in-
dustry, in which two manufacturers are now
engaged in Perth. The oil is worth 22s. per lb.,
and the yield is stated to be 50 lb. per ton of
wood.— (Ind. Austral, Oct. 7, 1920.)
UNITED STATES.
Use of Helium-Hydrogen Mixtures for Airships. — Ex-
perimental tests have shown that mixtures of
hydrogen and helium containing from 14 to 20 per
cent, of hydrogen are not inflammable under aero-
nautic conditions; with more than 20 per cent, of
hydrogen the mixture is unsafe.
A New Lubricant for Chronometers. — Oil suitable
for lubricating watches has hitherto been obtained
almost exclusively from the maxillary fat of the por-
poise, and has cost as much as $250 a gallon. A
satisfactory oil for this purpose is now being ob-
tained from petroleum by a new process devised by
Dr. C. F. Mabery.
Tanning Research. — The Tanners' National
Council has decided to reorganise its research
laboratory and to remove it to one of the universi-
ties where facilities and personnel are favourable to
continuous work. The Council has also decided to
establish a tanning school in connexion with some
educational institution, and has requested the
National Research Council to assist in determining
the type of school and the best locality for it.
A New Engineering Organisation. — The Federated
American Engineering Societies, which includes
over 45.000 engineers, has been organised and the
American Engineering Council formed. The new
body will engage in public welfare work and will
seek to bring engineers into close contact with
public service. Mr. Herbert Hoover has been
elected president, and one of the first problems to
engage attention will be to inquire if there has been
retardation in production, and if so to what it has
been due.
Maltose Syrup. — Although this syrup is doubtless
destined to replace dextrose on account of its
superior properties, its immediate prospects are not
bright. Many American breweries have taken up
the manufacture of maltose syrup without possess-
ing the technical ability necessary for success, and
the new industry is, in fact, going through the
same stages as did that of dextrose. Competition
has increased owing to the increased availability of
cheap materials suitable for dextrose manufacture
and the sharp fall in the price of ordinary sugar.
Nevertheless, well-equipped plants controlled by
trained personnel are producing excellent maltose
syrup of good colour and free from the objection-
able maltose flavour.
Incomplete Combustion of Gasoline in Automobiles.--
ln a recent address to the Washington Section of
the American Chemical Society, Dr. A. C. Fieldner,
supervising chemist to the U.S. Bureau of Mines
Experimental Station, Pittsburgh, Pa., stated that
30 per cent, of the gasoline used by automobiles in
the United States was wasted owing to imperfect
Vol. XXXIX., Xo. 24.]
REVIEW.
combustion due to defective carburettors. The
estimated consumption for this purpose is 3400
million gallons yearly, and at the present price of
31 — 34 cents a gallon, the loss is calculated to be
$346,800,000. The estimated wastage was deduced
from experimental figures obtained in investigating
the ventilation of the projected vehicular tunnel
under the Hudson River (cf. J., 1920, 168 r).
Nickel in 1918. — The nickel produced in the United
States in 1918 amounted to only about 440 short
tons, valued at 8401,000, which was saved as a by-
product in the electrolytic refining of copper. The
country obtained its supply from Canada and, in
much smaller quantity, from New Caledonian ores
matted in France. The total weight of nickel in
all forms imported during 1918 amounted to
73,207,147 lb., valued at §11, 520, 775. The exports
during the period amounted to 17,469,500 lb.,
valued at §6,927,041.
Nickel or nickel salts (nickel sulphate or nickel
ammonium sulphate) were produced by the
American Smelting and Refining Co., Raritan
Copper Works, and Nichols Copper Co. The
United States Smelting and Refining Co. separated
nickel salts from copper-bearing materials made
from Canadian ores and belonging to the Inter-
national Nickel Co. The salts were all returned to
the latter company and are not included in the
estimates of American production. The Inter-
national Xickel Co., which had previously refined
all its nickel matte in America, started refining in
1918 at its new plant at Port Colbourne, Ontario.
Here it expects to be able to refine enough nickel
to supply the British Empire, as the plant was
designed to produce about 15 million lb. of nickel
per vear, together with about half this amount of
copper.— (U.S. Geol. Surv., June 29, 1920.)
Cadmium in 1919. — The world's supply of cadmium
is mainly produced in America and Germany, but
a small output is being made at the electrolytic
zinc plants of Brunner, Mond and Co. and Chance
and Hunt in England. The American production
for 1919 amounted to 99,939 lb. of metallic
cadmium, valued at §121,926, and 31.197 lb. of
cadmium sulphide, valued at 837,436. There is no
great demand for cadmium and the production
fluctuates very greatly. The maximum capacity
for metallic cadmium reported by producers is
29,000 lb. a month, or about 175 tons a year, but
the producing capacity could no doubt be brought
up to 500 short tons or more per annum. The
price of cadmium would be the deciding factor in
determining the grade of cadmium fumes which can
be worked at a profit. According to the data
obtained, the annual accumulation of cadmium-
bearing fumes is about 600 short tons carrying a
content of about 75 per cent, of metal.
In the 1918 publication (cf. J., 1919, 271 h) par-
ticulars were given of the substitution of cadmium
tor tin in solders, and in this connexion the
(London) Mining Journal of January 3, 1920, pub-
lished an abstract from the Hetallborse, which
stated that German experience has shown that
cadmium is useless for most practical purposes.
The most important use during the war was prob-
ably in bronze telegraph and telephone wires, a
traction of 1 per cent, of cadmium being used as
a deoxidiser in French and Italian manufacture.
The metal is also used as a deoxidiser in making
nickel alloys. There is, therefore, some promise
of a very considerable demand for cadmium in the
next few years.
Sulphide of cadmium is a well-known brilliant
yellow pigment of great permanency, which is used
as a protective coating over chrome-yellow in
painting vehicles. It is also extensively employed
to give colour and lustre to glass and porcelain. —
■(U.S. Geol. Surv., June 18, 1920.)
'• Commerce Reports." — The annual subscription
for Commerce Reports, published by the United
States Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce,
has been raised from §2.50 to §3.50, as from
January 1, 1921. From that date the annual re-
views of commerce and industry prepared by the
consular officers will be incorporated in Commerce
Reports, instead of appearing in supplement form
as hitherto. The Reports can be obtained from the
Superintendent of Documents, Washington, D.C.
GENERAL.
German Chemical Publications. — A drastic change
in the mode of issue of the Zeitschrift fur ange-
wandte Chemie has been decided upon for 1921.
Hitherto that journal — now coming into its 34th
year — has consisted of three parts with separate
pagination: — (1) An " Aufsatzteil," containing
original articles; (2) a " Wirtschaftlieher Teil," or
economic section; and (3) the technical portion of
the Chemiselies Zentraiblatt. These parts were
issued twice weekly, as follows: — (1), (2), and (3)
were issued together at 200 ink. yearly, (2) at
50 mk., and (1) and (2) together at 120 ink. Partly
on account of excessive cost and partly because the
division of the abstracts into " pure " and
" applied" was found to be unsatisfactory, it has
been decided to discontinue the separate issue of
the technical portion of the Zentraiblatt, but all
members of the Verein Deutscher Chemiker will be
allowed to subscribe for the entire Zentraiblatt at
the same subscription rate, viz., 200 marks, that is
asked of members of the German Chemical Society,
the price to non-members of these societies being
1000 mk. It is stated that the price of 200 mk.
docs not cover one-half of the cost of production and
distribution, the deficit being made good by the
Adolf Baeyer Society.
The Z. fur angewandte Chemie will therefore in
future consist of two parts only, an " Aufsatzteil,"
which will be modified to include reviews of pro-
gress in the different branches of pure and applied
chemistry, and an economic portion, consisting of
the existing publication Die Chemische Industrie,
to be issued as a weekly supplement. The sub-
scription price for the Zeitschrift. together with
postage, etc., has been fixed at 56s. for England and
colonies, ill. 20 for the United States, and 127 fr.
for France.
Mauritius in 1919.— The annual report of the
Department of Agriculture for 1919 estimates the
sugar crop for 1919-20 at 235.490 metric tons, which
compares with 252,770 tons in 1918, and an average
of 234,340 tons for the period 1912-1918. The crop
is estimated to consist of 94'45 per cent, vesou
sugar, about 1 per cent, of first syrup, and 4 per
cent, low syrup: the increase in the proportion of
vesou from 73'8 per cent, in 1911 to the present
figure reflects improvement in the methods of manu-
facture. The number of sugar factories in opera-
tion remained at 54. The production of alcohol
from waste molasses forms a subsidiarv industry,
but the output— 1.529,315 litres in "1918-19— is
mainly used locally for human consumption; atten-
tion, however, is being paid to the production of
motor spirit. Hitherto, most of the molasses has
been used as a fertiliser. Of aloes fibre, 10,139 bales
was exported, but trade was limited owing to lack
of tonnage and the adverse exchange. The vanilla
industry revived during the year owing to improved
demand, and the experimental plantation of limes,
which is making good progress, was extended.
There is considerable scope for the planting of
coconuts in the colony ; this crop constitutes the
staple industry of the adjacent Oil Islands.
During the year the Chemical Division analysed
754 samples of fertilisers, cane juices, molasses,
etc., and 452 samples of soil. Investigations were
made on the production of salt from sea-water (the
REVIEW.
four salines in Mauritius produce about 1800 tons
of salt per annum), on cane juices, statistics of pro-
duction, etc. Various diseases and pests of sugar
cane, and the causes of deterioration of sugars
were investigated by the Geological Division, and a
preliminary study of the cost of sugar production
was undertaken by the Statistical Division. Among
other work the Experiment Stations studied the
selection and cultivation of sugar canes, the pos-
sibility of replacing the local fibre-plant Furcroea
by sisal, and the cultivation of Sea Island and
Sakellarides cotton (cf. J., 1920, 296 it).
Suspension of Nickel Mining in Norway. — Following
the closing down of the Christianssand nickel mines,
work has now been suspended at Hosanger, and con-
sequently the production of nickel ore has entirely
ceased. — (Z. angew. Chem., Nov. 12, 1920.)
