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ALBERT R. MANN 
LIBRARY 


NEw York STATE COLLEGES 
OF 
AGRICULTURE AND HoME ECONOMICS 


AT 


CORNELL UNIVERSITY 


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PRINTEDINU.S.A. 


GAYLORD 


A5ob 


The Natural History 


of Animals 


Cornell University 


The original of this book is in 
the Cornell University Library. 


There are no known copyright restrictions in 
the United States on the use of the text. 


http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924003696592 


HUMMING-BIRDS (7rochilide) 


These brilliantly-coloured little forms, of which between 4oo and 
500 species have been described, are perhaps the most attractive 
members of their class, and some of them are the smallest known 
birds. Excluding the tail, which is often long out of all proportion, 
they vary in length from 8% to rather less than 214 inches. They 
are wholly American (and West Indian), ranging from Tierra del 
Fuego to Canada, and from sea-level to a vertical height of 16,000 
feet. The mountains and hills of the northern parts of South 
America are inhabited by the largest number of beautiful species. 
Unfortunately, like many other birds of attractive plumage, they 
are ruthlessly hunted down to minister to the vanity of womankind. 

The species represented in the plate are: 1. Lamprolema rham/, 
2. Thalurania furcata, 3. Lesbia sparganura, 4. Calypte Helene, 
5. Diphlogena hesperus. 


The 
Natural History 
of Animals 


The Animal Life of the World in its various 
Aspects and Relations 


BY 


J. R. AINSWORTH DAVIS, m.a. 


TRINITY COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE 
PROFESSOR IN THE UNIVERSITY OF WALES, AND PROFESSOR OF ZOOLOGY AND 
GEOLOGY IN UNIVERSITY COLLEGE, ABERYSTWYTH 


HALF-VOL. VIII 


LONDON 


THE GRESHAM PUBLISHING COMPANY 


34 SOUTHAMPTON STREET, STRAND 


1904 
se 


CONTENTS 


HALF-VOL. VIII 


UTILITARIAN ZOOLOGY (Continued) 


CHAPTER LXVIII—ANIMAL FRIENDS—FISHES, MOLLUSCS. 
AND CRUSTACEANS AS FOOD—FISHERIES 


Sources of information - 5 * < = : . E z ‘ a a 


FISHES (Pisces) AS FOOD 


Line-Fishing, Net-Fishing, and Trawling - - - 2 2 : Z zi 


THE HERRING FAMILY (CLUPEID#) — Herring (Clupea harengus); Sprat (C. 
Sprattus), “whitebait”; Pilchard (C. pzlchardus), Sardines; Anchovy (£2- 
graulis encrasicholus) - - - - - - - - - - - 


THE CoD FAMILY (GADID#)—Cod (Gadus morrhua), Coal-Fish (G. vivens), Had- 
dock (G. eglefinus), Whiting ee. ae ae ade Hake 
(Merluccius vulgaris) - - - 


THE FLAT-FISH FAMILY (PLEURONECTID£)—Turbot (Rhombus maximus), Brill 
(R. levis), Halibut (Aippoglossus vulgaris), Sole (Solea vulgaris), Plaice 
(Pleuronectes platessa), Flounder (P. flesus), Dab (P. démanda), Lemon Dab (P. 
microcephalus) - - - - - - - - - - - - - 


THE MACKEREL FAMILY (SCOMBRID£)—Mackerel (Scomber vernalis), Common 
Tunny (Orcynus thynnus) - - - - - = = S 3 = : 


THE RED MULLET FAMILY (MULLIDA)—Striped Red Mullet (A@zllus surimut- 
letus), Plain Red Mullet (AZ. barbatus) - - - - - - - - 


THE JoHN Dory FAMILY (CyTTID#)—John Dory (Zeus faber) - - - - 


THE GURNARD FAMILY (COTTID£)—Bull-Heads (Cot¢tus), a Gurnard ee 
gurnardus), Red Gurnard (7. cuculus) — - - - - - 


THE GREY MULLET FAMILY (MUGILID£)—Thin-lipped and Thick- ieee ae 
Mullets (Mugzl capito and M. chelo) - - - - 


THE EEL FAMILY (MURENIDZ)—Conger (Conger ii Common Eel (4z- 
guilla vulgaris) - - - - e = : “ 2 


THE SALMON FAMILY (SALMONID#)—Salmon (Salmo salar), River Trout (Salmo 


fario), Smelt or Sparling (Osmerus eperlanus) - - - - - - - 
es 


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vi CONTENTS 


Page 

THE STURGEON FAMILY (ACIPENSERID£)—Common Sturgeon (Aczsenser sturio), 

Sterlet (A. ruthenus), Giant Sturgeon or Hausen (A. uso), Gildenstadt’s Stur- 
geon (A. Giildenstadtz) ; Caviare and Isinglass - - - - - - 277 
SKATES AND Rays (BATOIDEI)—Skate (Raza batts), Thornback (2. clavata) - - 278 

ROUND MouTHS (CYCLOSTOMATA)—Sea Lamprey (Petromyzon marinus), River 
Lamprey or Lampern (P. fluviadzlis) - - - - - - - - 278 

FISHERIES 

“Wet” Fish and “Shell”-Fish. Statistics of British Fisheries. Scientific investi- 

gations, and their great importance. Chief lines of work: (1) Statistics, 

(2) Habits and Life- Histories, (3) Food of Fishes—Planktor. Hensen’s quanti- 
tative determinations - = = 2 5 = = - 279 

FISH-CULTURE (PISCICULTURE)—Antiquity of the Art. Italian Eel-culture. Carp- 

culture in Germany, &c. Artificial Fecundation, Hatching, and Hatcheries. 
Necessity for Endowment of Scientific Research - - - - - - 284 


MOLLUSCS (MoLLusca) AS FOOD 


THE OYSTER (Ostrea)—“ Flat”, Portuguese, and American Oysters (Ostrea edulis, 
O. angulata, and O. Virginiana). Oyster-Culture— History and Methods of the 
Industry as practised in France. English Oyster-Industry—Whitstable Fishery 288 


THE EDIBLE MUSSEL (J/ytdlus edulis)—Mussel-culture in Scotland, Germany, and 


France (douchot system) - - - - - - - - - - - 204 
THE COCKLE (Cardium edule) - - - - - - - = 2 - 2096 
THE PERIWINKLE (Littorina littorea) - - - - - . - é - 2097 


CRUSTACEANS (Crustacea) AS FOOD 


THE LopsTER (Homarus vulgaris) and American Lobster (4. Americanus). 
Lobster-hatching in Norway, Scotland, and North America - - - - 207 


SHRIMPS AND PRAWNS—Common ae (Crangon vulgaris), Prawns (Palemon 
serratus, &C.)  - - - - - = e - = : o - 299 


THE FRESHWATER CRAYFISH (Astacus fluviatilis) and Noble Crayfish (4. nobzlts) 300 


CHAPTER LXIX.—ANIMAL FRIENDS—WILD ANIMALS CAPTURED 
FOR VARIOUS ECONOMIC PURPOSES—BENEFICIALS 


Nature of the Economic Products, other than Food, obtained from Wild Animals - 301 


FUR-BEARING MAMMALS (MamMatia) 
Use of Skins and Furs as Garments. Clothing of the Ostiaks - - . - 301 


FUR-YIELDING FLESH-EATERS (CARNIVORA)— Weasel and Marten Family (Mus- 
telide): Russian Sable (AZustela ztbellina); American Sable (A7. Americana); 
Stoat (Putorius erminea), the Source of “Ermine”; American Mink (P. vzson); 


Russian Mink (P. /utreola); Sea-Otter (Latax lutris) - - = = - 303 
Seal-Lions or Eared Seals (Otaridz): Northern Fur-Seal (Ofarza ursina), 
Sealing Industry of the Behring Sea and Pribyloff Islands - - : - 304 


FUR-YIELDING GNAWERS (RCDENTIA)—American Beaver (Castor Canadensis), 
European Beaver (C. fiber), Musquash (Fiber zbethicus), Chinchilla (Chinchilla 
lanigera), Common Squirrel (Scéurus vulgaris), Rabbit (Lepus cuniculus) - 307 


CONTENTS 


SKINS AND DOWN OF WILD BIRDS (AvEs) 


Grebes (Podzczfes) and Eider-Ducks (Somateria) - = s . = = E 


WILD ANIMALS YIELDING LEATHER, HORN, FAT, &c. 


Importance of Leather and Horn - - 2 = « 2 a = = u 
THE WALRUS (Tvichechus rosmarus) - - - - - - s - 


SEALS (PHOCID#)—Uses of Blubber and Skins. Harp or Greenland Seal (Phoca 
Grenlandica), Hooded or Bladder-Nosed Seal (Cystophora ee Baikal Seal 
(Phoca Sibirica), Caspian Seal (P. Caspica) - - - - - - 


THE DUGONG (Halicore dugong) - - - - - = = ae fy ie 


WHALES, &c. (CETACEA)—Toothless Whales (Mystacocett): Greenland or “ Right” 
Whale (Balena mysticetus), Blubber and Whalebone; Southern “Right” Whale 
(B. australis). Toothed Whales (Odontocetz): Cachalot or Sperm Whale (Phy- 
seter macrocephalus), Spermaceti; White Whale or Beluga a ahaa 
leucas), Blubber and “ Porpoise Leather” - - - - : 


REPTILES (REPTILIA)—Skins of Crocodiles and Lizards - - - - - - 


FISHES (PISCES)—Skins of Sharks and Dog-Fishes as “Shagreen”, Skins of ordi- 
nary Bony Fishes (7e/eostet) for clarifying Beer and Manufacture of Fish-glue, 
Oil of the Menhaden or Pogy (Clupea menhaden); Sharks and Dog-Fishes — - 


INSECTS (INSECTA)—Locust-Oil - - - - - - + = = = 


MEDICINAL AND MISCELLANEOUS ANIMAL PRODUCTS 


ANIMALS AND ANIMAL PRODUCTS AS MEDICINAL AGENTS—The practice of 
medicine in ancient times; animal extracts; animal fats used in pharmacy ; 
gelatine and isinglass ; experiments on animals- - - - - - - 

Medicinal Value of Fish-Oil—Cod-liver Oil - - - - - - 
Medicinal Uses of Insects—Oil-Beetles ((eloid@ or Cantharid@), Spanish 
Flies (Cantharides), Hungarian species (Lytta vestcatorta): Cochineal - - 
Medicinal Use of Leeches (Déscophora)—Medicinal Leech (Azrudo medt- 
cinalis), Green Leech (4. officinaltzs) - - - - - - - 


MISCELLANEOUS ANIMAL PrRopuctTs—Molluscs (Mollusca), Cuttle-Fish (Sepa 
officinalis), cuttle-bone, “ pounce”; Money Cowry (Cyfr@a moneta) and other 
shells used as currency, Indian wampum; other uses of shells - - - 

Sponges (Porifera)—Bath Sponge (EZuspongia officinalis), Zimocca Sponge 
(Euspongia zimocca), Horse Sponge (Aippospongia eguina); Sponge Fisheries 


WILD ANIMALS BENEFICIAL TO MAN ON ACCOUNT OF 
THEIR HABITS 


Action of “ Beneficials” - = : : a S 3 é 2 2 Zs Z 


BENEFICIAL MAMMALS (MAMMALIA)—Foxes, Weasels, Stoats, &c.: Moles, Hedge- 
hogs, and Shrews: Bats: Scavenging Mammals—Hyenas, Rats’ - - - 


BENEFICIAL BIRDS (AVES)—Diurnal Birds of Prey: Owls—Barn Owl (Strix 
flammea): Cuckoo (Cuculus canorus): Swifts, Swallows, Martins, and Titmice: 
Secretary Bird (Serpentarius secretarius): Scavenging Birds—Vultures - - 


vii 


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321 


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vill CONTENTS 


BENEFICIAL REPTILES (REPTILIA)—Lizards: Snakes—Corn Snake (Coluber gut- 
tatus), Rat Snake (Zaments mucosus) - = - = S = . : 


BENEFICIAL AMPHIBIANS (AMPHIBIA)—Frogs and Toads_~ - - - - - 
BENEFICIAL FISHES (PISCES)—Scavenging Work: Carp in Reservoirs - - - 


BENEFICIAL INSECTS (INSECTA)—-Enemies of Insect-pests: Destroyers of Carrion 
—Burying Beetles, Flies: Fertilization of Plants by Insects = - - - - 


BENEFICIAL SPIDER-LIKE ANIMALS (ARACHNIDA)—Spiders - - - - 
BENEFICIAL MyRIAPODS (MYRIAPODA)—Centipedes — - - - - - - 
BENEFICIAL CRUSTACEANS (CRUSTACEA)—Scavenging Work: Crabs - - - 
BENEFICIAL ANNELIDS (ANNELIDA)—Earth-Worms — - - - - - - 


BENEFICIAL PARASITIC WORMS - - - - 2 < = = 7 


CHAPTER LXX.—ANIMAL FOES—THE PERSONAL ENEMIES 
OF MAN 


ENEMIES AMONG MAMMALS (MAMMALIA)—Lion (fe//s leo), Tiger (F. tigris), 
other Felines. Bears—Polar Bear (Ursus maritimus), Brown Bear (U. arctos) 
and “Grizzly”, Sloth-Bear (UV. /aézatus). Wolves. Large Herbivorous Forms— 
Hippopotamus, Rhinoceros, Buffalo, Elephant. Wild Boar (Sws scrofa), &c., 
Peccaries (Dicotyles). Blood-sucking Bats - - - - - - = 

PERSONAL ENEMIES AMONG REPTILES (REPTILIA)—Crocodiles and Alligators. 
Poisonous Lizards (He/oderma). Non-Poisonous Snakes: Anaconda or Water- 
Boa (Zuneces murinus). Poisonous Snakes: Indian Cobra (Waza tripudians), 
Krait (Bungarus ceruleus), Australian Death-Adder (Acanthophis antarcticus), 
Coral Snake (Elaps corallinus), Sea-Snakes (Aydrophine), African Puff-Adder 
(Vipera artetans), Russell’s Viper (V. Russel), Rattle-Snakes (Crotalus) - - 

PERSONAL ENEMIES AMONG FISHES (PISCES)—Sharks—Rondeletian Shark (Ca7- 
charodon Rondeletit). Fishes with Poison-spines. Fishes Poisonous as Food, 
Globe-Fishes (Déodon and Tetrodon), Coffer-Fishes (Os¢racion) - - : 


PERSONAL ENEMIES AMONG MOLLUuscs (MOLLUSCA)—Giant Squids and Octopi. 
Cone-Shells - - - - - é z = : > = e i 
PERSONAL ENEMIES AMONG INSECTS (INSECTA)— Mosquitoes and Malarial 
Diseases - - - - 2 z : a 2 P : : a ¥ 


PERSONAL ENEMIES AMONG SPIDER-LIKE ANIMALS (ARACHNIDA) — Scorpions, 
Spiders, Itch-Mites - - - = = = is = ‘ 2 a - 


PERSONAL ENEMIES AMONG MyRIAPODS (MYRIAPODA)—Centipedes - = = 
PERSONAL ENEMIES AMONG ANNELIDS (ANNELIDA)—Leeches - - 2 


PERSONAL ENEMIES AMONG FLAT-WORMS (PLATYHELMIA)—Flukes (Trematoda): 
Liver-Fluke (Fas.tola hepatica), Bilharzia.  Tape- Worms (Cestoda): Com- 
mon Tape-Worm (Tena soltum), Beef Tape-Worm (7. saginata), Broad Tape- 
Worm (Bothriocephalus latus), Echinococcus Tape-Worm (7. echinococcus) — - 


PERSONAL ENEMIES AMONG ROUND-WORMS (NEMATHELMIA) — Round-Worm 
(Ascarts lumbricoides), Thread-Worm (Oxyuris vermicularis), Palisade-Worm 
(Dochmius duodenalis) of miners’ anzemia, Guinea-Worm (fv/arva medinensis), 
Trichina (77ichina spiralis) — - 2 - 3 : s - : i ns 


PERSONAL ENEMIES AMONG HEDGEHOG-SKINNED ANIMALS (ECHINODERMATA)— 
Sea-Urchins with Poison-Spines - - - - = : = 2 Z 


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CONTENTS 


PERSONAL ENEMIES AMONG ZOOPHYTES (CCELENTERATA)—Jelly-Fishes, &c. — - 


PERSONAL ENEMIES AMONG ANIMALCULES (PROTOZOA)—Malaria Parasites, &c. 


CHAPTER LXXIL_ANIMAL FOES—FORMS INJURIOUS TO 
HUMAN INDUSTRIES 


Enormous Number of Animal Pests. Necessity for Scientific Research - - : 


INJURIOUS MAMMALS (MAMMALIA)—Carnivores that attack Domesticated Ani- 
mals. Browsing and Gnawing Mammals destructive to Plants: Deer, Goats, 
Rats, Mice, Voles, Hares, Rabbits. Destruction of Grain, &c., and Dissemina- 
tion of Disease-Germs by Rats, Mice, &c.- - - - - - - - 


INJURIOUS BIRDS (AVES)—Birds of Prey. Raven (Corvus corax), Kea Parrot 
(Nestor notabilis), Woodpeckers, Crows, Rooks, Sparrows - - - - 


INJURIOUS REPTILES (REPTILIA)—Crocodiles, Alligators, Poisonous Snakes - 
INJURIOUS FISHES (PISCES)—Pike (Z sox /ucius), Skates and Rays - - - 


INJURIOUS MOLLUSCS (MOLLUSCA)—Octopus. Common Whelk (Buccinum un- 
datum), Dog-Whelk (Massa reticosa), Purple-Shell (Purpura lapillus), Land- 
Snails, Land-Slugs. Ship-Worm (TZeredo navalis), Edible Mussel (ALyéilius 
edults) - - - - - S . = - - - - - - 


InNJURIOUS INSECTS (INSECTA)—Forms injurious to Stock: Aes (Diptera), Ox- 
Warble Flies (Aypodermis bovis and A. lineatus), Tsetse Fly (Glossina 
morsitans) - - - - - - - - - - - - - 


Forms injurious to cultivated Plants, Food, Clothing, &c.—Bugs (Aemz- 
plera): Aphides or Green Flies (Apizd@), Corn Aphis (Aphzs cerealis), Oat 
Aphis (A. avene), Bean Aphis (4. fab@), Cabbage Aphis (A. érassice), Turnip 
Aphis (A. rape), Hop Aphis (A. Aumulz), Cherry Aphis (A. cerasz), Plum Aphis 
(A. prunz), Vine Aphis (Phylloxvera devastatrix). Scale Insects or Mealy Bugs 
(Coccide), Apple Scale (A7ytzlaspis pomorui), Woolly Currant Scale (Pulvin- 
aria ribesi@), Gooseberry and Currant Scale (Lecanium ribis) - - - - 

Fringe- Winged Insects (Thysanoptera).—Flies (Diptera): Crane- Flies 
(Tipula), Hessian Fly (Cecddomyta destructor), Wheat-Midge (C. ¢rzticz), Frit- 
Fly (Oscints frit), Blow-Fly (Afusca vomitoria), Cheese-Fly (Piophilus caset) 


Moths and Butterflies (Lepidoptera)—Whites (Piertd@), Cabbage Butterfly 
(Pieris brassice), Small White (P. rage), Green-veined White (P. afz): Owiet- 
Moths (octudd@) and “Surface Caterpillars”, Turnip Moth (Agvodts segetiz), 
Heart-and-Dart Moth (A. exclamatfonis), Great Yellow Underwing (77iphana 
pronuba): Silver-Y Moth (Plusza gamma), Cabbage Moth Zamestra brassica), 
Pea Moth (Grapholitha nebritana), Grass Moth (Chareas graminis), Diamond- 
Back Moth (Plufella cructferarum): Codlin Moth (Carpocapsa pomonella), Goat 
Moth (Cossus ligniperda), Nun (Pstlura monacha), Gipsy Moth (Ocnerta dispar): 
Corn Moth or Corn Wolf (Zinea granella): Wax Moth (Galleria mellonella) - 


Beetles (Coleoptera): Click-Beetles (EVatertde) and ‘Wire-Worms”: Turnip 
Flea-Beetles (Haltica nemorum and H. undulata) or Turnip-“ Flies”: Cockchafer 
(Melolontha vulgaris): Colorado Beetle (Chrysomela decemlineata): Seed- Beetles 
(Bruchide), Pea-Beetle (Bruchus pist), Bean-Beetle (2. faba): Weevils (Cur- 
culionide), Pea-Weevil (Sztones lineatus), Apple-blossom Weevil (A xthonomus 
pomorum), Corn-Weevil (Calandria granaria): Bacon-Beetles (Dermestida), 
Anthrenus fasciatus, Bacon-Beetle (Dermestes lardartus): Greater Death- 
Watches, &c. (Pénide), Biscuit-“ Weevil” (Anobium pantceum), Greater 
Death-Watches (A. striatum and A. fessellatum) - - - - - - 


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x CONTENTS 


Membrane-winged Insects (Hymenoptera): Corn Saw-Fly (Cephus pyg- 
meus), Turnip Saw-Fly (Athalia spinarum), Apple Saw-Fly (Hoplocampa 
testudinea), Gooseberry and Currant Saw-Fly (NMematus ribestz), Cherry and 
Pear Saw-Fly (Eriocampa limacina), Plum Saw-Fly (Hoplocampa fulvicornis), 
Pine Saw-Fly (Lophyrus pint): Wasps, Ants, and Carpenter-Bees (Xylocopa) - 

Net-winged Insects (Neuroptera): Termites or “White Ants” - - : 

Straight-winged Insects (Orthoptera): Migratory Locust (Schistocerca pere- 
grina), Earwig (Forficula auricularia), Cockroaches (Pertplaneta), Mole-Cricket 
(Gryllotalpa vulgaris) - - - - a 7 7 S - 3 2 

Principles Regulating the Methods Employed in Combating Injurious In- 
sects: (1) Preventive Measures, (2) Curative Measures, (3) Measures both Pre- 
ventive and Curative - - = = z ‘ = 2 = = : 


INJURIOUS SPIDER-LIKE ANIMALS (ARACHNIDA)—WMites (Acarina): Mange- and 
Itch-Mites, Red Fowl-Mite (Dervmanyssus galling), Currant Gall-Mite (Phy- 
toptus ribs), Red Hop-“Spider” (Zetranychus telartus), Red Plum-‘Spider” 
(TZ. rubescens), Harvest or Gooseberry “Bug” (7: autumnalis): Ticks Ea 
Ixodes reduvius and “Louping Il” - - - - - - - 


INJURIOUS MyYRIAPODS (MyYRIAPODA)—Millipedes or “ False Wire-Worms” - 


INJURIOUS FLAT-WORMS (PLATYTHELMIA)—Flukes (Trematoda): Liver- Fluke 
(Fasciola hepatica) - - - : : E : c - : - 


Tape-Worms (Cestoda): Staggers Tape-Worm (Tenia cenurus), Dog 
Tape-Worm (7. serrata) - - - - - : - rs 3 = ¥ 


INJURIOUS THREAD-WORMS (NEMATHELMIA)—Horse-Worm (Ascaris megalo- 
cephala): Trichina (Trichina spiralis): Palisade-Worms or Strongyles (Stron- 
gylide)—Giant-Strongyle (Eustrongylus gigas), Armed Strongyle (Strongylus 
armatus), Stomach-Strongyle (S. contortus), Lung-Worm (5S. filarza), Red- or 
Forked-Worm (Syngamus trachealis) of “Gapes”: Eel-Worms (Anguillulide)— 
Wheat Eel-Worm (7 ylenchus scandens), Stem Eel-Worm (7. devastatrix), Beet 
Eel-Worm (feterodera Schachtiz), Root-knot Eel-Worm (4. radicicola) - - 


INJURIOUS ANIMALCULES (PROTOZOA)—Nagana or “Fly-Sickness”, Anbury or 
Finger-and-Toe caused by Plasmodiophora  - - - . : : 


CHAPTER LXXII.—THE ZOOLOGY OF SPORT 


Origin of Field-Sports: Ethical Considerations - - - : a = Z 


MAMMALS (MammatiA) AS AIDS TO SPORT 
THE Horse (£guus caballus) - - = 2 a é i if 2 5 
THE INDIAN ELEPHANT (Elephas Indicus) - - - - = z : = 


THE DoG (Canis famdliaris)—Egyptian and Assyrian Dogs, Reming Dogs of the 
Reece Romans, Pointers - - - - - 2 S . : 


THE CHEETAH OR HUNTING LEOPARD (Cynatlurus jubatus) - : es = 
THE FERRET - - - = - - - - - - - - Z S 
BIRDS (Aves) AS AIDS TO SPORT 


Falconry and Hawking: Use of the Golden Eagle by the Kirghiz - 2 7 “ 


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CONTENTS 


MAMMALS (Mammatia) HUNTED FOR SPORT 
FLESH-EATING MAMMALS (CARNIVORA)—Lion (Felzs Jeo), Tiger (F. digris), Brown 
Bear (Ursus arctos), Wolf (Cans lupus), Fox (C. vulpes) - - - - - 
ELEPHANTS (PROBOSCIDEA) - - - - - - - - - - - 


HOOFED MAMMALS (UNGULATA)—Rhinoceros (Rhznoceros and Atelodus), Hippo- 
potamus (Aippopotamus amphibius), Wild Boars of Europe (Sus scrofa) and 
India (S. cristata), African Wart-Hog ca aliad Peccaries ees) Red 
Deer (Cervus elaphus) - - - - - - - - 


GNAWING MAMMALS (RODENTIA)—Hare (Lepus timidus), Rabbit (L. cuniculus), 
Rat (us decumanus) - - - - - - e 2 E : 


BIRDS (AvEs) HUNTED FOR SPORT 


Grey Heron (Ardea cinerea), Rook-hawking, &c. - - - - - - - 


GAME BIRDS (GALLIN&)— Pheasant (Phastanus Colchicus), Red Grouse (Lagopus 
Scoticus), Partridge (Perdix cinerea), Capercailzie (Zetrao urogallus), Black 
Grouse (Lyrurus ¢etrix), Ptarmigan (Lagopus mutus), Quail (Coturnix com- 
munis) - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 


PERCHING BIRDS (PASSERES)—Rook (Corvus frugilegus), Skylark (Alauda ar- 
vensis) = - - 2 - 5 3 e = é = x s e 


PLoveRS (LIMICOLZ)—Woodcock (Scolopax rusticola), Snipe (Gallinago celestis) - 
BUSTARDS (ALECTORIDES)—Great Bustard (O¢¢s ¢arda), Little Bustard (O. ¢efrax) - 


Ducks, GEESE, SWANS, AND FLAMINGOES (ANSERES)—Wild-Fowling, Flamingo 
(Phenticopterus roseus)  - - - - E . 2 = ; : 2 


REPTILES (Reptitia) HUNTED IN SPORT 
American Alligator (Alligator Mississippiens?s) - - - - - 7 5 


FISHES (Pisces) HUNTED IN SPORT 


Freshwater Fishing—Salmon (Salmo salar), Trout’ (S. fario, &c.), Grayling (Thy- 
mallus vulgaris), Pike (Esox luctus), Barbel (Barbus vulgaris), Perch (Perca 
fluviatilis) - - - - - - < - - e = - z 

Sea-Fishing—Tarpon (Megalops thrissotdes), es eee eager oe Mullet 
(Mugil), Bass (Labrax lupus) - - - = = 


CHAPTER LXXIII.—UTILITARIAN ZOOLOGY—ANIMAL PETS 


Reasons for keeping Pets - - - - - ae ts 2 2 : . 


MAMMALS (Mamma.ia) AS PETS 
MONKEYS AND MARMOSETS (PRIMATES) - - - - é e z : 


FLESH-EATING MAMMALS (CARNIVORA)—The Dog (Canis familiarts): Italian 
Greyhound, Pug, King Charles Spaniel, ne and “Toy” Terriers, uae 
Dalmatian, Hairless Dog of Japan - - - - - - - 

The Cat (Fels domesticus): Albinos, Black Cats, Persian or Angora Cat, 
Tailless Manx and Crimean Cats, Malay Cat - - - - - - - 
Mangoustis or Mungooses: Egyptian Mungoose (Herpestes tchneumon), 
Indian Mungoose (4. griseus) - - - - - - - - - 


Xi 


Page 


369 
373 


373 


374 


375 


379 


xil CONTENTS 


Page 
GNAWING MAMMALS (RODENTIA)—Rabbit (Lepus cuniculus), Rat (Mus rattus), 
Mouse (AZus musculus), Alpine Marmot (Arctomys marmotta), Dormouse 
(Muscardinus avellanarius), Squirrel (Scturus vulgaris), Guinea-Pig - - 386 
BIRDS (Aves) AS PETS 
PERCHING BIRDS (PASSERES)—Canary (Serius canarius), Java Sparrow (Munia 
orystvora), Raven, Jackdaw, Magpie, Starling - - - - - - - 387 
PARROTS (PSITTACI)—Grey Parrot (Pszttacus erithacus), Grass-Parakeet or Budgeri- 
gar (JLelopsittacus undulatus), Love-Birds (Agapornis), Parrotlets (Psztéacula), 
Cockatoos (Cacatuzde), Macaws (Ara) - - - - - - - - 389 
REPTILES (Reptitia) AS PETS 
Sacred Reptiles— Nile Crocodile (Crocodtlus Niloticus). Grass-Snake (Zvofz- 
donolus natrix). Snake-Charmers—Indian Cobra (Wada ¢ripudians). Lizards 
—Green Lizard (Lacerta viridis), Common Gecko (Zarentola Maurttanica). 
Grecian Tortoise (Zestudo Greca), Gigantic Land-Tortoises of the Seychelles 
(1. Sumetret) - - - - 2 = : 2 z zs : P - 391 
AMPHIBIANS (Ampuipia) AS PETS 
Grass Frog (Rana temporaia), Common Toad (Bufo vulgaris), European Tree-Frog 
(Ayla arborea), Horned Toad (Phrynosoma)  - - - - - - - 392 
FISHES (Pisces) AS PETS 
Gold Fish (Carass¢us auratus) and ‘Telescope Fish”; Paradise-Fish (Polyacanthus 
viridt-auralius) - - - - : = - 2 < - a z - 392 
INSECTS (INsEcTA) AS PETS 
Insects kept in Captivity by Chinese and Itahans. Performing Fleas — - - - 393 


CHAPTER LXXIV.—UTILITARIAN ZOOLOGY—ANIMAL PRODUCTS 
USED FOR DECORATIVE PURPOSES—ANIMAL ASTHETICS 


ANIMAL PRODUCTS USED FOR DECORATIVE PURPOSES 
Decorative Value, Secondary or Primary - - - fs a = = - 304 


DECORATIVE PRODUCTS OF MAMMALS (MAMMALIA)—Ivory: Elephants (E£/e- 
phas), Mammoth (£. primigentus) and “fossil ivory”, Walrus (Zréchechus 
rosmarus), Narwhal (Monodon monoceros). Trophies of Sport. Ornaments 
of Savages = : : : 5 : - E - - - - 394 


DECORATIVE PRODUCTS OF BIRDS (AVES) — The Plume-Industry: Ostrich 
(Struthio camelus), Peacock, Birds of Paradise, Sun-Birds, Humming-Birds, 
Egrets, &c. - = > > = - 7 - - - - 395 


DECORATIVE PRODUCTS OF REPTILES (REPTILIA) —Skins of Crocodiles and 
Lizards, Hawksbill Turtle (Che/one zmbricata) and “ Tortoise-shell ” - - 395 


DECORATIVE PRODUCT OF FISHES (PISCES)—-Skins of Dog-Fishes and Sharks as 
Shagreen, Scales of Dace (Leuwcescus vulgaris) and Bleak (L. alburnw) for 
manufacture of artificial Pearls = . = " eS s 7 . - 396 


CONTENTS 


DECORATIVE PRODUCTS OF MOLLUSCS (MOLLUSCA) —Shell-ornaments. Sea- 
Snails (Gastropoda): Shell-cameos (from Cassis, &c.); Pink Pearls of Conch- 
Shell (Stvombus gigas); Tyrian Purple from Purpura and Murex, dye obtained 
from a Sea-Slug (Aglysta camelus). Bivalve Molluscs (Lamellibranchia): The 
Pearl-Oyster (Margaritifera vulgaris), Pearl-Fisheries of Ceylon, British Pearls 
from Freshwater Mussels, Purple Pearls from Ark-Shells (A47vca)- - - 


DECORATIVE PRODUCTS OF INSECTS (INSECTA)—Wing-Covers of Beetles, Orna- 
mental Butterflies, &c., Cochineal Insect (Coccus cactz), Pupze of Scale- Insects 
(Cocctde) as “ ground pearls” - - - - - - - - - - 


ANIMAL ASTHETICS 
Biological Foundations of Aésthetics - - - - - - - - - 


THE SENSE OF SIGHT AND ITS BEARING ON A‘STHETICS—The Relation of the 
Animal World to Human Criteria of Beauty - - - - - 7 7 


THE SENSE OF HEARING AND ITS BEARING ON ALSTHETICS—The Song of 
Birds, &c. - - - = i = = z L a 2 - 3 2 


THE SENSE OF SMELL AND ITS BEARING ON /AESTHETICS—Perfumes: Civet 
from Civet-Cats (Viverra), Musk from Musk-Deer (Moschus moschiferus), 
Ambergris from Sperm-Whale (Physeter macrocephalus) = - : - 


THE SENSE OF TASTE AND ITS BEARING ON ASSTHETICS—Tastes and Flavours 


THE EVOLUTION OF ART AND CERTAIN FORMS OF LITERATURE—Views of 
Groos on the Relation between ‘“‘ Play” and Art: (1) SedfAExhibition—Court- 
ships of Birds and Spiders; (2) /mzz¢ation—Concerted Dances of Birds, the 
Spur-Winged Lapwing (foplopterus cayanus) of South America; (3) Decora- 
zzon—Nests of Birds, Bower-Birds (Chlamydera, Amblyornis, and Prionodura)- 


ANIMALS AS MATERIAL FOR ART AND LITERATURE—Pictures and Sculpture. 
Decorative Art. Origin of certain Letters of the Alphabet from Animal Forms. 
Animals in Prose and Verse - - - - - - - - - - 


DISTRIBUTION IN SPACE AND TIME 


CHAPTER LXXV.—GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION 
General Nature of the Problems to be Considered - - - - - - - 


AREAS OF DISTRIBUTION — Continental and Oceanic Islands; Land-Bridges; 
Discontinuous Distribution, Pouched Mammals (Marsupialia), Lung-Fishes 
(Dipnot) - - - - - = - z = a - - - - 


DISPERSAL OF ANIMALS—Increase in Size of Areas of Distribution, Checks to 
Migration - - - - = = . = 2 2 = . : 


ZOOGEOGRAPHICAL REGIONS OF THE LAND—and their Chief Subdivisions - 
FAUNA OF THE PALAARCTIC REGION - - é = = = 2 3 2 
FAUNA OF THE NEARCTIC REGION - - E 3 : 2 = 2 2 
FAUNA OF THE ETHIOPIAN REGION. - - S = = 2 : s - 
FAUNA OF MADAGASCAR - - - - e 2 2 : . 4 


FAUNA OF ST. HELENA- - - - Z 2 = = - = = = 


xill 


Page 


397 


399 


400 


401 


402 


402 


403 


407 


409 


409 


423 


xiv CONTENTS 


FAUNA OF THE ORIENTAL REGION - - - 2 = = é = z 
FAUNA OF THE AUSTRALIAN REGION - = = 2 e 2 3 4 a 
FAUNA OF THE NEOTROPICAL REGION - - - s a s © z 

CHAPTER LXXVI.— LIFE IN DIFFERENT SURROUNDINGS— 


SHALLOW WATER, DEEP WATER, AND SURFACE FAUNAS 
OF THE SEAS 


Neritic, Abysmal, and Pelagic Zones—Benthos, Nekton, and Plankton - - - 
THE NERITIC ZONE—LIFE IN SHALLOW WATER - eS 3 = 2 Ss 
THE ABYSMAL ZONE—LIFE IN DEEP WATER - - 2 . = es > 


PELAGIC ZONE—SURFACE LIFE - - - S 7 5 = = a 2 


CHAPTER LXXVII.—DISTRIBUTION IN TIME—THE GEOLOGI- 
CAL RECORD 


Nature and Aims of the Subject - - - - - E E B 2 = 
THE GEOLOGICAL RECORD—Stratified Rocks, Fossils, Geological Time - - 
GEOLOGICAL PERIODS—Eozoic, Palzozoic, Mesozoic, and Kainozoic Epochs - - 
LIFE IN THE PALOZOIC EPOCH - - = - : = : 2 2 
LIFE IN THE MESOZOIC EPOCH - - - - - Bs = 3 = 
LiFE IN THE KAINOZOIC EPOCH - - - - - = = = # = 


PHILOSOPHIC ZOOLOGY 


CHAPTER LXXVIII.—PHILOSOPHIC ZOOLOGY—THE THEORY 
OF EVOLUTION—EVOLUTION AS A FACT 


Doctrines of Special Creation and Evolution; History of the Evolutionary Idea; 
Lamarck, Darwin, and Wallace; Distinction between the Fact of Evolution 
and the 7heory of Evolution - - - - - 2 : 3 : : 


THE ARGUMENT FROM CLASSIFICATION - - - 7 2 : 3 2 
THE ARGUMENT FROM FORM AND STRUCTURE (MORPHOLOGY) - - - 
THE ARGUMENT FROM DEVELOPMENT - - - - - = S 3 2 
THE ARGUMENT FROM THE GEOLOGICAL RECORD - - - - = 2 


THE ARGUMENT FROM GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION - - - = = 


CHAPTER LXXIX.— THE THEORY OF EVOLUTION — THE 
ORIGIN OF SPECIES 


The Imperfect State of our Knowledge; Necessity for Experiment - - - 


NATURAL SELECTION (DARWINISM) 
Line of Argument Adopted - - - - : 2 : 2 


RAPID INCREASE IN NUMBERS OF ANIMALS - 3 = B 


VARIATION AND HEREDITY—Domesticated Animals - 2 : 2 


OBJECTIONS TO THE THEORY OF EVOLUTION—Swamping Effects of Intercross- 
ing; Reversion or Atavism; Importance of Isolation; Physiological Section - 


435 
436 
442 
448 


456 
456 
457 
458 
464 
472 


CONTENTS 


SUPPLEMENTARY FACTORS OF EVOLUTION 


COURTSHIP SELECTION - - - - 


LAMARCKISM—Acquired Characters; Use and Disuse; Influence of the Environ- 


ment - - - - - 2 - 


NEO-LAMARCKISM - - - - - 


VARIATION 


Kinds of Variation — Discontinuous Variation. 


of Acquired Characters. Organic Selection 


Adaptation to the Environment. 
Somatic and Germinal Variation. Weismann’s Views on the Non-Inheritance 


HEREDITY 


Weismann’s Views on Germ-Plasma. 


Influence of Environment on Germ-Cells, 


Experiments of Yung on Tadpoles, and Schmankewitsch on Crustaceans. 


Galton, Karl Pearson, and Mendel - 


XV 


Page 
489 


489 
491 


491 


LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 


HALF-VOLUME VIII 


COLOURED PLATES 


HUMMING-BIRDS (Jrochilidz) OF AMERI 
From a Drawing by Wilhelm Kihnert 


CA. 


A TIDAL POOL, WITH FAMILIAR MARINE ANIMALS. 


From a Drawing by A. Fairfax Muckley 


THE RUSSIAN SABLE (Mustela Zibellina), THE KING OF THE MARTENS. 


From a Drawing by Friedrich Specht 


VARIETIES OF THE FIELD-SNAIL (Helix Hortensis). 


From a Drawing by A. Fairfax Muckley 


CHARACTERISTIC ANIMALS OF THE ISLAND OF MADAGASCAR. 


From a Drawing by Wilhelm Kithnert 


STRUCTURE OF THE PIGEON—Models 


BLACK-AND-WHITE ILLUSTRATIONS 


N.B.—The figs. followed by ‘‘from Alcock” are from Alcock’s A Naturalist in Indian Seas, 
by the courtesy of Mr. John Murray. 


Page 
Traw]-Net attached to Fishing-Boat - - 263 
Part of a Shoal of pa (Clupea 
harengus) - - - - - 264 
Anchovy (Zxgraules en ee - - 265 
Cod-Fish (Gadus morrhia) - - 266 
Haddock (Gadus eglefinus)  - 267 
Soles (Solea vulgaris) 3 269 
Mackerel (Scomber vernalis)  - - 270 
Striped Red Mullet (AZzedlzs sur ‘inditebase 271 
John Dory (Zezs faber) - - 2-272 
Thin-lipped Grey Mullet (AZugi7 capito) 273 
Conger Eels (Conger viulgaris) - - 274 
River Trout (Salmo farzo) - 275 
Smelt (Osmerus eperlanis) 27 
Common Sturgeon (Acipenser sturto) 277 
Thornback (Raza clavata) (after Couch) 278 


xvii 


Herring - Boats leaving Aberdeen Harbour 
DEEP-SEA FISHES - 2 
A Division of Comacchio (from Bertram’s 
Harvest of the Sea) 
Staby’s Californian Trough 
MacDonald’s Hatching Bottle - 
The Gabarét Collector (Ruche) in position 
(at Arcachon) (after Dean) 
A Norwegian Oyster-Park : 
Shell of a Whitstable Native, with young 
Oysters attached (photo. by W. H. Reeves) 
Wheeler’s Beehive Collector (photo. PE in- 
ventor) 
Whitstable Oyster- Dretinet at w ilk (phot 
by W. H. Reeves) 
Edible Mussel (AZyézlus Edulis) 


PAGE 


xvill 


Part of a Baltic Musselry - - - - 
Prawn (Palemon serratus), Shrimp (Cran- 
gon vulgaris), Edible Crab (Cancer 
pagurus), and Lobster (Homarus vil- 
garts) - - - - - - - 
Crab-Pots - - - - - - 
Shrimper working a Push-Net - - : 
Heathen Ostiaks — - - - - - 
Northern Fur-Seals (O/arta ursina) on the 
Pribyloffs (photos. by Prof. D'Arcy W. 
Thompson) - - - - - 304, 
Musquash (ber 22hethicus) — - - - 
Eider-Drake (Somateria mollissima) - - 
Harp or Greenland Seal (Phoca Gran- 
landica) - - - - - 
Baleen - - - - - - 
Cachalot or Sperm Whale (Paieler macro- 
cephalus) — - - - - - - 
Spanish Fly or Blister Beetle i vestca- 
torta) - - - - - 
A Cuttle-bone - - 
Money Cowry (Cyprea jane. - - 
Indian Wampum - 
Weasels (Putorius vulgaris) - - - 
Barn Owl (S¢ a Hee and Nest - 
Tiger (Felis tégris) - - 
Nile Crocodile (Cx nebeus Niloticus) 
Mexican Poisonous Lizard ( Heloderma hor- 
ridun) - - 
Indian Cobra (Wasa tr ipuatians - - 
A Gnat (Czlex) - = 
Malaria Parasite eee ites Gras 
Golgi, and Labbé) 
Echinococcus Cyst from the Liver of a Cow 
Trichine encysted in Muscle (from Ritzema 
Bos) - - - - - - 
Common House-Mouse (Aus muscilits) 
Tree “ringed” by a Woodpecker  - 
Field-Slug (Zzmax agrestis), &c. (from 
Curtis) - - - - - 
Ox-Warble Fly (Fpode ma), enlarged - 
Vine Aphis (Phylloxera vastatrix) (from 
Selenka) - - - - 
Apple Scale-Insect (Mytilaspis jomorum) 
(after Howard) - - - 
Crane-Fly (Zzpula olerace) (from Curtis) - 
Cabbage Moth (Aamestra brassice) (from 
Curtis) - - - - - - 
Codlin Moth (Carpocapsa fomonala) (from 
Ritzema Bos) - - - - 
Corn Moth (Tinea grant (from Ritzema 
Bos) - - - - 
Stages of Turnip nee ‘Beetle (Haltica 
nemorum) (from Curtis) - - - 
Weevils (from Curtis) - - - - 
Pine Saw-Fly eae fe) (from Rit- 
zema Bos) - - - - 


Page 
296 


298 
299 
300 
302 


305 
307 
309 


313 
314 


WWW WwWw WwW WwW ow 
WwWN NN NHN DN _ 
NNN OW HHH N 


to Ww 
Ww Go 
Oo wo 


340 


341 
343 
343 
346 
347 


348 
349 


350 


350 
351 


352 
352 
353 


354 
355 


356 


LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 


Migratory Locust (Sch7stocerca pee 
(from Ritzema Bos) - - - 
Winter-Moth (Che?matobia unite - 
Life-History of Liver-Fluke (Fascéola hepa- 
tica) (after Leuckart) - - - * 
“Staggers” Tape-Worm ( Zenza cenurus) 
(from Ritzema Bos) - - - 
Beet Fel- Worm ( Heter era Schacht (from 
Ritzema Bos) - - - - 
Pointer - - - - - - 
Cheetah (Cyzazlerus x fois pieenls an 
Indian Antelope - - - - 
Kirghiz hunting the Wolf with the Golden 
Eagle - : - - - 
Lion (Fe/?s leo) = - - = z 
Fox (Canzs vulpes) - - - - - 
Red Deer Trophy - - - - - 
Hares coursed by Assyrian Greyhounds - 
RED GROUSE (Lagopus Scoticus) GLIDING 
UP TO THE GUNS - - - - 
Flamingoes (Phanicopterus roseus) - - 
Grayling (Zhymallus vulgaris) - - - 
Pike (Zso.x luctus) - - - . 
Young Chimpanzee peas oppithecs niger f 
Pug Dog - - - 
Persian Cat - - - - - 
Indian Mungoose (Rerpeseees eviseus) - 
Canaries (Sereus canarius)  - - 
Macaw (4a) - - - 2 5 
Goldfishes and Paradise Fish - - 
Tusks of African Elephant - - - 
Hawksbill Turtle (Chelone imbricata) 
Chinese Shell-Ornament - - - - 
Shell-Cameos - - - - - 
Murex Branderi - - - - 
Pearl-Oyster (A/argaritifera vulear =) ond 
pearl - - - 7 : 
Dance of Spur- eases Lapwings (Hepp 
terus cayanus) (from Hudson) - 
Gardener - Birds (Amblyornis issues 
(after Beccari)  - - : 
Evolution of V - - - 
Zoogeographical Regions of he: Land baller 
Wallace) - # # : 2 + 
Raccoon Dog (WWycterezttes) - - : 
Star-nosed Mole (Condylura) - - - 
Wart-Hog (Phacocherus) - - - - 
Tree-Shrew ( Zifaza) : 2 
Babirussa (Badsrussa) — - £ 2 2 
THE GREAT ANT-EATER (ALyrmecophaga 
JSubata) - - = S 
Coral-Fish (Zpznephelus Be xagonatus) ffs 
Alcock) - - - 3 
Section through part of a rl Reef 
An encircling Coral Reef in Plan and Section 
An Atoll - : - - : g : 
Blind Deep-Sea Fishes - - - - 


413 


420. 
425 
427 


431 


438 
440: 
441 
44l 
443 


LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 


Deep-Sea Cuttle-Fish ( Zaonizs ieee 
(from Alcock) - - - 
Deep-Sea Prawn iGapiomineen eae 
nota) (from Alcock) - - - 
Large Eyes of a Deep-Sea Prawn ee 
pandalus spinipes) (from Alcock) - - 
A Blind Deep-Sea Shrimp (Prionocrangon 
ommatosteres) (from Alcock) - - 
Group of Deep-Sea Animals - - 
Deep-Sea Pycnogonid (Colossendeis) - 
Sun-Fish (Orthagoréscus mola) - - - 
A Ray-Animalcule ahs weENe) 
(after Haeckel) - - 
Velella - - - - 
Wing-Footed Snails (Peerapode Ghee Sou- 
leyet) - : - 
Fork-Footed Biceete (Copepoda) (atice 
Giesbrecht) - - - - - 
Pelagic Nemertine Worm i Pilagienartas 
(after ‘‘ Challenger” Reports) 
Night-Light Animalcules (octiluca) - 
Shells of Ray-Animalcules ee) 
(after Haeckel)  - - - - 
Group of Foraminifera (after ‘‘ Challenger” 
Reports) —- - - - 
Strata in Vertical Section - 
Forked Graptolites eee ae ater 
Bailey) - - : 
A fossil Tongue-Shell (Zinguletta\ - - 


Page 
444 
444 
445 
445 
446 
447 
448 


449 
450 


451 
452 


453 
453 


453 


454 
457 


459 
460 


Trilobites - - - - - 
A_ Trilobite eas) restored athe 
Beecher) - - - - - 
A Eurypterid eee - - - 
An extinct Arachnid (Zophrynus)  - 
An Ostracoderm (Cephalasfis) - 
Foraminifera from the Chalk - : - 
Shell of an Ammonite — - - - - 
Hamites and Eee - - - 
Belemnites - - - - - 
Labyrinthodon - - - - 
Pareiasaurus (after Seeley) - - - 
Restoration of Fish-Lizard (/ch¢hyosaurus) 
Skeletons of Fish-Lizard (/chthyosaurus) 
and Sea-Lizard (Plestosaurus) — - - 
Stegosaurus (after Marsh) - - 
Iguanodon - : - - 
Pterodactyle (Prerodactylus) retiree: 
Restoration of Phenacodus - - - 
Skeleton of Phenacodus (after Marsh) : 
Extinct SouTH AMERICAN GROUND- 
SLOTH (Afegatheriumn) - - 2 
Trish Elk (Cervus Aibernicus) - - - 
Mammoth (Ziephas primigenius) — - - 
Skeleton of Moa eee m8 GE 
opus) - - - - 
Grinding-teeth of young Dick: Bill on 
thorhynchus) (from Haacke) - - - 
Breeds of Pigeon” - : - - - 


xix 


Page 
460 


461 
462 
462 
463 
464 
465 
466 
466 
467 
468 
468 


469 
470 
470 
471 
472 
473 


473 
474 
475 
475 


481 
487 


CHAPTER LXVIII 


ANIMAL FRIENDS—FISHES, MOLLUSCS, AND CRUSTA- 
CEANS AS FOOD—FISHERIES 


, 


To do anything like justice to the ‘harvest of the sea”, not 
to mention the “freshwater harvest”, would require a very con- 
siderable space, but the importance of the subject may be 
sufficiently illustrated for the purposes of this book by a few 
salient facts and figures. It will be convenient to successively 
consider Fishes, Molluscs, and Crustaceans, beginning in each 
case with a brief account of the more valuable species, and adding 
a few remarks on fisheries, culture-methods, &c. In the pre- 
paration of this chapter the writer has been greatly helped by 
Mr. J. T. Cunningham's Marketable Marine Fishes, as well as by 
papers and MS. notes by Professor J. Travis Jenkins. 

Much kind assistance has also been given by the Secretaries 
to the French, German, Italian, Russian, and U.S. Embassies, 
the Legations of Holland and Scandinavia, the Italian Chamber 
of Commerce, the Imperial Russian Financial Agency, our own 
Department for Agriculture and Fisheries, and the Whitstable 
Oyster Fishery Company; also by the U.S.A. and Newfoundland 
Fisheries Departments, the High Commissioner for Canada, and 
the British Consuls-General in Christiania, Paris, and St. Peters- 
burg. 


FISHES (Pisces) AS FOOD 


Without entering into minute technical details, it will be 
desiravle in the first place to say a little about the three chief 
methods by which fishes are captured on a commercial scale, 
z.é. line-fishing, net-fishing, and trawling. 

Line- Fishing. — Before the prehistoric races of Western 
Europe had learnt the use of metals there is evidence to show 
that large fishes, such as salmon, were secured by means of 


a, Vou. Iv. 261 112 


262 UTILITARIAN ZOOLOGY 


bone harpoons, and the earliest fish-hooks were made of bone 
or shell. The remains from the Age of Bronze include a number 
of fish-hooks of that metal, and of these our modern devices of 
the same nature are doubtless lineal descendants. The most ex- 
tensive development of line-fishing in this country is exemplified 
on the Scottish coasts, where such fishes as cod, haddock, and 
ling are thus caught. A series of cod-lines may reach the great 
length of eight miles, and carry 4680 hooks on attached ‘snoods”, 
the favourite bait being whelks. The somewhat shorter haddock- 
lines are mostly baited with mussels or lug-worms. 
Net-Fishing.—This more wholesale method of capture has 
the advantage of obviating the trouble and expense of bait. 
Drift-nets afford the chief means of catching fishes which, like 
herrings, pilchards, and mackerel, swim in large shoals at or 
near the surface, and they are nearly always worked at night. 
Such a net is practically a curtain, of which the upper edge is 
floated by corks, while the lower edge is sunk by weights. If 
by skilful manceuvring a shoal can be induced to dash against 
the meshwork, their heads easily pass through (the size of mesh 
being adapted to the particular species), and the projecting gill- 
covers prevent withdrawal. For herrings a series or “train” of 
drift-nets may extend a distance of 14% mile, while for mackerel 
the length may be twice as great. Sezzes, which may be as much 
as 1200 feet in length, are hanging nets which are drawn round 
shoals of fishes so as to enclose and secure them as in a bag. 
After the catch is made it may be hauled on to fishing-boats 
or drawn to shore according to circumstances. Certain other 
smaller nets will be mentioned as occasion arises. 
Trawling.—This is, of course, a variety of net-fishing, and 
specially adapted for the wholesale capture of fishes that live 
on or near the bottom. The “trawl” or ‘“ beam-trawl” (fig. 
1191) is essentially a large, flat, tapering net, which is dragged 
over the sea-floor, and may be as much as 100 feet long, with 
a mouth 50 feet wide. The ‘ beam” is a horizontal spar by 
which the mouth is kept open, and which does not scrape along 
the bottom as sometimes supposed. It would be out of place 
here to describe all the elaborate details of construction. For 
most purposes trawling, especially as practised by steam-vessels, 
is rapidly superseding some of the older methods of fishing. 
And as it not only means the capture of vast quantities of 


FISHES AS FOOD 263 


adult fishes, but also destruction of great numbers of immature 
individuals, trawling cannot but tend to deplete the natural 
supply. It is to be hoped that our knowledge will ultimately 
be sufficiently extensive and accurate to grapple with the ques- 
tion as to how best to regulate this kind of fishing, with a view 
to maintaining the more important species in sufficient numbers. 
At present our ignorance on many points is considerable, not to 
say profound, and there is no lack of exaggeration on a slender 
basis of fact. 

Tue Herrinc Famity (CLuperp#).—The members of this 
family are widely 
distributed in the 
coastal waters of 
both tropical and 
temperate seas, but 
are not found in 
the deeper parts of 
the ocean. From 
the economic stand- 
point they are the 
most valuable of all 
food-fishes, which is 
partly due to the 
fact that they live in 
large surface - feed Fig. rr9r.—Trawl-Net attached to Fishing-Boat 
ing shoals. The 
chief method of capture is by means of ‘“‘drift-nets”. The most 
important British fishes belonging to the family are Herring, 
Sprat, Pilchard, and Anchovy. 

The Herring (Clupea harengus, fig. 1192).—Of all European 
marine fishes this contributes most largely to the human food- 
supply, especially when converted by curing methods into the 
familiar “red herring”, “ kipper ” ”. It was long 


, and “bloater ”. 
supposed that herrings migrated periodically from northern waters 
to the south, on both sides of the North Atlantic, but their move- 
ments are now believed to be of much more local character. It 
may, in fact, be stated that the direction of these movements is 
alternately towards and from the land, the former being under- 
taken for the purpose of spawning in shallow water, where the 
heavy, sticky eggs sink to the bottom and adhere to various 


264 UTILITARIAN ZOOLOGY 


objects. In British seas a distinction may, somewhat doubt- 
fully, be drawn between ‘‘summer” and ‘‘winter” herrings, 
which appear to be two distinct varieties or races that spawn 
respectively at the seasons indicated. Winter herrings favour 
estuaries, and it is they which are fished, for example, in the 
Firth of Forth, Firth of Clyde, and Plymouth Sound. Summer 
herrings, on the other hand, avoid estuaries, and their spawning- 
grounds may be at some distance from the coast. They are the 


Fig. 1192.—Part of a Shoal of Herrings (Clu pea harengus) 


more important race, and are caught in vast numbers on the 
north-east coasts of Scotland and the east coast of England. 

The Sprat, Pilchard, and Anchovy, which next fall to be con- 
sidered, lay floating eggs, like the large majority of marine fishes. 

The Sprat (C. sprattus).—This small species ranges from the 
north of Europe to the Mediterranean, and is largely fished from 
the coast of Kent round our south-east and south shores to 
Devonshire. 

It appears that what is popularly known as ‘“ whitebait” is 
not a distinct kind of fish, but is chiefly made up of very young 
herrings and sprats, both of which are fond of making their way 
into sheltered estuaries. 


FISHES AS FOOD 265 


The Pilchard (C. prlchardus).—This fish is pretty much like 
a herring in appearance, but its body is of rounder shape, the 
scales are very large, and there are several other points of differ- 
ence. It ranges from the south of Ireland and England to 
Madeira, and into the Mediterranean. As is well known, the 
pilchard fishery of Cornwall is one of the most important indus- 
tries of that county. 

Sardines are simply young pilchards, and not a distinct species 
as sometimes supposed. They are fished on a large scale on 
the west of France, and also off the coast of North-west Spain 
(Galicia). Sardines are caught by the French to the value of 
some £400,000 per annum. Our own import of preserved fish 
(largely sardines) from France in 1902 was worth £373,960. 


Fig. 1193.—Anchovy (Exgraulis encrasicholus) 


The Anchovy (Engraulis encrasicholus, fig. 1193).—This 
slender little fish, which is best known to us as the source of 
various flavourings, is easily distinguished from its congeners 
by the way in which its snout projects in front of the mouth, 
so that this opens on the under side of the head, much as in a 
shark. The anchovy ranges from the coast of Norway down 
the sea-board of Western Europe, and through the Mediter- 
ranean. Although native to our seas it is not the object of a 
British fishery, but the Dutch capture it in large numbers, in 
the Zuyder Zee and the estuary of the Scheldt, by means of 
small drift-nets fixed at either end, netted gaps between willow- 
and poplar-fences (near Bergen-op-Zoom), and by large sweep- 
nets. The importance of the anchovy-fishery to Holland will be 
realized from the fact that in 1902 the catch amounted to 100,000 
ankers (an anker = about 88 lbs.). At Bergen-op-Zoom in that 
year 127 cwts. of these fishes were cured, over 77 cwts. of salt 
being used in the process. In the anchovy-fisheries along the 
Mediterranean littoral of Spain, France, and Italy drift-nets and 
seines are employed. 

Tue Cop Famiry (Gapip#).—From the economic stand-point 


266 UTILITARIAN ZOOLOGY 


this family ranks second only to the one just considered. The 
fishes it includes are voracious ground-feeders characteristic of 
polar and temperate regions. With few exceptions they are 
marine, and their favourite habitat is in water under 200 fathoms 
in depth. Trawling and line-fishing are the chief methods by 
which they are captured. The most notable British species are 
Cod, Coal-Fish, Haddock, Whiting, Ling, and Hake. All of 
these lay floating eggs. 

The Cod (Gadus morrhua, fig. 1194).—This large and im- 
portant fish is the most valuable member of its family so 
far as its range extends, ze. from Arctic seas to the Bay of 
Biscay on one side of the North Atlantic, and as far as 


Fig. 1194.—Cod-Fish ‘Gadus morrhua) 


New York on the other side. Giinther thus summarizes some 
of the chief points regarding it (in Zhe Study of Fishes):— 
“The Cod-Fish occurs between 50° and 75° lat. N. in great 
profusion, but is not found nearer the equator than 4o° lat. 
Close to the coast it is met with singly all the year round, 
but towards the spawning-time it approaches the shore in 
numbers, which happens in January in England and not before 
May on the American coasts. The English resorted to the 
cod-fisheries of Iceland before the year 1415, but since the 
sixteenth century most vessels go to the banks of Newfound- 
land, and almost all the preserved cod consumed during Lent 
in the various Continental countries is imported from across the 
Atlantic. At one time the Newfoundland cod-fishery rivalled 
in importance the whale-fishery and the fur trade of North 
America.” The Newfoundland catch for 1902 weighed about 
140,000 tons. 

The Coal-Fish (Gadus virens).—This fish, locally known as 
“oreen cod” and “saith”, is somewhat smaller than the ordinary 


FISHES AS FOOD 267 


cod, and ranges from the Arctic Ocean into the Mediterranean. 
It is largely fished in northern British waters, and is cured to a 
considerable extent. 

The Haddock (Gadus eglefinus, fig. 1195).— Though of 
superior quality in the fresh condition, this fish is perhaps more 
familiar in the cured state, under the names of “yellow fish ”, 
‘“Finnan haddie”, and so forth. In British seas average speci- 
mens are decidedly smaller than cod, and are easily recognizable 
by the blackness of the lateral line, and by the presence of a 
black blotch above the pectoral fin, attributed by tradition to 


Fig. 1195.—Haddock (Gadus wglefinus) 


the finger and thumb of the apostle Peter, though the John 
Dory is another candidate for the honour of the association. 
The range of the haddock is much the same as that of the cod, 
but it is only of marked importance in regard to the northern 
half of the British fishery area. 

The Whiting (G. merlangus).—This comparatively small 
species is noted for delicacy of flavour, but to fully appreciate 
this it must be eaten immediately after capture, for it rapidly 
deteriorates, and stands carriage badly. Though ranging from 
Norway to the Mediterranean, and found all round our coasts, 
it is of more importance to the fisheries of the English Channel 
than to those farther north. 

The Ling (Molva vulgaris).—This is a large and rapacious 
fish, which is largely cured, but is decidedly inferior to the 


268 UTILITARIAN ZOOLOGY 


haddock. It ranges from the Arctic Ocean as far as Gibraltar 
on the east of the North Atlantic, but only to Newfoundland on 
the west. It is mostly fished in the northern parts of the North 
Sea, and around the shores of the Orkneys, Shetlands, and Faroe 
Islands. 

The Hake (Merlucctus vulgaris).—Like the last-named species 
this is a rapacious fish of large size. Its range is similar to that 
of the cod, except that it is found throughout the Mediterranean, 
and is most abundant on the southern shores of Britain. Like 
most large forms it is somewhat coarse, and not greatly esteemed 
as food, though hake steaks are not to be despised. 

Tue Frat-Fisn Famity (PLEURONECTID. £).—These are car- 
nivorous ground-fishes of great economic importance, especially 
in the north temperate region, and for delicacy of flavour some 
of the species are unrivalled. The valuable British forms which 
deserve notice are Turbot and Brill, with eyes on the left side; 
and Sole, Plaice, Flounder, Dab, and Lemon Dab, in which the 
eyes are on the right side. All these species lay buoyant eggs. 
Trawling is by far the most important method of capture, after 
which comes line-fishing. 

The Turbot (Rhombus maxtmus).—This is the most esteemed 
of the larger flat-fishes, and may attain a weight of over 20 lbs. 
It is a shallow-water form, and ranges from the Black Sea, 
through the Mediterranean, up the eastern coast of the North 
Atlantic as far as Denmark and South Scotland. Bony tubercles 
are imbedded in the skin of the left side. In accordance with 
the fact that the turbot is highly predaceous, feeding upon other 
fishes, its mouth is larger than in most members of the family. 

The Brill (Rk. levis)—Except in its smaller size, and the 
absence of tubercles on the skin, this species resembles the 
turbot in appearance, mode of feeding, and distribution. 

The other flat-fishes to be noticed here all have the eyes on 
the right side of the body and (except the Halibut) have small 
mouths, adapted to feeding on worms and other small creatures. 

The Halibut (Zippoglossus vulearis).—This is the largest of 
all flat-fishes, and is said to sometimes reach the length af 20 
feet, while individuals of 6 or 7 feet long are 6fen caught 
in British seas. A 7-foot halibut weighs semewnere about 300 
pounds or rather more. It is a decidedly northern species, and 
appears to range right round the southern shores of the Arctic 


FISHES AS FOOD 269 


Ocean. In the Atlantic its area of distribution extends as far 
south as the English Channel. The halibut feeds on fishes and 
crustaceans. 

The Sole (Solea vulgaris, fig. 1196).—This valuable and 
delicately-flavoured food-fish, adult specimens of which average 
from 12 to 18 inches in length, is distinguished from many other 
forms by its shape, which is a narrow oval with continuous outline, 
free from sharp curves or projections. It ranges from the Medi- 
terranean to the south of Scotland, and is captured for the most 
part in water under 
30 fathoms deep. 

The Plaice (Pleu- 
ronectes platessa).— 
This common British 
species is of con- 
siderable economic 
importance, though 
its flesh is rather 
flavourless. Average 
specimens vary from 
15 to 18 inches in 
length, but a larger 
size is often reached, 
especially in northern 
waters. The plaice 
may easily be recog- 
nized by the large 
orange - coloured or 
rust-red blotches on the dark side of the body. It ranges from 
the north coast of Europe as far south as the Bay of Biscay. 

The Flounder (P. flesus).—This is a rather small species, 
the pigmented side of which is dark-brown or black. It ranges 
along the entire west coast of Europe, and is also found in the 
Baltic and Mediterranean. Flounders are estuarine fishes, and 
are able to live in fresh water. 

The Dab (P. limanda).—This is about the same size as the 
flounder, but its pigmented side is of light-brown colour, with 
darker spots, and the skin is rough. It ranges from the north 
of Europe to the Bay of Biscay, and is found both in estuaries 
and the open sea. 


Fig. 1196. —Soles (Solea vulgaris) 


270 UTILITARIAN ZOOLOGY 


The Lemon Dab (P. microcephalus).—This is often sold under 
the name of Lemon “Sole”, but it is a poor substitute for the true 
Sole, which it resembles in shape though not in colour. The dark 
side of the body is of a yellowish-brown, marked with numerous 
spots. The range is practically the same as that of the Dab, but 
it is most abundant in fairly deep water. 

Tue Mackeret Famity (ScoMBERID£).—The members of this 
family are highly predaceous tropical and temperate fishes which 
swim in shoals in the open sea, but approach the land in pursuit 
of prey. Their form admirably adapts them to swift progression 
(see vol. iii, p. 41). It will be necessary here to consider two 


4 foekboek 


Fig. 1197.—Mackerel (Scomber vernalis) 


species, the Mackerel and Common Tunny, both of which lay 
floating eggs. 

The Mackerel (Scomber vernatis, fig. 1197).—This is one of 
the most beautiful of our native marine fishes, and adults vary 
in length from about 1 foot to 17 inches. The range is from 
the Mediterranean to the Canaries, and north along the shores 
of Europe to the south of Norway. So far as British fisheries 
are concerned mackerel are of importance from the coast of 
Norfolk round the Straits of Dover to Devon and Cornwall. 
Drift-nets and seines are the chief means of capture, but lines are 
also employed, especially in the south-west of England. 

The Common Tunny (Orcynus thynnus).—This can be de- 
scribed as a gigantic mackerel, which may reach a length of 
10 feet, and a weight of about half a ton. Although sometimes 
taken in the North Sea and Baltic it is essentially a native of 
the Mediterranean, where it has been the object of an important 


FISHES AS FOOD 271 


fishery from very early times. Its flesh is eaten both when fresh 
and in the preserved condition. Pickled Tunny (Saltamentum 
Sardicum) was considered a delicacy by the ancient Romans. 
The Italian tunny-fishery, of which Sardinia and Sicily are the 
chief centres, is a considerable industry, which yielded over 
&111,000 in 1902. It commences in spring, when the fish ap- 
proach the shore to spawn, and the shoals are either driven into 
shallow water and surrounded by a series of strong nets, or else 
chased into a sort of net-labyrinth, in the innermost compartment 
of which they are slaughtered with clubs, boat-hooks, and the like. 


RATA ARTY 


‘4 


A: Koekke e& 


Fig. 1198.—Striped Red Mullet (AZullus surmulletus) 


THe Rep Mutiet Famity (Mutiip#).—The members of 
this family are mostly tropical fishes, but one species, the 
Striped Red Mullet (W/udlus surmulletus, fig. 1198), is common 
in the Mediterranean, from which it ranges to the Canaries and 
Norway. It is taken in some numbers off the south and south- 
west shores of England by means of small drift-nets known as 
trammels. Average specimens weigh about half a pound. It 
is a particularly handsome fish, of bright-red colour (except 
below), with several narrow yellow bands along its sides. There 
is also a Plain Red Mullet (JZ barbatus), without the stripes, 
which is common in the Mediterranean, and is occasionally taken 
in British waters. Most probably it is a distinct species. 

The Red Mullet is universally regarded as a delicacy, and its 
flavour has suggested the popular name of ‘‘sea woodcock”. The 
epicures of ancient Rome were extravagantly fond of it. On this 


272 UTILITARIAN ZOOLOGY 


point Giinther remarks (in Zhe Study of Fishes): “The Romans 
prized it above any other fish; they sought for large specimens 
far and wide, and paid ruinous prices for them. . . . Then, as 
nowadays, it was considered essential for the enjoyment of this 
delicacy that the fish should exhibit the red colour of its integu- 
ments. The Romans brought it, for that purpose, living into the 
banqueting-room, and allowed it to die in the hands of the guests, 
the red colour appearing in all its brilliancy during the death 
struggle of the fish. The fishermen of our times attain the same 
object by scaling the fish immediately after its capture, thus causing 
a permanent contrac- 
ibe plate ee! SS | tion of the chromato- 
game phores containing the 

red pigment.” 

Tue Joun Dory 
Famiy (CytTrT1p.£).— 
The members of this 
family inhabit tem- 
perate seas, and, so 
far as known, lay 

_ floating eggs. The 
| body is greatly flat- 
tened from side to 
; side. Other fishes 
--=1 constitute the food. 
Only one species re- 
quires notice, ze. the /ohn Dory (Zeus faber, fig. 1199), which 
may be of considerable size (up to 18 lbs. in weight). Its narrow 
body is very deep, while the elongated first dorsal fin and large 
staring eye give it an extraordinary appearance. The colour is 
greenish-brown, banded with yellow, and on either side of the 
body there is a large round black patch with a yellow border. 
Giinther says (in Zhe Study of Fishes)—“The fishermen of 
Roman Catholic countries hold this fish in special respect, as 
they recognize in a black round spot on its side the mark left by 
the thumb of St. Peter when he took the piece of money from 
its mouth”. (See also p. 267.) The John Dory ranges from 
the Mediterranean to Madeira and Norway. It is trawled in 
considerable numbers in the English and Bristol Channels. 
Tue Gurnarp Famizy (Cottip#).—Here are included widely 


Fig. 1199.—John Dory (Zeus fader) 


FISHES AS FOOD 273 


distributed ground-fishes, living in shallow water. Among them 
are the little Bull-Heads (Cot¢us), some of which are common on 
our coasts, while one, the Miller’s Thumb, is a familiar inhabitant 
of our brooks. They are of no economic importance, though the 
Germans make soup of the last-named form. The larger Gur- 
nards, however, are valuable food-fishes, of which several are 
British, They lay floating eggs. The head is large and covered 
with strong plates, while some of the rays of the pectoral fins 
are free and serve as feelers. The commonest native species are 
the Grey Gurnard (Trigla gurnardus) and the Red Gurnard 


Fig. 1200.—Thin-lipped Grey Mullet (AZagi? cafito) 


(Z. cuculus), both of which range from the Mediterranean to 
Norway. The latter is most abundant in the English Channel, 
and the former in the North Sea. 

Tue Grey Mutiet Famity (Muciiip#£).—Grey Mullets are 
handsome forms common on temperate and tropical coasts. They 
frequent inlets and estuaries, where they feed on vegetable food. 
There appear to be two species, the Thzn-lipped and Thick-lipped 
Grey Mullets (Mugil capito, fig. 1200, and M. chelo), which range 
from the Mediterranean into British seas. Both are silver-grey in 
colour with longitudinal black streaks, and distinguishable from 
each other by the nature of the lips as indicated in their names. 
They are taken in large numbers by seines and other nets on the 
south coast of England, but the thick-lipped species seems to be 
more common off the western part of this area. 

So far we have considered marine food-fishes, and it will be 


274 UTILITARIAN ZOOLOGY 


now appropriate to make some reference to the members of the 
Eel and Salmon families, which, in a sense, link together the 
forms of sea and fresh water. 

Tue Eev Famity (Muranip#).—Eels are more or less 
cylindrical fishes, which may either be scaleless or possess minute 
scales sunk in the skin. They are widely distributed through the 
fresh waters and seas of the tropical and temperate regions, some 
of the most specialized kinds inhabiting the abysmal parts of the 
ocean. They are captured either 
by hook and line or by means 
of wicker-work (or metal) traps, 
provided with funnel - shaped 
openings. Trident-shaped eel- 
spears, with numerous tines, are 
also used in some localities. 
Creatures of the kind have been 
esteemed as a savoury food from 
very remote times, the ancient 
Greeks and Romans, for ex- 
ample, being extremely partial 
to them. There are two British 
species, the Conger and the 
Common Eel. 

The Conger (Conger vulgarts, 
fig. 1201).—This is a large, 
scaleless marine eel, which not 
sears @ =uncommonly attains the length 

a Wn ee tere er of 6 or 7 feet and a weight of 

60 Ibs. It is a shallow-water 
form, and has a very wide distribution, occurring all round the 
shores of Europe, and also inhabiting the coastal waters of 
St. Helena, Japan, and Tasmania. 

The Common Eel (Anguilla vulgarts).—This is a good deal 
smaller than the Conger, but full-grown specimens attain a length 
of 3 feet. When adult it inhabits fresh water, but repairs to the 
deep sea to spawn, the young eels or elvers making their way up 
rivers after undergoing a rather startling kind of transformation 
(see vol. iii, p. 433). This species has a wide distribution in the 
river-systems that discharge their waters into the North Atlantic 
(west as well as east coast) and Mediterranean. 


FISHES AS FOOD 275 


Tue Satmon Famity (Satmonm#).—Salmonoid fishes are 
both commercially important and also of interest from the sporting 
point of view. About the middle of the back there is a dorsal fin 
of the usual character, and some distance behind this a small fatty 
or adipose second dorsal, unsupported by fin-rays. The nature 
of this second fin is a distinctive character. The family includes 
various species of Salmon, Trout, Charr, Grayling, and Smelt. 
All are natives to the non-tropical parts of the Northern Hemi- 
sphere, with the exception of a kind of Smelt (Retropinna 
Richardsont) found in New Zealand and the Chatham Islands. 


Fig. 1202.—River Trout (Salo fario) 


Some of the salmonoids are purely marine, others never leave 
fresh water, and others again may be described as marine forms 
which ascend rivers to spawn. The eggs are heavy and adhesive. 
Only a few important species require mention here. 

The Salmon (Salmo salar).—This universally esteemed fish 
spawns in the rivers of temperate Europe as far south as 43° 
N. lat., and those of temperate North America down to 41° 
N. lat. In Britain it reaches commonly a weight of 20 to 4o lbs., 
and much larger specimens have been recorded. Salmon are 
eaten not only when fresh, but also, especially in North Europe, 
in the smoked condition. The chief method of capture is by 
netting at the time when the fish are ascending rivers, but large 
numbers are also taken with the rod. 

The Rwer Trout (Salmo fario, fig. 1202).—Average adult 
specimens of this well-known angler’s fish attain the weight of 


276 UTILITARIAN ZOOLOGY 


about 1% lb., but this may be greatly exceeded, especially in the 
case of local races. It is a purely freshwater species, and more 
delicate in flavour than is usual with such forms. 

The Smelt or Sparling (Osmerus eperlanus, fig. 1203).—This 
rather small fish is generally considered a dainty. It abounds 
in the tidal parts of many of the rivers of Europe and North 
America, ascending these for some distance for the purpose of 
spawning. Giinther says of it (in Zhe Study of Frshes):—‘ In the 
sea it grows to a length of 8 inches, but, singularly, it frequently 


A.A.keekksss 


Fig. 1203.—Smelt (Osmerus eperlanus) 


migrates from the sea into rivers and lakes, where its growth is 
very much retarded. That this habit is one of very old date is 
evident from the fact that this small freshwater form occurs and 
is fully acclimatized in lakes which have now no open com- 
munication with the sea.” Smelts are taken in large numbers 
by seines in some of the English estuaries which open into the 
southern part of the North Sea. 