Fluorspar in Derbyshire. — It is announced that Mr.
C. S. Garnett, of Sheffield University, has dis-
covered, near Wirksworth, in Derbyshire, a deposit
of fluorspar assaying 90 — 95 per cent. CaF„, which
is 30 ft. thick and extends for about a mile. A
Chesterfield syndicate, it is stated, has secured the
land and will start operations very shortly.
Phosphate Production in French North Africa. — In a
recent discussion among the owners of phosphate
deposits it was stated that the production of phos-
phates in Tunisia, Algeria, and Morocco could be
increased to 5 million tons per annum, of which
.amount Tunisia could produce 2 million tons. The
present low output is attributed largely to scarcity
of labour and lack of transport facilities. — (U.S.
Com. Rep., Nov. 8, 1920.)
The Guano Deposits of Sardinia. — These deposits are
now being investigated by leading Italian chemists,
who have found that some of them are valueless, but
that others contain up to 49'84 per cent, of organic
matter. In recent years the guano has been used
in Sardinia and in Italy, and experiments have
proved its value as a dressing for cereal crops; the
cost cf production is, however, high owing to the
varying richness of the deposits which necessitates
careful selection of those which can profitably be
exploited. — (Z. angew. Chem., Oct. 15, 1920.)
Tungsten Deposits in Russia. — The only known
occurrence of tungsten in European Russia is that
of wolframite at the Boyev mines, Kamishlov,
Government of Perm. These mines were not worked
continuously prior to the war, and the total pro-
duction did not exceed 3J tons of ore containing
over 70% WO,. Several deposits of high-grade ore
have been worked intermittently in the Nertchinsk
district of Transbaikalia (Asiatic Russia), but the
output has been small. Indications of tungsten de-
posits have, it is stated, been found in the Kolyvan
mines in Altai ; and scheelite is said to occur in the
Zmeinogorsk mines in Altai, in the Berezov district
of the Ekaterinburg mining district, and at two
places in the Caucasus. — (U.S. Com. Hep., Sept.,
18, 1920.)
Salt Deposits in Czecho-SIovakia. — The evacuation
of eastern Rusinia by Rumania has given Czecho-
slovakia salt mines which yielded about 50,000
metric tons of salt in 1918, or about one-sixth of
the entire consumption. The beds, located at
Aknaszlatina, are estimated to contain 60 million
tons. The salt is of fine grain and contains not
more than 02 to 0-4 per cent, of impurities. Close
to the salt mine there is a large chemical factory
which produces soda and other chemicals used in the
manufacture of glass and soap, etc.; extensive
forests in the vicinity provide ample supplies of
fuel. There are also large salt deposits in the Berec
and Tzhorod districts of Rusinia, and as the former
Hungarian salt mines at Slana Bane and Solny-rad
are also within the territory of Czechoslovakia, it
is anticipated that the production will be sufficient
to -cover the whole of the country's needs. — (U.S.
Corn-Rep., Sept. 30, 1920.)
The Polish Salt Industry. — The salt mines now
being worked in Poland comprise those at Bochnia,
Dolina, Drohobycz, Kalusz, Kossow, Lacko,
Lanczyn, Stebnik, and Wieliczka in Galicia ;
Hohensalza, Gora, Wapno, in the former Prussian
territory; and Ciechocinek in the plebiscite area.
The output for 1920 is estimated at 681,000 metric
tons, and competent authorities anticipate big de-
velopments which will react favourably on the
chemical, metallurgical, tanning, and paper indus-
tries.— (Z. angew. Chem., Oct. 5, 1920.)
" Reparation " Dyes in Italy. — An agreement has
been made between the Italian Government and
the Union of Dye-makers and Dye-users relating to
the disposal of dyes and intermediates furnished by
Germany under the reparation scheme. The State
will fix the sale price of the dyestuffs, and the
Union, which has provided a guarantee of 9 million
lire (£360,000 at par), will pay all expenses con-
nected with selling, be responsible for transport,
and receive a commission on each contract. Up to
the present 700 metric tons of dyes has been re-
ceived, upon which a commission cf 4 per cent, is
payable. — (Rev. Prod. Chim., Nov. 15; Z. angew.
Chem., Dec. 7, 1920.)
The German Bauxite and Aluminium Industries. —
The total monthly output of the State-controlled
aluminium works in Germany (cf. J., 1920, 95 r)
increased from 600 tons at the beginning of 1916 to
2000 and 2500 t. through the autumn of 1917 and
in 1918; the production decreased to 1000 t. in
February, 1920, on account of the shortage of
bauxite and fuel. Two of the State-controlled
companies, the Vereinigte Aluminiumwerke A.-G.,
and the Erftwerk A.-G., have a total capacity of
30,000 tons per annum, and that of the Innwerk
A.-G. is not stated. The sales organisation of
these companies is controlled by the Metallgesell-
schaft of Frankfort.
The principal bauxite mines are situated near
Frankfort, in the Darmstadt area of Upper Hesse,
and on the western slopes of the Vogelsberg. The
pre-war prejudice against Upper-Hessian bauxite
has been partially overcome by better acquaintance
with the product, and the chief bauxite producers
have amalgamated to form a new company, the
Bauxitwerke A.-G., Frankfort a.M., which will
effect its sales in common with certain other com-
panies through the Vereinigung Hessischer Bauxit-
gruben G.m.b.h. in Munster. It is reported that
Dutch interests have invested 1.5 million marks in
the new company.— (Bd. of Trade J., Oct. 28.1920.)
Prospects of Fertiliser Supplies in Germany in 1921. —
The Ministry for Food and Agriculture has recently
issued the following information in regard to sup-
plies of fertilisers in 1921: — Given adequate sup-
plies of fuel, the potash industry should be able to
meet all demands, but the supply of nitrogenous
and phosphatic fertilisers is likely to be difficult.
The following table shows the consumption by
German agriculture of the potash (K.O), nitrogen,
and phosphoric acid (P2Os) contained in artificial
fertilisers during the years (ended April 30) men-
tioned : —
Hetrlc Tons.
Potash. Nitrogen. Phosphoric
Acid.
1914 557,000 ... 210,000 ... 630,000
1918 779,000 ... 92,000 ... 325,000
1919 670,000 ... 115,000 ... 230,000
1920 756,000 ... 158,000 ... 147,000
By continuously enlarging the factories, it is
hoped that the nitrogen industry will be able to
supply 300,000 metric tons of nitrogen, as synthetic
nitrogenous fertilisers, in 1921, and thus provide
amply for home requirements. Supplies of phos-
Vol. XXXIX.. No. 21 ]
REVIEW.
phatic fertilisers still cause grave anxiety, but there
is hope that, under the terms of the Spa Agree-
ment, large quantities of raw phosphate will be im-
ported and thus enable superphosphate manufac-
turers to fulfil orders for nest spring. Costs of
production in the fertiliser industry are so high
that any reduction in prices is hardly to be ex-
pected. The Ministry is investigating production
costs, and taking steps to stabilise prices and to
secure more prompt distribution by the railways.
—(Chem. Ind., Nov. 3, 1920.)
New German Leather Research Institute. — An Insti-
tute for Leather Chemistry has been established in
the Darmstadt " Technische Hochschule " with the
help of contributions from the State of Hesse, the
city of Darmstadt, and tanners. Prof. E. Stiasny,
of Vienna, formerly professor of the leather indus-
tries department at Leeds University, has been ap-
pointed principal of the Institute. — (Z. angew.
Chem.. Nov. 9, 1920.)
The Rumanian Oil Industry. — The 140 oil com-
panies operating in Rumania possess a combined
capital of 530.500.000 lei (£21.220.000 at par), of
which the 37 British companies possess £6,200,000
or 29'7 per cent, and the 13 Geiman and Austria-
Hungarian companies £6,480,000 or 30'6 per cent.
The percentages of the total capital held by other
countries are as follows: — America, 4'7, Belgium
21. France 65, Holland 7"5. England and Holland
11-3, Italy 14, and Rumania 63 per cent.— (U.S.
Com. Hep., Oct. 28, 1920.)
Transfer of the Argentine Oilfields. — The Compania
Argentina de Comodoro Rivadavia has entered into
an agreement to transfer its oilfields to the Buenos
Ayres Western, Great Southern, and Buenos Ayres
and Pacific railway companies for a period of 20
years, with an optional prolongation of a further
10 or 20 years, in consideration of a sum of 150,000
(paper) pesos (equivalent to about £12,100 at
normal exchange), of 12J per cent, of the gross
yield of oil after deducting quantities consumed in
working the field, and 1,000,000 paper pesos
(£83,000) for the- plant, pipe lines, petroleum,
buildings, etc. The railway companies undertake
to bore a minimum of 20 wells a year within three
years, and 6 wells a year in the following 3 years,
up to a total of 100 wells, but may cease boring
within 7 years, when the Comodoro Rivadavia Co.
may make new borings for its own account ; they
also undertake to carry 12^ per cent., or some
200,000 tons, of the oil produced at cost price. As
the railway companies require at least 600,000 tons
of oil per annum, they have the greatest interest in
producing as much petroleum as possible in the
shortest time.— (U.S. Com. Hep., Oct. 20. 1920.)
The Potosi Mining District in Bolivia.— The Potosi
district is essentially a mining district which
centres around the Cerro de Potosi mountain. The
chief ores are those of silver and tin, but ores of
copper, lead, antimony, and other metals are also
mined. During 1918 the district exported the fol-
lowing minerals: — Tin concentrates, 4639'5 metric-
tons; tin bars, 582 t. ; wolfram, 1990 kg.; silver,
2284 t. ; copper, 31 t. ; and bismuth, 18-36 t. There
are three important mining companies, one of
which owns the only smelter in Bolivia, whilst
another, of French origin like the first, has a
modern concentration plant which turns out about
5 tons of barilla, with 55 — 60 per cent, of tin, a
day. The third company is tho Anglo-Bolivian
Mining Syndicate, Ltd., which owns important tin,
silver, and bismuth mines near Atocha, in Southern
Bolivia. A company, controlled by British interests.
installed two dredges to work alluvial tin deposits
in the bed of a river near the city of Potosi, but
work has stopped, as the dredges, which cost about
£100,000, were burned. Mining methods, in
general, are antiquated. — (U.S. Com. Rep., July
19, 1920.)