There are several other families of ordinary bony fishes 
(Teleostei) of which the freshwater species are used as food, such 
as the Carp Family, Pike Family, &c. As, in this country at any 
rate, they are of no particular economic importance, it is scarcely 
necessary to deal with them here. A few words, however, about 
a few of the families of lower fishes will not be out of place. 


FISHES AS FOOD 277 


Those of most note include Sturgeons, Skates and Rays, and 
Lampreys. 

Tue Sturcron Famity (AcCIPENSERIDE).—This belongs to an 
ancient group of Fishes (Ganoidei), closely related to the ordinary 
bony type. There are about twenty species of Sturgeon, all in- 
habiting the temperate part of the Northern Hemisphere. Like 
Salmon, they ascend rivers to spawn, and also in some cases for 
wintering, and some of them are altogether confined to the waters 
of the land. The Common Sturgeon (Acipenser sturto, fig. 1204) 
belongs to the British fauna, for it enters some of our rivers, as 


Fig. 1204.—Common Sturgeon (Acipenser sturio) 


the Severn and Thames, and, being the property of the Crown, is 
known asa “royal” fish, Though perhaps 6 feet may be taken 
as the length of an average adult, a much larger size—up to about 
12 feet—may be attained. The species is found on both sides of 
the Atlantic, on the one side entering the rivers of the Eastern 
United States, and on the other those of West Europe and the 
Mediterranean. It is absent from the Black Sea. The much 
smaller but more esteemed Sterlet (4. ruthenus) is native to the 
rivers that debouch into the Black and Caspian Seas, and also 
inhabits the Siberian rivers. It does not, as a rule, descend into 
salt water. The Giant Sturgeon or Hausen (A. 4uso), on the 
other hand, is much larger than the common species, but some- 
what coarse. It lives in the Black Sea, Sea of Azov, Caspian, 
and the corresponding river basins. Giildenstadt’s Sturgeon (A. 
Giildenstadt?) ascends the rivers of the Black Sea. 


So far as Europe is concerned, the sturgeon-fishery is of most 
VOL.IV. 113 


278 UTILITARIAN ZOOLOGY 


importance to Russia. The flesh of all the species is used as 
food, the hard roes (ovaries) are cleaned and salted to figure as 
caviare, to the extent of some 10,000 tons annually, and isinglass 
is prepared from the swim-bladders. For all these purposes 
the smaller sorts of Sturgeon, especially the Sterlet, are most 
esteemed. The Volga fishery is on the largest scale, and goes 
on at two seasons, autumn and winter. During the former, 
ground-lines with numerous hooks are used, and operations cease 
when the river begins to freeze. 
With increasing cold the fishes 
congregate at certain spots for 
hibernation, and such places 
are carefully marked by the 
fishermen. Later on, in Janu- 
ary, when the cold is at its 
maximum, the winter - fishing 

is ushered in with great fes- 
y”recroratrin tivities. | Good-sized holes 


) \ WW 
i ai \\ are broken through the ice 
Os at the spots previously noted; 
sey Paes the fishes, disturbed by the 
oy noise, come to the surface, and 
ae are promptly secured by means 


of harpoons and iron hooks. 
SKATES AND Rays (Bat- 
OIDEI).—These flattened, nar- 
row - tailed, rhomboidal forms 
iis ites: “Thaker te eeabie) constitute, with Sharks, Dog- 
fishes, &c., the great group of 
cartilaginous fishes (Elasmobranchii). The two most important 
British species are the comparatively smooth- skinned Skate 
(Raza batis) and the Thornback (2. clavata, fig. 1205), of which 
latter the characters are sufficiently indicated by the name. The 
Skate may attain a length of 6 feet or more, and the Thorn- 
back about half as much. Both are common in British waters, 
where they are captured by trawling and by line-fishing. Though 
not among the choicer food-fishes, they are largely eaten, the 
enormous pectoral fins, cut into strips and rolled, constituting what 

is commonly known as “crimped skate”. 

Round Mourns (Cyctostomata).—The eel-shaped scaleless 


CAUDAL FIN 


FISHERIES 279 


Lampreys, which can be only called fishes by courtesy (see vol. i, 
p. 291), are considered great delicacies in some Continental coun- 
tries, but are not abundant enough in Britain to be of economic 
importance. The best-known of our three native species are the 
Sea Lamprey (Petromyzon marinus), which may grow to the 
length of 3 feet, and the much smaller River Lamprey or Lam- 
pern (P. fluviatilis), less than half that size, both of which are 
marine forms that ascend some of our rivers to spawn, the Severn 


being especially notable in this respect. In Cassedl’s Doctionary 
of Cookery the following remarks are made about the lamprey, 
apparently the large species:—‘ This not very wholesome, but 
rare and rich fish, was a great favourite in ancient times, and is 
well known to the student of English history, as it was an attack 
of indigestion, brought on by eating of it too freely, which caused 
the death of Henry I. . . . Probable cost uncertain, lampreys 
being seldom offered for sale.” 


FISHERIES 


In practical fishery matters a distinction is drawn between 
“wet” fish, ze. fishes proper, and “shell’-fish, among which 
both molluscs and crustaceans are included. We are here for the 
present concerned with the former only (except as regards some of 


280 UTILITARIAN ZOOLOGY 


the statistics). The importance of the matter to this country may 
be realized by giving a few figures. 

In rgo1 the number of fishing-boats registered in the United 
Kingdom (including the Isle of Man and Channel Islands) was as 
follows :—First class (15 tons or more), 7083; second class, 14,067; 
third class, 4647; total tonnage, 302,188. And to this must be 
added a large number of unregistered boats, chiefly of the third 
class. During the same year 68,878 persons were regularly 
employed in fishing, and 37,599 more found occasional employ- 
ment. 

The amount and value of the British catch for 1902 were as 
follows :-— 


WET FIsuH. | SHELL-FISH. 

| 

| ee Value. Number. | Value. 
ae | | 

£ & 
Soles ... feel 76,624 512,596 Crabs... 8,680,645 | 79,968 
Turbot ve 64,094 245,215 Lobsters 1,632,110 | 735317 
Other prime fish | 33,184 81,550 | Oysters ... | 43,482,711 | 119,086 
Codi i | 1,584,528 865,934 || Other \ cee . 
Haddock ...| 2,941,264 | 1,787,942 | shell-fish f[  °T343® | 138,544 
Herrings in|) 8543°7;,500:.| “2:53 1,912 | ae 
Ling ... = 252,627 115,925 || | 410,915 
Mackerel 3 599,983 390,321 | 
Spee qe;e08 16,636 | Tora VaLue or British CaTcH 
Whiting oe 403,247 161,392 | eam hoe 
Other fish  ...] 3,432,862 | 2,586,675 |) baie 

| £9,707,013. 
| 17,902,045 | 9,296,098 | 


We do not entirely rely upon the British fishing industry for 
supplies, for in 1902 our imports of fresh and cured fish amounted 
to 2,587,370 cwts., valued at 44,105,800. Of this amount, how- 
ever, 439,773 cwts. (worth £809,322) were re-exported, while we 
exported a part of our own catch to the value of £3,706,002, 
which included 2,249,976 barrels of herrings, worth £2,933,864. 
Of the exported herrings no less than 1,364,613 barrels were 
cured in Scotland, and the greater part of these were for Russian 
consumption, some of them finding their way as far east as Vladi- 
vostock. 

During the last few decades it has gradually been realized by 
maritime nations that the supply of fish is not inexhaustible, and 


DEEP-SEA FISHES (drawn to various scales) 


The fishes of the deep sea are highly carnivorous forms, often 
provided with formidable teeth. The eyes are either very large or 
else greatly reduced. Luminous organs are often present. Many ot 
these fishes are of bizarre appearance, as may be gathered from 
the plate, which represents eight species, as follows :— 

1. Sternoptyx diaphana: small and translucent, with rounded 
luminous organs on the sides of head, body, and tail. 

2. Cyema atrum: a small deep-sea eel, with reduced eyes. 

3. Malacosteus Indicus: very large eyes, two luminous organs 
on the side of the head, and enormous mouth. 

4. Idiacanthus ferox: a greatly attenuated form, with numer- 
ous small rounded luminous organs on the side of the 
body. 

5. Memichthys ingens: a greatly elongated deep-sea eel, with 
large eyes, and jaws drawn out into a slender beak. 

6. Saccopharynx ampullaceus:, a large deep-sea conger-eel, 
which has succeeded in swallowing a fish much bigger 
than itself. 

7. Bathypterots longicauda: a deep-sea fish with reduced eyes, 
and much elongated fin-rays serving as feelers. 

8. Macrurus crassiceps: a species of a widely distributed deep- 
sea family related to that including the cod, &c. Eyes 
extremely large, and mouth on the under side of the head. 


DEEP-SEA FISHES 


DRAWN TO VARIOUS SCALES 


FISHERIES 281 


this is partly due to the steady increase of steam-trawling, which 
means capture on a wholesale scale. Practical men are recogniz- 
ing more and more that expert scientific advice must be requisi- 
tioned if the supply of fish is to be maintained, and still more so 
if it is to be increased. As Cunningham very justly remarks (in 
Marketable Marine Fishes):—‘ It can scarcely be expected that the 
fisherman or fish merchant will spend his short and hard-earned 
leisure moments in the study of the blue-books and technical 
memoirs in which the results of research are described; and when 
certain newly-established facts are brought before them in other 
ways it frequently happens that they either deny these facts, as 
contrary to their own experience, or turn a deaf ear, from the 
conviction that such matters are of no practical importance. 
With reference to the contradiction of the naturalist’s conclusions, 
it may be urged that, although he may not be able to climb the 
rigging of a smack, and is generally sick while at sea, although 
also he may be as ignorant as a baby of the mysterious and com- 
plicated practice of the fish-trade, still he has two advantages over 
the professional fish-man in attempting to get at the truth con- 
cerning the life and habits of fish. Firstly, he has been trained 
to appreciate the value of scientific evidence, and is on his guard 
against jumping at conclusions; secondly, he can use instruments 
of precision, which are as essential to the investigation of some 
of the matters in question as the compass and the lead to the 
handling of a fishing-vessel. With regard to the practical import- 
ance of the naturalist’s researches and results to the fishing 
industry, it can only be said that there is no doubt about it. It is 
an undeniable fact that parliamentary legislation and local by-laws 
are at the present time constantly being demanded or proposed for 
the benefit of the fisheries, and the reasons by which these pro- 
posals and demands are supported consist largely of statements 
concerning the natural history of the fishes and other marine 
creatures concerned. It is necessary, therefore, that we should 
be able to test the correctness of these statements, and should be 
able to judge correctly of the most probable effect of the measures 
proposed on the productiveness of the fisheries.” 

A few epoch-making dates in fishery work may here be 
appended with advantage, and the reader may draw his own con- 
clusions as to the relative enterprise displayed by the nations 
concerned. 1862, Professor Allman of Edinburgh investigated 


282 UTILITARIAN ZOOLOGY 


the spawning of herrings at the request of the Scottish Fishery 
Board. 1864, Professor Sars of Christiania commissioned by the 
Norwegian Government to investigate the natural history of the 
cod and the cod-fisheries of the Lofot Islands. 1870, the Prus- 
sian Minister of Agriculture instituted a Commission for the 
Investigation of the German Seas. 1871, institution of the 
United States Commission of Fish and Fisheries. 1882, estab- 
lishment of the new Fishery Board for Scotland; this marked the 
first commencement, on a large scale, of the application of scientific 
methods to British fishery problems. 1884, inauguration of the 
Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom (active 
work at the Plymouth Marine Station commenced in 1887) on 
the initiative of Professor Ray Lankester. The late Professor 
Huxley was the first president. In the same year the marine 
laboratories at St. Andrews and Granton (near Edinburgh) were 
completed. 1886, a Fishery Department of the Board of Trade 
was organized, but without power to make scientific investigations. 
1899, an annual sum of £10,000 was devoted to Irish Sea- 
Fisheries. More recently the countries interested in the fisheries 
of the North Sea have agreed to jointly investigate that area with 
regard to fishery problems on scientific lines. In 1901 the Board 
of Trade appointed a Committee on Ichthyological Research, with 
the view of ascertaining the best methods of carrying out scientific 
investigations of problems affecting British fisheries. The com- 
mittee presented their report in the following year, suggesting 
greatly increased expenditure, with a view to solving certain 
pressing problems, and recommending, among other things, the 
establishment of a Fishery Council for England. 

Some varieties of fishery work which are of special importance 
may now be very briefly indicated. 

Statistics.—Until we know with some approach to definiteness 
the amount of each kind of fish captured yearly, together with the 
time, place, and method of capture, it will be impossible to form 
a sound opinion as to whether the natural supply is actually 
diminishing generally or locally. 

flabits and Life-Histories of Food-Fishes.—It is clear that full 
knowledge on these points is absolutely necessary from the prac- 
tical stand-point, for upon such knowledge must ultimately depend 
the various means adopted for regulating the fishing industry. 
Full information of the sort regarding any particular form, joined 


FISHERIES 283 


to that derived from statistics, would enable us to determine with 
a reasonable approach to accuracy the best methods, times, and 
places for capturing such fish, securing on the one hand a profit- 
able result, and on the other hand obviating wasteful depletion of 
the natural supply. 

Food of Fishes.—Directly or indirectly the most important 
source of fish food is found in “plankton”, ze. the various floating 
organisms which are found in vast numbers at or near the surface 
of the sea (and of lakes). Minute plants, animalcules, small crus- 
taceans (especially Copepods), various larve, and floating eggs 
(including those of fishes themselves) are among the more import- 
ant constituents. Some valuable food-fishes, such as the herring, 
feed solely on plankton. 

The amount of this food available bears a direct relation to the 
fish-supply, and Professor Hensen of Kiel has devised ingenious 
and elaborate methods of estimating it in a quantitative manner. 
Details cannot be given here, but the following extracts from a 
paper by J. Travis Jenkins (Zhe Methods and Results of German 
Plankton Investigations) will serve to give some idea of the import- 
ance of the matter:—‘‘ The plankton estimation methods of the 
Germans, the credit for initiation of which is due to Hensen, differ 
from and mark an advance upon the methods hitherto employed 
in England, inasmuch as no attempt is made in the latter country 
to arrive at a quantitative as distinguished from a qualitative 
result. The questions that Hensen attempts to answer are— 
(1) What does the sea contain at a given time in the shape of 
living organisms in the plankton? and (2) How does this material 
vary from season to season and from year to year? It may be 
pointed out that the results obtained by the German investigators 
are largely due to the liberal attitude taken by their Government 
with regard to subsidizing scientific investigation of problems 
connected with the sea-fisheries. It is to be hoped that the Irish 
Sea may be subsequently investigated in like manner. A com- 
parison with the results already obtained for the North and Baltic 
Seas could not fail to be of interest and to yield important results.” 
Some of the most striking estimations were made on the number 
of Fork-footed Crustaceans (Copepoda) in plankton, since it is 
these which constitute the chief food of herrings, sprats, and their 
allies. The following results were yielded by the method:—“ For 
a square mile of surface-water the annual consumption of Cope- 


284 UTILITARIAN ZOOLOGY 


poda can be regarded as approximately 975 billion, or for the 
16 square miles of the Eckenférde fishery district [in the West 
Baltic] a grand total of 15,600 billion. A billion Copepoda yield 
not less than 1500 kilograms of dry organic substance, so that the 
15,600 billion weigh not less than 23,400,000 kilograms [z.e. more 
than 22,982 tons]. Taking the average weight of an adult West 
Baltic herring as being 60 grams, and allowing that every herring 
uses in fifty days its own weight of organic substance, we find that 
every herring consumes annually 438 grams. In the 16 square 
miles of the Eckenférde fishery district there exists food in the 
shape of Copepoda for 534,000,000 herring of an average body 
weight of 60 grams. This result may, of course, be largely 
problematical, but it is at any rate extremely interesting. The 
North Sea, in a similar manner to the Baltic, contains an 
abundant wealth of Copepoda. The open ocean, on the other 
hand, contains much less.” The number of floating fish-eggs of a 
particular kind contained in plankton may be used as a basis for 
determining the number of fish of the sort present in a given area 
at a given time. Applying this method to the cod and plaice of 
the Eckenférde, Hensen estimates that ‘‘man captures for his own 
use every year about one-fourth of the total number of adult fish 
in this particular area of the West Baltic. This result is surprising 
to those who consider the resources of the sea as inexhaustible, 
and believe that the number of fish caught by man bears only a 
small proportion to the number actually present in the sea.” It 
is also interesting to learn that the northern seas are richer in 
plankton than those in warmer latitudes. The possibilities of the 
Hensen methods are thus seen to be very considerable, but it is 
unsafe to generalize from a small number of determinations, for 
the distribution of plankton in a given area is by no means uni- 
form. In this, and many other matters involving accurate scien- 
tific research, large government subsidies are urgently needed in 
this country. We are co-operating, it is true, with other nations 
in a scientific survey of the North Sea for the space of three years, 
but during that period the annual grant of £2000 per annum to the 
Scottish Fishery Board is suspended, thus seriously crippling an 
organization that has long been engaged in work of the most 
valuable kind. 

FisH-Cutture (PiscicuLTuRE).—The rearing of fishes in ponds 
is a very ancient art, which was practised by the Egyptians, 


FISHERIES 285 


Greeks, and Romans, of antiquity. The young of various species 
were made to enter lagoons, prevented from again escaping, and 
kept till large enough for the table. Culture in freshwater ponds 
has been an important Chinese industry from time immemorial, and 
was well understood in England during the Middle Ages, especially 
by the monks, who did not care to rely on chance for the periodic 
fish repasts prescribed by the Church. Remains of old “fish- 
stews”, in which carp, eels, &c., were reared, abound in this country. 

A very interesting outcome of the fish-culture of the old 
Romans still exists in the lagoon of Comacchio, at the mouth of 


Fig. 1207.—A Division of Comacchio 


A, Canal Palotta. B, Entrance from canal. c, Canal for boats. c’, Sluices. pb, First compartment 
of labyrinth. :, Outer basin. F, Antechamber of first compartment. G, Chamber of ditto. H, Second 
compartment. 1, Chamber of ditto. Kk, Third compartment. L, L, L, Chambers of ditto. m, Wicker- 
work baskets for keeping fish alive. N, Boat and tackle. 0, Dwelling-house. p, Storehouse. 


the Po, where eels are grown on a large scale, and distributed 
throughout Italy both fresh and in a preserved condition. The 
definite records of the industry date from 1229, and so long ago as 
the end of the sixteenth century the annual revenue derived from 
the culture amounted to £16,000 annually, a sum which, of course, 
represented much more at that time than it does now. ‘The eels 
sold in 1903 fetched over £28,000. The whole lagoon, which is 
bounded at the sides by the Reno and Volano mouth of the Po, 
is a perfect labyrinth of ponds and canals, of which a faint idea 
may be gained by examining fig. 1207. The conduct of this 
industry is a very elaborate matter. The ascending swarms of 
elvers have to be guided to their destination, the supply of fish- 
food maintained, full-grown eels captured (from August to 
December), and the catch prepared for the market. 


286 UTILITARIAN ZOOLOGY 


The pond-culture of Carp is carried on in a very systematic 
manner in some parts of Germany, and it need only be said that 
the fish are transferred from one pond to another according to age. 

The discovery of the possibility of artificial fecundation, by 
mixing eggs and milt together, constituted an epoch in fish-cul- 
ture which opened up far-reaching possibilities the importance of 
which has only been fully realized of late years. It appears to 
have been first practised, for salmon and trout, by S. L. Jacobi 
of Hohenhausen, in Westphalia, so long ago as 1748, and was 
continued by him and his sons, with profitable results, till 1825. 
George III (of England) gave a pension to Jacobi in 1771. 


Fig. 1208.—Staby’s Californian Trough 


A, Hatching tank, into the outer part of which (4) water flows from a tap (a); cand d@ are hatching trays with 
floors of fine wire-gauze; ¢, outflow. B, Tank to catch fry which escape from 4 when d is removed; they pass 
into the space /, but are prevented by the gauze partition g from getting washed away in the outflow to the right. 


Scotland, as usual, was one of the first of other countries to profit 
by an improvement on old methods, for we find that in 1837 John 
Shaw, a gamekeeper at Drumlanrig of the Duke of Buccleuch, 
introduced Jacobi’s system. But the beginning of fish-culture on 
a national scale only dates from 1850, when the French Govern- 
ment instituted a large fish-hatching establishment at Huningue, 
in Alsace. At the present time America has profited most by the 
pursuit of fish-culture, which is largely practised with reference to 
their rivers and lakes. One type of hatching apparatus suitable 
for trout and salmon is represented in fig. 1208 as constructed by 
Dr. Ludwig Staby, and named by him ‘the deep Californian 
trough ”. 

The fact that most marine fishes lay floating eggs renders fish- 
culture in their case comparatively easy, for any quantity of fer- 
tilized eggs can be collected from the surface of spawning-ponds 


FISHERIES 287 


in which adult fishes are confined. In a hatchery for such fishes 
the eggs are placed in various receptacles, where they are kept 
aerated by suitable devices. MacDonald’s hatching-bottle (fig. 
1209) is largely employed in the United States for the small eggs 
of shad and other fishes, of which one bottle will accommodate 
about 70,000. 

An important hatchery for cod has for some years been in 
operation at Flédevig, near Arendal, in Norway, under the 
superintendence of Captain Dannevig. In Scotland there is an 
important hatchery, chiefly 
used for plaice, connected with 
the marine station at Nigg, 
near Aberdeen, and there is 
also one at Piel, on the coast 
of Lancashire. There are, of 
course, important hatcheries 
for marine fishes in America. 

Regarding the value of 
hatcheries for freshwater forms, 
and fishes which, like the 
salmon, spawn in rivers, there 
can be no doubt. As to marine 
fish-hatcheries, which aim at 
maintaining Or even increasing 
Dee Ae eaten Gimme awry or niemrioeraaaal 
numbers of fry in the sea, the 
data are at present too incomplete to estimate their utility. It 
appears to be certain in some cases that good has been done by 
them, one instance of the sort being afforded by the Norwegian 
hatchery near Flédevig, but the expense involved is considerable, 
and for some species and some localities may well turn out to be 
so great as not to be justifiable. The large majority of the just- 
hatched fry which are now from time to time placed in the sea are 
destined to perish before growing to a marketable size, and it may 
in the end turn out to be necessary to carry the culture to a stage 
which will give a greatly increased chance of survival. But this 
is notoriously difficult, and a large amount of experiment is 
necessary before success is likely to be attained. And even in 
the event of the various obstacles being surmounted, the greatly 
increased expense of such a method may prevent its adoption. 


288 UTILITARIAN ZOOLOGY 


There is a second possibility of exactly opposite kind, suggested 
by Cunningham, z.e. to give up hatching, and largely increase 
the extent of spawning-ponds, contenting ourselves with setting 
adrift vast numbers of fertilized eggs. Both the possibilities 
mentioned require testing on a large scale, and afford suitable 
objects for large Government expenditure. The money spent on 
a single battle-ship, or even on a cruiser, if devoted to this pur- 
pose, would quite conceivably settle the whole vexed question 
of British marine fish-hatcheries so far as some of the more im- 
portant food-fishes are concerned. And unless scientific research, 
both pure and as applied to our important industries, fisheries 
of course included, is not far more largely endowed in future 
than it has been in the past, it may come about in the course of 
time that the country will be unable to afford a sufficient number 
of battle-ships, cruisers, and similar expensive necessaries. 


MOLLUSCS (Mo.L.tusca) AS FOOD 


Brief mention has already been made (see p. 214) of various 
molluscs used for food in different parts of the world. A few 
of these are of such importance that they require somewhat more 
detailed treatment. They are Oysters, Mussels, Cockles, and 
Periwinkles. 

The Oyster (Ostrea).—The most important European species 
is the “ Flat” Oyster (O. edulis), to which our “ natives” belong. 
There is also the large, somewhat triangular, Portuguese Oyster 
(O. angulata), which is of considerable economic importance, 
though of coarser kind. The American Oyster (O. Virgintana), 
commonly known in this country as “blue point”, is the object 
of valuable and extensive fisheries on the Atlantic coast of the 
United States. In spite of typhoid scares it is probable that 
oysters will continue to be popular delicacies in this country, 
those from Whitstable and other fisheries in the Thames estuary 
being most esteemed. 

Oyster Culture.—Some nations engage on a large scale in 
oyster culture as well as oyster fishing. Italy, Holland, France, 
and the United States may be particularly mentioned in this 
connection. This kind of culture mainly depends on the fact 
that the larve, fry, or “spat” readily attach themselves to 
various foreign objects, and can then be reared to “seed” 


MOLLUSCS AS FOOD 289 


oysters, which may be further grown where produced, or else 
despatched elsewhere. The practice varies largely in different 
countries, and perhaps the most interesting case is afforded by 
France. It may be remarked in passing that the Italian oyster- 
industry has existed continuously from the times of the ancient 
Romans, and that the oysters are commonly grown upon bundles 
of twigs (fascines). The Dutch largely employ earthenware tiles, 
and the numerous estuaries of Holland afford suitable localities. 

The large development of oyster-culture in France during the 
last few decades is very remarkable, and is the outcome of some 
experiments made in 1853 by M. de Bon, commissaire of marine 
at St. Servan. At that time the natural oyster-beds of France 
had been so much depleted by over-dredging that not only was 
strict legislation regarding them necessary, but the question of 
future supply naturally demanded attention. The observer men- 
tioned found that the oyster-fry readily attached themselves to 
pieces of stone or stick, and this was the first step in the evolu- 
tion of “collectors” to serve this end. The earliest attempts to 
revive the industry by artificial culture were unfortunately not 
successful, but many natural obstacles were gradually overcome, 
the final result being a flourishing and highly-specialized trade, in 
which there is much division of labour. The total annual value of 
the industry considerably exceeds half a million pounds sterling. 
In 1902 the fresh oysters imported into this country from France 
were worth £ 30,000. 

Public dredging of the natural oyster-banks of France is so 
stringently limited by Government that they are of little im- 
portance as regards the direct supply of the market. They 
are, in fact, regarded as a reserve of spawning individuals, by 
which vast quantities of spat are produced. One important 
branch of the industry is to catch the spat on collectors in- 
geniously adapted to the conditions of particular localities. Some 
of these devices are made of boards, fixed together in successive 
tiers; but most of them consist of curved earthenware tiles, ar- 
ranged in wooden crates, wired together, or otherwise associated 
(fig. 1210). Whatever their precise nature, they are mostly to 
be found fixed in their appointed places near low tide-mark or 
in shallow water, by the beginning of July, ze. at the time when 
the fry are liberated from between the shells of the parent 
oysters. The tiles (or boards) have previously been covered 


290 UTILITARIAN ZOOLOGY 


with a thin layer of a mixture of lime and sand (or mud), and 
it is the under surfaces which, under ordinary circumstances, serve 
for the attachment of the larval oysters when these give up a 
free-swimming existence for a sedentary life. It may be added 
that in some localities it has been found possible to construct large 
spawning-ponds instead of relying on the supply of spat from 
the oyster-banks off the shore. 


—— oa 


Fig. 12%0.—The Gabarét Collector (Ruche) in position (at Arcachon). Young oysters are seen attached to 
the tile which is being lifted, and to another that is up-ended on the right. The collectors are covered with 
sea-weed, so that when left by the tide they are kept moist, and protected from heat and light. 


A “set” of spat having been secured on the collectors, the 
tender molluscs are left till about October, by which time they 
have grown to the size of a finger-nail, and are known as “seed- 
oysters”. They are then flaked off the tiles (or boards), which 
the thin layer of lime renders possible with trifling loss, and 
carefully packed. This ends the stage of production ( produc- 
tion), and the little oysters are now committed to the care of 
another set of specialists, who rear them to a marketable size. 
This process of &evage is much more difficult. The éeveur 
places the seed in rectangular rearing-cases, the upper and 
lower sides of which are chiefly made of wire-gauze. As 


MOLLUSCS AS FOOD 291 


growth proceeds, sorting from time to time becomes necessary, 
so as to give increased room. The cases are placed in oyster 
“parks”, which are simply enclosed areas of shallow water, with 
boundaries of the most various character, from lines of waving 
saplings to solid masonry pierced by flood-gates (fig. 1211). 
When the oysters have attained a fair size they may be trans- 


Fig. 12tr.—A Norwegian Oyster-Park 


ferred from the cases to the floor of the park, which sometimes 
has to be specially prepared for their reception. 

There are still two more stages which some French oysters 
have to go through before they reach the market. One is the 
process of “greening”, as at Marennes, the products of which 
are greatly esteemed. The oysters are here kept for a long time 
in small and muddy salt ponds (c/azves), where they gradually 
acquire a green colour owing to the nature of the food avail- 
able, which consists of minute alge. At the same time a pecu- 
liarly delicate flavour is imparted. Healthy British oysters from 
the estuaries of the Roach and Crouch, in Essex, may also be 


292 UTILITARIAN ZOOLOGY 


green, and for the same reason. Certain green oysters, however, 
should be looked upon with suspicion, as, for example, some of 
those from Cornwall, in which the colour is due to the presence 
of copper. 

The last process to which some of the French oysters are 
subjected is that of education for transport. They are gradually 
accustomed to be out of water, and to close their valves closely, 
which clearly enables them to be sent in a good condition for 
long distances. 

English Oyster-Industry.—That this industry is of considerable 
importance will already have been gathered from the statistics on 
page 280. We may take 
as an example the Whit- 
stable Oyster Fishery 
Company, which is one 
of the most notable. As 
to its yield of oysters, the 
Secretary of the Com- 
pany, Mr. W. H. Reeves, 
writes in a private letter: 
“With regard to statis- 
tics I can only say that 
our own sales of oysters 
Fig. 1212.—Shell of a Whitstable Native, with young Oysters attached. feds ce about Ie million 

Reduced. to 12 million yearly, and 

of this number about two- 

thirds are English Natives and the rest imported from France, 
with a small percentage of East River oysters from America”. 
As most persons are aware, Whitstable is on the north coast 
of Kent, east of the Isle of Sheppey, and has been an important 
seat of the oyster-trade from very remote times. The details 
here given are derived from a book by A. O. Collard (Zhe 
Oyster and Dredgers of Whitstable), to which readers are referred 
for further information. The following quotation from this book 
will give an idea of the length of time for which “natives” 
have been popular:—‘‘ Among some valuable notes attached to 
the evidence taken on oath in the Committee of the House of 
Lords in 1866, on certain bills promoted by the Herne Bay 
Fishery Company, I find the following observations: ‘The 
Whitstable Company are a most ancient body of ‘free fishers 


MOLLUSCS AS FOOD 293 


and dredgers’, who, from father to son, have carried on the 
business of an oyster fishery during, it is probable, a period of 


Fig. 1213.—Wheeler’s Beehive Collector. Much reduced. 


at least two thousand years. It was about a.p. 80 that Julius 
Agricola first exported oysters from the neighbourhood of the 


Fig. 1214.—Whitstable Oyster-Dredger at Work. Dredges on the rail. 


Reculvers to Rome, and for the ancestors of the Whitstable 


free dredgers Rome was, during about three centuries, their 
Vou. IV. 114 


294 UTILITARIAN ZOOLOGY 


Billingsgate.’ . . . When we remember what is known of the 
early state of Great Britain, we can scarcely be surprised that 
Sallust, who lived and wrote about fifty years before Christ, 
had a better opinion of our oysters than our ancestors, for he 
said, ‘The poor Britons—there is some good in them after all— 
they produce an oyster’. Whitstable may certainly claim some 
share in creating that good impression.” 

The superior quality of the 
Whitstable Natives is mainly 
due to the character of the in- 
shore beds where the oysters 
live, for not only is the soil 
favourable, but there is the 
necessary admixture of fresh 
water of suitable nature from 
the land. Upon these beds 
are planted the seed oysters 
dredged further out in the 
estuary, while some of these 
are imported from France. 
The ‘“cultch” to which the 
bivalves attach themselves is 
largely made up of empty 
oyster-shells (fig. 1212). One 
ingenious method that has 
been tried for catching the 
‘ spat is by means of Wheeler’s 
Foot . ~ Beehive Collector (fig. 1213), 
,» made of perforated earthen- 
ware, and partly filled with 
empty shells. Space forbids reference to the way in which the 
mature natives are treated after they have been dredged (fig. 
1214) and before they are finally packed in barrels for the 
market. 

The Edible Mussel (Mytelus edulrs, fig. 1215).—This mollusc 
is used to a considerable extent as human food, though there is 
rather a prejudice against it on account of the fact that occasional 
batches turn out to be poisonous, causing serious illness or even 
death. That mussels are nevertheless eaten largely in England 
may be deduced from the fact that in 1902 no less a quantity 


BYSSUS 


Fig. 1215.—Edible Mussel (A/ytilus edutis) 


INTERTIDAL AND SHALLOW WATER ANIMALS 


The plate represents a tide-pool on the British coast, and intro- 
duces a number of familiar marine animals. Beginning with those 
lowest in the scale they are: 


. Sea-Anemones (Acéznz@). 

. Common Star-fish (Uraster rubens). 

. Acorn-Barnacles (Balanus). 

. Shore-Crab (Carcinus manas). 

. Cockles (Cardium). The one on the left belongs to the 


edible species (C. edule). 


. Sea-Mussels (ALytilus edulis). 


7. Scallop (Pectez). 


9. 
. Gulls (Larus). 


. Periwinkles (Lz¢¢oriza). Those on the right are of the 


edible sort (Z. Ztforea), while the small yellow ones on 
the left belong to another species (L. obtusata). 
Purple-Shells (Purpura lapillus). 


“sl[Ng “or 3 L “sjassnyy-vas “9 


ssopyooy “Ss 


13g I 


lous “F q-wooy *e "YSY-ALIS 7% “SOUOLLOUYW 


SIVWINY SNIYVAN YVITIAYS HLIM 100d Wdll Vv 


I 6 I S 


*so[oeul 


MOLLUSCS AS FOOD 295 


than 43 tons 10 cwts. of them was seized and condemned at 
and near Billingsgate Market. On the Continent the consump- 
tion is much greater than with us. 

The mussel is greatly valued as a bait in British line-fishing, 
particularly on the coast of Scotland. The yield in that country 
for 1902 amounted to 95,663 cwts., valued at 45445, which con- 
trasts strongly with the 247,186 cwts., worth £14,506, collected 
in 1892. The meaning of the steady diminution which has 
been going on for some years has reference to the displacement 
of line-fishing by trawling. The same thing has been happening 
with regard to “clams” (species of Pecten and various other 
bivalves), another valuable bait in Scottish line-fishing. The 
quantity of clams taken in 1892 was 20,769 cwts. (42736), but 
in 1902 only 4320 cwts. (£586). 

Mussel-Culture.—As in the case of the oyster, the eggs hatch 
out into free-swimming “fry”, which after a time attach them- 
selves to various objects, not, however, by the substance of one 
valve, but by silky byssus threads. Nor is the mussel obliged 
to spend the whole of its fixed life in one spot, for it can cast 
off the threads, and crawl away to some distance, if adverse 
circumstances render a change of residence desirable. Import- 
ant musselries were established some years ago at Montrose, 
and previously barren ground was made very valuable. The 
principle involved essentially consists in reserving certain beds 
for the production of “seed”, as in the case of the strictly- 
preserved natural oyster-banks on the French coast (see p. 289). 
From these beds the young mussels are collected and planted 
out on other areas. 

On the Baltic coast of Germany tree-branches are thrust into 
the sea-floor in shallow water (fig. 1216), serving as collectors 
for the fry, which grow upon them to a marketable size. After 
from three to five years they are pulled up, weighed, and sold 
with their living crop still adhering. 

At some points of the French sea-board, especially at Es- 
naudes on the west coast, elaborate mussel-farming is practised, 
on what is known as the “bouchot” system. Each bouchot is 
a V-shaped or W-shaped collection of stakes driven into the 
mud, with the opening directed seawards. Adjacent stakes are 
connected by interwoven branches, and the 500 bouchots of the 
Esnaude musselry have a collective length of not far short of 


2096 UTILITARIAN ZOOLOGY 


130 miles. During the first two months of the year the mussel- 
fry attach themselves to the bouchots next the sea, and by May 
have grown sufficiently large to be scraped off without diffi- 
culty. They are then placed in small bags made of old canvas 
and the like, which are fixed to stakes further from the sea. 
Ultimately the bags rot away, leaving the mussels hanging in 
bunches by their byssal threads. As time goes on they are 
transferred further and further landwards, till by the time the 


Fig. 1216.—Part of a Baltic Musselry 


innermost stakes are reached they are large enough to gather 
for sale. The annual yield of Esnaudes is valued at not less 
than £52,000. 

The Cockle (Cardium edule).—As a cheap, if indigestible, sub- 
stitute for the oyster this bivalve is largely eaten by the populace 
in this and other countries. It burrows in the sand or mud of 
bays and estuaries, and is captured by raking at low tide. More- 
cambe Bay, Caermarthen Bay, and the estuary of the Teign are 
notable localities. Statistics for this country are not available, 
for even in the Reports of the Scottish Fishery Board the 


CRUSTACEANS AS FOOD 297 


cockle is an “unclassified” shell-fish. But most of us have seen 
small detachments of this mollusc displayed for sale on stalls, 
with vinegar and pepper as accompaniments, and have specu- 
lated as to what kind of customer might be expected. And we 
have the significant fact that, in 1902, 7 tons 18 cwts. 2 qrs. of 
cockles were seized and condemned at or near Billingsgate 
Market. 

The Pertwinkle (Littorina fttorea).—The popular ’winkle is 
gathered between tide-marks on many parts of our coasts, the 
greater part of the London supply being derived from Scotland. 
The large quantity of 54 tons 5 cwts. was seized and condemned 
at or near Billingsgate Market in 1902. 


CRUSTACEANS (Crustacea) AS FOOD 


We are here chiefly concerned with Lobsters, Prawns, Shrimps, 
and Crabs (fig. 1217), though these are far from being the only 
edible species. 

The Lobster (Homarus vulgaris).—Of all large crustaceans 
this is the most esteemed in this country, and vast numbers are 
annually consumed. Along the rocky parts of the coast of the 
British Isles, Norway, Canada, and many other countries, lobster- 
fishing is a very important industry. A large part of the English 
supply is derived from Scotland, for which the yield in 1902 was 
786,400, valued at £37,114. The home-supply is by no means 
equal to the demand, and our imports of lobsters, fresh and 
canned, are very considerable. Of the former we relied upon 
Norway for 38,538 (worth about £1850) in 1902, and upon 
France for many more. Lobster-canning is an important in- 
dustry for Newfoundland, Canada, and the United States. It 
should be added that the American Lobster (A. Americanus) 
is not of the same species as our native form, though closely 
allied. 

Lobsters are caught in “ pots” or “creels”, contrivances of 
the nature of traps, constructed of a wooden framework covered 
with netting (fig. 1218). Fish-entrails or other garbage is used as 
bait, the creel being sunk in a suitable spot by means of stones, 
a cord with a cork at the end serving to mark the spot. 

Lobster-fishing has to be regulated with considerable strin- 
gency, as it is only too easy to deplete the supply. Hatching has 


298 UTILITARIAN ZOOLOGY 


been carried on to a considerable extent in several countries with 
a view to maintain or, if possible, increase the numbers available. 
The difficulties to be overcome are far less formidable than in the 
case of fishes, for the female or “hen” lobster carries about her 


Fig. 1217.—1, Common Prawn (Palemon serratus). 2, Common Shrimp (Crangon vulgaris), 
3, The Edible Crab (Cancer pagurus). 4, The Lobster (Homarus vulgaris) 


eggs attached to the under side of the tail, at which time she is 
said to be in ‘‘berry”. So long ago as 1887 Captain Dannevig, 
at the Norwegian fish-hatchery near Arendal, found it possible to 
rear lobster-fry from the eggs, and such rearing is now resorted 
to by Scotland, Canada, and the United States, among other 
countries. The Aberdeen hatchery, for example, liberated some 


CRUSTACEANS AS FOOD 299 


3000 minute lobsters during 1902. The value of these hatcheries 
is doubtful. 

The Edible Crab (Cancer pagurus).—This savoury crustacean 
is also of considerable economic importance (see p. 280). The 
chief method of capture is the same as for the lobster. Hatching 
methods are here also being made the subject of experiment. 
The Aberdeen hatchery cast adrift in the open sea no less than 
4,500,000 of juvenile crabs in the year 1902. 

Shrimps and Prawns.—A Common Shrimp (Crangon vulgaris) 
is distinguished from a Prawn (Patemon serratus, &c.) not only 


Fig. 1218.—Crab-Pots 


by its smaller size, but also by several structural features, of which 
the most obvious is the absence of the sharp saw-edged spine 
which projects from the head of the latter. Prawns are often 
known as “red shrimps”. The annual consumption in this 
country must be very large, judging from observation, and the 
fact that in 1902 shrimps (presumably including prawns as well) 
to the amount of over 54 tons were seized and condemned at or 
near Billingsgate Market. We also know that in the year men- 
tioned over 900 fishing-boats (mostly second class) were engaged 
in capturing shrimps and prawns, chiefly by trawls, round the 
coasts of England and Wales. The catch of three small third- 
class Scottish trawlers working for that period in the Solway Firth 
was worth £3571, and if the earnings of the English boats were 


300 UTILITARIAN ZOOLOGY 


proportionate the total value of their catch must have been very 
considerable. And we have further to consider the great army of 
shrimpers working by means of various kinds of hand-net (fig. 
1219), or dragging similar contrivances along by means of carts. 


Fig. 1219.—Shrimper working a Push-Net 


The Fresh-Water Crayfish (Astacus fluviatils).—This inhabi- 
tant of many of our rivers and canals, which resembles a small 
lobster in appearance, is of no great economic importance to this 
country, although of decidedly delicate favour. On the Continent, 
however, an allied but larger species (4. zodz/7s) is much eaten. 


CHAPTER LXIX 


ANIMAL FRIENDS—WILD ANIMALS CAPTURED FOR 
VARIOUS ECONOMIC PURPOSES—BENEFICIALS 


The present section has mainly been concerned with the 
animal kingdom as a source of food, although in dealing with 
domesticated forms it has been found convenient to mention com- 
modities of other kinds, such as wool. 

We now have to deal with economic products other than food, 
for the sake of which wild animals of various kinds are captured. 
Prominent among these desiderata are furs, skins, fats, and oils, 
besides which there are a great number of less important articles 
of commerce, such as sponges and medicinal substances, that call 
for passing notice. Animal products employed entirely or mainly 
for decorative purposes will be reserved for treatment under 
Animal A¢sthetics. 


FUR-BEARING MAMMALS (MamMaALtlia) 


Although in temperate regions, as we have seen (p. 228), 
woven clothes have replaced for ordinary purposes the garments 
of skin and fur devised by prehistoric races, this by no means 
applies to the colder parts of the world, where ordinary clothing 
does not afford sufficient protection from the rigorous climate. 
The nomad tribes of the Russian steppes, for example, make large 
use of such garments, and the heathen Ostiaks of North Siberia do 
so toa still greater extent (fig. 1220). Of the latter Brehm says 
(in North Pole to Equator) that“. . . they use nothing but the 
skin of the reindeer for clothing, and only employ the furs of other 
animals for the occasional decoration of the reindeer, or, as the 
Russians call them, stag skins. Their dress consists of a close- 
fitting skin coat reaching to the knee; in the men it is slit down 
the breast, in the women it is open down the whole front, but held 


together with leather thongs; a hood of the same material is 
301 


302 UTILITARIAN ZOOLOGY 


usually attached to or forms part of the dress; mittens also are 
sewn on; leather breeches reach below the knee; and leather 
stockings, which fasten over the knee, complete the attire. The 
fur garment worn by the women is edged down the sides of the 


Fig. 1220.—Heathen Ostiaks 


opening with a carefully-pieced border of variously-coloured little 
squares of short-haired fur, and always has a broad band of dog- 
skin round the foot; that worn by the men has at most a border of 
dog-skin round the foot; the leather stockings, if they are deco- 
rated at all, are composed of many prettily-combined, diversely- 
coloured stripes of skin from the leg of a reindeer, with a stout 


FUR-BEARING MAMMALS 303 


shoe partly sewn on, partly laced over the foot.” The Esquimaux 
dress is spoken of elsewhere (see p. 227). 

That we ourselves have not altogether abandoned the dress- 
materials of our remote prehistoric ancestors is sufficiently attested 
by the fact that in 1902 over 97,000,000 skins and furs, worth 
45,578,452, were imported into this country, though of course 
only a part of these were destined for personal wear. 

The list of fur-bearing Mammals is a very long one, but the 
most important orders in this connection are the Flesh-Eaters 
(Carnivora) and the Gnawers (Rodentia), and the purpose of the 
present section will be sufficiently attained by dealing with a few 
species belonging to these. It may be noted that we look to the 
colder parts of the world, especially Canada and Russia, for our 
chief supply, for the growth of a dense under-coat of fur is an 
adaptation to rigorous climatal conditions. And it is the pelts 
obtained in winter that are valuable. In 1902 Canada exported 
furs to the value of £98,000. 

Fur-Y1eLpinc FiesH-Eaters (Carnivora). —Some of the 
most important furs of commerce are derived from the members 
of the Weasel and Marten Family (Mustelide). Pre-eminent 
among these is the Russian Sable (JJ/ustela zibellina), which 
formerly abounded throughout the forest regions of Siberia, but is 
now mostly to be found in the eastern part of that country, includ- 
ing Kamschatka, where the seaport of Petropavlosk is an impor- 
tant depét for the pelts. A single skin may be worth as much as 
430 in this country. The chief method of hunting is by means of 
dogs, which force the sables to take refuge in trees, from which 
they are shaken or knocked down into suitably disposed nets. 
The closely allied American Sable (4. Americana), largely 
trapped in Canada, is also of considerable importance. 

The white skins (with black tails) known as “ermine”, which 
custom leads us to associate with the “great ones of the earth”, 
are no other than the winter coats of the Stoat (Putorius erminea), 
one of our native “vermin”. It is widely distributed through the 
arctic and temperate regions of both Old and New Worlds, but 
only assumes full winter livery in the colder parts of its area of 
distribution. 

The Minks or Visons are comparatively large aquatic animals 
of the weasel kind, with brown fur. The pelts of the American 
Mink (Putorius vison) are most esteemed, and are of importance 


304 UTILITARIAN ZOOLOGY 


in the Canadian fur-trade. Those of the Russian Mink (P. 
lutreola) are less valuable. 

Passing over Bears, Foxes, Leopards, &c., mention must be 
made of Sea-Otters and Fur-Seals, of which the latter in par- 
ticular are of great economic importance. 

The Sea-Otter (Latax lutris), native to the coastal waters of 
the North Pacific, has been so persistently hunted down that its 
numbers have rapidly diminished during the last twenty years, and 
it is probably doomed to speedy extinction. Spearing, clubbing, 


Fig. 1221.—Northern Fur-Seals (O¢avia ursina) on the Pribyloffs 


and netting are the chief modes of capture. The fur of the adult 
is very dense, and of a beautiful dark colour. Owing to their 
rarity skins are now of great value, a single one being worth at 
least £100, or, in exceptional cases, double that amount or even 
still more. 

Certain species of Sea-Lzons or Eared Seals (Otaridz) are the 
“fur seals” of commerce, which furnish the valuable skins with 
which most of us are familiar. Some of them are native to the 
Southern seas, but the most notable kind is the NWorthern Fur- 
Seal (Otaria ursina, figs. 1221 and 1222), or Sea-Bear of the Pacific. 
The Pribyloff Islands of the Behring Sea have long been famous 
as one of the most important centres of the industry to which this 


THE SABLE (Mustela ztbellina) 


This small carnivore, a near relative of our native Pine-Marten, 
is one of the most valuable of fur-yielding animals. It formerly 
ranged across the northern parts of Asia, from the Urals to the 
Behring Sea, but has been so persistently hunted down that it is 
now chiefly found in the forests of eastern Siberia and Kams- 
chatka, Petropavlovsk on the coast of the latter being the chief 
depot for sable-skins. It is only the thick winter-fur that is 
valuable, and a good pelt may be worth as much as £30. 

Savles were formerly caught for the most part by trapping, and 
sometimes guns were resorted to, though with great risk of injury 
to the skins. At the present time they are usually hunted down 
with dogs, and forced to take refuge in trees, from which they 
are shaken or knocked down into suitably disposed nets. 


iS) 
= 
aA 
uJ 
ally 
E 


ELLINA), 


(MUSTELA ZIB 


ie 


) 


E RUSSIAN SAE 


TH 


OF THE MARTENS 


FUR-BEARING MAMMALS 305 


species gives rise. As elsewhere briefly described (vol. iii, p. 492), 
large numbers of the fur-seals repair to these islands during the 
summer for the purpose of bringing up their young. It is the 
young “bachelor” males, or “holluschickie”, that are not strong 
enough to secure establishments, which are slaughtered for the 
sake of their skins. These are carefully driven to inland ‘killing 
grounds ”, knocked on the head, and flayed as quickly as possible. 
Very full details of the industry are given by H. W. Elliot in his 
well-known book Ax Arctic Province, from which the following 
extract is taken:—‘‘ The common or popular notion in regard to 
seal-skins is, that they are worn by those animals just as they 
appear when offered for sale; that the fur-seal swims about, 
exposing the same soft coat 
with which our ladies of 
fashion so delight to cover 
their tender forms during 
inclement winter. This is 
a very great mistake; few 
skins are less attractive 
than a seal-skin is when it 
is taken from the creature. a - 
The fur is not visible; it — fig, ose Nodtiaen Biv Seale 

is concealed entirely by a 

coat of stiff over-hair, dull, gray-brown, and grizzled. It takes 
three of them to make a lady’s sack and boa; and in order 
that a reason for their costliness may be apparent, I take great 
pleasure in submitting a description of the tedious and _ skilful 
labour necessary to their dressing by the furriers ere they are 
fit for use. A leading manufacturer writing to me says: ‘When 
the skins are received by us in the salt, we wash off the salt, 
placing them upon a beam somewhat like a tanner's beam, 
removing the fat from the flesh side with a beaming-knife, care 
being required that no cuts or uneven places are made in the 
pelt. The skins are next washed in water and placed upon the 
beam with the fur up, and the grease and water removed by the 
knife. The skins are then dried by moderate heat, being tacked 
out on frames to keep them smooth. After being fully dried, they 
are soaked in water and thoroughly cleansed with soap and water. 
In some cases they can be unhaired without this drying process 
and cleansed before drying. After the cleansing process they pass 


306 UTILITARIAN ZOOLOGY 


to the picker, who dries the fur by stove-heat, the pelt being kept 
moist. When the fur is dry he places the skin on a beam, and 
while it is warm he removes the main coat of hair with a dull 
shoe-knife, grasping the hair with his thumb and knife, the thumb 
being protected by a rubber cob. The hair must be pulled out, 
not broken. After a portion is removed the skin must be again 
warmed at the stove, the pelt being kept moist. When the outer 
hairs have been mostly removed, he uses a beaming-knife to work 
out the fine hairs (which are shorter), and the remaining coarser 
hairs. It will be seen that great care must be used, as the skin is 
in that soft state that too much pressure of the knife would take 
the fur also; indeed, bare spots are made. Carelessly-cured skins 
are sometimes worthless on this account. The skins are next 
dried, afterwards dampened on the pelt side, and shaved to a fine, 
even surface. They are then stretched, worked, and dried, after- 
wards softened in a fulling-mill, or by treading them with the bare 
feet in a hogshead, one head being removed and the cask placed 
nearly upright, into which the workman gets with a few skins and 
some fine hardwood saw-dust, to absorb the grease while he dances 
upon them to break them into leather. If the skins have been 
shaved thin, as required when finished, any defective spots or 
holes must now be mended, the skin smoothed and pasted with 
paper on the pelt side, or two pasted together to protect the pelt 
in drying. The usual process in the United States is to leave the 
pelt sufficiently thick to protect them without pasting. In dyeing, 
the liquid dye is put on with a brush, carefully covering the points 
of the standing fur. After lying folded, with the points touching 
each other, for some time, the skins are hung up and dried. The 
dry dye is then removed, and so on, until the required shade is 
obtained. One or two of these coats of dye are put on much 
heavier and pressed down to the roots of the fur, making what is 
called the ground. From eight to twelve coats are required to 
produce a good colour. The skins are then washed clean, the fur 
dried, the pelt moist. They are shaved down to the required 
thickness, dried, working them some time while drying, then 
softened in a hogshead, and sometimes run in a revolving cylinder 
with fine saw-dust to clean them. The English process does not 
have the washing after dyeing.’” 

Fur-Seals are also hunted in the open sea, at times when the 
herds are migrating. The United States endeavoured to put an 


FUR-BEARING MAMMALS 307 


end to this “pelagic” sealing in the Behring Sea on the part of 
other nations, but the matter being submitted to arbitration, it was 
decided that, subject to certain restrictions, the practice should be 
allowed to continue. The yield of the fur-seal industry of British 
Columbia in 1900 was 35,523 skins (value $562,845), and in 1901 
24,422 skins (value $366, 330). 

Fur-Yietpine Gnawers (Ropentia).—Beaver, Chinchilla, 
Musquash, Squirrel, and Rabbit are here of greatest importance, 


Fig. 1223.—Musquash (Fiber zibethicus) 


Lhe Beaver (Castor).—The American Beaver (Castor Cana- 
densts) is largely trapped in Canada for the sake of its fur, which 
is greatly esteemed, though no longer used in the manufacture of 
top-hats, silk having proved both cheaper and better for the pur- 
pose. The animal has been slaughtered in so wholesale a manner 
that beaver-fur is becoming increasingly rare and expensive. 

The European Beaver (C. fider), once abundant, is now too 
scarce to be of economic value. Regarding the value attached to 
the skins of those which existed in Wales down to 1188, Beddard 
(in The Cambridge Natural History), after stating that the species 
was extinct in England before the historic period, remarks: “ . 
they were rare in the Principality for a hundred years or so before 


308 UTILITARIAN ZOOLOGY 


the Norman Conquest. The king Hywel Dda, who died in 948 
A.D., fixed the price of a Beaver skin at 120 pence, the skins of 
Stag, Wolf, and Fox being worth only 8 pence apiece.” 

The Musquash (Fiber zibethicus, fig. 1223).—This is a large 
North American vole, which is of considerable importance to the 
Canadian fur-trade, chiefly, it would seem, because it is made into 
imitation seal-skin. 

The Chinchilla (Chinchilla lanigera).—The cold climate to 
which the soft gray fur of this pretty little rodent is an adaptation, 
is here a result not of latitude but of altitude. Chinchillas live 
in the high Andes of Peru and Bolivia, and are something like 
squirrels in appearance, except that the tail is far less bushy (see 
vol. i, p. 134). 

The Common Squirrel (Sciurus vulgaris).—This species has 
a remarkably wide distribution, ranging from Ireland to Japan, 
and also being native to North Africa. It is the chief source of 
‘“squirrel” fur, which is of grey or drab colour, quite unlike the 
reddish-brown of our ordinary native specimens. The skins of 
commerce are, in fact, taken from individuals inhabiting the colder 
parts of Russia, the grey hue being, as in many other cases, an 
adaptation to the severe climate of winter. 

The Rabbit (Lepus cuntculus)—Among the cheaper kinds of 
fur that of the rabbit is best known, and by means of dyeing and 
other processes it is worked up into passable imitations of more 
costly pelts. 


SKINS AND DOWN OF WILD BIRDS (AvEs) 


Deferring for the present the question of the wild birds 
which are subjected to wholesale butchery on account of their 
beautiful plumage, mention may here be made of Grebes and 
Eider- Ducks. 

Grebes (species of Podicypes).— These widely - distributed 
aquatic birds are distinguished by the density and_ beautiful 
silver-white colour of the plumage on the under side of the 
body. Muffs and other articles made of ‘grebe” are manu- 
factured from the skin of this region, with the feathers attached 
as in nature. 

Exder-Ducks (Somateria, fig. 1224).—Two species of these 
essentially Arctic birds are of commercial importance on account 


WILD ANIMALS YIELDING LEATHER, HORN, ETC. 309 


ot the valuable down developed on the nest as a climatal adap- 
tation. The Common Eider (Somateria mollissima), which has 
a wide range, and is included in the British avifauna, is carefully 
preserved in Iceland and Norway. In Labrador and Greenland 
it is replaced by an allied species (S. Dresser). 

The Scandinavian eider-industry is based on the fact that 
the female bird lines and covers her nest with down plucked 
from her own breast (see p. 60). The breeding-places are on low 
ground near the coast, or upon rocky islets, and each “ eder- 
fold” (ze. eider-fold) is worked for profit by a special proprietor. 
Both eggs and down are collected at regular intervals during the 
nesting-season, but the amount. obtainable from a particular nest 


Fig. 1224.—Eider-Drake (Somateria mollissima) 


is, of course, limited, and care is taken to allow the despoiled 
mother-birds to hatch out some at least of the final batch of eggs. 
The last lot of down is collected when the nests have been 
deserted for the season. About three-quarters of the Danish 
supply is derived from Greenland. Newton (in A Dictionary 
of Lirds) thus disposes of two popular errors regarding these 


birds:—‘‘ The story of the drakes furnishing down after the 
duck’s supply is exhausted is a fiction. He never goes near the 
nest. . . . Equally fictitious is the often-repeated statement that 


eider-down is white. Mouse-colour would perhaps best describe 
its hue.” 


WILD ANIMALS YIELDING LEATHER, HORN, FAT, ETC. 


It has been considered desirable in this book to deal with 
domesticated animals in a special section, but the plan (like 


any other) has certain disadvantages, especially when treating of 
VoL. IV. 115 


310 UTILITARIAN ZOOLOGY 


economic products. Leather, horn, fat, &c. &c., are, of course, 
derived from both tame and wild animals, and this must be kept in 
mind here. The importance of leather and horn will be realized 
by reading the following extracts from Simmonds (in Axzmal 
Products):—‘* The leather manufacture is one of our most an- 
cient and important industries. . . . The old adage that there 
is nothing like leather is certainly verified in the multifarious 
uses to which leather has been or is now put. We make 
coverings of it in articles of personal use, for a man may be 
clothed in leather garments from the head to the foot. In 
saddlery and harness its use is universal, and nothing can sup- 
plant it for durability. In articles for household or domestic 
use, we have leather hangings and coverings for furniture, 


buckets and bottles, cups and hose. . . . For travelling we have 
portmanteaus, valises, and hand-bags, pocket-books, purses, and 
cigar-cases. . . . We write on leather, and we cover our books 


with it, and it has even been used by photographers to take 
likenesses on. It is the packing and baling material in many 
countries from its cheapness and durability. Hammocks, boats, 
and even cannon have been made of it, whilst the leather apron is 
the most durable and serviceable protection for many an artisan. 
Leather shields were and are still in use in many countries. It 
serves for the grip-handle of swords, and for the sheaths of 
knives. We use leather in balls for cricket and football, and we 
cover musical instruments with it, as well as telescopes and many 
philosophical instruments, for protection. It is the most ancient, 
useful, and generally applied animal substance for an infinite 
variety of purposes. And, moreover, leather can be made of 
the skin or hide of almost every quadruped, and of many fishes, 
serpents, and reptiles. Human skin has even been tanned, but 
it is too thin for any serviceable use.” In the following remarks 
about horn it will be remembered that the antlers of deer are 
of bony nature:—‘ The rights and privileges of the ‘horn- 
workers’ and ‘horn-pressers’ in former times occupied the pro- 
minent attention of the Legislature. But there is no fear in the 
present day ‘of the trade being ruined, and the business lost to 
the nation’, as was the cry when the statutes 6 Edward IV, 
c. 1, and 7 James IJ, c. 14 were passed, forbidding the sale of 
horns to foreigners, and prohibiting the export of our wrought 
horns. The invention of horn lanterns has been by some ascribed 


WILD ANIMALS YIELDING LEATHER, HORN, ETC. 311 


to King Alfred, who is said to have first used them to preserve 
his candle time-measurers from the wind. ... A lantern [was 
formerly] an indispensable family article; there was no going into 
the yard or out of the door on dark nights without one. A 
piece of horn was sometimes placed over the title of medieval 
MSS. to preserve the letters from injury, while the transparent 
material allowed them to be read. The child’s horn-book of 
later times had its leaves of alphabet and spelling covered en- 
tirely with thin sheets of this material. Although the principal 
manufacturing applications of horn are for combs, umbrella-tops, 
and knife-handles, yet there are other uses as extensive and 
varied as the descriptions of horn which come into the market, 
or bristle on the head of the animals characterized by these 
frontal appendages. Ox, buffalo, and deer horns are those 
mostly worked up, but the horns of the rhinoceros, ram, goat, 
and some other animals are also employed to a limited extent 
for different purposes. .. . While many of the former uses of 
horns for glazing purposes, for drinking-cups, for horn-books, 
and for the bugle of the bold forester have passed away, other 
and more elegant and varied applications have been found for this 
plastic and durable substance. Extensive as is the present use 
of horns, we believe that many further manufacturing purposes 
may be found for them, and that they will become even still 
more important in a commercial point of view. They receive 
a great variety of applications at the present day, owing to 
. their toughness and elasticity, as well as their remarkable pro- 
perty of softening under heat, of welding, and of being moulded 
into various forms under pressure.” It may be added that for 
many purposes both leather and horn are now replaced by cheap 
substitutes. 

As most of the horns used on a large scale for manufacturing 
purposes are those of oxen, it will suffice to devote the rest of 
this sub-section to the consideration of certain wild animals 
captured chiefly for the sake of the leather and fat which they 
yield. 

Tue Watrus (TRICHECHUS ROSMARUS).—This huge aquatic 
carnivore, which may attain the weight of 3300 lbs., is a purely 
Arctic form, and once abounded in the Behring Sea, the Gulf of 
St. Lawrence, and on the coasts of Newfoundland and Labrador. 
Like so many other wild animals, however, it has been so much 


312 UTILITARIAN ZOOLOGY 


hunted down that the walrus industry is a declining one. Rifle, 
lance, and harpoon are all employed in its destruction. The 
economic products are skin, fat, and ivory. The skin is very 
thick and tough, but tanning reduces its value. It is employed 
for some of the coarser purposes to which leather is put, and 
in former times was largely used in North Europe for making 
ropes and cables, to which end strips of it were plaited together. 
The fat or blubber, though of good quality, is yielded in relatively 
small quantities. The ivory making up the large tusks is inferior 
to that of the elephant. 

Seats (PHocip#).—These are often confounded with the Fur- 
Seals (Otaride) and their allies, from which, however, they are 
distinguished by their more complete adaptation to an aquatic 
life, as seen more particularly in the complete absence of an 
external ear, and the backwardly-directed hind-flippers, which 
are bound together by a fold of skin (see vol. iii, p. 78). 

Seals are hunted for the sake of their blubber, which makes 
excellent oil for lighting and lubricating purposes; and also on 
account of the value of their skins, which are dressed as one of 
the coarser furs; while they yield leather that, especially when 
enamelled, finds increasing favour. The animals are killed by 
clubs, harpoons, or rifles, according to circumstances. By far the 
most important species for the sealing industry is the Harp or 
Greenland Seal (Phoca Grenlandica, fig. 1225), the former name 
of which has reference to the presence of a curved black mark 
on the back of the male. Next to this species in importance, 
and like it native to the Arctic Ocean, is the curious Hooded or 
Bladder-Nosed Seal (Cystophora cristata), so named from a dilat- 
able swelling on the nose of the male. The most noted sealing 
centres are the coasts of, and the parts of the sea adjacent to 
West Greenland, Newfoundland, Jan Mayen Island, and North 
Russia (including the White Sea and the vicinity of Nova 
Zembla). From the British stand-point it is most interesting 
to notice that sealing is one of the chief industries of Newfound- 
land, its products in 1902 reaching the value of £166,747. The 
young are born on ice-floes, the ‘“‘whelping ice”, off the coast of 
Labrador, during January and February, and do not take to the 
water for about three months. The cold Labrador current, which 
sets southward along the American coast, brings the ‘“ whelping 


” 


ice” to the latitude of Newfoundland by about mid-March, 


WILD ANIMALS YIELDING LEATHER, HORN, ETC. 313 


and the well-equipped steam-sealers of St. John’s begin their 
annual sealing-trip at the commencement of that month, timing 
their journey to reach the floes before the ‘“whelps” are old 
enough to leave the ice. 

Lake Baikal and the Caspian Sea were once connected with 
the Arctic Ocean, one proof of which is found in the fact that 
each is inhabited by a special kind of seal (Phoca Sibirica and 
P. Caspica), both of which are largely captured by means of 


Fig. 1225.—Harp or Greenland Seal (Phoca Grenlandica) 


strong wide-meshed nets, worked on the same principle as the 
“‘drift-nets” used for catching herring and mackerel. The Cas- 
pian sealers let down their nets from boats, those of Lake Baikal 
take advantage of the holes in the ice, to which the seals come up 
in order to breathe. 

Tue Ducone (Haticore puconc).—This member of the 
order of Sea-Cows (Sirenia), which ranges from Ceylon to 
East Australia, is, when adult, about the size of an ox, and is 
captured for the sake of its flesh, fat, and hide. Its pursuit is 
one of the Queensland industries, and harpooning is the method 
adopted. Semon (in /u the Australian Bush) says of it:— 


314 UTILITARIAN ZOOLOGY 


“The whites capture dugong principally for their fat, which is 
said to possess therapeutic qualities. It is considered an ex- 
cellent remedy for consumption, but, happily for the dugongs, 
this seems to be a mere superstition. I have not tasted their 
meat myself, though some whites are very fond of it, and com- 
pare it to veal. Others, however, describe its taste as disagree- 
able and insipid. The aborigines of Torres Straits consider it a 
great delicacy.” The hide is thick and tough, rendering it suitable 
for machine-straps. 

Wuates, &c. (Ceracea).—Whales and their kind have been 
systematically hunted down from very remote times, chiefly for 
the sake of their fat or blubber, but 
some species also for their baleen or 
‘“whale-bone”, and others on account 
of the value of their skins. As else- 
where stated (p. 209), the flesh of ceta- 
ceans is regarded as a great luxury by 
the Esquimaux and many other primi- 
tive peoples. A distinction is drawn 
between the Toothed Whales and the 
Toothless Whales, in which transverse 
plates of baleen, with fringed edges, 
_ Fig. 1226.—Baleen. a, Three plates hang down from the roof of the mouth 
in section; 4, a pair of plates. Greatly . * 
reduced. (fig. 1226), serving as a sort of strainer 

by which water is removed from the 
plankton used as food. 

Toothless Whales (Mystacocett).—The most important member 
of this group is the Greenland or Northern ‘“ Right” Whale 
(Balena mysticetus), a purely Arctic species. The British 
whaling industry, of which the chief ports engaged are Peter- 
head and Dundee, is chiefly concerned with the capture of this 
animal, but unfortunately has greatly declined of late years. To 
Newfoundland the pursuit of whales is a matter of much greater 
relative importance. 

The old method of capture was from open boats, by means 
of harpoons thrown by hand, lances being afterwards used to 
despatch the wounded animals. The harpoon-gun afforded an 
improvement upon this, while a modern steam-whaler can dis- 
pense with the use of open boats, and discharge harpoons (some- 
times loaded with explosives) from a platform in the bows. 


WILD ANIMALS YIELDING LEATHER, HORN, ETC. 315 


Adult Greenland whales now attain a length of 50 or 60 feet, 
but much larger specimens were often captured in the palmy 
days of the whaling industry. The average product from a 
single animal is said to be about 15 tons of oil and 15 cwts. of 
whalebone. The former, like that of seals, is valuable as a lubri- 
cant and for other technical purposes, but the discovery of 
petroleum has greatly lessened the value of this and other animal 
fats as a source of artificial heat and light. Whalebone is be- 
coming increasingly expensive in proportion to the diminishing 
supplies, and is still in great demand for a number of purposes, 
owing to its toughness, durability, and elasticity. It is now largely 
replaced by steel, as, e.g., for umbrella-frames and corsets. 

The Southern “Right” Whale (2. australis), which closely 
resembles the Greenland form, though its baleen is not of such 
good quality, has a very wide area of distribution, but is absent 
from the Arctic Ocean. The chief interest attaching to it is 
that at one time it was common in the Bay of Biscay, where it 
formed the object of an important industry, especially to the 
Basques of North Spain. Some points relating to this are thus 
summarized by Beddard (in The Cambridge Natural History) :— 
‘Among the small towns which fringe the bay it is very common 
to find the whale incorporated in the armorial bearings. ‘ Over 
the portal of the first old house in the steep street of Guetaria’, 
writes Sir Clements Markham (P. Z. S., 1881), ‘there is a shield 
of arms consisting of whales amid waves of the sea. At Motrico 
the town arms consist of a whale in the sea harpooned, and with 
a boat with men holding the line.’ Plenty of other such ex- 
amples testify to the prevalence of the whaling industry on these 
adjoining coasts of Spain and France. It appears that though 
the fishery began much earlier—even in the ninth century—the 
first actual document relating to it dates from the year 1150. It 
is in the shape of privileges granted by Sancho the Wise to the 
city of San Sebastian. The trade was still very flourishing in the 
sixteenth century. Rondeletius the naturalist described Bayonne 
as the centre of the trade, and tells us that the flesh, especially 
of the tongue, was exposed for sale as food in the markets. 
M. Fischer (Actes Linn. Soc. Bordeaux, 1881), who, as well as 
Sir Clements Markham, has given an important account of the 
whaling industry on the Basque shores, quotes an account of 
the methods pursued in the sixteenth century. It was at Biarritz 


316 UTILITARIAN ZOOLOGY 


—or as Ambroise Pare, from whom Fischer quotes, spelt it, 
Biaris—that the main fisheries were undertaken. . . . The in- 
habitants set upon a hill a tower from which they could see ‘the 
balaines which pass, and perceiving them coming partly by the 
loud noise they make, and partly by the water which they throw 
out by a conduit which they possess in the middle of the fore- 
head.’ Several boats then set out in pursuit, some of which were 
reserved for men whose sole duty it was to pick out of the water 
their comrades who had overbalanced themselves in their ex- 
citement. The harpoons bore a mark by which their respective 
owners could recognize them, and the carcass of the animal was 
shared in accordance with the numbers and owners of the har- 
poons found sticking in the dead body of the whale. At this 
period the fishery was at its height, but it continued to be an 
occupation along those shores until the beginning of the eigh- 
teenth century, after which it gradually declined. The fishery 
of whales began to be carried farther afield than the shore, and 
for a long time the Basques furnished expert harpooners to 
whaling vessels proceeding to the Arctic seas.” 

Toothed Whales (Odontoceti).—The largest of these is the 
Cachalot or Sperm Whale (Physeter macrocephalus, fig. 1227), 
which has been credited with reaching a length of over 80 feet, 
though this is probably an exaggeration. It ranges throughout 
the warmer seas of the world. The great head possesses a 
squarish snout that projects in front of the mouth, which is 
consequently placed on the under side of the body, obliging the 
Cachalot, it is said, to turn over like a shark when it wishes to 
bite. Many stories are current regarding the fierceness of this 
animal, and no doubt many whale-boats have been crushed in its 
formidable jaws, but that whaling and other vessels have at 
times been reported “missing” as a result of the attacks of 
Cachalots, as has been suggested, would appear to be more 
problematical. Like other cetaceans, this whale has a thick coat 
of blubber under the skin, and the front part of the skull is 
modified into a curious basin-shaped receptacle, which is full of 
the liquid fat known as spermaceti. As much as forty-five barrels 
of this have been taken from a single individual. Mixed with a 
small percentage of bees’-wax it was formerly much used in 
manufacturing candles of the better sort. 


The White Whale or Beluga (Delphinapterus leucas) is an 


WILD ANIMALS YIELDING LEATHER, HORN, ETC. 317 


Arctic species related to the Dolphins and Porpoises. The 
average length of adults is about 10 feet, but this may be con- 
siderably exceeded. It is chiefly hunted on the north of Russia 
and north-east of Canada, and is one of those cetaceans which 
ascend rivers. The blubber is of good quality, and the skin is 
made into the “porpoise leather” of commerce, which is of con- 


Fig. 1227.—Cachalot or Sperm Whale (Physeter macrocephalus) 


siderable value for the manufacture of shooting-boots and some 
other articles. 

Reptices (Reptitia).—It need only be said here that orna- 
mental leather is made from the skins of Crocodiles and various 
Lizards, while ‘‘tortoise-shell” is obtained from certain Turtles. 
Of the last something will be said in a succeeding section. 

Fisues (Piscrs).—The skins of various members of this group 
are of economic value. Those of certain sharks and dog-fishes, for 
instance, are the source of “shagreen”, used to some extent as 
ornamental leather, but chiefly for polishing wood. Their value 
for the latter purpose depends upon the fact that they are full of 
little hard-pointed scales, covered with enamel. The skins of 
some of the ordinary bony fishes (Teleostei) are employed for 


318 UTILITARIAN ZOOLOGY 


clarifying beer, while in Eastern countries, such as India and 
China, they are converted into fish-glue, which is a very powerful 
adhesive. 

Other fishes serve as a source of oil for technical purposes, as, 
e.g., the Menhaden or Pogy (Clupea menhaden), a member of the 
herring family. This species is largely captured on the eastern 
coasts of the United States for this particular purpose. The livers 
of sharks and dog-fishes are also of considerable value as a source 
of oil. 

Insects (INsEcTA).—One would scarcely expect this group to 
be included under the present heading, but it appears that in 
Algeria locusts are utilized in the preparation of a kind of oil. 


MEDICINAL AND MISCELLANEOUS ECONOMIC PRODUCTS. 


ANIMALS AND ANIMAL Propucts as MepicinaL AGENTS.—In 
former days large use was made of animals in medicine, the pre- 
scriptions being usually fanciful and often revolting. To consider 
these ancient practices at length would be here superfluous, and 
the subject will be sufficiently illustrated by the following 
quotation from Hulme’s Natural History Lore and Legend, a 
book in which much curious matter is brought together :—‘ Cogan 
in his Havex of Health declares ‘thus much will I say as to the 
commendation of the hare, and of the defense of hunters’ toyle, 
that no beast, be it never so great, is profitable to so many and so 
diverse uses in Physicke as the hare’, and he then proceeds to 
give numerous prescriptions in which it is the principal feature. 
‘The knee-bone of an Hare taken out alive and worne abute the 
necke is excellent against Convulsion fitts’, we are told, and 
perhaps it may be so, but the point that more especially strikes 
us, and it impresses one over and over again in these medieval 
recipes, is the cold-blooded cruelty and indifference to animal 
suffering that is shown in so many of them. Fried mice were 
considered a specific in small-pox, but it was necessary that they 
should be fried alive; while for cataract a fox should be captured, 
his tongue cut out, and the animal released; the member thus 
barbarously procured was placed in a bag of red cloth and hung 
round the man’s neck. For erysipelas a favourite old remedy was 
to cut off one-half of the ear of a cat and let the blood drop on the 
part affected, while for fits one popular recipe was to take a mole 


MEDICINAL AND ECONOMIC PRODUCTS 219 


alive, cut the tip of his nose off, and let nine drops of the blood 
fall on to a drop of sugar: the swallowing of this was held to be a 
certain cure.” 

‘“The shrew-mouse, one of the most inoffensive of creatures, 
was by our ancestors held to be of terribly poisonous nature. Its 
bite was thought to be most venomous, and even contact with it 
in any way was accounted extremely dangerous. Cattle and 
horses seized with any malady that appeared to cause any numb- 
ness of the legs were at once reputed shrew-struck. ‘It is a raven- 
ing beast,’ quoth Topsell, ‘feigning itself gentle and tame, but 
being touched it biteth deep and poysoneth deadly. It beareth 
a cruel minde, desiring to hunt anything, neither is there any 
creature that it loveth.’ On whatever limb it crept was ‘cruel 
anguish’, often ending in paralysis. These calumnies have pre- 
vailed in many countries and for many ages, the Romans being as 
firmly convinced of the deadly nature of the shrew-mouse as any 
British rustic of a century ago. . . . Happily there was a certain 
antidote against the evil wrought by this malevolent beast. A 
large ash-tree being chosen, a deep hole was made in its trunk, 
and after certain incantations were made a shrew-mouse was 
thrust alive into the opening, and the hole securely plugged. ‘A 
shrew-ash’, says Gilbert White in his Matuval History of Selborne, 
‘is an ash whose twigs or branches, when gently applied to the 
limbs of cattle, will immediately relieve the pain which a beast 
suffers from the running of a shrew-mouse over the part affected. 
Against this accident, to which they were continually liable, our 
provident forefathers always kept a shrew-ash at hand, which 
when once medicated would maintain its virtue for ever.’ One of 
these shrew-ashes, now but a fragment of what was evidently once 
a massive stately tree, may still be seen (1895) near the Sheen 
Gate in Richmond Park, and there are those still living who can 
remember cattle and horses being brought to it for its healing 
virtues.” 

“To cure a stye our forefathers had great faith in rubbing it 
with hairs from a cat’s tail, two essential points being that the cat 
should be a black one, and that the operation should take place on 
the first night of the new moon; but to cure warts the hairs must 
be taken from the tail of a tortoise-shell cat, and even then the 
remedy is only efficacious during the month of May.” 

‘Toads were in great repute in sickness. ‘In time of com- 


320 UTILITARIAN ZOOLOGY 


mon contagion,’ writes Sir Kenelm Digby in 1660, ‘men used 
to carry about with them the powder of a toad, and sometimes a 
living toad or spider shut up in a box, which draws the contagious 
air which otherwise would infect the party’; and many other illus- 
trations of their employment as preventive or remedies might be 
given. The spider and the toad seem to have been each regarded 
as most venomous creatures, and in many of the old remedies one 
or other of them at will are recommended, either alternative being 
regarded as equally efficacious; thus for whooping-cough, if one 
cannot find a toad to thrust up the chimney, two spiders in a 
walnut-shell will serve equally well.” 

The physicians of former times were particularly fond of ad- 
ministering all sorts of animal extracts, some of them noisome 
enough, and it is somewhat curious that of recent times large use 
has been made of certain such extracts with beneficial result, 
though it need hardly be said that our modern methods of pre- 
paration are not on the old lines. Pepsin, for instance, a well- 
known aid to gastric digestion, is prepared from the lining of the 
pig’s stomach, while pancreatin, which facilitates intestinal diges- 
tion, is obtained from the pancreas of domestic animals. Disease 
of the thyroid “gland” in the throat leads to serious mal-nutrition, 
or even to cretinism, palliation if not cure of which can be 
effected either by grafting a healthy piece of thyroid from an 
animal into the patient, or by administering thyroid extract. 
Several other preparations of the kind are also in use. Certain 
specific germ-diseases can also be prevented or combated by 
animal preparations, the most familiar instance being that of 
vaccination as a safeguard against small-pox. Diphtheria is now 
often cured by an extract (antitoxin) derived from horse’s blood. 
Different principles are involved in the uses of the extracts, &c., 
mentioned, but details would here be out of place. 

Various kinds of animal fat are used in pharmacy in the pre- 
paration of ointments, &c. They include mutton suet, hogs’ lard, 
spermaceti, and lanoline, the last being the natural grease of wool. 
Gelatine is employed for making “gelatine lozenges” and various 
jujubes, also as the adhesive medium for “court plaster”. It is 
obtained from bones, hides, horns, and hoofs by steaming. — Isin- 
glass (see p. 278) is a superior kind of gelatine. 

It should not be forgotten that the careful study of the 
anatomy and physiology of lower animals has played a leading 


VARIETIES OF THE FIELD-SNAIL (Helix hortensts) 


Variation is one of the fundamental phenomena upon which the 
Evolution Theory is based. No two individuals of the same 
species are ever precisely alike, a fact familiarly illustrated by 
the dissimilarity which often exists between children of the same 
parents. It appears that all parts of the body are liable to varia- 
tion, which may be of very marked kind and is no doubt, at least 
in part, due to the action of surroundings. A typical case, selected 
for this plate because it appeals to the eye, is that of the Field- 
Snail (Helzx hortensts), of which some go races or varieties have 
been described. In some of these the shell is “self-coloured”, 
yellow or pinkish-brown being common tints. In other cases there 
are in addition dark bands, the number of which is distinctive 
of the race, while the ground colour has also to be considered. 
Enough varieties have been introduced into the plate to illustrate 
the principle. 


VARIETIES OF THE FIELD-SNAIL (HELIX HORTENSIS) 


MEDICINAL AND ECONOMIC PRODUCTS 321 


part in the evolution of modern medicine. Without skilled re- 
searches on such animals it would never have been possible for 
operative surgery to reach its present high pitch of perfection. 
The prevention and cure of disease, other than by surgical 
methods, have also benefited greatly in the past by such investi- 
gations, and seem likely to benefit to a much larger extent in 
the immediate future. 

Medicinal Value of Fish-Oil.—It need only be said here that 
the preparation of cod-liver oil, of which the Cod-Fish (Gadus 
morrhua) is the recognized source, is a by no means unimportant 
industry. 

Medical Uses of Insects.—The Oil-Beetles (Meloide or Can- 
tharid@) are so called 
because they abound in 
an irritant sort of oil, 
which no doubt protects 
them to some extent 
from the attacks of insec- 
tivorous animals. Some 
of them are used to make 
preparations for blister- 
ing the skin, and of these 
“blister-beetles” the most 
notable are the ‘‘ Spanish flies” (Cantharzdes), belonging to South 
and Central Europe. For commercial purposes a bright-green 
species (Lytta vestcatoria, fig. 1228), collected in Hungary, is 
most important. Various officinal extracts and plasters are pre- 
pared from the dried bodies of these insects. 

Although Cochineal, another insect product (see p. 260), ap- 
pears to have no value as a drug, it is largely used to give liquid 
medicines an attractive appearance. 

Medicinal Use of Leeches (Discophora).—Two kinds of Leech 
are used for blood-letting, the commoner being the Medicinal 
Leech (Azrudo medicinals), which is mostly collected in Spain, 
France, and Italy. The Green Leech (4. officinalis) of Hungary 
answers the same purpose. In these days the extent to which 
these creatures are employed is comparatively small, but in the 
Middle Ages, when blood-letting was esteemed a sovereign cure 
for every ailment, the physician took his name from this favourite 
remedy, and was familiarly known as a “leech”. 


Fig. 1228.—Spanish Fly or Blister Beetle (Ly¢ta vesicatoria) 


aand 4, Adults; ¢, larva. 


322 UTILITARIAN ZOOLOGY 


MisceLtLangous ANIMAL Propucts.—It will be convenient to 
consider here a few odds and ends, which are difficult to place 
under other headings. 

Miscellaneous Products of Molluscs (Mollusca).—The internal 
shell of the Cuttle-fish (Sepza officinalis, fig. 1229), under the 
name of “cuttle-bone”, is 
ground up to form an in- 
gredient of various tooth- 
powders. Before the inven- 
tion of blotting-paper it was 
largely used (as also was fine 
sand) to sprinkle upon wet 
writing. It was known as 
“pounce”, and a ‘ pounce- 
box”, with a perforated top, 
was part of the regular equip- 
ment of an old-fashioned ink- 


stand or standish. 
Cooke (in The Cambridge 


Fig. 1229.—A Cuttle-bone Natural Ffistory) makes the 
following interesting remarks 
about the miscellaneous uses of shells:—‘‘ The employment of 


shells as a medium of exchange was exceedingly common amongst 
uncivilized tribes in all parts of the world, and has by no means 
yet become obsolete. One of the commonest species thus em- 
ployed is the ‘money cowry’ (Cypraa 
moneta, L., fig. 1230), which stands 
almost alone in being used entire, 
while nearly all the other forms of 
shell money are made out of por- 
tions of shells, thus requiring a 
certain amount of labour in the pro- 
Fig. 1230.—Money Cowry (Cyprwa moneta) cess of formation. .. . In British 
India about 4ooo are said to have 

passed for a shilling, but the value appears to differ according to 
their condition, poor specimens being comparatively worthless. 
According to Reeve a gentleman residing at Cuttack is said to 
have paid for the erection of his bungalow entirely in cowries. 
The building cost him gooo Rs. sicca (about £400), and as 64 
cowries = I pice, and 64 pice = 1 rupee sicca, he paid over 


MEDICINAL AND ECONOMIC PRODUCTS 323 


16,000,000 cowries in all. Cowries are imported to England 
from India and other places for the purpose of exportation to 
West Africa, to be exchanged for native products. The trade, 
however, appears to be greatly on the decrease. At the port 
of Lagos, in 1870, 50,000 cwts. of cowries were imported. 
A banded form of Nerzta folita was used as money in certain 
parts of the South Pacific. The sandal-wood imported into 
the China market is largely obtained from the New Hebrides, 
being purchased of the natives in exchange for Ovulum angu- 
Zosum, which they especially esteem as an ornament. Some- 
times, as in the Duke of York group, the use of shell money 
is specially restricted to certain 
kinds of purchase, being employed 
there only in the buying of swine. 
Among the tribes of the north-west 
coasts of America, the common 
Dentalium indianorum |a_tusk- 
shell] used to form the standard 
of value, until it was superseded, 
under the auspices of the Hudson’s 
Bay Company, by blankets. A 
slave was valued at a fathom of 
from twenty-five to forty of these REE SERRE 
shells, strung lengthwise. Inferior 

or broken specimens were strung together in a similar way, but 
were less highly esteemed; they corresponded more to our silver 
and copper coins, while the strings of the best shells repre- 
sented gold. The wampum (fig. 1231) of the eastern coast of 
North America differed from all these forms of shell money, in 
that it required a laborious process for its manufacture. Wam- 
pum consisted of strings of cylindrical beads, each about a 
quarter of an inch im length and half that breadth. The beads 
were of two colours, white and purple, the latter being the more 
valuable. Both were formed from the common clam (Venus 
mercenaria), the valves of which are often stained with purple 
at the lower margins, while the rest of the shell is white. Cut 
small, ground down, and pierced, these shells were converted 
into money, which appears to have been current along the whole 
seaboard of North America from Maine to Florida, and on the 
Gulf Coast as far as Central America, as well as among the 


324 UTILITARIAN ZOOLOGY 


inland tribes east of the Mississippi. Another kind of wampum 
was made from the shells of Busycon carica and B. perversum. 
By staining the wampum with various colours, and disposing 
these colours in belts in various forms of arrangement, the 
Indians were able to preserve records, send messages, and keep 
account of any kind of event, treaty, or transaction. Another 
common form of money in California was Olivella dbtplicata, 
strung together by rubbing down the apex. Button-shaped discs 
cut from Saxzdomus arata and Pachydesma crassatelloides, as well 
as oblong pieces of /Ya/zof7s, were employed for the same purpose, 
when strung together in lengths of several yards.” 

Shells are put to various uses in the islands of the Pacific, as, 
e.g., the making of fish-hooks, spoons, knives, and axe-heads. 
The ingenious Chinese convert the thin translucent shell of a 
flat bivalve (Placuna placenta) into window-panes, grind up 
cockle-shells for lime, or, by mixing the powder with oil, make a 
sort of putty. 

Speaking of the West of Scotland, Anderson Smith (in 
Benderloch) thus describes an old-time practice:—‘ There is a 
curious old custom that used formerly to be in use in this 
locality, and no doubt was generally employed along the sea- 
board, as the most simple and ready means of arrangement of 
bargains by a non-writing population. That was, when a bar- 
gain was made, each party to the transaction got one half of 
a bivalve shell—such as a mussel, cockle, or oyster—and when 
the bargain was implemented, the half that fitted exactly was 
delivered up as a receipt. Thus a man who had a box full of 
unfitted shells might be either a creditor or a debtor; but the 
box filled with fitted shells represented receipted accounts. Those 
who know the difficulty of fitting the valves of some classes of 
bivalves will readily acknowledge the value of this arrangement.” 

Sponges (Portfera).—The horny skeletons of certain sponges 
have been used for toilet and other purposes since the times of 
the ancient Greeks. The best kind of Bath Sponge (Zuspongia 
officinalis), known to commerce as ‘ Turkey Sponge”, comes 
from the Mediterranean and Red Sea, as well as the less 
esteemed Zimocca Sponge (£uspongza ztmocca) and Horse Sponge 
(77ippospongia equina). Other kinds, both fine and coarse, are 
imported from the Bahamas, and sponges of commercial value 
are to be found off Australia and some of the South Sea Islands. 


WILD ANIMALS BENEFICIAL TO MAN 325 


Three methods of sponge-fishing are practised in the Medi- 
terranean, according to the depth of water. Where this is very 
shallow a five-pronged fork is employed, beyond the range of 
which (up to about 30 fathoms) diving is resorted to, while speci- 
mens growing in comparatively deep water (up to 200 fathoms) 
are dredged. The yield of the Italian sponge-fisheries for 1902 
was worth £24,720. 


WILD ANIMALS BENEFICIAL TO MAN ON ACCOUNT OF 
THEIR HABITS 


From the economic stand-point many wild forms are of very 
considerable benefit to man, because they prey upon other crea- 
tures which are injurious to himself, his stock, and his crops. 
To some such animals we should extend the “ protection” which 
they deserve at our hands, while for others equally beneficial 
(e.g. certain insects) we can do nothing in that direction. And 
it should be remembered that without very full knowledge it is 
very risky either to mercilessly persecute native forms, or to intro- 
duce species from other countries. The result of the ruthless 
slaughter of bats in a particular locality has been elsewhere men- 
tioned (see vol. ii, p. 346), while the introduction of rabbits into 
Australia has led to unexpected and undesirable consequences. 

Certain other wild species deserve the name of ‘“ beneficials ” 
because they promote the health of mankind, or unconsciously 
assist in the work of agriculture, &c. 

It will sufficiently serve the purposes of this work if the 
general nature of our indebtedness to certain groups of animals 
is indicated in a few paragraphs. For this and the other aspects 
of applied natural history readers who may be interested are 
specially recommended to consult Theobald’s Fzrst Report on 
Economic Zoology (1902), one of the publications issued under 
the auspices of the British Museum (Natural History). This 
is rendered particularly valuable by the Introduction (‘A Classi- 
fication of Animals from the point of view of Economic Zoology ”) 
written by Ray Lankester. The word “ beneficials ” is applied by 
him in a somewhat narrower sense than it is here. 

BenericiaL Mammats (Mammatia).—The destructiveness of 
Foxes, Weasels, Stoats, and the like, is so obvious, that the idea 


of their being ‘‘beneficials” would be scouted by many, though 
VoL. IV. 116 


326 UTILITARIAN ZOOLOGY 


they probably do more good than harm. The Fox, for instance, 
in spite of his ravages on poultry, destroys large numbers of 
field-voles and field-mice, together with noxious insects, such as 
cockchafers. And, of the Weasel (fig. 1232), Ritzema Bos says 
(in Agricultural Zoology):— The weasel does some damage in 
fowl-houses and dove- 
cots, and is also de- 
structive to game. 
This, however, does 
not outweigh its very 
great use, since it is 
above all an untiring 
vole - catcher. When 
in any region the field- 
voles have multiplied 
excessively, an immi- 
gration of weasels 
takes place from sur- 
rounding parts. In 
years when there is 
a plague of voles the 
usual breeding-time in 
spring is followed by 
another later on. A 
very large number of 
weasels may be found 
in a vole-infected dis- 
trict, and they thin 
out the mischievous 
rodents in a surprising 
manner. Nor are the 
Wigs gugeho weasels (Pudovine avlearis) weasels less useful in 

winter than in sum- 

mer. They even follow under the snow the voles which winter in 
the country, and the slaughter effected at this period must exert 
a great influence on the following season, when these animals re- 
commence their injurious work.” The feelings of poultry-keepers 
and game-keepers are readily intelligible, but without full know- 
ledge it is unwise to stigmatize as ‘‘ vermin” apparently undesir- 
able animals. Foxes only escape the libel for sporting reasons. 


WILD ANIMALS BENEFICIAL TO MAN 327 


The Insect-eating Mammals (Insectivora), such as Mole, 
Hedgehog, and Shrews, destroy enormous numbers of noxious 
insects and insect-larve, and are beneficials of the first rank. 
The mole is also of use in mixing and draining the soil. The 
vast majority of Bats (Chiroptera) feed on insects, and do much 
to keep down the numbers of the innumerable species which are 
injurious to stock and cultivated plants, as well as to forest-trees. 

In the hotter parts of the globe some Mammals do useful 
work as scavengers, e.g. 
Hyzenas (see vol. ii, p. 14). 
Rats and the like also act 
as sanitary agents. 

BENEFICIAL Brrps 
(Aves). — By destroying 
field-voles, &c., and small 
birds of injurious char- 
acter, many of the smaller 
birds of prey, such as 
Kestrels, Buzzards, and 
Merlins, do much good, 
though it must be con- 
fessed that there is an- 
other side to the matter. 
Aflalo says of the Kestrel 
(in Natural History of 
the British Isles):—“ Its 
food consists almost en- 
tirely of mice, so that its 
persecution is wanton folly”. Even should it prove requisite to 
classify any of our native species, unfortunately now existing in 
greatly diminished numbers, as “vermin”, they ought to be de- 
stroyed in a merciful way. Some of the steel traps used for 
slaughtering these and other wild animals (such as rabbits) are 
a disgrace to civilization, and only fit for the days of rack and 
thumb-screw. 

Owls are more useful, but even more disliked than the diurnal 
birds of prey, partly as a result of the superstitions associated 
with them. Aflalo makes the following apposite remarks in this 
regard about the Barn Owl (S¢vzx flammea, fig. 1233).—“ Its dis- 
appearance from neighbourhoods where it once was plentiful is 


Fig. 1233-—Barn Owl (Strix fammea).and Nest 


328 UTILITARIAN ZOOLOGY 


doubtless due to the short-sighted policy of persecution meted 
out to the unoffending bird by gamekeepers. As rats, shrews, 
and voles are among its favourite articles of food, a few of these 
voracious birds on an estate should be worth a ton of poison... . 
The way in which gardener, farmer, and game-preserver unite 
in persecuting this owl has been mentioned, and it is to be 
doubted whether they would achieve a far different result were 
they actually to breed and turn down rats and voles, of which 
this bird must annually destroy hundreds of bushels.” 

A great many birds render us invaluable service by destroying 
vast numbers of injurious insects and insect-larve. The Cuckoo 
(Cuculus canorus), for example, is a great protector of fruit- 
culture and forestry, for it greedily devours certain hairy kinds 
of caterpillar, which most other birds refuse to touch. Among 
other benefactors may be particularly mentioned—Swifts, Swal- 
lows, Martins, and Tit-Mice. In Germany various useful species 
are provided with suitable nesting-boxes and wintering - boxes, 
the size of the opening being adjusted to the particular kind 
of bird. 

The African Secretary Bird (Serpentarius secretartus) is a 
notable destroyer of poisonous snakes, and is domesticated by 
the farmers of South Africa for the sake of its services in this 
direction. 

There are also scavenging birds, such as Vultures, which in 
hot countries discharge a most useful office. 

BENEFICIAL ReptiLes (ReptiLi1a).—Lizards are certainly to be 
regarded as beneficials, for they feed largely upon injurious insects 
and the like. Many Snakes are also useful, and some of them 
render conspicuous service by preying upon small rodents. Some 
species may even be domesticated on this account, as, e.g., the 
Corn Snake (Coluber guttatus) in North America, and the Rat 
Snake (Zamenzs mucosus) in India. 

BENEFICIAL AMPHIBIANS (AmPHIBIA).—AI] the members of 
the class are beneficial, inasmuch as they live upon insects, 
snails, slugs, and other destructive creatures. Ritzema Bos 
states that . . . . “in the research garden attached to the 
Rouen entomological laboratory the snails were entirely exter- 
minated in 1891, as a result of introducing a hundred toads and 
ninety frogs”. The Toad in particular is one of the most useful 
animals that can be put into a garden, effectually protecting 


WILD ANIMALS BENEFICIAL TO MAN 329 


strawberries from the ravages of slugs and performing other 
valuable offices of like nature. 

BENEFICIAL FisHes (Pisces).—Much of the scavenging work 
in the sea and fresh water is efficiently discharged by members of 
this class. Among freshwater fishes Carp are particularly valuable 
in maintaining the purity of our drinking supply, keeping it free 
from insects, insect larve, and decaying matter. They are not 
infrequently kept in reservoirs on this account. And since the 
larvee of such notorious pests as gnats, mosquitoes, and sand- 
midges are all aquatic, we are largely saved from annoyance and 
even from disease by the good offices of these and various other 
freshwater fishes. 

BenerictaL Insects (Insecta).— There are quite a large 
number of insects which either when adult or in the larval state, 
or it may be throughout life, are the natural enemies of many 
notorious insect pests. Sufficient examples have already been 
given in vol. ii, chap. 1x, vol. ili, pp. 391-393, and in pp. 194, 195 
of the present volume. 

Carrion is also largely destroyed by insect-larvz, such as the 
grubs of Burying-Beetles and the maggots of various Flies. Nor 
must we forget the large part which insects take in the fertilization 
of plants (see p. 83), including many which are of great import- 
ance to mankind. 

BENEFICIAL SPIDER-LIKE ANIMALS (ARACHNIDA).—Of the 
members of this group it need only be said that Spiders, in par- 
ticular, largely assist in keeping the numbers of insects within due 
limits. 

BewnerFiciaL Myriapops (Myrrapopa).—The numerous kinds of 
Centipede undoubtedly destroy large numbers of noxious ground- 
insects, and have therefore a claim to be included among beneficial 
animals. 

BENEFICIAL CRUSTACEANS (CrusTAceEa).—A large amount of 
scavenging work is carried on by the members of this class, and, 
so far as the sea is concerned, Crabs are particularly notable in 
this respect. 

BENEFICIAL ANNELIDS (ANNELIDA).—Earth-Worms render con- 
siderable service to agriculture (see vol. ii, p. 258) in more than 
one way. They reduce large quantities of soil to a finely-divided 
state, making it into a suitable seed-bed, bring earth to the surface 
as a sort of natural “top-dressing ”, and it may be added that their 


330 UTILITARIAN ZOOLOGY 


burrows in the ground help on the work of drainage and aeration. 
In short, the habits of these animals benefit the land in much the 
same way as the operations of ploughing, harrowing, and the like. 

BENEFICIAL Parasitic Worms.—At first sight one is rather 
apt to imagine that the members of the several groups of these 
not altogether pleasing creatures do nothing but harm. This is 
not, however, strictly true, for many of them pay special atten- 
tion to noxious animals, and assist considerably in keeping down 
their numbers. 


CHAPTER LXX 


ANIMAL FOES—THE PERSONAL ENEMIES OF MAN 


PersonaL Enemies AMONG Mammats (Mammatia).—We are 
not justified in calling the fiercer and larger Mammals or other 
animals our enemies, simply because they defend themselves when 
attacked, and in most cases man will probably be found to have 
been the first aggressor. And even when that is not the case, at 
least when carnivorous forms are in question, casualties are usually 
the outcome of the Law of Hunger, or it may be parental solici- 
tude. 

Partly owing to its comparatively straightforward habits, the 
Lion (Felis ¢eo), when left alone, does not attack human beings 
to the extent that might be supposed, unless pressed by hunger. 
Speaking of North-East Africa, Sir Samuel Baker says (in Wild 
Beasts and thetr Ways):—“‘In the locality which I have men- 
tioned, the lions, although numerous, were never regarded as 
dangerous unless attacked; there was an abundance of game, 
therefore the carnivora were plentfully supplied, and a large area 
of country being entirely uninhabited, the lions were unaccus- 
tomed to the sight of human beings, and held them in respect. 
During the night we took the precaution to light extensive bon- 
fires within our camp, which was well protected by a circular fence 
of impenetrable thorns, but we were never threatened by wild 
animals except on one occasion.” 

Where the country is thickly populated it is only to be 
expected that individual animals may at times acquire bad habits, 
or, as Vogt puts it (in Mammalia) :—‘ Old experienced lions who 
know how little danger they are exposed to in breaking in upon 
the villages of the badly-armed negroes will, it appears, hanker 
after human flesh”. 

The stealthy cat-like habits of the Tiger (Fedx tigris, fig. 


1234) render it a good deal more dangerous to man than its 
331 


332 UTILITARIAN ZOOLOGY 


nobler cousin. But even the ‘‘man-eaters”, which at one time 
undoubtedly accounted for a considerable number of the Indian 
natives, must have been but a small percentage of the tigers 
actually in existence. Of these once-dreaded marauders G. P. 
Sanderson gives the following graphic account (in 7hzrteen Years 
among the Wild Beasts of India):—‘ This truly terrible scourge 
to the timid and unarmed inhabitants of an Indian village is now 
happily becoming very rare; man-eaters of a bad type are seldom 


Fig. 1234.—Tiger (Felis tigrts) 


heard of, or, if heard of, rarely survive long. Before there were 
so many European sportsmen as there now are in the country, a 
man-eater frequently caused the temporary abandonment of whole 
tracts; and the sites of small hamlets abandoned by the terrified 
inhabitants, and which have never been reoccupied, are not 
uncommonly met with by the sportsman in the jungles. The 
terror inspired by a man-eater throughout the district ranged by 
him is extreme. The helpless people are defenceless against his 
attacks. Their occupations of cattle-grazing or wood-cutting take 
them into the jungles, where they feel that they go with their lives 
in their hands. A rustling leaf, or a squirrel or bird moving in 


THE PERSONAL ENEMIES OF MAN 333 


the undergrowth, sets their hearts beating with a dread sense of 
danger. The only security they feel is in numbers. Though the 
bloodthirsty monster is perhaps reposing with the remains of his 
last victim miles away, the terror he inspires is always present to 
every one throughout his domain. The rapidity and uncertainty 
of a man-eater’s movements form the chief elements of the dread 
he causes. His name is in every one’s mouth; his daring, ferocity, 
and appalling appearance are represented with true Eastern exag- 
geration; and until some European sportsman, perhaps after days 
or weeks of pursuit, lays him low, thousands live in fear day and 
night. Bold man-eaters have been known to enter a village and 
carry off a victim from the first open hut. Having lived in a 
tract so circumstanced until I shot the fiend that possessed it, and 
having myself felt something of the grim dread that had taken 
hold of the country-side, where ordinary rambling about the 
jungles, and even sitting outside the tent after dark except with 
a large fire, or moving from the encampment without an escort, 
were unsafe, I could realize the feelings of relief and thankfulness 
so earnestly expressed by the poor ryots when I shot the Jezebel 
that had held sway over them so long. The man-eater is often 
an old tiger (more frequently a tigress), or an animal that, through 
having been wounded or otherwise hurt, has been unable to pro- 
cure its usual food, and takes to this means of subsistence.” Ina 
recent article (in The Sports of the World) Lieutenant-general Sir 
Montagu G. Gerard thus speaks on this subject:—‘ Man-eaters 
are very rare indeed, and. . . probably become so accidentally. 
The accepted belief that they are necessarily mangy is a myth; it 
may be the cause, not the effect. For whatever reason, they seem 
to acquire preternatural cunning, and natives believe that the soul 
of a man is imprisoned within them. I once spent a fortnight 
following one, who never during that time killed within ten miles 
of her last victim. . . . A former colonel of the C.I. Horse, the 
most celebrated tiger slayer of thirty years back, killed an excep- 
tionally mischievous one, which in a year had accounted for 
eighty-seven known victims. ... I have only killed four un- 
doubted ones, whose victims ranged from thirty-three to about a 
dozen apiece; but I have known of several others, generally sulky 
males, who had killed cattle-herds or wood-cutters disturbing 
them.” 

Of other members of the Cat family (Felidae) large enough to 


334 UTILITARIAN ZOOLOGY 


be dangerous to man, it need only be said that, since they are 
expert climbers, trees afford no refuge to human beings if they 
chance to be attacked. 

Bears (Ursidz), from their great strength and powerful claws, 
are dangerous antagonists when roused, but they can scarcely be 
considered the natural enemies of mankind, for most of them leave 
human beings alone unless provoked, or impelled by hunger. It 
may be gathered from accounts of Arctic expeditions, for example, 
that a hungry Polar Bear (Ursus marztimus) will not hesitate to 
attack men, and similarly for the Brown Bear of Europe (U. 
arctos), and the North American variety of that species commonly 
known as the “Grizzly”. It is rather curious that the Indian 
Sloth-Bear (U. daézatus), which chiefly lives on fruit, honey, and 
insects, is somewhat given to turning upon our species, though, 
obviously, not as the result of hunger. At least Sir Samuel Baker 
says (in Weld Beasts and their Ways):— This species is very 
active, and although it refuses flesh, it is one of the most mis- 
chievous of its kind, as it will frequently attack man without the 
slightest reason, but from sheer pugnacity”. And under these 
circumstances the long-curved claws are capable of inflicting 
“terrible wounds upon a human being”. 

Wolves, when pressed by hunger, are destructive to human 
life in several countries, their habit of hunting in large packs 
greatly aggravating the danger, as everyone is aware. The 
annual casualties due to wolves in parts of the Russian Empire 
are by no means inconsiderable. 

Even without special provocation some of the larger wild 
Mammals of purely herbivorous habit may injure or kill human 
beings, as in the case of Hippopotami, Buffaloes, Rhinoceroses, 
and Elephants. All have heard, for example, of “rogue” Ele- 
phants, ill-natured males which have been expelled from their 
herds for general misbehaviour. But details are here unnecessary. 
Some of the smaller forms, such as Wild Boars, are also danger- 
ous, and the Peccaries (Dzcotydes), which range from South America 
to Mexico and Texas, are even more so. A. G, Requa recounts 
the following amusing adventure (in Zhe Big Game of North 
America) with a herd of White-lipped Peccaries (D. dadiatus), which 
sufficiently illustrates their ferocity:—‘I had not sat there more 
than five minutes before I heard the sharp noise of the Peccaries. 
They came in sight not more than twenty yards below me. There 


THE PERSONAL ENEMIES OF MAN 335 


were not more than a dozen that I could see, and there were 
plenty of small pines near by; so I thought that I would just kill 
the whole herd, provided they showed fight. As they came into 
the open ground they seemed to wind me, as they began to snuff 
and paw. I fired at one, and, just as I intended, only crippled 
him. He set up a great squealing, and, sure enough, here they 
came! I was just a little excited, and started for a tree, forgetting 
my coat and turkey. I had scarcely time to get up when they 
were around the tree, and instead of twelve, they kept coming till 
there were at least two hundred. I commenced shooting, and 
killed five with my rifle, that being the number of shells in my 
gun. It then occurred to me that my rifle-shells were in my coat; 
so, having no further use for my rifle, and realizing that it would 
become a burden to me if compelled to stay in the tree several 
hours, as seemed likely, I threw it down. Fortunately I had both 
revolvers, and a belt full of cartridges for them; so I went at them. 
They were chewing the tree, and climbing over each other trying 
to get at me. Each shot laid one out, and each shot seemed to 
make them more and more furious, as they would rush at the 
tree, and gnaw the bark and wood, while the white flakes of 
froth fell from their mouths. I tried to count them, and found 
that there were over two hundred left, and I had killed twenty- 
three. The position I had was not a comfortable one, but I had 
to stand it. Then for the first time I thought of the boys. Had 
they heard my shooting? if so, would they come? Then I 
remembered I had not fired the signal agreed on, and that I had 
followed the turkeys up the mountain and down again, and by this 
time the boys must be four miles up the cafion and on the opposite 
side. The Peccaries showed no signs of leaving. It was now 
noon, and very warm. They would root around, then come back 
to the tree, and grunt, and paw, and bite the tree; then they would 
cool down a little, would go a short distance away, root around 
awhile, then come back again. I was getting tired of being treed, 
but it was just what we had planned the night before, only we 
were not all together. If the boys could only hear my firing, and 
come over, how quick we would wipe them out! Such thoughts 
ran through my head; but still the pigs stayed. One o'clock 
came, then two; still they stayed. Then I thought I would fire a 
signal with my revolver—maybe the boys were hunting for me; 
so I made a noise, and back to the tree they came. I killed three 


336 UTILITARIAN ZOOLOGY 


of them in about a second; then I waited. Three o’clock came, 
then four, and no sign of the boys. Some of the pigs would feed 
while the others stood guard; then they would change off. I was 
so tired I could scarcely stay in the tree; so I took my belt off and 
buckled myself fast to the trunk, so that I would not fall out. 
Seven o'clock! I could see no change; they still camped near me, 
showing no signs of weakening. Then the sun went behind the 
mountain; darkness came on, and I was thirsty, hungry, and tired; 
but, worse than all, I was a prisoner. Twelve o'clock! The 
moon shone brightly, and I could see my sentinels scattered 
around. Two o'clock! Then came a signal from some of the 
outside ones; the rest snuffed the air, then away they all went. | 
could hear them far below, going down the mountain. . . . Here- 
after, anyone who wants to hunt Peccaries can hunt them, and be 
blanked; but I prefer some kind of game that is not so fond of 
human flesh as they are.” Without the friendly tree the adventure 
might have ended differently, for the same writer tells us of these 
animals that—‘‘If one of their number is wounded so that it 
squeals, the whole herd becomes ferocious, will charge their 
enemy on sight, and speedily destroy him, unless he escapes by 
climbing a tree or by flight”. 

The blood-sucking Bats have been spoken about elsewhere 
(see vol. ii, p. 39). 

PersonaL ENEMIES AMONG ReEpTILES (ReptiLiA).—The larger 
Crocodiles and Alligators are particularly destructive to human 
life, though their sphere of operations is obviously much limited 
by their aquatic habits. Speaking of Ega on the Upper Amazons, 
Bates says (in 7he Naturalist on the Amazons) :— Alligators were 
rather troublesome in the dry season. During these months there 
was almost always one or two lying in wait near the bathing-place 
for anything that might turn up at the edge of the water—dog, 
sheep, pig, child, or drunken Indian.” With reference to Crocodiles 
in Madagascar, Sibree remarks (in The Great African Island): 
—‘ They are regarded with a superstitious dread by many of the 
Malagasy tribes, and are so dangerous in some parts of the island 
that at every village on the banks of the rivers a space is carefully 
fenced off with strong stakes, so that the women and girls can draw 
water without the risk of being seized by the jaws or swept off by 
the tail of these disgusting-looking creatures”. Tales about the 
ferocity of Crocodiles are sufficiently numerous, many of them, of 


THE PERSONAL ENEMIES OF MAN 337 


course, having reference to that notable species, the Nile Crocodile 
(Crocodtlus Niloticus, fig. 1235). The following remarks by Sir 
Samuel Baker (in Weld Beasts and Their Ways) will sufficiently 
illustrate the point:—‘The throat of a crocodile is not only 
large, but is capable of great expansion, and although the habits 
of the creature usually permit the body of a victim to rest in quiet 
until it is devoured in piecemeal, there are many exceptions to 
the rule; large crocodiles will swallow a small person without 
the slower operation of dismemberment. . . . When I was in 


Fig. 1235.—Nile Crocodile (Crocoditus Niloticus) 


command of the Khedive’s expedition, our losses through croco- 
diles were very distressing, all of which were terrible examples 
of the ferocity, combined with cunning, which characterizes this 
useless scourge. On one occasion the vessels were sailing up 
the White Nile with a strong north wind, making at least 7 
knots an hour; one of the cavasses was sitting upon the deck, 
with his legs dangling over the sides of the deeply-laden vessel, 
his feet being half a yard above the water. Suddenly a rush was 
made by a very large crocodile, and the man was seized and 
carried off in a shorter time than it would take to announce the 
fact. This was done in the presence of a hundred men on board 
the vessel, and nothing was ever heard of the unfortunate cavass.” 


338 UTILITARIAN ZOOLOGY 


Mention may here be made of the fact that two species of 
poisonous Lizards exist, both native to North America. One 
(Heloderma horridum, fig. 1236) is a Mexican form, while the 
other, commonly known as the “Gila Monster” (AZ. suspectum), 
inhabits New Mexico and Arizona. The sharp curved teeth of 
these creatures are grooved in front and behind for the purpose of 
conducting the poison, which is secreted by a series of small glands 
opening along the edge of the lower jaw. Of the Gila Monster, 


Fig. 1236.—Mexican Poisonous Lizard (Heloderma horridum) 


Gadow states (in Zhe Cambridge Natural History):—‘ Frogs are 
probably paralysed or killed by the bite, which, although not so 
dangerous as that of poisonous snakes, is effective enough to 
produce severe symptoms even on man, and a few cases of death 
of people who had been bitten are on record”. 

Poisonous Snakes are among the most formidable personal 
enemies of man, and are justly dreaded in the countries they in- 
habit, which embrace all but the coldest parts of the globe. There 
is also reason to think that at least one of the larger non-poisonous 
snakes, z.e. the Anaconda or Water-Boa (Euneces murinus) of 
northern South America, may now and then crush and devour 


THE PERSONAL ENEMIES OF MAN 339 


human beings. This species is said to attain the length of 33 feet, 
or possibly more. 

The mechanism by which a venomous serpent bites its victim, 
So as to introduce poison into the wound, has been described 
already (see vol. ii, p. 80), so does not require mention here. In 
Justice to such creatures it may be said that, as a rule, they only 
attack human beings when interfered with, as, e.g., by being 
accidentally trodden _ 
upon. Among the f- 
most dreaded species 
are the Indian Cobra 
{ Nata tripudians ); 
the even more dan- 
gerous Krait (Bun- 
garus coeruleus) of the 
same country; the 
Australian Death - 
Adder (Acanthophis 
antarcticus ) ; the 
Coral-Snake (Zlaps 
corallinus) of tropical 
South America; the 
Sea-Snakes (/7ydro- 
phine) of the Indian 
Ocean; the African 
Puff- Adder (Vzfera 
arvetans);  Russell’s 
Viper (V. Russell), 
native to South Asia; 
and the American 
Rattle-Snakes (species of Crotalus). The following remarks by 
Semon (in lz The Australian Bush) will prove of interest :— 
“Tt is decidedly no exaggeration to say that 500 persons are 
yearly bitten on the Australian continent, although the majority 
of these cases do not prove fatal. The population of Australia is 
at present supposed to amount to 3,000,000 [in I901 it was nearer 
4,000,000]. About 20,000 deaths by snake-bite are yearly re- 
ported from the British provinces of India, containing 120,000,000 
inhabitants [population of India in r901 was 294,266,701]. This 
record may indeed be somewhat exaggerated, and may owe its 


Fig. 1237.-—Indian Cobra (Waza tripudians) 


340 UTILITARIAN ZOOLOGY 


enormity to conscious or unconscious deception of the magistrates 
by the native officials. Decidedly, however, the figures are not so 
much overrated as is frequently believed. In India, as well as in 
Australia, in the course of a year about one person in 6000 falls 
a victim to snake-bite.” 

PersonaL ENEMIES AMONG FisuHeEs (Pisces).—Some of the 
larger Sharks injure or devour bodily a good many human beings 
every year. The most notable is the Rondeletian Shark (Car- 
charodon Rondeletii), which ranges through the warmer parts of 
the ocean, and may attain the length of 4o feet. 

Those fishes also which 
possess poisonous spines 
(see vol. ii, p. 355) may 
cause serious injury, while 
some species are poisonous 
as food, such, ¢, as 
Globe-Fishes (Dzodox and 
a Tetrodon) and _ Coffer - 
_| Fishes (Ostraczon). 

i] PERSONAL ENEMIES. 
/  amonc Mottuscs (Mot- 
Lusca).—Some of the 
giant Squids, and larger 
creatures of the Octopus 
kind, are certainly capable 
of injuring or destroying 
human beings. How far they do so, or have done so, it is im- 
possible to say. And a few Sea-Snails, such as Cone-Shells 
(see vol. ii, p. 357), give poisonous bites. 

PersonaL ENEMIES AMONG INseEcts (INSEcTA).—It is quite 
impossible here to pass in review the host of insects which bite or 
sting, and many of which make up by numbers what they lack in 
size. Bees, Wasps, Ants, Gnats (fig. 1238), Mosquitoes, Midges, 
Sand-Flies, Fleas, Bugs, and Lice are all more or less notable in 
their way, or perhaps notorious would be a better word. And 
many insects which do not bite or sting may nevertheless be a 
serious nuisance, ¢.¢. House-Flies and Flesh-Flies. 

But a fresh and unwelcome interest attaches to insects now 
that it is known that some of them are the means of conveying 
the germs of serious disease into the human body. The recent 


Fig. 1238.—A Gnat (Culex), enlarged 


THE PERSONAL ENEMIES OF MAN 341 


work of Major Ross in reference to malarial fever is the best 
illustration that can be given. It appears that a particular sort of 
Mosquito (Anopheles) is infested with certain stages in the life- 
history of a parasitic animalcule (emameéa) which are intro- 
duced into the blood of persons bitten. Further development is 
there possible, serious disturbances of the system resulting. And 
when the mosquito bites a human being whose blood harbours 
these further stages it is in turn 
infected. In short the mosquito 
infects man, and man infects the 
mosquito. Some of the details 
are given in fig. 1239. Fortu- 
nately the researches of Ross en- 
able preventive measures to be 
adopted. The early part of the 
life of the insect is passed in 
stagnant water (compare vol. iii, 
p. 403), from which the immature 
stages can be cleared out by the 
use of petroleum, if applied at a 
suitable time. The method has 
been exceedingly successful at 

A, Two parasites within a red blood-corpuscle of man ; 
Hawannal, formerly: @: -S6edt acne oPchocane bisndiiage a divisions! same fate 
breeding-ground for yellow fever minute spores; D, spores liberated by breaking up of 


the corpuscle; when taken up into the body of the mos- 


and other disorders of malarial quito with human blood some spores assume the form E, 
a others the form F; G shows fusion of an E-spore with a 
type. The subject suggests an- thread from an F-spore; H, the fusion is complete, and at 


5 ‘ this stage the parasite pierces the wall of the mosquito’s 
other homily on the necessity digestive tube; after complex changes the parasites reach 
f 1 d . : ifi the salivary glands of the insect, where the stage 1 is 
or proper y en owing scientinc produced, which is introduced into the blood of a human 
being and attacks the red corpuscles; J, the mosquito 

research. (Anopheles). All but J greatly enlarged. 


Fig. 1239.—Malaria Parasite (Ha@mamaba) 


PERSONAL ENEMIES AMONG 
SPIDER-LIKE Animas (AracHnipa).—It need only be noted that 
Scorpions possess poisonous stings, while some of the -larger 
Spiders inflict poisonous bites. At one time an exaggerated 
virulence was ascribed in Italy to the latter. Violent exercise 
was the reputed cure, hence the origin of the rapid dance known 
as a “Tarantella” (ze. the diminutive of ‘“ Tarantula”, the name 
of the spider). 

The unpleasant skin-disease known as “Itch” is caused by the 
attacks of a kind of Mite (Sarcoftes scabet, see p. 196). 

PersonaL ENEMIES AMONG Myriapops (Myrrapopa).—The 

VoL. IV. 117 


342 UTILITARIAN ZOOLOGY 


large Centipedes (Scolopendra) which abound in tropical countries 
are well known on account of their painful and poisonous bites. 

PERSONAL ENEMIES AMONG ANNELIDS (ANNELIDA).—Some of 
the Leeches, especially the Land-Leeches of tropical countries, are 
peculiarly unpleasant to encounter (see vol. i, p. 148). 

PersonaL ENEMIES AMONG FLat-Worms (PLATYHELMIA).— 
Among the Flukes (Zvematoda) about eleven different species 
have been described as parasitic in human beings, including the 
kind which causes “liver-rot” in sheep, and which will be the 
subject of further notice. On one notorious scourge of the sort 
(Bilharzia hematobia) Gamble remarks as follows (in The Cam- 
bridge Natural History):—‘ This formidable parasite was dis- 
covered by Bilharz in 1853 in the veins of the bladder of patients 
at the Cairo Hospital, and is remarkable from its abundance on 
the east coast and inland countries of Africa from Egypt to the 
Cape, as well as in the districts bordering Lake Nyassa and the 
Zambesi river, while westwards it occurs on the Gold Coast. 
Mecca is a source of infection whence Mohammedans carry the 
disease to distant places. In Egypt about 30 per cent of the 
native population is affected by the serious disease known as 
hematuria, resulting from the attacks of Bz/harzia, so that, of 
the many scourges from which in Africa man suffers, this one is 
perhaps the most severe.” 

A number of Tape-Worms (Ces¢oda) infest the human subject, 
and one example has been given in an earlier volume (vol. 1, 
p. 441), ze. the Common Tape-Worm (Zienia sodium), which is 
a common consequence of eating ‘‘measly” pork in a partially 
cooked condition. Another not infrequent human parasite in 
Western Europe is the Beef Tape-Worm (7 zza sagznata), derived 
from “measly” beef. The Broad Tape-Worm (Bothriocephalus 
/atus), which is well known as a parasite of man in Russia, Switzer- 
land, North America, and Japan, results from eating diseased fish, 
especially pike, which have not been sufficiently cooked. All these 
three forms attain their adult state in the human intestine, from 
which they can be expelled with comparative ease by suitable 
drugs. Another tape-worm (Zenza echtnococcus) which when 
adult is found in the dog’s intestine, is a much more dangerous 
parasite to man, in whom it may occur in its earlier bladder-worm 
form of existence as a swelling or cyst in the lungs or liver 
(Echinococcus veterinorum, fig. 1240), often with fatal consequences. 


THE PERSONAL ENEMIES OF MAN 343 


Pigs and ruminants are also liable to the disease. Gamble says of 


the bladder-worm stage (in Zhe Cambridge Natural History) :— 
“Echinococcus is most fre- 
quent in Iceland, where it 
affects 2 to 3 per cent of the 
population, and a still larger 
proportion of sheep; while 
in Copenhagen, Northern 
Germany, some districts of 
Switzerland, and Victoria it 
is not uncommon, but is fre- 
quently found during Zost- 
mortem examinations when 
no definite symptoms of its 
presence had been previously 
noticed.” 

PERSONAL ENEMIES 
AMONG Rounp - Worms 
(NEMATHELMIA).—A number 
of species of these objection- —— g, outer covering of cyst, which has been cut away: slong: 8 
able forms are found as in-  toshow the cyst itself (c); 4, d, d, secondary cysts each of which 

may produce several tape-worms. Reduced. 

ternal parasites within the 

bodies of human beings. The Round-Worm (Ascaris lumbri- 
cotdes) and Thread-Worm (Oxyurts vermicularis) are two of the 
commonest sorts. Far more dangerous than these is one of the 
Palisade-Worms (Dochmius duodenal), 
which possesses spines in the neigh- 
bourhood of the mouth, enabling it to 
burrow in the wall of the small intestine 
of its host. This worm is the cause 
of the fatal disease called ‘“ miners’ 
anemia ”. 

The Guinea-Worm (/7larza medt- 
nensts), only too well known in tropical 
countries, is the cause of serious tumours, 
especially in the legs. These are caused 
by the female, an elongated (usually 20 to 32 inches) slender 
creature which lives under the skin of the person affected. 

Trichinosis is an extremely dangerous disorder contracted by 
eating diseased pork, containing the encapsuled stage of a minute 


Fig. 1240.—Echinococcus Cyst from the Liver of a Cow 


Fig. 1241.—Trichinz encysted in Muscle. 
Much enlarged. 


344 UTILITARIAN ZOOLOGY 


thread-worm (Zvichina spiralis, fig. 1241). On reaching the 
human stomach the capsules are dissolved, the minute worms 
become adult, and myriads of larve are produced, which bore 
into the walls of the intestine. They are then carried in the 
blood to different parts of the body, especially the muscles, 
where they come to rest, and pass into the encapsuled stage. 
Pigs contract the complaint by eating diseased rats, or the offal 
from their slaughtered fellows, if the latter are infected. 

PERSONAL ENEMIES AMONG HEDGEHOG- SKINNED ANIMALS 
(EcuinopERMATA).—Unpleasant wounds may be given by the 
long sharp spines of some sea-urchins, especially when these are 
provided with poison-glands (see vol. 1, p. 361). 

PERSONAL ENEMIES AMONG ZOOPHYTES (CC@LENTERATA).— The 
larger Jelly-Fishes, such as the Portuguese Man-of-war (Phy- 
salia), possess innumerable nettling capsules, by which they can 
inflict painful stings, of which the effects may long be felt. 

PerRsoNAL ENEMIES AMONG ANIMALCULES (PRoTOzoA).—These 
are probably more numerous than at one time suspected. The 
malaria-parasites introduced by means of Mosquitoes (see p. 341) 
are the most serious at present known. 


CHAPTER LXXI 


ANIMAL FOES—FORMS INJURIOUS TO HUMAN 
INDUSTRIES 


A large volume would be required to give anything like an 
adequate account of the innumerable animal pests which more or 
less diminish the success of many human operations. Keepers 
of stock or poultry, crop-growers, gardeners, foresters, and the 
like, all have constant and painful experience of some such forms. 
Other animals damage buildings, food, clothes, and various manu- 
factured articles. To cope successfully with many of these foes 
requires much knowledge of their habits and life-histories, and 
such knowledge can only be acquired by patient and long- 
continued scientific research, carried out by trained experts. . 
Although an increasing amount of this kind of work is done in 
the United Kingdom, we are at present very far behind such 
countries as Germany and the United States, where the value of 
research is fully appreciated by the authorities. Our own govern- 
ment is comparatively apathetic in the matter, and our univer- 
sities are too much occupied in turning out graduates by the score 
to undertake more than a small fraction of the original investiga- 
tions upon which the prosperity of many of our industries ulti- 
mately depends. 

It is only possible here to briefly review the animal kingdom 
with a view to pointing out some of the more injurious forms. 

Injurtous Mammats (Mammatia).—It goes without saying 
that the carnivores which attack man (see p. 331) are still more 
mischievous by way of raiding flocks and herds. Besides which, 
members of the same group which are not powerful enough to 
be considered our own personal enemies, may nevertheless be 
very destructive to domesticated animals. Foxes, Weasels, and 
Stoats may be mentioned in illustration. But at the same time 


it ought to be remembered that the damage inflicted is not 
345 


346 UTILITARIAN ZOOLOGY 


infrequently balanced, or even outweighed, by benefits conferred 
in other ways (see p. 325). 

Cultivated plants are often injured or destroyed by herbivorous 
or omnivorous Mammals—Deer and various gnawing mammals, 
such as Rats, Mice, Voles, Hares, and Rabbits. Such creatures 
may also be injurious in gardens, orchards, and woods, by in- 
juring the bark of 
trees. In this re- 
spect Goats are 
particularly de- 
structive. A re- 
markable instance 
of this is given in 
the following pas- 
sage from Wallace 
(Lsland Life):— 
‘“When first dis- 
covered [over 400 
years ago], St. 
Helenawas densely 
covered with a 
luxuriant forest 
vegetation, the 
trees overhanging 
the seaward preci- 
pices and covering 
every part of the 
surface with an 
evergreen mantle. 
This indigenous 


Wik: xaaa:—Cominon HousesM one Laie oadeennis, vegetation has 

been almost wholly 

destroyed; and although an immense number of foreign plants 
have been introduced, and have more or less completely estab- 
lished themselves, yet the general aspect of the island is now 
so barren and forbidding, that some persons find it difficult to 
believe that it was once all green and fertile. The cause of 
the change is, however, very easily explained. The rich soil 
formed by decomposed volcanic rock and vegetable deposits 
could only be retained on the steep slopes so long as it was 


FORMS INJURIOUS TO HUMAN INDUSTRIES 347 


protected by the vegetation to which it in great part owed its 
origin. When this was destroyed, the heavy tropical rains soon 
washed away the soil, and has left a vast expanse of bare rock 
or sterile clay. This irreparable destruction was caused in the 
first place by goats, which were introduced by the Portuguese 
in 1513, and increased so rapidly that in 1588 they existed in 
thousands. These animals are the greatest of all foes to trees, 
because they eat off the young seedlings, and thus prevent the 
natural restoration of the forest. They were, however, aided by 
the reckless waste of man.” 

Rats, Mice (fig. 1242), and other small 
rodents are destructive to stored grain 
and other commodities, and may become 
a thorough nuisance in dwellings, as most 
of us have found by experience. Such 
creatures may also be productive of serious 
harm by disseminating various diseases. 
Rats, for example, often cause trichinosis 
in swine (see p. 344), and hence indirectly 
in human beings, or may spread such viru- 
lent germs as those of bubonic plague. 

Injurtous Birps (Aves).—Large birds 
of prey, such as Eagles, may attack various 
domesticated animals, and even the Raven 
(Corvus corax) is known to injure lambs, 
among other forms. The Kea Parrot Fis it ia 
(Nestor notabilis) of New Zealand has 
acquired the reprehensible habit of killing sheep by biting deep 
holes in their backs, its object being said to be to reach the fat 
in the neighbourhood of the kidneys. The smaller Birds of Prey 
may raid poultry-yards or game-preserves, and some of them 
destroy useful insectivorous birds. Certain species, however, do 
more good than harm (see p. 327). 

Among insectivorous birds the Woodpeckers damage trees in 
the course of their search for food (fig. 1243), and also sometimes 
by excavating nesting-holes in sound trunks. A great many 
plant-eating or omnivorous birds do much mischief in cultivated 
fields, gardens, and orchards, the exact nature of the depredations 
depending upon the species. Most, if not all, omnivorous birds 
also do a certain amount of good, sufficient, in some cases, en- 


348 UTILITARIAN ZOOLOGY 


tirely to outweigh their misdeeds. Crows, Rooks, and Sparrows 
are among the most hurtful forms in Western Europe. Some 
of the mainly beneficial species are: Thrushes, Starlings, and 
Chaffinches. 

Injurtous Reptites (Reptivia).—It is only necessary to note 
that Crocodiles, Alligators, and poisonous Snakes destroy a num- 
ber of domesticated animals. 

Injurious Fisues (Pisces).—Some of the more voracious 
freshwater forms, especially the Pike (Zsav Zucews) destroy other 
species of greater value, or interfere with the work of fish- 
culture. Skate and Rays are destructive to oysters. 

Injurtous Mottuscs (Mo ttusca).—Forms like the Octopus 
and its kind destroy oysters, 
as also do several species of 
boring sea-snail. Of the latter 
the ‘‘whelks” detrimental to 
British oyster- culture are 
chiefly the Common Whelk 
(Buccinum undatum), the 
Dog-Whelk (Vassa reticosa), 
and the Purple-Shell (Pz7- 

saanianbat pura lapillus). Various North 

Fig. 1244.—1, Field-Slug (Liveax agrestis): 2, Black Slug American Species which do 

(Arion ater); and 3 a related species (4. emprivorum) arm in the same way are 
with its eggs 4. . 

popularly known as “drills”. 

Cultivated plants of almost all kinds are liable to the attacks 
of various Land-Snails and Land-Slugs (fig. 1244), which are 
probably by far the most injurious of all molluscs from the 
human stand-point. 

Among injurious bivalves the Ship-Worm (Zevedo navalis) is 
notorious for the way in which it has damaged the timbers of ships 
and wooden piles. At one time it worked such devastation in the 
sea-dykes of Holland that serious disaster was threatened. The 
Edible Mussel (AZyt7/us edulis) is sometimes an enemy to oyster- 
culture, as it may cover up and smother beds of young oysters. 

Inyjurtous Insects (InsEcta).—These are so excessively 
numerous, and at the same time so destructive, that they are 
the subject of a particularly extensive literature, and constantly 
engage the attention of many skilled naturalists, especially at the 
numerous experimental Entomological Stations of America. 


FORMS INJURIOUS TO HUMAN INDUSTRIES 349 


Domesticated animals are attacked by a great variety of 
insects, of which only a few can be here mentioned. Some- 
thing has elsewhere been said about Bot-Flies (see p. 191). 
Two such forms, the Ox-Warble Flies (Hypoderma bovis and 
fT. lineatus, fig. 1245), lay their eggs on the legs of cattle, 
usually near the heels. It is probable (but not absolutely cer- 
tain) that the maggots when hatched pierce the skin, under 
which they make their way to the back. At any rate they are 
found in that region later on, living in swellings (‘‘warbles”) 
which open to the exterior. Of the injuries inflicted Somerville 
says (in Farm and Gar- 
den Insects): — “ The 
damage done by this 
insect is enormous, the 
Newcastle Hide Pro- 
tection Society, for in- 
stance, reporting that 
the hides dealt with in 
that town alone in 1892 
had been damaged by 
warbles to the extent 
of £14,000. Besides 
the injury to the leather 
fT, bovis causes great 
damage by unsettling 
cattle and preventing them thriving properly. When cattle dis- 
cover that the fly is hovering near they rush wildly about the 
field; and the constant irritation to which the larva subjects 
them when located in the skin is no less detrimental to the ani- 
mals. The flesh in the neighbourhood of the warbles is also 
much reduced in value, being covered by a jelly-like substance 
known as ‘licked beef’.” 

The bite of the much-dreaded Tsetse Fly (Glosstna morsitans) 
of tropical Africa is fatal to horses, producing “nagana” or “ fly- 
sickness” (see p. 241). This is because the bite introduces into 
the horse’s blood certain stages in the life-history of a parasitic 
animalcule (Zv7ypfanosoma), which attacks the red corpuscles. 
Other biting flies may introduce fatal germs, as, e.g., the bacilli 
which are the cause of anthrax (splenic fever, quarter evil). 

The insect pests which damage stock are mostly Flies and 


Fig. 1245.—Ox-Warble Fly (Hypoderma), enlarged 


350 UTILITARIAN ZOOLOGY 


Fleas (Dzftera), but forms extremely injurious to cultivated and 
other plants are to be found in several orders, as a brief summary 
will show. It will be convenient to mention at the same time 
some of the species which damage food, clothing, buildings, 
&c. &e. 

Bugs (Hemiptera).—By means of their, piercing and suctorial 
mouth-parts innumerable members of this order are able to 
feed upon the sap of plants, often with the most deplorable 
consequences. Aphides or Green-Flies (4phzde) and Scale- 
Insects or Mealy Bugs (Coccede) are among the most mis- 
chievous, for though of small 
size they are astoundingly pro- 


Fig. 1246.—Vine Aphis (PAy/loxera vastatrix) 

a, Wingless root-sucking female; 4, winged over- Fig. 1247.—Apple Scale-Insect (J7Zy- 
ground female; c, wingless overground female; a, tilaspis pomorum), enlarged. a, Male. 
male; e, gall-producing female. B, Female. c, Nymph. 


lific. Aphides are often popularly known as “blight”, and nearly 
200 species of them are British, while some 800 have altogether 
been described. Many important cultivated plants are infested 
by particular kinds of Aphis, as will be gathered from the names 
of the following:—Corn Aphis (Aphzs cerealis), Oat Aphis (A. 
avene), Bean Aphis (Ad. fabe), Cabbage Aphis (4. drassice), 
Turnip Aphis (4. rage), Hop Aphis (A. humuli), Cherry Aphis 
(4. cerasz), Plum Aphis (4. prunz), &c. &c. Enormous damage 
is done in vineyards by the Vine Aphis (PhyWovera devastatrix, 
fig. 1246). During the spring and summer wingless females work 
havoc upon the roots, which swell up into small galls. They lay 
unfertilized eggs, which hatch out into forms like themselves, and 
there may be as many as eight generations of the kind produced 
during the season. But the last batch of these eggs produced in 
autumn gives rise to wingless males and winged females, that live 
above-ground and attack the leaves. The fertilized ‘“ winter- 


FORMS INJURIOUS TO HUMAN INDUSTRIES 351 


eggs” of this generation survive, lie dormant during the winter, 
and wingless females hatch out from them in the following 
spring. 

Scale-Insects (Coccéde), of which one kind has already been 
described (see vol. iii, p. 381), are particularly harmful in fruit- 
culture. Well known in Britain are—Apple Scale (Mytilaspis 
pomorum), white woolly Currant Scale (Pulvinaria ribesie), and 
Gooseberry and Currant Scale (Lecanium ribis). 

Lringe-Winged Insects (Thysanoptera). See vol. i, p. 355. 

files (Diptera)—The most familiar pests belonging to this 
group are the Crane-Flies or ‘‘ Daddy-Long-Legs” (Zipudide), of 
which there are at least some thirty 
British species. The larvae, known 
as ‘leather -jackets”, are very de- 
structive to the roots of grasses and 
cereals (fig. 1248). A species which 
has been responsible for great damage 
to cereal crops in America is the 
Hessian Fly (Ceczdomyta destructor), 
so called because it is supposed to 
have been introduced into the New 
World in 1778 by means of straw 
brought by Hessian mercenaries. 
The female fly lays her eggs in 


pairs in the angles where the leaves _ Fig. 1248.—Crane-Fly (Tifule oleracea). 1, Larva; 


cae 2, pupa; 3, adult; 4, eggs. 
of wheat, barley, or rye join the 


stem. The maggots feed upon the juices of the haulm, causing 
this to bend or break, and interfering greatly with the develop- 
ment of the grain. The Wheat-Midge (Cectdomyia tritic?) is 
chiefly destructive to wheat and rye, the eggs in this case being 
laid in the flowers. The Frit-Fly (Osczuzs frit) is injurious to 
cereals in much the same way as the Hessian Fly, but its eggs 
are here laid on the under sides of the leaves. Some flies lay 
their eggs on food, and cause great annoyance. The Blow-Fly 
or Blue-Bottle (Zusca vomztoria) and the Cheese-Fly (Prophila 
caset) are well-known examples. 

Moths and Butterflies (Lepidoptera).—Almost everyone has 
noticed the way in which the caterpillars of these insects vora- 
ciously devour plants of various kind, and a mere list of destructive 
species would occupy a considerable space. Among injurious 


352 UTILITARIAN ZOOLOGY 


Butterflies the Whites (Pzerzd@) are only too familiar. They in- 
clude, for example, the Large Garden White or Cabbage Butter- 
fly (Piers brassicae), the Small White (P. rape), and the Green- 
veined White (P. zafz). The leaves of cabbages, cauliflowers, 
turnips, and other cruciferous plants are ravaged by the insatiable 
caterpillars. 

The larve of many 
species of Owlet Moths 
(Noctuede), under the name 
of “surface caterpillars ”, 
are responsible for a large 
amount of damage to various 
cultivated plants. Notable 
forms are the Turnip Moth 
(Agrotis segetum), Heart- 
and-Dart Moth (4. excla- 
mations), and Great Yellow Underwing (7riphena pronuba). 

Among other species of which the larve are destructive to 
ordinary crops may be mentioned—Silver-Y Moth (Plusca 
gamma), inimical to most cultivated herbs; Cabbage Moth 
(Mamestra brassicae, fig. 1249); Pea Moth (Graphohtha nebri- 
tana), the caterpillars of which penetrate the young pods and 
feed on the immature peas; Grass Moth (Chareas graminis), a 


Fig. 1249.—Cabbage Moth (J/amestra brassicae). 1, Adult 
female, 2, larva; 3, pupa. 


Fig. 1250.—Codlin Moth (Carpocapsa pomonella). Adult female on left, larva in centre, pupa to right 
(its actual size indicated by a line). 


pasture pest; and Diamond-back Moth (Plutella cructferarum), 
destructive to various crucifers. 

Various trees of economic importance are liable to be attacked 
by voracious caterpillars. What are known as ‘“ worm-eaten” 
apples, for instance, commonly owe their condition to the larve 
of the Codlin Moth (Carpocapsa pomonella, fig. 1250). The large 
caterpillars of the Goat Moth (Cossus ligniperda) bore great holes 
in forest-trees, while the larve of other species ravage their 


FORMS INJURIOUS TO HUMAN INDUSTRIES 353 


foliage. The Nun (Pszlura monacha) is a very serious forest pest 
in Germany, for its caterpillars devour pine-needles and the leaves 
of hardwood trees in a wholesale manner. The Gipsy Moth 
(Ocnerta dispar), introduced from Europe into the United States 
some thirty years ago, has within the last decade proved a veri- 
table scourge to many trees. Fletcher Osgood makes the follow- 
ing observations about this particular pest (in Hasfer's Magazine, 
1897):—“ The careful reckoning of science has demonstrated that 
the unrestricted caterpillar increase of a single pair of gipsy moths 
would suffice in eight years to devour the entire vegetation of 
the United States. In the ordinary course of nature (let Heaven 
be thanked for it!) such in- 
crease is never left wholly un- 
restricted. .. . Since the work 
[of extermination] began [in 
Massachusetts], some forty- 
two millions of trees have 
been inspected, while the 
number of the buildings, 
walls, and fences thus looked 
over exceeds four hundred 

thousand. Besides myriads a ae aR giana ee. 
Bf the piuey kind deauuyed 7 ous Gogg Se aie 
by burning and in other ways, i al al enlarged (actual size in same position 
and hosts escaping record in 

the first years of the outbreak, the force employed against the 
caterpillar has killed directly by hand, to date, about two billions 
and three millions of these dreadful creatures. The unrecorded 
destruction will doubtless bring the list of killed to at least 
some four billions. The results so far have more than justified 
the necessary outlay.” 

The Corn Moth or Corn Wolf (Zixea granella, fig. 1251) is a 
small granary-pest that does much damage to stored grain. The 
Clothes-Moths, so destructive to garments of cloth and fur, are 
closely related. 

The last species to be here mentioned is the Wax Moth 
(Galleria mellonella), one of the enemies of apiculturalists. The 
female tries to enter a bee-hive, and, if successful, lays her eggs 
there. When the caterpillars hatch out they burrow into the 
combs, and feed upon the wax. 


354 UTILITARIAN ZOOLOGY 


Injurious Beetles (Coleoptera).—Many notorious malefactors 
belong to this order. Among the most injurious are ‘ wire- 
worms”, which do great damage to the underground parts of 
cereals, grasses, and root-crops, and are no other than the larve 
of the little Click-Beetles (Z/ateridz). The still smaller Turnip 
Flea-Beetles (Hadtica nemorum, fig. 1252, and HZ. undulata), 
popularly known as Turnip-‘ Flies”, are very injurious to turnips 
and related plants, for the adults attack the leaves from the 
outside, while their larvee burrow within them. Some of the 
“Chafers” are very injurious to trees, crops, and pastures. The 
Common Cockchafer (J/e/olontha vulgaris), when adult, ravages 
the foliage of trees, while its 
grubs live underground, and 
attack the roots of grasses, 
various crop - plants, and 
many trees. A form which 
created a ‘‘scare” in this 
country some years ago is 
the Colorado Beetle (Chry- 
somela decemlineata), a par- 
ticularly prolific insect which, 
Fig. 1252.—Stages of Turnip Flea-Beetle (Hadtica nemorum). both in the larval state and 
1, Adult (enlarged), showing wing-covers and wings spread when adult, devours potato 


out; 2, 3, natural sizé of same; 4, 5, eggs (5 enlarged); 6, 7, bur- 
rows of larvze (7 enlarged); 8, 9, larva (natural size and en- leaves 


larged); 10, 11, pupa (natural size and enlarged). 


The larve of Beetles 
belonging to one family (Bruchid@) burrow in seeds, and some 
of them infest plants of economic value, e.g. Pea-Beetles (Br uchus 
post) and Bean-Beetle (B. fade). 

The little long-snouted Weevils (Czsculzontdz), of which some- 
thing like 20,000 species have already been described, include a 
large number of pests, of which both adults and larve feed on 
vegetable matter. The Pea-Weevil (Sztones Zineatus), for example, 
devours the leaves of pea, bean, clover, &c., while its larvae prey 
upon their roots. The Apple-blossom Weevil (Axthonomus po- 
morunt) is very destructive in orchards to both apple and pear. 
The female insect deposits her eggs in the young flower-buds, 
one in each, and may carry on this injurious operation for two 
or three weeks. The Corn-Weevil (Calandria granaria, fig. 1253) 
bores holes in young grains of corn, and each of the some 150 eggs 
of a single female are deposited within separate grains. Some of 


FORMS INJURIOUS TO HUMAN INDUSTRIES 355 


the Weevils are among the pests of forestry, certain forms attack- 
ing conifers, e.g. species of Hylobius and Pissodes. 

Some of the Beetles are indoor pests, their larvae feeding 
on all sorts of substances. The members of one small family 
(Dermestide) devour animal substances, and are very destructive 
in museums. To one species at least (Anthrenus fasciatus) the 
horse-hair coverings of furniture prove palatable. The larvae of 
the Bacon-Beetle (Dermestes lardarius) indulge in a more luxurious 
diet, as the name indicates. The larve and adults of certain 
species belonging to another family (P¢znzde) are not often seen, 
though some of them are 
frequently heard, and their 
“works” are familiar. A 
kind of literary flavour at- 
taches itself to the Biscuit- 
“Weevil” (Anobtum pant- 
ceunt), for its larva is most 
likely the ‘original book- 
worm” which finds its pabu- 
lum in libraries, though paper 
is not the only item in its bill Fig. 1253.—Weevils. 1, Grain of wheat, showing the punc- 
of fare, for Sharp remarks tured hole; and 5, the exit of the perfect weevil. 2. Pupa 
(in Zhe Cambridge Natural meerlnide, Gon Core Weal eens paieen eet 
History) ha... anuse an pease 8, 9, Rice-Weevil (C. ovyz@), natural size 
possess extraordinary powers 
of digestion, as we have known it to pass several consecutive 
generations on a diet of opium; it has also been reported to 
thrive on tablets of dried compressed meat; in India it is said 
to disintegrate books; a more usual food of the insect is, how- 
ever, hard biscuits; weevily biscuits are known to every sailor, 
and the so-called ‘weevil’ is usually the larva of A. pantceum”. 
The “Greater Death-Watches” belong to allied species (4. 
striatum and A. tessellatum), and are the cause of ‘“ worm-eaten ” 
wood and much superstition. 

Tngurious Membrane-Winged Insects (Hymenoptera).— To 
farmers and fruit-growers the Saw-Flies are here most dele- 
terious, while Wood-Borers are among the pests of forestry. 
Their operations have been already sufficiently described (see 
vol. i, p. 371; vol. ii, p. 203; and vol. iti, p. 386). Prominent 
pests are the Corn Saw-Fly (Cephus pygmeus), Turnip Saw-Fly 


356 UTILITARIAN ZOOLOGY 


(dthalia spinarum), Apple Saw-Fly (Hoblocampa testudinea), 
Gooseberry and Currant Saw-Fly (Mematus ribesit), Cherry and 
Pear Saw-Fly (EZrocampa limacina), Plum Saw-Fly (/Zoplocampa 
fulvicornis), and Pine Saw-Fly (Lophyrus pint, fig. 1254). 

Other net-winged insects may at times be injurious, e.g. Wasps 
sometimes damage large quantities of fruits, while Ants make raids 
on provisions (especially those containing sugar), and Carpenter- 
Bees (Xylocopa) destroy woodwork. 

Injurious Net-winged Insects (Neuroptera).—The Biting-Lice 
(Mallophaga) live as ectoparasites on birds or mammals, and feed 
on their feathers or hairs, at the same time causing much irritation. 
Domestic fowls are pestered by no less than five species of these 
insects, one (AZenopon pallidum) being particularly common. The 


Fig 1254.—Pine Saw-Fly (Lophyrus pint). On the branch to the left are two larvee, a cocoon, and an adult male; 
on the right is an adult female, enlarged (actual size indicated by the line). 


Biting Dog-Louse (Z77chodectes latus) not only torments its host, 
but also harbours a stage in the life-history of a tape-worm which 
lives when adult in the dog’s intestine. 

In some of the hotter countries of the world Termites or 
“White Ants” are very harmful to furniture and woodwork, on 
account of their habit of excavating and feeding upon wood (see 
p. 120). An interesting example is giving by Sharp (in Zhe 
Cambridge Natural History), who says:—“ A Termite (Zermes 
tenuis) was introduced—in what manner is not certainly known 
—to the island of St. Helena, and committed such extensive 
ravages there that Jamestown, the capital, was practically de- 
stroyed, and new buildings had to be erected”. 

L[njgurious Straight-winged Insects (Orthoptera).—Locusts have 
been one of the scourges of mankind from the earliest times, 
owing to their enormous fertility and the wholesale manner in 
which they devour all sorts of vegetation (see vol. i, p. 382, and 
vol. iii, p. 379). The species which migrate from place to place 
in vast swarms are those which do most mischief. The follow- 
ing quotation from Sharp (in Zhe Cambridge Natural History) 


FORMS INJURIOUS TO HUMAN INDUSTRIES 357 


regarding such forms will give an idea of the possibilities:—“ In 
countries that are liable to their visitations they have a great 
influence on the prosperity of the inhabitants, for they appear 
suddenly on a spot in huge swarms, which, in the space of a 
few hours, clear off all the vegetable food that can be eaten, 
leaving no green thing for beast or man. It is difficult for those 
who have not witnessed a serious invasion to realize the mag- 
nitude of the event. Large swarms consist of an almost incal- 
culable number of individuals. A writer in Mature [Carruthers, 
1889] states that a flight of locusts that passed over the Red Sea 


Fig. 1255.—Larva and Adult Female of the Migratory Locust (Schistocerca peregrina) 


in 1889 was 2000 square miles in extent, and he estimated its 
weight at 42,850 millions of tons, each locust weighing 3’g of an 
ounce. A second similar, perhaps even larger, flight was seen 
passing in the same direction the next day. That such an esti- 
mate may be no exaggeration is rendered probable by other 
testimony. From official accounts of locusts in Cyprus we find 
that in 1881, up to the end of October, 1,600,000,000 egg-cases 
had been that season collected and destroyed, each case containing 
a considerable number of eggs. By the end of the season the 
weight of the eggs collected and made away with amounted 
to over 1300 tons, and, notwithstanding this, no less than 
5,076,000,000 egg-cases were, it is believed, deposited in the 
island in 1883. When we realize the enormous number of indi- 
viduals of which a large swarm of locusts may consist we can see 
that famine is only a too probable sequence, and that pestilence 


may follow—as it often has done—from the decomposition of the 
Vou. IV. 118 


358 UTILITARIAN ZOOLOGY 


bodies of the dead insects. This latter result is said to have 
occurred on some occasions from locusts flying in a mass into 
the sea, and their dead bodies being afterwards washed ashore.” 

Of other well-known members of the present order which are 
to be regarded as pests may be mentioned: The Earwig (Forficula 
auricularta), which attacks flowers and fruits; Cockroaches (our 
common species is Pezplaneta ortentalis), that are troublesome in 
houses and on board ships; and the Mole-Cricket (G7ylotalpa 
vulgaris), which is injurious to pasture. 

Principles regulating the Methods enployed in Combating Ln- 
jurtous Insects.—These are summarized by Ritzema Bos (in Zzer- 
wsche Schidlinge und Niitslinge) under (1) Preventive Measures, 
(2) Curative Measures, (3) Measures which are both Preventive 
and Curative. It may be well once more to emphasize the fact 
that to successfully combat harmful insects (and all other pests) 
an intimate knowledge cf their habits and_ life-histories is 
essential. There is commonly, for example, some stage in the 
development of a particular animal which can be exterminated 
with comparative ease and at relatively small expense. This must 
be carefully borne in mind, or it may turn out that, financially 
speaking, ‘‘the remedy is worse than the disease”. 

(1.) Preventive Measures.—Sickly plants are in many cases 
more subject to infestation than healthy ones, and it therefore 
follows that all the means adopted by farmers, gardeners, and 
foresters to promote the vigour of the forms with which they are 
concerned assist in warding off the attacks of injurious insects, Xc. 
It is also well known that seedlings are less able to resist their 
enemies than plants in a later stage of development, from which 
it follows that crops should be stimulated to rapid growth at the 
time when sprouting begins. 

One of the benefits to be derived from rotation of crops is to 
check the ravages of various injurious insects, &c., which only 
feed upon one or a few kinds of plant. They are often, so to 
speak, starved out. Clean seed is another important preventive, 
for without precaution in this direction sowing may mean a dis- 
tribution of pests as well as plants. And as during part of their 
existence some noxious forms are harboured in straw, another 
preventive measure is thereby suggested. 

It is also sufficiently obvious that the natural enemies of pests 
should be protected and encouraged as far as possible. This 


FORMS INJURIOUS TO HUMAN INDUSTRIES 359 


particular preventive measure chiefly applies to insectivorous birds 
and mammals. 