PARLIAMENTARY NEWS.
HOUSE OF COMMONS.
Zinc Concentrates.
Sir P. Lloyd-Greame, replying to Mr. Wignall,
stated that the Government had agreed to purchase
Australian zinc concentrates for a pericd of 10 years
after the declaration of peace. Stocks of concen-
trates held by the Government amounted to 503,000
tons, but none had been acquired since Januarv 1,
1920, owing to the strike at Broken Hill. The
adverse state of the home spelter industry was not
due solely to the Government con+ract with Aus-
tralia.—(Dec. 6.)
Petroleum Exploration in England.
Mr. Hope, replying to Mr. Holmes and Viscount
Curzon, said that of the seven borings in Derby-
shire one has been completed, two were temporarily
suspended, and four were still in operation. The
Hardstoft well was producing 50 barrels a week, the
total production to November 27 being 4318 barrels
(557 t.), which had been sold at £22 10s. per ton ; a
pumping test was to be made shortly. Out of the
sum of £1,000,000 voted by Parliament to be ex-
pended under the agreement with Messrs. S. Pear-
son and Son, Ltd.. the total expenditure up to
the end of October, 1920, was £469,830, including
£70.000 spent during the present financial year.
(Cf. J., 1920, 359 k.)— (Dec. 6, 7.)
Key Industries Bill.
Answering Sir P. Magnus, Sir P. Lloyd-Greame
stated that the Government intended to introduce
the Bill dealing with key industries, other than
the dye industry, as the first measure next session.
—(Dec. 8.)
Protection of Dyestufj Industries Abroad.
In reply to Mr. Briant, Sir R. Home said that
with regard to the protection of the dye industry
in certain foreign countries, the French tariff
duties on chemicals were revised in November, 1919,
when the classification of coal-tar dyes was con-
siderably elaborated and the tariff rates on certain
classes of these dyes increased; at the same time all
colouring materials and chemicals imported from
Germany in excess of the levy imposed by the Peace
Treaty were subjected to an import licence. In the
United States, an Act of 1916 revised the tariff
duties on dyestuffs and imposed special and
additional duties on dyes and intermediates for at
least five years; the prohibition of the importation
of dyes, save under licence, established during the
war. was still in force. In Switzerland most dyes
were subject to a small duty under the ordinary
customs tariff. — (Dec. 13.)
Coal Output.
Mr. Br'idgeman informed Mr. Swan that the coal
output for the three weeks following the full
resumption of work in the mines was 15,563,400
tons; in the corresponding period of 1919 the ouput
was 14,338,000 t.— (Dec. 13.)
Electricity Bill.
In a written answer to Mr. Simm, Sir E. Geddes
said that time had not been available for the con-
sideration of the Electricity Bill, owing to its con-
troversial nature, but the Electricity Commisioners
had found a general disposition on the part of
undertakers and authorities to co-operate in the
promotion of voluntary schemes within the ambit
of the Act passed last year. The Bill now on the
Order Paper would be withdrawn and replaced by
a smaller measure. — (Dec. 13.)
Sir E. Geddes presented the Electricity (Supply)
(No. 2) Bill, which is intended to amend the Elec-
REVIEW.
[Dec. 31. 1920.
tricity (Supply) Act, 1919, and to provide the Elec-
tricity Commissioners with powers urgently needed
to enable them to proceed with their statutory
duties. — (Dec. 14.)
Abatement of Smoke and Noxious Vapours.
Replying to Mr. Morrison, Mr. Parker stated
that the Interim Report of the Departmental
Committee on Smoke and Noxious Vapours Abate-
ment had been communicated to the Housing Com-
missioners, who had been instructed to consider
proposals submitted with a view to giving effect to
its recommendations. Local authorities would be
invited to consider the various substitutes sug-
gested for the open coal fire where these could be
economically adopted. — (Dec. 14.)
Imports and Exports of Coal and Dyestuffs.
Sir R. Home, in a written answer to Mr. Parkin-
son, supplied the following information regarding
the trade in coal and dyestuffs between the United
Kingdom, Germany and Switzerland during the
period January-October, 1920 : —
United Kingdom. Germany. Switzerland.
Tons. Tons.
Exports of coal 2395 . . 160.993
coal-tar pitch . . . . 271 . . 827
tar oil. creosote, etc. . . 14.883-5 . . 191-7
other products of coal-tar
distillation 452-2 . . 3493-8
Imports of coal-tar intermediates and
dyestuffs 2021 . . 2573 5
The total re-exports to all countries of coal-tar
distillation products of foreign or colonial manu-
facture were: — February, 10 t. ; July, 29'1 t. ;
August, 9-8 t. ; and September, 125 t.— (Dec. 14.)
Tungsten Ores.
In answer to Mr. Wignall, Mr. J. Hope said that
the Government was no longer under any obligation
to purchase tungsten ore from any source. As a
result of war contracts, about 1271 tons of tung-
sten ores had been received from Australia during
the present year, but not more than 200 tons of
wolfram and molvbdenite remained unsold. —
<Dec. 6.)
Unemployment in the Fine Chemical Trade.
Mr. Bonar Law informed Major Barnes that he
was aware of the growing unemployment in the
drug and fine chemical trade, and with regard to
the urgent need of these materials in Russia he
referred him to the Prime Minister's statement,
made on December 13, to the effect that negotia-
tions were proceeding with the Russian Trade Dele-
gation with a view to establishing trade relations
with that country. — (Dec. 13.)
"Women and Young Persons (Employment in Lead
Processes) Bill.
The Lords' amendments to the Women and
Young Children (Employment in Lead Processes)
Bill were agreed to on December 14 ; they were of
an explanatory or drafting nature. In Clause 1
the prohibition of the employment of women, etc.,
in the reduction of zinc or lead ores, and in the
manufacture of oxide, carbonate, chromate, or sili-
cate of lead, was extended to the treatment of
such ores, and to the manufacture of acetate and
nitrate of lead.
Sugar Factory, Jamaica.
Replying to Mr. Jesson, Col. L. Wilson said that
the proposed central sugar factory in Jamaica
would have a capacity of 10,000 tons per annum
and would treat sugar-cane grown by small-holders
as well as cane from other sources. A consulting
engineer was proceeding to Jamaica to advise the
•Colonial Government. — (Dec. 15.)
Duty on Pyroxylin Solution.
Mr. Chamberlain, answering Mr. Barrand, said
that the import duty on all preparations and mix-
tures containing spirits was assessed on the quantity
of proof spirit they contained, and that no excep-
tion was possible, or advisable, in the case of
pvroxvlin solution (used in making patent leather).
—(Dec. 16.)
Dyestuffs (Import Regulation) Bill.
The Bill was considered in Standing Committee
on December 9, 13, 14, 15, and, with few excep-
tions, the amendments moved were rejected. These
included proposals to limit the import prohibition
to German dyes; to exclude intermediates, synthetic
medicinal products, and new dyes (for one year) ;
and to reduce the period of prohibition to three
years. Sir R. Home assured the Committee that
at least one scientific man (who should be a chemist)
would be appointed as a neutral member of the
licensing committee.
On the Report Stage (Dec. 17), a new clause wa3
inserted providing that the import prohibition of
any dye, etc. be terminated when it is sold by manu-
facturers for export at a price below that current
in the home market. Another clause proposing to
limit dividends paid by a dye-making firm to 8 per
cent., so long as the import of any dye made by it
was prohibited, was rejected, as was also a proposal
to permit the continuance of an import licence until
it was proved that the same article was being manu-
factured in this country. An amendment pre-
scribing that any licence granted in a particular
case should ipso facto become a general licence was
negatived, and a motion to substitute four dye-
users, of whom two should represent workpeople,
for five, was also rejected. A new sub-section
authorising the free ingress of any dyes produced
within the Empire was added, but an attempt to
limit the period of operation of the Act to one year
met with no success. The Government proposal to
bring the Act into operation on January 15. 1921,
was accepted. The Third Reading was agreed to by
111 votes to 25, and the Bill was passed.
The Bill passed through its several stages in the
House of Lords, and was reported to the House
without amendment; it received the Royal Assent
on December 23.
LEGAL INTELLIGENCE.
Action over Similar Trade Marks. J. Brown and
Co., Ltd., v. The Zeehol Manufacturing Co.
In the Chancery Division, on December 14, the
registration of the trade mark " Zykol," granted to
Messrs. J. Brown and Co., Ltd., of Dewsbury, in
respect of a liquid disinfectant, was successfully
opposed by the Zeekol Manufacturing Co., of
Hampstead, N.W., on the ground that the trade
mark sought by the respondent company was prac-
tically identical with that used by the appellant
company for ointment and soap, viz., " Zeekol," as
the preparations could be used for similar purposes.
The defence submitted that there was no likelihood
of confusion, as " Zykol " was mainly used by sur-
geons and nurses, although some was sold to the
general public.
Mr. Justice Eve, in giving judgment, declined to
accept the view that ointment and soap could not
be described as medicines for human use, and held
that the word " medicine " connoted remedies both
for external and internal use. As the preparations
in question were both medicines, and as there was
such a similarity between their names that the risk
of confusion was inevitable, the appeal would be
allowed, with costs.
Vol. XXXIX., No. 24.]
REVIEW.
REPORTS.
Mixes and Quarries. General Report with
Statistics, 1919. By The Chief Inspector ok
Mines. Part II. — Labotjb. [find 1007. 9-/ ]
Part III.— Output. [Cmd. 1035. 4rf.]
Output. — The total value of the minerals raised
daring the year 1919 was £335,673,503, representing
an increase of 78i million sterling over the output
value for 1918. The actual quantities raised are
given in Part I. of the Report <<■/. J.. 1920. 362 r).