(2.) Curative Measures.—It is possible to collect and destroy 
many sorts of pest (see p. 353), although this is usually an ex- 
pensive matter. The question as to which stage in the life-history 
of a particular form most readily lends itself to the method is 
clearly one of great economic importance. 

Collection is sometimes facilitated by “luring” pests by means 
of something which serves to attract them. Slices of potato, for 
example, have been found to draw large numbers of wire-worms. 


Fig. 1256.—Winter-Moth (Cheimatobia brumata); male (centre), female (right), and chrysalis (left). 
The vertical lines indicate actual sizes. 


Many creatures can be destroyed in the places where they live 
by means of certain powders and sprays, distributed by various 
ingenious appliances. Soot, quick-lime, ‘‘ Paris green” (an aceto- 
arsenite of copper), soap-suds, paraffin emulsion, &c. &c., all have 
their special uses. 

(3.) Measures which are both Preventive and Curative-—These 
may be illustrated by ‘“tar-rings”, employed in combating the 
Winter-Moth (Chetmatobia brumata, fig. 1256), destructive to 
fruit-trees, and the Gipsy-Moth (Ocnerza dispar), which is an 
enemy to all sorts of trees. In both these species the dormant 
chrysalis stage is passed through in the ground. As the wings 
of the female Winter-Moth are small and useless, while the female 
Gipsy-Moth cannot (or at any rate does not) fly, both of them 
have to creep up the tree-trunks in order to lay their eggs. This 
can be prevented by means of a tar-coated band of suitable 
material fixed round the trees a short distance above the ground. 
Collection and destruction of moths and eggs naturally follow. 


360 UTILITARIAN ZOOLOGY 


InjuRIouS SprpeR-LIkE ANIMALS (ARACHNIDA).—The only 
forms of great importance here are the Mites (Acavzua). Mange- 
and Itch-Mites, injurious to domesticated animals, have already 
been mentioned (see p. 196). Poultry are attacked as well as 
quadrupeds. Fowls are also liable to be infested by Red Fowl- 
Mites (Dermanyssus galline), which suck their blood and set up 
an intolerable itching. 

Domesticated animals are also often attacked by Ticks 
({xodid@), which are able to draw large quantities of blood, and, 
what is more serious, may convey the germs of disease. Infec- 
tion by means of one such 
Tick (Lvodes reduvius) is, 
for example, the cause of 
‘“Jouping ill” in sheep. 

Cultivated plants also 
suffer from the attacks of 
Mites, among which the 
following may be men- 
tioned :— Currant Gall - 
Mite (Pkhytoptus ribts), 
Red Hop-‘ Spider” (Ze- 
tranychus telarius), Red 
Plum-‘ Spider” (7. ra- 
bescens), and Harvest or 
Gooseberry - “ Bug” (7. 
autunnalis). 


Other kinds of Mite 


Fig. 1257.—Stages in Life- History of Liver- Fluke (Fasciola 
hepatica), enlarged. a, ciliated larva; B, sporocyst, within which spoil furniture and attack 


rediz are developing; c, redia, within which a new generation of 

rediz is developing; pb, redia, with contained cercariz (G, opening food especially meal 
by which these escape; D, intestine); &, cercaria. B to E are : , 
parasitic within the water-snail F (Limn@a truncatula), from which cheese, and sugar. 


E escapes to encyst on the stem of a plant. 


Injurrous Myrrapops 
(Myrraropa).— Some of the Millipedes (‘false wire-worms ”) 
attack the underground parts of various plants, or may damage 
soft fruits. 

Injurious Friat-Worms (PLATYHELMIA).—A large number of 
Flukes (Trematoda) and Tape-Worms (Cestoda) are parasitic 
within the bodies of domestic animals, as previously stated in 
dealing with the personal enemies of man (see p. 342). A few 
details may be appropriately added. 

Flukes (Trematoda).—It is only necessary here to refer to the 


FORMS INJURIOUS TO HUMAN INDUSTRIES 361 


Liver-Fluke (Fasciola hepatica, fig. 1257), a brief account of which 
has already been given (see vol. i, p. 443). The adult Fluke is 
parasitic in the liver of the sheep, causing the serious disease 
known as “liver-rot”, while certain earlier stages of the life- 
history are passed within a small water-snail (Limnea trun- 
catula). The following extract from Gamble (in Zhe Cambridge 
Natural Firstory) will give some idea of the serious losses which 
may be caused by this destructive parasite:—‘‘ Over the whole of 
Europe, Northern Asia, Abyssinia, and North Africa, the Canaries, 
and the Faroes the fluke and the snail are known to occur, and 
recently the former has been found in Australia and the Sandwich 
Islands, where a snail, apparently a variety of Lemna truncatula, 
is also found. Over these vast areas, however, the disease usually 
only occurs in certain marshy districts and at certain times of the 
year. Meadows of a clayey soil, liable to be flooded (as in certain 
parts of Oxfordshire), are the places where this Lznea occurs 
most abundantly, and these are consequently the most dangerous 
feeding-grounds for sheep. The wet years 1816, 1817, 1830, 
1853, and 1854—-memorable for the occurrence of acute liver-rot 
in England, Germany, and France—showed that the weather also 
plays a considerable part in extending the suitable ground for 
Limnea over wide areas which in dry years may be safe pastures. 
In 1830 England lost from this cause one and a half million sheep, 
representing some four millions of money, while in 1879-80 three 
millions died. In 1862 Ireland lost 60 per cent of the flocks, and 
in 1882 vast numbers of sheep perished in Buenos Ayres from 
this cause. In the United Kingdom the annual loss was formerly 
estimated at a million animals, but is now probably considerably 
less.” This extract clearly shows the importance of scientific re- 
search to agriculture, as preventive measures clearly depend upon 
an accurate knowledge of the life-history of the fluke. 

Tape-Worms (Cestoda).—The disease of sheep known as 
“staggers” or “sturdy” is due to the presence of large cysts 
that cause pressure on the brain, and are the bladder-worm 
stage (Cenurus cerebralis) of a Tape-Worm (Tenia cenurus) 
that lives when adult in the intestine of a sheep-dog (fig. 1258). 
A sheep contracts the disease by swallowing eggs of the parasite 
which have passed out of the body of a dog, while in its turn a 
dog becomes infected if it devours cysts from the brain of a sheep 
that has died of staggers. 


362 UTILITARIAN ZOOLOGY 


Dog and Rabbit (or Hare) are the two hosts of another kind 
of Tape-Worm (Texia serrata), of which the adult lives in the 
intestine of the former animal, while the bladder-worm stage 
(Cysticercus pisiformis) is harboured in the body of the latter. 

Inyjurrous THREAD- Worms (NEMATHELMIA).—Many of the 
worms belonging to this group are injurious to domesticated 
animals and cultivated plants. The large Horse-Worm (Ascaris 
megalocephala), for example, often infests in great numbers the 
intestine of the horse and its 
allies, while smaller species of 
round-worm live as parasites 
within dogs and cats. Much 
more dangerous is the minute 
Trichina (Zrechina spiralis) 
that sets up trichinosis in pig 
and man (see p. 343). 

Much harm is caused by 
the Palisade-Worms or Stron- 

vyles (Strongylide), related 
to the species which produces 
‘“miners’ anaemia” in human 
beings (see p. 343). The 
Giant - Strongyle (£ustron- 
gylus gigas), of which the 
female may be from a foot 
to over a yard long, lives in 
Fig. 1258.—The Tape-Worm (Tenia canurus), of which the kidneys af horse, “ox, 
Soe ee odes land, tteanay be, ation, 
ing hooks and suckers; 3, cyst from sheep's brain. Several Swellinos in the arteries of 
groups of developing tape-worm heads are indicated. 5S 
the horse are caused by the 
presence of Armed Strongyles (Strongylus armatus), while other 
deadly parasites are the Stomach-Strongyle (S. contortus) of 
the sheep, and the Lung-Worm (S. f#/arza) of the lamb. The 
disease known as ‘‘gapes”, to which young poultry and game- 
birds are liable, is caused by the presence of a related species, the 
Red- or Forked-Worm (Syxgamus trachealis). 

Some of the little Eel-Worms (dxguz//uid@) are serious agri- 
cultural pests. They possess a spine at the front end of the body, 
by which they bore into the tissues of plants. One species, the 
Wheat Eel-Worm (Zyenchus scandens), has been described in 


FORMS INJURIOUS TO HUMAN INDUSTRIES 363 


an earlier section (see vol. ii, p. 222). The Stem Eel-Worm 
(Z. devastatrix) attacks the stems and leaves of rye, oats, buck- 
wheat, clover, &c., leading to stunted growth, or even killing the 
plants outright. “Clover sickness” is set up by the presence of 
this parasite. The Beet Eel-Worm (Heterodera Schachtit, fig. 
1259) infests the roots of its host- 
plant, and causes “beet sick- 
ness”. The related Root-knot 
Eel-Worm (A. radicicola) pro- 
duces galls on the roots of clover, 
lucerne, cucumber, tomato, and 
many other cultivated plants. 

INJURIOUS ANIMALCULES 
(Protozoa).—Nagana or “‘fly- 
sickness” (see p. 241) is the 
best example of disease result- 
ing from the presence of para- Fig. 1259—Roots of Beet, infested by Beet Eel-Worm 
sific animaleules in the bodies: namig aut iil: s moe ainding aro 
of domesticated animals. 

Some ailments of cultivated plants are also the result of the 
attacks of certain Protozoa. One instance is afforded by “ finger- 
and-toe” or ‘‘anbury”, a turnip disease associated with curious 
deformation of the roots. It is due to the presence of one of the 
Fungus-Animals (Mycetozoa) within the tissues (ie. Plasmodzo- 
phora brassice). 


CHAPTER LXXII 


THE ZOOLOGY OF SPORT 


It is hardly necessary to remark that the literature of those 
forms of “sport” which depend upon the existence of wild 
animals is very extensive, and includes accounts of experiences 
and adventures in all parts of the world. Much of it is highly 
technical, most of it is anecdotal, and but a small part is the 
work of authors who represent the sportsman and_ naturalist 
combined. To name a selection of books for the benefit of ex- 
pert huntsmen and anglers is of course quite superfluous, but 
general readers may profitably refer to the following works :— 
The volumes of Zhe Badminton Library, Fur and Feather Serves, 
and Zhe American Sportsman's Library; \zaak Walton's Com- 
pleat Angler; Selous’ A Hunter's Wanderings in Africa; Sir 
Samuel Baker's Il7/d Beasts and their Ways and Il 7th Rifle 
and Flound in Ceylon; The Big Game of North America, English 
Sport, Sport in Europe, and The Sports of the World, edited re- 
spectively by G. O. Shields, Alfred E. T. Watson, and (the two 
last) by F. G. Aflalo. 

We have already had occasion to notice (p. 208) that the 
first stage in the evolution of civilization was represented by the 
primeval hunter and fisherman, a stage still in evidence to-day 
among various savage races. But our remote prehistoric ances- 
tors, like modern savages, were “ pot-hunters” rather than sports- 
men, while the intimate knowledge they must have acquired of 
the habits of wild animals imparted a certain flavour of the 
field naturalist. Many primitive races have also had, and 
some still have, to defend themselves and (in the pastoral and 
agricultural stages) their domesticated animals from the attacks 
of predaceous forms. Even when hunting and fishing were 
necessary for existence, however, a good deal of pleasurable 


excitement must have attached to the pursuit of wild animals, 
364 


THE ZOOLOGY OF SPORT 365 


rivalry and emulation playing no unimportant part in the matter. 
When the further evolution of civilization diminished the material 
importance of hunting and fishing, these arts continued to be 
pursued for pleasure as well as for profit; hence the origin of 
modern sport. 

This is not the place to enter into a long disquisition regarding 
the ethics of field-sports, but such of them as deserve the name 
involve certain obvious fundamentals. There must be room for 
skill, the quarry must have a fair chance, and every precaution 
should be taken to prevent a miserable and lingering death on 
the part of maimed or wounded animals. The hunter of “big 
game” would no doubt add that “the greater the danger the 
greater the sport”. Selous, for instance, remarks (in Zhe Sports 
of the World):—* Lion-hunting by savages, armed only with 
spears or bows and arrows, must have been incomparably more 
dangerous, and therefore infinitely finer sport, than the pursuit 
of these animals by civilized man at the present day armed with 
modern rifles”. On the other hand, it is quite possible for a 
recognized form of sport to become so highly artificial as to 
demand hardly more skill to make a “bag” than would be 
required to slaughter the inhabitants of the poultry-yard with 
a shot-gun. Under such circumstances ‘‘ massacre” and not 
“sport” would be the proper word to employ. 

Our pluck, vigour, and enterprise as a nation are undoubtedly 
due in no small degree to the influence of field-sports, and to 
entirely exclude these from our national life, as some would have 
us do, on the ground of cruelty to animals, would be as inex- 
pedient as it is impossible. On the other hand, the view of the 
matter which suggests that it is rather a pleasure than otherwise 
to be hunted may be regarded as a little optimistic. Lady 
Augusta Fane, for example, makes the following remarks on 
fox-hunting (in Euglish Sport):—“ Worthy folks who fancy that 
they are more humane than their neighbours write about the 
cruelty of fox-hunting, drawing fancy pictures of a poor, timid, 
terrified little creature pursued by savage dogs, ruthless viragoes, 
and brutal men! As a matter of fact, foxes constantly live to a 
green old age, and defeat their pursuers season after season. 
They do not even pretend to be frightened. How often we 
have seen a fox break out of covert, look around, give himself 
a good shake, and, whisking his brush, trot off without the 


366 UTILITARIAN ZOOLOGY 


slightest sign of fear! He knows where he means to go, and 
all the safe refuges ex route; and if he gets tired he is familiar 
with the woods, where he can find a friend to take his place.” 

The limited space here available must necessarily be devoted 
to briefly reviewing the animals which are of importance from 
the sporting stand-point, including those which assist man in 
the chase. Mammals, Birds, Reptiles, and Fishes are the only 
groups with which we are concerned, though the “ naturalist” 
who hunts down insects or the like merely to add to his collec- 
tion is more of a sportsman (in a very small way) than a man of 
science; often, however, he is neither! 


MAMMALS (MamMALiA) AS AIDS TO SPORT 


It is a natural consequence of the slow rate of human loco- 
motion that several Mammals have been pressed into the service 
of man in order to make up for this deficiency, or, it may be, 
reduce the element of danger. From time immemorial, in many 
sorts of sport, horse and elephant have saved him the work of 
using his own legs, while dog or falcon have pursued the quarry 
and tackled it at close quarters. 

Tue Horse (Equus CcaBatius).—The combination of intelli- 
gence and speed by which the horse is characterized, and its 
susceptibility to thorough domestication, have naturally led to its 
large employment in the chase. The extraordinary way in which 
the long-continued influence of man has resulted in the production 
of widely different breeds of the same kind of animal is here very 
strikingly exemplified. A well-bred hunter combines to perfec- 
tion the two desiderata of speed and endurance, and it is, to all 
intent and purposes, a product of human ingenuity, without 
which many forms of sport would be comparatively tame and 
featureless. It may also be remarked in passing, that without 
highly specialized breeds of horses certain forms of sport which 
do not depend upon the existence of a quarry, such as horse- 
racing and trotting, could never have attained their present high 
pitch of perfection. By the practice of what may almost be 
called a species of artificial evolution, man has been here able 
to further his own ends in a remarkable manner. 

Tue Inpran Evepuant (ELepHas Inpicus).—The use of this 
animal in tiger-shooting is too well known to need description. 


MAMMALS AS AIDS TO SPORT 367 


It is here not so much a question of speed as of size and 
strength, by which otherwise impracticable ground can be tra- 
versed, while the personal risk of the sportsman is reduced. On 
the other hand, an element of different kind is introduced by the 
nervousness and uncertain temper of the elephant, both of which 
are decidedly in favour of the quarry. 

Tue Doc (Canis Famitiaris).—The Dog has been the com- 
panion of man in the chase from the remotest times, and to all 
appearance keenly shares in the exhilarating pleasures of pursuit. 


Fig. 1260.— Pointer 


He has proved singularly susceptible to the selective influence 
of man, practised for unnumbered centuries, the result of which 
has been the evolution of a very large number of breeds, many 
of which have been brought into existence for sporting pur- 
poses. We know that the ancient Egyptians possessed several 
breeds of dogs, one of which was a sort of white hound (see p. 
222) used in hunting antelopes, for which sport a similar kind 
of dog is to this day employed in North Africa. They also 
used packs of mixed character, though the nature of the breeds 
is doubtful. Upon the Assyrian sculptures we find hunting- 
mastiffs and greyhounds figured, while inscriptions inform us that 
still other breeds existed, some of which appear to have been 


used in sport. 
Sporting Dogs (Canes venatzcr) of various kinds were possessed 


368 UTILITARIAN ZOOLOGY 


by the ancient Romans, some hunting by scent (xave sagaces), 
while others, more fleet (fedzbus celeres), were let slip when the 
game was in sight. 

To enumerate all the existing breeds employed in sport would 
be both tiresome and unnecessary. The names of many, e.g. 
fox-hound, deer-hound, and otter-hound, to some extent serve as 
an indication of their character. The exaggeration of natural 
instincts in artificial directions would appear to have led to the 
evolution of ‘“ point- 
Ss : ers” (fig. 1260) and 
= : “retrievers”. _ Dar- 
win suggests that the 


Fig. 1261.—Cheetah (Cynaslurns yudatus) pursuing an Indian Antelope 


original act of “pointing” was simply the pause which a car- 
nivorous animal often makes before springing upon its prey. 

It is further interesting to note, that when we employ a pack 
of hounds to hunt down an animal by scent we are simply 
making use of the natural methods used by similar forms, when 
wild, in the pursuit of prey. 

Tue CHeetan, oR Huntinc Leoparp (CynalLurus JUBATUS, 
fig. 1261).—This long-legged animal, which is enabled by its 
fleetness to capture prey in a more straightforward way than is 
usual among felines, is employed by the native dignitaries of 
India for coursing antelopes. In former times this variety of 
sport was practised very largely, and is of ancient origin, having 


BIRDS AS AIDS TO SPORT 369 


been known to the Persians so far back as 865 B.c., while at a 
still earlier period it was familiar to the Assyrians. 

Tue Ferret.—The slender bodies of the bloodthirsty mem- 
bers of the weasel kind enable them to pursue their prey under- 
ground, and advantage is taken of this peculiarity when rabbits 
are driven from their burrows by means of Ferrets, which are a 
domesticated variety of the Pole-Cat (Putorius fatidus). 


BIRDS (Aves) AS AIDS TO SPORT 


Certain Birds of Prey have been employed from very remote 
times in the pursuit of wild animals, mostly other birds, but the 
art of Falconry in Europe has steadily declined since firearms 
came into general use. Another contributing cause has been 
the gradual increase of the area under cultivation. Lord Gran- 
ville Gordon (in Sport ix Europe) thus speaks of the antiquity 
and wide popularity of this form of sport:—‘ Records of hawking 
and falconry are supplied in the writings of Pliny and Aristotle. 
In Japan, in India, Arabia, Persia, and Syria, we can find it 
has been practised, and in our own Middle Ages stringent laws 
were passed referring to it. Hawks and falcons were allotted 
to men according to their rank and station. An earl had a 
peregrine, a yeoman a goshawk, a priest a sparrow-hawk, and 
so on. The king of birds in falconry in our Middle Ages was, 
and even now is, the peregrine, and the noble game at which 
to fly this bold and splendid bird was the heron; but I do not 
think this form of sport is followed any longer in our island.” 
Hawking for rooks or larks is still, however, to be included in 
the list of British sports. 

What may be termed a magnified variety of falconry is prac- 
tised by the Kirghiz of the Asiatic steppes, the “falcon” in this 
case being no less noble a bird than the Golden Eagle, while the 
quarry is often the fox or the wolf (fig. 1262). 


MAMMALS (Mammalia) HUNTED FOR SPORT 


FLesH-EaTING Mammats (Carnivora).—The Lion (Feds deo, 
fig. 1263) is undoubtedly the noblest quarry that falls to the 
rifle of the sportsman, while the attendant danger and excitement 
appeal so strongly to those who engage in this form of sport that 


370 UTILITARIAN ZOOLOGY 


it will be popular so long as lions continue to exist. Regarding 
the antiquity and characteristics of the pursuit Selous makes the 
following remarks (in Zhe Sports of the World):—* Lion hunting 
must undoubtedly be reckoned amongst the most ancient and 


Fig. 1262.—Kirghiz hunting the Wolf with the Golden Eagle 


time-honoured of all field-sports, for ages and ages before the 
days when Assyrian kings pursued the king of beasts for 
pleasure, and shot him with bow and arrow from their light two- 
wheeled chariots, the prehistoric races of man, inhabiting the 
whole of Africa, as well as large areas in Asia and Europe, 
must have hunted lions as a sporting necessity, in defence of 


MAMMALS HUNTED FOR SPORT 371 


their flocks and herds as well as of their own lives. . . . Speaking 
generally, it is a difficult matter to find and hunt lions in the 
daytime, and shooting them at night cannot be called hunting. 
Lion hunting on horseback, as it used to be commonly practised 
in South Africa, is the most exciting form of big game hunting 
I have had experience of, as lions almost always turn vicious 
when chased on horseback, and charge freely, and whether you 


Fig. 1263.—Lion (Feds deo) 


are galloping after a lion or a lion is close behind your horse's 
heels, your nerves are kept strung as long as the hunt lasts. It 
will be many a long day yet before the lion has ceased to haunt 
the wilds of Africa, but when that day comes, one of the grandest 
forms of wild sport will also have become a thing of the past.” 
The hunting of the Tiger (Fes tagrzs) appears at the present 
time to be an increasingly rare and expensive form of sport, when 
conducted in an orthodox way with numerous elephants, some 
for beating, and others with howdahs for the accommodation 
of the actual huntsmen. In some parts of India packs of dogs 


372 UTILITARIAN ZOOLOGY 


also help in the sport, and are more feared by the quarry than 
one would be apt to imagine. Advantage is also often taken 
of the fact that the tiger is not a climbing animal to shoot him 
from a secure station in a tree, a goat or buffalo-calf having 
been previously tied up within easy range to serve as a “ bait”. 
Although justifiable for the destruction of man-eaters, this can 
hardly be dignified by the name of “sport”. ~ 

The different species of Bear (Ursus) are hunted, and also 
slaughtered in a variety of ways, but do not take a very high 
place in the estimation of most sportsmen. In parts of Russia, 


Fig. 1264.—Fox (Canis vulpes) 


for example, Brown Bears (Ursus arctos) are considered to be 
“vermin”. The Lapps, however, do not hesitate to attack this 
animal in its den, a method sufficiently dangerous and exciting to 
satisfy the most exacting in such matters. 

The European Wolf (Canzs Zuéus) is the object of more than 
one form of popular Russian sport. A favourite variety involves 
the use of fox-hounds and wolf-hounds, the former being em- 
ployed for drawing the coverts, and the latter for the actual 
work of coursing. As previously mentioned (p. 369), the Kirghiz 
practise a species of falconry, of which the wolf is a favourite 
quarry. 

The Fox (Canzs vulpes, fig. 1264) is familiar to all as the 
object of one of the most popular, sociable, and exhilarating 
forms of British sport, but Lord Granville Gordon tells us (in 
Sport i Lurope) that “it is doubtful if fox-hunting can long 


MAMMALS HUNTED FOR SPORT 373 


continue in a congested country like England. Bad agricultural 
seasons and barbed wire point to its doom.” Otter-hunting is 
undoubtedly a declining sport in Britain, on account of the in- 
creasing diminution in numbers of the quarry. 

ELEPHANTS (PRogoscipEA).—Wild Elephants, whether African 
or Indian, naturally take high rank among “big game”, chiefly 
because their enormous strength, and great ferocity when thor- 
oughly aroused (especially if they are “ rogues”), are liable to 
make them exceedingly dangerous antagonists. But the great 
perfection to which firearms have now attained render even these 
great beasts no match for the most destructive member of the 
Mammalia—Man. 

Hoorep Mammats (UncGuLata). — Rhinoceroses, of course, 
reckon as “big game”, and, as a rule, seem to be inoffensive 
enough, though sufficiently dangerous when wounded. Under 
such circumstances the two-horned White and Black Rhinoceroses 
of Africa (Rhznoceros stmus and Atelodus bicornis) bring the long 
front horn into action, while the one-horned Indian species (2. 
Lndicus) can bite with terrible effect. 

The Hippopotamus (//ippopotamus amphibius) is sufficiently 
formidable when attacked from boats to give it a place among 
sporting mammals. But to kill it with a rifle from a place of 
security on the bank of its native river is simply a variety of 
target-shooting. 

Among the many other Ungulates that are pursued for sport 
some are especially esteemed on account of their pluck and 
dangerous qualities, ee. the African or Indian Buffaloes and the 
Wild Boar, while the great speed or agility in climbing of others 
furnish the requisite zest to the chase, as in the case of Deer, 
Antelopes, or Ibexes. 

The joys and dangers of ‘“ pig-sticking”, as pursued with 
reference to the Wild Boar (Sus scrofa) of Europe, his Indian 
cousin (S. crzs¢ata), and the African Wart-Hog (Phacocherus), 
have been fully described by many authors, and need no mention 
here. Regarding the Peccaries (Dicotyles) of America, something 
has already been said (see p. 334). 

To give here even a brief account of the numerous swift 
runners or active climbers which belong to the Ungulata, and pro- 
vide many varieties of sport, is both impossible and unnecessary. 
Among them the Red Deer (Cervus elaphus, fig. 1265) may perhaps 


Vou. IV. 119 


374 UTILITARIAN ZOOLOGY 


be given first place, at least from the English stand-point, and 
though the glories of stag-hunting have faded so far as Britain is 
concerned, innumerable trophies still attest the important place it 
once held in our national life. Deer-stalking in the ‘deer forests ” 
of Scotland is excellent sport, but not comparable to hunting 
the wild animal in the old-time fashion, which, in this country, 
is now only possible on Exmoor. Regarding a third variety of 
the sport once popular in Britain Lord Granville Gordon makes 
the following very apposite remarks (in Sport 2x Europe):— True 
we can still pursue him in what might be 
described as a pickled state, with rorns shorn 
off, around the purlieus of Windsor, or in 
one or two other places, but, pleasant though 
the run may actually be, the ‘sport’ cannot 
stand close investigation, for sport consists 
in the strategy and skill of man in pursuing 
and capturing a wild animal. It loses all 
its charm and all its poetry when the game 
is first, as it were, tethered”. Wild Red 
Deer are fortunately more numerous in other 
parts of Europe, e.g. in Hungary, than in 
Britain, but stalking and driving are in most 
cases the chief methods employed. The 
following remarks by Paul Caillard (in Zhe 
Sports of the World) are of interest as 
showing that stag-hunting is to this day 
practised in France on a considerable scale:—‘ If hunting gener- 
ally is known as the ‘sport of kings’, then surely is stag-hunting 
particularly associated with the memories of medizval courts, 
and, although some might not perhaps expect it, modern France 
preserves above all other lands the tradition and even the out- 
ward forms of the ancient chasse. ... In many of our French 
forests it would be as great a heresy to kill a deer otherwise 
than before the hounds as ever it would on Exmoor, and many 
visitors to our meets have expressed their pleasure at the survival 
of such picturesque sport.” 

Gnawinc Manmats (Ropentia).— Coursing the Hare with 
greyhounds is a very ancient form of amusement, which appears 
to have been indulged in by the Assyrians (fig. 1266). We next 
hear of it in Greece, and many details are given by Arrian (born 


Fig. 1265.—Red-Deer ‘lrophy 


BIRDS HUNTED FOR SPORT 375 


A.D. 90) in his work on coursing. The ancient Gauls were ex- 
perts in this form of sport, which was probably introduced into 
Britain from their country. With us, however, it is now almost 
entirely replaced by hare-hunting with harriers, which supplies 
much of the interest of fox-hunting at considerably less expense. 
We know from Xenophon (z.c. 400) that the ancient Greeks in 
his time pursued the hare with two kinds of dog, the nature of 
which is doubtful, though they were certainly not greyhounds. 
It is hardly necessary to add that the sporting value of the 
Hare is found in its great speed, coupled with considerable in- 
genuity in “doubling”, calculated to baffle even the swift grey- 
hound. 

The passion for sport, which is so thoroughly British, is 


Fig. 1266.—Hares coursed by Greyhounds, as depicted on the edge of an Assyrian bronze dish. 


gratified and kept alive among those with slender means by the 
possibilities which the inexpensive Rabbit (Lepus cunzculus) offers. 
The use of the Ferret has already been indicated (see p. 369). 
Nor even here do we reach the lowest plane, for the Brown Rat 
(AZus decumanus) undoubtedly seems to minister in no small 
degree to the sporting instincts of a considerable fraction of the 
community, though it would not be admitted into an orthodox 
work on Sport. 


BIRDS (AvEs) HUNTED FOR SPORT 


In the palmy days of falconry the Grey Heron (Ardea cinerea) 
was, of course, the chief bird pursued for sport, but hawking 
(for Rooks, Larks, &c.) is now practised by the few (see p. 369), 
having fallen from its once high estate owing to the introduction 
of and constant improvement in firearms. Among the numerous 
species which now fall victims to the art of the gunner the GameE- 
Birps (Gatuin&) take first place, and of these, in this country, 
three are pre-eminent, ze. Pheasant (Phaszanus Colchicus), Red 


376 UTILITARIAN ZOOLOGY 


Grouse (Lagopus Scoticus), and Partridge (Perdix cinerea). Other 
well-known members of the group are: Capercailzie (Zetrao 
urogallus), Black Grouse (Lyrurus tetrix), Ptarmigan (Lagopus 
mutus), and Quail (Coturnix communis). 

In many kinds of shooting one is rather inclined to think that 
things are made too easy for the gunners, not all of whom can 
be called good shots, and the size of the ‘‘ bag” too often appears 
to be the object of overmuch attention. It is clear that both 
these tendencies greatly diminish the true “sporting” element. 
The following quotations show that some sportsmen are inclined 
to compare our own methods unfavourably with those of ‘the 
good old days”. Nicholas Everitt (in Ze Sports of the World) 
thus speaks on the point:—‘‘In England, in the old days, our 
forbears were wont to sally forth in the early morning, before 
the autumnal dews had left the grass and undergrowth, accom- 
panied by their favourite pointers, setters, or spaniels, to double 
the hedgerows and to hunt the commons and likely places for 
pheasants, when, if they obtained as many single birds as some 
of the modern school of sportsmen now require hundreds, they 
would return home contented with their bag and lot”. The 
Marquess of Granby (in ZxgZish Sport) speaks still more strongly: 
—‘ But, nevertheless, it is open to question whether there is as 
much real keenness about working for their sport amongst the 
younger generation of gunners as there used to be twenty or thirty 
years ago, let alone a century. A wild, rough day’s shooting 
does not nowadays apparently appeal to many. The large 
majority of gunners would not say ‘thank you’ for the offer 
of such a day’s sport. It would look as if the deliberately com- 
petitive system of shooting, which now so largely prevails—by 
which I mean that very often the owner of one shooting-place 
seems to vie with the next-door one as to the amount of game 
he can kill off his property, and appears seriously annoyed if he 
hears that anyone round about him has had an exceptionally 
heavy day's sport, or one better, as regards numbers, than any 
he can produce—has to a great extent unfamiliarized the rising 
and just risen race of sportsmen with those days when hard walk- 
ing, and consequently good condition, coupled with some know- 
ledge of wood and field craft, were necessary if any satisfactory 
results were to be obtained.” 

The Red Grouse (Lagopus Scoticus) is a game-bird of par- 


RED GROUSE (Lagopus Scoticus) GLIDING UP 
TO THE GUNS 


The Red Grouse or Muirfow] is here selected for illustration not 
only on account of its importance as a game-bird, but also because 
it is the only member of its class peculiar to our islands. In Great 
Britain it ranges from the Orkneys to Shropshire and Glamorgan, 
and is also found in Ireland, though less abundantly. The Red 
Grouse is closely ,related to the Willow Grouse (Lagopus albus), 
which ranges right round the colder parts of the Northern Hemi- 
sphere, but it does not, like this species and the Ptarmigan (Z. 
mutus), turn white in winter, though there are seasonal changes in 
the plumage. It is popularly supposed that the date at which 
grouse-shooting begins determines the rising of Parliament, and 
although the notion is erroneous its origin is not far to seek. 


SNND JHL OL dN ONIGIND (snoiLoos sndcov1) 3SNOND day 


BIRDS HUNTED FOR SPORT 377 


ticular interest, as it happens to be peculiar to Britain. The old 
method of ‘ walking” has now mostly given place in this country 
to “driving”. The latter practice, curiously enough, is more 
favourable to the maintenance of sufficient numbers on a grouse- 
moor than the former. It is suggested that when the birds are 
driven the old ones are the first to glide up to the guns, so that 
the undue destruction 
of immature indivi- 
duals is obviated. 
Besides which the’ 
old birds are said to 
be so quarrelsome as 
seriously to interfere 
with the domestic 
plans of their juniors. 

PERCHING Birps 
(PassERES).— Hawk- 
ing for Rooks (Covwas 
Jrugilegus) and Sky- 
Larks (Alauda ar- 
vensts) has already 
been mentioned (see 


p. 369). 
Provers (Limt- 
COLE). — Woodcock 


(Scolopax  rusticola) 
and Snipe (Galiinago 
celest?ts) are familiar 
sporting birds. 

Bustarps (ALEc- 
TORIDES).—The Great 
Bustard (O¢zs tarda), once a native of Britain, affords good 
sport in several European countries, including Hungary, Russia, 
Roumania, Spain, and Portugal. The Little Bustard (O. ¢etrax) 
is also the object of sporting attentions. 

Ducks, Geese, SwANs, AND FLamIncoEs (ANSERES).—The art 
of wild-fowling is largely applied to the members of this group 
(also to Woodcock and Snipe) on inland waters, in swampy dis- 
tricts, and along low shores. Our own Norfolk Broads furnish 
an example. In sport of the kind punting plays a large part. 


AA Neches! 


Fig. 1267.—Flamingoes (Phanicopterus roseus) 


378 UTILITARIAN ZOOLOGY 


The Flamingo (Phenzcopterus roseus, fig. 1267) is one of the 
most interesting birds that falls to the gun of the fowler in the 
Peninsula. Chapman & Buck (in W2dd Spain) thus describe the 
method pursued: — ‘‘ Flamingoes are always shy and watchful 
birds, and their great height gives them a commanding view of 
threatening dangers; but there are degrees in intensity of wild- 
ness, and despite the unquestionable difficulty of flamingo-shooting, 
we would certainly not place these long-necked birds in the first 
rank among impracticable wild-fowl. Wild geese, for example, 
many of the duck-tribe, and nearly all the larger raptores far 
exceed them in incessant vigilance and downright astuteness. 
Flamingoes, however, will not, as a rule, permit of approach by 
the ordinary Spanish method of the stalking-horse, or cadresto: 
while the treacherous pony is still two gunshots away, the warning 
croak of the sentries is given, and at once the whole herd start to 
walk away, opening out their ranks as they move off. The method 
we found most effective to secure them was by partially surrounding 
a herd with a line of mounted men, who rode far out beyond them 
and then drove them over our two guns, each concealed behind 
his horse and crouching knee-deep in water. Of all the dirty 
work that wild-fowling in its many forms necessitates, this fla- 
mingo-driving takes the palm. It is mud-larking pure and simple, 
man, horse, and gun alike encased in a clinging argillaceous 
covering like the street-Arab amphibians below London Bridge. 
It is a fine sight to see a big flight of amingoes, say five hundred, 
coming well in to the gun—entrando bien & la escopeta! The whole 
sky is streaked with columns of strange forms, and the still air 
resounds with the babel of discordant croaks and cries. How 
wondrously they marshal those long uniform files, bird behind 
bird, without break or confusion, and how precisely do those 
thousand black wing-points beat in rapid regular unison!  Fla- 
mingoes are not ‘hard’ birds: their feathers being loose and 
open, and the extremely long neck a specially vulnerable part, 
they may be brought down from a considerable height even with 
small shot.” 


REPTILES (ReEpTILIA) HUNTED IN SPORT 


About the only Reptile that can be considered as furnishing 
anything in the nature of sport is the American Alligator 


FISHES HUNTED IN SPORT 379 


(Alhgator Mississippiensis), native to the south-eastern part of 
the United States. The “’Gator” is shot from the bank or from 
a boat, and is sometimes attracted by tying up a dog as a bait. 


FISHES (Pisces) HUNTED IN SPORT 


The “gentle craft” has always had, and always will have, a 
large number of supporters. It of course finds its highest ex- 
pression in fly-fishing, as applied to species the capture of which 


r ies : a 


Fig. 1268.—Grayling (Thyimallus vulgaris) 


calls for the exercise of patience, skill, and other sportsmanlike 
qualities. 

Salmon (Salmo salar) and Trout (.S. farzo, &c.) are generally 
regarded as taking first rank among game-fishes, and the Gray- 
ling (Zhymatlus vulgaris, fig. 1268) may also be given an 
honourable place. H. A. Rolt’s appreciation of the last-named 
fish (in The Sports of the World) is well worth quoting, especially 
as the pleasures of angling for Grayling are much less familiar 
than the joys of the fisher for salmon or trout:—‘‘It is remarkable 
what a peculiar fascination there is in connection with the capture 
of the grayling with the artificial fly) Some men who have 
killed hundreds of trout fall hopelessly in love with the sport 
the ‘gray lady of the stream’ affords from the very first moment 
they enter the lists against it, and infinitely prefer the autumn 
and winter pastime it provides to any other branch of angling. 


380 UTILITARIAN ZOOLOGY 


The enthusiasm and all-absorbing interest it evokes in the angler 
are incomprehensible even to many disciples of the good and 
observant Walton himself, for to sally forth, fly-rod in hand, 
when the ground is hard with frost or the fields are white with 
snow, seems to them to savour somewhat of folly and madness. 
In the soft, bright spring-time it is delightful to wander by the 
rippling stream and stalk the spotted trout, to the accompaniment 
of the glorious melody of birds—to watch the budding foliage 
bursting into new life, and gaze upon the river shining like gold 


Fig. 1269.— Pike (Eso.x luctus) 


in the dancing sunlight. On quiet, restful summer evenings, 
too, the splash of the fish as they enjoy an abundant feast of 
Duns is the sweetest of music to the angler’s ear, and he may 
perchance induce his quarry to look with favour upon the arti- 
fically-dressed copy of the fly he offers them, and grass a brace 
or two of lovely specimens ere darkness compels him, as a 
thorough sportsman, to leave the stream. But it is amid different 
and far less exhilarating surroundings that the grayling fisher’s 
labours begin and are continued to the end. As autumn 
approaches, the rise of fly becomes sparse and erratic, and when 
September's days are out, the trout fisher finds his occupation 
gone. Thymallus steps in to fill what would otherwise be a 
great gap in his piscatorial life. But for the grayling, his rods 
would hang upon the wall during the long winter months, 


FISHES HUNTED IN SPORT 385 


‘a mournful, half-accusing row’, unused, and perhaps uncared 
for.” 

Some of the “coarse fish” also provide good sport, particularly 
the Pike (Zsox luctus, fig. 1269), the Barbel (Bardus vulgarzs), 
and the Perch (Perca fluviatzlis). 

Sea-fishing in many forms also has innumerable votaries. 
If size, strength, and game qualities are taken as the criteria, 
the great Tarpon (Megalops thrissordes), common off the coast of 
Florida, must be given a prominent position. It is to all intents 
and purposes a gigantic herring, which may be as much as five 
feet in length; and W. H. Grenfell says of it (in Zhe Sports of the 
World) that “. .. until a new sporting fish is found I think 
the tarpon in the sea, as the salmon in fresh water, can still 
claim to be the most exciting quarry of the angler with the rod 
and line”. Fishing for the Tunny (Ovcynus thynnus) off the 
south coast of Spain would also seem to be a worthy occupation 
for the brethren of the rod, and specimens captured in this way 
have scaled as much as 50 pounds. 

Among native marine fishes, the Grey Mullet (AZugzl cafzto) 
and Bass (Laérax /upus) are perhaps the most esteemed, on 
account of their sporting qualities and the difficulties attending 
their capture. Both frequent estuaries, and the Bass is a near 
relative of the Perch. 


CHAPTER LAAT 


UTILITARIAN ZOOLOGY—ANIMAL PETS 


It is the merest commonplace to say that a considerable 
number of animals are either domesticated or kept in captivity 
as pets, and those which have perhaps the best right to the 
name simply afford gratification to human tastes, or, it may be, 
serve as objects of affection. In the latter case the pet-keepers 
may either have a genuine liking for animals, or else the over- 
fed lap-dog, the spoilt feline, or the loquacious parrot may be 
the recipient of caresses that under different circumstances might 
have been bestowed upon some specimen or other of that alleged 
highest Mammal—//omo sapiens. 


MAMMALS (Mammatia) AS PETS 


Monkeys (Primates).—On account of their intelligence many 
species of Monkey find favour as pets among both civilized and 
uncivilized races. But most of them are so terribly mischievous 
that only a sailor or the late Frank Buckland could put up with 
their pranks for any lengthened period. It is said that even 
Buckland found his two favourites, ‘‘ Tiny” and “The Hag”, 
trying at times, and a friend recommended him to build a cage 
for himself in the middle of his study. It is interesting to note 
that the keepers in Zoological Gardens often make great pets of 
their charges, especially when these happen to be intelligent apes, 
as, é.g., Chimpanzees (fig 1270). 

The Marmosets are attractive little creatures, so far as 
appearance goes, and are not infrequently kept as pets; but they 
are rather lacking in intelligence, and apt to impose a tax on 
the olfactory organs. 

FLESH-EATING Mammats (Carnivora).—The fact that this 
order includes both Dog and Cat makes it of primary im- 


portance from the present stand-point. 
382 


MAMMALS AS PETS 383 


The Dog (Canis familiaris), man's earliest friend among 
the animals, is undoubtedly the “king of pets”, for even the 
commonest mongrel is full of intelligence, and overflows with 
affection for his owner, even when subjected to much ill treatment, 
as is but too often the case. Among the breeds which have 
been brought into existence simply to be petted may be men- 
tioned—the Italian Greyhound, the Pug (a diminutive and 


Fig. 1270.—Young Chimpanzee (Axthrofpopithecus niger) 


particularly ugly relative of the mastiff, fig. 1271), the King 
Charles Spaniel, the Skye Terrier, the “Toy” Terrier, and the 
Poodle. The last is particularly clever in learning tricks, as 
may often be noted in exhibitions of performing dogs. The 
Dalmatian and the Hairless Dog of Japan are both curiosities 
in their way. No better example than these and other breeds 
of Dog could be given to show the effect of human interference 
upon the normal course of evolution. Modifications in shape, 
size, proportions, colour, hair, and even temperament have been 
brought about within a comparatively short space of time, in a 


384 UTILITARIAN ZOOLOGY 


way that suggests nothing so much as ‘clay in the hands of the 
potter”. By taking advantage of variations that occur naturally 
it is possible to ‘‘make to order” almost any desired pattern of 
the canine race. 

The Cat (Fels domesticus).—The differences between the 
various breeds of this animal are by no means so striking as 
those existing between the different sorts of dog, and chiefly relate 
to colour, character of the fur, and relative length of the tail. It 
has been suggested that the stripes of the “tabby” indicate a 
strain derived from the 
ordinary Wild Cat (Fedzs 
catus) of Europe. Among 
both wild and tame ani- 
mals it is not uncommon 
to find individuals in 
which pigment is either 
present in excess, or else 
largely deficient. Ilustra- 
tions of this are afforded 
by “nigger” rabbits and 
white blackbirds. Such 
“sports” are respectively 
described in technical 
language as examples of 
ae m7 “melanism” and “al- 

Fido te7n= bur Doe binism”. The jet black 

cat once associated with 

magical practices, and the pure white pussy with blue eyes are 

thus classed. Why albino cats should be usually deaf, as appears 

to be the case, is as yet unexplained. The long and handsome 

coats of the Persian or Angora Cats (fig. 1272) renders them 

great favourites among those who admire felines, though they 

seem rather apt to be short-tempered, if one may be permitted 
to say so. 

That the indigenous cats of the Isle of Man are devoid of 
tails is known to all; some of the Crimean cats are said to be 
similarly deficient, and the same peculiarity has been noticed in 
some Japanese individuals. Lydekker (in Zhe Royal Natural 
FTrstory) thus speaks of some other peculiar varieties:—-‘‘ In Siam 
there is a breed of cats reserved for royalty, characterized by 


MAMMALS AS PETS 385 


their uniform, and often dark, fawn colour, their blue eyes, and 
the presence of two or more perfectly bald spots on the forehead. 
Siam, together with Burma, also possesses a breed known as the 
Malay cat, in which the tail is but of half the usual length, and 
is often, through deformity in its bones, tightly curled up into 
a knot.” 

The present writer is not a great lover of cats, but, desiring 
to be just, adds the following appreciation by Romanes (in Axzmal 
Lntelligence) of this domestic carnivore:—“ The cat is unques- 
tionably a highly intelligent animal, though, when contrasted 


Fig. r272.—Persian Cat 


with its great domestic rival the dog, its intelligence, from being 
cast in quite a different mould, is very frequently underrated. 
Comparatively unsocial in temperament, wanderingly predaceous 
in habits, and lacking in the affectionate docility of the canine 
nature, this animal has never in any considerable degree been 
subject to the psychological transforming influences whereby a 
prolonged and intimate association with man has so profoundly 
modified the psychology of the dog. Nevertheless, the cat is 
not only by nature an animal remarkable for intelligence, but, 
in spite of its naturally imposed disadvantage of temperament, 
has not altogether escaped those privileges of nurture which 
unnumbered centuries of domestication could scarcely fail to 
supply. Thus, as contrasted with most of the wild species of 
the genus when tamed from their youngest days, the domestic 
cat is conspicuously of less uncertain temper towards its masters 


386 UTILITARIAN ZOOLOGY 


—the uncertainty of temper displayed by nearly all the wild 
members of the feline tribe when tamed being, of course, an 
expression of the interference of individual with hereditary 
experience. And, as contrasted with all the wild species of 
the genus when tamed, the domestic cat is conspicuous in alone 
manifesting any exalted development of affection towards the 
human kind; for in many individual cases such affection, under 
favouring circumstances, reaches a level fully comparable to that 
which it attains in the dog.” 

Passing notice may be given to the Mangoustis or Mungooses, 
also known as Ichneumons, of which one, the Egyptian Mungoose 


Fig. 1273. —Indian Mungoose | Herfestes griseus) 


(fLerpestes tchneumon), has been domesticated in Egypt from time 
immemorial, while the common Indian Mungoose (77. griseus, fig. 
1273) is commonly kept as a pet in its native country, and appears 
to be both intelligent and affectionate. The latter species is 
known to the readers of Kipling as ‘“ Rikki-tikki”. 

Gnawinc Mammarts (Ropentia).—Human influence has re- 
sulted in the production of a large number of varieties of Rabbits, 
Rats, and Mice, some of which have been alternately tended 
and neglected by almost every boy. Upon the Rabbit (Lepus 
cuniculus) one of the most remarkable results of domestication 
has been, in certain breeds, the great elongation of the ears, 
and the drooping position they have assumed. There has also 
been a large amount of variation in the colour and character of 
the fur. 

The various domesticated breeds of Rat (J/us rattus) and 


BIRDS AS PETS 387 


Mouse (JZ. musculus) differ chiefly from one another in colour. 
The curious evolutions of ‘waltzing mice” appear to be due to 
defects in the structure of the internal ear. 

Among other rodents serving as pets may be mentioned—the 
Alpine Marmot (Arctomys marmotta), the Dormouse (AZuscardinus 
avellanarius), the Squirrel (Sczwrus vulgaris), and the Guinea-Pig. 


BIRDS (Aves) AS PETS 


The number of species represented among pet-birds, includ- 
ing those which are better described as “captives”, is very large 
indeed, and it will be unnecessary to mention more than a few 
of them. 

PercuinG Birps (Passeres).—Many of these are domesticated 
on account of their beauty or vocal powers, or both, and not a 
few of these have exchanged the sweets of liberty for a small 
and uncomfortable cage. To treat small birds in this fashion is 
scarcely less than criminal. Large aviaries, of course, are on a 
somewhat different footing. Fortunately the objection does not 
apply to the most popular of all pet birds, the Canary (Serznus 
canarius, fig. 1274), of which countless generations have been 
brought up in captivity, and of which the numerous strikingly 
different breeds may almost be regarded as artificial products. 
Newton makes the following remarks about this bird (in A Dec- 
tionary of Birds):—It abounds not only in the islands whence 
it has its name, but in the neighbouring groups of the Madeiras 
and Azores. It seems to have been imported into Europe very 
early in the sixteenth century. Turner in 1544 speaks of the 
birds ‘guas Angha aues canarias uocat’, a statement confirmed 


by the poet Gascoigne, who died in 1577, and speaks . . . of 
‘Canara byrds’. Gesner had not seen one in 1555, but he gave 
an account of it... , communicated to him by Raphael Seiler 


of Augsburg under the name of Suckerudgele. The wild stock 
is of an olive-green, mottled with dark-brown above and greenish- 
yellow beneath. All the bright-hued examples we now see in 
captivity have been induced by carefully breeding from any 
chance varieties that have shown themselves; and not only the 
colour but the build and stature of the bird have in this manner 
been greatly modified. The change must have begun early, for 
Hernandez, who died in 1587, described the bird . . . as being 


388 UTILITARIAN ZOOLOGY 


wholly yellow (¢o¢a /udea), except the end of its wings. Of late 
the ingenuity of ‘the fancy’, which might seem to have exhausted 
itself in the production of top-knots, feathered feet, and so forth, 
has brought about a still further change from the original type. 
It has been found by a particular treatment, in which the mixing 


Fig. 1274.—Canaries (Serinus canarius). 1, Wild form; 2, common yellow; 3, crested variety; 4, Scotch fancy. 


of large quantities of cayenne-pepper with the food plays an 
important part, the ordinary ‘canary yellow’ may be intensified 
so as to verge upon a more or less brilliant flame colour. Birds 
which have successfully undergone this forcing process, and are 
hence called ‘hot canaries’, command a very high price, for a 
large proportion die under the discipline, though it is said that 


BIRDS AS PETS 389 


they soon become exceedingly fond of the exciting condiment.” 
Space forbids any attempt to describe the methods by which the 
German fanciers of the Harz valleys teach canaries the notes of 
other birds, or even various tunes. 

Another well-known and extremely pretty cage-bird is the 
Java Sparrow (Muna orystvora), which has long been an object 
of domestication, and is distinguished by its extreme tameness. 

On account of their intelligence, sprightliness, and imitative 
powers, the Raven, Jackdaw, Magpie, and Starling appeal to 
many persons more than Canaries and other small singing-birds. 
They are not, however, so frequently seen in captivity, partly on 
account of the thievish propensities of all but the last. 

Parrots (Psirraci).—Among the many species of this group 
which are kept in captivity, the common Grey Parrot (Pscttacus 
erithacus), native to tropical Africa, probably stands highest in 
public estimation. This is partly due to its extreme liveliness, 
but chiefly on account of the clever way in which it learns frag- 
ments of human speech, and imitates familiar sounds, such as the 
drawing of corks and the like. The often singularly malapropos 
nature of the remarks and sounds greatly increase their charm. 

Parrots have been known and appreciated for more than two 
thousand years as clever imitative birds, often with brilliant 
plumage. Some of the Indias species appear to have been 
those first known to Europeans, while the resources of Africa 
were exploited later on. Regarding this, Newton (in A Dre- 
tionary of Lirds) speaks as follows:—‘ That Africa had parrots 
does not seem to have been discovered by the ancients till long 
after, as Pliny tells us (vi, 29) that they were first met with by 
explorers employed by Nero beyond the limits of Upper Egypt. 
These birds, highly prized from the first, reprobated by the 
moralist, and celebrated by more than one classical poet, as time 
went on were brought in great numbers to Rome, and ministered 
in various ways to the luxury of the age. Not only were they 
lodged in cages of tortoise-shell and ivory, with silver wires, but 
they were professedly esteemed as delicacies for the table, and 
one emperor is said to have fed his lions upon them. . . . With 
the decline of the Roman Empire the demand for parrots in 
Europe lessened, and so the supply dwindled, yet all knowledge 
of them was not wholly lost, and they are occasionally mentioned 


by one writer or another until in the fifteenth century began that 
Vou, IV. 120 


390 UTILITARIAN ZOOLOGY 


career of geographical discovery which has since proceeded un- 
interruptedly. This immediately brought with it the knowledge 
of many more forms of these birds than had ever before been 
seen, for whatever races of men were visited by European navi- 
gators—whether in the East Indies or the West, whether in 
Africa or the islands of the Pacific—it was almost invariably 
found that even the most savage tribes had tamed some kind 


Fig. 1275.— Macaw (Ara) 


of parrot; and, moreover, experience soon showed that no bird 
was more easily kept alive on board ship and brought home, 
while, if it had not the merit of ‘speech’, it was almost certain 
to be of beautiful plumage.” 

One of the prettiest pets among these birds is the Grass- 
Parakeet or Budgerigar (JZelops:ttacus undulatus) of Australia. 
Yellow, green, and black are the chief components of the colour 
scheme, but the two central tail-quills are blue, and there is a 
patch of the same hue on either side of the face. 

The affectionate little Love-Birds are deservedly popular. 


REPTILES AS PETS 391 


The name is properly applied to certain African species (of 
Agapornis), but it may also be taken to include the Parrotlets 
(fstttacula) of South America. 

The sprightly crested Cockatoos (Cacatucde) of the Australian 
region do not lack their admirers, while for gaudy coloration few 
birds surpass the long-tailed Macaws (species of Ava, fig. 1275), 
which range from Mexico into South America. 


REPTILES (Reptitia) AS PETS 


Reptiles make no appeal to the affections or fancies of most 
persons, though various species prove attractive to some. The 
ancient Egyptians, as everyone knows, regarded the Nile Croco- 
dile (Crocodilus Niloticus) as sacred, and made a sort of pet divinity 
of the creature, but this hardly comes within the scope of the 
present section. Some persons have a fancy for certain Snakes, 
such as our common and innocuous Grass-Snake (77opédonotus 
natrix), and the Indian snake-charmers tame the Cobra (Maza 
tripudians), actuated, however, by strictly business motives. Re- 
garding the latter, Gadow (in The Cambridge Natural History) 
speaks as follows:—‘ This cobra is used by Indian conjurers. 
The ‘dance’ is the habit of these snakes of erecting themselves, 
when agitated, upon the hinder third or quarter of their length, 
whilst they spread out the hood and sway the head and neck to 
the right and left, always in an attitude ready for striking. They 
are docile, and by nature not vicious. Most of the performing 
cobras have their teeth drawn, and they then know well that 
they cannot bite. They only strike at the hand, just as uninjured 
specimens soon avoid biting into the iron rod with which they 
are lifted up in menageries. The drawing of the teeth is an 
operation which has to be repeated, since reserve-teeth soon 
take the place of the lost pair.” 

Various Lizards are or have been tamed, and some of them 
are very attractive, eg. the beautiful Green Lizard (Lacerta 
viridis). The Common Gecko (Zarentola Mauritanica) of North 
Africa and South Spain and Portugal often lives in houses in a 
half-domesticated condition, running over the walls and ceilings in 
pursuit of flies. And such lizards are sometimes actually tamed. 

The most familiar domesticated reptile in this country is the 
Grecian Tortoise (Zestudo Greca), though it can scarcely be 


392 UTILITARIAN ZOOLOGY 


called an interesting pet. Gilbert White has immortalized one 
specimen, which was over forty years old when it came into his 
possession in 1780, and died fourteen years later. But, for lon- 
gevity, it would be hard to beat some of the huge land-tortoises 
which were at one time common in the islands of the Indian 
Ocean. Regarding one species (Zestudo Sumetret) Gadow makes 
the following interesting remarks (in Zhe Cambridge Natural 
ffistory):—‘ This kind is supposed to have been the species 
peculiar to the Seychelles. In 1766 five large tortoises were 
brought from the Seychelles to Mauritius by Chevalier Marion 
de Tresne. Of these only three were alive in 1898, two in 
Mauritius and one in London; the latter specimen soon died in 
the Zoological Gardens. One of the two survivors, the last of 
their race, is famous. It was kept at Port Louis, and when 
Mauritius became a British possession in 1810 the tortoise was 
especially mentioned and taken over. It still [1900] lives there 
in the grounds of the barracks of the garrison. According to 
the proverbial oldest inhabitants, it had in 1810 already reached 
its present size, namely, a shell-length of about 4o inches, with 
a greatest circumference of . . . 8 feet 6 inches. When walking 
it stands about . . . 25.4 inches high, . . . and it can then carry 
with ease two full-grown men on its back. This old male is now 
nearly blind, but is otherwise of regular habits and in good health. 
Although it has been known for nearly 150 years, it had to wait 
for its scientific name until the year 1892.” 


AMPHIBIANS (Ampuipia) AS PETS 


Ordinary Toads and Frogs have at times been subjected to 
domestication, and are by no means wanting in interest and in- 
telligence. The pretty little Green Tree-Frogs of Europe (Hy/a 
arborea) are less known as pets than they deserve to be. In 
North and Central America the Horned Toad (Phrynosoma) is 
subjected to a certain amount of domestication. 


FISHES (Pisces) AS PETS 


The greatest favourite in the aquarium is probably the Gold- 
Fish (Carasszus auratus, fig. 1276), a kind of carp native to China 
and Japan. Domestication has eliminated dark pigment from its 


INSECTS AS PESTS 393 


skin, leaving only the golden-yellow hue from which its name is 
derived. Various monstrosities have also been produced, espe- 
cially the “Telescope Fish”, with eyes on short projections, and 
a large abnormal tail-fin. It is stated that the Gold-Fish was 
originally introduced into this country in 1691. 

Another aquarium favourite is the Paradise-Fish (Polyacanthus 
viridt-auratus, fig. 1276), domesticated in China from very remote 


ia tts 


Freaks, 
| ae tote! 


Fig. 1276.—Pet Fishes. 1, Gold Fish (Carassius auratus; 2, ‘‘ Telescope” variety of same; 
3, Paradise Fish (Polyacanthus viridi-auratus). 


times, and only known in captivity. Its golden sides are cross- 
barred with red, and some of its fins are abnormally developed 
(see also vol. iii, p. 427). 

The Siamese keep certain pugnacious fishes in captivity in 
order to enjoy the sight of their combats. 


INSECTS (Insecta) AS PETS 


Some Insects are excitable, and can easily be induced to 
fight together. The ingenious Chinese keep various species in 
captivity in order to enjoy these mimic combats. Their list 
includes Mantids, Beetles, Grasshoppers, and Crickets. The 
same curious kind of amusement is practised to some extent in 
Italy. Nor must the evolutions of performing Fleas be forgotten. 


CHAPTER. Ly 


UTILITARIAN ZOOLOGY—ANIMAL PRODUCTS USED FOR 
DECORATIVE PURPOSES—ANIMAL AESTHETICS 


We have here first to consider the chief animal products 
employed for decorative purposes, and afterwards briefly to 
review the principles of Animal Esthetics. 


ANIMAL PRODUCTS USED FOR DECORATIVE PURPOSES 


A number of animal products which were originally valued 
by mankind chiefly as ministering to the primary necessities of 
life, now derive their main worth from the ornamental or decora- 
tive possibilities they present, or they are, at any rate, in increased 
demand on that account. Furs, horns, silk, and the skins of 
some birds belong to this category (see pp. 303, 310, 259, and 
308). 

We are especially concerned in this chapter with products 
which from the first have been employed by way of ornament 
or decoration, sometimes also as a means of heightening the 
attractions of materials of other kind. 

Decorative Propucts or Mammazts (Mammatra).—Some 
Mammals have been ruthlessly hunted down by man for the sake 
of the ivory furnished by their teeth. Prominent among these 
are the Elephants (Z/ephas), and, as will be gathered from fig. 
1277, the tusks of the African species may attain very large 
dimensions. The extinct Mammoth (£2. prtmigentus) has also 
long been known as a source of “fossil ivory”. The tusks of 
Walrus (Zrichechus rosmarus) furnish a further supply, as does 
the long spirally-grooved “horn” of the male Narwhal (JZonodon 
monoceros), of which two are occasionally present in the same 
animal. While the tusks of the Walrus are canine teeth, those 


of the other animals mentioned are incisors. 
394 


ANIMAL PRODUCTS USED FOR DECORATIVE PURPOSES 395 


Many of the trophies of sport are decidedly ornamental, such 
as the skins of beasts of prey, the antlers of deer, the heads of 
fox or wolf, the prepared feet of the elephant, &c. &c. Among 
primitive races such things as necklaces of tigers’ or lions’ claws 
are greatly esteemed. 

DecoraTIVE Propucts or Birps (Aves).—The _ beautiful 
plumage of many birds seems always to have appealed to the 
human colour-sense or 
appreciation of form, and 
much slaughter of certain 
members of the feathered 
race has resulted on the 
part of savage races, often 
to minister to the vanity 
of other races sometimes 
supposed to be fully civil- 
ized, The trade in os- 
trich-feathers (see p. 251) 
is a legitimate branch of 
the plume-industry, and 
nothing can be = said 
against the use of the 
cast feathers of beautiful 
forms like the different 
species of Peacock. But, 
on the other hand, the 
wholesale massacre that 
takes place every year of 
many exquisitely lovely 
species, purely to satisfy 
the love of finery which 
has been inherited by civilized nations from barbarian ancestors, 
deserves the most unsparing censure. Birds of Paradise, Sun- 
Birds, Humming-Birds, and Egrets are prominent in the long 
list of victims. 

DecoraTIVE Propucts oF Reptites (Reptitta).—The skins 
of Crocodiles and various lizards are used for ornamental purposes, 
but the most important reptilian product is tortoise-shell, which 
consists of the horny epidermic shields of the widely-distributed 
Hawksbill Turtle (Chelone imbricata, fig. 1278). When softened 


oie Sonn otha ay ee posers hae | 


Fig. 1277.-—Tusks of African Elephant 


396 UTILITARIAN ZOOLOGY 


by heat these can be worked up into all sorts of artistic objects. 
Very undesirable practices are often resorted to in procuring the 
raw material, as will be seen from the following quotation from 
Tennent (in Zhe Natural History of Ceylon).—‘ If taken from 
the animal after death and decomposition, the colour of the shell 
becomes clouded and milky, and hence the cruel expedient is 
resorted to of seizing the turtles as they repair to the shore to 
deposit their eggs, and suspending them over fires till heat 


Fig. 1278.—Hawksbill Turtle (Chelone imbricata) 


makes the plates on the dorsal shields start from the bone of 
the carapace, after which the creature is permitted to escape to 
the water. At Celebes, where the finest tortoise-shell is exported 
to China, the natives kill the turtles by blows on the head, and 
immerse the shell in boiling water to detach the shields. Dry 
heat is only resorted to by the unskilful, who frequently destroy 
the tortoise-shell in the operation.” 

DecorativE Propucts or FisHes (Pisces). — Ornamental 
leather is made from the skins of Dog-Fishes and Sharks 
(shagreen), while the scales of Dace (Leuczscus vulgaris) and 


ANIMAL PRODUCTS USED FOR DECORATIVE PURPOSES 397 


Bleak (Z. adburnus) are employed in the manufacture of arti- 
ficial pearls. 

Decorative Propucrs or Mottiuscs (Mottusca). — The 
shells of the Pearly Nautilus, of many univalves, and numerous 
bivalves, are largely used for 
purposes of personal decora- 
tion by savage races, and 
to some extent by civilized 
ones. Some of them are 
worked up into ornamental 
knick-knacks even in British 
watering - places, while the 
Chinese are singularly skil- 
ful in the construction of 
the images of gods, human 
beings, animals, and plants, 
from a variety of small 
shells (fig. 1279). 

Sea-Snatls (Gastropoda). 
---The thick shells of some Sea-Snails (species of Casszs, &c.) are 
made up of layers of different tints, which has rendered them a 
favourite material upon which to carve cameos (fig. 1280). Pink 
pearls are the pathological products of certain species, especially 
the large Conch - Shell (St¢romedbus 
gigas) of the West Indies. 

The most famous product of Sea- 
Snails was, however, the royal dye 


Fig. 1279.— Chinese Shell-ornament 


Fig. 1280.—Shell-Cameos Fig. 1281.—Murex Bronderi 


known as Tyrian Purple, prepared by the ancient Phcenicians 
from species of Purpura and Murex (fig. 1281). It is secreted 
by a gland in the gill-cavity, closely connected with the intestine. 


398 UTILITARIAN ZOOLOGY 


The explorations of the Phoenicians westward, which had no 
small influence upon the course of history, were partly conducted 
with the object of securing larger supplies of these molluscs. 

Some of the travellers of the seventeenth and eighteenth 
centuries state that the natives of Ecuador and Costa Rica 
obtained a purple fluid from a species of Purpura, and used it 
to dye cotton. A kind of Sea-Slug (4flysza camelus) is still 
used by the Portuguese for a similar purpose. 

Bivalve Mollusca (Lamellibranchia).—Pearls and mother-of- 
pearl are chiefly derived from members of this group. Mother- 
of-pearl or nacre is the iridescent internal layer of the shell, 


Fig. 1282.—Shells of Pearl-Oyster (I/argaritifera vulgaris), and pearl of same. 


while pearls consist of layers of similar material deposited round 
various foreign bodies which, in the most valuable kinds, are 
stages in the development of parasitic forms (see p. 204). The 
most important pearl-fisheries are those of the Red Sea, India, 
Ceylon, Queensland, some of the South Pacific archipelagoes, 
lower California, and the Pacific coast of Central America. The 
bivalve of greatest economic value in this connection is the 
Pearl-Oyster (Jlargarttifera vulgaris), which in reality is more 
of a mussel than an oyster, but belongs to a different family 
from either (dvecu/zde). The once important pearl-fisheries of 
Ceylon, after a record yield in 1891, benefiting the revenue of 
the island to the extent of hard on a million rupees, completely 
failed for an entire decade. As the outcome of this the pearl- 
oyster question has recently been investigated by Professor 
Herdman, assisted by Mr. James Hornell. These two experts 
have fully worked out the life-history of the tape-worm which 
leads to the formation of ‘‘orient pearls”, and it is hoped that 


ANIMAL PRODUCTS USED FOR DECORATIVE PURPOSES 399 


the knowledge acquired will form the basis of measures by 
which the industry may be resuscitated. The first part of Herd- 
.man’s Report on the Pearl-Oyster Fisheries of the Gulf of 
Manaar includes a very interesting historical sketch from which 
the following extract is taken:—‘ The pearl-fisheries of Ceylon, 
India, and the Persian Gulf, yielding the highly prized ‘Oriental’ 
pearl, are of very great antiquity. They are probably the most 
ancient fisheries still in existence, and seem to be carried on at 
the present day under very much the same conditions as 2000 or 
perhaps even 3000 years ago. These fisheries are referred to by 
various classical writers, and Pliny, after saying how highly valued 
the pearls are at Rome, refers to Taprobane [Ceylon] as ‘the 
most productive of pearls of all parts of the world’. ... But 
the Singhalese records take us to still earlier times. According 
to the ‘Mahawanso’, pearls figure in the list of native products 
sent as a present from King Vijaya of Ceylon to his Indian 
father-in-law in about 540-550 B.c.; and again when, in B.c. 306, 
King Devanampiyatissa sent an embassy to India the presents 
are said to include eight kinds of Ceylon pearls. The King’s 
Hall in the Brazen Palace at Anuradhapura (B.c. 161) is said 
to have been decorated with native pearls. The mortar in the 
ruins of Polonaruwa shows the remains of the pearl-oyster shells 
which were used in its manufacture—no doubt the refuse of an 
early fishery. Many other references could be given. In the 
eighth to eleventh centuries, trade in the East was in the hands 
of the Persians and Arabs, and we find Arab writers alluding 
to the pearls. We know also that they enriched the kings of 
Ceylon in the days of Marco Polo (1291). One record, given 
by Friar Jordanus, says that in 1330 about 8000 boats were 
engaged in the pearl-fisheries of the Gulf of Manaar.” 

From the remote times mentioned in the above extract down 
to the present day the pearl-oysters have been collected by native 
divers, but it is not improbable that dredging will ultimately 
be the chief method employed. 

Pearls are formed within a number of bivalves besides the 
one mentioned, nor are all of these marine, for the once famous 
British pearls were obtained from Fresh water Mussels. Purple 
pearls are formed within some of the Ark-Shells (47a). 

Decorative Propucts oF Insects (INsrecta).—There is not 
much to mention with regard to this group of animals. The 


400 UTILITARIAN ZOOLOGY 


hard metallic-looking wing-covers or elytra of certain Beetles 
serve for various decorative purposes, and some of the more 
beautiful Butterflies are sometimes placed in glass cases and used 
as ornaments. Some of the Scale-Insects (Cocczd@) are the 
source of economic products of some importance in the present 
connection, ¢.g. the Cochineal Insect (Coccas cactz) furnishes red 
pigment (see p. 260). Objects known as “ground pearls” are 
found in the earth in various parts of the world, e.g. in the island 
of St. Vincent (West Indies), where they are made into neck- 
laces, &c. They are in reality the encysted pupe of Scale- 
Insects, covered by a hard substance looking like pearl or 
glass. The West Indian ones mentioned above belong to a 
species of Margarodes. 


ANIMAL ASSTHETICS 


The course of human evolution has necessarily involved a 
gradually improving adaptation to surroundings, of which the 
outcome is seen in all the intricate details of modern civilization. 
Imaginative literature and the various branches of art are 
among the most remarkable results of this evolution, and the 
full discussion of their nature and origin is the province of that 
branch of philosophy known as A#sthetic. But as, after all, 
man is an animal, who has always lived among other animals 
that have profoundly influenced the course of his mental de- 
velopment, it naturally follows that the study of ®sthetic, as 
indeed of all other departments of philosophy, must look for its 
foundations among the principles of biology. The interdepend- 
ence of natural science and philosophy is well brought out in the 
following quotation from Karl Groos (in 7he Play of Animals):— 
‘“Man’s animal nature reveals itself in instinctive acts, and the 
latest investigators tell us that man has at least as many instincts 
as the brutes have, though most of them have become unrecog- 
nizable through the influence of education and tradition. There- 
fore an accurate knowledge of the animal world, where pure 
instinct 1s displayed, is indispensable in weighing the importance 
of inherited impulses in men. . . . The animal psychologist must 
harbour in his breast not only two souls, but more; he must 
unite with a thorough training in physiology, psychology, and 
biology the experience of a traveller, the practical knowledge of 


ANIMAL ASTHETICS 401 


the director of a zoological garden, and the outdoor lore of a 
forester. And even then he could not round up his labours 
satisfactorily unless he were familiar with the trend of modern 
zsthetics.” To briefly indicate some of the chief points of con- 
tact between Biology and Aésthetics is all that can be attempted 
here, and those who wish to pursue the subject fully are referred 
to the works of Herbert Spencer, Bain, Baldwin, Romanes, and 
Lloyd Morgan, as also to Grant Allen’s Physzological Esthetics, 
Knight’s Philosophy of the Beautiful, Bosanquet’s History of 
Listhetic, and Groos’s Play of Animals. 

No human being or highly-organized animal would be able 
to live for any length of time, nor would the preservation of its 
species be possible, if constant adjustment to the surroundings 
was not brought about by the agency of the nervous system and 
sense-organs (see p. 2). This is seen, for example, in the utili- 
tarian significance of pleasure and pain. Pleasure, broadly 
speaking, promotes actions which conduce to self-preservation 
and the maintenance of the species, while pain as constantly 
forbids other actions which would mean self-destruction. Unless 
pleasure were associated, for instance, with the act of eating, an 
animal would probably be content to starve, while if contact 
with burning substances caused no pain it would be very liable 
to self-cremation. Now there can be no doubt at all that the 
feelings to which Beauty and Ugliness give rise are simply to 
be regarded as finer manifestations of pleasure and pain, and 
since Aésthetics is concerned with such feelings it clearly rests 
upon a physiological basis. 

THE SENSE OF SIGHT AND ITS BEARING ON ASTHETICS.— 
We have only to reflect for a moment on the deprivations 
suffered by a man blind from birth to realize that artistic enjoy- 
ment depends most upon the sense of sight. And our criteria 
of what is beautiful in colour, form, and movement have largely 
been evolved with reference to the animal world, including human 
beings. To mention examples is unnecessary, for the illustra- 
tion scheme of this work provides them in abundance. But a 
few generalities are perhaps desirable. 

No one will deny that the human colour-sense has been 
largely educated by the materials which flowers provide. But 
the exquisite tints and colour-schemes of the floral world are 
strictly utilitarian with reference to plants themselves, being 


402 UTILITARIAN ZOOLOGY 


simply devices for attracting beneficial insects (see p. 85). To 
insects, therefore, our esthetic debt is very large. 

The Courtship Colours of Insects, Birds, and some other 
animals (see p. 143) are also as a rule beautiful to us, and have 
played no small part in the evolution of our artistic sense. With 
reference to the animals which display them it is pretty certain 
that they are purely utilitarian. 

Were we similarly to consider the materials upon which our 
ideas of the beautiful in form and movement are based, we should 
once more have to acknowledge that the evolution of the zsthetic 
sense has largely progressed on lines determined by the animal 
world. 

Ugliness in the first instance appears to have been associated 
with what was harmful or dangerous. The repugnance which 
most of us feel towards snakes, scorpions, and centipedes is . 
probably part of the legacy which has been handed down to us 
by our prehistoric ancestors (see vol. iii, p. 370). It is also 
generally admitted that ‘warning coloration”, which marks 
undesirable properties in many animals, is crude and _ inartistic 
from the human stand-point. 

Tue SENSE OF HEARING AND ITS BEARING ON A‘STHETICS.— 
Next to sight, hearing is the most important sense, from the 
esthetic stand-point. The song of birds and the chirp of insects, 
which further the courtships of their owners (and hence are of 
utilitarian nature), must have had something to do with the 
evolution of our standards of what is beautiful in the realm of 
sound. 

THE SENSE OF SMELL AND ITS BEARING ON A®STHETICS.— 
That certain odours are, to our thinking, of fragrant nature, is 
largely due to the direct or indirect influence which animals have 
had upon human development. Many species emit strong musky 
odours, serving for purposes of recognition, and also as court- 
ship accessories. Civet-cats are an example of this, and at one 
time ‘‘civet”, obtained from certain glands in these animals, was 
a favourite perfume, though it would now be considered rank. 
It has been replaced by musk, obtained from glands possessed 
by the Musk Deer (A/oschus moschiferus), though even this 
perfume is too coarse for cultivated tastes, which show a pre- 
ference for floral odours. But, as we have elsewhere seen (see 
p. 85), the delicate scents of flowers are of utilitarian mean- 


ANIMAL ASTHETICS 403 


ing to the plants which possess them, being so many baits to 
attract useful insects. 

One substance used as a sort of basis in the manufacture of 
perfume, z.e. ambergris, is on an entirely different footing from 
such things as musk or attar of roses, its properties being, so to 
speak, accidental. It consists of concretions, which are formed 
in the intestine of the Sperm-Whale as a result of disease. 

THE SENSE or TasTE AND ITS BEARING ON ASTHETICS.— 
The organs of taste were, in the first instance, undoubtedly 
evolved in relation to food-testing, a purely utilitarian matter. 
Adaptation to diets of particular kind would have been difficult, 
if not impossible, without this, and there would also have been a 
liability to take in poisonous substances. Pleasurable sensations 
would gradually come to be associated with the taste of desirable 
food, and sensations of opposite kind with that of unsuitable 
aliment, to say nothing of poisons. 

Tastes pure and simple, such as that of sweetness, do not 
rank very high in the esthetic scale, but it is otherwise with 
“flavours”, which are combinations of tastes and odours. The 
triumphs of the art of cookery, so dear to the gourmand, are of 
necessity largely based on the properties of animals in the dead 
state. But this of course is a mere commonplace. 

Tue EvoLution or ART AND CERTAIN FORMS OF LITERATURE. 
—In the evolution of Aésthetics, Groos considers that “ play” 
has been a dominant factor. By Spencer (and Schiller before 
him) play was regarded as a manifestation of surplus energy, an 
expression of the “joy of life”. But Groos interprets the play 
of animals as being an instinct whereby preparation is given for 
the stern realities of existence. A kitten, for example, by play- 
ing with various objects, including its own tail, acquires fitness 
for the pursuit of mice. According to this view an animal or 
young child does not play because it is young, but has a period 
of youth in order that it may play. Imitation is here of import- 
ance in helping the acquisition of powers that will later on be 
useful. Baldwin regards it as standing between instinct and intelli- 
gence, sometimes promoting the preservation of the former, and in 
other cases enabling it to be more or less discarded in favour of 
intelligent actions. Groos summarizes his ideas regarding the rela- 
tion between play and art in the following table, which, though 
susceptible of criticism, will serve as the basis for a few remarks. 


404 UTILITARIAN ZOOLOGY 


PLAY 
Experimentation 
(Joy in being able) 


(Pretence: conscious self-deception) 


| Self-exhibition. Imitation. Decoration. 


The Personal. The True. The Beautiful. 
: . { Courtship Imitative arts. Building arts. 
ij > . . . 
With animals arts. Imitative dance. Ornamentation. 
ee with Pantomime. Architecture. 
a xcitement. Sculpture. 
With man_ sca: . ae 
Music. Painting. 
Lyric poetry. Epic Poetry. 
Drama. 


Plenty of examples of each of the three primary groups above 
are to be found in the animal world. Sedfexhibition as mani- 
fested in Courtship arts is sufficiently illustrated by Birds and 
Spiders, and some account of it has already been given (see 
pp. 148 and 166). 

No better instance of /mer¢tation could possibly be given than 
the concerted Dances of some birds, graphically described by 
Hudson (in Zhe Naturalist in La Plata). The following is his 
account of the evolutions of the Spur-winged Lapwing (/op- 
lopterus cayanus, fig. 1283) of South America:—‘ The lapwing 
display, called by the natives its ‘dance’, or ‘serious dance ’— 
by which they mean square dance—requires three birds for its 
performance, and is, so far as I know, unique in this respect. 
The birds are so fond of it that they indulge in it all the year 
round, and at frequent intervals during the day, also on moon- 
light nights. If a person watches any two birds for some time 
—for they live in pairs—he will see another lapwing, one of a 
neighbouring couple, rise up and fly to them, leaving his own 
mate to guard their chosen ground; and instead of resenting 
this visit as an unwarranted intrusion on their domain, as they 
would certainly resent the approach of almost any other bird, 
they welcome it with notes and signs of pleasure. Advancing 
to the visitor, they place themselves behind it; then all three, 
keeping step, begin a rapid march, uttering resonant drumming 
notes in time with their movements; the notes of the pair behind 


ANIMAL ASSTHETICS 405 


being emitted in a stream, like a drum-roll, while the leader 
utters loud single notes at regular intervals. The march ceases; 
the leader elevates his wings and stands erect and motionless, 
still uttering loud notes; while the other two, with puffed-out 
plumage and standing exactly abreast, stoop forward and down- 
ward until the tips of their beaks touch the ground, and, sinking 
their rhythmical voices to a murmur, remain for some time in 
this posture. The performance is then over, and the visitor 


Fig. 1283.—Dance of Spur-winged Lapwings (Haplopterus cayanus) 


goes back to his own ground and mate, to receive a visitor 
himself later on.” 

As to the third kind of artistic development, placed under 
the head of Decoration, we once more find among Birds the 
best illustrations. Their nests not only exemplify, in some cases, 
the art of building carried to a high pitch of perfection (see 
vol. iii, p. 457), but may also involve a certain amount of deco- 
rative skill. Both, however, are most strikingly seen in the 
curious “runs” made by the Bower-Birds, native to the Austra- 
lian region. They appear to play some part in courtship, and 
their original discoverer, Gould, describes them as follows (in 
P.Z.S. 1840):—‘ These constructions are perfectly anomalous 
in the architecture of birds, and consist in a collection of pieces 


of stick or grass, formed into a bower; or one of them (that 
Vo. IV. 121 


406 UTILITARIAN ZOOLOGY 


of the Chlamydera) might be called an avenue, being about 3 
feet in length, and 7 or 8 inches broad inside; a transverse 
section giving the figure of a horse-shoe, the round part down- 
wards. They are used by the birds as a playing-house, or ‘run’ 
as it is termed, and are used by the males to attract the females. 
The ‘run’ of the Satin-Bird is much smaller, being less than 1 
foot in length, and moreover differs from that just described in 
being decorated with the highly-coloured feathers of the parrot 
tribe; the Chlamydera, on the other hand, collects around its 


Fig. 1284.—Gardener-Birds (diébdyornts inornatus), with hut and garden; male in foreground, female at back. 


‘run’ a quantity of stones, shells, bleached bones, &c.; they are 
also strewed down the centre within.” 

Newton thus describes (in A Dectionary of Birds) some 
even more remarkable kinds of Bower-Bird, unknown to science 
at the time of Gould’s observations:—‘t A bird of New Guinea, 

.. Amblyornuis inornatus, fig. 1284, has been found by Signor 
Beccari to present not only a modification of bower-building, 
but an appreciation of beauty perhaps unparalleled in the animal 
world. His interesting observations . . . show that this species, 
which he not inaptly calls the ‘Gardener’ (Gyardinzere), builds 
at the foot of a small tree a kind of hut or cabin (cafanna) some 
2 feet in height, roofed with orchid-stems that slope to the ground, 
regularly radiating from the central support, which is covered 


ANIMAL ASTHETICS 407 


with a conical mass of moss, and sheltering a gallery round it. 
One side of this hut is left open, and in front of it is arranged 
a bed of verdant moss, bedecked with blossoms and berries of 
the brightest colours. As these ornaments wither they are 
removed to a heap behind the hut, and replaced by others that 
are fresh. The hut is circular and some 3 feet in diameter, and 
the mossy lawn in front of it nearly twice that expanse. Each 
hut and garden are, it is believed, though not known, the work 
of a single pair of birds, or perhaps of the male only; and it 
may be observed that this species, as its trivial name implies, is 
wholly inornate in plumage. Not less remarkable is the more 
recently described ‘bower’ of Przoxodura, a genus of which the 
male . . . is conspicuous for his bright orange coloration. This 
structure is said by Mr. Devis . . . to be piled up almost hori- 
zontally round the base of a tree to the height of from 4 to 6 
feet, and around it are a number of hut-like fabrics, having the 
look of a dwarfed native camp.” 

With the stages in the evolution of human art we are here 
not directly concerned, but enough has been said to show that a 
careful study of the habits of animals is likely to throw a 
good deal of light upon the subject. 

AnImMats AS MaTerRIAL FoR ART AND LITERATURE.—Animals 
form such an important part of the environment of man that 
they naturally figure largely in art and literature. If, in ima- 
gination, we entirely eliminate animal forms from galleries of 
sculpture or pictures we shall realize this very fully, and ideas 
derived from the animal world are also embodied to some extent 
in music. As we have elsewhere seen (p. 341), the Tarantella 
originated with reference to a kind of spider. 

The art of decoration is also indebted to the animal world, 
some of the most beautiful designs being based upon animal 
forms. Mr. Talwin Morris’ ‘peacock design” on the covers of 
this book is a particularly charming example. 

In literature our debt to animals is no less great. The very 
letters of the alphabet, which, as everyone knows, are the descen- 
dants of Egyptian picture-symbols or hieroglyphs, were in some 
instances originally based on animal forms. V, for example, 
represents the last remains of a drawing of the Horned Viper 
(Cerastes) of Egypt (fig. 1285). 


Animals make no inconsiderable figure in both prose and 


408 UTILITARIAN ZOOLOGY 


poetry. In fables, from the time of Asop downwards, they 
often supply the principal characters. Sterne has immortalized 
the Starling, Shakespeare and Shelley the Sky-Lark, Poe and 
Dickens the Raven, Aristophanes and Thoreau the Frog. Other 
examples are scattered broadcast through the literatures of the 
world, and to name them would be a work of supererogation. 
They often supply the wotzf for poetic efforts which express our 


Vy 


Fig. 1285.—Evolution of V. @, Egyptian hieroglyphic; 4, abbreviation of same; c, Phcenician form; d, final form. 


sympathy with Nature, and appeal more particularly to those 
of us who are counted among the worshippers of “the great god 
Pan”. The poem “ Enchanted Tones”, by J. S. Welhaven, may 
serve to illustrate this point, and it will be unknown to most 
readers, for its native language is Norwegian. 


“A bird flew over the pine-clad hill 

Of the old, old legends singing, 

And carried me out of life’s beaten way 
Into dreamland’s dim beginning. 

I came to the moorland’s secret spring 
Where fairies their thirst were slaking, 

But ever those magical notes I heard 
*Midst the sighs that the breeze was making. 


*‘T stood in the beech-trees’ silver shade 

As the sunset rays low slanted, 

When glimmered the dew in the darkling glade 
And on hill shone like gold enchanted: 

Then rustled the branches, a sound drew nigh 
As of wings that were rising and falling, 

And ever from fell-top, and ever from tree 
Those magical flute-notes were calling. 


“ Away in the woodland, far away, 

Is the songster’s leafy dwelling, 

From under the pine-trees, ever and aye, 
His melody’s tide is swelling; 

And though I never may reach his home, 
The song there is no forgetting, 

That sounded sweet when eve’s dewy wings 
Shut soft as the sun was setting.” 


DISTRIBUTION IN SPACE AND TIME 


CHAPTER LXXV 
GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION 


To consider, and so far as possible explain, the way in which 
animals are now spread over the surface of the globe is the 
province of Geographical Distribution, or, as it is sometimes 
called, Zoogeography. Alfred Russel Wallace, more than any 
other man, has been the means of placing this branch of Natural 
History on a really scientific footing, and his invaluable works 
The Geographical Distribution of Animals and [sland Life will 
long remain standard sources of information on the subject. 
Smaller books by Heilprin and Beddard (Geographical and Geo- 
logical Distribution of Animals, and Zoogeography) will also 
be found extremely useful by the student. 

A good deal of information about the parts of the world to 
which a number of animals belong has already been given in 
the preceding sections of this work, but certain facts and principles 
require special mention here, though only elementary treatment 
is possible, or, it may be, desirable. 

Before the theory of evolution became dominant it was com- 
monly believed that any particular kind of animal found within 
a certain area was specially created there, and speculation was 
deemed out of place, though it was assumed that one sort of 
climate suited certain species, and another sort of climate other 
species. But we are not now contented with the statement 
“This is so”, and always ask “ Why is this so?” To which 
question we sometimes get a fairly satisfactory answer. 

Areas oF DistrisuTion.—If we consider any kind or species of 
animal, or any one of the larger groups, such as a genus, a family, 


an order, or a class, we shall find that it may occupy a limited 
409 


410 DISTRIBUTION IN SPACE AND TIME 


or an extensive area, or that it may be found in two or more 
widely distant parts of the world, and be entirely absent from the 
intervening regions. The last and perhaps the most interesting 
case is technically described by speaking of a ‘discontinuous 
area of distribution”. Believing that existing species have been 
evolved in course of time from other species, it is pretty obvious 
that any sort of animal which occupies a restricted area must 
either have come into existence comparatively recently, or else 
be an ancient form which has gradually lost ground and is pro- 
gressing towards extinction. A good example of the latter state 
of things is afforded by the Tuatara (atteria punctata), now 
only to be found on some islets in the Bay of Plenty, off the 
North Island of New Zealand, upon which larger land-mass we 
know that it formerly existed. The evidence of geology also 
proves that it is the last living representative of an order of 
Reptiles (AZychocephala) which was once widely distributed and 
dominant, being very likely the parent reptilian group from which 
all the other orders took origin. 

In dealing with questions of distribution it is important to 
remember that the outlines of land and sea have undergone many 
changes in the course of the world’s history. At various periods, 
for example, the land-masses of the Old and New Worlds have 
been connected together in the North, while Australia and the 
East Indies are the surviving remnants of an extension ‘of the 
mainland of Asia. Comparatively recent union between land- 
areas now distinct is often indicated by intervening shallow water, 
more ancient union by deeper water. From this and other facts 
we conclude that the British Isles were part of the continent of 
Europe in comparatively recent times, while many ages have 
elapsed since Madagascar was continuous with Africa, and the 
connection of Australia with Asia was still more remote. On the 
other hand, there are certain small islands isolated in mid-ocean, 
such as St. Helena and Ascension, which probably never formed 
part of any existing continent. Using this principle as a basis, 
Wallace classifies islands as “continental”, e.g. the British Isles 
and Madagascar, which once were united with adjacent main- 
lands; and “oceanic”, e.g. St. Helena, in which this has never 
been the case. That such a view explains many of the features 
of island faunas we shall presently see: the bearing of the former 
existence of ‘‘land-bridges ”, long since submerged, upon questions 


GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION 41I 


of discontinuous distribution is, for the moment, our immediate 
concern. 

One of the best examples of discontinuous distribution is 
afforded by the order of Pouched Mammals (Zarsupialia), now 
mainly limited to the Australian region, though also represented 
in America by the Opossums and one other form (Ca@xolestes). 
Without the aid of the geological record the reason for this would 
ever remain a matter of the merest conjecture. We know, how- 
ever, from the evidence this record affords, that in the remote 
past Pouched Mammals were common enough in Europe, and 
there are enough facts upon which to base the view that the 
earliest representatives of the order were evolved in the land- 
mass of Eurasia. From this area the Pouched Mammals 
gradually spread, entering what are now America and Australia 
over tracts of land since submerged beneath the sea. Elsewhere, 
owing to the competition of more highly specialized mammals, 
they have died out. But the Australian region having been cut 
oft from the northern land-mass before the higher mammals had 
a chance of entering it, the pouched forms of that region had a 
field free from serious competition, in which have since been 
evolved numerous species adapted to many diverse modes of life. 
In America they had a harder struggle for existence, and at the 
present time are poorly represented there, chiefly by Opossums, 
the ancestors of which no doubt reached the New World by one 
or more formerly existing land-bridges in the north. There is 
also good reason for thinking that South America aiso received 
a population of pouched mammals from Australia, by means of 
a southern land-bridge, of which some existing islands appear 
to be remnants. This Australian stock has since died out almost 
entirely, being now only represented by two small species of 
Opossum-Rats (Cano/estes), native to Colombia and Ecuador. 

Discontinuous distribution explained on somewhat different 
lines is exhibited by the Lung-Fishes (2zpz0z), now represented 
only in the fresh waters of Africa, South America, and Queens- 
land (see vol. i, p. 264). Once more a clue is afforded by the 
geological record, from which we know that the ancestors of the 
Lung-Fishes were at one time a dominant and widely distributed 
marine group. Hard pressed by fishes better adapted to life in 
the sea, some of them took refuge in estuaries, ultimately pass- 
ing into the fresh waters of the land. It is only these which 


412 DISTRIBUTION IN SPACE AND TIME 


in widely distant parts of the world have left descendants, while 
all the marine types were doomed to extinction. 

DispeRSAL OF AwnimaLs.—A species which meets with any 
success in the struggle for existence increases largely in numbers 
and, led chiefly by the search for food, comes to occupy a tract 
of land or sea of continually increasing size (z.e. it widens its 
area of distribution) until prevented by natural causes from migrat- 
ing farther. The means of locomotion possessed by such a 
species necessarily plays an important part in the matter. The 
power of flight, for example, often renders wide dispersal possible, 
as in the case of Bats. But there are usually certain physical 
barriers which put a stop to the migratory movements of most 
kinds of animal. Mammals other than Bats are unable to cross 
even narrow arms of the sea, while mountain chains and deserts 
often prove potent checks to further advance. And for every 
other group of land forms obstacles of varying kind present 
themselves. Even in the case of marine species limits are im- 
posed by temperature, depth of water, supply of suitable food, 
competition with other species, and so on. 

ZOOGEOGRAPHICAL REGIONS OF THE Lanp.—It is generally 
considered that Mammals afford the best means of dividing the 
land into regions possessing characteristic faunas, and as the 
areas thus demarcated answer fairly well for Birds, the sub- 
divisions made by W. L. Sclater on this basis, and afterwards 
adopted by Wallace, will here be given. A reference to the 
accompanying map (fig. 1286) will show that the boundaries 
between Sclater’s six great regions are largely constituted by 
physical barriers. Each of these primary subdivisions is again 
divided into sub-regions. All that can be attempted here is a 
brief account of the leading features of the large distributional 
areas, especially with reference to Mammals and Birds. So many 
incorrect ideas are current, even among educated persons, about 
the distribution of well-known animals, that no attempt will be 
made to avoid details that will be commonplace to some readers. 
Most of the forms of life mentioned in this chapter will be found 
to have received notice in other connections. It may be well 
first of all to enumerate the regions and sub-regions. 

I. PaL@arctic Recion.—Europe,—all but the south of Asia, 
—and Africa north of the Sahara. Sub-Regions:—1. European; 
2. Mediterranean; 3. Siberian; 4. Manchurian. 


413 


GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION 


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414 DISTRIBUTION IN SPACE AND TIME 


II. Nearcric Recion. — Practically equivalent to North 
America. Sub-Regions:—1. Canadian; 2. Californian; 3. Rocky 
Mountain; 4. Alleghany. 

III. Erurorran.—Africa south of the Sahara, south Arabia, 
and Madagascar. Sub-Regions:—1. West African; 2. South 
African; 3. East African; 4. Mascarene. 

IV. OrtentaL Recron.—South Asia, the western part of the 
East Indies, the Philippines, and Formosa. Sub-Regions:—r. 
Indian; 2. Cingalese; 3. Indo-Chinese; 4. Indo- Malayan. 

V.—AuSTRALIAN Recion.—The eastern part of the East 
Indies, Australia and adjacent islands, New Zealand, and Poly- 
nesia. Sub-Regions:—1. Austro-Malayan; 2. Australian; 3. 
Polynesian; 4. Novo-Zelanian. 

VI. NeorroricaL Recion.—Central America, South America, 
and the West Indies. Sub-Regions:—r. Mexican; 2. Chilian; 
3. West Indian; 4. Brazilian. 

Chalmers Mitchell has devised the following ingenious way 
of representing the regions and sub-regions in a diagrammatic 
form, which readily lends itself to expressing the distribution of 
any animal or group of animals, by simply leaving out the numbers 
of those sub-regions in which that particular form or group does 
not occur. 


Regions and Sub-Regions. Distribution of Crocodiles and 
Alligators (Crocodilia). 
II I II I 
I I 3 
23 4 2 4 3 4 4 
VI Ill IV VI III IV 
aoe So name sl P32 tr Bar 3 
2 4 2 4 
Vv Vv 
sae) 1 | 
2 Ar 2 ony 2 4 Fai 2. 4 2 


FauNA OF THE PaL-earctic Recion.—In spite of its great 
size this region possesses comparatively few animals which are 
found nowhere else. The number would be much larger if there 
were not a good many species common to it and the Nearctic 
Region. This is not very surprising when we remember the 


GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION 415 


comparative narrowness of the Behring Straits, across which 
there was a land-bridge at no very remote period, geologically 
speaking. At one time, too, Europe and North America were 
connected by land occupying the North Atlantic, and the sea 
between Britain and Greenland is still comparatively shallow. 
It may be objected that even if such unions once existed the 
rigour of the northern climate would prevent land animals from 
migrating across them; but we know that there have been many 
changes in climate during the past history of the globe, and that 
for part of the time when these land-bridges existed a much 
higher temperature prevailed in the areas they occupied than is 
now the case. Besides which, the objection, even if valid, would 
not apply to Arctic forms; and, further, many animals which we 
now associate with the warmer parts of the earth are able to 
endure a larger amount of cold than is sometimes supposed. It 
may be added that the resemblances between the faunas of the 
Palearctic Region and the northern part of North America are 
so striking that many writers associate these together under the 
name of the Holarctic Region. This fact is mentioned because 
in dealing with certain forms it will be convenient to speak of 
them as *belhe “ holarctic”, 

Palearctic Mammals (Mammalia). —Among _Insect-eating 
Mammals (/zsectzvora) our common Mole (Talba Europea) and 
related species of the same genus are confined to this region, as 
also are the Desmans (Myogale), while Hedgehogs (Zrinacezdz) 
are very characteristic, though not peculiar. Of the Flesh-Eaters 
(Carnivora) very few are entirely limited to the region, the most 
notable being the Raccoon-Dog (Wyctereutes, fig. 1287) of north- 
east Asia, and the Common Badger (AZeles taxus) with some of 
its immediate allies. It should be stated, however, that a number 
of Carnivores are purely holarctic, eg. the Polar Bear (Ursus 
maritimus), the Glutton (Guo duscus), Lynxes, and Arctic Foxes; 
while some others are very characteristic, e.g. Wolves, Bears (other 
than the Polar species), Martens, and Weasels. Some aquatic Car- 
nivores are entirely holarctic, such as the Sea Otter (Latax lutrts), 
the Greenland Seal (Phoca Grenlandica), the Walrus (77echechus 
rosmarus), and the Greenland Whale (Balena mysticetus). 

The Palearctic region is comparatively rich in Hoofed 
Mammals (Ungulata) native to no other part of the world. 
Among these are conspicuous typical Oxen (Bos), Goats (Capra), 


416 DISTRIBUTION IN SPACE AND TIME 


and Sheep (Qvzs), which are hardly represented elsewhere; also 
a number of Deer (Cervzd@), such as the Fallow-Deer (Dama 
vulgaris), Roe-Deer (Cervus capreola), and Water-Deer (Aydro- 
potes); while, besides these, certain Antelopes, such as the 
Chamois (Aupicapra tragus) and the Saiga Antelope (Sazga 
Tartarica), are peculiar. Nor must mention of the Camels 


Fig. 1287.—Raccoon Dog |Vyctereutes) 


(Camelus) be omitted. The Reindeer (Rangifer tarandus), Elk 
(Atces machlis), and Musk-Ox (Ovzbos moschatus) may be men- 
tioned as typically holarctic Ungulates. 

Among Gnawing Mammals (Rodentia), Dormice (JZyaxus) 
and Mole-Rats (Sfa/ar) are Palearctic, while Marmots (A7c- 
tomys) and Calling Hares or Pikas (ZLagomys) are holarctic. 
Beavers (Castor), Voles (AZtcrotus), Ground-Squirrels (Zamzzas), 
and most of the Hares and Rabbits (Lepzs) are also holarctic. 


GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION 417 


Palearctic Birds (Aves).—Among the genera which are 
limited to this region are some of those including a number of 
our familiar British forms, e.g. Grasshopper Warbler (Locustedla), 
Robin Redbreast (Zrzthacus), ‘Bearded Tit” or Reedling 
(Panurus), Long-tailed Tit (Acreduda), Buntings (Eméeriza), 
Chaffinch (/72ng7la), Bullfinch (Pyrrhula), Jay (Garrulus), Nut- 
cracker (Vucifraga), and Partridge (Perdix). Ordinary Pheasants 
(Phastanus) and some of their more ornamental relatives are 
also very characteristic Palearctic forms. Some other British 
birds belong to holarctic genera, e.g. Red Grouse and Ptarmigan 
(Lagopus), Capercailzie (Zetrao), Divers (Colymbus), Razor-Bills 
(Aca), Guillemots (Urza), and Puffins (Fraiercula). 

Palearctic Reptiles (Reptilia).—A solitary species of Alli- 
gator (Adiigator Sznensis) is native to South China. Our 
indigenous Blind-Worm represents a purely Palearctic genus 
(Anguis) of limbless lizards, while that (Lacerta) which includes 
the Sand-Lizard, Green-Lizard, and Wall-Lizard is hardly 
represented outside the region. 

Palearctic Amphibians (Amphibia).—Peculiar to this region 
are the genera including the Fire-bellied Toads (Bombznator), 
that form (AZyées) in which the male carries about the egg- 
masses, and the Salamanders (Salamandra). It is also inter- 
esting to notice that the great majority of Tailed Amphibians 
(Urodela) are limited to the Northern Hemisphere. 

Palearctic Fishes (Pisces)—Among British freshwater fishes, 
Carp and Tench may be mentioned as representing genera 
(Cyprinus and 77nca) peculiar to the region, as also are the Gold- 
fishes, &c. (Carasszus), of China and Japan. There are also some 
families of fishes which are very characteristic of the Northern 
Hemisphere, e.g. those containing Pikes (Zsoczde), Sticklebacks 
(Gasterosterde), and Salmon (Salmonide). Most of the curious 
archaic Ganoids (Gazozdez) also belong to the same hemisphere. 
These forms (see vol. i, p. 266) present a good example of a 
discontinuous area of distribution to be explained in the same 
way as that of the Lung-Fishes (see p. 266). 

Palearctic Insects (Lusecta).—Perhaps the most striking 
feature of the region is the great abundance of predaceous 
Ground-Beetles (Carabzde) which it possesses, regarding which 
Wallace says (in /sland Life) that ‘‘. . . the large and handsome 


genus Carabus, with its allies Procerus and Procrustes, contain- 


418 DISTRIBUTION IN SPACE AND TIME 


ing nearly 300 species, is almost wholly confined to this region, 
and would alone serve to distinguish it zoologically from all other 
parts of the globe”. 

Fauna or THE Nearctic Recion.—It will be remembered 
that the “holarctic” forms already mentioned are common to 
the Palearctic region and northern part of the Nearctic region, 
and need not, therefore, be mentioned again, though it may be 
well to state that the Musk-Ox (Ouvzdos) is almost entirely 
Nearctic. 

Nearctic Mammals 
(Aammata).—Among 
the Insect-Eaters (/z- 
sectivora) the Star- 
nosed Mole (Condy- 
lura, fig. 1288) is the 
most remarkable of 
the purely Nearctic 
forms. A number of 
the Flesh-Eaters (Car- 
nivora) differ from 
those of the Old 
World, but as the most 
important of these are 
even more character- 
istic of the Neotropical 
region, mention of 
them will be post- 
poned. Two of the Hoofed Mammals (Uzgzata) are essentially 
Nearctic, z.e. the Pronghorn (A ztelocapra) and the Rocky Moun- 
tain Goat (/faplocervos). Two families of Gnawers (Rodendéia) are 
confined to this region, the Pouched Rats (Saccomyede), including 
Gophers, Kangaroo- Rats, and Pocket-Mice, and the Sewellels 
(Haplodontide), including two species of small rodents allied to 
the squirrels but with the habits of marmots. Besides these, two 
very typical Nearctic genera belong to this order, 7.e. those to 
which the Tree-Porcupine (£7e¢h7zon) and the Prairie- Dogs 
(Cyzonzys) belong. Opossums (Lidelphyide) represent the 
Pouched Mammals (J/arsufrafia) in this region, but are more 
typical of the Neotropical. 

Nearctic Birds (Aves).— Many of the familiar Palzarctic 


Fig. 1288.—Star-nosed Mole (Coudylura) 


GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION - 419 


species are replaced by members of characteristic American 
families. There are also a number of peculiar Nearctic genera, 
but to give a list of them would serve no useful purposes. 
Turkeys (JZeleagris) are well represented, but also range south 
into Central America. 

Nearctic Reptiles (Reptilia).—It need only be said that 
poisonous Lizards (Heloderma) are characteristic, as also are 
Rattlesnakes (C7o¢adus), though both range into the Neotropical 
region, while Crocodiles and Alligators are represented in the 
south of the United States. 

Nearctic Amphibians (Amphibia).—The region is richer than 
any other part of the world in Tailed Amphibians (Uvode/a), 
and among the peculiar forms are the curious Mud- Eels 
(Amphiuma) and Sirens (Szren). 

Nearctic Fishes (Prsces).—Several families and a consider- 
able number of genera of freshwater fishes are native to this 
region only, but their names would convey little meaning to 
average European readers. 

Nearctic Freshwater Molluscs (Mollusca). — Wallace states 
that the Nearctic region is richer in characteristic forms than 
any other part of the world. 

Fauna oF THE Eruiopran Recion.—We have seen that the 
approximation in high latitudes of the great land-masses of the 
Northern Hemisphere has led to a great deal in common be- 
tween the faunas of the Palearctic and Nearctic regions, and 
both of them are rather deficient as regards the presence of 
peculiar forms known to the lay reader. This renders it rather 
difficult to treat them in a popular manner; but there is no such 
difficulty with regard to the southern regions which remain for 
consideration, as all of them have well-marked characteristics, 
and their more typical animals are familiar to everyone. In 
varying degree they have been more or less isolated by physical 
barriers for very long periods of time, and this isolation has 
rendered possible the evolution of distinctive faunas. 

Ethiopian Mammals (Mammata).—There is no lack of Apes 
and Monkeys (Przmates) belonging to genera not represented 
elsewhere. Among the higher or man-like Apes the Gorilla 
(Gorilla) and Chimpanzee (Axnthropopithecus) are typical, while 
of lower forms may be mentioned the Colobi (Cododus) with 
reduced thumbs, the Guenons (Cercopithecus), and a number of 


420 DISTRIBUTION IN SPACE AND TIME 


Baboons (Pafio or Cynocephalus). The majority of Lemurs 
(Lemuroidea) are African. The peculiar Ethiopian  Insect- 
Eaters (/isecézvora) include the Golden Moles (Chrysochloris), 
and an otter-like West African form (Potamogale), among many 
other characteristic types. There are also Flesh-Eaters (Car- 
nivora) belonging to purely Ethiopian genera, ¢,g. the Foussa 
(Cryptoprocta) of Madagascar, the Aard-Wolf (Protedes), and 
the Cape Hunting-Dog (Lycaon). Though Lion (Fels eo) 


Fig. 1289.—Wart-Hog (PAacocherus) 


and Leopard (/. leopardus) are both very characteristic, the 
former ranges into Asia (and has only become extinct in Europe 
during historic times), while the latter so closely resembles the 
Asiatic Panther (4. panthera) that the two animals are often 
considered as belonging to the same species. A curious nega- 
tive feature is found in the complete absence of animals of the 
Bear kind. Of Hoofed Mammals (Uzgz/ata) many remarkable 
forms are limited to the Ethiopian region. They include Zebras 
(species of Aguzs), characteristic species of Rhinoceros, Wart-Hog 
(Phacocherus, fig. 1289), Red River-Hog (Potamocherus), Hippo- 
potamus (//2pfopotamus), the Giraffe (Gzraffa), Okapi (Okapza), 
a number of Antelopes, and the little Water-Chevrotain (Dorca- 


GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION 421 


therium). Deer and wild Oxen are absent. Gnawers (Rodendza) 
are represented by a number of peculiar forms, of which may be 
mentioned the Cape Jumping-Hare (/edetes) and the African 
“Flying ”-Squirrels (A zomalurus). The archaic order of Mam- 
mals Poor in Teeth (Zdez¢ata) is represented by the Cape Ant- 
Eater or Aard-Vark (Orycteropus), and Pangolins (JZanzs), though 
the latter are shared with the Oriental region. 

Ethiopian Birds (Aves)—Among the many peculiar forms 
it may suffice to mention Plantain-Eaters (J/usophaga), Colies 
(Colzus), Whydah Finches (Vzdua), Ox-Peckers (Buphaga), many 
of the beautiful little Sun-Birds (Wectariniide), the Secretary- 
Bird (Sevfentarius), and the African Ostrich (Struthzo). 

Ethiopian Reptiles (Reptilia).—Crocodiles are abundant but 
not peculiar, while among Lizards (Lacertzfia) the large majority 
of the Chameleons are limited to the region. Among the in- 
numerable Serpents (Ophzdia) the Egg-eating Snake (Dasypeltis) 
and deadly Puff-Adders (#z¢zs) are purely Ethiopian. 

Ethiopian Amphibrans (Amphibra).— The Clawed Toads 
(Xenopus) are limited to Africa, while, on the other hand, not 
only are Tailed Amphibians (Uvode/z) entirely absent, but also 
several families of Tailless Amphibians (Azura), e.g. the Tree- 
Frogs (Hytide). 

Ethiopian Freshwater Fishes (Pisces).—Some of the most 
archaic types are limited to the region, eg. one of the Lung- 
Fishes (Protopterus), the Bichir (Polypterus), and the Reed- 
Fish (Calamozchthys), the last two being Ganoids. 

Ethiopian Land and Freshwater Molluscs (Mollusca).—One 
of the large Land-Snails (Achatina) is very characteristic, though 
not limited to Africa, while Land-Slugs are comparatively scarce, 
and freshwater molluscs are less abundant than in some other 
regions. The fauna of Lake Tanganyika presents some re- 
markable features. As we have seen elsewhere (see p. 313) 
the Caspian Sea and Lake Baikal were once continuous with 
the Arctic Ocean, the fact that each is inhabited by a peculiar 
species of Seal being accounted for in this way. It appears 
that in remote geological times Tanganyika was also part of a 
sea area, and was converted into a lake as one of the results of 
a series of land-upheavals. Some of the marine molluscs and 
other animals living in the sea of which it formed a part proved 


able to accommodate themselves to the altered conditions, and 
VoL. IV. 122 


422 DISTRIBUTION IN SPACE AND TIME 


these ‘“halolimnic” forms, some to all appearance closely resem- 
bling ancient extinct types, are now found in the fresh waters of 
this lake, side by side with ordinary freshwater species. 

Ethiopian Insects (Insecta).—The region is very rich in insect 
life, but it is not possible here to enter into details regarding 
the many interesting and beautiful species. Wallace mentions 
the large and handsome Goliath-Beetles as being especially 
characteristic, and some of the complex societies of African 
Termites have been spoken of elsewhere (see p. 124). 

Fauna oF Mapacascar.-—This subdivision of the Ethiopian 
region calls for a few remarks, since it is one of the best existing 
examples of an ancient continental island connected in remote 
times with the adjacent continent. There can be no doubt that 
a large part of the Mascarene fauna has been derived from the 
mainland of Africa, but Madagascar became isolated at a time 
when that continent did not include among its inhabitants many 
of the animals by which it is now characterized. Long-standing 
isolation has also resulted in the evolution of many peculiar 
species, some of highly remarkable kind. Both the positive and 
the negative characters of the Mascarene fauna are best illus- 
trated by reference to the Mammals and Birds. 

Mascarene Mammals (Mammata).—Of the sixty-six species 
of Mammals native to Madagascar about half are Lemurs 
(Lemuroidea), representing no less than nine peculiar genera 
(Lemur, Chirogaleus, &c.), of which one (Chzromys) includes the 
remarkable Aye-Aye. Except for about fourteen small species 
shared between the continent of Africa and the Oriental region, 
these ill-defended creatures are found nowhere else, and _ their 
abundance in Madagascar is no doubt to be attributed to the 
scarcity of carnivores in that island. The case is on a par with 
that of the Pouched Mammals of Australia. With the single 
exception of a Shrew, all the Insect-Eaters (/zsectivora) of 
Madagascar belong to the peculiar family of Tanrecs (Centetidc), 
while the few Gnawers (Rodentia) are rats and mice, all belong- 
ing to distinctive genera. Flesh-Eaters (Carnzvora) are only 
represented by the Foussa (CryvAfoprocta) and eight kinds of 
Civet-Cat. Of Hoofed Mammals (Ungulata) there is only a 
species of River-Hog (Polamocherus), although the Hippopo- 
tamus is known to have been once indigenous. The charac- 
teristic Apes and Monkeys, most of the Flesh-Eaters and Hoofed 


CHARACTERISTIC ANIMALS OF THE ISLAND 
OF MADAGASCAR 


Madagascar is a good iype of “ancient continental islands” that 
in remote times were connected with the adjacent continents, which 
they broadly resemble in the nature of their fauna, though the 
separation has been long enough to render possible the evolution 
of peculiar species. The Mascarene animals find their nearest 
allies on the mainland of Africa, the characteristic monkeys, carni- 
vores, ungulates (with one exception), elephants, and ostriches of 
which are, however, absent. Half the Mammals (33) of the island 
are Lemurs, one of the most remarkable of which is the Aye-aye 
(Chironys, Madagascariensts, 1), formerly mistaken for a Rodent. 
A Mouse-Lemur (CAzrogaleus pusillus) is represented at 2. Most 
of the Insectivores, of which the Tenrec (Cezfetes ecaudatus, 3) is 
best known, belong to a family (Cenéet/d@) represented nowhere 
else. 

Of about 150 species of land-birds no less than 127 are peculiar. 
The two figured are a Fruit-Pigeon (Alectorenas pulcherrima, 4), 
native to the Seychelles: (which belong to the Mascarene sub- 
region), and a form (PAz/efitta jala, male, 5) related to the so- 
called “ Ground-Thrushes” or Pittas, but constituting with another 
Mascarene species a special family (Phelepidtide). 


CHARACTERISTIC ANIMALS OF THE ISLAND OF MADAC 


1. Aye-aye. 2. Mouse-Lemur, 3. LTenrec, 4. Fruit-Pigeon, 


GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION 423 


Mammals, and also the Elephants of the African continent are 
conspicuous by their absence. 

Mascarene Birds (Aves).—The power of flight possessed by 
most members of this class to a large extent prevents the evolu- 
tion of peculiar species by isolation, and we must not therefore 
expect the land-birds of Madagascar to be so characteristic as 
the mammals, though it is sufficiently striking to find that out of 
238 species no less than 129 are limited to the island, and these 
include representatives of 35 peculiar genera. We may take as 
examples two species (of Pkzlepitta) of great beauty, allied to 
the Ground-Thrushes, though constituting a distinct family, and 
four kinds of Fruit-Pigeon belonging to a genus (Adectoroenas) 
only represented in Madagascar and some of the smaller islands 
of the sub-region. 

Fauna or St. Hetena.—This typical oceanic island, 1100 
miles distant from Africa and 1800 miles from South America, 
may be taken here as a good illustration of its class. Never 
having formed part of a continent its indigenous fauna naturally 
presents a strong contrast with that of Madagascar, being en- 
tirely made up of such forms of life as have been able to reach 
it by natural agencies. And since a broad stretch of sea is an 
insuperable barrier to animals of many kinds, the faunistic char- 
acters of St. Helena are largely negative, as in all other such 
cases. On the other hand, the effect of isolation has been very 
great, and a large proportion of the species are peculiar. 

St. Helena possesses no native Mammals, Land Birds, Rep- 
tiles, Freshwater Fishes, or Freshwater Molluscs. There is, 
however, one peculiar species of Plover (4gzalitis Sancte- 
Flelene) allied to one native to South Africa. Of Land-Snails 
twenty appear to be indigenous, if we include thirteen that have 
become extinct in recent times. The Beetles (Coleoptera) of the 
island have been studied with greater care than any other group 
of insects, and 129 species are native to the island, to which all 
except one of them are absolutely restricted. More than two- 
thirds of these beetles are weevils, and, considering the boring 
habits of such creatures, it is highly probable that the remote 
ancestors of many of them were conveyed to St. Helena by the 
agency of drift-wood. 

There can be no doubt that many of the animals originally 
native to this island have become extinct as the result of human 


424 DISTRIBUTION IN SPACE AND TIME 


occupation, the introduction of goats having had much to do 
with this (see p. 346). 

FAUNA OF THE ORIENTAL Recion.—The boundaries between 
this region and the Palearctic area are in part ill-defined, which 
naturally means the possession of a number of species in common. 
The south-eastern boundary, marking it off from the Australian 
region, is usually known as ‘“ Wallace's line”, which runs between 
Bali and Lombok, and thence northwards between Borneo and 
Celebes. Bali and Borneo thus mark the limit of the Oriental 
region in this direction. 

Oriental Mammals (Mammatia).—Taking first the Apes and 
Monkeys (Primates), we find that the higher or man-like Apes 
are shared between this and the Ethiopian region, for while the 
Gorilla and Chimpanzee are peculiar to the latter, the Orang- 
utan (Szzza) and Gibbons (/7y/odates and Stamanga) are purely 
oriental. The Proboscis Monkey (Vasafis) is restricted to 
Borneo, while Entellus Monkeys, &c. (Sesenopithecus), with 
Bonnet Monkeys and their immediate allies (J/acacus), mostly 
belong to this region. It is also the home of three species of 
Lemur, two of the Loris (or ‘*Slow” Lemurs), and the little 
Spectre Tarsier. Of the first, one (Zovzs) is restricted to South 
India and Ceylon, while the other (Vyctzcedus) ranges into the 
Philippines. The Spectre Tarsier (Zarstus spectrum), though 
chiefly oriental, is also found in Celebes. Two peculiar families 
of Insect-Eaters (/zsectzvora) are purely oriental, one including 
the Banxrings or Tree-Shrews (Zufazzde, fig. 1290), while 
the only representative of the other is the remarkable Flying- 
“Lemur” (Galeopithecus). There are also two peculiar genera 
(Aylomys and Gymnura) of the hedgehog kind. Among Bats 
(Chiroptera) the large Fruit-Bats (Pteropus) are characteristic, 
though not peculiar. Among Flesh-Eaters (Carnzvora) the 
Tiger (/elis tigris), though very typical, also ranges into North 
China; but there are a number of peculiar genera belonging to 
various carnivorous families, while Bears are not absent, as in 
the Ethiopian region. The Hoofed Mammals (Ungulata) are 
abundantly represented, and some of them are found nowhere 
else, e.g. the little Chevrotains (Zragu/us, represented in West 
Africa by Dorcatherium), the small Deer known as Muntjacs 
(Cervulus), and certain Antelopes (A zfzlofe and the four-horned 
Tetraceros). Rhinoceroses and Elephants (Prodoscidea) are shared 


GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION 425 


between this region and Africa. Tapirs (Zapzrws) are only to 
be found here and in the Neotropical area. Of Gnawers (fo- 
dentia) the most notable are perhaps the Asiatic Flying-Squirrels 
(Pderomys). Mammals Poor in Teeth (£dentata) are represented 
by some of the Pangolins (4Zanzs), though some of these are also 
native to Africa. 

Ortental Birds (Aves).—Two families of Perching Birds are 
confined to the region, 
z.e. the Green Bul- 
buls (Phyllornithide) 
and the Broadbills 
(Eurylemide); while 
some of the many pe- 
culiar genera include 
such _ better - known 
forms as the Tailor- 
Birds ( Orthotomus ), 
typical Hornbills 
( Buceros ), Peacocks 
( Pavo), Peacock- 
Pheasants (Polyplec- 
tron), Silver Pheas- 
ants (Genn@us) and 
related species, and 
the Water- Pheasant 
(Hydrophastanus ). 
Highly characteristic, 
though not entirely 
limited to this region, 
are the Jungle- Fowl 
(Gallus). Se cede ene ehvew Wales 

Oriental Reptiles 
(Reptilia).—Crocodiles (Crocodlus) are abundant in the region, 
and the long-snouted Garials (Garzats and Rhynchosuchus) are 
limited to it. Of the numerous Lizards (Lacerti/ia) the pretty 
little Flying Dragons (Draco) are purely oriental. The burrowing 
Shield-tailed Snakes (Uvofeltzde) are found in no other region; 
and the same is true for one genus (Bungarus) of poisonous ser- 
pents, including the Krait, which is supposed to work more havoc 
among the natives of India than any other creature of its kind. 


i 


426 DISTRIBUTION IN SPACE AND TIME 


Oriental Amphibians (Amphibia). — Though tailed forms 
(Urodela) are represented they are vastly outnumbered by the 
tailless ones (dura), but none of these call for special mention. 

Oriental Freshwater Fishes (Pisces).—Most of the Snake- 
headed Fishes (Ophzocephahde), which are able to live during 
the dry season in liquid mud, are limited to the region, and the 
same is true of the members of a small family (J/astacembehde) 
of eel-like forms, which, however, have nothing to do with the 
true eels. 

Oriental Insects (Insecta).—Regarding these Wallace remarks 
(in /sland Life):—‘ Among insects we may notice the magnificent 
golden and green Papilionide [7.e. Swallow-tail Butterflies] of 
various genera as being unequalled in the world; while the great 
Atlas Moth is probably the most gigantic of Lepidoptera, being 
sometimes 10 inches across the wings, which are also very broad. 
Among the beetles the strange flat-bodied Malayan Mormolyce 
is the largest of all the Carabide [z.e. predaceous ground-beetles], 
while the Catoxantha is equally a giant among the Buprestide. 
[The beautiful wing-covers of various species of this family are 
largely used in India for ornamental purposes.| On the whole, 
the insects of this region probably surpass those of any other part 
of the world, except South America, in size, variety, and beauty.” 

FauNA OF THE AUSTRALIAN Recion.—‘‘ Wallace’s line” (see 
p. 413), which divides this region from that last considered, is not 
the sharply-marked boundary that was at one time supposed, 
for a considerable number of oriental forms range to the east of 
it, and Australian forms to the west of it. Some authorities 
consider that the line should be drawn to the east of Celebes, 
which would then belong to the oriental region. Wallace’s line, 
if thus amended, would be a somewhat sharper boundary than it 
is now. New Zealand, too, possesses such well-marked positive 
and negative features that it should possibly be considered as a 
distinct (Novo-Zelanian) region, instead of being ranked merely 
as a sub-region. A few of its peculiarities will be indicated in 
the following brief sketch. 

Austrahan Mammals (Mammatia).— Among the animals 
found in Celebes are three belonging to peculiar genera, ze. a 
Black Ape (Cynopithecus), a Dwarf Ox (dzoa), and the Babirussa 
(Porcus or Babtrussa, fig. 1291), a curious pig-like form with long 
curled tusks in the upper jaw. It is also inhabited by a species 


GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION 427 


of Deer, a Civet-Cat, and five kinds of Squirrel, while the Spectre 
Tarsier (Zarsus spectrum) is said to be found on a small adjacent 
island. The Deer and Civet-Cat have possibly been introduced. 
Typical Pigs (Svs) range as far east as New Guinea, but with 
this exception, various Bats, a number of rats and mice, and the 
doubtfully indigenous Dingo (Canzs dingo) of the Australian 
continent, the mammalian fauna of the region (excluding Celebes) 
is made up of Marsupials (represented in Celebes) and Egg- 


GRISY 


Fig. 1291.—Babirussa (Badirussa) 


laying Mammals (J/onotremata). The last, which include the 
Duck-Bill (Ovnithorhynchus) and Spiny Ant-eaters (Zchzdna and 
Proechidna), are found in no other part of the world, though 
Marsupials are scantily represented in America. New Zealand 
is singularly devoid of indigenous mammals, there only being 
two peculiar species of bat, a doubtful rat, and a problematical 
otter-like creature. 

Australian Birds (Aves).—Among the most typical Australian 
groups are the beautiful Honey-Suckers (AZus¢phagide), many 
distinctive kinds of Parrot and Cockatoo, Birds of Paradise, 


428 DISTRIBUTION IN SPACE AND TIME 


Crowned Pigeons, the land Kingfisher (Dace/o) familiarly known 
as the “ Laughing Jackass”, the ‘“ More-Pork” birds (Podargus), 
the Mound-Builders, Cassowaries, and Emus. All these, except 
Honey-Suckers, Parrots (not Cockatoos), and Pigeons, are repre- 
sented in New Zealand, but the other birds named are absent. 
There are, however, some highly peculiar Novo-Zelanian forms, 
found in no other area. These include the Kea and Kaka 
Parrots (JVeséor), the ground-dwelling Owl-Parrot (S¢zxgops), 
and the Kiwi (d4féeryx), which is the smallest existing represen- 
tative of the Running Birds (Radztz). But within the period of 
human occupation a number of large species of the last-named 
group existed in the islands, ze. the ‘*Moas” (Dznxornzthide), 
some of which were over 10 feet in height. 

Australian Reptiles (Reptilia).—Crocodiles range across the 
northern part of the region as far east as the Solomon and 
Fiji Islands. Among the numerous Lizards two peculiar to the 
Australian continent deserve mention, ze. the Frilled Lizard 
(Chlanydosaurus), which can run for some distance on its hind- 
legs, and the spiny Mountain Devil (JZo/och). Snakes are found 
in abundance, but details are unnecessary. New Zealand pos- 
sesses a number of Lizards (Geckoes and Skznxks), but neither 
Crocodiles nor terrestrial Snakes. Some small islands in the 
Bay of Plenty are, however, of peculiar interest, for they are the 
home of the Tuatara (/fad/evia), which is the last surviving 
member of an exceedingly ancient and once widely distributed 
reptilian order (AAyuchocephala), that was very probably ancestral 
to all the other known groups. 

Austrahan Amphibians (A mphibia).—Tailless forms (Azur) 
are well represented in the region, but New Zealand has only 
one indigenous species of amphibian, a sort of Toad (Lzofe/ma). 

Australian Fishes (Pisces).—The most interesting species 
native to this region is Ceratodus, a Lung-Fish (Dzfxo0z) now 
limited to Queensland. 

Fauna oF THE NeotropricaL Recion.—Although the results 
of isolation are not here quite so well marked as in the case of 
Australia, to say nothing of New Zealand, the fauna of the region 
presents many well-marked characteristics, both positive and 
negative. It affords a refuge to certain archaic forms, which 
have been able to prolong the tenure of their existence in the 
absence of large numbers of carnivores, and, for the same reason, 


GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION 429 


may be regarded as the head-quarters of some other animals 
which, though not decadent, are comparatively defenceless. On 
the other hand, the region stands unsurpassed for variety and 
wealth of life, which is partly due to its unparalleled range in 
latitude and diversity in altitude. Every kind of climate and 
environment are exemplified, from the tropical forests of Brazil 
to the rigour of the high Andes or Tierra del Fuego, from the 
grassy pampas of the Argentine to the Patagonian desert. 

Neotropical Mammals (Mammaha).— To this region are 
absolutely confined the American Monkeys (Ceé¢de) and the 
Marmosets (/apatzde), both (especially the latter) of lower grade 
than their Old World cousins. Lemurs (Lemwrordea) are entirely 
absent, as from America in general. There are no fruit-eating 
Bats (Péeropide), but a number of genera are peculiar to the 
region, especially those including the blood-sucking Vampires 
(Desmodus and Diphylla). A somewhat remarkable negative 
feature of the Neotropical fauna is the almost complete absence 
of Insect-Eaters (/xsectzvora). The widely distributed Shrews 
(Sorzced@) are, however, represented in Central America, while 
the Agoutas (So/enodon) of Cuba and Hayti constitute a distinct 
family. 

Of the most predaceous Flesh-Eaters (Carnivora), z.e. the 
members of the Cat Family (/e/d@), there is a decided scarcity, 
the three largest indigenous species—Puma (felzs concolor), 
Jaguar (/ onca), and Ocelot (/. fardalis)—also ranging into 
North America. - The Civet Cat Family (V2verride) is entirely 
unrepresented; while of Bears (Urszd@) there is only the Spec- 
tacled Bear (Ursus ornatus) of Peru and Chili. Weasels 
(Mustelidz@) and creatures of the Dog Family (Canzd@) are 
fairly abundant. On the other hand, the Neotropical region is 
the head-quarters of the almost purely American family of 
Raccoons (Procyontde) and their allies) The Kinkajou (Cer- 
coleptes) is limited to the region, the long-snouted Coatimundis 
(Nasua) range as far north as Texas, while the Raccoons 
(Procyon) have a wide distribution in the New World. One 
member of this family is native to the Old World, ze. the 
Panda (4vurus) of the south-eastern Himalayas, and we have 
here therefore a good example of discontinuous distribution. 

The positive and negative characteristics of the region as 
regards Hoofed Mammals (Ungulata) are both well marked. 


430 DISTRIBUTION IN SPACE AND TIME 


The Odd-toed Ungulates (Pevzssodacty/2) are only represented 
by the archaic Tapirs (Zapzrus) of South and Central America. 
They are one of the stock examples of discontinuous distribution, 
being also found in south-east Asia. As in many similar cases 
they are the last surviving representatives of a once widely dis- 
tributed group (compare p. 410). There is also a scarcity of 
Even-toed Ungulates (d7feodactyla), for of non-ruminants there 
are only the little Peccaries (Ducotyles), which differ in many 
ways from the Swine of the Old World. They also range into 
the south of the Nearctic region. Among the Ruminants or 
Cud-Chewers (Rumnantia) the Deer Family (Cervzde) is repre- 
sented by a number of species belonging to two genera exclusively 
American. One of these (Padus) only includes a very small 
form (P. humztis), native to the Chilian Andes, and of which the 
male possesses tiny spikes by way of antlers. Most of the 
species belonging to the other genus (Cavzacus) are restricted to 
the Neotropical region, but the largest forms, e.g. Virginian and 
Mule Deer, which also have the most complex antlers, are 
Nearctic. The large family (Louzde) embracing Sheep, Goats, 
Antelopes, and Oxen, which has but few representatives in the 
Nearctic region, here has none at all. The Camels of the Old 
World are also absent, but the Guanaco (Lama guanacus) and 
Vicunia (ZL. vecunza) belong to the same family (Camefde), and 
furnish another typical example of discontinuous distribution. 

Gnawers (fodenfia) are extremely numerous in the Neotro- 
pical region, and among peculiar forms may be noted the Cavies 
(Cavizde), which include the largest existing Rodent (Aydro- 
cherus capybara), the Agoutis (Dasyproctide), and the Chinchillas 
(Chinchillide). The archaic and decadent order of Mammals 
Poor in Teeth (Zdentafa) is also better represented here than 
anywhere else, for typical Ant-eaters (AZyrimecophagid@), Sloths 
(Bradypodide), and Armadilloes (Dasypodidz) are only to be 
found in South America. As to Pouched Mammals (J/arsa- 
pialia), the Opossums (Lidelphyide) are native to both Americas, 
while the Opossum Rats (Cazolestes) belong to Colombia and 
Ecuador. 

Neotropical Birds (Aves).—The region stands unsurpassed 
for the richness and variety of its avifauna, while a great many 
families and genera are represented nowhere else, and some of 
the most distinctive forms are only shared with the Nearctic area. 


THE GREAT ANT-EATER (ALyrmecophaga jubata) 


The southern land-masses constitute the last refuge of a number 
of archaic groups, among which are the Mammals poor in Teeth 
(Zdentata), that are most abundantly represented in South America. 
The plate represents the Great Ant-eater (AZyrmecophaga jubata), 
one of the most remarkable Edentates native to that continent. 
If the long tail is included, its total length may be over 7 feet. 
The digits of the inwardly turned fore-feet are armed with long 
sharp claws, well adapted for tearing open ant-hills, and also 
serving as formidable defensive weapons. The small mouth is 
placed at the end of a long narrow snout, and the jaws are tooth- 
less. Ants are secured by means of the long protrusible tongue, 
which is made sticky by the abundant secretion of enormous 
salivary glands. The Great Ant-eater is a ground-animal, but 
some of its immediate relatives are small arboreal creatures. 


THE GREAT ANT-EATER (MYRMECOPHAGA JUBATAS 


ONE OF THE MOST REMARKABLE ANIMALS OF SOUTH AMERICA 


GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION 431 


Of Perching Birds (Passeres) a number of families are peculiar, 
and of these the following are among the most typical:—Manakins 
(Pupride), small birds which resemble the Tits in appearance 
and habits. The large family of Chatterers (Co¢¢xgéd), which 
include the Umbrella-Bird (Cephalopterus ornatus), so named 
from its large overhanging crest of feathers, and the clear-toned 
Bell- Bird (Chasmorhynchus). The Tree-Creepers or Picucules 
(Dendrocolaptide) vary remarkably in appearance and in the 
nature of their nests (see vol. iii, p. 463), while some of the 
insectivorous Ant-Thrushes (formicarizde) give notice by their 
twittering of the approach of armies of Foraging Ants (Zc7¢ous). 
We have also the American “ Orioles” (/c¢eridz), among which 
are the Cow-Birds (A/Zolobrus), some of which, like Cuckoos, lay 
their eggs in the nests of other species (see p. 186). The true 
“singing birds” (Oscznes) of the Old World are comparatively 
ill represented in this region, the feathered inhabitants of which 
appeal more to the eye than the ear. Thrushes, however, are 
abundant. 

Among Picarian Birds (Pcariz) the brilliantly coloured large- 
billed Toucans (Ahamphastid@) constitute a family peculiar to the 
region. A well-known and remarkable family common to South 
and North America is that of the Humming-Birds (77ochilde), 
which for beauty of form and plumage have few serious rivals. 
Though they range as far north as Alaska, their head-quarters 
are in the Neotropical region, which is the home of some 400 
species, about four-fifths of the total number. 

Of Parrots (Pszttacz) there are a number of genera not 
represented elsewhere, and the gorgeous long-tailed Macaws 
(Conuride) make up a family widely distributed through the 
region, though also ranging into the Nearctic area. 

Among true Game-Birds (Gale) the large and handsome 
Curassows and their allies, which are related to the Mound- 
Builders of the Australian region, constitute a family (Cracide) 
which is almost entirely neotropical. The remarkable Hoatzin 
(Opisthocomus cristatus), native to the northern part of South 
America (see vol. iii, p. 472), may perhaps be regarded as an 
aberrant game-bird, but it possesses so many structural pecu- 
liarities that it is placed in a distinct family (Opzsthocomide), 
while some authorities even consider that it is entitled to an 
order (Opzsthocomz) of its own. 


432 DISTRIBUTION IN SPACE AND TIME 


The South American forms known as Tinamous, sufficiently 
like game-birds to have earned the local name of “ partridges”, 
are in reality very primitive forms, which constitute a distinct 
order (Crypturz). One of the South American Birds of Prey 
(Accipitres), the huge Condor (Sarcorhampus gryphus) of the 
Andes, a kind of Vulture, is the largest existing flying bird, its 
spread of wing being as much as 9 feet. 

The only Running Birds (Aati/@) native to the New World 
are the Rheas (AZea) or South American Ostriches, which are 
smaller and less specialized than their African cousins. 

Neotropical Reptiles (Reptilia).—The warmer parts of the 
region are inhabited by Crocodiles (Cvrocodi/us), and forms 
known as Caimans (Cazzan), which are pretty closely related to 
the Alligators. Among the many Lizards (Lacerte/7a) members 
of the Iguana Family (/gvanid@) are conspicuous, though the 
group is shared with North America, and there are outlying forms 
in Madagascar and the Fiji Islands. The type-genus (/gzana) 
is only represented in tropical America and the West Indies, 
while the curious Basilisks (Basz/zscus) are limited to the former 
area. The Sea-Lizard (dimdblyrhynchus cristatus) of the Gala- 
pagos Islands is remarkable from its habit of browsing on sea- 
weeds which grow on the sea-floor in shallow water. 

Snakes (Ophidia) are well represented in the Neotropical 
region. They include most of the species of Boa, and the 
gigantic Anaconda (Zuneces murinus), which is the largest known 
serpent. The harmless Coral-Snake (//ysza scy¢ale), coral-red 
with black rings, is native to tropical South America. Of this 
species Gadow remarks (in Zhe Cambridge Natural Hrstory) 
that, “On account of its beauty, perfectly harmless nature, 
and for ‘cooling purposes’, this snake which grows to nearly 
a yard in length, is sometimes worn as a necklace by native 
ladies”. The name Coral Snake is also applied to a virulently 
poisonous species (Zaps coradlinus) native to the same area and 
also to the Lesser Antilles. It is related to the Cobras and 
Kraits of India, and the Death-Adders of Australia. 

A nphibians (Amphibia).—Though tailed forms (Uvode/a) just 
get into the northern part of the region, the vast majority of its 
Amphibians are Frogs and Toads (dura), The tongueless 
and toothless Surinam Toad (P2ja Americana), native to the 
north of South America, is one of the most interesting species, 


GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION 433 


which has been spoken about elsewhere, as also have some other 
neotropical forms (see vol. ili, p. 437). 

Neotropical Freshwater Fishes (Pisces).—A large eel-shaped 
Lung-Fish (Lefzedostven) is peculiar to South America, and the 
order (Dzpuor) to which it belongs is only elsewhere represented 
in Africa and Queensland (see p. 411). 

In ordinary Bony Fishes (7Ze/eostez) the region is extremely 
rich, and a few peculiar forms require mention. One family 
(Osteoglosside) is remarkable in the fact that its geographical 
range closely corresponds with that of the Lung-Fishes, except 
that it also includes Borneo and Sumatra. One of the neotropical 
species (Arapaima gigas), abundant in the great rivers of Brazil 
and the Guianas, is the largest freshwater representative of the 
order, for it may grow to a length of over 15 feet, and attain a 
weight of more than 400 lbs. Some of the neotropical members 
of the widely distributed Cat-Fish Family (Sz/u7zd@) are small 
forms distinguished by their armoured skins. The Electric Eels 
(Gymmnotzde) are characteristic of tropical America. 

Most Sharks and Rays (Z/asmobranchiz) are typically marine, 
yet some of the Sting-Rays (Zxygouide) are at home in the great 
rivers of South America, though the Indian Ocean is the head- 
quarters of the family. 

Neotropical Land- Molluscs (Mollusca). — The Neotropical 
region is particularly rich in members of this group, the West 
Indies being especially so, but it is unnecessary to enter into 
details. One curious negative feature is the complete absence of 
all members of the family (Zzmaczdz) that includes the ordinary 
Land-Slugs of the Old World, these being replaced by other 
types. 

Neotropical Insects (Lnsecta).— Regarding these Wallace 
makes the following remarks (in Zhe Geographical Distribution 
of Animals):—The Neotropical region is so excessively rich 
in insect life, it so abounds in peculiar groups, in forms of ex- 
quisite beauty, and in an endless profusion of species, that no 
adequate idea of this branch of its fauna can be conveyed by the 
mere enumeration of peculiar and characteristic groups. . . . The 
Butterflies of South America surpass those of all other regions 
in numbers, variety, and beauty; and we find here, not only more 
peculiar genera and families than elsewhere, but, what is more 
remarkable, a fuller representation of the whole series of families.” 


434 DISTRIBUTION IN SPACE AND TIME 


It is very interesting to note that in the tropical forests of South 
America the carnivorous beetles, which in countries like our own 
live upon the ground, have taken to an arboreal life. They are, 
in fact, driven from their natural domain by predaceous Ants, 
the habits of some of which have elsewhere been mentioned (see 
OL. Uy LOA). 


CHAPTER LXXVI 


LIFE IN DIFFERENT SURROUNDINGS—SHALLOW WATER, 
DEEP WATER, AND SURFACE FAUNAS OF THE SEA 


In writing this book an attempt has been made to illustrate 
some of the innumerable ways in which animals have become 
adapted to exist in various surroundings or environments. Occa- 
sion has been taken to consider pretty fully adaptations to various 
kinds of food, to the exigencies of life in water, on the ground, 
in the ground, among the trees, and in the air. It may there- 
fore perhaps suffice here to deal with a few facts having reference 
to the adaptations which have been evolved in relation to exis- 
tence in the sea, especially as the last chapter has been mainly 
devoted to land animals. 

In dealing with marine forms it is found convenient to divide 
the oceans into three zones which pass into one another, the 
Neritic, the Abysmal, and the Pelagic, each of which is char- 
acterized, broadly speaking, by a special fauna. The Pelagic 
zone includes the surface waters so far as penetrated by light to 
any marked extent; the Neritic zone extends from high-tide 
mark to a depth of 500 fathoms; and the Abysmal zone stretches 
from this into the deepest and gloomiest ocean abysses. 

It is further the practice to divide marine animals into the 
three groups of Benthos, Nekton, and Plankton, according to 
their locomotor possibilities. In the Benthos are included fixed 
forms, and animals which creep upon the sea-floor, or burrow in 
stone, sand, or mud. Adult corals, for instance, possess no 
power of moving from place to place, most crabs and sea-snails 
live on the sea-floor, while many annelids and most bivalves 
burrow. The Nekton is made up of animals, e.g. cetaceans 
and fishes, which are powerful swimmers and easily range from 
place to place of their own free-will. The Plankton fauna con- 


sist of weaker creatures, and numerous larve, which float or 
435 


436 DISTRIBUTION IN SPACE AND TIME 


drift with the currents, against which the swimming powers that 
many of them possess can make no headway, though useful in a 
minor degree. Such are various animalcules, small crustaceans, 
jelly-fishes, and salps. Floating eggs and innumerable larvee 
also belong to the Plankton. 


THE NERITIC ZONE—LIFE IN SHALLOW WATER 


The Neritic Zone embraces the area between tide-marks, z.e. 
the littoral sub-zone and the shallow waters adjacent. There 
being abundant light a great variety of colours and patterns are 
exhibited by the animals, many of these being useful to their 
possessors in one way or another. And, as might be anticipated, 
neritic animals mostly possess well-developed eyes, unless they 
happen to have become adapted to a burrowing mode of life. 
The fauna of this zone is rich in the extreme, its character vary- 
ing with climate and the nature of the sea-floor, among other 
determining circumstances. The intertidal area is of particular 
interest, for, being exposed to the action of the air at periodic 
intervals, it is intermediate in character between sea and land, 
presenting an environment which has rendered possible the 
evolution of certain terrestrial forms (see vol. ii, p. 459), some of 
which have again more or less reverted to the ancient aquatic 
existence. Land-Crabs, for instance, have sprung from purely 
marine forms, while Cetaceans have undergone a_ secondary 
adaptation to the original mode of life that characterized their 
exceedingly remote fish-like ancestors. 

Neritic Mammals (Mammatia).—A number of forms which 
partly belong to the land have more or less claim to be included 
in the fauna of this zone, though some of them also spend more 
or less of their time in the Pelagic area. Such in particular are 
the Sea-Lions or Eared Seals (Ofaride), Walruses (Trichechide), 
and Seals (Phocede), which make up a special group (Pzxnipedia) 
of the Flesh-Eaters. The Sea-Cows (Szrenia), including the 
Dugong (/falicore) and Manatee (J/anatus), have deserted the 
land entirely, though the latter pass up into rivers and are there- 
fore, in part, members of the freshwater fauna. 

Neritic Birds (Aves).—The nature of the development of 
birds prevents them from deserting the land altogether, but many 
species spend so large a part of their lives on the shore or in 


THE NERITIC ZONE—LIFE IN SHALLOW WATER 437 


shallow water that some allusion to them is necessary here. 
Among forms which still make considerable use of the land, 
other than for nesting purposes, the Gulls (Lavide) may be 
particularly mentioned, and many others have been dealt with 
in earlier sections, while the Penguins (/mpennes) are as neritic 
as it is possible for members of the class to be. 

Neriti Reptites.—The only case requiring mention is that 
presented by the Sea-Lizard (Amblyrhynchus cristatus), which 
spends a large part of its time feeding on the sea-weeds that 
grow in the shallow water. 

Neriti fishes (Pisces).—These are immensely numerous, and 
many of them have been dealt with in other sections. The 
majority of food-fishes, for instance, are neritic, though those of 
the herring and mackerel kind furnish important exceptions, yet 
many of these pelagic species favour the zone of shallow water 
for spawning purposes. The beautiful forms which abound in 
the neighbourhood of coral-reefs would alone require considerable 
space to do them justice. The effect produced upon the imagi- 
nation by the coral-fauna is vividly summarized by Alcock (in 
A Naturalist in Indian Seas) in the following impressionist 
sentences:—“ Looking back after thirteen years, I can only 
remember visions of fairy groves and glades, lit by a strange 
ethereal light, half moon half sun, where, among Christmas-trees 
of purple and blue and golden green, fishes painted like butter- 
flies flitted and hovered”. Those who desire to get some notion 
of the colour-schemes presented by such a fauna are referred to 
the magnificent plates in Saville Kent's Great Barrier Reef of 
Austraha, There are naturally a large number of interesting 
adaptations to be found among reef-animals, one of which has 
elsewhere been described (see p. 171). An interesting protective 
arrangement is found in a Coral-Fish (Apznephelus hexagonatus, 
fig. 1292) common in the Andaman Islands. The dark polygonal 
patches on its skin harmonize very well with the particular corals 
among which it feeds. A modification of different kind is pre- 
sented by the Parrot-Fishes (Scars), which owe their name to 
the strong curved jaws that enable them to browse upon the 
branches of various sorts of coral. 

Many British fishes of no economic value haunt the neighbour- 
hood of the coast, or may be seen in tidal pools. Such are some 


of the Gobies (Goézzdz), which include the beautiful Dragonets 
Vou. IV. 123 


438 DISTRIBUTION IN SPACE AND TIME 


(Callionymus), and, in warmer countries, the little Mud-Skippers 
(Periophthalmus and Boleophthalmus), the habits of which have 
already been noticed. Other families are those which include 
the Blennies (Blexnzide), many of the Bull-Heads (Cottzde), and 
the gorgeously tinted Wrasses (Laérzdz). There are also the 
curious Pipe-Fishes (Syxgvathide), remarkable for the brood- 
pouch possessed by the male, and among these are the Sea- 
Horses (Hippocampus, Phyllopteryx, &c.), which are not found 
in British seas. 

Primitive Vertebrates (Protochordata) of the Neritic Zone.— 
Lancelets (A mphiovus) and Acorn-headed Worms (Balanogéossus) 


Fig. 1292.—Coral-Fish (Z£pznephelus hexagonatus) 


are widely distributed neritic forms, with burrowing habits. The 
zone is also inhabited by large numbers of Ascidians or Sea- 
Squirts (Urochorda), some solitary and some colonial, which in 
their adult stage are attached to various objects. 

Nerttic Molluscs (Mollusca)—Head-footed Molluscs (Cepha- 
lopoda) abound in shallow water, Squids and Cuttle- Fishes, for 
instance, being found in large numbers around our own coasts, 
while eight-armed forms, such as the Poulpe (Octopus) and its 
allies, belong as much to the Benthos as to the Nekton, of the 
Neritic region, for they crawl as much as they swim, or possibly 
more so. 

Sea-Snails and Sea-Slugs (Gastropoda) simply swarm both 
in shallow water and between tide-marks, especially in the tropics. 
Among the commonest littoral forms on the British coasts are 
the Limpets (Pate//a2), which adhere so closely to the rocks that 
they defy the wash of the tide, to which their conical shell affords 
but little purchase; the Purple-Shells (Purpura lapillus), well 


THE NERITIC ZONE—LIFE IN SHALLOW WATER 439 


protected against the buffets of the waves when withdrawn into 
their thick white dwellings; and the Periwinkles (Littorina), 
including the edible species (Z. Z¢tovea); a smaller, more rounded 
kind (LZ. odtusata), often of bright-orange hue, which crawls 
over brown sea-weeds; and a third sort (Z. rudis), that dwells 
near high-water mark and has its breathing organs modified in 
consequence (see vol. ii, p. 459). Sea-Lemons (Doris) and other 
marine slugs are also common. 

Among neritic Bivalves (Lamellibranchia) forms of economic 
importance may be mentioned, such as the Oysters (Ostvea), 
attached by the substance of one valve; the Edible Mussels 
(Afytzlus), moored by silky byssus threads; the Scallops (Pectex), 
some of which can swim by opening and closing their shells; and 
the Cockles (Cardium), which burrow in the sand. Other delvers 
in sand or mud are the Gapers (AZya), the Razor-Shells (So/ez), 
and many more; while Piddocks ( Pho/as) and Date-Shells (Zztho- 
domus) are able to excavate dwellings in stone. 

Of Primitive Molluscs (4 mphineura) the flattened Mail-Shells 
(C&ztoz) live under stones or in rock-crevices. 

Neritic Crustaceans (Crustacea).—Prominent among these 
are the Prawns, Shrimps, Lobsters, and Crabs, of many species. 
Some forms of the last kind which we commonly see on our 
own coasts are the Edible Crab (Cancer pagurus), the green 
Shore-Crab (Carcznus manas), and, near low-tide mark, the little 
flattened Porcelain Crabs (Porcellana). 

Nerittc Annelids (Annelida).—Of these there is a vast host. 
Of British forms may be mentioned the actively-creeping Sea- 
Centipedes (Vervezs) and many related species; the Sea-Mice 
(Aphrodite), short plump worms with beautiful iridescent bristles; 
Scale-Worms (Polyzoe); Lug-Worms (Avenzcola), that burrow in 
sand or mud; Sand-Worms (Sade//aria), living in communities 
and gluing grains of sand into dwellings; and various species 
sheltered in white calcareous tubes, sometimes irregular in shape 
(Serpula), or coiled into small flat spirals (Sp7vorb7s) attached to 
brown sea-weeds. 

Other Worm-like Animals of the Neritic Zone.— Here may 
be mentioned, in passing, the colonial Moss-Polypes (Po/yzoa), 
of which the branching skeletons are often taken for sea-weeds; 
Nemertine Worms (Vemertea), slimy unsegmented creatures often 
found coiled up under stones; Siphon-Worms (Szpunculus), that 


440 DISTRIBUTION IN SPACE AND TIME 


burrow in the sand; and Turbellarian Worms (7Zurbellaria), 
variously shaped flattened forms often seen adhering to stones 
or other objects. 

Neritic Hedgehog-Skinned Animals (Echinodermata). — In 
warmer seas, and to some extent in our own, Feather-Stars 
(Comatula) climb or swim in shallow water. Ordinary Star- 
Fishes (Asterordea) use their numerous tube-feet for creeping, 
and Brittle-Stars (Ophzurordea) progress on the sea-floor by 


Fig. 1293.—Section through part of a Coral Reef 


means of their snake-like arms. Sea-Urchins (Zchznotdea) creep 
slowly about after the fashion of star-fishes, and their tube-feet 
adhere so strongly to rock-surfaces that some of them can even 
withstand the surf of coral-reefs. The Sea-Cucumbers (ffolo- 
thuroidea) of shallow water either creep or burrow. 

Neritic Zoophytes (Calenterata).—On British coasts the 
solitary Sea-Anemones, often beautifully coloured, are the most 
noticeable of the Sea-Flowers (duthozoa). The fauna of the Great 
Barrier Reef of Australia includes some creatures of this kind 
which are as much as 2 feet in diameter when fully expanded. 
In some of the warmer seas, where the water is sufficiently clear, 


THE NERITIC ZONE—LIFE IN SHALLOW WATER 441 


reefs are built up from the dead skeletons of a bewildering variety 
of Corals, simple or colonial, and the animals to which they belong 
_are closely related to the sea-anemones. Some Corals live on 
the floor of the deep sea, 
but the reef-builders, so 
far as we know, cannot sw, 
exist in water deeper than 

about 40 fathoms. Since 
some reefs extend down- 
wards into much greater 
depths (their foundations 
consisting of the skeletons 
of dead polypes, fig. 1293), 
Darwin came to the con- 
clusion that such reefs had 
been formed inareas where fig. 1294.—An encircling Coral-Reef in Plan and Section. By 
the sea-floor was sinking, hens ae he eee a corresponding upgrowth of coral, 
but at so slow a rate that 

upward growth kept pace with it. The theory affords a simple 
explanation of the ring-shaped reefs known as atolls, which might 
be supposed to have come into existence from the gradual sink- 
ing of islands fringed by reefs (figs. 1294, 1295). Borings recently 
made on coral islands lend strong support to the hypothesis. 


waar 


Fig. 1295.—An Atoll 


The population of the Neritic zone further includes large 
numbers of hydroid zoophytes and jelly-fishes (/7ydrozoa), these 
being in some cases the fixed and free-swimming stages in the 
life-history of the same species. 


442 DISTRIBUTION IN SPACE AND TIME 


THE ABYSMAL ZONE—LIFE IN DEEP WATER 


The Abysmal Zone includes that part of the sea into which 
daylight penetrates but little, if at all. Even the average depth 
of the ocean, taken as a whole, is about 2100 fathoms (12,600 
feet), while the profoundest abysses may be more than double 
this. The deepest patch at present known is off the coast of 
New Zealand, where a sounding of over 5000 fathoms (30,000 
feet) has been obtained. It was long supposed that the deep 
sea was entirely devoid of life, but the numerous scientific in- 
vestigations made during the last few decades have proved that 
even at great depths there is a rich and varied fauna, closely 
allied to that of the Neritic zone, but presenting many peculiar 
features in relation to the entirely different physical conditions. 
Except where this realm adjoins the Pelagic zone above it, it is 
probably in complete darkness so far as daylight is concerned, 
though it is more or less lit up by the phosphorescent glow given 
out by many of its inhabitants. The pressure is enormous, and 
the deep sea is also very cold, the temperature of its floor not 
being far removed from freezing-point. There is a complete 
absence of plants (except perhaps bacteria), and many of the 
animals are consequently predaceous in a marked degree. The 
requisite supply of food is maintained by the dead organisms 
which rain down from the Pelagic zone, or get washed in at the 
sides from the Neritic zone. Deep-sea animals present a great 
variety of colours, though no one tint can be said to characterize 
the fauna as a whole, and there is generally no blending of differ- 
ent hues in the same animal, nor any complex patterns or mark- 
ings. It would seem that the utilitarian explanations that are more 
or less applicable to the colour-schemes of neritic forms fall short 
here. Certain other features will best be explained by briefly 
reviewing some of the chief groups of animals. 