Coal.— The output of 229.779.517 tor.s of coal
represents an increase of 2 million tons on the pre-
vious year's production. The average pithead price
of coal increased from 20s. lid. in 1918 to 27s. 4d.
in 1919. The amount of coal exported as such was
35,249,568 tons, of which 46 per cent, went to
France, 13 per cent, to Italy, and about 4 per cent,
each to Denmark, Egypt, Gibraltar, Sweden and
Norway; a further quantity of 12,021.242 tons was
used for bunkering ships engaged in foreign trade,
and coke equivalent to 4,052,230 tons was also ex-
ported; so that the total quantity of coal leaving
the country was 51,323,040 tons, or 22'5 per cent,
of the total output. The amount of coal remaining
for home consumption was 178.456.477 tons, equal
to 3866 tons per head of the population.
Tlie total coal carbonised dropped to 35,190,754
tons (38,219,479 tons in 1918), the decrease being
almost entirely confined to the coke-oven industry,
which produced 11J million tons of coke, compared
with over 13 million tons in the previous year. The
number of coke ovens in operation was 15,133, as
against 16,292 in 1918, and it is significant that over
900 beehive ovens were shut down. Over 2 million
tons of briquettes, valued at nearly £5.000,000,
was produced in South "Wales.
7ron. — Iron ore is by far the most important of
the metallic minerals raised in the United Kingdom,
and the recorded output of 12.254,195 tons of ore
yielded 3.808,095 tons of metal, or more than half
the total pig iron made in this country. The out-
put of iron ore is classified under the three heads : —
Ore. Metal from Ore.
Tons. Tons.
From Mines under the C'nu! Mines Aet . . 4.049,944 1,484.983
..Metalliferous 1.313,218 664.274
From Quarries 5.991.033 1,658.838
Of the iron ore obtained from quarries over 46 per
cent, was derived from Lincolnshire and nearly 34
per cent, from Northamptonshire.
When the quantity of imported ore is added to
the home supply, we find that there was 17.710.870
tons of ore available for the British blast furnaces.
The returns for the pig-iron industry are compared
in the following table: —
1919.
1918.
Works in operation
120
119
Furnaces built . .
490
487
Furnaces in blast
279
317
Pie iron made . .
7,417,401 tons . .
9.107.3S4 tons
Ore used
10,044. 272 ..
22.5 44,064 „
Coal used
2,309,587 „
2.6 6,840 ..
Coke used
9,384,337 „
11,280,680 „
The yields of metals from other
home-produ
s were as follow
5 : —
1919.
1918.
Antimony
Nil
4 tons
Copper
144 tons . .
179 „
Lead
10.277 „
10.909 „
Silver
68.414 oz.
Tin
3272 tons . .
3954 tons
Zinc
2436 ..
3245 „
Iron pyrites. — During the year only 7336 tons of
iron pyrites (mostly cuprous') was mined, and
344.457 tons imported.
Lead. — Imports of lead amojnted to 4435 tons of
ore and 217.610 tons of metal, and as the exports
totalled 25.672 tons of metal, it follows that
some 205.105 tons of lead was consumed in the
country.
Manganese. — The mines of North Wales produced
only 12,078 tons of ore (17,456 in 1918); imports
amounted to 264,800 tons.
Shales. — The Scotch shales continue to give aver-
age yields of 20 galls, of oil and 40 lb. of sulphate
>ii ammonia per ton of shale. The average price at
the mines rose from 9s. lid. in 1918 to lis. 4d in
1919.
Petroleum. — The petroleum imports show a drop
of 45 per cent, on the previous vear, the total for
1919 being 721,416.844 gal.
Mercury. — The quantity of mercury imported was
2.841,893 lb. and 3.438.423 lb. of foreign mercury
was exported.
Salt. — The amount of British salt exported was
345,209 tons, which was 39 per cent, more than in
the previous year.
Tin. — The mean monthly price of standard tin
was £257 10s. The imports of tin were 35,737 tons
of ore and 22,901 tons of metal, and 14,692 tons of
metal was exported.
Tungsten. — The mines of Dev in and Cornwall
produced 166 tons of tungsten ore ( ? concentrates) ;
the Cornish ores (? concentrates), which formed the
bulk of the production, showed an average metal
content of 63"8 per cent.
Zinc. — The mean monthly price of zinc was
£42 5s. The imports included 78,552 tons of ore
and 98,905 tons of metal, and 10,124 tons of metal
was exported.
Labour. — During the year 1919 research work
was carried out at the Eskmeals Experimental
Station on the following subjects, good progress
being recorded: — (1) The propagation of flame in
mixtures of firedamp and air, (2) the electrical
ignition of mixtures of firedamp and air, (3)
magneto exploders, (4) sparks due to frictional heat,
(51 the spontaneous combustion of coal, (6) the com-
position of coal, (7) the limits of inflammability of
mixtures of vapours and air, and (8) the ignition
of clouds of carbonaceous dusts. The routine work
carried out at the station included the analysis of
980 samples of mine air and 73 of mine dust.
The use of electricity in mines showed an increase
of over 6-J per cent, on the previous year, the total
horse-power of the electrical machinery in use being
1.028.927. The number of electrical coal-cutting
machines in use at the end of trie year was 1950,
against 1797 in 1918. The six fatalities which
occurred were due to defects in the earthing cir-
cuits. In the metalliferous mines the consumption
of electricity was 20,915 h.-p. (See also J., 1920,
362 r.)
Interim Report ox Glass Bottles and Jars and
Scientific Glassware. Prepared b;i a Sub-
committee appointed by the Standing Com-
mittee on Trusts. Pp. 9. London: ff.il/.
Stationery Office. 1920. [Cmd. 1066. 2d.]
The Sub-Committee was appointed under the
Profiteering Acts, 1919 and 1920, to inquire into
the operations and the influence upon prices of any
trade combination in the glass industry, and the
present report deals with the glass-bottle trade and
scientific glassware.
Glass bottles and jars. — The present prices of
glass bottles and jars are 180 and 200 per cent.
higher than those charged in 1914; supplies are now
improving, but deliveries, especially of medical
bottles, are still very uncertain. Attention is drawn
to the influence of increased prices of bottles upon
the prices of medicines, foods, and beverages, the
money value of the container in some cases being
greater than its contents. The present costs of
manufacture are 210 and 250 per cent, above those
of 1914. Output is being increased and labour
1 by the introduction of the Owens auto-
matic machine, and the savings effected therewith
REVIEW.
vary from 19 to 43 per cent., according to the type
of bottle. . .
The inter-relations of the principal combinations
of glass manufacturers are set out in the report,
and it is stated that the arrangements made offer
prospects of a large output at a low cost, but it
appears to the Sub-Committee that they have re-
duced any chance of bottles reaching the consumer
at a reasonable price. A substantial reduction in
price should follow the more extended use of the
Owens machine, which as yet has no serious com-
petitor. The prices fixed by the Association of
Glass Bottle Manufacturers of Great Britain and
Ireland are minimum prices, and at present they
are the same for hand-mado as for machine-made
bottles, but only a few Owens machines have so far
been installed.
Scientific, glassu-are. — At the outbreak of the war
certain glass-bottle manufacturers were induced by
the Government to develop the manufacture of
laboratory glassware. As this country had pre-
viously been dependent for supplies upon enemy
countries there were difficulties to be overcome, and
Government representatives are said to have given
verbal promises of post-war support as an induce-
ment to proceed with new processes. Prices were
initially based on those ruling in Sweden in 1915,
and were subsequently advanced in proportion to
the increased cost of production. In 1916 the manu-
facturers formed the British Chemical Ware Manu-
facturers' Association, which determined prices and
arranged for any member to visit the works of any
other member with a view to mutual assistance.
The Science Masters' Association complained that
the progress of scientific instruction was endangered
bv the inferior quality and excessive prices of
British-made glassware, and in consequence its
members no longer felt justified in keeping their
pledge not to purchase from enemy countries for
five years after the war; specimens of recent pur-
chases were submitted in support of their com-
plaint. The Sub-Committee has witnessed manu-
facturing operations, and does not consider the
specimens submitted to be representative; and it
cannot express an opinion upon the prices as manu-
facturers are not yet able to produce cost figures.
Manufacturers state that their products are
equal, and in some cases superior, to pre-war
foreign supplies, and that the experience gained
and the machinery installed would enable them to
work on an economic basis, but they cannot extend
their works without some safeguard against unfair
foreign competition.
Continental goods are now being imported and
sold at prices below the cost of manufacture in this
country, and those imported goods which are not
yet manufactured here are sold at five times the
pre-war prices.
Prohibition of imports of scientific glassware ex-
cept under licence is desirable, and in view of the
ln=sos incurred in experimental work, such tem-
porary support should be given to the industry as
is consistent with fairness to consumers so as to
enable it within reasonable time to meet foreign
competition.
Report ox the Trade axd Economic Conditions of
Tfrket DrniNG 1919. By Catt. C. H.
CouRTTTORPE-MrxnoE. Commercial Secretary to
the British Riqh Commission, Constantinople
Pp. 191. London: II. M. Stationery Office.
1920. [Cmd. 942. 2s.]
For the purpose of this report Turkey is under-
stood to comprise the pre-war Turkish territory in
Europe and that part of Asia Minor now adminis-
tered by the Army of the Black Sea. This is the
first British official report on Turkey which has
been published since 1913.