Deep-Sea Fishes (Pisces).—Most of the fishes of the deep 
sea are black or brown in colour, but some of them are purple, 
pink, or red, and since these brighter hues are most prevalent 
in the upper regions of the abyss, at depths of from 100 to 250 
fathoms, it is not impossible that they may correspond to a dull 
kind of sunset illumination due to light which has filtered down 
from the surface. Many deep-sea fishes are also characterized by 
the possession of variously arranged phosphorescent organs on 


THE ABYSMAL ZONE—LIFE IN DEEP WATER 443 


the head and body, but the use of these can only be conjectured 
in most cases. In some of the Deep-Sea Anglers (e.g. AZelano- 
cetus Murrayt) a luminous knob at the end of the “lure” almost 
certainly serves the purpose of attracting prey (see vol. ii, p. 85). 
The bodies of these abysmal forms are of great fragility, and 
there is a deficiency of lime in their skeletons. Huge mouths, 
provided with formidable teeth, associated with swallowing powers 
of no mean order, distinguish many species, giving them a hungry 


wicked ger 


Fig. 1296.—Blind Deep-Sea Fishes. 1, Typhlonus nasus; 2, Ipnops Murrayi; 3, Aphyonus gelatinosus. 


and ferocious appearance, and suggesting that no chance of a 
square meal is let slip. In the manner of sight there are startling 
differences which at first appear difficult to reconcile. In most 
cases the eyes are either large and owl-like, serving to catch the 
faintest rays of light, or else they are degenerate, sometimes, 
indeed, having entirely disappeared (fig. 1296). It is usually 
supposed that those fishes descended from ancestors which ex- 
changed neritic for abysmal life with sufficiently plastic eyes, so 
to speak, to render their adaptation to the new conditions possible, 
have gradually acquired exaggerated positive characteristics, while 
the blind or purblind forms have taken origin from ancestors in 


444 DISTRIBUTION IN SPACE AND TIME 


which such plasticity was absent. It is also clear that species 
which spend more or less of their time in the uppermost part of 
the abyss (and even in the Pelagic zone) 
have a better chance of improving their 
organs of vision. But the matter is still 
in the conjectural stage. 

Some of the fishes which see indif- 
ferently or not at all partly make up for 
the deficiency by the possession of long 
feelers, derived from fin- rays, which 
serve as a means of exploring the sur- 
rounding area to some distance (see 
p28), 

Deep-Sea Molluscs (Mollusca). — 
Some of the deep-sea Cuttle- Fishes (e.g. 
Taontus abyssicola, fig. 1297) are dis- 
tinguished by the possession of excep- 
tionally large eyes. The species figured 
has been dredged from depths of 902~ 
1370 fathoms in the Indian Ocean. 
st die ae Ne a There are also several curious Octopods 

. ass (see vol. iii, p. 33). The Snails and 
Bivalves possess unusually thin and fragile shells, while some of 
the former have lost the characteristic rasping-organ (odontophore). 


ae a! 
EE 
LS RF 
Ve 
i 


Fig. 1298.—Deep-Sea Prawn (Glyphocrangon priononota) with large eyes, and well-developed organs of smell 


Deep-Sea Crustaceans (Crustacea).—Pink and red are here 
the prevailing colours, but some forms are purple, yellow, cream- 


THE ABYSMAL ZONE—LIFE IN DEEP WATER 445 


colour, red, and even white, while others are spotted or striped 
in a simple manner. The hard investment of the body is 
comparatively thin and free from lime. As among Fishes, we 
find that the eyes are either greatly developed, or else more or 
less degenerate. We may take as an example of the former 
condition a kind of Prawn 
(Glyphocrangon priononota, fig. 
1298) inhabiting the Indian 
Ocean at depths of 865-1022 
fathoms. The figure illustrates 
two other interesting features. 
One branch of the first feelers 
(the thicker of the two fila- 
ments seen projecting in front) 
is of large size, and as this is 
the region which bears the 
olfactory organs the possession Fig. 1299.—Large Eyes of a Deep-Sea a (Para- 
of a keen sense of smell may ee ee eee (2) or 
be inferred. There is, further, 

a sharp defensive spine at the end of the tail, which can be turned 
up and held in that position by a sort of “locking joint”, acting 
as a bayonet to repel enemies at close quarters. It also appears 
that in some deep-sea crustaceans the fluid excreted from the 
renal organs gives out a phosphorescent light. In another kind 


A 
A 


A 
A 
A 
A 
A 
A 
A 
A 
A 
A 
4 
A 


i 


Fig. 1300.—A Blind Deep-Sea Shrimp (Prionocrangon ommeatosteres) 


of Prawn (Parapandalus spinipes, fig. 1299) there is what looks 
like a small accessory eye near the big one. If, however, this 
is really a luminous organ, as some think, the prawn provides 


its own eyes with light. 
To illustrate blind crustaceans we may take one of the 


Shrimps (Prionocrangon ommatosteres, fig. 1 300), which is 
absolutely destitute of eyes. 


446 DISTRIBUTION IN SPACE AND TIME 


Fig. 1301.—Group of Deep-Sea Animals. In foreground—a Sea-Cucumber on left, and a Coral (Lophohelia) on 
right. At back—Venus’ Flower-Basket (Zuflected/a) on right, two Sea-Lilies (RAizocrinus and Pentacrinus) in centre, 
and on left. In the middle—a Pelican Fish (Saccopharynx pelecanoides). 


The Stopper-Fisted Hermit-Crabs (Pydocheles) of the Indian 
Ocean and Caribbean Sea do not possess the twisted tails of 
our common native species, which live in cast-off snail-shells, 
nor is one of the pincers much larger than the other. These 
particular hermits are in all respects symmetrical, in adaptation 


THE ABYSMAL ZONE—LIFE IN DEEP WATER 447 


to their dwellings, which consist of water-logged joints of man- 
grove or bamboo. The large pincers act as a front-door, but a 
loophole is left between them to serve as a means of observation. 

Certain kinds of crustacean grow to a very much larger size 
in the deep sea than elsewhere. Among the Slaters (/sopoda), 
for example, of which the terrestrial wood-lice are the most familar 
types, we find one species (Bathynomus giganteus) which is a 
foot long. 

a Animals (Echinodermata) of the Deep 
Sea.—Star-Fishes, Brittle-Stars, and Sea-Urchins are all abun- 


Fig. 1302.--Deep-Sea Pycnogonid (Codossendeis) 


dantly represented in the abyss, while the beautiful Sea-Lilies 
(Crinocdea, fig. 1301), the representatives of a once dominant 
group, are found only in this zone. To this too are restricted the 
Elasipods, remarkable and apparently primitive types of the Sea- 
Cucumbers (folothurordea). They have a flattened under sur- 
face, and creep about like slugs on the soft deposits which cover 
the sea-floor (fig. 1301). 

Abysmal Sea-‘ Spiders” (Pycnogonida).— These curious 
jointed-limbed animals, which in the Neritic zone are represented 
by comparatively small forms, attain relatively colossal propor- 
tions in the abyss. One of them (Co/ossendezs) is represented 
in fig. 1302. 


Deep-Sea Corals (Anthozoa) and Sponges (Porifera).—Some 


448 DISTRIBUTION IN SPACE AND TIME 


very beautiful Corals and Sponges are found in the deep sea. 
Some of the latter resemble elegant vases in shape, with walls 
supported by glassy threads interwoven like lace (fig. 1301). 
Others are moored in the soft deposits of the sea-floor by long 
bundles of slender spicules of similar nature. 


PELAGIC ZONE—SURFACE LIFE 


It will here be convenient to consider separately animals which 
are powerful swimmers (Nekton) and those which float or drift 
(Plankton). 

PeLacic NEKTON. 
| —Among Mammals 
we find that the 
Pinnipede Carnivores 
(see p. 436) spend 
more or less of their 
time in this zone, to 
which they partly be- 
long. More purely 
pelagic, and alto- 
gether independent of 
the land, are Whales 
and their allies 
(Cetacea). There are 
also Birds which are 
pelagic, notably the 

| Albatross (Dionedea 
Ti app es neds aes . exudans) and the 
Tropic Birds (Pha- 
éthon); while the Sea-Snakes (f/ydrophine) of the Indian Ocean 
and part of the Pacific belong here in the main. A number of 
Fishes are chiefly met with in the open sea, among them being 
the Blue Shark (Carcharias glaucus) and the Rondeletian Shark 
(Carcharodon Rondeleti?). The Flying-Fish (Zxv0cetus volitans) 
and its enemy the Bonito (4Albicore bonito) are also pelagic, 
and so is the remarkably-shaped Sun-Fish (O7thagoriscus mola, 
fig. 1303). Many of the best swimmers among the Cuttle-Fishes 
and Squids are also found at or near the surface of the sea, far 
away from land. 


PELAGIC ZONE—SURFACE LIFE 449 


Petacic PLanxton.—The floating and drifting population of 
the sea possess a number of common characteristics related to 
their mode of life. They are typically translucent or transparent, 
a feature due to the large proportion of water in their tissues. 
By making some of them more or less difficult to see, this may 
serve to some extent as a means of protection (see vol. ii, p. 278), 
and by reducing the density of their bodies it must certainly 


Fig. 1304.—A Ray-Animalcule (7halassicola pelagica) with “‘ bubbly ” protoplasm, much enlarged. 


render floating a comparatively easy matter. The latter purpose 
is also promoted by arrangements of other kind. In many of the 
minute crustaceans and crustacean larve, for example, there are 
numerous spines and hairs which must reduce the tendency to 
sink. Oil-globules are of common occurrence, both in adult 
animals and in some floating eggs, such as those of fishes. And 
there may also be gas-receptacles for buoying up the body. In 
some of the Animalcules, for example, the living substance 
(protoplasm) of the animal is of ‘‘ bubbly” consistency, owing to 
the presence of minute spaces filled with liquid, or even gas 
(fig. 1304). In many of the Compound Jelly- Fishes (Szphono- 
phora) there is a gas-filled float at the upper end of the colony, 


450 DISTRIBUTION IN SPACE AND TIME 


and sometimes (Vedella, fig. 1305) a crest projecting from this 
may almost be said to serve as a sail. 

It must not be supposed, however, that plankton animals are 
always found at the surface, for, on the contrary, they are able 
to withdraw themselves from it to a greater or less depth, and 
thus avoid the damaging effects of a rough sea or an excess of 
temperature. Our ignorance is at present too great to enable 
us to explain the reasons for all the upward or downward move- 
ments which constantly go on, sometimes in a curious periodic 
manner. As Hickson says (in Zhe Story of Life im the Seas, 


Fig. 1305.—Velella 


a little book which is heartily commended to the attention of 
readers) :—‘‘ The fact is, that the conditions of life in the surface 
waters are so complicated that it is extremely difficult for us to 
accurately estimate the balance of the forces which act upon these 
organisms. The direct heat of the sun, the light of both the sun 
and the moon, the tranquillity or roughness of the sea, the con- 
ditions of the tides and winds which cause changes in the surface 
temperature of the water, independently of the direct heat of the 
sun, all influence the delicate tissues of which these animals’ 
bodies are composed, and cause them to change their position.” 
Phosphorescence is another common property of plankton animals, 
and its meaning is in many cases difficult to understand. Plank- 
tons are of very various character. Some contain animals of 
many different species, others consist of a single form of life. 
Vertebrates (Vertebrata) of the Plankton.—Among Fishes 
(Prsces) occasion has already been taken to note (see vol. iii, 


PELAGIC ZONE—SURFACE LIFE 451 


p. 425) that a great many species lay floating eggs, and these, 
together with the transparent larve that hatch out of them, 
belong to the plankton fauna. Primitive Vertebrates (Profo- 
chordata) are abundantly represented by certain Sea-Squirts or 
Ascidians (Uvochorda), including some little tadpole-shaped forms 
(Appendicularia, &c.), Barrel Ascidians (Doliolum), Salps (Salpa), 
and Fire-Cylinders (Pyzosoma), all of which have received notice 


Fig. 1306.—Wing-Footed Snails (Pteropfoda). a, Cuvierina; 8, Clio; c, Creseis; p, shell of Cleodora; £, Limacina; 
F, Clione; Gc, Halopsyche; u, front part of Pneumoderma, with hook-bearing tubes and groups of stalked suckers, for 
securing prey. A-£, Shell-bearing forms; F-H, shell-less forms. 


in earlier sections (see vol. i, p. 299; vol. iii, pp. 38 and 422; and 
p. 106 of present volume). 

Plankton Molluscs (Mollusca).—The beautiful Violet-Snail 
(Lanthina), with its egg-raft, belongs here, also the members of 
the remarkable and diversified group of Fin-Footed Snails (/e¢ero- 
oda), and a curious little Sea-Slug (Phydirhoe), which is flattened 
from side to side (see vol. iii, pp. 34 and 36). Far more 
characteristic than these, however, are the little Wing-Footed 
Snails (Pteropoda, fig. 1306), which are often found associated 
in vast shoals, affording an important contribution to the bill of 
fare of animals so large as Whales. 


452 DISTRIBUTION IN SPACE AND TIME 


The larve of numerous Molluscs simply swarm in the surface 
waters of the sea. 

Plankton Insects (Insecta).—Although Insects are essentially 
land-forms, a few Bugs (e.g. /Ya/obates) live on the surface of the 
open sea. 

Plankton Crusta- 
ceans (Crustacea). — 
Many members _ of 
this group, and in- 
numerable crustacean 
larvee, are among the 
most important plank- 
ton animals. Some, 
as the Swimming- 
Crabs, may be of fair 
size, but by far the 
most dominant order 
is that of the Fork- 
Footed Crustaceans 
(Copepoda, fig. 1307), 
which are of great 
economic importance, 
because they constitute 
the staple diet of Her- 
rings and some other 
valuable food - fishes 
(See p. 293), 

Plankton Anneltds 
. ( Annelida ). — Some 
ee eerie 

are specially adapted 
to a life in the surface waters, and one remarkable example 
(Tomopteris) has elsewhere been described (see vol. iii, p. 22). 

Plankton Echinoderms (Echinodermata).—The curious larve 
of all sorts of Echinoderms are abundantly found in plankton at 
certain times of the year, but the adult members of the group 
seem little suited for this kind of life. A kind of Sea-Cucumber 
(Pelagothuria), however, has acquired the necessary adaptations 
for the purpose (see vol. iii, p. 24). 

Nemertine Worms (Nemertea) of the Plankton.—The larve 


bo 


PELAGIC ZONE—SURFACE LIFE 453 


of these curious Worms, like those of the last-named group, are 
well represented in the surface waters of the sea, and some adult 
Nemertines have given up creeping and taken to a pelagic life. 
One of the most remarkable (Peda- 
onemertes) is represented in fig, 
1308. 

Plankton Thread-Worms (Ne- 
mathelmia). — Among the com- 


Fig. 1308.—Pelagic Nemertine Worm Fig. 1309.—Night-Light Animalcules 
(Pelagonemertes), reduced (Woctzluca), enlarged 


monest inhabitants.of the surface waters are the curious little 
fish-shaped Arrow-Worms (Sagztta, Spadella, &c.), which con- 
stitute a special group (Chefognatha) that is generally supposed 
to be an outlying constituency of the Thread-Worms (see vol. iii, 
p- 21), though its affinities are doubtful. 


Fig. 1310,—Shells of Ray-Animalcules (Radiolaia), imbedded in the 
fibrous skeleton of a sponge 


Plankton Zoophytes (Caelenterata).—A bewildering variety of 
jelly-fishes, belonging to all sorts of groups, abound in the surface 
waters. Many of them have abandoned altogether the fixed 
zoophyte-stage that is found in the life-history of many such 


creatures (see vol. iii, p. 349). Perhaps the most interesting 
124 
VoL. IV. 


454 DISTRIBUTION IN SPACE AND TIME 


among them are the Compound Jelly-Fishes (Szphonophora), 
which are floating colonies, often of very complicated nature, as 
the members of the colony are modified in many various ways in 
order to fit them for diverse functions (see p. 103). 

Plankton Animatcules (Protozoa).—One very interesting form, 
the Night-Light Animalcule (Voc¢zduca, fig. 1309), is a common 
cause of the phosphorescent appearance of the sea around our 


TAMA RAL 


Fig. 1311.—Group of Foraminifera. 1, Ammodiscus incertus; 2, A. charoides: 3, Trochammina coronata; 
4, T. nitida; 5, Textularia agglutinans; 6, Verneuilina pygmza; 7, Lagena seminuda; 8, t{Nodosaria scalaris; 
9, Ramulina globulifera; 10, Polystomella imperatrix. 


coasts. Two groups are very dominant in the plankton, the 
Ray-Animalcules (Radzolaria, fig. 1310) and the Forams (Fora- 
minifera, fig. 1311). The former possess a flinty skeleton, often 
of great complexity and beauty, while the latter are provided 
with elegant calcareous shells of the most various shapes. Vast 
areas of the sea-floor are covered by soft “oozes”, which are 
largely composed of the hard parts of deceased members of 
these two groups that are being continually rained down from 
the surface waters. There also appear to be some few species 


PELAGIC ZONE—SURFACE LIFE 455 


of both groups that actually live on the floor of the abysmal 
zone. 

Besides the typical plankton fauna which has just been briefly 
dealt with, the Pelagic zone is also inhabited by another assem- 
blage of animals associated with various drifting objects, and 
particularly with the vast accumulations of sea-weeds that are 
found in the Sargasso Sea and elsewhere. Details would here 
be out of place, but it may be remarked that fixed forms of life, 
such as hydroid zoophytes, by attaching themselves to floating 
sea-weed, are enabled to maintain a foothold in the Pelagic zone. 
It is a matter of common knowledge that one of the most curious 
of fixed Crustaceans, the Ship- Barnacle (Zefas), is commonly 
found adhering to drifting objects. 

The skins of Whales and Fishes also afford a home to quite 
a number of attached species, some of which are external parasites 
belonging to various groups. And many pelagic animals are also 
the unwilling hosts of numerous internal parasites, from which 
no zone affords escape. 

Large bodies of fresh water may also be divided into zones, 
inhabited by characteristic faunas. The plankton of lakes is of 
particular interest, and also of some economic importance, as its 


population augments the food-supply available for freshwater 
fishes. 


CHAPTER LXXVII 
DISTRIBUTION IN TIME—THE GEOLOGICAL RECORD 


If a large and complicated tree were submerged in water 
except the ends of some of its branches, these ends, projecting 
above the surface, would have the same sort of relationship to 
one another as existing groups of animals. ‘To sketch the sub- 
merged tree on the evidence of the parts seen above water would 
prove a hopeless task, and to determine the mutual affinities of 
existing groups of animals without knowledge of their past history 
is also a difficult matter, though structure and development give 
many clues. Geology, however, furnishes us with a great deal of 
material from which to reconstruct the ancient life-history of the 
earth. It deals with periods of which the oldest date back to 
immensely remote times, if measured by the ordinary human 
standards of years and centuries, and the history of mankind 
occupies only the last page of the chronicle. 

Tue GeroLocicaL Rrecorp.—At the present time deposits of 
sand, mud, and limestone are being formed in the sea, in bodies 
of fresh water, and some other places, and these enclose the 
remains of dead animals, such as are well provided with hard 
parts standing the best chance of preservation. These deposits 
are arranged in successive layers, of which the uppermost are 
necessarily the youngest, and contain the remains of such animals 
as have most recently deceased. Examination of the hard frame- 
work of the land shows that a large part of it is made up of rocks, 
such as clay, slate, sandstone, and limestone, which are similarly 
arranged in layers, 7.e. are stratified, each such layer being known 
as a stratum (fig. 1312). Imbedded in these strata are fossz/s, 
which are no other than the remains of animals (and _ plants) 
which once existed, or markings, e.g. footprints and other im- 
pressions, that prove the existence of certain forms of life at the 


time when the rocks containing them were formed. These strati- 
456 


DISTRIBUTION IN TIME—THE GEOLOGICAL RECORD 457 


fied rocks, the pages of the geological record, are the deposits 
formed in ancient seas and ancient lakes, or more rarely on old 
land-surfaces, in the same way that sand, or mud, or ooze is now 
accumulating on the floor of the existing ocean, in existing bodies 
of fresh water, or, it may be, on land. Such old deposits, how- 
ever, have usually undergone more or less consolidation, and 
those which we now find above-water owe their present position 
to movements of elevation, such as are even yet in progress in 
certain parts of the world. But as these movements are generally 
extremely slow, they usually produce no obvious result in the 
brief span of a human lifetime. Remembering that a particular 
stratum or layer of rock (and of necessity its fossils) is older than 
those which rest upon it, and younger than those which underlie 
it, geologists have been able to arrange 
the different strata in their proper chrono- 
logical sequence, and thus to construct a 
continuous geological record, often pic- 
turesquely known as the “record of the 
rocks”. The fossils of the record obviously 
afford some idea, though necessarily an sig :y1a— Strata in Vertical Section 
imperfect one, of the successive faunas of 

the globe for many millions of years, how many can only be 
conjectured. A hundred millions is a common estimate, based 
on many different kinds of evidence. 

GroLocicaL Prrtops.—Without entering into details which 
may be found in any text-book of geology, it may be stated that 
the geological record can be divided into four great epochs, which 
are, beginning with the youngest: 

KAINOZOIC EPOCH (Gk. aznos, recent; zoé, life)—Age of Birds 

and Mammals. 

MESOZOIC EPOCH (Gk. mesos, middle; zoé).—Age of Reptiles. 

PALAZEOZOIC EPOCH (Gk. palaios, ancient; zo@)—Age of Amphi- 

bians, Fishes, and Invertebrates. 

EOZOIC EPOCH (Gk. cos, dawn; zoé).—Age of Unknown Life. 


The time represented by these four epochs is of very unequal 
length, but the Kainozoic, in which we live, has endured for a 
much shorter period than the Mesozoic, which in its turn was 
briefer than the Paleozoic, while possibly the Eozoic was longer 
than the other three put together. The entire geological record 
includes stratified rocks to a thickness of over 100,000 feet, a 


458 DISTRIBUTION IN SPACE AND TIME 


sufficiently bulky volume in which to study the evolutionary his- 
tory (phylogeny) of animal groups. As will be seen from the 
above indication of the types dominant in the successive epochs, 
there has been a successive progress from low to high, in con- 
formity with the doctrine of evolution; but the record is very 
imperfect, and that part of it belonging to the Eozoic is made 
up of pages which so far have turned out to be practically blank. 
Many parts of the world, however, are as yet unexplored, so far 
as their geology is concerned, and during the last few decades 
the additions to our knowledge have been so great that much is 
to be hoped for in the future. 


LIFE IN THE PAL/-EOZOIC EPOCH 


That animal life existed long before the commencement of this 
epoch is sufficiently shown that in its earliest stage all the great 
groups of Backboneless Animals (Invertebrata), save those en- 
tirely devoid of hard parts capable of preservation, are represented, 
mostly by forms which we are able to classify with some approach 
to certainty. And before the epoch came to an end all the classes 
of Backboned Animals (Vertebrata), except Primitive Vertebrates 
(of the past history of which, owing to the soft nature of their 
bodies, we can never hope to learn much), Birds, and Mammals, 
had come into existence, as testified by numerous fossils. 

PaLozoic ANIMALCULES (PRoTozoA).—The Ray-Animalcules 
(Radiolaria) and Forams (Foramznztfera) are here and there abun- 
dant. The flinty shells of the former make up hard siliceous 
bands (cherts) which were certainly deposited in very deep water, 
and correspond to the Radiolarian oozes which now cover parts of 
the ocean floor. Some of the limestones (e.g. the Fusulina lime- 
stone) belonging to that part of the epoch when our coal-fields 
were formed are made up mainly of the shells of Foraminifera, 
and these may be compared to the wide-spread foraminiferal oozes 
of the present day. 

It may be remarked, in passing, that some of the rocks of the 
Eozoic epoch (in Brittany) contain the remains of Ray-Animal- 
cules. 

PaLtmozoic ZOOPHYTES (C@LENTERATA).— The variously-shaped 
colonial forms known as Graptolites (Ahabdophora, fig. 1313) are 
largely represented in some of the older Palzeozoic rocks, and the 


LIFE IN THE PALA OZOIC EPOCH 459 


group died out entirely before the end of the epoch. They were 
very probably related to the existing Hydroid Zoophytes, and 
most of them belonged to the plankton of their time, and were 
most likely attached to drifting masses of sea-weed. In fact, 
Sargasso conditions were probably then more widely spread than 
now. 

Corals were extremely abundant, and some of them were reef- 
builders, but they were mostly of a more primitive type than those 
now existing, and chiefly belonged to the extinct group of Four- 
Rayed Sea-Flowers ( Ze¢rac- 
tinva or Rugosa). 

PaL£o0zoic HEDGEHOG - 
SKINNED ANIMALS (EcHINO- 
DERMATA).—Sea- Lilies (C7- 
noidea), now a declining 
group, were extremely abun- 
dant, and some of the Palzo- 
zoic limestones are mainly 
composed of their remains. 
Two other classes of fixed 
Crinoids are limited to this 
epoch, and one of them 
(Cystotdea) is of particular 
interest, because it pro- 


Fig. 13t3.—Forked Graptolites (Didymograptus) on the 
bably represents the stock surface of a piece of rock. A small part of one is drawn 


to a larger scale. 


from which all other echino- 

derm groups have been derived, directly or indirectly. The 
other order (Blastordea) was a sterile side-branch. Star-Fishes 
(Asterordea) and Brittle-Stars (Ophzurodea) were both repre- 
sented, and one of the former (Padzodiscus) possessed a biting 
apparatus like that of many Sea-Urchins. The class (Zchzn- 
oidea) to which creatures of the last-named kind belong was 
represented by a number of primitive types, with more numerous 
plates than later species, and (on the evidence of Palaodiscus) 
it has been suggested that Sea-Urchins are descended from Star- 
Fishes. 

Patsozoic Lamp-Suetts (Bracuiopopa).—This group of 
greatly specialized worms, distinguished by the possession of a 
bivalve shell, at the present time contributes but little to the 
fauna of the sea. In the Paleozoic epoch it was extremely 


460 DISTRIBUTION IN SPACE AND TIME 


dominant, and embraced a great variety of species, mostly be- 
longing to extinct types. It is notable, however, that some of 
the lowlier forms which lived at the beginning of the period, 
eg. the Tongue-Shells (Lingula, &c., fig. 1314), have persisted 
to the present day with but slight modification, so far as can be 
judged from the shell alone. That these and other “persistent 
types” should remain unmodified for vast periods 
of time has been brought forward as an argu- 
ment against the doctrine of evolution. It is, on 
the contrary, what might be expected to some- 
times occur in animals devoid of relatively com- 
plex adaptations to their surroundings. It was 
Fic vA foo 8180 at one time positively stated that Lamp- 
ee Shells, taken as a whole, afford no instance of 
modification on evolutionary lines. Of late years, 
however, thanks to the brilliant work of the American school of 
geologists, we know that the evidence afforded by this group is 
enough in itself to convince any candid naturalist that evolution 
has been the guiding principle in the animal world. 
PaLtsozorc JornTeD-Limpep Animats (ArTHROPopDA).—AI] 
the existing orders of Crustaceans (Crustacea) were represented 


Fig. 1315.—Upper Surfaces of three Trilobites. Olenus (left), Paradoxides (centre), Olenellus (right). Actual 
size indicated by the fractions. 

in the fauna of this epoch, except the Fork-footed Crustaceans 
(Copepoda), which are of too delicate a nature to be preserved as 
fossil, though they no doubt existed. It is noticeable that some 
of the more primitive types made their appearance very early, 
the contrary being true for the more specialized ones, such as 
creatures of the prawn and crab kind. 


LIFE IN THE PALZOZOIC EPOCH 461 


The curious 77zlodites (Trilobita, fig. 1315), which constituted 
a closely allied class, were dominant in the older Palaeozoic periods, 
but became entirely extinct before the end of the epoch. In these 
creatures the upper side of the body was covered by a firm in- 
vestment divided into a head-shield, a varying number of thoracic 
segments, and a tail-shield. There was also, as a rule, a longi- 
tudinal division into three regions, 
and this is the origin of the name 
“trilobite”. The numerous species 
exhibited a great range of characters, 
both as regards size, shape, and other 
features. The upper side of the head- 
shield often bore a pair of eyes, fre- 
quently large and facetted, but visual 
organs were sometimes entirely ab- 
sent. Our knowledge of the under 
surface and limbs of trilobites was very 
incomplete till comparatively recently, : No 
. OPEN IOAN 
partly on account of the delicacy of Wy PEFR 
these parts, but now, chiefly owing Cex Zan 
to the investigations of American ee a 
geologists on certain well-preserved 
species, many points relating to them 
have been elucidated. The head 
carried a pair of slender feelers, and 
there were numerous pairs of forked 


e 6 = Fig. 1316.—a, Under side of a Trilobite (77z- 
limbs used for crawling and swim- arthrus) restored, showing the numerous jointed 


limbs. azz., antenne; 2.2, upper lip; 2.2., lower 


ming, while some of those in the 42°), Diagrammatic cross-section through same, 
region of the mouth acted as jaws seve tnbresom. s; Pjeson saving a 
(fig. 1316). Many of the stages in 
growth have been observed, and it may be said that trilobites 
which, when adult, are of simple structure, resemble the early 
stages of those which attain to greater complexity. This is 
precisely what the doctrine of evolution would lead us to expect. 
It may be added that many trilobites were able to roll up like 
hedgehogs, and this was no doubt a means of protection. 
Appearing rather later in time than the Trilobites, which they 
to some extent supplanted, we find Lurypterids (e.g. Pterygotus, 
fig. 1317), some of which attained a length of about 5 feet. 
They died out before the end of the epoch, and appear to have 


462 DISTRIBUTION IN SPACE AND TIME 


been related to the Crustaceans. The Azng-Crabs (Xtphosura), 
now represented by a single genus (Lzudus), first made their 
appearance in Palzozoic times. They are sometimes included 
with the Eurypterids in a special group (JZerostomata). 
Centipedes and ALillipedes (Myriapoda) were represented by 
several palzozoic forms with somewhat primitive characters, while 
among Spider-like Animals (Arachnida) there were Scorpions, 
which appeared comparatively early, Whip-Scorpions, and 
Spiders, besides representatives (e.g. Aophrynus, fig. 1318) of 


ee 
2 
2, 


2. 
Cp 


Fig. 1317.—A Eurypterid (Péerygotus), much reduced Fig. 1318.—An extinct Arachnid (Eophrynus) 


an order limited to the epoch. Four orders of /nsects (Insecta) 
had palozoic representatives, ze. Primitive Wingless Insects 
(dptera), Straight-Wings (Orthoptera), Net-Wings (Meuroptera), 
and Bugs (/femzptera). Some of them were of considerable size, 
and it is by no means certain that the older types really belonged 
to existing orders. 

Pat.zozoic. Mottiuscs (Motiusca).—Among Aead- Footed 
Volluscs (Cephalopoda) now existing, only the Pearly Nautilus 
(Nautilus) possesses an external shell, of which the part not 
occupied by the animal is divided by partitions into a series of 
gas-filled chambers. But in the paleeozoic rocks we find the re- 
mains of a great many species thus characterized. Their shells 
were straight, curved, open spirals, or closed spirals, like that of 
Nautilus, which dates back to the middle of the epoch. It seems 


LIFE IN THE PALAOZOIC EPOCH 463 


probable that the straight-chambered shell was first evolved, and 
that this gradually underwent a process of coiling up, as a means 
of facilitating locomotion. 

Marine Snacls (Gastropoda) are abundantly represented among 
the paleozoic fossils, and it may be said generally that they be- 
longed to the more primitive families, and were mostly of vege- 
tarian habit. We also know that Land-Snails existed. The 
Lusk-Shells (Scaphopoda) date back to this epoch, and Bivalves 
(Lamellibranchia), the older ones of primitive type, were abundant. 
Primitive Molluscs (Anphineura) were represented by Mail-Shells 
(Chzton, &c.) of various kind. 

PaLwozoic Fisues (Pisces).—There is no clear 
proof of the existence of fishes in the earlier rocks 
of the epoch, but later on they became abundant. 
The teeth and spines of Sharks, &c. (Elasmo- 
branchit), are common fossils, and the armour- 
plated marine ancestors of Ganozds (Ganotdet) were 
abundantly represented, as also forms in all proba- 
bility ancestral to the Lung-Fishes (Dipnot). Many 
palzozoic fishes also belonged to orders that are — Fig.1319.—AnOstra- 
now extinct. Some of the oldest of the fish-like "iid 
forms, distinguished by a covering of shelly plates 
on the front part of the body, also by the absence of lower jaws 
and paired fins, were probably not really fishes at all, and have 
been placed in a special group (Ostracodermata, fig. 1319) of 
lower rank. 

Pataozorc Ampuipians (Ampuipia).—These are represented 
in the second half of the epoch by numerous species, all belonging 
to an extinct order (Stegocephala), distinguished by the possession 
of skins which were more or less armour-plated, especially on the 
head. While some of these creatures were small, others attained 
considerable dimensions. The footprints of some of them have 
been preserved. The chief interest attaching to the order lies 
in the fact that it was probably ancestral to Reptiles. It is also 
worth while noting that some few members of the order (e.g. 
Dolichosoma) were limbless and snake-like, suggesting a com- 
parison with the recent Cecilians (Gynophiona), a widely dis- 
tributed and in some respects primitive group, eg. in the 
possession of little bony plates in the skin. 

PaLawozoic Reptites (RepTiLia).—A few fossil types from 


464 DISTRIBUTION IN SPACE AND TIME 


the last stage in the Paleozoic epoch, formerly placed in the 
Stegocephala, are now referred to an extinct order of Reptiles 
(Proreptilia), which furnishes the nearest approach to the original 
reptilian stock. A further stage in evolution was represented by 
a second order (Rhyuchocephala), from which the remaining 
groups of reptiles have probably sprung. There is a single exist- 
ing species, the Tuatara (//atterva punctata) of New Zealand. 
There were some other palozoic reptiles, but these will be 
mentioned in dealing with the succeeding epoch. 


LIFE IN THE MESOZOIC EPOCH 


The animals of this epoch approached more nearly those of 
the present day than did their paleozoic predecessors. They 
included, however, a number of remark- 
able extinct groups, some of which were 
extremely dominant, while other classes, 
e.g. Birds and Mammals, which now play 
leading parts, were but feebly represented. 

Mesozoic ANIMALCULES (PROTOZOA).— 
The familiar chalk, which makes up the 

Fig. 1320.—Foraminifera fromthe“ white cliffs of Albion”, and ranges east 

far into Asia, was deposited in the later 

part of the epoch. It is very largely made up of the remains of 

Foraminifera (fig. 1320), and before compacted and upheaved 

must have borne a close resemblance to the foraminiferal oozes 
which are now spread over a large part of the ocean floor. 

Mesozoic Sponces (PortrerA).—During the chalk period a 
large number of Sponges possessed of siliceous skeletons existed 
in the moderately deep sea, and it is their remains which chiefly 
furnished material for the large flint nodules that abound in part 
of the chalk, and which have a very particular interest for students 
of the evolution of human civilization, since from them many of 
the stone implements and weapons of prehistoric European races 
were fashioned. 

Mesozoic ZoopnyTes (C@LENTERATA).—Corals were extremely 
abundant during the epoch, and many of them were reef-builders. 
They belonged to the same great group (/evacéinza) that includes 
the most typical recent forms, being, like them, distinguished by 
a six-rayed symmetry. 


LIFE IN THE MESOZOIC EPOCH 465 


Mesozoic HepGEHoG-SKINNED ANIMALS (ECHINODERMATA).— 
Sea-Lilies (Crznozdea) were far less dominant than during the 
Palaeozoic epoch, and were represented by types of different kind, 
some of them (e.g. Pextacrinus) being closely allied to forms now 
living in the deep sea. Feather-Stars, belonging to the same 
class, but distinguished by the fact that when adult they abandon 
their stalks and take to a free life, first made their appearance 
during this epoch. 

Ordinary Star-Fishes (Asterordea) and Brittle-Stars (Ophzu- 
rotdea) were of increasing importance, and very numerous Sea- 
Urchins (Zchznordea) existed, many of them resembling recent 
forms, and differing greatly from the primitive paleozoic types. 

Mesozoic Lamp-SHELLs (Bracui- 
opopa).—These lost their dominance 
during this epoch, and the most im- 
portant species belonged to genera 
which are represented at the present 
day (e.g. Terebratula and Rhyucho- 
nella). 

Mesozoic JoInTED-Limpep ANI- 
maLs (ArTHROPODA).—The Trilobites 
and Eurypterids of the Paleozoic 
epoch were entirely unrepresented, 
but undoubted Crustaceans (Crustacea) were common. These 
included numerous species belonging to the highest order 
(Decapoda), and more or less resembling the Lobsters, Prawns, 
Shrimps, and Crabs of the present day. 

Among the air-breathing forms Jusects (/usecta) were 
gradually acquiring a dominant position. Of orders for the 
first time represented may be mentioned Beetles (Codeoptera), 
Flies (Dzpdera), and Membrane-Wings (Hymenoptera). Ants 
are the most ancient members of the last order, so far as the 


Fig. 1321.—Shell of an Ammonite (reduced) 


evidence goes. 

Mesozoic Motiuscs (Mottusca).—Head-Footed Molluscs 
(Cephalopoda) took a leading place in the marine fauna. Two 
important types, ze. Ammonites and Belemnites, were practically 
limited to the epoch. The former (fig. 1321) possessed spiral 
chambered shells, with the turns in one plane, and the edges of 
the partitions between the successive chambers elaborately folded. 
Towards the end of the epoch, however, we find more or less 


466 DISTRIBUTION IN SPACE AND TIME 


unrolled species (fig. 1322), some even that were perfectly straight. 
Such types may perhaps be regarded as unsuccessful attempts 
at adaptation to changing surroundings. The Belemnites (fig. 
1323) possessed internal shells, and in this and some other 
respects, e.g. the possession of an ink-bag, resembled recent 
Cuttle-Fishes, though they belonged to a distinct group. Cuttle- 
Fishes and Squids, which are now dominant members of their 
class, were feebly represented in Mesozoic times, but as they 
alone proved able, mainly by acquiring a rapid mode of swim- 
ming, to fully adapt themselves to their environment, they finally 
succeeded in almost entirely sup- 
planting the more ancient types 
related to them. 


omit 


Fig. 1323.—Belemnites (reduced). 1 and 2, Res- 
Fig. 1322.—Unrolled Cephalopods related to Ammonites torations; ADC, internal shell; F, funnel; 11, short 
(Hamites left, Scaphites right), reduced arms; Kk, long arms; N, ink-bag; 3, shell. 


Although many of the primitive palzeozoic types of marine 
Snails (Gastropoda) were able to maintain their foothold during 
this epoch, the leading place was taken by specialized carnivorous 
forms, which became more numerous and varied as time went on. 

Bwalves (Lamelhibranchia) played a much more important 
part than in the preceding epoch, many new and more advanced 
types coming into existence. The families now represented by 
Oysters, Cockles, Mussels, and Razor-Shells, among many others, 
first made their appearance. 

Mesozoic Fisues (Pisces)—The last marine representatives 
of existing Lung-Fishes (Dipnor) existed in the earlier part of 
the epoch, and some of the fossil teeth are so like those of the 
Queensland Lung-Fish (Ceratodus) as to suggest a close relation- 
ship with that form. There were many mesozoic Sharks, &c. 
(Elasmobranchi7), and we can trace the gradual specialization of 


LIFE IN THE MESOZOIC EPOCH 467 


their flattened relatives, the Skates and Rays. Ganozds (Ganozdez) 
abounded, and some of them appear to have been ancestral to 
Sturgeons. 

Ordinary Bony Frshes (Teleostet) are the dominant members 
of their class at the present day, and date back to the later stages 
of the Mesozoic epoch. Some of the older types, less well adapted 
than they to an aquatic life, have gradually declined since the 
time of their first appearance. 

Mesosorc AMPHIBIANS (AmpuiBiIA).—The armoured Amphibians 
(Stegocephala) of the  paleozoic 
lived on into the earlier part of 
this epoch, to which belonged the 
largest known member of the order 
(Mastodonsaurus), the head of which 
was about four feet long. The 
teeth and footprints (fig. 1324) of 
this and related forms were charac- 
teristic, and have been known to 
geologists for a comparatively long 
time. The former were conical, and 
exhibit in cross-section very elabo- 
rate folds of enamel, which suggested 
the name of ‘ Labyrinthodon” (ze. 
labyrinth tooth). The footprints 
look something like the impressions fig. 1304.—Labyrinthodon. a, Tooth and foot 
of clumsy hands, hence the old name aa a 
“Cheirotherium” (ze. hand-animal). 

Mesozoic Reprives (Repritta).—The ancient order (Ahzyn- 
chocephala), of which the Tuatara (/Za¢terza) is the only living 
representative, includes a number of species which were widely 
distributed in the early part of this epoch. Some of them were 
as much as 6 feet in length. 

One of the most interesting extinct orders of the class, the 
Varied-Toothed Reptiles (Anomodontia) includes characteristic 
land-forms which lived during the later part of the Paleozoic 
epoch and the earlier part of the Mesozoic. The interest attaching 
to them lies in the fact that in certain respects they were inter- 
mediate in structure between the Armoured Amphibians and the 
lower Mammals, so that they probably represent the stock from 
which the last class has taken origin. Among mesozoic types may 


468 DISTRIBUTION IN SPACE AND TIME 


be mentioned the following :—Pareiasaurus (fig. 1325), a particu- 
larly clumsy-looking creature some 8 feet long and between 2 and 
3 feet high; Cynognathus, with skull and teeth not unlike those of 
a dog; and Dicynodon, possessing large tusk-like upper canines. 
The five extinct orders of Reptiles now to be mentioned were 


Fig. 1325.— Pareiasaurus (much reduced) 


represented by a large number of forms peculiar to the epoch, 
and severally adapted to the most various conditions of life, in 
the sea, on the land, and even in the air. 

Fish-Lizards (Lchthyosauria).—These were large rapacious 
marine forms, something like whales in shape, and with paddle- 
like limbs (fig. 1326). Judging from their enormous eyes they 


Fig. 1326.—Restoration of Fish-Lizard (/chthyosaurus), much reducea 


were of nocturnal habit. Another interesting feature was the 
unsymmetrical tail, with the larger lobe below. The shape of 
this would facilitate return to the surface after diving (see vol. iii, 
p. 289). 

Sea-Lizards (Plestosauria).—These also were marine reptiles 
with large paddles, and the most familiar types (e.g. Pleszosaurus 
fig. 1327) possessed a long almost swan-like neck. The earlier 
members of the order appear only to have been semi-aquatic. 


LIFE IN THE MESOZOIC EPOCH 469 


Sea-Serpents (Pythonomorpha).—During the later part of 
the epoch the marine reptiles belonging to the last two orders 
diminished in numbers and importance. They were to some 
extent replaced by the snake-shaped creatures of the present 
group, with small short paddles. Some of the largest forms 
(Mesasaurus) seem to have been 
as much as 49 feet in length. 

LTerrible Reptiles or Dinosaurs 
(Dinosauria).—The members of 
this varied group were the domi- 
nant land-reptiles of the epoch, 
and were represented by a great 
variety of remarkable species. 
The Reptile-Footed Dinosaurs 
(Sauropoda) were herbivorous 
forms with hoof-bearing planti- 
grade extremities. Some of them 
attained a very large size, the 
most gigantic (AZ/antosaurus) is 
even believed to have been as 
much as 115 feet long. The 
Beast-footed Dinosaurs (Zkhero- 
oda) were of carnivorous habit, 
and distinguished by the great 
proportionate length of their 
hind-limbs, which suggests that 
hopping was their typical mode 
of locomotion. They included 
species of greatly differing size, 
from that of a cat to that of an 
elephant. The Armoured Dino- 
saurs (Stegosauria) were herbiv- 
orous creatures, and in the type- 
genus (Stegosaurus, fig. 1328), 
which included species some 28 feet long, the back was pro- 
tected by a series of large flattened bony plates, passing into 
spines on the upper side of the tail. The head was of relatively 
small size, and the brain so tiny that the intelligence must have 
been small. The herbivorous Bird-Footed Dinosaurs (Ovaz- 


thopoda) are so-called because the structure of their hind-limbs 
Vou. IV. 125 


Fig. 1327.—Skeletons of Fish-Lizard (/chthyosaurus) and Sea-Lizard (Plesiosaurus), much reduced 


470 DISTRIBUTION IN SPACE AND TIME 


presents some points of resemblance to birds, probably due to 
their having been adapted to the same kind of locomotion on 


4 
uty, 


Fig. 1328.—Stegosaurus (much reduced) 


the ground. These limbs were relatively very long, and they 
were also digitigrade, z.c. the animals possessing them walked on 
tiptoe. The best-known member of the group (/euanodon, 
fig. 1329) inhabited England, 
Belgium, and Germany during 
the second half of the Meso- 
zoic epoch, and the larger of 
the two known species was 
nearly 30 feet in length. The 
Horned Dinosaurs (Ceratop- 
sta), which were among the 
later forms of the epoch, i 

cluded a remarkable herbiv- 
orous creature (77ceratops) 
over 20 feet in length, with 
three horns on the head, and 
a curious bony shield covering 


Fig. 1329.—Iguanodon (much reduced). sc, Scapula; 
¢o, coracoid; 1 and v (in fore-limb), thumb and little finger; 


2, pubis produced back into post-pubis (#4); zs, ischium; the neck. 


I-IV (in hind-limb), rst to 4th toes. ‘ ” 

fhing Reptiles (Ptero- 
sauria).—The organs of flight of these extraordinary animals 
have elsewhere been described (see vol. iii, p. 308). Some 


were of small size, and of these the Pterodactyles (Prerodactylus, 


LIFE IN THE MESOZOIC EPOCH 471 


fig. 1330) were short-tailed. But one of the later types (Pera- 
nodon) was a toothless reptile with a spread of wing not far 
short of 20 feet. 

Crocodiles (Crocodilia) and Turtles (Chelonia) were numer- 
ous during the Mesozoic epoch, and in the later part of it both 
Lizards (Lacertilia) and Snakes (Ophidia) are known to have 
existed. 

Mesozoic Brrps (Aves).—The few mesozoic birds which have 
so far been discovered have certain characters, ¢.g. the possession 
of teeth, which suggest reptilian descent. In the oldest known 
form (Archeopteryx), which has 
elsewhere been described (see vol. 
iii, p. 296), the tail was long, and 
bore pairs of quill- feathers at 
regular intervals. 

Mesozoic Mammats (Mam- 
MALIA).—That a certain number 
of small mammals lived during the 
Mesozoic epoch is known from the 
discovery of fossil lower jaws in 
several localities. Some of these 
suggest affinity with, Egg-laying 
Mammals (JJonotremata), while gig 1330.—Pterodactyle (Preredactylus), reduced. 
others probably belonged to small jeer a ius ma isco, ie toes 
Pouched Mammals (AZarsupiala). lias) Shon andl fongeras sh siemens ilominal 

ribs; Z, pubis; 22, ilium; 1-v (in hind-limb), toes. 

It has been suggested that Mam- 

mals evolved from some of the Varied-Toothed Reptiles (4 xomo- 
dontza) on a land-area in the southern hemisphere, which there 
is some reason to believe once existed (see p. 411). Smith 
Woodward (in Vertebrate Paleontology) states that in Jurassic 
(z.e. mid-mesozoic) times—‘‘... it is extremely probable that 
on some continent in that part of the globe the Anomodontia 
were gradually being transformed into Mammalia. At least, in 
the Jurassic formations both of Europe and North America there 
are occasional remains of small mammals as large as rats; and 
the most plausible explanation of these is, that they were acci- 
dental escapes from some other region with a more advanced 
fauna, just as are the rats and mice of the present day in the 
comparatively antique realm of Australia.” 


472 DISTRIBUTION IN SPACE AND TIME 


LIFE IN THE KAINOZOIC EPOCH 


Even in the earlier stages of the Kainozoic epoch we find 
that the fauna had a comparatively modern aspect, and the later 
stages ultimately merge into the present. Among backboned 
land-animals Mammals and Birds were dominant, and it will 
be as well to confine our attention to a few interesting facts con- 
cerning these groups. 

Katnozorc Mammats (Mammatia).—The fossil remains which 
have so far been examined enable us to trace the gradual evolu- 
tion of the subdivisions of several mammalian orders, notably 


Fig. 1331.—Restoration of Phenacodus (reduced) 


so as regards ffoofed Mammals (Ungulata) and Flesh-Eaters 
(Carnivora). In the earliest stage of the epoch we find the 
ancestors of the hoofed forms represented by small primitive 
swamp-dwellers, constituting an extinct group (Coxdylarthra), of 
which a well-known type (Pezacodus) is represented in figs. 1331 
and 1332. By increasing complications of structure, affecting 
limbs, teeth, brain, &c., the various odd-toed and even-toed un- 
gulates have sprung from creatures of the kind, as also Conzes 
(/Zyracoidea), and, most probably, Evephants (Proboscidea). The 
nature of some of the specializations which took place have been 
briefly explained in a previous section (see vol. iii, p. 137). 
What is true for Hoofed Mammals as regards one primitive 
group is also true for Flesh-Eaters with reference to another 
such group (Creodonta). Indeed there is not a great deal 


AN EXTINCT GROUND-SLOTH (Megathertum) 


It is a remarkable fact that certain groups of land-animals were 
in part represented, in comparatively late geological times, by 
gigantic forms which have since become extinct. This is the case, 
for example, with the Mammals poor in Teeth (Edeztata), to which 
belongs the South American Ground-Sloth (Megatherium) tepre- 
sented in the plate, which is taken from a photograph of a restora- 
tion in the British Museum. In size it was nearly as large as an 
elephant, and is believed to have fed on leaves, as do the relatively in- 
significant Sloths which now live in the trees of the South American 
forests. The plate represents the Ground-Sloth in the position it 
assumed for the purpose of pulling down branches, or uprooting 
small trees, in order to obtain its food. 


EXTINCT SOUTH AMERICAN GROUND-SLOTH (MEGATHERIUM) 


LIFE IN THE KAINOZOIC EPOCH 473 


of difference between the early kainozoic ancestors of Ungulates 
and Carnivores, both of which undoubtedly sprang from the 
same mesozoic stock, though this is as yet unknown. In similar 
fashion we find that the lines of descent of recent /usect-Eaters 
(Lusecttvora), Lemurs (Lemurotdea), and Monkeys (Primates) 
converge as we trace them back to the beginning of the epoch. 
The branches of the genealogical tree of mammals corresponding 
to the last two groups actually meet, and on this account some 
experts would place the Lemurs in the same order as Monkeys 
(Primates). We further find that the lines of descent of Insecti- 
vores, Lemurs, and Monkeys converge towards those of the 
Ungulates and Carnivores, and this appears to be also true for 
the Mammals Poor in 
Teeth (Edentata). Some 
day, perhaps, we may be 
able to trace back all 
these six orders, together 
with Conies and Ele- 
phants, to common meso- 
zoic ancestors. 

Whales, &c. (Cetacea), 
Sea-Cows  (Szrenia), 
Gnawers (Rodentia), and 
Bats (Chiroptera) seem to have acquired their typical characters 
before the Kainozoic epoch began, and we are not yet able to 
trace them back to the main line of mammalian descent. The 
two first groups, and creatures of the seal kind, replaced the 
marine reptiles of Mesozoic time in the life of the sea, and the 
Flying Reptiles proved unable to maintain their supremacy against 
the competition of Bats and Birds. 

In the later part of the Kainozoic epoch certain orders of 
mammals were represented by relatively gigantic forms. A 
good instance of this is afforded by certain extinct American 
representatives of the I/ammals Poor in Teeth (Edentata). At 
this time South America and the southern part of the sister 
continent were inhabited by huge Ground-Sloths, of which one 
typical form (Megatherium) was at least as large as an elephant. 
It and its allies combined some of the structural features of exist- 
ing Sloths and American Ant-Eaters. That so large an animal 
as the one mentioned was not a climber is sufficiently obvious. 


Fig. 1332.—Skeleton of Phenacodus (reduced) 


474 DISTRIBUTION IN SPACE AND TIME 


It is supposed to have been a leaf-eater, pulling off branches, or 
even uprooting small trees. A related form (J/ylodon), which 
attained the size of a rhinoceros, possessed an external skeleton 
consisting of small bony plates imbedded in the skin. Remains 
of the skin, &c., of an allied type (Veomylodon) were not long 
since discovered in a South American cave, and in so fresh a 
state as to warrant a belief in the animal’s recent extinction, 
while some naturalists, partly on the strength of native traditions, 
believe (or at any rate hope) that the creature still lives in the 
desert regions of Patagonia. Gigantic Armadilloes, of which 
one type (GZyptodon) was about 16 
feet in length, inhabited America in 
comparatively late Kainozoic times. 

Turning to Australia, we find 
that some of the immediate prede- 
cessors of the Pouched Mammals 
(Varsupiaha) of that continent at- 
tained large dimensions. The skull 
of the Pouched “ Lion” ( Zhy/acoleo), 
a form related to the existing Pha- 
langers, was about g inches long. 
Its name is rather unfortunate, for 

Pisce mr it was probably of vegetarian habit. 

Fig. 1333.—Irish Elk (Cervus Hibernicus), . 
mingehs vedueed Very much larger than this was a 
gigantic animal (Dzfvotodon) related 
both to the Phalangers and Kangaroos, for it was about as large 
as a rhinoceros, its skull alone being over 3 feet in length. Its 
limbs were adapted for walking. 

Three large extinct Mammals have a special interest as 
being contemporaneous with prehistoric Man in Western Europe, 
including Britain. One was the Irish “ Elk” (Cervus Hobernz- 
cus, fig. 1333), remains of which are not uncommon in the peat- 
bogs of Ireland. The female possessed no antlers, but the male 
was well-endowed in this respect, for in him these weapons 
sometimes had a spread of about 10 feet. The Sabre-Toothed 
Tiger (J/achairodus) belonged to a group of Flesh-Eaters now 
extinct, and possessed enormous upper tusks, which are respon- 
sible for its name. The lower tusks were quite small. It seems 
that the huge weapons of creatures of the kind were too well 
developed to be of much use, probably indeed acting as encum- 


LIFE IN THE KAINOZOIC EPOCH 475 


Fig. 1334.—Mammoth (Evephas primigenius), much reduced 


brances which in the end brought about extinction. Here, as 
in many other cases, over-specialization proved fatal. The last 


Fig. 1335.—Skeleton of Moa (Pachyoriis 
elephantopus), much reduced 


extinct Mammal to be mentioned is the Mammoth 
(Elephas primigentus, fig. 1334), a sort of Elephant 
which had a very wide geographical range in the 
northern hemisphere, especially in the colder parts of 
this. The frozen bodies of Mammoths are now and 
then discovered in the iron-bound soil of the Siberian 


tundras, and these prove the exis- 
tence of a thick coat of long black 
over -hair, together with reddish 
wool, a character no doubt to be 
regarded as a climatal adaptation. 
One of the prehistoric drawings 
made by the men of the Stone Age 
(see p. 233) gives a rough outline of 
one of these animals, and indicates 
the shagey coat. It was found in 
a French cavern, and executed 
upon a piece of mammoth tusk. 
The Siberian variety has long been 
known as a source of fossil ivory. 
Kainoszoie Birds (Aves).—Some 
of the extinct Running Lrirds 
(Ratite) are perhaps the most in- 


teresting. In New Zealand, for example, the Moas existed 
during the period of human occupation, and were finally exter- 


476 DISTRIBUTION IN SPACE AND TIME 


minated by the Maoris. The largest form (Dznxornis maximus) 
attained a height of over 11 feet. Another sort of Moa (Pachy- 
oruts elephantopus, fig. 1335), though not so large as this, was 
much more massive in build. Egg-shells and feathers of these 
birds have been found, as well as skeletons. The bones and 
egg-shells of other large running birds (.£pyornis) have been 
abundantly discovered in Madagascar, and it is not unlikely 
that they too owed their extinction to human agency. Some 
species were little inferior in size to the largest Moas. It is 
not improbable that the creation of the fabulous bird known as 
a “roc”, which figures in the Arabian Nights and other Eastern 
stories, was originally based upon ancient traditions regarding 
some of the extinct running birds. 

At the present time such birds are limited to the soutnern 
hemisphere, but we know that during early Kainozoic times they 
also existed in the northern half of both Old and New Worlds. 


PHILOSOPHIC ZOOLOGY 


CHAPTER LXXVITI 


PHILOSOPHIC ZOOLOGY—THE THEORY OF EVOLUTION 
—EVOLUTION AS A FACT 


Having now considered at some length the relations of animals 
to their surroundings (or environment), in which, of course, other 
organisms are included, and having also reviewed the life-cycles 
or life-histories of certain typical forms, this work may be fitly 
concluded by a brief survey of the Theory of Evolution, 
which at the present day not only dominates the realm of Natural 
History, but has also had a far-reaching influence upon almost 
every branch of learning. 

The kinds or speczes of animal at present existing are almost 
innumerable, and we know from the geological record that a 
host of others once lived which are now extinct, some having 
become so within the historic period, while others died out 
millions of years ago. Until the second half of last century it 
was commonly believed that all these species came into existence 
by “special creation”, and to ask “why?” any kind of animal 
had a particular structure, developed after a special fashion, 
exemplified certain habits, or lived in a definite area, was con- 
sidered undesirable or even impious. The only answer to such 
questions given by the doctrine of special creation was that these 
things were so because they had been designed to be so, accord- 
ing to a plan into which the human mind was forbidden to pry. 
Now and then, however, from the time of Aristotle onwards, 
this paralyzing dogma failed to satisfy the minds of certain 
naturalists who were ahead of their times. Among these per- 
haps the most notable was the eminent French zoologist 
Lamarck, who in 1801 expressed the view that all existing 


species have descended from, z.e. been evolved from, pre-existing 
; 477 


478 PHILOSOPHIC ZOOLOGY 


species. He further propounded a Theory of Evolution, which 
attempted to explain ow species have originated from those 
which preceded them. But comparatively little attention was 
paid to the evolutionary views of Lamarck and some _ other 
naturalists till the year 1858. In that year a new Theory of 
Evolution (now commonly known as Darwinism) was_ simul- 
taneously propounded by Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel 
Wallace, who, working independently on facts collected in entirely 
different parts of the world, had reached practically the same 
conclusions regarding the manner in which organisms of different 
kind have come into existence. The publication of Darwin’s 
epoch-making book, Zhe Origin of Spectres, followed in 1859, and 
since that date the doctrine of evolution has made steady head- 
way, at first against strong and even embittered opposition, until 
now the doctrine of special creation is almost entirely held by 
those who have had no scientific training worthy the name, 
together with some few others who cling tenaciously to the old 
and once popular view. 

This chapter is concerned with the fact of Evolution, and not 
with the various theories associated with the names of Darwin 
and many others which attempt an explanation of that fact. 
The distinction between the fact and its explanation is of im- 
portance in a popular work like this. Botanists and zoologists, 
after the manner of their kind, are constantly engaged in polemics 
about all sorts of evolutionary problems, their controversies being 
often not a little acrimonious, and sometimes even taking a 
personal turn. These things, however, are not unknown among 
the votaries of other studies. But in such cases it is not the fact 
of evolution that is in question, but this or that difficult question 
as to the way in which it has come about. All are agreed that 
evolution and not special creation has been and is the primary 
law of organic nature, probably, indeed, of nature in general. 

Since the whole of this book has been written from the evolu- 
tionary stand-point, much has already been adduced in support of 
the fact of evolution, and it will therefore suffice to summarize 
some of the chief arguments in its favour, following the order 
adopted by Romanes (in Darwzz and After Darwin). 

Tue ARGUMENT FROM CLAssIFIcaTION.—If the various kinds 
or species of animal were absolutely separate creations we should 
expect to find them clearly distinguishable from one another, 


EVOLUTION AS A FACT 479 


but this is by no means universally the case. Indeed, it is by 
no means easy to exactly state what a species is. Some such 
definition may be given, for example, as the one by Swainson :-— 
‘A species, in the usual acceptation of the term, is an animal 
which, in a state of nature, is distinguished by certain peculiarities 
of form, size, colour, or other circumstances, from another animal. 
It propagates, ‘after its kind’, individuals perfectly resembling 
the parent; its peculiarities, therefore, are permanent.” But un- 
fortunately there are such things as varzefzes or races, which are 
subdivisions of species, and might be taken for such if seen in 
a museum. In the case of the Field Snail (fedex hortenszs), for 
example, there are many such races, distinguished by variously 
coloured and banded shells. But in cases like this we usually 
find that the different varieties, when crossed, produce offspring 
(mongrels) which are perfectly fertile as regards one another 
and the parent varieties. On the other hand, the offspring 
(hybrids) produced by crossing two undoubted species are usually, 
but not always, infertile. A notable instance is seen in mules, 
which are obtained by crossing horses (Zguus caballus) with 
asses (Z£. asinus). We further find that two or more apparently 
distinct species may be connected by a series of intermediate 
varieties. This is beautifully seen in some of the extinct Lamp- 
Shells and Snails, while the early turns of the spiral in some 
Ammonites (see p. 465) may resemble one adult species, though 
the later turns may correspond to another adult species. Facts 
of the kind cited, while only susceptible of interpretation in a 
mystical manner by the doctrine of special creation, harmonize 
very well with the evolution theory, according to which organ- 
isms are constantly being adapted to changing surroundings, and 
new specializations are continually coming into existence. On this 
hypothesis we may regard varieties as species ‘‘in the making”. 
Species are aggregated into larger groups known as genera, 
these into families, and so on, to orders, classes, and phyla or 
sub-kingdoms, respectively marked out by agreements and differ- 
ences of increasingly broader and more general kind. If these 
various groups of, e.g., Backboned Animals, are diagrammatically 
arranged so as to best express their mutual arrangements, a 
tree-like arrangement results (see vol. i, p. 111), the phylum 
corresponding to a main branch. This was perceived in pre- 
evolutionary days, and the only rational explanation so far given 


480 PHILOSOPHIC ZOOLOGY 


of it is that such a tree is really a genealogical one. The con- 
clusion is fully confirmed by the geological record. 

We also find a number of existing animals which, though on 
the whole susceptible of classification in one group, also show 
points of marked agreement with members of one or more other 
groups. A notable instance is afforded by Peripatus (see vol. i, 
p- 398), which, though an undoubted Arthropod, is singularly 
like a segmented Worm or Annelid in some respects. If the 
classification tree is a genealogical one, the existence of such 
animals is readily intelligible. Such cases are otherwise inex- 
plicable, unless some unintelligible and dogmatic statement offered 
by the believer in special creation can be so regarded. 

Tue ARGUMENT FROM ForM AND STRUCTURE (MorpPHOLOGY). 
—A very large number of examples might be brought forward 
to show that many organs can only be rationally interpreted on 
an evolutionary basis. A particularly good instance is afforded 
by the lungs of air-breathing vertebrates, which appear to be 
modifications of the swim-bladders possessed by fishes (see 
vol. ii, p. 421). And it may be added that there are many 
other structural characters of these air-breathing forms which 
point to an aquatic ancestry. That this should be so, is only 
intelligible from the stand-point of evolution. 

If we take a particular group of animals, say Mammals, we 
shall find that they are constructed on a particular plan, modified 
in a great variety of ways to suit the exigencies of various modes 
of life. This is very well illustrated by the structure of the limbs, 
in reference to different kinds of locomotion, e.g. swift progression 
by running on a firm surface, swimming, climbing, and burrow- 
ing, as set out in detail in the section on Locomotion (vol. iii). 
We have here, it would appear, a gradual Adaptation by a pro- 
cess of evolution to conditions of different kind. 

The strongest argument from structure in favour of the 
doctrine of evolution is that derived from those parts of animals 
which are known as ves¢zges (rudimentary organs). The human 
body, for example, is in itself quite a museum of such structures. 
Indeed, one may say that it is an archeological museum, for 
vestiges can only be reasonably explained as the remains of 
organs which were of greater importance in ancestral forms. 
The lower end of the backbone (coccyx), for instance, looks 
uncommonly like the remains of what was once a tail, and the 


EVOLUTION AS A FACT 481 


same explanation can be given of the tailless condition of the 
man-like or anthropoid apes (Gorilla, &c.). The troublesome 
little outgrowth from the intestine familiarly known as the 
“appendix”, which when diseased leads to appendicitis, corre- 
sponds to what is a large and useful structure in some other 
Mammals; and a little red fold (semilunar fold) in the inner 
corner of the eye appears to be the remnant of a third eyelid. 
And so on, almost indefinitely. Among Mammals other than 


Fig. 1336. —(1) and (2), Upper and lower grinding-teeth of a young Duck-Bill (Ovncthorhynchus), natural size and 
enlarged; (3) grinding tooth (enlarged) of an extinct Mesozoic mammal (A/icrolestes). 


ourselves we find a great variety of vestiges. Whalebone 
Whales, to take a well-known case, possess neither teeth nor 
externally visible hind-limbs. But traces of teeth are found in 
the jaws of very young individuals, although they are never 
cut. And vestigial hind-limbs are found even in adults, im- 
bedded in the muscles of the hinder part of the body, exactly 
where hind-limbs should be were they fully developed. Unless 
we simply accept these things as inexplicable facts, we must fall 
back on the doctrine of evolution, and consider such structures 
as dwindled heritages, reminiscent of earlier conditions. 

Passing from the higher Mammals to their lowest existing 


482 PHILOSOPHIC ZOOLOGY 


relatives, we find in the Australian Duck-Bill (Ovxzthorhynchus) 
that the adult animal possesses four horny plates in place of 
teeth. But these are preceded by small molars (fig. 1336) which 
last for a short time only. The conclusion may be drawn that 
the Duck-Bill is descended from ancestors which possessed teeth 
when adult. And, in connection with this, it is interesting and 
significant that the transitory teeth of this creature are singularly 
like those possessed by an extremely ancient Mesozoic mammal, 
which has been extinct for an enormous length of time. 

ARGUMENT FROM DeEVELOpMENT.—As already explained in 
the section on Development and Life-History (vol. iti), an 
animal of complex structure results from a process of gradual 
up-building, in which the ovum or egg-cell is the first and 
simplest stage. Speaking very broadly, the course of this 
development is taken to be a recapitulation of the history of 
the group to which the particular animal belongs. The life- 
history of a particular form may, for example, include stages 
adapted to different modes of life, and in some cases these 
apparently correspond to ancestral stages similarly adapted. We 
see this in the Frog, which is hatched out as an aquatic tadpole, 
breathing by gills and fitted in various other ways for life in 
water. From this the conclusion is drawn that the remote 
ancestors of Frogs were aquatic creatures, related to the stock 
from which recent fishes have descended. The argument may 
be extended to Reptiles, Birds, and Mammals, for though these 
do not begin life as aquatic tadpoles, all of them possess gill- 
slits during certain stages in their development. But these 
slits have nothing to do with breathing, apparently serving no 
useful purpose, and ultimately close up. One result of their 
presence in the embryo is that some of the blood-vessels develop 
in a somewhat roundabout manner (see vol. i, p. 244). These 
vessels begin in conformity to what may be called the “fish- 
plan”, abandoning this later on for the arrangement. char- 
acterizing the air-breathing adult. Such a peculiar method of 
development is quite unintelligible unless it is explained by 
reference to ancestry. 

The Feather-Star (Comatu/x) furnishes a striking example 
of recapitulation in its life-history. It is for some time fixed to 
some firm object by means of a stalk, which is later on aban- 
doned. This may very reasonably be taken to mean_ that 


EVOLUTION AS A FACT 483, 


Feather-Stars have descended from fixed forms resembling the 
related Sea-Lilies, some of which still live in the deep sea. 

THE ARGUMENT FROM THE GEoLocicaL Recorp.—Although 
our knowledge of the successive faunas which have existed in 
the course of the earth’s history is lamentably incomplete, all 
the facts with which we are acquainted harmonize with the 
doctrine of evolution (see p. 456). There has been a general 
progress from low to high, and many animal pedigrees have 
been worked out in considerable detail. Taking Hoofed Mam- 
mals and Flesh-Eaters, for instance, the geological record shows 
that the existing subdivisions of these orders can be traced back, 
respectively, to common ancestors (see p. 472). The most 
ancient birds known possess characters which are strong evidence 
of reptilian descent, and Reptiles, in their turn, are in all pro- 
bability an offshoot from an amphibian stock. Similar evolu- 
tionary conclusions can be drawn in all cases where sufficiently 
abundant evidence is available. 

THe ARGUMENT FROM GEOGRAPHICAL DistriputTion.—The 
way in which animals are at the present time distributed over 
the face of the globe is susceptible of no satisfactory explanation 
unless we have recourse to the theory of evolution. Admitting 
this, and at the same time making full use of the evidence 
afforded by the geological record, many things which would 
otherwise be entirely unintelligible find an easy solution, as has 
already been sufficiently indicated (see p. 409). We are able 
in this way to understand why Tapirs are at the present time 
only to be found in south-east Asia and tropical America, 
Pouched Mammals in the Australian region and America, and 
similarly for many other apparent anomalies. 


CHAPTER LXXIX 


THE THEORY OF EVOLUTION—THE ORIGIN OF SPECIES 


If we admit that the existing kinds or species of animals 
have arisen by a process of evolution from pre-existing species, 
the pertinent question ‘“ How?” demands an answer. Our 
ignorance is here so profound that we have so far only been 
able to frame working hypotheses to account for the facts. And 
every theory from time to time propounded leads to endless 
controversy, though, on the whole, we are constantly getting 
nearer to the heart of things. Everything depends upon the 
properties and possibilities of the living substance (protoplasm) 
which is the essential part of every organism, but it is precisely 
here that the gaps in our knowledge are most painfully obvious. 
The history of every science presents us with regularly alter- 
nating phases of fact-collection, and generalization upon facts. 
At the present time we badly need more facts, upon which to 
base further speculations as to the methods of evolution. And 
this is more particularly true regarding experiments on heredity 
and related matters, upon which satisfactory answers to evolu- 
tionary questions must necessarily depend. 

We are here only concerned with a brief statement of the 
leading theories and principles which have so far been brought 
forward, commencing with the doctrine of Natural Selection, 
simultaneously advanced by Darwin and Wallace, and which has 
had a quite unprecedented influence upon the methods of human 
thought. 


NATURAL SELECTION (DARWINISM) 


This theory of evolution, which is essentially of utilitarian 
character, marshals together a large number of indisputable facts, 
suggests their mutual relations, and builds up, step by step, a 


very convincing hypothesis as to how and why new species have 
484 


NATURAL SELECTION 485 


come into existence during the countless ages for which life has 
existed on the earth. 

It is, to begin with, sufficiently obvious that the available 
living space on the earth is, after all, restricted, and there must 
therefore be a limit to the number of plants and animals that 
can exist at the same time. We know, however, that all organ- 
isms tend to increase in a more or less rapid manner, yet, in a 
given locality, the numbers of individuals belonging to a par- 
ticular species remain fairly steady. There must, therefore, be 
various checks preventing indefinite increase—a constant fight for 
life, a Struggle for Existence. Every plant and every animal is 
engaged in a keen competition with other forms of life, and 
has also to battle with the constantly-changing physical condi- 
tions which collectively constitute climate. Individuals that for 
any reason surpass others in this constant warfare with their 
surroundings are, so to speak, se/ected by Nature to carry on 
their race, while their less fortunate fellows go to the wall. We 
have, in short, the active principle of Natural Selection or Survival 
of the Fittest. 

We have further to consider how and why it is that given 
individuals are thus favoured in the universal struggle for ex- 
istence. The classes of facts which give us some insight into 
this matter may be conveniently arranged in the following tabular 
statement, followed by a brief discussion of the principles involved. 


PROVED FACTS NECESSARY CONSEQUENCES 


Limited Surface cf Globe and Rapid } : 
PG eeeeeieianbers 5 Struggle for Existence 

Natural Selection or Survival of the 
Fittest 


Natural Selection and Heredity ... Origin of New Species 


Struggle for Existence and Variation l 


Rapip IncREASE IN NumBers.—Darwin takes the elephant as 
an example of an animal of which the numbers increase with 
minimum rapidity, a family of six within the space of 60 years 
being the average, while individuals live for about a century. 
Supposing all the offspring to survive for the full tenure of 
existence, this gives a total of about 19,000,000 elephants de- 
scended from a single pair after the lapse of from 740 to 750 
years. 


As an example of a species which increases with great rapidity 
a 126 
VoL. IV. 


486 PHILOSOPHIC ZOOLOGY 


we may take the Field Vole (A7wvicola arvalis), which produces 
several broods during the same summer, some of these propa- 
gating in their turn before winter. Crampe has calculated that, if 
there were no checks to increase, a single pair of these animals, 
supposing their first brood to be born on April 15 of a given 
year, would be represented by the very respectable total of 198 
on the following 8th of October. Continental agriculturists 
sometimes have a very unpleasant object-lesson as to these 
possibilities, for in certain ‘‘vole years” the ordinary checks to 
increase are inefficient, the result being that enormous numbers 
of field-voles make their appearance, and do an immense amount 
of damage to crops. 

It not infrequently happens that when particular species of 
animals are introduced into a new country, where the checks 
that keep down their numbers in their native countries cease to 
operate, they increase in a phenomenal way. The result of intro- 
ducing rabbits into Australia affords one of the best examples 
of this. 

Variation AND Herepity.—It is a well-known fact that no 
two individuals of the same species are precisely alike. There 
is, in other words, a tendency to vary. The fact of Variation 
enables us to understand why certain individuals, rather than 
others, have a better chance of surviving in the struggle for 
existence. For in any given environment variations in some 
directions must more or less favour the animals which possess 
them. They are, in fact, wsefu/ variations, tending to greater 
filness as regards some particular set of surroundings. In many 
herbivorous animals, for example, in regions where carnivorous 
enemies abound, it is clear that an individual varying in such a 
way that its locomotor powers are somewhat better than those 
of its fellows, will have a better chance of escaping from enemies, 
and also of securing an abundant supply of food. Other things 
being equal, it will also be more likely to perpetuate its species 
than more slowly moving individuals of the same species. 

Next comes the question of Heredity. No one disputes the 
possibility of certain characters being transmitted from one genera- 
tion to another. The doctrine of Natural Selection involves the 
view that favourable variations are thus perpetuated, and as, in 
each successive generation, individuals which continue to vary 
in favourable directions will have the best chance of surviving, 


NATURAL SELECTION 487 


we can suppose such variations to gradually accumulate until 
their amount is so large as to constitute a new species. 


Darwin’s conclusions as to the joint result of variation and 
heredity were largely based on observations made upon domes- 


Fig. 1337.—Blue Rock and some of the domesticated varieties of Pigeon: (1), Blue Rock (Columba ¢ivia); (2), Tumbler; 
(3), Owl; (4), Jacobin; (5), Fantail; (6), Pouter 


ticated animals. We know, for example, that all the numerous 
breeds of pigeons (fig. 1337), such as Pouters, Fantails, Carriers, 
Tumblers, &c. &c., are descended from one original species, 
ze. the Blue Rock (Columba fivia), as the result of artificial 
selection by human agency. That is to say, individuals varying 
in some particular direction have been selected by man with a 


488 PHILOSOPHIC ZOOLOGY 


view to producing offspring presenting the special character or 
characters in an increased degree. 