The natural resources of the country include
cereals, fruit, and vegetables, vegetable oils, cotton,
wool, silk, tobacco, opium, hides and skins, gall
nuts, valonea, and timber. The mineral wealth is
known to be considerable, especially in the vilayet
of Aidin, but development is very backward. Among
the minerals found are ores of antimony, arsenic,
chromium, copper, iron, lead, zinc, manganese,
mercury, and nickel ; also emery, salt, asbestos,
asphalt, alum, borax, gold, coal, lignite, and sul-
phur. The well-known emery deposits along the
Aidin railway were not worked during the war, but
10,000 tons of old stock was exported during 1919,
one-half to the United Kingdom and two-fifths to
America. The production of salt in the same vilayet
supplied the whole of the Ottoman Empire, the
annual output being estimated at about 151,400
long tons; and the antimony mines of Tchinli-Kaya,
about 40 miles S.E. of Smyrna, produce normally
about 1000 tons per annum. The various deposits
of chromite were worked during the war under
German military control, the important Karliar
mine being one of those exploited by the firm of
Krupp, which is still the nominal owner. It is
stated that the ore assays 50 per cent. Cr20,, that
the property is a very promising one, that 20,000
tons of high-grade ore was mined prior to 1914, and
750 t. sent away during the war. A total of 16,500 t.
of mined ore is said to have been left behind by
the Germans, but it is doubtful if its value would
bear the cost of transport. A second group of
chromite mines in the same district was worked by
a Munich firm, the chief of which (Dagh-Ardi) is
much richer than the Karliar and is equipped with
a modern ore-dressing plant having a daily capacity
of 30 t. ; its pre-war annual output is stated to
have been 20,000—30.000 t., which was reduced
to about 15,000 t. during the war. The deposit
is extensive. A shorter account is given of the coal
mines at Eregli (HeracleaV on the Black Sea, where
the present output of coal is estimated at 20,000 t.
a month (cf. J., 1918, 459 rV
Argentiferous lead and zinc ores are mined and
smelted at Balia Karaidin, where the yearly pre-
war production was about 120,000 t. of ore, vield-
ing 12.000 t. of lead, 24.000 kg. of silver, and 84 kg.
of gold, also 10,000 t. of zinc ore containing 41 per
cent, of metal. The lignite mines were developed
during the war, and the estimated total output is
now 63,000 t. monthly. A manganese mine was
opened up and worked by the Germans near Eregli
in 1916 and a daily output of 73 t. attained;
8000 t. was mined, and there is a large stock await-
ing shipment. There is no doubt that the mineral
resources of Turkey constitute a great potential
asset, but exploitation is rendered very difficult by
the lack of coal.
Apart from mining, there are but few industries
in Turkey, and over half of these are concentrated
in the Constantinople district. Official (Turkish)
statistics give the number of factories existing in
1915 at 282. with 14,060 employees ; they include 13
tanneries, 55 paper mills and printing works, and
13 chemical factories. Manufactured goods are
largely imported, and in this trade the United
Kingdom holds first place, supplying textiles, tin-
plate, paints, 6oap, drugs, chemicals, etc. The
chemical trade was mainly held by Germany and
Austria until 1912, but by 1914 an agency of a large
British firm had succeeded in capturing the market.
With the exception of a small French trade in
drugs, the United Kingdom has been the s fle
source of pharmaceutical products since the
armistice. Early in 1919 the trade in perfumery
was in French hands, but latterly a British firm has
established itself with success (cf. J., 1920, 227 r).
Window glass was formerly almost exclusively sup-
plied by Belgium. At the present time there is a
great shortage of glass in Turkey. There is also a
Vol. XXXIX., No. 24.]
REVIEW.
great demand for building materials and cement,
but the prospects of English trade in the latter
commodity are not promising as cement of good
quality is being supplied from South Russia and
sold at a price 40 per cent, lower than that of
English cement. (Cf. J., 1920, 60 r.)
OFFICIAL TRADE INTELLIGENCE.
(From the Board of Trade Journal for December
9 and 16.)
OPENINGS FOR BRITISH TRADE.
The following inquiries have been received at the
Department of Overseas Trade (Development and
Intelligence), 35, Old Queen Street, London, S.W.I,
from firms, agents, or individuals who desire to
represent U.K. manufacturers or exporters of the
goods specified. British firms may obtain the
names and addresses of the persons or firms referred
to by applying to the Department and quoting the
specific reference number.
Locality of Firm
Materials.
Reference
or Agent.
Number.
Australia
Glassware, hearth tiles, alu-
minium ware
789
Photographic materials
791
Chemicals, drugs, perfumery
♦412/20/7/330
British Empire
Earthenware, tiles, paint, var-
nish
788
,. West Indies
Soap, paper, oil meal, cocoa . .
806
Canada
Bronze, copper, brass, nickel
silver, copper alloys
822
Cold-rolled steel, tinplate.
black plates
826a
Egypt
Photographic materials (ten-
der for)
New Zealand
800
Heavy chemicals
802
Soap, candles, dyes, inks.
803
Crockery, glassware, paint.
varnish, colours
805
Belgium
Fine chemicals, drugs, phar-
maceutical and photo-
graphic products
833
France
Linseed oil
837
Greece
Leather
837a
Hungary
Machine oil, tinplate. copper,
tinning materials
812
Italy
Galvanised sheets, lead, solder.
zinc sheets, caustic soda
838
Non-ferrous metals
839
Chemicals, oils
839a
Norway
Chemicals, soda, oil, lard . .
840
Spain
China, glass, tiles, iron and
steel sheets
813
Galvanised iron, tanning ex-
tracts, etc
844
Mesopotamia
Paper
816
United States
818
Argentina
Plateglass, bottles
819
Mexico
Fats, coconut oil. tallow.
grease
852
Paper of all kinds
853
Peru" '.'.
Chemicals, drugs, glass, tin-
plate, soap, galvanised
iron
854
• The Official Secretary. Commercial Information Bureau.
Austialia House, Strand, London. W.C. 2.
Markets Sought. — An agent in Turkey desires
to get into touch with U.K. importers of gum
tragacanth and copper. [815.]
A firm in Cuba wishes to dispose of the mining
rights of certain iron-ore properties. [Inquiries
to the Department.]
TARIFF. CUSTOMS. EXCISE.
Algeria. — A consumption duty has been imposed
on glucose, and that on sugar has been increased.
Austria. — Export licences for soap other than
common soap, are no longer required.
Czechoslovakia.— Minimum export prices have
been fixed by the Foreign Trade Commission for
sheet glass, kaolin, china, matches, timber, hops.
Among the articles subject to the new " manipu-
lation " fee are dyes, beer, cellulose, sawdust,
chemicals (except hydrochloric acid), kaolin, china,
faience, certain kinds of glass, metals, paper, shoe
polish, tar and its derivatives, wax, and yeast.
Guatemala.— After January 1, 1921, the customs
duties on alcoholic beverages will be increased by
100 per cent.
Kelantan. — The import duty on kerosene, petrol
and/or other fuel oil, will be refunded provided the
oil has been used for the propulsion of any machine
used exclusively for soil cultivation.
Latvia. — A translation of the revised import
tariff may be seen at the Department, 18, Queen
Anne's Gate, S.W. 1.
Malta. — The revised import tariff is set out in
the issue for December 16. The duties have in
many cases been increased. Among the duty-free
articles are cocoa, lard, preserved milk, charcoal,
hides, skins, manure, marble, sand, cement, indigo,
scientific instruments, leather, paper, printing ink,
laundry soap, copper sulphate, and sulphur powder.
An ad valorem duty varying from 5 to 20 per
cent, is chargeable on acids, alkalis, candles,
chemicals, drugs, pottery, glass, rubber, matches,
oils, paint, colours, soap (except laundry), wax, etc.
Netherlands. — Export prohibitions have been
withdrawn from, inter alia, animal fats, butter,
asbestos, caustic potash, potassium carbonate,
charcoal, glue, margarine, condensed and dried
milk, soda lye, soda salts and chloride of lime.
Norivay. — Importation of earthenware is pro-
hibited as from December 6.
Poland. — The list of goods which may be im-
ported without permit may be seen at the Depart-
ment, 18, Queen Anne's Gate, S.W. 1.
Bumania. — The export is prohibited of, inter
alia, caustic soda, cement, copper, brass, rubber,
gutta-percha, gums, iron ores, oast iron, lard, fats,
milk, paper, paraffin wax, artificial phosphates,
rape seed, and zinc.
Among the articles which may be exported subject
to specified conditions in each case are raw cellu-
lose, ferro-manganese, light benzine, lamp oil,
heavy benzine, lubricating grease, and other petro-
leum products.
Import licences will not be issued for cocoa and
chocolate.
Spain. — As from December 1, the customs duties
on many articles have been greatly increased as a
temporary measure, including marble, alabaster,
glass, earthenware, porcelain, textiles, cork,
leather, optical instruments, alcoholic beverages,
chocolate, and rubber wares.
Sweden. — The temporary suspension of the
customs duties on margarine, butter, and condensed
milk is continued until February 28, 1921.
The export of cocoa and chocolate is prohibited
except under licence as from November 22.
Trinidad. — The new customs tariff is now in
force.
Goods grown, produced or manufactured in the
British Empire are subject to a preferential tariff.
Among the articles affected are explosives, polishes,
tiles, candles, cement, chemicals, china, porcelain,
pottery, cocoa, glass, gums, matches, drugs, con-
densed milk, oils, paint, colours, varnish, paper,
perfumery, salt, soap, starch, sugar, vinegar, wax.
Among the articles exempted from duty are
certain drugs, raw rubber, balata, chicle, raw hides
rnd skins, bones, horn, manure, insecticides, fungi-
cides, copra, tanning and dyeing materials, fuel
and scientific apparatus.
Turkey. — The export of olive oil is allowed from
all parts of Turkey.
REVIEW.
COMPANY NEWS.
British Glass Industries, Ltd. — At the first
ordinary general meeting, held on December 8,
the chairman, Mr. C. W. Milne, stated that
the company (which is largely a holding one)
had been earning profits at the rate of over
£600,000 per annum during the past nine months,
notwithstanding that much of the capital expendi-
ture had not yet become remunerative. The Canning
Town factory had two furnaces in operation, and
three more ready to begin work. At Charlton, two
Owens machines had been working since September,
two more would be ready this month, and a further
four in three months' time. The two factories had
already turned out 15 million bottles. In spite of
very strenuous foreign competition, orders had been
booked far ahead, and the undertaking was at pre-
sent able to hold its own. The position of the chemi-
cal, optical, and illuminating branches of Webb's
Crystal Glass Co., Ltd., was less fortunate, and they
looked to the Government to extend the help which
had been promised. It was proposed to issue at a
later date a further £325,000 of capital to pay off
bank loans and to increase the earning power of
capital already issued (cf. J., 1920, 225 r).
British Cellulose and Chemical Manii.u-
turing Co., Ltd. — Addressing the second annual
general meeting, on December 9, Sir Harry
MeGowan, chairman of the company, explained
that work had been carried on at a loss up to June
30 last, and that the large issue of capital made in
the spring did not become available until after the
close of the financial year (cf. J., 1920, 423 r). The
change over from dope to artificial silk manufac-
ture had necessarily involved a period of working
without profits. Strikes had caused serious delays,
but progress was now better, and the equipment for
producing 9 tons of silk per day should be complete
by the end of March; chemical and mechanical diffi-
culties were being overcome. Artificial silk was
to be considered the main product of the under-
taking, and other activities would be restricted
until this manufacture had been established. The
insulating property of the silk was several times
that of the natural fibre, its elasticity is equal to
that of natural silk, and in many important quali-
ties it was superior to all other artificial silks. There
would be no difficulty in dyeing it. The company's
carbide plant was the largest in the country, and
the aspirin plant was large enough to render the
country independent of foreign supplies.
Anglo-Persian Oil Co., Ltd. — Presiding at the
meeting of this company, held on December 20, Sir
C. Greenway drew attention to the developments
of the past year. He said that Scottish Oils, Ltd.,
was now making a fair profit, although working
expenses had increased by £700,000 per annum.
The declining price, however, of sulphate of am-
monia and some of the other main products would
have an adverse effect. The Scotch refineries were
being extended to increase the output of shale oil
and to refine Persian crude oil. The refinery at
Swansea should be ready to start during the next
six months, and the benzine and kerosene produced
there, and also the output in Scotland, would be
marketed by the company's subsidiaries, the British
Petroleum Agency and the Scottish Oil Agency.
Arrangements had been made to form a French
company (capital 100 million francs) to refine and
distribute oil and to develop French oil resources.
An oil refinery had been established in Australia
(cf. J., 1920, 339 r), and exploratory work under-
taken in New Guinea and Papua. The British Oil
Bunkering Co., Ltd., had been formed to establish
bunkering installations in all the chief ports. There
was no ground for pessimism in regard to future
supplies of oil fuel; the difficulty was to open up
new supplies in a sufficiently short time. The
world's production of liquid fuel available outside
the countries of origin was about 10 million tons,
but in a few years' time this should be increased to
50 millions. The statement that Persian petrol was
almost useless for aviation purposes was entirely
without foundation. Although no new oilfields had
been opened up in Persia, the existing fields were
producing at an extraordinarily high rate. In order
to meet increasing transport requirements, the
British Tanker Co., Ltd. (a subsidiary) had placed
orders for a further large number of tankers.
The accounts for the year ended March 31, 1920,
show an issued capital of £11,075,000, debentures
£5,000,000, and reserves £1,815,000. The gross
profit was £3,458,418, and the net balance at credit
of profit and loss £1,848,841 (subject to tax). The
preference shares are receiving 8 per cent, and the
ordinary shares 20 per cent., for the year. H.M.
Government has, said the chairman, already
received, directly and indirectly, much more than
cent, per cent, on its investment in the company.
British Ammonium Co., Ltd. — The statu-
tory meeting of this new company was held
in Manchester on December 20. Dr. F. H.
Bowman, the chairman, said that the company's
processes of ammonia manufacture, the foreign
patent rights of which had all been sold, utilises
atmospheric nitrogen and produces yields of
ammonium sulphate 25 times greater per ton of fuel
consumed than the ordinary coal-distillation pro-
cess. The plant was simple and inexpensive, could
be worked by unskilled labour under ordinary super-
vision, and would form a necessary auxiliary to ex-
isting gas-works' plant.
Cassel Cyanide Co., Ltd. — The profits for the
year ended September 30 last, amounted to £95,700,
which compares with £69,900 for the previous year.
A final dividend of Is. per share is recommended,
which will make the total dividend for the year up
to Is. 9d., against 2s. a year ago, when the capital
was much smaller. The sum of £17,000 is carried
f or wa rd .
TRADE NOTES.
BRITISH.
British Industries Fair, 1921.— The British In-
dustries Fair in 1921 will be held at three centres,
viz., at London (the White City) from February 24
to March 4, at Glasgow from February 28 to
March 11. and at Birmingham from February 21
to March 4. The London section will include
exhibits of glass and glassware, china and earthen-
ware, drugs and druggists' sundries, and scientific
and optical instruments. In the Kelvin Hall,
Glasgow, will be shown light and heavy chemicals,
dyes, domestic chemical products, and textiles; and
paints, colours, and varnishes, weighing and
measuring instruments, rubber goods, tools, hard-
ware, etc., will be exhibited at Castle Bromw:'eh,
Birmingham. All the space available at the
London centre has been applied for, but it is under-
stood that space is still available at the other two
sections, and applications therefor should be
addressed to the General Manager, Kelvin Hall,
Glasgow, and to the General Manager, Chamber of
Commerce, New Street, Birmingham.
Vol. XXXIX.. No. 24]
REVIEW.
Fertiliser Supplies. — The position in regard to
supplies of sulphate of ammonia, basic slag, and
superphosphate of lime is very satisfactory. During
the four months ending September 30, 1919,
roughly 117,800 tons of superphosphate was pro-
duced, as against 157,500 tons in the same period of
1920. The production of superphosphate, however,
exceeds the deliveries, and there is a danger that,
unless orders are placed early, it may be necessary
to export large quantities in order to prevent con-
gestion and stoppage of work at the factories.
Although the production of basic slag increased
from 188,500 tons to 262,300 tons during the
periods June-October, 1919 and 1920, it will
apparently not be sufficient to meet the continually
increasing agricultural demand. Large quantities
of German and Alsatian potash are available, and
if the prices ade high, this is inevitable under the
prevailing economic conditions. — (Official.)
Canadian Chemical Trade. — During the six months
ending September 30, 1920, the Canadian imports of
chemicals and allied products were valued at
$21,265,099, of which the United States supplied
75'8 and the United Kingdom 11'3 per cent.; the
total does not include imported sulphur valued at
£1.102,614. The exports for the same period
amounted in value to $11,099,92-1, consignments to
the United States accounting "for $5,676,23-4.
Glue and Gelatin Manufacture in New South Wales. —
Although glue has been manufactured in Australia
for some years, the production of gelatin has only
recently become of importance, a large factory
having been established at Botany, near Sydney.
Largo amounts of the raw materials, such as waste
products from refrigerators, tanneries, etc., are
available locally, and as they can be handled in a
fresh state, the highest grades of glue and gelatin
will be produced. The total consumption of glue
and gelatin in the Commonwealth in 1913 amounted
to 1500" tons.— (Bull. Dept. Tr. and Com.. Can..
Nov, S, 1920.)
FOREIGN.
Foreign Company News. — Germany. — According
to the Berlin press, arrangements have been con-
cluded to prolong the existing contracts between
the various firms of the dye industry until De-
cember 31, 1999; also notices of withdrawal from
the I.G. will only be accepted subject to a four-
fifths majority vote in general meeting. With re-
ference to the transfer of the nitrogen works at
Oppau and Leuna (Merseburg) (cf. J., 1920, 399 r),
it is reported that the firms concerned will pro-
bably endeavour to raise two milliard marks of
further capital before the end of 1921.
As the result of an amalgamation between the
German firm of Jurgens (margarine manufacturers)
with certain Dutch interests, a new company,
Deutsches Jurgens-Werke A.-G., has been founded
at Hamburg, with a capital of one million marks.
United States. — The American Cellulose and
Chemical Co., Ltd.. is about to add three new units.
at a cost of $200,000 each, to its existing artificial
silk plant at Amcelle, near Cumberland, Maryland,
bringing the total number of units up to nine, and
making the establishment one of the largest of its
kind in the world.
An important amalgamation of glass manufac-
turers is stated to be under consideration. The
new company, to be called the Inter-State Glass
Co.. will command a capital of ten million dollars
and fifteen window-glass plants situated in Vir-
ginia, Pennsylvania, 'Ohio, and Oklahoma.
Resumption of Chemical Trade in Austria. — Manu-
facturers and merchants in Vienna have established
an official exchange in that city for trade in
chemicals, under the management of Dr. Pollak,
president of the Union of Chemical Manufacturers
(Bund der Chemo-technischen Betriebe), and with
headquarters at the House of Industry. Vienna.
District 3. It is anticipated that Vienna will
become the natural market of the new States in
Eastern and Central Europe.
Trade of Chinese Turkistan. — This province has an
area of 46,000 sq. miles and a population of
1,850,000. Despite difficult communications, trade
with India has improved of late, largelv owing to
the suspension of trade with Russia. When condi-
tions become normal in Russian Central Asia, it is
anticipated that there will be a large demand for
hardware, machinery, cotton goods and prints,
patent medicines, drugs, dyes, paper, and many
other goods. The province has many undeveloped
minerals, including gold, copper, iron, lead, plati-
num, coal, naphtha, sulphur, alum, ozokerite.
marble, gypsum, and emery. The iron deposits near
Kizil, in the Yarkland district, are said to offer
great possibilities, the ore being of superior quality.
— (Brf. of Trade J., Sept. 23, 1920.)
French Trade in Vegetable Oils and Oil-bearing
Materials — The appended statistics show the
French imports and exports of vegetable oils and
oil-bearing materials in 1919: —
Vegetable Oils : —
Sesame
Groundnut
Rapeseed
Mustard
Olive (pure)
Palm
Copra, palm-kernel, &c.
Castor, pulghere
Linseed
Cottonseed
Soya-bean
Corn
Other vegetable oils
Cacao butter
Oil-bearing Materials: —
Groundnuts
Soya beans
Cotton seed
Linseed
1 tempseed
Sesame seed
Mustard seed and Indian colza
Colza seeds (European)
Copra
Palm nuts
Other oil seeds and nuts
The total value of the
£53,161,760 and £1,419
respectively. — (U.S. < 'otn
54288
2405-7
23.335-5
99-7
9591
413-1
1312-3
518-8
20.132-4
L036-3
4634
39-9
3783
15-4
50
119-7
329-8
385-7
125-9
223,244-3
805-2
73-2 (1918)
12-4
5945-7
51-9
100.037-2
562-5
2045-9
33-9
31.580-5
109-7
30.100
626-9
40
7-3
50,6551
11-3
52.653-3
1.118-9
40.597
274 8
imports and exports was
,400 (taking £1=25 fr.)