OpjECTIONS TO THE THEORY oF NaTuRAL SELECTION.—At 
various times a number of objections have been made to the 
theory, some being of a very trifling and quibbling sort, others 
of more serious nature. It is no part of the plan of this book 
to enter into all the difficulties that require or have required to 
be met, and it may suffice to mention one of the most formidable 
objections, derived from the supposed ‘‘ swamping effects of inter- 
crossing”. That is to say, supposing a favourable variation to 
have arisen, it seems at first sight that it is just as likely to 
gradually disappear again by intercrossing as to be emphasized 
by heredity, indeed more likely. Fleeming Jenkin, the first 
propounder of this difficulty, illustrated it by the possible case 
of a white man becoming king of a black island population, his 
whiteness typifying a favourable variation. His immediate de- 
scendants would not be white, but yellow, and in the course of 
several generations the royal house would probably be just as 
black as their subjects. 

It may be added that if a number of domesticated races of, 
say, pigeons, are allowed to cross freely together, their peculiar 
characteristics gradually disappear, and the features possessed 
by the original wild stock are reacquired. This is generally 
explained as a case of reversion or atavism, or in more popular 
language, a “throw back” to the ancestral type. 

The objection has been often met by supposing that the 
particular variation occurred not in one, but in a number of 
individuals, thus giving a better start for the formation of a new 
species, but such an idea requires proof. Even if we admit the 
probability of the occurrence, the factor of Isolation must be 
emphasized, as has been done by Romanes and others. _ Isola- 
tion of individuals presenting a certain kind of variation would 
certainly prevent the swamping effect of intercrossing from oper- 
ating, and pigeon-fanciers, for example, could never succeed in 
producing new breeds if they did not sort out and keep their 
birds separate, according to their special requirements. Such 
isolation actually occurs in nature when a small number of indi- 
viduals belonging to a particular species reach, say, an oceanic 
island, where adaptations to a new set of surroundings become 
necessary, and where they are separated from the original home 


SUPPLEMENTARY FACTORS OF EVOLUTION 489 


of their kind. And it is particularly significant to note, in this 
connection, that such islands are peculiarly rich in distinct species. 
Isolation is also exemplified by the area between tide-marks, as 
in some of the periwinkles. Some of these creatures are gradu- 
ally becoming adapted to breathing damp air, those which are 
best off in this respect living near high-water mark. It is pretty 
clear that individuals varying so as to breathe damp air better 
than their fellows would naturally take to living further from the 
sea, and would be thus to some extent isolated. 

Isolation may also be of a physiological nature, as emphasized 
by Romanes in his theory of phystological selection. We know 
that, as a rule, the crosses between allied species, ze. hybrids, 
are infertile, and it is largely owing to this fact that animal 
species remain distinct. It seems, therefore, a plausible assump- 
tion that the rise of new species has partly been rendered possible 
by an increasing tendency for the crosses between them and their 
parent stocks to be infertile. In other words, there has been a 
physiological variation in the direction indicated, alongside of 
other variations in shape, proportion, colour, &c. &c. 


SUPPLEMENTARY FACTORS OF EVOLUTION 


Admitting the importance of Natural Selection, it by no means 
follows that it has been the only evolutionary factor determining 
the origin of new species. 

CourtsHip SELEcTION.— Darwin believed that some of the 
characters of male animals have been brought about by selec- 
tion exercised on the part of their mates. The possibilities in 
this direction have already been discussed at some length (see 
p. 143) in dealing with the Law of Battle and the Law of 
Beauty. It is, after all, a special kind of Natural Selection, 
which may have determined the evolution of certain weapons and 
of zsthetic characters. 

LamarckismM.—Under this head may be included the pre- 
Darwinian views of the French naturalists Lamarck and Buffon, 
to which Darwin himself was inclined to attach some importance. 
These views turn upon the inheritance of ‘‘acquired characters ”, 
regarding which there has been an interminable amount of 
discussion. It must be premised that the body of an animal 
higher in the scale than an Animalcule is related to (1) 


490 PHILOSOPHIC ZOOLOGY 


the existence of the individual, and (2) the existence of the 
species. The greater part of the body, having more particu- 
larly to do with (1), is conveniently termed the “soma” (Gk. 
soma, body), and this is the bearer of germ-cells, some of which 
are destined to grow into fresh individuals, and are therefore 
concerned with (2). An “acquired” character is ene which 
comes into existence in the soma, as an accommodation to its 
mode of life, ze. as an individual adjustment to surroundings. 
Here have to be considered the results of ‘‘use and disuse” of 
organs possessed by the individual. Let us take, for example, 
some of the sea-snails which live between tide-marks, and are 
accommodating themselves to breathing damp air as against 
air dissolved in water. The gill or gills which are specially 
concerned with the latter kind of breathing have less work to 
do than in purely aquatic forms, and there is no reason to doubt 
that they may therefore (as the result of partial ‘‘disuse”) be 
slightly diminished in size in the lifetime of an individual which is 
migrating towards high-tide mark. On the other hand, the roof of 
the gill-chamber (see vol. ii, p. 460) has to do with breathing damp 
air, and in the lifetime of the individual supposed, may well (by 
“use”) acquire increased specialization in connection with that duty. 

According to the Lamarckian view, these two acquired char- 
acters of the soma, ze. dwindling gill and specializing roof to 
gill-chamber, would be transmitted to the offspring. Were this 
so, use and disuse might ultimately lead to the evolution of a 
race of land-snails well adapted for air-breathing, but with gills 
shrunk to mere vestiges or absent altogether. 

Lamarckism also involves the view that the surroundings of 
an animal, by their d@rect action, bring about acquired char- 
acters, positive or negative, as the case may be. We have, in 
other words, a direct action of the environment. Considering 
once more the case of a sea-snail living between tide-marks, it 
may be regarded as alternately subject to two influences so far 
as breathing is concerned, ze. the action of the water which 
covers it for part of its existence, and the action of the damp 
air which surrounds it during the other part. The former 
favours gill-retention, the latter gill-reduction, and conversely as 
regards the arrangement for breathing ordinary air. Near low- 
tide mark the influence of water is obviously predominant, and 
near high-tide mark the action of air is more felt. 


Some further remarks will be made about acquired characters 
in the sequel. 

Neo-Lamarckism.—It is difficult to sum up in a few words 
the beliefs of the Neo-Lamarckian school. They essentially 
involve the view that there are general Laws of Growth, leading 
to progress in definite directions, by means of successive varia- 
tions of the same kind. The action of Natural Selection is largely 
discounted. 

This chapter may perhaps best be concluded by the addition 
of a few remarks on Variation and Heredity. 


VARIATION 


Beyond the fact that living matter does vary, we know very 
little. No clear answer can as yet be given to the questions 
why this should be so, and ow variations of a given kind are 
brought about. There can be no doubt, however, that the indi- 
viduals of any particular species differ from one another in a great 
variety of ways, and often to a very considerable amount. There 
is, in fact, an illimitable field for the action of selected principles. 
Many variations, too, are sudden or dzscontinuous, and probably 
new species have been often evolved at a much more rapid rate 
than supposed by Darwin, who believed in the selection and 
accumulation of swa/ variations. Since his time our knowledge 
of variational possibilities has been largely increased. 

There can be no doubt that a large majority of the characters 
of animals are adaptations to the environment, ze. fit them to 
live in relation to certain surroundings. The origin of such 
adaptations must naturally be sought in variations. Here it is 
necessary to clearly distinguish between variations of the soma 
and variations of the germ, 7z.e. somatic and germinal variation. 
As we have seen, the Lamarckians believe that the former 
(acquired characters) can be transmitted. According to the 
school of Weismann, on the other hand, it is only the germinal 
variations which are capable of transmission. As, of course, the 
development of a germ-cell into an individual means the pro- 
duction of a new soma as well as more germ-cells, this new 
soma will have been influenced by variations which have taken 
place in the germ from which it has been developed. That is 
to say, the character of a soma mainly depends upon the char- 


492 PHILOSOPHIC ZOOLOGY 


acters of the germ from which it has been developed, but the 
soma has no direct influence upon the germs of which it is the 
bearer. 

Organic Selection.—Lloyd Morgan, Baldwin, and Osborn have 
elaborated a view (of which Weismann himself suggested the 
possibility) as to the possibility of co-operation between germinal 
and somatic variations in the interests of the species. Even if 
we admit that the latter (acquired characters) are non-trans- 
missible, it by no means follows that they have no evolutionary 
import. However unimportant the soma may be as to the pro- 
vision of variations that can be inherited and so help in the 
making of new species, it is at least the bearer of germ-cells, to 
which its survival and well-being are of the first importance. If, 
therefore, it is able to accommodate itself to its surroundings so 
as to survive and leave offspring, it will give variations which have 
arisen in its germ-cells a chance of being preserved. Accommo- 
dation, z.e. the rise of acquired characters, is consequently inti- 
mately bound up with the adaptation of the species. 

It must not be regarded as definitely settled that acquired 
characters are never transmitted, although many supposed in- 
stances have been explained away. A vast amount of observa- 
tion and experiment is still necessary, and dogmatism is at present 
quite out of place. 

The question still remains as to whether variations are inde- 
pendent of the action of the environment, directly due to its action, 
or to some extent dependent upon it. There are probably perhaps 
several possibilities. The germ-cells, for instance, are in many 
cases so sheltered from the action of surroundings that some of 
their variations may well be inherent. It is also well-nigh certain 
that there is such a thing as environmental variation. But here 
there are two possibilities. The action of the surroundings may 
directly set up variations, or it may simply act in such a way as 
to favour variational possibilities, z.c. it may direct and further, but 
not absolutely initiate. Nor is its action necessarily limited to 
either alternative. 


HEREDITY 
In cases of egg-development it is necessarily the germ-cells 


that are the means of transmitting characters from one genera- 
tion to the next. Innumerable investigations upon such cells 


HEREDITY 493 


also render it practically certain that the part concerned with 
heredity is the zacleus, te. the specialized particle of protoplasm 
which every germ-cell contains. Weismann limits the field still 
further, and considers that the nucleus is in part composed of 
‘germ plasma”, a protoplasmic material specially concerned with 
the transmission of characters. In typical egg-propagation (see 
vol. ili, p. 335) germ-cells from the two parents fuse together, 
and the essential point about the process seems to be the union 
of the two nuclei. This has undoubtedly an important bearing 
on the question of heredity, but precisely what bearing is still a 
matter of doubt. It is perhaps the most remarkable fact in the 
whole realm of knowledge that the fusion of two microscopic 
particles of protoplasm should carry with it so vast a range of 
possibilities as regards inheritance. 

There are some clear cases which prove that the germ-cells 
are influenced by some of the factors in the surroundings. Yung, 
for example, by bringing up tadpoles on specially nutritious food, 
was able to produce with certainty an abnormal proportion of 
females (90 per cent or even more), and we have elsewhere seen 
(see p. 256) that a fertilized bee’s egg may give rise to either a 
worker or queen, according to the nature of the food received 
by the larva. Even more remarkable is the case of certain lowly 
crustaceans upon which Schmankewitsch experimented. In the 
course of several generations he was able to convert a species 
(Artemia Milhauseniz) living in saltish water into another species 
(A. salina), by gradually increasing the amount of salt. He also 
found it possible to conduct the experiment in the reverse order, 
and in this instance was able to go a step further, obtaining a 
third species of a distinct genus (BLranchipus stagnalis), char- 
acteristic of perfectly fresh water. In the light of such facts it 
seems difficult to believe that there is no possibility of acquired 
somatic characters being transmissible, for we can scarcely main- 
tain that in all the cases cited the germ-cells were directly 
influenced by modification in the surroundings. 

Galton has formulated a law (since modified by Karl Pearson) 
expressing numerically the influence of parents and remoter an- 
cestors upon the characters of offspring, and the application of 
mathematical methods to biological statistics is likely to yield 
important results in the immediate future, as regards heredity, 
variation, and many other problems. On the botanical side very 


494 PHILOSOPHIC ZOOLOGY 


remarkable results bearing on the theory of heredity have been 
obtained by applying the principles of Mendel, but these cannot 
be discussed here, especially as there are difficulties in the way 
of conducting similar experiments on animals. 

Readers who wish to acquire further knowledge in matters 
relating to biological theory would do well to consult the works 
of Darwin, Wallace (especially Darwenzsm), Romanes (Darwin 
and After Darwin), Weismann, Lloyd Morgan, Verworn (General 
Physiology), E. B. Wilson (The Cell tn Development and [nhert- 
tance), T. Hunt Morgan (£volution and Adaptation), and Mendel 
(Principles of Fleredity). A good preliminary acquaintance with 
the subject may be obtained by reading Arthur Thomson's 
Science of Life. 


GLOSSARY 


Abomasun, in the stomach of Ruminants, the 
fourth compartment (chemical stomach). 

Abysmal zone (Gk. abyssds, very deep), the 
deepest part of the sea. 

Accommodation, adjustment of the individual 
to its surroundings. 

Acetabulum (L. for vinegar cup), the socket 
in the hip into which the thigh-bone fits. 

Acquired character, a character acquired by 
an individual in relation to its surroundings. 

Adaptation, the adjustment of species to their 
surroundings. 

Adductor muscles (L. adduco, I lead to), 
muscles which by their contraction close the 
shells of Bivalve Molluscs, Lamp-Shells, and 
Mussel-Shrimps. 

Adipose fin, the small, fatty second dorsal fin 
of members of the Salmon Family. 

Esthetic or Esthetics (Gk. arsthétikds, sen- 
sitive), the philosophy of the beautiful. 

Afferent branchial vessels (L. afféra, I carry 
to; Gk. branchia, gills), blood-vessels which 
carry impure blood to gills to be purified. 

Afferent nerve-fibre (L. afféro, I carry to), 
a nerve-fibre in which the impulse travels 
towards the central organs. 

Air-bladder. See Swim-bladder. 

Ala spuria. See Bastard-wing. 

Albinism (L. a/éus, white or pale), exceptional 
whiteness or paleness in hue of some mem- 
bers of a species. 

Albino, an individual exhibiting albinism. 

Albumen, or Albumin, the complex albumi- 
noid (which see) of which the white of an 
egg is made up. 

Albuminoids, complex compounds, chiefly 
made up of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, 
sulphur, and (in some cases) phosphorus. 

Alima, pl. -z, in Mantis-Shrimps, an attenu- 
ated kind of larva. 

Ambergris, concretions formed in the intestine 
of the sperm-whale. Used in perfumery. 

Ambulacral, relating to an ambulacrum; Am- 
bulacral area, a band or zone bearing tube- 
feet; Ambulacral ossicle, one of the cal- 
careous plates roofing an ambulacrum. 

Ambulacrum, pl. -a (L. for pleasure grove), 
in Star-Fishes, one of the grooves in which 
the tube-feet are lodged. 


495 


Ammocetes, the larva of a Lamprey. 


Ameeboid movement, irregular flowing or 
creeping movements, performed by naked 
masses of protoplasm, e¢.g. in the Proteus 
Animalcule (Amceba). 

Amphibious (Gk. amphi, both ways; bzds, 
life): (1) able to breathe both ordinary air 
and air dissolved in water; (2) breathing 
dissolved air during the early part of life 
and ordinary air afterwards. 

Ampulla (L. ampulla, a flask): (1) in the internal 
ear of Vertebrates, the swollen part of a 
semicircular canal; (2) in Echinoderms, a 
small sac connected with a tube-foot. 

Anabolic, relating to anabolism. 


Anabolism (Gk. azaddlé, an ascent), the up- 
building chemical processes that take place 
within the body. 

Analogous, displaying analogy. 

Analogy (Gk. analjgés, in agreement with), 
applied to parts which do the same physio- 
logical work irrespective of relative position 
and mode of development. See also Hom- 
ology. 

Anatomy (Gk. anatomé, dissection), the study 
of structure. 

Anbury, in turnips, a disease due to the pres- 
ence of a fungus-animal (Plasmodiophora 
brassice). 

Antenna (L. for yard-arm): (1) one of the feelers 
of an Insect, or Myriapod; (2) one of the 
second feelers of a Crustacean; (3) one of 
the head-feelers of a Bristle-Worm. 

Antennary gland, in higher Crustaceans, one 
of a pair of excretory organs by which nitro- 
genous waste is removed from the body. 
They open at the bases of the antenne. 

Antennule, in Crustaceans, one of the small 
first pair of feelers. 

Anthrax, in cattle, &c., a bacterial disease, 
often set up by insect bites. 

Anthropoid (Gk. anthrépds, man; eidds, ap- 
pearance), man-like. 

Anti-toxin (Gk. anti, against; L. tox‘cum, 
poison), a complex organic substance (defen- 
sive proteid) conferring immunity against 
disease-germs. 

Antler, in Deer, a bony outgrowth from the 
skull, which is shed annually. 


2 


2 


496 


Antler-royal, the third branch of a Red Deer's 
antler (counting from its base). 

Aorta (Gk. aéird, I carry), the chief artery of 
the body. 

Aortic arches, the arteries which traverse the 
visceral arches of Vertebrates. 

Apical disc, in Echinoderms (especially sea- 
urchins), a double circlet of plates on the 
upper surface of the body. 

Apiculture (L. agzs, a bee), bee-culture. 

Apteria (Gk. a, without; pferylin a feather), 
featherless patches of a Bird's skin. 

Arch, of a vertebra (or joint of the backbone), 
the dorsal part which forms the roof and 
sides of the hole traversed by the spinal 
cord. 

Archenteron (Gk. arché, a beginning; enferon, 
an intestine), the digestive cavity of the 
Gastrula (which see). 

Area of distribution, area inhabited by a 
species or other animal group. It is d/scon- 
tinuous if consisting of two or more isolated 
portions. 

Artery, a blood-vessel which carries blood 
from the heart. 

Articular processes, projections on the arches 
of vertebrae, by which these are connected 
together. 

Artificial selection, the production of breeds 
of domesticated animals by human agency. 
Assimilation (L. ads7mzlo, I make like), the 
conversion of digested food into body-sub- 

stance. 

Atavism (L. afavus, an ancestor). 
Sion. 

Atlas, the ring-shaped first vertebra of the 
neck-region. 

Atoll, a ring-shaped coral island. 

Atrial cavity (L. atrium, a hall), a space sur- 
rounding most of the pharynx in Lancelets 
and Ascidians. 

Atriopore, the opening of the Atrial cavity 
(which see). 

Auricle (L. auzvicula, a little ear), a relatively 
thin-walled heart-chamber, into which veins 
pour blood. 

Auricularia, pl. -z (L. for lobe of the ear), in 
Sea-Cucumbers, a bilateral larva, provided 
with a sinuous ciliated band, suggesting the 
appearance of an ear in side-view. 

Australian region, Australia and adjacent 
islands, with eastern part of East Indies, 
New Zealand, and Polynesia. 

Axis, the second neck-vertebra. 


See Rever- 


Balancers (halteres), small club-shaped struc- 
tures representing the reduced hind-wings in 
Flies. 

Baleen (‘‘ whalebone”), in toothless Whales, 
elastic plates hanging down from the roof 
of the mouth. 

Barb, one of the flattened branches borne by 
the axis of a feather. 

Barbel, one of the sensitive filaments with 


GLOSSARY 


which the mouth-region is provided in some 
Fishes, e.g. Cat-Fishes. 

Barbule, one of the small branches borne by 
the barbs of a feather. 

Bastard-wing (ala spuria), a tuft of feathers 
borne by the thumb of a bird. 

Béche-de-mer, Trepang (which see). 

Bedeguar, a tufted gall on the rose, produced 
by the attack of a Gall-Fly. 

Beneficials, those wild animals that by their 
habits promote the welfare of mankind. 
Benthos (Gk. 4énthds, depth), the assemblage 

of animals inhabiting deep water. 

Bez-tine, the second branch of a Red Deer's 
antler (counting from its base). 

Biconcave, hollow on both sides, e.g. the ver- 
tebra of a Fish. 

Bicuspid. See Premolar. 

Bilateral Symmetry. See Symmetry. 

Bile, or Gall, the secretion of the liver. 

Bile-duct, a tube through which bile passes 
into the intestine. 

Biology (Gk. 870s, life; /égds, a discourse), the 
science of life. 

Bipinnaria, pl. -z, in Star-Fishes, the bilateral 
larva, which is provided with pairs of soft 
ciliated arms. 

Bivalve, applied to the shell of a Mollusc when 
made up of two pieces or valves, e.g. in a 
Mussel. Lamp-shells (Brachiopoda) are also 
bivalve, and Mussel-Shrimps (Ostracoda) 
possess a bivalve shield or shell. 

Blastopore (Gk. d/astis, a germ; pora, a pas- 
sage), the mouth of a Gastrula (which see). 

Blastosphere (Gk. dlastis, a germ; sphaira, 
a sphere), a hollow and spheroidal kind of 
Blastula (which see). 

Blastula (Gk. dim. of dlastés, a germ), the 
embryonic stage resulting from Cleavage 
(which see). 

Blight, a disease of plants, often due to the 
presence of aphides. 

Blubber, in marine Mammals, a thick layer of 
fat below the skin. 

Body - cavity, in animals higher than Zoo- 
phytes, a space or series of spaces between 
the internal organs and body-wall. 

Botany (Gk. dofané, a plant), the science deal- 
ing with plants. 

Bouchot, in mussel-culture, a collector made 
of stakes with interwoven twigs. 

Brachiolaria, pl. -#, a variety of the Bipin- 
naria (which see). 

Bronchus, pl. -i, one of the two main branches 
of the wind-pipe. 

Brood - parasitism, used of animals (e.g. the 
Cuckoo) which evade the responsibility of 
bringing up their own young. 

Brow-tine, the lowest branch of a Red Deer's 
antler, projecting over the forehead. 

Byssus (Gk. dyssos), adhesive threads by which 
some Bivalve Molluscs attach themselves. 


GLOSSARY 


Czcum, pl. -a (L. cecus, blind), a blindly 
ending tube. : 

Calcaneum (L. for heel), the heel-bone. 

Calcar (L. for spur), a small pointed projection 
on the inner side of a Frog’s hind-foot. 

Calcareous (L. calx, calcis, lime), of a limy 
nature. 

Callosity, a hardened patch of skin. 


Calyx (Gk. kalyx, a cup), the outer investing 
leaves of a flower. 

Canine, one of the four ‘‘eye-teeth” ina Mam- 
mal. Situated outside the Incisors(which see), 
and well developed in carnivorous forms. 

Cannon-bone: (1) in Horse, &c., the large 
metacarpal or metatarsal of the single 
digit; (2) in Ruminants, the compound bone 
formed by fusion of third and fourth meta- 
carpals or metatarsals. 

Capillaries (L. capzllus, hair), microscopic 
blood-vessels with exceedingly thin walls. 
The name is misleading, since they are much 
smaller than the finest hairs. 

Carapace, a firm protective shield covering the 
upper side and flanks in some animals. 

Cardia (the Greek name), the opening be- 
tween gullet and stomach. 

Cardo (L. for hinge), the basal joint of an 
Insect’s second jaw. 

Carinate (L. carina, a keel): (1) with a keel- 
like projection; (2) applied to flying birds, in 
which the breast-bone possesses such a pro- 
jection, for the attachment of the muscles of 
flight. 

Carnassials (L. carnosus, relating to flesh), or 
Flesh-teeth, in Carnivores, four cutting 
cheek-teeth which act like scissors. 

Carnivorous, flesh-eating. 

Carotid (Gk. dara, the head), a term applied to 
arteries which carry blood to the head and 
neck. 

Carpale, pl. -ia (Gk. karpds, the wrist), the 
distal elements of the carpus. 

Carpel (Gk. arpds, fruit), a modified flower- 
leaf that bears ovules. The Pistil (which 
see) consists of one or more carpels. 

Carpus (Gk. karpis, the wrist), the skeleton of 
the wrist. 

Cartilage, gristle. 

Caste, in social Insects, a set of similar indi- 
viduals. 

Caval veins, in air-breathing Vertebrates, the 
great veins which return impure blood to the 
heart. 

Caviare, the preserved hard roes (ovaries) of 
the sturgeon. 

Cell, a nucleated mass of protoplasm, gener- 
ally microscopic, and usually regarded as 
the unit of structure. 

Centrale, a central element of the carpus or 
tarsus. 

Centrum, pl. -a, of a vertebra, the relatively 
massive ventral part, flooring the hole tra- 
versed by the spinal cord. 


Cephalo-thorax (Gk. képhailé, the head; thdrax, 


497 


the chest), in some Arthropods, the front 
region of the body, formed by fusion of the 
head with part or all of the thorax. 

Cerata (Gk. 2érata, horns), in Sea-slugs (Nudi- 
branchs), club-shaped outgrowths springing 
from the back. 

Cercaria, pl. -2 (Gk. érkds, a tail), in Flukes, 
a tadpole-shaped stage in the life-history. 
Produced by the Redia (which see), and 
immediately preceding the adult stage. 

Cerci (Gk. érkus, a tail), jointed rods project- 
ing from the hinder end of an Insect’s abdo- 
men. 


Cere (L. cera, wax), a bare patch of skin at 
the base of a Bird's beak. 

Cerebellum (L. dim. of cerebrum, the brain), 
an unpaired dorsal outgrowth from the 
hinder part of the brain of a Vertebrate. 


Cerebral hemispheres (L. cerebrum, the brain), 
the highest part of the brain in Vertebrates, 
usually consisting of a pair of outgrowths 
from near its front end. 

Cervical (L. cervix, the neck), relating to the 
neck, 

Chalaza (Gk. for hail), in a Bird’s egg, a 
twisted cord-like structure traversing the 
albumen (‘‘ white”’) at either end. 

Cheek-teeth, the back-teeth. 


Chelicera, pl. -2, (Gk. chélé, a claw; kéras, a 
horn), one of the first pair of head-limbs in 
Spider-like animals (Arachnida). 


Chlorophyll (Gk. chords, grass green; phyllin, 
a leaf), or Leaf-green, the characteristic pig- 
ment of green plants. It also occurs in a 
few lower animals. 

Chordotonal organ (Gk. chérd@, a string; 
tonazios, stretched), in some Insects, a kind of 
sense-organ related to balance, or hearing, 
or both. 

Choroid (Gk. chdriin, skin; eddés, appearance), 
the middle coat of the eyeball. It is pig- 
mented and vascular, and externally forms 
the iris (which see). 

Chromatophore(Gk. chroma, colouring matter; 
phéro, | bear), a small or minute body con- 
taining pigment, and situated in the skin. 
Colour-changes are due to the alteration in 
size of such bodies. 

Chrysalis, pl. -ides (the Greek name), the 
pupa of a Moth or Butterfly. 

Ciliary action, the movement of cilia. 

Cilium, pl. cilia (L. cz/iwm, eyelash), a micro- 
scopic thread of protoplasm, possessing the 
power of alternately bending and straighten- 
ing. Numerous cilia are usually associated 
together. The derivation is misleading. 

Circulatory organs, the structures concerned 
with distributing blood and lymph through- 
out the body. 

Cirrus, pl. -i (L. c¢rrus, a tentacle): (1) one of 
the slender-jointed appendages of a Barnacle; 
(2) one of the sensory filaments borne by the 
segments of Bristle-Worms; (3) in Sea-Lilies, 
one of the jointed threads of which numerous 
circlets are borne by the stalk. 


498 


Claire, in French oyster culture, a muddy salt 
pond in which oysters are ‘greened’ by 
feeding on minute algae. 

Clavicle, the collar-bone. 

Cleavage, the early divisions of the fertilized 
egg-cell, resulting in a Blastula (which see). 

Clitellum (L. clitelle, a pack-saddle), in 
Earth-Worms and Leeches, a glandular re- 
gion of the skin, which secretes the material 
for the cocoon. 

Cloaca (L. cloaca, a sewer), a chamber into 
which, e.g. in a Frog, intestine, excretory 
organs, and reproductive organs open. 

Coccyx (Gk. for cuckoo), the reduced tail- 
region of the backbone in Man and the man- 
like Apes. 

Cochineal, a red pigment extracted from the 
dried bodies of Cochineal Insects. 

Cochlea (L. cochlea, a snail-shell), in Mam- 
mals, a spirally-coiled part of the membran- 
ous labyrinth. 

Cocoon, a variously shaped case in which the 
eggs or other inactive stages in the life- 
history of various animals are enclosed. 

Celom (Gk. folds, hollow), a Body-cavity 
(which see) containing lymph-like fluid and 
communicating with the exterior by excretory 
tubes. 

Ceenosarc (Gk. ko/nds, common; sarx, sarcos, 
flesh), in colonial Zoophytes, the common 
body by which the individuals are united. 

Collar-cell, in Sponges, a cell bearing a single 
flagellum with a collar-like projection at its 
base. 

Collector, in oyster- and mussel-culture, an 
arrangement of twigs, boards, or tiles, to 
which the larve or fry attach themselves. 

Colonial, relating to a Colony (which see). 

Colony, an assemblage of lower animals, in 
which the bodies of all the individuals are 
continuous. The condition is a result of 
vegetative propagation. 

Columella (L. columella, a little pillar), a small 
rod which stretches across the drum of the 
ear in Birds, some Reptiles, and some Am- 
phibians. 

Columnar epithelium, epithelium composed of 
cells clongated at right angles to the surface. 

Commensalism (L. con-, together; mensa, a 
dining-table), the association of two organ- 
isms as messmates, or commensals, to the 
benefit of one or both. 

Compound eye, an eye made up of more or 
less numerous optically distinct elements 
each with an external facet. Possessed by 
many Arthropods. 

Concha (L. concha, a shell) the ear-flap of a 
Mammal. 

Condyle (Gk. condy/los, a tubercle), a rounded 
projection on a bone or cartilage, where it 
helps to form a movable joint. Mandibular 
condyles, at back of lower jaw, where it 
unites with skull. Occipital condyle (or 
condyles), on back of skull, where it joins the 
backbone. 


GLOSSARY 


Conjugation (L. conjugato, conjugatum, to 
bind together), in some Animalcules, the 
temporary or permanent fusion of two indi- 
viduals, accompanied by union of nuclear 
material, and having an invigorating eftect, 
shown by active vegetative propagation. 

Continental island, an island that was at one 
time part of an existing continent. 

Contractile, endowed with contractility. 


Contractility, the power possessed by proto- 
plasm of changing its shape with no or 
slight change in volume. 

Coracoid bone (Gk. £drax, a raven), a ventral 
element in the shoulder-skeleton of lower 
Vertebrates. Coracoid process, a projection 
(compared in Man to a raven’s beak) on 
the shoulder-blade of Mammals, equivalent 
to the coracoid bone. 

Cornea (L. corneus, horny), a transparent area 
of the sclerotic coat through which light 
enters the eye. 

Corolla (L. for little crown), the inner invest- 
ing leaves of a flower. Usually brightly 
coloured. 

Corpus callosum (L. for hard body), a band 
of nerve-fibres which in most Mammals 
connects the cerebral hemispheres. 

Corpuscles (L. dim. of corpus, a body), micro- 
scopic bodies floating in blood or lymph. 
White or Colourless Corpuscles, nucleated 
cells, able to change their shape, found in 
both blood and lymph. Red Corpuscles, 
round or oval discs present in the blood of 
many animals. 

Cortex (L. cortex, bark), the external layer of 
the cerebral hemispheres and cerebellum. 

Costal (L. costa, a rib), relating to the ribs. 

Courtship coloration, beautiful colours dis- 
played (usually by the male) as a courtship 
accessory. 

Courtship selection, preferential mating, as 
determined by combat, or by the possession 
of zsthetic characters. 

Cranial flexure, a bend in the brain. 


Cranial nerves, the nerves which arise from 
the brain. 

Cranium (Gk. Ardnzon, the skull), the brain- 
case. 

Crop, in the gut of various animals, a dilated 
part of the gullet, or enlarged region follow- 
ing the gullet. It serves for temporary stor- 
age of food. 

Cross-fertilization, fertilization of an egg-cell 
by a sperm (or its equivalent) derived from 
another organism. 

Cross-pollination, transfer of pollen from the 
stamens of one flower to the stigma of 
another flower. 

Coxa (L. cova, a hip), the basal joint of an 
Insect’s leg. 

Cul de mulet, Sea-anemones used as an 
article of food in parts of southern Europe. 
Cultch, in oyster-culture, empty shells, broken 
tiles, &c., upon which oysters are grown. 


GLOSSARY 


Cuticle, an elastic exoskeleton of horny con- 
sistency external to the epidermis, by which 
it is secreted. 

Cysticercus, pl. -i (Gk. cystis, a bladder; 
kérkds, a tail), in most Tape-Worms, the 
bladder-worm stage. 


Darwinism. See Natural selection. 

Degeneration, a process of simplification 
whereby some forms adapt themselves to a 
parasitic or to a fixed mode of life. 

Denitrifying, used of bacteria which liberate 
nitrogen from organic matter. 

Dental formula, a numerical expression, show- 
ing the number and kinds of teeth present in 
a given species of Mammal. 

Dentine (L. dens, dentis, a tooth), a hard sub- 
stance of which teeth are chiefly composed. 
Dermatoptic vision (Gk. dérma, -atvs, a skin; 
optikis, pertaining to sight), seeing by means 

of the skin. 

Dermis (Gk. dérma, a skin), the inner layer of 
the skin. 

Diaphragm (the Greek name), the midriff. 

Didactyle (Gk. dz-, two; daktylés, a finger 
or toe), possessing two digits. 

Digitigrade (L. digitus, the toe of an animal; 
grado, | walk), walking upon the digits. 

Diphycercal (Gk. diphyés, double; kérkds, a 
tail). See Protocercal. 

Diploblastic (Gk. dzplous, double; blastis, a 
germ), applied to animals in which the body 
is essentially composed of two cellular 
layers. 

Dispersal, the spreading of a species from the 
area where it was first evolved. 

Dorsal (L. dorsum, the back), applied to the 
upper side of an animal. 

Ductless glands, a name applied to a number 
of small structures, of various use, which do 
not possess ducts or tubes for carrying off 
a liquid secretion. See Lymphatic glands, 
Thymus, Thyroid, Spleen. 


Ectoderm (Gk. e/0s, outside; derma, a skin), 
the external cellular layer of the body. 

Ectoparasite. See Parasite. 

Eder-fold, one of the nesting-grounds of the 
eider-duck. 

Efferent branchial vessels (L. efférd, I carry 
from; Gk. branchia, gills), blood-vessels 
which carry off purified blood from gills. 

Efferent nerve-fibre (L. efféra, I carry from), 
a nerve-fibre in which the impulse travels 

, outwards from the central organs. 

Elevage, in French oyster-culture, the rearing 

_ of young oysters to a marketable size. 

Eleveur, a French oyster-culturalist concerned 
with élevage. 

Elytron, pl. -a, (Greek name for (1) ): (1) in 
Insects, a fore-wing modified into a hard 
cover for the delicate hind-wing; (2) in 
some marine Bristle-Worms, a breathing- 
scale. 


499 


Embryology (Gk. émbrydn, an embryo; ldgds, 
a discourse), the study of the development 
of animals. 

Endoderm (Gk. édin, within; dérmd, a skin), 
the internal cellular layer of the body. 

Endoparasite. See Parasite. 

Endoskeleton, internal hard parts serving for 
support, &c. 

Entomophilous (Gk. &/mds, an insect; philed, 
I love), of flowers, pollinated by insects. 

Environment, the sum total of an animal's 
surroundings. 

Eozoic epoch (Gk. eos, dawn; zoé@, life), the 
most ancient geological era. 

Ephippium (Gk. &phippidn, a saddle-cloth), in 
Water-‘‘ Fleas”, a saddle-shaped thicken- 
ing of the parent-shell, serving to enclose 
and protect the winter-eggs. 

Ephyra, pl. -z, a young jelly-fish of flattened 
form, produced by transverse fission of a 
fixed Zoophyte. 

Epidermis (the Greek name), the protective 
outer layer of the skin. 

Epigenesis (Gk. &7, after; gennad, I pro- 
duce), the accepted view that development 
of animals is a process involving a gradual 
up-building from simple to complex. See 
Preformation. 

Epiglottis (the Greek name), in Mammals, an 
elastic flap which prevents food from enter- 
ing the wind-pipe. 

Epipodium, pl. -ia (Gk. ef7, upon; fous, 
podds, a foot), in some Molluscs, a muscular 
flap arising high up either side of the foot. 

Epipubic, connected with the front end of the 
Pubis (which see). 

Epithelium, pl. -a, layers of cells covering ex- 
ternal and lining internal surfaces. 

Ethiopian region, south Arabia with Africa 
south of the Sahara. 

Euglenoid movement, a wriggling mode of 
creeping effected by altering the shape of the 
body, as in Euglena, a sort of Animalcule. 

Eustachian tube, a passage connecting the 
drum of the ear with the pharynx in air- 
breathing Vertebrates. 

Evolution (L. evolutio, an unfolding), the de- 
velopment of species by modification of pre- 
existing species. See also Special creation. 

Excretion, the getting rid of waste products. 

Exhalent. See Siphon. 

Exoskeleton, external hard parts serving for 
support, &c. 

Extensor, applied to muscles which straighten 
or extend a limb, or region of the body. 


Fascine, in oyster-culture, a bundle of twigs 
used as a Spat-collector. 

Femoral, relating to the thigh. 

Femur (L. for thigh): (1) the thigh-bone of 
Vertebrates; (2) a part of the leg in Insects, 
&e. 

Fenestra ovalis (L. for oval window), in Verte- 
brates, a membrane-filled vacuity in the 


500 


outer wall of the firm capsule containing the 
essential organs of hearing. 

Fertilization, the fusion of two nuclear masses, 
commonly derived from different individuals. 

Fetlock, in limbs of Horse, &c.: (1) the 
knuckle-joint of the single digit; (2) the tuft 
of hair attached to this joint. 

Fibula (L. for bodkin), the bone of the lower 
leg which is on the little-toe side. 

Fibulare, a proximal element of the tarsus, 
situated on the side next the little toe. 

Filoplume, a small and imperfect feather, of 
downy texture. 

Finger-and-Toe. See Anbury. 

Fin-rays, in Fishes, skeletal rods which sup- 
port the fins. 

Fins, in various aquatic animals, flat expan- 
sions of the body used in swimming. 

Fission (L. findo, fissum, to split), vegetative 
propagation by splitting of the parent body. 

Flagellum, pl. -a (L. for whip-lash), an elon- 
gated thread of protoplasm, capable ot 
executing lashing movements. A single cell 
bears but one or a few. See Cilium. 

Flexor, applied to muscles which bend or flex 
a limb, or region of the body. 

Fluke, in Cetaceans, one of the tail-lobes. 

Fly-sickness, a fatal disease of horses, &c., 
set up by the attacks of the tsetse-fly. 

Food-vacuole, in Animalcules, a food-contain- 
ing space within the body. 

Food-yolk, nutritive material stored up in (or 
outside) the egg-cell, for use during develop- 
ment. 

Foot: (1) in broad sense, the extremity of any 
limb used for locomotion; (2) more strictly, 
the extremity of a hind-limb in Vertebrates; 
(3) an unpaired muscular projection from the 
under side of a Mollusc, used in locomotion. 

Foot-stump. See Parapod. 

Foramen, pl. -ina (L. for hole), a hole through 
which (usually) a nerve or blood-vessel 
passes. Foramen magnum, the large open- 
ing in the back of the brain-case, where brain 
and spinal cord are continuous. 

Foramina repugnatoria, in Millipedes, small 
pores on the sides of the body, by which the 
stink-glands open. 

Fore-gut, the front part of the digestive tube, 
developed as an inpushing from the exterior. 

Fossils (L. fossz/is, dug out), the remains of 
organisms, or proofs of their existence, 
which have been naturally imbedded in 
rocks. 

Frenulum (L. dim. of frenum, a bridle), in 
Moths, one or more bristles projecting from 
the front of the hind-wing, and attaching 
this to the fore-wing by interlocking with 
the Retinaculum (which see). 

Funicle (L. funzculus, a cord), in Moss-Po- 
lypes, a fibrous band connecting the stomach 
with the body-wall. 

Funnel, a muscular tube through which Cuttle- 
fishes, &c., eject water from the gill-cavity, 
and are enabled to swim. 


GLOSSARY 


Furcula (L. for a prop), the ‘‘ merry-thought” 
of a Bird, consisting of the two collar-bones 
united together. 


Galea (L. for a helmet), in Insects, the outer 
branch of the second or third jaw. 

Gall: (1) bile; (2) an abnormal external growth 
resulting from the attack of a parasite. 

Gall-bladder, a membranous bag in which 
bile is temporarily stored. 

Ganglion, pl. ganglia (Gk. for a small tumour), 
an aggregation of nerve-cells. 

Ganglion-cell. 

Ganoid (Gk. ganos, brilliancy; eidos, appear- 
ance), applied to the regularly arranged 
bony plates (ganoid scales) covering the 
bodies of some Fishes. 

Gapes, in Birds, a disease due to the presence 
of parasitic worms (Syngamus trachealis) in 
the air-passages. 

Gastric glands, minute tubes imbedded in the 
lining of the stomach, and secreting gastric 
juice. 

Gastric juice, a digestive fluid secreted or 
elaborated by the gastric glands. It acts 
on albuminoids, converting them into soluble 
diffusible peptones. 

Gastric mill, in Crustaceans, a chewing 
apparatus with which the stomach is pro- 
vided. 

Gastrula (L. dim. from gaster, a stomach), a 
double-layered embryo possessing mouth 
and digestive cavity (archenteron). 

Gemmation (L. gemma, a bud), production of 
new individuals by budding. 

General aggressive resemblance, applied to 
predaceous forms which harmonize in 
appearance with their surroundings, and 
are thus rendered inconspicuous. 

Genus, pl. genera (L. for a race or family), 
a classificatory group including one or more 
species. 

Germinal disc, that part of the egg which, 
e.g. in a Bird, develops into the embryo. 

Germinal variation, variation of germ-cells 
(ova and sperms). 

Germ Plasma, that part of the nucleus of a 
germ-cell concerned (according to Weis- 
mann) with heredity. 

Gill arches and clefts, in Fishes, &c., those 
visceral arches and clefts (which see) related 
to the gills. 

Gill-cover, or Operculum, (pl. -a), in many 
Fishes, &c., a flap which covers the gill-slits. 

Gill-rakers, in some Fishes, filaments project- 
ing from the edges of the inner openings of 
the gill-pouches, and serving as a straining- 
apparatus. 

Gizzard, in various animals, a_ thick-walled 
part of the digestive tube in which food is 
broken up. 

Glenoid cavity (Gk. g/éé, a shallow socket), 
the socket into which the bone of the upper 
arm fits. 


See Nerve-cell. 


GLOSSARY 


Glochidium, pl. -a, the larva of a Fresh- 
water Mussel. 

Glottis (the Greek name), the opening of the 
windpipe in the floor of the pharynx. 

Gonophore (Gk. gdnds, offspring; phérd, I 
bear), in Zoophytes, a bud in which egg- 
cells or sperms are produced. 

Green glands. See Antennary gland. 

Grey matter, that part of the central nervous 
system made up largely of nerve-cells. 

Ground-Pearl, in some Scale-Insects, the en- 
cysted underground pupa. 

Gular (L. gw/a, the throat), near the throat. 

Gut, the digestive tube or alimentary canal. 


Hemoglobin (Gk. haima, blood; globin, a 
kind of albuminoid), a complex substance to 
which red corpuscles owe their colour, and 
which in some animals may be dissolved in 
the blood-plasma. Acts as an oxygen- 
carrier. 

Halteres (L. for club-shaped weights used by 
gymnasts). See Balancers. 

Haptic (Gk. haptikds, endowed with the sense 
of touch), used of sensations of contact. 


Herbivorous, plant-eating. 


Heredity, the transmission of characters from 
one generation to another. 

Heterocercal (Gk. h&éros, diverse; kérkis, 
tail), unsymmetrical. Used of the tail-fin of 
certain Fishes, e.g. Sharks. 

Heterodactylous (Gk. étérds, different; dak- 
tylés, a toe), in the feet of some climbing 
Birds, with the first and second toes turned 
back, while the third and fourth are directed 
forwards. 

Hind-gut, the hinder part of the digestive 
tube, developed as an inpushing from the 
exterior. 

Hip-girdle, the skeleton of the hip-region. 

Histology (Gk. Azstés, a texture; légds, a dis- 
course), or Minute anatomy, the study of 
structure by means of the compound micro- 
scope. 

Hock, in hind-limb of Horse, &c., the ankle. 

Holarctic (Gk. dlds, all; arktés, the north), 
native to the colder parts of the Northern 
Hemisphere. 

Homocercal (Gk. himds, like; kérkds, a tail), 
applied to the lobed and externally sym- 
metrical tail of ordinary Fishes. 

Homologous, displaying homology. 

Homology (Gk. homdligis, agreeing), applied 
to parts which resemble one another as re- 
gards relative position and mode of develop- 
ment, irrespective of use or function. Serial 
homology, agreement between structures 
forming a series, e.g. spinal nerves. See 
also Analogy. 

Honey-comb stomach. See Reticulum. 


Host, an organism on which a parasite preys. 
See Parasitism. 
Humeral, related to the upper arm. 
Vor. IV. 


501 


Humerus (the Latin name), the upper-arm 
bone. 

Hybernation, the habit of passing into a torpid 
state during the cold or dry season. 

Hybrid (L. Aybrida, a cross-bred animal), a 
cross between two distinct species. Hybrids 
are usually sterile. 

Hydroid Zoophytes, colonial Coelenterates 
which in fixed stage superficially resemble 
sea-weeds. 

Hyoid bone, supports root of tongue in higher 
Vertebrates. 

Hyomandibular, related to 
visceral arches (which see), 
known as mandibular and hyoid. 


the first two 
respectively 


Ilium, the dorsal element of the hip-girdle. 

Imago, pl. -ines (L. for figure, portrait, or 
statue), in Insects, the adult stage. 

Incisor, one of the front teeth of a Mammal. 
Next to these are the Canines. See Canine. 

Inhalent. See Siphon. 

Insertion of a muscle, the end attached to 
a relatively movable part. 

Instinct, the power of performing complex 
actions, subserving adjustment to surround- 
ings, independently of experience or instruc- 
tion. 

Integropalliate, in the shell of a Bivalve Mol- 
lusc, with continuous pallial line. 

Intelligence, the ability to profit by experience 
in adjusting behaviour to changing surround- 
ings. 

Interambulacral area, in Echinoderms, a band 
or zone which does not bear tube-feet. 

Inter -clavicle, a skeletal element situated 
between the clavicles in some animals. 

Intermedium, a proximal median element in 
the carpus or tarsus. 

Interradial, in radially symmetrical animals, 
relating to an interradius. 

Interradius, in radially symmetrical animals, 
a region of the body coming between two of 
the radii. 

Invertebrate, devoid of a backbone or its 
equivalent. 

Iris (L. for rainbow), the coloured part of the 
eye, serving as a diaphragm external to the 
lens. Its opening is the pupil. 

Ischium, the ventral and posterior element of 
the hip-girdle. 

Isinglass, a fine kind of gelatine, prepared 
from the swim-bladders of fishes, especially 
sturgeons, 


Joint-gill, in Crustaceans, a gill attached to 
the joint at the base of a limb. 


Kainozoic epoch, (Gk. kainds, recent; 308, 
life), the latest geological era. 
Katabolic, relating to katabolism. 
Katabolism (Gk. katabolé, a casting down), 
127 


502 


the down-breaking chemical processes that 
take place within the body. 
Knee, in fore-limb of Horse, &c., the wrist. 
Kungu cake, an edible substance prepared on 
the shores of Lake Nyassa, by collecting and 
compressing the aquatic larve of Insects. 


Labellum (L. for little lip), the large lower 
petal of an Orchid. 

Labium (L. for a lip), the lower lip of an In- 
sect, formed by the more or less complete 
fusion of the third jaws (second maxilla). 

Labrum (L. for lip), the upper lip of an 
Arthropod. 

Laceration, in Sea-Anemones, production of 
new individuals by the separation of small 
fragments of the base. 

Lacinia (L. for a small part), in Insects, the 
inner branch of the second or third jaw. 
Lacteals (L. /ac, milk), the lymphatics of the 
intestine, so called on account of the milky 
appearance of their contents (digested fat) 

after a meal. 

Lagena (L. for earthen jar), a curved tubular 
part of the membranous labyrinth in Birds, 
&c., equivalent to the Cochlea (which see) 
of Mammals. 

Land-bridge, a submerged area that once 
united two tracts of land now separated by 
the sea. 

Larva, pl. -e (L. /arva, a kind of actor's 
mask), in many life-histories, an early free- 
living stage (e.g. a Tadpole or a Caterpillar) 
which is more or less unlike the adult. 

Larynx (the Greek name), the voice-box. 

Licked beef, diseased flesh in the neighbour- 
hood of Warbles (which see). 

Ligament: (1) a fibrous band running between 
two skeletal elements; (2) an elastic band 
(external ligament) or pad (internal liga- 
ment) by which the shell of a Bivalve Mollusc 
is opened. 

Limb-gill, in Crustaceans, a gill attached to 
a limb. 

Littoral (L. //tus, littor’s, a shore), belonging 
to the shore. 

Liver-rot, in Sheep, &c., a disease caused by 
the presence of Liver-Flukes. 

Lophophore (Gk. Jiphos, tuft or crest; phéera, 
I bear), in Moss-Polypes, the crown of ten- 
tacles. 

Louping-ill, in Sheep, a_ bacterial 
caused by the attacks of Ticks. 
Lung- books, in Scorpions and Spiders, breath- 
ing organs consisting of depressions into 

which numerous leaf-like folds project. 

Luring, the attraction of farm-pests from the 
plants they attack. 

Lymph, clear fluid containing colourless cor- 
puscles. 

Lymphatic glands, swellings in the course of 
lymphatics, in which new colourless cor- 
puscles are developed. 

Lymph-system, a series of spaces and tubes 
containing Lymph (which see). 


disease 


GLOSSARY 


Macronucleus (Gk. makrés, large), in Ani- 
malcules, the large nucleus. 

Madreporite, in Echinoderms, a perforated 
calcareous plate, through which fluid enters 
the water-vascular system. 

Maggot, in Insects, a limbless worm - shaped 
larva. 

Malpighian tubes, in Insects, excretory tubes 
opening into the hinder part of the gut. 


Mandible: (1) in Vertebrates, the lower jaw; 
(2) in Arthropods, one of the first pair of 
jaws. 

Manna,a sweet substance (honey-dew) secreted 
by a species of Scale-insect. 

Mantle, in Molluscs and Lamp-Shells, a flap 
of the body-wall, on the outer side of which 
shell-substance is formed. 

Mantle-cavity, in Molluscs and Lamp-shells, 
a space between the body and Mantle (which 
see). It contains the gill or gills (in aquatic 
Molluscs), and the intestine, excretory organs, 
&c., usually open into it. 

Manyplies. See Omasum. 

Masking, inconspicuousness produced by a 
covering of foreign objects, e.g. stones and 
bits of sea-weed. 

Mastax (Gk. for the mouth), the gizzard-like 
pharynx of Rotifers. 

Maxilla, pl. -2 (L. max7lla, a jaw): (1) in Ver- 
tebrates, a bone of the jaw; (2) in Arthro- 
pods, one of the second or third pair of 
jaws. 

Medusa, in Jelly-Fishes, the egg-producing 
stage, which is usually free-swimming. 

Megalopa, pl. -2 (Gk. megilipous, having 
large feet), in Crabs, the larval stage sic- 
ceeding the Zoza. The legs are well-de- 
veloped and the tail large. 

Melanic, exhibiting melanism. 


Melanism (Gk. mé/as, -ands, dark), excep- 
tional darkness in hue of some members of 
a species. 

Membranous labyrinth, in Vertebrates, the 
complex bag constituting the essential part 
of the internal ear. 

Mentum (L. for the chin), the part of an 
Insect's lower lip that succeeds the Sub- 
mentum (which see). 

Mesentery (Gk. mésénféridn, same meaning 
as (1) ): (1) in Vertebrates, a membrane by 
which the digestive tube is held in place; (2) 
in Bristle-Worms, one of the transverse par- 
titions marking off the segments internally; 
(3) in Sea-Anemones, &c., one of the par- 
titions connecting the gullet with the body- 
wall. 

Mesoderm (Gk. msds, middle ; dérma, a skin), 
the middle cellular layer of the body. 

Mesogleea (Gk. mésds, middle; gld70s, a jelly- 
like substance), in Zoophytes, the middle 
often jelly-like layer of the body. 

Mesotarsal, in the middle of the tarsus, e.g. 
a Bird's ankle-joint. 

Mesozoic epoch (Gk. mesos, middle; z0é, life), 
the latest geological era but one. 


GLOSSARY 


Metabolic, relating to metabolism. 

Metabolism (Gk. métabolé, change), the cycle 
of chemical changes taking place within the 
body. 

Metacarpale, pl. -ia, one of the skeletal ele- 
ments supporting the palm. 

Metacarpus (Gk. métakarpidn, the palm of 
the hand), skeleton of palm of hand. 

Metamorphosis (Gk. for transformation), the 
series of changes by which the adult stage is 
attained, in cases where the young animal dif- 
fers markedly from its parents. See Larva. 

Metatarsale, pl. -ia, one of the skeletal ele- 
ments supporting the instep. 

Metatarsus (Gk. mé&a, after; farsds, the broad 
part of the foot), the skeleton of the instep- 
region of the foot. 

Micronucleus (Gk. mzkrds, small), in Ani- 
malcules, the small nucleus. 

Microtome (Gk. mzkris, small; feémnd, I cut), 
an instrument for cutting thin slices for 
microscopic examination. 

Mid-gut, the middle section of the digestive 
tube. 

Migration (L. mzgratio, removal from one 
home to another), the wandering of species 
from one place to another, often in a periodic 
manner. See also Dispersal. 

Milk dentition, in Mammals, the first set of 
teeth. 

Milk molar, in Mammals, one of the cheek- 
teeth of the milk dentition. 

Mimicry, or Spurious warning, the resem- 
blance existing between certain innocuous 
forms and others exhibiting Warning colora- 
tion, &c. (which see). The mimicking species 
share in the relative immunity enjoyed by the 
mimicked forms. 

Miners’ anemia, a dangerous intestinal dis- 
ease, caused by a palisade-worm (Dochmius 
duodenalis). 

Molar, one of the permanent cheek-teeth of a 
Mammal, belonging to the hinder part of the 
series, and without a predecessor in the first 
set of teeth (milk teeth). 

Mongrel, a cross between two varieties or 
races of the same species. Mongrels are 
usually fertile. 

Morphology, (Gk. mdrphé, form; Jlégds, a 
discourse), the study of form and structure. 

Morula (L. dim. of sorum, a mulberry), a 
solid and spherical variety of Blastula 
(which see). 

Mucous membrane, the soft membrane lining 
the digestive tube. 

Mule, a cross between Horse and Ass. 

Muscle: (1) the tissue which makes up flesh; 
(2) a definitely-shaped piece of flesh, con- 
cerned with some special movement or move- 
ments. 

Mutualism, or Symbiosis, the intimate associ- 
ation of two organisms as mutualists, for the 
benefit of both. 

Myrmecophilous (Gk. myrméx, -ékds, an ant; 
philed, 1 love), of certain plants, protected 


593 


by ants, which in return receive food and 
shelter. 


Nagana, Fly-sickness (which see). 

Natural selection, the survival of individuals 
which vary in favourable directions in rela- 
tion to their surroundings. 

Nauplius (Gk. Mauplids, a son of Neptune), 
in lower Crustaceans, an ovoid unsegmented 
larva possessing only the three first pair of 
head-appendages, by means of which it 
swims. 

Nearctic region (Gk. néds, new; arktds, the 
north), the northern part of the New World. 

Nectar (Gk. né&/dr, the drink of the gods), a 
sweet fluid produced by a nectary. 

Nectary, in plants, an organ secreting nectar. 

Neo-Lamarckism, a theory of evolution which 
postulates the existence of definite Laws of 
Growth. 

Neolithic period (Gk. neds, new; Mithds, a 
stone), the later stages of the Stone Age. 

Neotropical region (Gk. neds, new; trdprkds, 
relating to the tropics), Central and South 
America, with the West Indies. 

Nephridium, pl. -ia (dim. of Gk. néphrds, a 
kidney), in many groups of animals, excre- 
tory tubes by which nitrogenous waste is 
removed from the body. They place the 
Coelom (which see) in communication with 
the exterior. 

Neritic zone (néri/és, a sea-snail), the shallow 
waters of the sea. 

Nerve-cell, the essential part of a Neuron 
(which see). 

Nerve-fibre, the conducting thread into which 
a Neuron (which see) is produced. 

Nerve-loop, in Molluscs, part of the central 
nervous system which gives off nerves to the 
gills and viscera. 

Nerve-ring, in Annelids, Arthropods, Molluscs, 
&c., part of the central nervous system 
which surrounds the front portion of the gut. 

Nervure, one of the linear thickenings support- 
ing the wing of an Insect. 

Nettling-cell, in Zoophytes (Coelenterata), a 
stinging capsule. 

Neural (Gk. n&urin, a nerve), related to the 
central nervous system, or in the proximity 
of this. 

Neuron (Gk. for a nerve), a nerve-unit, con- 
sisting of a nerve-cell with its prolongations. 

Nictitating membrane, the translucent third 
eyelid of Birds, &c., which can be drawn 
over the eye as a protection. 

Nidicole (L. nzdus, a nest; colo, I inhabit), 
in Birds, helpless nestlings. 

Nidifuge (L. nzdus, a nest; fugio, I run 
away), in Birds, young which run about and 
feed themselves almost immediately after 
hatching. 

Nitrifying, used of bacteria, &c., which cause 
free nitrogen to enter into combination. 

Notochord (Gk. 2dtén, the back; chdrdé, a 
string), an elastic supporting-rod which 


504 


underlies the central nervous system of a 
Vertebrate embryo, and may persist through- 
out life. Usually more or less replaced by 
the backbone, of which it is the forerunner. 

Nuchal (L. xwcha, neck), relating to the neck. 

Nucleus (L. for a kernel), a specialized par- 
ticle of protoplasm within a cell. 

Nymph, in Insects with incomplete metamor- 
phosis, the stage which hatches from the 


egg. 


Oceanic island, an island that has never 
formed part of any existing continent. 

Ocellus, pl. -i, (L. for a little eye), in Arthro- 
pods, a small simple eye. 

Ocular (L. ocu/us, an eye), bearing eyes, e.g. 
the ocular plates in the apical disc of a 
sea-urchin. 

Odontophore (Gk. ddous, dddntis, a tooth; 
phéro, I bear), the rasping organ in the 
mouth-cavity of Snails, Cuttle-Fishes, &c. 

Csophagus, the gullet. 

Omasum, in the stomach of Ruminants, the 
third compartment. 

Omnivorous, of mixed diet. 

Ontogeny (Gk. dna, beings; génnad, I pro- 
duce), the development of individual animals. 

Operculun,, pl. -a (L. for lid or cover): (1) the 
gill-cover of a Fish; (2) the horny or shelly 
plate with which the opening of the shell 
can be closed in some Sea-snails; (3) in 
Scorpions, King-Crabs, &c., a plate on the 
under side of the body, immediately behind 
the last pair of legs; (4) the plug with which 
some tube-dwelling Annelids can close the 
openings of their tubes. 

Opisthobranch (Gk. dfisthé, behind; branchia, 
gills), applied to Sea-Snails with gills behind 
the heart. 

Oral (L. ds, the mouth), relating to the mouth. 

Oral papilla, in Peripatus, a pair of stump- 
like limbs near the mouth, upon which the 
slime-glands open. 

Orbit, the cavity of the skull in which the eye- 
ball is lodged. 

Organic selection, the co-operation of Accom- 
modation and Adaptation (which see) in the 
production of new species. 

Oriental region, south Asia, with the adjacent 
part of the East Indies, the Philippines, and 
Formosa. 

Origin of a muscle, the end attached to a 
relatively fixed part. 

Osculum (L. for a little mouth), in Sponges, 
an opening by which currents of water leave 
the body. 

Osphradium, pl. -ia (dim. of Gk. dsphra, an 
odour), a sense-organ which probably tests 
the nature of the water entering the gill- 
cavity of aquatic Molluscs. 

Ossicle (L. dim. of ds, a bone), a small ir- 
regular bone. Auditory ossicles, in drum of 
ear. 

Otocyst (Gk. ows, dtds, an ear; cystis, a 
bladder), a minute vesicle of sensory nature, 


GLOSSARY 


containing one or more hard particles. Pro- 
bably a balancing organ. 

Otolith (Gk. ous, dts, an ear; lithds, a stone), 
a firm particle within an otocyst or internal 
auditory organ. 

Ovary, an organ producing egg-cells. 

Oviparous (L. ovum, anegg; pario, I produce), 
egg-laying. 

Ovipositor, in Insects, a piercing arrange- 
ment at the hinder end of the body in the 
female, for making holes in plants, &c., 
and introducing eggs into them. 

Ovule (L. dim. of ovum, an egg), in Flowering 
Plants, the small body which becomes a seed 
after the egg-cell it contains has been fer- 
tilized. 

Ovum, pl. -a (L. for an egg), an egg-cell, the 
earliest stage in the development of an 
embryo. 

Oyster-park, an enclosed area of 
water in which oysters are grown. 


shallow 


Pacinian corpuscle, a minute ovoid laminated 
body, connected with a sensory nerve, and 
probably having to do with the pressure- 
sense. 

Palearctic region (Gk. palazos, ancient; arktos, 
the north), the northern part of the old 
world. 

Paleolithic period (Gk. falatis, ancient; 
Zithds, a stone), the earlier stages of the 
Stone Age. 

Paleozoic epoch (Gk. palaiis, ancient; 208, 
life), the most ancient geological era but one. 

Pallial line, in Bivalve Molluscs, a mark on 
the inner side of each valve, corresponding 
to the attachment of the mantle or pallium. 

Pallium (L. for a cloak). See Jantle. 

Palmated (L. palma, a hand), divided like a 
hand. 

Palp (L. palpo, I touch gently), a sensitive 
outgrowth, e.g. of some mouth-parts in 
Insects. Labial palp, one of four sensitive 
triangular flaps adjoining the mouth of a 
Bivalve Mollusc. 

Pancreas (the Greek name), the sweet-bread. 
An abdominal gland, which pours its secre- 
tion (pancreatic juice) into the intestine. 

Pancreatic juice, the secretion of the pancreas. 
It acts upon albuminoids, starch, and fats. 

Papilla (L. for a nipple), a small projection. 

Parapod, or Parapodium, pl. -ia (Gk. fara, 
by the side of; fous, podds, a toot): (1) 
in Bristle-Worms, one of the hollow conical 
unjointed foot-stumps; (2)in some Sea-Slugs, 
a muscular flap arising far down on each 
side of the foot. 

Parasite (Gk. parasifés, a sycophant), an 
organism which lives on (ectoparasite) or in 
(endoparasite) a larger organism (‘‘ host”), 
feeding on its juices, substance, or digested 
food. 

Parasitism (Gk. farasitis, a sycophant), the 
association of a parasite with a ‘‘host”’, the 


GLOSSARY 


former preying upon the latter by feeding 
on its blood, &c., or the food it has digested. 

Parotid glands, the hindermost pair of sali- 
vary glands. 

Patella (the Latin name), the knee-pan 

Paunch. See Rumen. 

Pearl, in Molluscs, a disease product, formed 
by deposit of calcareous layers round a 
foreign body, e.g. a dead parasite or a grain 
of sand. See also Ground-Pearl. 

Pecten (L. for a comb), a vascular folded 
structure that projects into the eye of a Bird, 
behind the lens. 

Pectines (L. for combs), in Scorpions, a pair 
of comb-shaped organs situated immediately 
behind the operculum (which see). 

Pectoral (L. pectus, pectoris, the chest), ap- 
plied to structures, e.g. the fore-limbs of a 
dog, connected with the chest or thorax. 

Pectoralis major, the great muscle of the 
breast, by which the fore-limbs are drawn 
towards one another. 

Pedicellaria, pl. -2 (dim. of L. pedica, a 
trap), in Star-Fishes and Sea-Urchins, a 
pincer-like spine. 

Pedipalp, in Spider-like animals (Arachnida), 
one of the second pair of head-limbs. 

Pelagic (Gk. pelagikds, marine), living in the 
open sea, at or near the surface. 

Pelagic zone, the surface waters of the sea. 

Pelvic, applied to structures, e.g. the hinder 
pair of fins in a shark, connected with the 
Pelvis (which see). 

Pelvis (L. pelvis, a basin), applied to that part 
of the skeleton to which the hind-limbs are 
attached. 

Pemmican, sun-dried meat. 

Pentadactyle (Gk. pénté, five; daktylés, a 
finger or toe), possessing five digits. 

Pepsin, an albumen-digesting ferment con- 
tained in gastric juice. 

Peptic glands. See Gastric glands. 

Peptone, a soluble and diffusible form of 
albuminoid. It is produced by the action 
of gastric juice and pancreatic juice upon 
the albuminous part of the food. 

Pericardial, relating to the pericardium. 

Pericardium (Gk. perz, around; cardza, the 
heart), the cavity in which the heart is con- 
tained. 

Peristaltic (the Greek word), applied to the 
wave-like contractions of the intestines and 
(in lower forms) blood-vessels. 

Permanent dentition, the second set of teeth 
in a Mammal. 

Persistent type, an animal species or genus 
persisting for a long period of geological 
time, without obvious modification. 

Petal (Gk. pétalén, a flower-leaf), one of the 
inner set (corolla) of investing flower-leaves. 

Phagocyte (Gk. phagein, to eat; cytds, a 
small box, hence a cell), a colourless cor- 
puscle. 

Phalanges, sing. Phalanx (Gk. phalanx, a 


595 


finger- or toe-bone), bones of fingers and 
toes. 

Pharyngeal, relating to the Pharynx (which 
see). 

Pharynx (the Greek name), that region of the 
digestive tube which follows the mouth- 
cavity. 

Phylogeny (Gk. phylin, a tribe; génnad, I 
produce), the evolutionary history of animals. 

Phylum, -a (Gk. phylon, a race or tribe), one 
of the main subdivisions of the animal king- 
dom, e.g. Vertebrata, Mollusca, Protozoa. 

Physiological selection, the theory that the 
isolation necessary for the origin of new 
species is due to partial or complete sterility 
of varying forms with the parent stock. 

Physiology (Gk. Ahysis, nature; ligis, a dis- 
course), the study of the uses or functions 

. of the parts (organs) of plants and animals. 
It was formerly used in a much wider sense. 

Pilidium, pl. -a (Gk. pilididn, a little cap), in 
some Nemertine worms, a ciliated larva 
resembling a cap or helmet with rounded 
side-flaps. 

Pineal body, a problematic structure con- 
nected with the roof of the brain in Verte- 
brates, and probably representing the re- 
mains of a Pineal eye (which see). 

Pineal eye, an unpaired dorsal eye present in 
some Reptiles. See Pineal body. 

Pinna, the ear-flap of a Mammal. 

Pinnule (dim. of L. fznna, a feather), in 
Feather-stars, one of the small branches of 
the ten arms. 

Pisciculture (L. pzscés, a fish), the artificial 
culture of Fishes, e.g. carp in ponds. 

Pisiform bone (L. pzsum, a pea), a small 
rounded bone present in the carpus of some 
animals, external to the ulnare (which see). 

Pistil (L. pzstil/um, pestle), the central part 
of a flower, in which seeds are produced. 

Pituitary body, a problematic structure 
attached to the under side of the brain in a 
Vertebrate. Possibly the vestige of a sense 
organ (cp. Pineal body). 

Placoid (Gk. plakous, a cake; ezdis, appear- 
ance), used of the thick rounded bony scales 
of Sharks and Rays. 

Placula (Gk. dim. of plakous, a flat cake), a 
plate-shaped Blastula (which see). 

Plankton (Gk. Alanktos, wandering), the float- 
ing and drifting population of the sea and 
lakes. 

Plantigrade (L. planta, the sole of the foot; 
gradior, | walk), walking upon the palms of 
the hands and soles of the feet. 

Planula (L. dim. of planus, a vagrant), in 
Sponges and Zoophytes, an ovoid ciliated 
larva. 

Plasma (Gk. plasma, that which has been 
formed), the fluid part of the blood and 
lymph. See also Corpuscles. 

Plastron, (Fr. for a breastplate), the under 
part of the exoskeleton in a Tortoise or 
Turtle. 


506 


Ploughshare-bone: (1) in Birds, the bone 
which supports the tail-quills; (2) in the 
Mole, a flat curved bone on the inner side 
of the hand. 

Pluteus, pl. -ei (L. for a roof made of hurdles), 
in Brittle-Stars and Sea-Urchins, the bi- 
lateral larva, which is provided with pairs of 
ciliated arms, and supported by an internal 
calcareous skeleton. 

Pneumatic duct, in Fishes, a tube which 
(temporarily or permanently) connects the 
swim-bladder with the gullet. 

Polar bodies, in the maturation of the egg- 
cell (ovum), two small cells resulting from 
the last two cell-divisions. 

Pollen (L. for fine flour), in flowers, the 
fertilizing substance produced by the 
stamens, and consisting of minute pollen- 
grains. 

Pollen-tube, a delicate tube growing from a 
pollen-grain, and effecting the fertilization 
of the egg-cell. 

Pollination, in flowers, transfer of pollen to 
the stigma. 

Pollinium, pl. -ia, an agglutinated mass of 
pollen. 

Polype, in Zoophytes (Coelenterata), an in- 
dividual animal. 

Portal veins, veins which carry impure blood 
to the liver (hepatic portal vein) or to the 
kidneys (renal portal veins). 

Post-axial, behind the axis of a limb. 

Posterior nares, the opening or openings by 
whichin air-breathing Vertebrates the cavities 
of the nose open into the mouth-cavity or 
pharynx. 

Pre-axial, in front of the axis of a limb. 

Precoracoid, a skeletal element present in 
front of the coracoid in some animals. 

Preformation, the obsolete theory that the 
development of an animal results from simple 
increase in size of parts already present in 
miniature. 

Prehensile (L. prehenso, I seize), grasping. 

Premolar, one of the permanent cheek-teeth of 
a Mammal, belonging to the front part of 
the series, and often preceded by a Milk 
molar (which see). 

Primary, inherited from remote ancestors. 

Proboscis (the Greek name), an elongated 
structure at the front end of certain animals, 
e.g. the trunk of an elephant or the sucking 
mouth-parts of a butterfly. 

Process, a projecting part, e.g. of a bone. 

Proceelous (Gk. f70-, in front; ko7z/ds, hollow), 
applied to vertebra of which the bodies are 
concave in front and convex behind. 

Producteur, a French oyster-culturalist con- 
cerned with production. 

Production, in French oyster-culture, the col- 
lection and rearing of spat. 

Proglottis, pl. -ides (Gk. proglissis, the tip of 
the tongue), in Tape-Worms, one of the egg- 
producing joints of the body. 


GLOSSARY 


Pro-legs, in Insect-larvz, temporary sucker- 
like legs. 

Pronation (L. pronus, prone), position of the 
fore-arm when back of hand is directed up- 
wards. 

Prosobranch (Gk. f7o-, in front of; branchia, 
gills), applied to Sea-snails with gill or gills 
in front of the heart. 

Prostomium (Gk. /pro-, 
mouth), the head-lobe. 

Proteids. See Albuminoias. 

Protocercal (Gk. prdtis, first; Rérkos, tail), 
applied to the symmetrical unlobed tail of 
some fishes. 

Protoplasm (Gk. prétds, first; plasma, that 
which has been formed), the complex sub- 
stance which makes up the living part of the 
bodies of all organisms. 

Proventriculus (Gk. f7d-, in front of; L. ven- 
triculus, the stomach), the first or chemical 
stomach of a Bird. 

Proximal, at or near the attached end. 

Psalter. See Omasum. 

Pseudobranch (Gk. fpseudés, talse; branchia, 
gills), a gill which has been reduced to a 
Vestige (which see). 

Pseudopodium, pl. -ia (Gk. pseudés, false; 
pous, podds, a foot), in naked Animalcules, 
one of the blunt lobes which can be pro- 
truded by the protoplasm. 

Psychology (Gk. psyché, the mind; légds, a 
discourse), the study of mind. 

Pteryla, pl. -2 (Gk. pferdén, a plume), a 
feather-covered tract of skin. 


before; stéma, a 


Pubis, the ventral and anterior element of the 
hip-girdle. 

Pulmonary (L. pu/mo, a lung), relating to the 
lungs. 

Pulvillus, pl. -1 (L. pulvil/lus, a little pillow), 
in the feet of some Insects, an adhesive 
end-flap. 

Pupa (L. for a doll), in Insects, a motionless 
stage in the life-history. 

Pupil (L. pupilla, same meaning), the opening 
in the Iris (which see). 

Pygal (Gk. fyvge, the rump), related to the 
hinder part of the body. 

Pyloric, applied to that end of the stomach 
which adjoins the intestine. See Pylorus. 
Pylorus (Gk. pyladrds, having charge of a 
gate), the opening between stomach and 

intestine. 


Quadrate bone and Quadrate cartilage, a 
bone (or cartilage) by which the lower jaw 
is attached to the skull in most Vertebrates 
except Mammals. 

Quarter-evil. See Anthrax. 

Rachis (Gk. rhachis, the backbone), the axis 
of a teather. 

Radial, in radially symmetrical animals, relat- 
ing to a radius. 

Radiale, a proximal element in the carpus, 
situated on the side next the thumb. 


GLOSSARY 


Radial symmetry. See Symmetry. 

Radius: (1) (L. radzus, a ray), in radially sym- 
metrical animals, one of the axes of sym- 
metry which radiate from a central point, as 
the spokes of a wheel do from the hub; (2) 
(the Latin meaning), the bone of the fore- 
arm which is on the thumb-side. 

Radula (L. vadula, a scraper), the horny 
tooth-studded ribbon that constitutes the 
rasping part of the Odontophore (which 
see). 

Raphides (Gk. rhaphis, -idis, a needle), in 
plants, bundles of needle-shaped crystals of 
oxalate of lime. 

Ratite (L. razes, a raft): (1) shaped like a raft, 
z.e. devoid of a keel-like projection; (2) ap- 
plied to running birds, in which the breast- 
bone is so shaped. 

Recapitulation, repetition of ancestral stages 
in the life-history. 

Recognition-markings, in Birds and Mam- 
mals, colour-arrangements which aid in 
rapid recognition by members of the same 
species. 

Rectrices (L. for female rulers), quill-feathers 
of the tail. 

Redia, pl. -e (after the Italian naturalist 
Redz), in Flukes, a cylindrical stage in the 
life-history, produced by the Sporocyst (which 
see). 

Reed. See Abomasum. 

Regeneration, the power of repairing injuries. 

Rejuvenescence (L. rejyuvenesco, I become 
young again), the invigoration produced by 
nuclear fusion. See Fertilization. 

Remiges (L. for rowers), quill-feathers of the 
wing. 

Rennet stomach. See Abomasum. 

Rennin, a milk-curdling ferment contained in 
gastric juice. 

Resemblance, General, a harmonizing with 
surroundings producing inconspicuousness. 
It may be protective, aggressive, or both. 
When capable of adjustment it is said to be 
variable. 

Resemblance, Special, a resemblance to some 
specific object in the surroundings, by which 
inconspicuousness is produced. It may be 
protective, aggressive, or both. When 
capable of adjustment it is said to be 
variable. 

Reticulum (L. for a little net), in the stomach 
of Ruminants, the second compartment. 

Retina (L. refe, a net), the sensitive internal 
layer of the eye. 

Retinaculum (L. for a rope or bond), in 
Moths, a tuft of scales or flap on the posterior 
part of the fore-wing. The Frenulum (which 
see) interlocks with it. 

Retractile (L. vretractum, drawn back), ca- 
pable of being drawn back. 

Reversion, the appearance of characters un- 
like those of the preceding generation, but 
resembling those of remoter ancestors. 


Rhabdites (Gk. rhabdés, a rod), in Planarian 


5°7 


Worms (Turbellaria), microscopic rods dis- 
charged from the skin as a means of defence 
and probably of irritant nature. 

Rhopalion, pl. -a (Gk. rhdpaldn, a club), in 
some Jelly-fishes, a specialized club-shaped 
tentacle bearing various sense-organs. 

Rods and Cones, the sensitive cells of the eye 
in Vertebrates. 

Rostellum (L. for little beak), a sticky knob 
connected with the pollinia of an orchid. 