Bep., Sept. 21, 1920.)
Japanese Trade in Vegetable Oils and Oil-bearing
Material. — The Japanese imports and exports of
vegetable oils and oil-bearing material in 1919 were
valued at about £5,328,801 and £2,273,372 re-
spectively. The principal figures are set out
below : —
Imports.
Exports.
Long Tons.
Long Tons
Vegetable Oils : —
Coconut oil . .
113
10.444
Soya-bean oil
1604
1724
Linseed oil . .
166
2772
Castor oil
767
Olive oil
119
Colza oii
5517
Cottonseed oil
1364
Groundnut oil
8058
Perilla oil . .
605
Se*ame-seed oil
457
Oil-bearing Itlaterials : —
Soya beans
168.589
050
Groundnuts
11.130
6400
Sesame seed
10.685
Perilla seed
15.671
Rape and mustard seed
33.135
3021
Linseed
8595
8539
Hemp seed
5747
Cotton seed
34.577
All other grains and seed
2533
184
Copra
1720
—
-(U.S. Com. Bep., Sept. Ml, 1920.)
REVIEW.
The German Potash Industry. — At a meeting of the
German Potash Syndicate held on October 14 it was
stated that the convention prices made during the
war had been renewed for 1921.
Production during the period January-Sep-
tember was 800,000 metric tons of pure potash
(K„0), an increase of 160,000 t. over the previous
year; the increase was mainly due to the large
agricultural demand in January and February last.
Production costs have more than doubled, and the
profit is barely above that for 1919. Although
prices have not been raised since December, 1919,
trade has been slack since May, except with ad-
jacent countries, and the market in Eastern Europe
was at a standstill. The prohibition of the export
of potash to Poland has closed a market which prior
to the war consumed over 100,000 t. (K20) per
annum. No decrease in the price of potash salts for
agricultural purposes is probable as the cost of pro-
duction is still rising. — (Chem. Ind., Oct. 27, 1920.)
Felspar in the United States in 1918.— The quantity
of felspar marketed in the United States in 1918
was 88,498 long tons, that is, about 30 per cent,
less than in 1917 (cf. J., 1918, 476 r). Of the total
production, 68 per cent, was sold crude and 32 per
cent, ground. The average price of crude felspar
increased from $340 per long ton in 1917 to $465
in 1918, and that of ground felspar from $10"15
per ton to $ 1233 per short ton. The higher prices
partly compensated for the decline in output, which
was mainly due to scarcity of labour, reduced sup-
plies of fuel to the pottery industry, and lack of
transport facilities. The Canadian production of
20,232 short tons in 1918 was almost all exported to
the United States (cf. J., 1918, 476 r; 1920, 360 r)
— (U.S. Geol. Surv., June 28, 1920.)
REVIEWS.
Third Report on Colloid Chemistry and its
General and Industrial Applications.
British Association for the Advancement of
Science. Department of Scientific and Indus-
trial Research. (London: H.M. Stationery
Office. 1920.) Pp. 154. Price 2s. 6d. net.
The third report of the Committee of the British
Association on Colloid Chemistry, like its prede-
cessors, contains a number of very valuable and
interesting monographs, which are arranged under
two heads, namely: — (1) Classification according to
scientific subject, and (2) classification according to
industrial process. Thus, under the former head,
we have reports on Colloid Chemistry of Soap,
Part I., by J. W. McBain ; Ultramicroscopy and
Solubility of Gases in Colloidal Solutions, both by
G. King; Electrical Charge on Colloids and Imbi-
bition of Gels, Part I., by J. A. Wilson. The sub-
jects dealt with under the second head are Imbi-
bition of Gels, Part II., by J. A. Wilson; Colloid
Problems in Bread-making, by R. Whymper; Col-
loid Chemistry in Photography, by R. E. Slade ;
Collodion in Photography, by H. W. Greenwood;
Cellulose Esters, by F. Sproxton ; Colloid Chemistry
of Petroleum, by A. E. Dunstan; Asphalt, by C.
Richardson ; Varnishes, Paints, and Pigments, by
R. S. Morell; and Clays and Clay Products, bv
A. B Searle.
The report on the colloid chemistry of soap solu-
tions presents a very clear and very interesting
account of the work which has been done, largely by
the author of the report and his collaborators, on
the constitution of liquids which are of equally
great scientific and industrial importance. From
this report wo learn that all the phenomena of soap
solutions point to the existence of a highly con-
ducting, heavily hydrated ionic micelle of the
general formula (NaP) (P1) (H20)m, and it is also
pointed out that many colloidal substances of great
industrial importance must exhibit similar be-
haviour and be classed together with soaps as col-
loidal electrolytes. The experimental evidence in
support of the hypothesis of the existence of ionic
micelles is fully discussed by the author. An in-
teresting section on the detergent action of 6oaps
concludes the report, and the position is summed up
as follows: — "It emerges from all this discussion
that there is a number of definite factors in deter-
gent action : first, the necessity of having the soap
in solution ; second, power of emulsification which
goes parallel with low surface tension and the
formation of surface films ; third, wetting power,
which, like the last, is ascribable to the undecom-
posed soap itself; fourth, the action of soap in
forming non-adhesive colloidal sorption compounds
with tissue and impurities due sometimes to acid
soap, but more often to soap itself, and capable of
remaining in stable suspension ; fifth and lastly, it
is an essential in all cases that the 6oap should be
in colloidal form."
In the first of the two reports contributed by G.
King, the determination of the degree of dispersion
and the ultra-microscopic examination of colloidal
sols is fully discussed, including the various forms
of ultramicroscopic apparatus employed. In his
second report King deals with the solubility, rate
of absorption and of evolution of gases as influ-
enced by colloids, with special reference to phy-
siology and brewing. Provided adsorption and
chemical combination do not interfere, colloidal
solutions in general diminish the gas solubility. The
results obtained with regard to the solution of
carbon monoxide and oxygen in blood are inter-
preted by different authors differently in terms of
chemical combination and of adsorption. The ex-
periments of Findlay and King on the influence of
colloids on the rate of evolution of gases from super-
saturated solution have given results of an unex-
pected and interesting kind.
An interesting account of the theoretical and ex-
perimental work by Procter and by J. A. and W. H.
Wilson on imbibition of gels leads to a discussion
of the industrial applications of imbibition in the
leather industry, in paper making, in photography,
and in biology. One would have welcomed a fuller
treatment of this section.
The report by R. Whymper on colloid problems in
bread-making is one of the most interesting of the
scries, and calls for attention not only by reason
of the positive information which it gives, but also
owing to the indications which it affords of the
many problems which still await investigation and
solution. The properties of the most important
materials used in bread-making, starch, gluten,
mineral salts, and enzymes are discussed, and atten-
tion is drawn to the very great influence which
additions of quite small quantities of milk, fat, etc.,
exert on the physical nature and keeping qualities
of bread.
Two reports dealing with photographic problems
are followed by a report on cellulose esters, in which
the author draws attention to the fact of the close
connexion between the viscosity of dilute solutions
of cellulose esters and the mechanical properties of
the solid product. Such connexion is found only in
the case of emulsoids, and is not met witli in the
case of suspensoids or of crystalloids. This be-
haviour is of course of great importance also in the
.production of cordite.
In his report on colloid chemistry and petroleum,
A. E. Dunstan pays particular attention to the use
of adsorbents, such as floridin and fuller's earth,
in the refining of petroleum and of cracked spirit.
By the use of these materials the unsaturated com-
pounds and sulphur derivatives are removed. A
summary of the report of the United States Navj
Department and the Submarine Defence Associa-
tion on "colloidal fuel " is also given. This report
is succeeded by one on the "olloidal state of matter
in its relation to the asphalt industry, in which,
more especially, the importance of the colloidal state
for the stability of asphalt pavements is emphasised.
Certainly one of the most interesting and impor-
tant of the reports is the last, in which the pro-
perties of clay are fully and clearly discussed. In
it the much debated problem of the plasticity of
clay receives adequate treatment, and the various
factors which affect the plasticity are considered.
The use of colloidal clay as a detergent per se or in
conjunction with soap also receives due mention,
and some of the possibilities in connexion with this
application are discussed briefly.
The Report, as a whole, maintains the high
standard set by the two preceding Reports, and the
various authors deserve the thanks of all who are
in any way interested in the study or application of
colloids for the excellent summaries which they have
presented of different aspects of a subject ever-
growing in extent and in importance. The produc-
tion of these Reports amply justifies the formation
of the special committee of the British Association.
Alex. Find lay.
Margarine. By William Clayton. Monographs
on Industrial Chemistry, edited by Sir Edward
Thorpe. Pp. 187. (London: Longmans, Green
and Co. 1920.) Price 14s. net.
In the Introduction the editor explains that the
books of this series are not intended to cover the
whole ground of the technology of the matters to
which they relate, "they are not concerned with
the technical minutiae of manufacture except in
so far as these may be necessary to elucidate some
point of principle." The author, in the Preface.
claims the monograph to be the first of its kind
in any language which attempts to give a succinct
account of the modern process of the manufacture
of margarine, and, generally speaking, he is cer-
tainly to be congratulated on the manner in which
he has carried out the task before him. On going
through the book one cannot help feeling that
although it is mainly a compilation, it is not the
work of a mere compiler, but a systematic selection
of really important and up-to-date practical matter
extracted by one who obviously has a thorough
practical knowledge of the subject with which he
deals.
The work opens with an interesting though brief
historical survey of the rise of margarine to im-
portance, and the reader is incidentally told that
the name should be pronounced with a hard "g."
Chapter II deals with the various oils and fats
used in the manufacture of margarine, and includes
a table of constants, the source of which is not dis-
closed, but we note that most of the figures are iden-
tical with those given in another work. Makers of
lard compounds and of margarine will be surprised
to hear that the somewhat expensive, hard, brittle
substance coconut stearine. is "sometimes employed
in margarine, but more often in cooking-fats such
as lard compounds." In the above product
" stearine " is correctly spelt " stearine." whilst the
product from cottonseed oil, p. 10, is twice de-
scribed as "6tearin," though on p. 11 it is referred
to as cottonseed "stearine"; and on p. 8 we
find a further inconsistency, namely, " coconut
stearin." These may be spelling mistakes, of
which there are a few, such as " dessicated."
In describing the various oils it is useful to note
that the Lovibond tintometer tints are given in the
case of some of the oils, and while on the subject
of colour, it is hard to understand a statement that
maize oil is used in America for colouring mar-
garine. Chapter III deals effectively with edible
hydrogenated oils, and, although it only comprises
some six pages, is very full of well-chosen informa-
tion, and includes references to most of the im-
portant patents.
After describing the examination of milk for
margarine purposes in chapter IV, the author pro-
ceeds in the three following chapters to deal with
the manufacture of margarine, illustrating the
more important plant referred to by half-tone
plates supplied by the plant manufacturers. These
three chapters, together with the following one
(chapter VIII) on the theory of emulsification, are
certainly the best in the book, and in them the
writer speaks authoritatively with a realisation of
the importance of points bearing upon the really
scientific side of margarine making. These chapters
are full of references, and although after perusal
the inexperienced reader would not be enabled to
manufacture margarine, yet it is not too much
to say that no experienced margarine maker could
read them without learning something.
Renovated butter is dealt with, and chapter X is
concerned with the analysis of butter and mar-
garine, and in the limited space available the
author succeeds in touching upon the more im-
portant methods of analysis and even describing
standard tests and processes with the necessary
working details. Unfortunately, under the
Kirschner process only 0"1 gm. of silver sulphate
is specified instead of 05 gm., which is neces-
sary in order that there may be a sufficiently large
excess of silver salt present. Many of the tests
described in this chapter have been applied to
eight samples of margarine mixtures compounded
in the laboratory for the purpose, and the analytical
data, together with the composition of the mix-
tures, are given in two very useful tables.
The chapter on deterioration in storage should be
carefully studied by both chemists and manufac-
turers ; it is refreshingly up-to-date and full of
sound advice. The efficiency, or rather the in-
efficiency, of certain preservatives is discussed, and
we are clearly told that boron compounds are but
weak antiseptics, and attention is drawn to the
probable disturbances to health which may result
from continued small doses of these compounds.
Once more we are reminded that rancidity can
exist and even develop without any increase of free
fatty acidity, and we are led to wonder if in future
generations this truth will at last become generally
known.
The chemistry of fat nutrition is a subject upon
which a whole monograph might easily be written,
but the pith of modern theory and a general idea of
those substances loosely termed " vitamines " is
ably compressed into one small chapter.
The work concludes with a copious bibliography
and separate indexes for names, patents, and sub-
jects.
E. R. Bolton.
The Condensed Chemical Dictionary. By the
Editorial Staff of the Chemical Engineering
Catalog. Pp. 525. (New York : The Chemical
Catalog Company. 1919.) Price $5.
This volume is chiefly of interest to non-chemists
who may be concerned in the course of their busi-
ness with chemical substances, though the authors
think it will prove invaluable as a time-saver to the
chemist. The book gives in alphabetical order most
of the chemical substances having any industrial
uses, and includes many raw materials.
Wherever possible the matter includes a descrip-
tion of appearance, physical properties, derivation,
grading, uses, fire hazard, and railway and ship-
ping regulations.
The first edition is naturally by no means com-
plete, both as regards the substances enumerated
REVIEW.
and the information given. To the chemist the
latter appears skimpy and platitudinous, but no
doubt the book will have its uses. The wide range
covered makes it quite interesting reading, as a
dictionary usually is, to all except those most fully
informed. Opening the book at random, we read
that " cabbage-seed oil " is used as an illuminant,
and has a dangerous fire hazard, and that " verde
antique " is a naturally occurring hydrous mag-
nesium silicate. It is likely that a fuller and more
mature edition will prove a volume of considerable
utility, and it is to be hoped that the publishers
will supply it in duo course.
OBITUARY.
P. 8. U. PICKERING.
The late Percival Spencer Umfreville Pickering
was born in 1858, bis father being Percival A.
Pickering, Q.C., and his mother the daughter of
John Spencer Stanhope. On both sides be came of
a long line of aristocratic and distinguished
ancestors; his mother was the granddaughter of
the famous Coke of Norfolk, Earl of Leicester, by
Ins romantic marriage with his young ward.
Possessed of ample private means, he might have
led a life of ease and social pleasure; but his tastes
were not that way. He had a strong bent for
scientific investigation, and after leaving Eton he
proceeded to Oxford to study chemistry at Balliol.
Here his independence of outlook asserted itself,
and one of his first published papers was a contro-
vertion of a view expressed by his tutor. He
obtained, in 1880, First Class Honours in the
science schools, and then moved to Bryanston
Square, London, where he fitted up a laboratory;
and from 1881 until 1887 he held an appointment
as lecturer at Bedford College.
During this period he investigated quantitatively
the physical properties of mixtures of sulphuric
acid and water, from which he inferred the exist-
ence of various hydrates of sulphuric acid. He
stoutly opposed the conception of ionic dissociation
then being introduced by Arrhenius, and main-
tained that all the phenomena were readily ex-
plicable on the hydrate hypothesis. Had he" con-
tinued these investigations be would have rendered
valuable service as a fearless critic of the young
science of physical chemistry.
The whole course of his life was changed, how-
ever, by a serious laboratory accident which caused
the loss of an eye and greatly endangered his
health. He was ordered away from London, and
went to Harpenden to recover his health by work-
ing as a labourer on the land. He so far succeeded
that he was able to resume scientific work, but
this time it was on wholly different lines; he gave
up physical chemistry and began investigations on
fruit trees, parallel to those on agricultural crops
carried out by Lawes and Gilbert. The work was
financed by the Duke of Bedford and carried out on
one of the Duke's farms at Woburn; it be<ran in
1894 and continued till Pickering's death, although
for the last two years the Duke ceased to give
financial support; money was then found for the
purpose by the Rothamsted Committee. The chief
results were the ineffectiveness of ordinary fer-
tilisers on fruit trees and the harmful action of
grass on trees, and this work was expanded into an
important investigation "showing that growing
plants excrete some unstable substance poisonous to
other plants. In addition, there were many other
investigations of technical importance on pruning
planting, the composition of Bordeaux mixture
treatment of pests and diseases. Pickering also
studied the effects of heat and antiseptics on soil
showing in both cases an increase in soluble matter.
The striking characteristic of his work was its
originality: he could take up a subject that had
apparently been fully investigated, and within a
few days, by a few simple experiments, make some
entirely new observation that would throw a Hood
of fresh light on the whole phenomena. But he was
essentially a solitary worker; he had no assistant
in the laboratory — not even an attendant. His
outlook was always critical, but with a broad and
instructed criticism. He never sought honours or
social distinctions, yet he was not averse to recogni-
tion in scientific circles: be was elected a Fellow of
the Royal Society in 1890*, and served three times
on the Council of the Chemical Society.
As befitted his descent, Pickering possessed a
strong vein of sentiment, and even of romance,
which showed itself in many ways in spite of his
stern self-repression — in his choice of authors, of
artists and above all in his favourite music, in
bis marriage, once even in a scientific paper, and
finally in his wishes for burial in the cliff at
Morthoe, in the path of the sun and close to the
western sea.
E. J. Russell.
•At the age of 32. By some extraordinary error, several of the
newpsapers stated in their obituary notiees that he was elected at
fcheageof 1!>. It is possible that the Chemical Society was meant;
he joined this at the age of 20.
PUBLICATIONS RECEIVED.
Treatise on General and Industrial Organic
Chemisty. Part I. By E. Molinari. Trans-
lated by T. H. Pope. Pp. 456. (London: J.
and A. Churchill. 1921.) Price 30s.
Text-Book of Organic Chemistry. By A. F.
Holleman. Fifth edition. Pp. 642. (New
York: John Wiley mid Sons. Inc.; London:
Chapman and Hall, Ltd. 1920.) Price. 18s. (id.
Laboratory Manual ok Organic Chemistry. By
11. L. Fisher. Pp. 331. (New York: John
Wiley and Sims. Inc.; London: Chapman and
Hall, Ltd. 1920.) Price 12s. 6d.
C in misthv Hi- Familiar Things. By S. S. Sadtlek.
Pp. 322. (Philadelphia mid London) J. B.
Lippincdt Co. 1920.) Price 10s. <;./.
Tin: Art oh Technical Writing. By T. A. Rickard.
Pp. 178. (New York: John Wiley and Sons,
Inc.; London: Chapman and Hall, Ltd. 1920.)
Price 8s.
Veah-Book of Pharmacy and Transactions of the
British Pharmaceutical Conference, Liver-
pool, 1920. (London: J. and .1. Churchill,
1920.) Price \2s. 6d.
The Scientists' Reference Book and Diary. 1921.
Twenty-third year of issue. (Manchester
James Woollen. Sons mid Co.. Ltd.) Price
■As. 6t/.
United States Bureau of Mines. Department
of the Interior. (Washington : Government
Printing Office. 1920): —
Manganese. By C. M. Weld and others. (Bull.
173.) Pp. 209. Price 30 cents.
Mining and Preparing Domestic Git.vriiiTE for
Crucible Ttse. Bii O. 1). Dub and F G
Moses. (Bull. 112.) Pp. 80. Price 20 cents,
Uses (if Stenches as a Warning in Mines. By
S. IT. Katz, V. C. Allison, and W. L Egy.
(Tech. Paper 244.) Pp. 31. Price 1(1 cents,
CORRIGENDUM. — In the issue for December 15,
p. 415 it. col. 2, 13th line from bottom, in lieu of
" carbonisation," read " carbonatation."
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