Rudimentary organ. See Vestige. 

Rumen (L. ruminatio, chewing the cud), in the 
stomach of Ruminants, the first compart- 
ment. 

Rumination (L. ruminatio), chewing the cud. 


Sacrum, in the backbone, the part connected 
with the supports (hip-girdles) of the hind- 
limbs. 

Saliva (the Latin name), spittle. 

Salivary gland, a gland which secretes or 
elaborates saliva (spittle). 

Scaly epithelium, epithelium composed of flat 
cells. 

Scapula (the Latin name), the shoulder-blade. 

Sclerotic (Gk. sk/érds, hard), the tough exter- 
nal coat of the eyeball. 

Sebaceous (L. sebum, grease), of a greasy or 
oily nature. 

Secondary: (1) acquired within the limits of a 
group; (2) replacing some earlier structure. 
Segmentation: (1) the division of the adult 
body into successive rings, segments, or 
somites; (2) the early stages of division in 

the egg-cell. 

Self-fertilization, fertilization of an egg-cell 
by a sperm (or its equivalent) derived from 
the same organism. 

Self-pollination, transfer of pollen to the 
stigma of a flower from its own stamens. 
Semi-plantigrade, with palms and soles partly 

resting on the ground. 

Sepal (Gk. skéé, a covering), one of the outer 
set (calyx) of investing flower-leaves. 

Sessile (L. sessz/s, sitting), without a stalk. 

Seta, pl. -2 (the Latin name), a bristle. 

Shagreen, the skins of certain Sharks and 
Dog - Fishes, containing numerous hard 
scales. 

Shell-cameos, carvings made on certain shells 
which are composed of differently coloured 
layers. 

Shell-gland, in lower Crustaceans, one of a 
pair of excretory organs removing nitrogen- 
ous waste from the body. They open at the 
bases of the third jaws (2nd maxillz). 

Shell-muscle, the muscle by which a snail is 
attached to its shell. 

Shoulder-girdle, skeleton of shoulder. 

Side-gill, in Crustaceans, a gill attached to 
the side of the body. 

Signalling coloration, conspicuous patches of 
colour, e.g. the white tail of a Rabbit, dis- 
played during rapid movement. The ap- 


508 


proach of danger is thus communicated to 
other members of the community. 

Simple epithelium, epithelium only one cell 
thick. 

Sinupalliate (L. szzus, a bay), in Bivalve 
Molluses, with a posterior indentation in the 
pallial line, caused by the attachment of a 
muscle for drawing back the siphons. 

Siphon (L. szpho, a siphon), in aquatic Mol- 
luses, a tubular prolongation of the mantle 
by which water enters (inhalent siphon) or 
leaves (exhalent siphon) the gill-chamber. 

Siphuncle (L. s#phunculus, a small pipe), in 
the Pearly Nautilus and many extinct Ce- 
phalopods, a sort of tube that runs through 
the chambers of the shell. 


Society, an association of gregarious animals. 

Soma (Gk. for body), the body of an animal 
exclusive of the germ-cells. 

Somatic variation, 
(which see). 


variation of the soma 

Spat, the free-swimming larva or fry of Oy- 
sters, Mussels, &c. 

Special creation, applied to the almost obso- 
lete view that all species or kinds of organism 
have been independently created. See Zvolu- 
tion. 

Sperm (Gk. sférma, seed), a small and usually 
motile propagative cell, which fertilizes an 
egg-cell (ovum) by fusing with it. 

Spermaceti, in the Sperm-Whale, liquid fat 
contained in a deep depression on the upper 
side of the skull. 

Spermary, an organ producing sperms. 

Spicule, (L. speculum, a sharp point), in some 
Zoophytes (Ceelenterata), Sponges, and Ani- 
malcules (Protozoa), an element of the 
skeleton, of varied shape and chemical com- 
position. 

Spinal cord, or Spinal marrow, a cylindrical 
nerve-mass, constituting the hinder part of 
the central nervous system in a vertebrate 
animal. 

Spinal nerve, a nerve taking origin in the 
spinal cord. 

Spinnerets, in Spiders, small rounded projec- 
tions on the under side of the abdomen, on 
which the silk glands open. 

Spiracle, (L. spzro, I breathe): (1) the external 
opening of the Spiracular cleft (which see); 
(2) the blow-hole (nostril) of a whale. 

Spiracular cleft, the front gill-cleft of some 
Fishes (e.g. Sharks), which is losing or 
beginning to lose its original function. 

Spleen (the Greek name), a large abdominal 
ductless gland in Vertebrates, of doubtful 
function. It is richly provided with blood- 
vessels. 

Splenic fever. See Anthrax. 

Splint-bones, in the Horse, &c., the dwindled 
remains of 2nd and 4th metacarpals or meta- 
tarsals. 

Spore (L. sfdra, seed), in some Animalcules, 
one of the minute parts into which the body 


GLOSSARY 


breaks up during vegetative propagation of 
a particular kind. 

Spore-formation, in some Animalcules, vege- 
tative propagation by means of spores. 

Sporocyst (Gk. spdra, seed; cystis, a bladder), 
in Flukes, a shapeless bag-like stage in the 
life-history. 

Sporoduct, in some Gregarines, one of the 
tubes by which the spores pass out of the 
firm case (cyst) in which they are produced. 

Sporosac (Gk. spdra, seed), in Zoophytes, a 
degenerate Gonophore (which see). 

Staggers, in Sheep, a disease due to the 
presence of tape-worm cysts on the brain. 

Stamen (Gk. s/émdén, a thread), a slender 
modified flower-leaf, which produces pollen. 

Statoblast (Gk. sfa/ds, resting; b/astds, a bud), 
in fresh-water Moss-Polypes, an internally 
formed winter-bud. 

Sternal: (1) in Vertebrates, relating to the 
breast-bone or sternum; (2) in Arthropods, 
near the sternal or under side of the body. 

Sternum, pl. -a (Gk. sférndn, the breast or 
breast-bone): (1) in Vertebrates, the breast- 
bone; (2) in Arthropods, that part of the 
exoskeleton covering the ventral surface of 
a segment. 

Stigma, pl. -ata (Gk. for a mark): (1) the 
opening of an air-tube in Insects, &c.; (2) in 
Plants, the receptive surface to which pollen- 
grains adhere. 

Stimulus, pl. -i (L. for an ox-goad), any 
physical or chemical agent by which a sense- 
organ is thrown into activity. 

Sting, a piercing weapon that inflicts a poi- 
soned wound. The name is not applied to 
parts connected with the mouth, such as the 
poison-fangss of a Viper. 

Stipes (L. for a branch, or stump), in Insects, 
the second joint of the second jaw. 

Stratified: (1) of epithelium, more than one 
cell thick; (2) of rocks, arranged in layers. 

Stratum, pl. -a (L. for pavement), a layer of 
rock. 

Struggle for existence, a metaphorical way 
of expressing the strenuous nature of Ac- 
commodation (which see). 

Sturdy. See Staggers. 

Subclavius, in Birds, the muscle which raises 
the wing. 

Sublingual glands, a pair of salivary glands 
situated under the tongue. 

Submaxillary glands, a pair of salivary glands 
situated between the halves of the lower jaw. 

Submentum (L. swb, under; mentum, the chin), 
in Insects, the basal part of the lower lip. 

Supination (L. svfznus, lying on the back), 
position of forearm when palm of hand is 
directed upwards. 

Supra-scapula, a skeletal element present 
above the scapula in some animals. 

Sur-royal, the fourth branch of a Red Deer's 
antler (counting from its base). 

Survival of the fittest. See Natural selection. 


GLOSSARY 


Swim -bladder, or Air-bladder, a gas-contain- 
ing outgrowth from the digestive tube of 
some Fishes, which serves as a hydrostatic 
organ. 

Symbiosis (Gk. sy, together; d2dszs, life). See 
Mutualism. 

Symmetry (the Greek name), regularity of build. 
In Radial Symmetry the parts of the body are 
arranged with reference to a centre of sym- 
metry, e.g. in a coral polype. In Bilateral 
Symmetry, as seen, e.g., in a Fish, we can 
distinguish right and left sides, anterior and 
posterior ends, upper and lower surfaces. 

Sympathetic nervous system, a part of the 
nervous system concerned with the regula- 
tion of the blood-vessels and internal organs. 

Syndactylous (Gk. syn, together; daktylis, a 
finger or toe), with some of the digits bound 
closely together. 

Syrinx (Gk. for reed-pipe), the vocal organ or 
voice-box of a Bird, situated where the wind- 
pipe divides into a branch (bronchus) for each 
lung. 

Systemic, applied to a heart which contains 
pure blood only. 


Tail-coverts, feathers covering the tail-quills. 

Tarsale, pl. -ia, one of the distal elements of 
the tarsus. 

Tarso-metatarsus, a bone in the leg of a Bird, 
formed by the fusion of part of the ankle- 
skeleton (tarsus) with three of the instep- 
bones (metatarsus). 

Tarsus (Gk. farsds, the broadest part of the 
foot): (1) in Vertebrates, the skeleton of the 
ankle; (2) in Insects, the foot. 

Teeth: (1) in Vertebrates, hard structures used 
for securing prey, or for breaking up food; 
() hard projections with which the radula 
(which see) of Molluscs is studded; (3) small 
projections usually present in the “hinge” 
of a bivalve shell: they fit into correspond- 
ing sockets, and prevent shifting when the 
shell opens or closes. 

Telson (Gk. for a termination), in higher 
Crustaceans, the last segment of the abdo- 
men. It bears no limbs, and is the middle 
part of the tail-fin. 

Tendon, a fibrous inelastic band by which a 
muscle is attached to a part of a skeleton. 

Tensor muscles (L. tendo, tentum, tensum, to 
stretch), in Birds, muscles which keep the 
wing-membranes on the stretch. 

Tentacle (L. ¢ento, I feel), a soft feeler, e.g. 
one of the ‘‘horns”’ of a Snail, or one of the 
numerous fleshy filaments surrounding the 
mouth-end of a Sea-Anemone. 

Tentaculocyst (tentacle; Gk. cystis,a bladder), 
in some Jelly-Fishes, a short specialized ten- 
tacle serving as a balancing organ. 

Tergum, pl. -a (L. for the back), in Arthro- 
pods, that part of the exoskeleton covering 
the dorsal surface of a segment. 

Test (L. Zesta, a shell), the firm investment of 
Ascidians, Echinoderms, and some other 
lower animals. 


599 


Tetradactyle(Gk. ¢efra, four; daktylds, a finger 
or toe), possessing four digits. 

Thoracic duct, a narrow tube lying imme- 
diately ventral to the backbone. It receives 
most of the lymphatics, and opens into the 
great veins at the base of the neck. 

Thread-cell. See Nettling-cell. 


Thymus gland (Gk. ‘hymés, the heart), a 
fatty-looking ductless gland situated (in 
Mammals) near the base of the heart. 

Thyroid gland (Gk. ¢hyreds, a shield; ezdés, 
resemblance), a ductless gland in the neck- 
region, having something to do with regu- 
lating the nutrition of the body. 

Tibia (the Latin name for(1)): (1) the shin-bone 
of Vertebrates; (2) that region of the leg in 
Insects, &c., which adjoins the foot. 

Tibiale, in the tarsus, a proximal element situ- 
ated on the side next the great toe. 

Tibio-tarsus, in Birds, a bone formed by fusion 
of the shin-bone (tibia) with part of the ankle- 
skeleton (tarsus). 

Tissue, an aggregate of cells specialized for 
the performance of some particular kind of 
physiological work. 

Tornaria, pl. -z (Gk. /07nd0, I make round), 
the ciliated larva of some species of acorn- 
headed worm. 

Tortoise-shell, an ornamental product pre- 
pared from the horny epidermic plates of 
certain Turtles. 

Trachea (Gk. ¢rachéliaids, 
neck), the wind-pipe. 

Tracheze. See Tracheal tubes. 

Tracheal gill, in some aquatic Insects, a gill 
traversed by air-tubes (¢rachee). 

Tracheal tubes, the air-tubes of air-breathing 
Arthropods. 

Tragus, a pointed projection (‘ earlet”’) within 
the ear of a true Bat. 

Trepang, dried Sea-Cucumbers, an important 
article of food in the Far East. 

Trez-tine. See Anéler-royal. 

Trichinosis, a disease due to the attacks of 
minute thread-worms (Trichinz). 

Trichocysts (Gk. ¢hrix, trichds, a hair; cystis, 
a bladder), in some Animalcules, micro- 
scopic rods discharged from the outer layer 
of the body as a means of defence, and pro- 
bably of irritant nature. 

Tridactyle (Gk. 777, three; daktylos, a finger 
or toe), possessing three digits. 

Triploblastic (Gk. ¢r7p/d0s, threefold; dlastis, 
a bud), applied to animals in which the body 
essentially consists of three cellular layers. 

Trochanter (Gk. for a process of the thigh- 
bone), in Insects, the small second joint of 
the leg. 

Trochosphere (Gk. ¢rdchds, a wheel; sphaira, 
a sphere), in various Invertebrates, a bilateral 
ovoid larva, with a well-marked head-lobe, at 
the base of which is a circlet of large cilia. 

Tubercle, a rounded projection, e.g. on the 
crown of a tooth. 


relating to the 


510 


Tuberculated, possessing tubercles. 

Tympanic (L. ¢ympanum, a drum), connected 
with the drum of the ear in air-breathing 
Mammals. 

Tympanum (L. tympanum, a drum): (1) the 
drum of the ear; (2) the cavity of the song- 
box (syrinx) of a bird. 


Ulna (L. for the elbow), the bone of the fore- 
arm which is on the little finger side. 

Ulnare, a proximal element of the carpus, 
situated on the side next the little finger. 

Umbo (L. wmbo, the boss of a shield), the pro- 
jecting beak commonly possessed by each 
half of a bivalve shell, and which is the 
oldest part. 

Uncinate (L. wxcinatus, hooked), hook-like. 

Unidactyle (L. wus, one; daktv&s, a finger 
or toe), possessing one digit. 

Univalve, applied to the shell of a Mollusc, 
When made up of only one piece or valve, as, 
e.g., ina Snail. 

Ureter, a tube by which the urine is carried 
off from a kidney. 

Urostyle (Gk. oura, a tail; s/ylos, a pillar), 
the bony rod which forms the hinder part of 
a Frog's backbone. 


Vacuole (L. dim. of vacuum, an empty space), 
in cells, a small space filled with liquid or 
gas. Pulsating vacuole, in Animalcules, a 
vacuole which alternately empties and fills 
in a regular manner. 

Vagus nerves (L. vagus, wandering), the 
tenth pair of cranial nerves, which run back 
into the abdominal region. 

Valve (L. valva, a folding-door): (1) an ar- 
rangement of one or more projecting flaps by 
means of which food in the gut, blood in the 
heart, &c., are obliged to move forward; 
(2) a distinct piece of shell. See Bivalve 
and Unitvalve. 

Vane, the projecting flat part of a feather. 

Variable aggressive coloration, in predaceous 
forms, coloration which changes with the 
surroundings so as to produce inconspicuous- 
ness. 

Variation, the appearance of new characters 
with the result that no two individuals of the 
same species are exactly alike. 

Vegetative propagation, increase by methods 
other than egg-production, e.g. by Gem- 
mation, Fission, and  Spore-formation 
(which see). 

Vein, a blood-vessel which carries blood to or 
towards the heart. 

Veliger (L. velwm, a sail; gero, I carry), in 
Molluscs, a shell-bearing larva with a large 
ciliated head-Hap by means of which swim- 
ming is effected. 

Velum (L. for sail or veil), in some Jelly-fishes, 
an inwardly projecting shelf at the edge of 
the umbrella. 

Ventral (L. for the belly), applied to the under 
side of an animal. 


GLOSSARY 


Ventricle (the Latin name), a relatively thick- 
walled and muscular heart-chamber, which 
pumps blood into arteries. 

Vertebra, pl. vertebrze (the Latin name), one 
of the joints of the backbone. 

Vertebral column, the backbone, or (in some 
Fishes) its gristly equivalent. 

Vertebrate, applied to animals possessing a 
backbone or its equivalent. 

Vestige, or Rudimentary organ, a structure 
which has undergone reduction, as the result 
of adaptation to surroundings. 

Vestigial, reduced to a Vestige (which see), 

Visceral, relating to the viscera. See Viscus. 

Visceral arches and clefts, thickenings and 
slit-like openings on each side of the throat, 
which are possessed by every Vertebrate for 
at least part of its life. The clefts place the 
pharynx in communication with the exterior. 

Visceral hump, the projecting upper part of 
many Molluscs, containing many of the chief 
internal organs. 

Viscus, pl. -era, one of the internal organs 
contained in the chest or abdomen. 

Vitelline membrane, the membrane surround- 
ing an egg-cell. 

Viviparous (L. w/vus, alive; pario, I produce), 
giving birth to more or less well-developed 
young, as opposed to egg-laying. 

Vocal chords, in Mammals, &c.; two elastic 
folds in the voice-box. A sound is emitted 
when their edges are brought parallel and 
thrown into vibration by an air-current. 


Wallace’s Line, the boundary between the 
Oriental and Australian regions. 

Wampun, the shell-money and ornaments of 
North American Indians. 
Warbles, swellings on the backs of cattle, 
caused by the presence of larval bot-flies. 
Warning coloration, crude colours and pat- 
terns possessed by many inedible or well- 
armed forms, and producing conspicuous- 
ness. By advertising unpleasant properties 
it reduces the chance of attacks by enemies. 
Some forms are also protected by emitting 
warning sounds, or assuming warning (or 
terrifying) attitudes. 

Water-vascular system, 
a system of tubes into which sea-water 
enters. It is concerned with locomotion and 
respiration. 

White matter, that part of the central nervous 
system made up of nerve-fibres. 

Wing coverts, feathers covering the wing- 
quills. 


in Echinoderms, 


Zebra-mule, a cross between Zebra and 


Horse. 

Zoea, pl. -2 (Gk. zd7a, life), in higher 
Crustaceans, a large-headed larva, swim- 
ming by its foot-jaws, and possessing a limb- 
less abdomen. 

Zoodgeography (Gk. zd0n, an animal), distri- 
bution of animals in space. 


A 


Aard-vark, i 136, 137 (illust.); ii 42, 


44. 
Aardwolf, i 87, 91-92 (illust.); ii 15. 
Abdomen— 

— arachnids, i 386-393 (illust.). 

— crustaceans, i 403-423 (illust.). 

— insects, i 345-381 (illust.). 

— mammals, i 24-25 (illust.), 34, 47. 
Abdominal pore, i 258. 

— ribs, i 206. 

Ablepharus pannonicus, i 22s. 
Abomasum, ii 169; iii ygo. 
Abramis brama, i 282. [307. 
Abraxas grossulariata, i 364; ii 
Abysmal zone, iv 435, 442-448. 
Acacia sphzrocephala, iv 8:. 
Acanthia lectularia, ii 123. 
Acanthias vulgaris, i 286; ii 335. 
Acanthophis antarcticus, iv 339. 
Acanthopterygii, i 273-276. 
Acarina, i 387, 393; iv 195-196. 
Accentor modularis, i 160. 
Accipiter nisus, i 174. 
Accipitres, i 152, 173-176. 
Acetabulum, i 31, 144, 196. 
Achatina, iv 421. 
Acherontia atropos, i 363. 
Achtheres percarum, iv 

(illust.). 

Acipenser Giildenstddti, iv 277. 
— huso. iv 277. 

— ruthenus, iv 277, 278. 

— sturio, i 268; iv 277. 
Acipenseride. See Sturgeons. 
Acmea, testudinalis, i 323; ii 395- 
Aconite, iv 80. (396. 
Acorn-headed Worm, i 300-301 

(illust.); ii 306, 390 (illust.); iii 7 

(illust.), 215-216 (illust.), 420-421 

(illust.). 

“Acquired characters”, iv 489- 

499, 491, 492, 493. 

Acreeids, ii 311, 312-313. = [262, 459. 
Acredula caudata, i 158; ili 261- 
Acridiide, ii 213; iii 379. See also 

Grasshoppers and Locusts. 
Acridium migratorium, iv 356-357. 
— peregrinum, i 382. See Schistocerca 

peregrina. 

Acrobates pygmezus, iii 285, 286. 
Acrocephalus arundinaceus, iii 458. 
— palustris, i 160. 

— phragmitis, i 160. 

— streperus, i 160; iii 458. 

Actzeon, ili 218 (illust.). 

Actinia mesembryanthemum, i 

473; IV. 25. 


197 


INDEX 


Actinophrys, i 496. 

Actinosphzrium, i 489, 496 (illust.); 
ili 6 (illust. ). 

Actinozoa, i 473-478. 
Flowers. 

Adams, i 3. 

‘‘Adam’s apple”, i 47. [445. 

Adder, i 234 (illust.); ii 80, 282; iii 

Adductor muscles, of Bivalve- 
Molluscs, i 330-331, 336, 337, 338; 
ii 357; ili 36, 37. 

Adjutants, i 179; ii 69; iii 307, 308. 

#gialitis Cantiana, i 169; ii 286; iii 
453- 

— hiaticula, i 169; ii 286; iv 133. 

— Sancta-Helene, iv 423. 

A#githalus pendulinus, iii 459. 

A:lurus, iv 429. 

olidia, ii 100. 

olis. See Eolis. 

Epyornis, iv 476. 

Epyprymnus rufescens, iii 480. 

#schna grandis, i 376. [408. 

:sthetic Zoology, i 15-16; iv 4o0- 

Athalium, i 498; ii 270. 

Aéthurus glirinus, iii 284. [iv 9. 

Afferent branchial vessels, i 242, 
262, 272. 

Afferent nerve-fibres, i 51, 52-53: 

Aflalo, iii 186; iv 327, 364. 

After-shafts, i 142, 188. 

Agalena, ili 374. 

— labyrinthica, ti 130. 

Agamide, iii 53. 

Agapornis, iv 391. 

Aggressive resemblance :— 

— amphibians, ii 291. 

arachnids, ii 299-300. 

mammals, 11 7-9, 18, 19, 22, 279, 290. 

reptiles, it 282. 

Aglaophenia, iv 103 (illust.). 

Aglossa, iii so. 

Agouta, i 85; ii 33. 

Agouti, i 133-134. 

Agricola, Julius, iv 293. 

Agrion puella, i 376. 

Agriotes lineatus, ii 211. 

— obscurus, ii 211. 

Agriotypus armatus, iv 194-195. 

Agrotis exclamationis, i 364; iii gor: 
iv. 352. 

— segetum, iv 352. 

Aguarachay, 1i 17. 

Air-bladder. See Swim-bladder. 

Air-cells, i 45; ii 427. 

Air-chambers, i 103. 

Air-passages, i 45-46. 

— birds, i 147. [429. 

— mammals, i 45-46; ii 428 (illust.), 

— reptiles, i 206. 

513 


See also Sea- 


Air-sacs and air-spaces, i 45. 

— birds, i 147; 11 426; ili 57, 60, 61, 62, 
63.13% 297. 

— insects, 11 439; ll 312. 

— reptiles, ili 309. 

Air-tubes, i 45. 

— arachnids, ii 443. 

— insects, 1 348; i1 437-438, 439, 440- 
442, 463, 464, 465, 467, 468; ili 310, 

— myriapods, ii 436, 437. (315. 

— peripatus, 1 401; il 434-435. 

Alactaga decumana, iii 195-196. 

Ala spuria, i 143. 

Alauda arborea, i 156. 

— arvensis, i 156; ili 455, 456, 468-469. 

Albatross, wandering, i 183 (illust.). 

Albatrosses, i 152, 182-183; ii 52, 53. 

Albicore, i 274. 

Albinism, iv 384. 

Albumen, i 33, 151; ili 347. 

Albuminoids, i 33, 37. 

Alburnus lucidus, i 282; ii 449, 450. 

Alca forda, i 184; iii 66. 

— impennis, 1 184; iit 66. 

Alcedo ispida, i 164; ili 453-454. 

Alces machlis, 1 112; ili 152. 

Alciope, iv 44 (illust.). 

Alcock, iv 37, 437- 

Alcyonium digitatum, i 477. 

Aldrovandia, iv 73. 

Alectorides, i 152, 170. 

Alectorocenas, iv 423. 

Alder-Fly, i 377 (illust.); ii 466-467. 

Algea, ii 193, 195, 197, 198, 268-269, 
271, 273, 295: iv 64-65, 75, 76. 

Alima, iii 368 (illust.), 369. 

Allen, Grant, iv gor. 

Alligator, Chinese, i 210, 211 (illust.). 

— Mississippiensis, i 210; iii 124, 448; 
iv 151-152, 378-379- 


— pike-headed or American. See A. 
Mississippiensis. 
— Sinensis, i 211. (50-51. 


Alligators, 1 203, 209-210, 211; ili 

Alligator-Terrapin, ii 72. 

Allman, iv 281. 

Allolobophora, iii 228. 

— feetida, ii 361. 

Allurus, iii 361. 

Alopecias vulpes, i 286; ii 88. 

Alpaca, i 122; iv 231-232 (illust.). 

Alternation of generations, iii 
349-350, 352, 382, 422. 

Alucita polydactyla, i 366. 

Alytes obstetricans, iii 440 (illust.). 

Amalthea amebigera, iii 353 

Ambergris. iv 403. {(illust. ). 

Amblyornis inornatus, iv 406-407. 

Amblyrhynchus cristatus, ii 192; 


ill 51, 52. 


514 


Ambulacral areas, i 457-458, 462, 
464; lil g & 


— vessels, ili 91, 92, 95. 


Ambulacrum (pl. Ambulacra). 
See Ambulacral grooves. 

Amia, i 267, 269; ii 453. 

Ammocetes, i 292; ili 423. 

Ammodiscus charoides, iv 454. 

— incertus, iv 454. 

Ammonites, iv 465 (illust.), 479. 

Ammophila sabulosa, i 373; ii 106. 


Ameeba, i 488-491 (illust.); ii 268-269, 
418; ui 2, 6 (illust.), 231, 318-319 
(illust.); iv 4-5. 

— limax, iv 4. (iil 2-4. 


Ameboid movement, i 39, 49, 149; 

Amphibia, i 60, 62-63, 238-256; ii 82- 
83, 192-194, 291, 304-305, 322-323, 
334) 355, 371-372, 422-423, 456-458; 
lil 45-50, 116-121, 182-184, 212-214, 
272, 287-288, 332, 434-443; iV 29-30, 
47) 152-154, 201, 214, 328, 417, 419, 
421, 428, 432, 463, 467. 

— extinct, ii 334; lll 214; iv 463, 467 


(illust.). 

— limbless, i 245, 255-256. See also 
Ceecilians. 

— tailed, i 245-249. See also Newts 


and Salamanders. 
— tailless, i 245, 249-255. 
Frogs and Toads. 
Amphidasis betularia, ii 293-204. 
Amphidotus cordatus, iii 357. 
Amphineura, 1 311, 339-341; 
404-4095. 
Amphioxus, i 61, 293-207; ii 244-245, 
382, 389; ii 8, 40, 214-215, 342, 344- 
3455 Iv. 46. 


See also 


iii 104, 


—lanceolatus, i 293-297. See also 
Lancelet. 

Amphipoda, i 414-415 (illust.); ii 
T42-143, 222, 44-405; Ul 174-1 


Amphisbena fuliginosa, 11 76 
— handed, ii 76. [209. 
— spotted, ii 76. (210. 
Amphisbenide, ii 320, 425; ili 200- 
Amphiuma means, i 248; iii 48, 
435: (i 355 
Amphiura squamata, i455 (illust.); 
Ampulla (pl. Ampulle), i 453, 457; 
ill gt, 92. 
Ampullaria, ii 83, 460-461. 
Anabas scandens, ii 451-452; 
Anableps, iv 47-48. (116, 
Anacanthini, i 273, 278 
Anaconda, i 232 (illust.) 
iv 338-330. 
Anal fin (of Fishes), i 257, 266, 2 
273, 278, 290, 295. (2 
Anals (anal shields of the Tortoise 
Anarrhichas lupus, i 275; ii 86. 
Anas boschas, i176; il 65; ili 58; iv 
247-248. 
Anchovy, iv 265 (illust.). 
Anemonia, i 474 (illust.). 
Angel-Fish, i 286-287 (illust.). 
Angler, deep-sea, ii 85-86 (illust.). 
Angler-Fish, i 274; ii 84-85 (illust.): 
ill 115. [2r. 
Anguillula aceti, i 448; ii iii 
— vulgaris, i 283; ti 447-448; ili. ary, 
33-434: IV 128, 274. 
Anguis fragilis, i 223; ii 76, 371; 


Ul 111, 446. 


71, 
14. 
)i 


INDEX 


Animalcules, i 304, 487-499 (illust.); 
11 163, 266-270, 272-274, 341, 361-362, 
418-419; ili 2, 4, 5, 6 (illust.), 8-9, 
88-89, 231, 317-325, 333-335: IV 40 
(illust.), 49, 76, 77, 99-101 (illust.), 
206-207, 341, 344, 363, 449, 453, 454- 
455» 458, 404. 

— extinct, iv 458. 

Animal products— 

— as medicinal agents, iv 318-321. 

— miscellaneous, iv 322-325. 

Animals, i 4. 

— class-names of, 1 7-8. 

— generic names of, i 9. 

— relations between plants and, iv 64- 
98 (illust. ). 

— specific names of, i 9. 

— study of, i 4-17. 

Ankle, amphibians, i 253. 


— birds, i 145-146; ili 126. 
— mammals, i 24, 32; ili 190, 254-256 
— reptiles, i 199. C(llust. . 


Annandale, ii 118, 304, 306, 
52, 178, 179. 

Annelida (see also Bristle- Worms and 
Leeches), 1 304, 425-433; 11 146-140 

7-259, 308, 338-330, 360-361, 374- 

82, 408-410, 444-445; ill. 7, 8, 

97-99. 226-230, 329-330, 358 
«9-10, 12; 25; 26; 34;..42),.44~ 
45, 75» 199-200, 216-217, 439, 452. 

Anobium, i 379. 

— paniceum, iii 224; 

— striatum, iii 223-22 


315; iil 


iv 355. 

+ IV 355. 

— tessellatum, ili 223-224; iv 355. 

Anodon. See Anodonta. 

Anodonta, i 328; ii 248-249, 335, 398- 
399; ll 37, 406-407. 

Anomalurus, i 126. 

— pelii, iil 283-284. 

Anomia ephippium, iii 408-409. 

Anomma arcens, ii 103. 

Anomodontia, iv 467-468. 

Anopheles, iv 207, 341. 

Anosia erippus, ii 307, 312. 

Anous stolidus, ii 53. 

Anser albifrons, 1177. 

— brachyrhynchus, i 177. 

— cinereus, 1177; ii 238; iv 248. 

— domesticus, iv 248-249. 

— segetum, i177. 

Anseres, i 152, 176-178; ii 237-238. 

Ant (and see Ants). 

— black garden, i 373; iv 119. 

— brown garden. See Slave Ant. 

— slave, 1373; iv 175-178. 

— slave-making or Amazon, i 373; iv 
175-178 (illust.). 

— solitary, i 373. 

— wood- or horse-, i 
illust.). 

— yellow, i 373; iv 119-120. 

Ants (see also Ant), i 373: ii 206-200, 
251, 358, 373; iv 81-83, 92, 97, 113- 
120, 175-179, 465. 

— Asiatic, iv 115-116. 

— driver, ii 103-104. 

— foraging, ii 104-106 (illust.); iv 120. 

— harvesting, li 207-208. 

ii 206-207 (illust.). 

— leaf-cutting, 11 208-209 (illust.). 

Ant-Bear, i136. See also Ant-Eater, 
great 

Ant-Eater, banded, ii 42. 

— Cape, i 136, 137 (illust. 

— great, 1136; ii. 41-42; 


373; iv 116-118 


Ul 256, 482. 


Ant-Eater, lesser, iii 255, 256 (illust.). 

— scaly, ii 42. See also Pangolin. 

— spiny, i 70, 143; ii 43 (illust.), 44, 
322, 333; ili 475-477 (illust.); iv 211- 

— spiny-tongued, i 70. (212. 

— two-toed, ili 256, 257 (illust.). 

Antechinomys laniger, iii 192. 

Antedon. See Comatula rosacea. 

Antelope, Klipspringer, iv 142. 

— royal, i 109. 

— sable, ii 352, 354. 

— saiga, i. 118 (illust.). 

Antelopes, i 114, 117-118; ii 279, 
352, 354, 365-366; iii 248; iv 98, 140, 
Iql, 142. {iv 12, 28. 

Antenne, of crustaceans, i 405, 406; 

— of insects, 1 345, 350, 356, 357, 358, 
359, 360, 362, 363, 364, 365, 366, 368; 
ll 440; IV 164. 

— of myriapods, i 395, 396, 397, 398 

— of peripatus, i 399; ili 102. 

Antennary glands, i 408, 416. 

Antennules, of crustaceans, i 404; iv 
12-13, 30 (illust.), 31, 35. 

Anthea cereus, i 476. 

Ant-hills, i 373. [iv 161-162. 

Anthocharis cardamines, i 362; 

Anthocopa papaveris, iii 39r. 

Anthonomus pomorum, iv 354. 

Anthophora, i 374; iv 193. 


Anthozoa, i 473. See also Sea- 
Flowers. 
Anthrax, i 3; iv 349. 


— morio, ii 119 

Anthrenus fasciatus, iv 355. 

Anthriscus sylvestris, iv 161. 

Anthropomorpha, iii 
(illust.). 

Anthropopithecus niger, i 72; iii 
160, 161; iv 382, 383. 

Anthus obscurus, i 157. 

— pratensis, 1157. 

— Richardi, i 157. 

— trivialis, i 157. {ili sz. 

Antilocapra Americana, i 112-113; 

Anti-toxin, iv 79-30, 320. 


160 -— 161 


Antlers, i 110, rrz (illust.), r12; ii 
351-352. 

Ant-Lions, i 377, 378, 379; ii 111-113 
(illust.); iv 16. 


Ant-plants, iv 75- 
Ant-thrushes, ii 105 
Anura, i 245, 249-255: 
182-184, 436-442. 
and Toads. 
Anurida maritima, i 384. 
Anurosorex, ii 34. 


iii 45, 49-50, 
See also Frogs 


Aorta, i 41, 147. See also Aortic 
arches. 
Aortic arches, i 41, 147, 101, 201, 


208, 215, 240-244, 254, 262, 272. 

Apatura iris, i 361. 

Ape, Barbary, i 74-75 (illust.). 

— black, iii 159 (illust.); iv 426. 

Apes, i 71-75; ii 348-349; ili 236-238, 
493-494; IV 419-420, 424. 

— anthropoid, i 72 (illust.); iil 158-161 
(llust.). 

Aphenogaster arenarius, ii 208. 

— barbarus, ii 207-208. 

Aphides, i 353 (illust.); ii 122, 217; 
ili 381-382; iv 116, 119-120 (illust.), 

Aphis avenz, iv 350. (350. 

— brassicae, i 353; iv 350. 

— cerasi, iv 


350. 


Aphis cerealis, iv 350. 

— fabz:, iv 350. 

— humuli, iv 350. 

-— pruni, iv 350. 

— rapz, iv 350. 

— sambuci, iv 119 (illust.). 
Aphis, bean, iv 350. 

— cabbage, i 353 (illust.); iv 
— cherry, iv 350. 

— corn, iv 350. 

— hop, iv 350. 

— oat, iv 350. 

— plum, iv 350. 

— turnip- flower, i ili 382 (illust.); iv 350. 
— vine, i 353; ii 217; iv 350 (illust.). 
Aphis-Lions, i 378; ii 114. 
Aphrodite aculeata, i 429; ii 147, 

339, 408. 

Aphyonus gelatinosus, 

(illust. ). 

Apical disc, i 458. 
Apiculture, iv 252-259. 
Apis mellifica, i 374: 

43, 108, III, 251-259. 
Aplysia, i 324-3 li 397; 
— camelus, iv 398. 
Apocyrtus, ii 3:5. 
Aporia crategi, i 362. 
Appendages. See also Legs, Mouth- 

parts, Tentacles, &c. 

— annelids, i 426; ili 22-23. 
— arachnids, i 386, 388, 389, 390-391, 

393, 394; 11 126, 127, 131, 132, 217- 


350. 


iv 443 


ii 205, 439; iv 


iii 35, 218, 
(412. 


218. 

— cephalopods, i 311, 312, 313; iii 31, 
32, 33+ 

— crustaceans, i 302-303, 403-406, 410, 
412, 413, 414, 418, 420, 421, 422; 01 
137, 141, I42, 144, 5. 250; ML 
25-27, 28, 277, 394, 3 Vi 13-14 

— echinoderms, i 455, 459 ; ul 23- 
24, LI14-115, 278 

— insects, i 345-346; ill 28-30, 167, 


222-223, 273-276. 
— king-crab, i 423. 
— myriapods, i 394, 395, 396, 397- 
— peripatus, i 399: 
— pycnogons, i 424. 
Appendicularia, i 298 (illust.); iii 39. 
“ Appendix”, iv 481. 
Aptenodytes Forsteri, i 186; iti 67. 
— Pennanti, i 186. 
Aptera, i 351, 384-385; ii 118, 213- 


214; iii 176, 314, 377- 
Apteria, i 142. [450 
Apteryx, i 190; ii 63, 320; iii 130, 449, 


); ii 255-256, 
(llust.); iv 


Apus, i 421-422 (illust.) 
405; ili 26 (illust.), 362 
12-13 (illust. ). 

Aqueous humour, i 58. 

Aquila Ghy SSUES 1174. 

Ara, iv 399, 391. 

deacunan. See Spider-like animals. 

Araneide, i 387, 390-393. See also 
Spiders. 

Arapaima gigas, iv 433 

Arca lactea, i 337; iv 399. 

Archexopteryx, i 206-207; ili 296, 


298; iv 471. 
Archenteron, iii 341, 344. 
Archiannelida, i 429, 431-432; iii 
99, 359- 
Archigetes Sieboldi, iv 203-204 
Arctia caja, i 363. {(illust. ). 


Arctictis, ii 13. 
Arctium majus, iv 98. 
Arctocebus, ii 320. 


INDEX 


Arctocebus calabarensis, iii 243. 

Arctomys, iv 135. 

— marmotta, i 126; iv 387. 

— monax, i 126. 

Ardea cinerea, i179; ii 55; iv 375. 

— minuta, i 179. 

Arenicola Claparedii, iv 34. 

— Grubii, iv 34. 

— piscatorum, i 430; il 257, 408-409; 
lil 226; iv 34. 

Argali, iii 248. (418. 

Argonaut, i 315-316 ; iii 32-33/(illust.), 

Argonauta argo, i 315-316; iii 32- 
33, 418. 

Argulus, iv 196-197 (illust.). 

Argyroneta aquatica, i 392-393; 
li 131; lit 375-376. 

Arion ater, i 328; 
434; iv 348. 

— empiricorum, iv 348. 

Aristophanes, iv 247, 248. 


ii 199-201, 247, 


Aristotle, i 8, 60; ii 294; iii 393; 
iv 369. 

‘‘Aristotle’s lantern”, i 458, 459. 

Arius, iii 427. 

Ark-shells, i 336-337; iv 399. 

Arm, i 30-3. 


Armadillidium, li 222. 

— vulgare, ii 143, 342. 

Armadillo, hairy, ii 234 

— six-banded, i 136 (illust.). 

— small, ii 367. 

-- three-banded, ii 341-342. 

Armadilloes, i 64; ii 333; iii 482; 

“Armour”, ii 333-341. [iv 474. 

“Army Worm”, iv 127. 

Arnoglossus macrolophus, iv 159. 

Arrian, iv 374. 

Arrow-Worms, iii 21 (illust.); iv 42 
(illust.), 453- 

Artemia Mulhausenii, iv 493. 

— salina, iv 493. 

Arterial bulb, i 272. 

— cone, i 240, 243- 

Arteries, i 39-41; iii 11-12 (illust.). 
See also Aortic arches. 

Arthropoda, i 304, 342-424 (and see 
Jointed-limbed animals). 

Arthrostraca, i 410, 414-415; iii 
1747175- 

Articular processes, i 26, 229. 

Articulates, i 11. 

Artiodactyla, i 
147-154, 488-490. 
mals, hoofed. 

Arts, i1. 

Arum-lily, iv 80. 

Arvicola. See Microtus. 

Ascaris lumbricoides, i 447; iv iv 343. 

— megalocephala, i 4473 

Ascidia mentula, i 297 ( 
38-39 (illust.), 421-422 


104, 107-122; ili 
See also Mam- 


iv 362 


(illust.), iit 


Ascidians, i 297-300 (illust.); 11 245- 
246, 278, 306, 389-390; ili 8, 38-30 
(illust.), 332, 421-422 (illust.); iv 38 


(illust.), 46 (illust.), 105-106 (illust.), 
438, 451. 
— barrel, iii 39 (illust.). 
Asellus aquaticus, 
Asio accipitrinus, 1 165. 
— otus, 1 165. 
Aspidobranchia, i 317, 322-324. 
Aspredo, iii 426. 
Asps, African, ii 80. 
Asses, i 107; iv 238-239. 
— African, wild, i 107. 
— Nubian, iv 239. 


i 475; ti 143, 
[222, 405 


o25 


Assimilation, i 43 (and see Food). 

Association of organisms, i 18; 
iv 63-207. 

— colonial animals, iv 99-106. 

—commensalism, iv 74-75, 
184. 

— courtship and mating of animals, 
iv 143-169. 

— general principles, iv 63-64. 

— mutualism, iv 67, 75-76, 170. 

— parasitism, iv 76-79, 170, 184-207. 

— plants and animals, iv 64-98. 

— social animals, iv 107-142. 
Astacus fluviatilis, i 412; ii 137, 253, 
402-403 ; lili 367-368 ; iv 200, 300. 

— nobilis, iv 300. 

Asteriada, ii 153-154. 

Asteroidea, i 454. See also Star- 
Fishes. 

Astia vittata cs ies (illust.), 168. 

“Astrachan”, i 

Astragalus, iit» 254. 256. 

Astroides calycularis, 
(illust.) 

Atalanta, i 321; ii 99 (illust.). 

Atavism, iv 235, 488. 

Ateles Bartleiti, ili 255. 

Atelodus. Sce Rhinoceros. 

Athalia spinarum, i 371; ii 
iit 389; iv 356. 

Atherura Africana, i 132. 

Atkinson, Canon, ii 343. 

Atlantosaurus, iv 469. 

Atlas (or first) vertebra, i 26, 
194, 239, 251- 

Atolls, iv 441 (illust.). 

Atrial cavity, i 296, 298; ii 244, 

Atriopore, i 296, 297 (245. 

Atropus divinatoria, i 379; iii 223. 

Attacus atlas, i 363. 

Atta fervens, ii 208, 209. 

Attide, iii 168, 175-176; iv 166. 

Attus volans, iii 280. 

Atya, ii 253-254 

Atypus Sulzeri, i 302. 

Auditory cells, i 56. 


Hearing, organs of. 


170-183, 


22) 


iv 102 


204; 


143, 


See also 


— sacs, i 464. 

— vesicles, i 479, 480. 
Audubon, iii 233. 
Auk, great, i 184; 
— little, 1 184. 
Auks, i 184: ii 53; iii 66. 
Aulastomum gulo, i 433; li 1,49. 
Aurelia, i 482 (illust.’ ; iii 352 (illust.), 


iii 66. 


‘So3) 

UE LaIE? i 40, 147, 148, 200-201, 207, 

240, 262, 265, 308, 314, 320, 323, 
» 3275 329, ae 

Auricularia, iii 357 (illust. ). 

Auroch, i try. See Bison, European. 

Austen, Godwin, i 2 (428. 

Australian region, iv 413, 414, 426- 

Autodax lugubris, iii 435. 

Autolytus prolifer, iii 358 (illust.) 


Avebury, Lord, 
209, 227. 

Avens, iv 98 (illust.). 

Aviculide, iv 398. 

Avocet, iii 127-128. 

Axis, ii 351-352. 

Axis vertebra, i 27, 194. 

Axolotl, i 249 (illust.); 111 435-436. 

Aye-aye, ii 320. 

Azalea, iv 94. 


i 397; iv 118, 119, 


516 


B 


Babirussa, i 109; iii 488; iv 426, 427 
Baboon, Arabian, i 75. ((illust.). 
— black, iii 159 (illust.); iv 426. 

— yellow, 1 76. 

Baboons, i 75-76: ii 349, 363-365 
(illust.); iii 158, go4; iv 134, 145-146. 

Bacillus anthracis, iv 78. 

Backbone. See Vertebral column. 

Bacteria, i 3; iv 65, 67-68, 76, 77-78 
uillust.), 79, 98. 

Bacterium aceti, iv 78. 

Badamia exclamationis, iii 402. 

Badger, common, i 97 jillust.); 11 230- 

— honey-, 1i 231. (231; ili 156. 

Badgers, i 94, 96, 97; il 230-231. 

Bain, iv gor. 

Baker, Sir Samuel, ii 15, 262, 351; 
ili 138, 140; iv 212, 241, 331, 334 
337) 304. 

Balena australis, iv 31s. 

as mysticetus, i101; li 29; iv 314-315. 

Balenoptera boops, 11 20. 

Balance, or balance and 
organs of, i 56, 


hearing, 

203, 209, 245, 
263, 310, 333, 409; iv 32-39. 

— of amphibia, i 245; iv 39 (illust.). 

— of annelids, iv 33-34 (illust.). 

— of ascidians, iv 38 (illust.). 

— of birds, i 150 

—of crustaceans, i 

= of fishes, 1263: 

— of hydrozoa (Jelly-F 
illust.). 

— of insects, iv 37-38 illust.’. 

— of mammals, i 56 illust.). 

—of molluses, i 3333 iV 34-35 

— of reptiles, i 203, 209. {(llust. . 

Balancers, 1 355. 

Balanida, ii 406. 

Balaninus glandium, 

—nucum, ii zit 

Balanoglossus, 
306, 390; i 7, 

Balanus, i 417: 

Baldwin, iv yor, 403, 492. 

Baleen, i ror illust.). [402, 403. 

Baler, of crustaceans, i 4o4, 405; il 

Balfour, Maitland, i 398; iii 337. 

Balistes, iv 205. 

— capriscus, i 278. 

Balloon-Fish, 1i 306. 

Balsams, iv o1-0 

Bamboo-Rats, ili 204. 

Banana, iv 89. 

Bandicoot, pig-footed, iii 191-192 

Bandicoots, ii 43, 234; ili 191-192. 

Banxrings, i 83 (illust.); il 246-247. 

“Barbados earth”, i 496. 

Barbel, i 282: iv 381. 

Barbels, i 268, 278, 279, 280, 2 

Barberry, iv 96. [29 

Barbets, iv 133. 

Barbs, i 142. 

Barbules, i 142. 

Barbus vulgaris, i 252; 

Barnacle, acorn, 1 417, 


150, 


(allust. 
yoo; iv 
39 (illust 


iv 38- 


ishes', iv 38-39 


310, 


((illust.). 


iv 381. 
418-419; 1 


254, 4O6; il 363-364. 

—ship-, i 417-418 (illust.); il 254 
(illust.); iit 363-364. 

Barnacles, i 410, 417-419; ii T44, 
254, 406; iii 363-364; Iv 197-199. 


Barramunda. See 
tralian. 


Barrigudo, i 77. 


Lung-Fish, Aus- 


| Batoidei, i 


INDEX 


Basiliscus Americanus, i 223; iii 


52-53. 

Basilisk, helmeted, i 3 lil 52-53. 

“Basket-Worms ”, iii 400. 

Bass, common, i 273; iv 381. 

Basses, i 273. 

Bastard wing, i 143; ili 301, 304. 

Bat (and see Bats)— 

— barbastelle, i 82. 

— Rechstein’s, i 82. 

— Daubentin’s, 1 82. 

— hairy-armed, i 82. 

— horse-shoe, i 83. 

— — greater, i 83. 

— — lesser, i 83. 

velin-, ii 39, 40 Ilust.) 

— kalong, i 82; iil 245. 

— long-eared, i 81, 82 (illust.). 

— long-tongued shrew-, 11 39. 

— Natterer’s, i 82. 

— noctule, i 82. 

— pipistrelle, i 82; ili 292-293 (illust. ). 

— serotine, 1 82. ((illust. ). 

—vampire, long-tongued, li 38-39 

— — true, i 82-83; ii 39-40. 

— whiskered, i 82. 

Bats (and see Bat), 1 68, 81-83; ii 38- 
40, 320-321, 328, 346-347; lil 244-245, 
292-295, 485-486; iv 89, 327, 424, 
427, 420, 473- [iv ere. 

— fruit-eating, i 81-82; i 321; iit 245; 

— insect-eating, 1 82-83. 

— leaf-nosed, i 82-83 


321 


— true, i 82. 

— vampire, i 82-83; 11 38, 39-40. 

Bates, i 6; ii 40, 1o4, 186, 311, 325, 
326; ill 210; iv 251, 336. 


Bateson, 11 287, 289; iv 32. 

Bathynomus giganteus, iv 447. 

284, 287-290. See also 
Skates and Rays 

Bdellostoma, ii Ba 

Beadlet, i 473-474. 

Beak, of birds, i 141, 
158, 161, 164, 166, 169, 174, 175, 177, 
178, 179, 180, 181, 183, 184, 186, 1838, 
190; it 64, 186-187, 188-191, 242 
(illust.); in 266. 

Beaked chelmon, ii 87-88. 

Bear, brown, (illust.); ii 227-228; 

, 4g (illust.); iv 334, 372. 


384. 


153, 155, 156, 


195 


— polar, li 19-20, 227, 279; ili 75, 
76, 155-156; 1V 334 

— proboscis-, ii 229, 230 (illust.). 

— sloth-, it 228 (illust.). 

— spectacled, iv 420. 


Bears (and see Bear), 1 86, 94-99; il 5, 
227-230; iil 1357 136; iv 334. 

— large, i o4- 5} iii 15 4Qt. 

— small, i 94; ii 229-230; iil 247-248. 

Bear - Auieoateulae. i 387, 304 

Bear-Cat, ii 13. {(illust.). 


“Beast”, i 8. 
Beaver, American, 
307. 
— European, i 127; iv 135-136, 307-308. 
Beavers, i 127; 11.1775 ill 73-74. 
Bechstein, iv 149. 
Beddard, iii 286, 361, 493; 
315, 409: 


1 127; iv 136-140, 


iv 142, 
222, 307, 


Bedeguars, ii 204-205 (illust.): iv 79. 
Bedichon, Madame, iv 213. 
Bee, carpenter, i 374; lil 390-391 


(illust.); iv 108, 356. 
— flower-, 1 374. 


Bee (Cont.) 

—hive- or honey-, i 374; il 205; iii 
274-275 (illust.); iv 43 (illust.), 108, 
III, 121, 251-259 (illust. ) 

— humble-, i 374 (illust.); ii 11g (illust.); 
iv 94, 109-111. 

— poppy, ili 391. 

— wood-, i 374 (illust.). 

Bees (and see Bee), i 373, 374; il 205- 
206, 250, 307, 358, 439: Mi 274-275, 
311, 312, 313; IV 29, 45, 160, 192-164. 

— leaf-cutting, i 374; iii 391; iv 108. 

— mason-, iv 53-54, 108, 195. 

— “‘short- tongued”, iv 109. 

— solitary, i 374. 

Bee-Fly, ii 119 (illust.). 

Bee-keeping, i 15 ; iv 257-259 (illust.). 

Bee-‘‘ Louse”, iv 190. 

Beetle (and see Beetles)— 

— bacon, il 109 (illust. ), 

iv 354. 

— bombardier, ii 358-359, 373 

— Colorado potato-, ii 211; iv 354. 

— goliath-, i 368. 

— Hercules, i 368. [304 

— long-horned oak-, iii 273 

— maggot- eating ii 09 illust. 

— pea, ii 211; iv 354- [(illust. ). 

— sacred scarab, 1 368; ii 209-211 

-— stag, i 368. 

tiger, field, ii 107. 

— — green, i 367 (illust.). 

— violet ground-, i 367; ii 107. 

great, 1 367 (illust.); ii 108- 

109 (illust.), 439; ili 29 (allust.). 

—— great black, li 109, 440; ili 398, 
399 (illust. ). ((illust. ). 

—whirligig, i 367; ii q4o; ili 29-39 

Beetles (and see Weevils, Ladybirds, 
&c.), i 351, 366-369; ii 
209-232) 287, 308, 314-315) 326-327, 


110; iv 355. 


— bean, ii 211; 


(illust). 
(llust.), 


— water, 


107-110, 


iv 43, 82-83, 159, 

=166, 192-194, 354-355» 

, iv 321 (illust.). [423. 

— burying: or sexton-, it 109 (illust.), 

; Uli 396-398 (illust.). 

— carrion-, ii tog (illust.), rro. 

— — rove, ii r10. 

— click-, ii 211, 359 ; 111177-178 (illust.}, 
224; iv 354. 

— flea-, 1 366; iii 178. 

— — turnip, i 366 (illust.); ili 178; iv 
354 (illust. ). 

— ground., i 367; 

— oil-, iv 19 

— rove-,i 367-368 ; 

— scarab, i 368; ii 209-211. 


110 


li 107. 


321. 


i 108, 


— tiger, 1 367; ii 107, 315. 
— tree-, lll 273-274. liv 16 (illust.). 
— water-, 1 367; 11 108-109, 439-440; 


Behemoth, i 108. 

Belemnites, iv 465, 

Bell, iii 71. 

Bell-Animalcule, i 489, 403-494 
(illust.) ; i1 266-267, 418; ili 2, 5, 6, 
(illust.', 8-9, 319-320 (illust.), 321, 
323, 325 (illust.), 335. 

Bell-bird, iv 431. 

Belloe, ii 370. 

Belone vulgaris, i 275. 

Belt, 16; ii 304: iv r20, 257-258 (illust.). 

Beluga. Sce Whale, white. 

Benham, ii 330. 

Benthos, ii 330-331. 

Bernard, iv 130. 

Bernicla brenta, i 177; ii 238. 


466 (illust. ). 


Beroé, i 483; ii 156 (illust.); iit 19 
(illust. ). [(illust. ). 
Berry Animalcule, ii 273-274 
Bettongia Lesueuri, iii 480. [453. 
Bichir, i 266-268 (illust.); ii 334, 421, 

Bicuspids, i35 See also Teeth. 

Bighorn, iii 187. 

Bilateral symmetry. 
metry. 

Bile, i 37-38, 48; ii 212-213. 

Bile-duct, i 37. 

Binturong, ii 13. 

Biology, i 4, 5, 16-17. 

Bipalium Kewense, ii 446. 

Bipinnaria, i 450; ili 356. 

Bird-Lice. See Biting-Lice. 

Birds, i 30, 31, 60, 139-190; ii 45-69, 
184-191, 235-243, 279, 290, 295-296, 
309-311, 322, 328, 333, 343-344) 354, 
367-370, 426-427; ili 56-67, 125-132, 
185-186, 261-267, 286, 295-308, 332, 
448-474; Iv 29-30, 59-62, 88-89, 95, 
96, 129-134, 146-151, 202-203, 214, 
246-251, 308-309, 327-328, 347-348, 
369, 370, 375-378, 387-391, 395) 417) 
418-419, 421, 423, 425, 427-428, 
430-432, 436-437, 445. 

— extinct, ii 45 (illust.) ; ili 296 (illust.), 
298; iv 471, 475-476 (illust.). 

— of Paradise, i 154-155 (illust.). 

— of prey, i 173; ii 69, 370; ili 307; iv 
327. See also Eagles, Vultures, 
Owls, &c. (170, 171. 

Birgus latro, ii 220-221, 469-470; ili 

Bison, American, i rrq (illust.). 

— European, i 114; iv 225. 

Biting-Lice, i 374, 379-380; ii110-111; 
iv 356 

Bittacus tipularius, ii 111. 

Bitterling, ii 452 (illust.). 

Bittern, common, i 179. 

— little, i 179. 

Blackbird, i 159; iii 185; iv 96. 

Bladder-headed Fly, ii 119 (illust.). 

Bladderworts, iv 73-74 (illust.); 95. 

Blastoidea, iv 459. 

Blastopore, iii 344. 

Blastosphere, iii 338, 344. 

Blastula, iii 338, 339, 340-341, 342, 
344. [396. 

Bleak, i 282; ii 449 (illust.), 450; iv 

Blennies, i 275; ii 86; ili 425-426. 

Blennius pholis, i 27s. 

Blenny, smooth, i 275. 

— viviparous, iii 425-426. 

Blindworm, i 223-22 
371; iii rrz (illust.), 446. 

Blood, i 38-39 (illust.), 41, 69, 147, 


See Sym- 


ii 76, 311, 


200-202, 208, 463; ii 426. See also 
Circulatory organs. 
Blood-corpuscles, i 38-39. See also 


Corpuscles. 
Blood-system, i 38, 39-41, 63. 
also Circulatory organs. 
Blood-vessels, i 35, 38, 39, 49, 147. 
See also Circulatory organs. 
Blow-Fly, iv 72, 351. 
Blubber, i roo; iii 84; iv 312, 314. 
Blue-bottle, i 358. 
Blue-buck, ii 169-170. 
Blue Roller, ii 60-61 (illust.). 
Blyth, iv 247. [iit 270. 
Boa-constrictor, i 232 (illust.); ii 79; 
Boar, wild, i 108; ii 231-234 (illust.); 
Boas, iii 270. [iv 233, 334, 373- 
—. tree-, 1179 
—water-. See Anaconda. 


Vou. IV. 


See 


INDEX 


Body-cavity, i 303, 468. See also 
Abdominal cavity, Caelom, &c. 

Body-wall, i 401, 426, 427, 447-448, 
462, 467-468, 484, 485, 486; iii 101. 

Bohemilla comata, iv 25 (illust.). 

Boletus edulis, iv 81. 

— Satanas, iv 81. 

Bombinator, iv 417. 

Bombus, iv 109-111. 

Bombus leucorum, i 374. 

— ruderatus, iv 111. 

— terrestris, i 374. 

Bombyx mori, i 364; ii 214; iv 259- 

Bon, De, iv 289. (260. 

Bone, i 25. 

Bonellia, green, ii 150 (illust.); 410. 

— viridis, ii 150, 410. 

Bones. See Skeleton 
skeleton. 

Bonito, i 274. 

Bonxie, ii 52. 

“Boobies”, i 181; iii 63. 

Book-Lice, i 374, 37y; iii 223 (illust.). 

Books, i 6-7, 15. 

Book-Scorpions, i 389 (illust.). 

Book-‘* Worm”. See Book-Lice. 

Boonder, i 74. 

Boring organ, of molluscs, ii 97-98. 

Bos Americanus, i 114. 

— bonassus, i 114. 

— bubalus, i 115. 

— caffer, i 115. 

— frontalis, iv 225. 

— gaurus, i irq. 

— grunniens, i 114; iv 225. 

— indicus, i rrq; iv 225. 

— longifrons, iv 224. 

— primigenius, i 114; iv 224. 

— taurus, i r14; ii 167-169; iv 225. 

Bostrichus typographus, iii 224 

Botany, i s. [(illust. ). 

Botaurus stellaris, i 179. 

Bot-Flies, i 353; ii 121; iv 191 (illust.). 

Bothriocephalus latus, iv 342. 

Botryllus, i 300 (illust.); iv 105-106 
(illust. ). 

Bower-Birds, i 155; iv 405-407. 

Bowfin, i 269; ii 453. 

Bow-Fly, ii 119 (illust.). 

Brachinus crepitans, ii 358-359, 

Brachiolaria, iii 356. (373. 

Brachiopoda, i 436, 438-440; ii 259- 
260, 339-340, 411; ili 8. 

Bradypus tridactylus, ii 178-179; 

Braem, iii 330. {iii 256, 481. 

Brain. See also Cerebral-hemispheres. 

— amphibians, i 245; iv 2r (illust.). 

-— annelids, iv 8-9, 12. 

— birds, i 149 (illust.); iv 22. 

— crustaceans, iv 12, 13, 14. 

— development of vertebrate, iv 20-23 

— fishes, iv 21 (illust.), 22 [Qllust. ). 

— mammals, i 24, 52 (illust.), 67-68; 
iv 21-23 (illust.). 

— reptiles, i 209, 216. 

Brain-case, i 24, 27-28, 80, 103, 193, 

Brain ganglia, i 303. [202-203. 

Brambling, i 156. 

Branchellion, ii 410. 

Branchiata, i 343, 402-424; 1 135- 

Branchiobdella, iv 200. [r45. 

Branchiomma, iv 44-45. 

Branchiopoda, i 421-422. 

Branchipus, ii 4os. 

— stagnalis, iv 403. 

Braula ceca, iv 190. 

. Bream, common, i 282. 


and Endo- 


517 


Breast-bone, i 29, 145, 152; iii 202, 
299, 309. 

Breathing, i 17, 45-46, 148; ii 376- 
350, 420-421, 424. 

— of plants, ii 379-380. 

Breathing organs :— 

— acorn-headed worm, ii 390. 

amphibians, i 240-242, 244-245, 254; 

ii 422-423, 456-458. 

— animalcules, ii 418-419. [446. 

—annelids, i 428, 429, 408-410, 445- 

— arachnids, i 386, 388-389, 390, 391, 
392; li 442-443. 

— ascidians, i 298; ii 389-390. 

— birds, i 147-149; 11 426-427. 

— crustaceans, i 403-404; i1 400-406, 
443-444, 469-470. (416. 

— echinoderms, i 452, 458, 463; ii 411- 

— fishes, ii 383-388, 447-456. See also 
Gills, Gill-clefts, &c. 

— flat-worms, ii 445-446. 

— insects, i 348-349, 357; ii 437-442, 

— king-crab, ii 406-407. (462-468. 

— lamp-shells, ii 411. 

— lancelet, ii 389. 

— mammals, i 45-47, 67; ii 427-431. 

— molluscs, i 308, 331, 332, 333, 340, 
3415 il 391-399, 432-434, 459-462. 

— moss-polypes, ii 410-411. 

— myriapods, 1 395, 397; ii 435-437. 

— nemertines, ii 391, 445. 

— peripatus, i 401; il 434-435. 

— reptiles, i 202, 209, 215-216, 230; ii 

— siphon-worms, ii 410. [424-426. 

— sponges, ii 418. 

— wheel-animalcules, i 435; ii 410. 

— zoophytes, ii 416-4138. 

Breathing-pores. See Stigmata. 

Breathing tube, of insects. See 
Air-tubes. 

— of molluscs. See Syphon. 

Breeze-Flies, iv 190. 

Brehm, i 6; ii 279, 365; ili 186; iv 
146, 148, 301. 

Brephos notha, iii 4or. 

Brill, iii 432; iv 268. 

Bristles, of annelids, i 425-431; ili 
227-229, 360. 

Bristle-Tail, i 433 (illust.); ii 410. 

Bristle-Worms, i 425-432 (illust.); 
ii 146-147, 257-258, 338-339, 360-361, 
380, 408-409; ili 22-23, 97-99. 226- 
230, 329-330 (illust.), 358-36r (illust.); 
iv 8, 44-45, 199-200, 216-217. 

— few-bristled, i 430-43r. 

— many-bristled, i 430-431. 

— simple-segmented, i 431-432. 

Brittle-Stars, i 454, 455-456; li 285, 
44, 416; iii urq-zr5 (illust.), 278 
(illust.), 328, 354-355 (illust.); iv 459. 

Bronchial tubes, i 46; ii 427. 

Bronchus (pl. bronchi), i 46. 

Bronze age, iv 208, 233, 234, 262. 

Brood-capsules, i 422. 

Brood-pouches— 

— amphibians, ili 440-441 (illust.), 442. 

— annelids, iii 358, 359 (illust.). 

— crustaceans, iii 362-363 (illust.), 
364, 365. 

— echinoderms, iii 355 (illust.), 356- 


— fishes, ili 427 (illust.). [357- 
— mammals, ili 476 (illust.), 477. 

— molluscs, iii 405-406. 

Bruchide. See Beetles—Pea- and 


Bean-. 
Bruchus fabz, ii 211; iv 354. 
— pisi, it 211; iv 354. 


128 


518 


Brunner, ii 250. 

Bryophyta, iv 64. 

Bubalus arni, iv 226. 

— buffelus, iv 225-226. 

— caama, iv 141. 

Bubble-Shells, i 324 (illust.); ii 100. 

Bubo ignavus, i 166. 

Buccinum undatum, i 321; ii 96, 
97, 394-395; iii 4r2, 413; iv 348. 

Buceros galeatus, ii 242. 

Bucerotide. See Hornbills. 

Buck, iii 460; iv 378. 


Buckland, Frank, i 6; ii 139; ili 444; 
Budgerigar, iv 390. [iv 382. 
Buffalo, Cape, i1zs; ii 321. 

— Indian, i 115; iv 226. 

Buffaloes, i 114-115; ii 352; iv 225- 
Buffon, iv 489. 226, 334).373 
Bufo calamitata, i 255. 

— vulgaris, i 255; il 82, 83; iil 50, 436- 
Bufonide, i 255. (437. 


Bug, bed-, ii 123; iv 190. 
— needle-, 1 354; il 123-124. 
Bugs (and see Bug), i 351-355; li 122- 


124, 216-217, 316, 359, 440-441; ill 29, 
178-180, 380-383; iV 189-190, 192, 
350-351. 

—mealy. See Scale-Insects. 


— tree- or plant-, ili 22 
and see Cicada. 
— water, 1 354-355: 

Bugula, iv 10s. 

Bulimus, iii 414. 

Bulla, i 324 (illust.). 

Bullfinch, 1 156. 

Bull-heads, | 274: 

Bullia, iti 103. 

Bungarus coeruleus, iv 3309. 

Bunting, cirl, i 156. 

— corn, i 156. 

— reed, i 156 

— snow, 1 156. 

— yellow, i 156 (illust.) 

Buphaga Africana, ii 62. 

Burbot, i 279. 

Burdock, iv 08 (illust.). 

Buried coal-fields, i 2-3 

Burnett salmon. See Lung-Fish, 
Australian. 

“Burrs”, iv 97-08. 

Bustard, Australian, iv 150 (illust.). 

— great, 1.170; il 241-242; Iv 150, 377. 

— little, iv 377. 

Bustards, i 152, 170; 

Busycon carica, iv 324. 

— perversum, iv 324. 

Butcher-Bird, great, ii 65 (illust.). 

“Butcher-Birds”, i 158; ii 64-65. 

Buteo lagopus, i 174. 

— vulgaris, i 174 

Buthus Europeus, i 387. 

Butler, Cyrus W., ili 124; iv 151. 

Butter-Fish, iii 426. 

Butterfly (and see Butterflies)— 

— black-veined brown (or monarch), 
ii 307, 312. 

— black-veined white, i 362. 

— blue, common, i 362. 

— brimstone, i 362. 


-225, 380-381; 
ii 123-124; ili 382- 
(383: 


iv 190. 


iv 273 


il 240-242; iv 
(147. 


— cabbage, or large white, i 362, 372; 


li 214, 311, 399-400 (illust.); iv 164 
(illust.), 162; iv 194, 352 
— copper, small, i 362. 
—green-veined white, i 362, 373 


(illust.) ; iv 352. 
— Indian skipper, iit 4o2 (illust.). 
— orange tip, i 362; iv 161-162 (illust.). 


INDEX 


Butterfly (Coz7.) 

—- painted lady, i 361; iii 400. 

— peacock, i 361; ii 215; ili 400; v 56. 

purple emperor, i 361. 

red admiral, i 361; ili 400. 

resplendent Ptolemy, i 361. 

small white, or garden white, i 362: 

iv 352. [iii goo. 

— tortoiseshell, great, i 361 (illust.) ; 

— — small, i 361; ii 215, 294; ili 400. 

— white admiral, ii 312. 

Butterflies (and see Butterfly), i 351, 
358-362, 372, 373; li 120, 214-215, 
252, 311-313; ili 167, 310, 311, 399- 
402; 1v 56, 160-162, 351-353, 433- 

— bird-winged, i 362. 

— blues, i 362. 

— coppers, 1 362. 

— fritillaries, i 361; iii goo. 

— leaf-, ii 298-290 (illust.), 300 

— swallow-tailed, i 362; ii 312; 

— whites, i 361. 

Butterwort, iv 68 

Buzzard, common, i 174. 

— honey, i 175. 

— rough- ag 1174. 

Byssus, i 335, 339, 337) 338; iil 406, 
407, 408, 409. 


lv 43- 


C 


Caccabis rufa, i 172. 

Cachalot, ii 29. See also Whales, 
sperm-. 

Cacti, Mexican, iv 95. (lust. ). 

Caddis-Fly, diamond-spotted, i 375 

— large, 1 375 (illust.). 

Caddis-Flies, i 374, 378- 379; ii 116, 
467; ili 385-386 (illust.) ; iv 195. 

— land- illust.) 

Caddis-“ Moths”. See Caddis-Flies. 

Caddis Shrimps, iii 369. 

“Caddis-Worms”, i 378-379; ii 116, 
337 (illust.), 467; iii 385. 

Cecilians, 55-256 (illust.); ii 83, 
329, 423; 46, 213-214 (illust.), 
442-443 (illust.). 

Ceecum (pl. Ceca), i 348, 453; ii 167, | 
172, 176; and see Digestive organs. 

Cerostris mitralis, 11 299-300. 

Caillard, Paul, iv 374. 

Caiman sclerops, i 211 (illust.). 

— spectacled, i 211 (illust.). 

Caimans, i 210. 


Mi 


Cairina moschata, iv 151, 248 
Calamaries. See Squids. 
Calamoichthys, i 266, 268; ii 453. 


Calandra granaria, i 369; iv 354-355 
— oryze, i 360. 

Calandruccio, iii 433. 
Calcaneum, i 207; ill 192. 

Calcar, of frog, i 250. 

— of rotifers, 1435. 

Calicide, iii 403-404. 

Calidris arenaria, i 169. 

Caligus, iv 2or. 

Callidina symbiotica, iv 75. 
Calling hares, i r2s. 
Callionymus carebares iv 159 

-— lineatus, iv 158-159. 

— lyra, it 306; iv 158. 
Callorhynchus antarcticus, i 291; 
Callosities, i 72. [ii 335. 
Callula pulchra, 11 304. 
Calocalanus pavo, iv 452. 


Calodactylus aureus, iii 268. 

Calotermes flavicollis, i 379; ii 
212-213; iV 122-123. 

Calotes nigrilabris, i 222. 

Cambrensis, Geraldus, iv 136. 

Camel, Arabian, i 122; iii 151 (illust.) ; 
IV 230. 

— bactrian, i 122; iv 230, 231 (illust.). 

Camelopard, i 119; and see Giraffe. 

Camelopardalis giraffa. See 
Giraffa camelopardalis. 

Camels, i 109, 120-122; ii 171, 279; 
iil 152-153; iv 230-237. (231. 

Camelus bactrianus, i 122; iv 230, 

— dromedarius, i 122; ii 151; iv 230. 

Campanularia, ii 351 (illust.). 

Canaries, ili 261; iv 387-389 (illust.). 

Canarium commune, li 190. 

Cancer pagurus, i 412; ii 140, 
337-338, 403-404 ; ili 366 ; iv 298-299. 

Canes venatici, iv 367-368. 

Canidae, iii 491 ; iv 220-222 

Canine teeth, i 35, 98, 109; 
Teeth. 

Canis aurenus, i 93. 

— azare, ii 17, 343. 

— dingo, i 94; ii 343; iv 222. 

—familiaris, it 132-137, 154-155 
220-222, 367-368, 383-384. 

— lagopus, ii 18. 

— latrans, i 93. 

— lupus, i 93; iv 372. 

— vulpes, i 94; iv 372-373. 

— zerda,io4; ii 19. 

Cannabina flavirostris, i 156. 

— linaria, i 156. 

— rufescens, i 156. 

“Cannon-bones”, iii 142, 149, 150, 

Cannula, ii 80. (152, 153, 196. 

Cantharide. See Beetles, oil-. 


and see 


iv 


Cantharides, iv 32r. 
Canvas-back, iii 60. 


Capercailzie, i 172; ii 
Capillaries, i 41. 


Capra agagra i 117; ii 248, 249; 
— hirea, i 117; iv 229-230. [iv 230. 
— ibex, i117; ili rst. 

— Pyrenaica, 117. 


— Siberica, i 117. 

— Sinaitica, i117. 

Caprella, i415: i142, 404-405; 111 277. 
Capreolus caprea, i 112. 
Caprimulgus Europzus, i 163; ii 
_ Virginianus, ii 58. (56-58; ii 453. 
Capsus, i 352 illust.). 

Capuchin weeper, i 77 


Capybara, i 134-1353 _ ae iit 
Carabidae, ii 107. “tt (illust.). 
Carabus violaceus, i 36 os ii 107. 


Carapace, i 214. 

— crustaceans, 1 406, 421, 422; ili 27. 

— tortoises and turtles, i 212, 213-214, 
216-217, 218, 210, 220; il 334 (illust.). 

Carassius auratus, i282; iv 392-393. 

Carbohydrates, i 33. 

Carbonate of lime, ii 259, 277. 

carbon en 


Carbonic acid gas ( CO. 


i 44; li 270, 271, 273, 289, 377-380, 
382, 383, 384, 420; iv 65-68, 76. 


Carboniferous period, ii 380, 463, 
464. {it qr. 
Carcharias glaucus, i 284; ii 88; 
Carcharodon Rondeletii, i 286; ii 
88: iv 340. 
Carcinus moenas, 
Cardiida, iii 180. 


ii t40; iv 
[197-199 


i 412: 


Cardium edule, i 334; ii 373; iii 189; 
iv 296-297. 

Carduelis elegans, i 156. 

Carinaria, i 321; ii 99. 

Carinats, i 152-186; ili 450-474. 

Carmine, iv 260. 

Carnivora. See Mammals, flesh- 
eating. 

Carotid arches, i 243. 

Carp, beaked, ii 195. [(illust.). 

— common, i 282; ii 448; iv 196, 200 

Carpalia, i 198. 

Carpenter, i 17; ii 252; iv 164. 

Carpincho. See Capybara. 

Carp-‘‘ Louse”, iv 196-197 (illust.). 

Carpocapsa pomonella, i 365; iv 

Carps, i 282; ii 195; iv 286, 329. [352 

Carpus. See Wrist. 

Cartilage(s), i 25-26, 239, 26r. 

— costal, i 29. 

— hyomandibular, i 260, 271. 

— thyroid, i 47. 

Caryophyllia Smithii, i 476. 

Cassell, i 17. 

Cassis, i 321. 

Cassowaries, i 187, 188, 189-190; iii 
130, 131 (illust.), 449, 450. 

Castor Canadensis, i 127; iv 136-140, 
307. 

— fiber, i 127; ili 73-74; iv 135-136, 

Castoride, ii 177. (307-308. 

Casuarius, i 189; ii 243; ili 130, 131, 
449, 450. 

Cat, domestic, i 87, 93; ii 225; ili 157, 
158 (illust.); iv 146, 222-223, 384- 
386 (illust. ). 

— fallow, 1 88; iv 222, 223 (illust.). 

— fishing, ii 11; ili 75-76. 

— pampas, i 88. 

— wild, i 88; iv 222. 

Cats proper, i 86-88; ii 5, 10-17; iii 
157-158, 247, 491-492; and see Cat. 

Catch-Flies, iv 86 (illust.), 93, 94. 

Caterpillars, i 359-360, 361, 362, 363, 
364, 365 (illust.); ii 214-215, 252, 293- 
294, 297-298 (illust.), 300, 307, 313- 
314 (illust.), 346-347, 359-360, 374; 
iii 102-103, 399 (illust.), 400, qo1 
(illust.), 402 (illust.); iv 59, 77, 259 
(illust.), 352, 352, 353. 

— ‘‘false”, i 371. 

— “‘surface”’, i 364. 

Catesby, ii 140. 

Cat-Fishes, i 280; ii 335; iii 426-427. 

— electric, ii 86. 

Cat-gut, iv 259. 

Catheturus Lathami, iii 451-452. 

Catoblepas gnu, i 118. 

Cattle (see also Oxen)— 

— humped, i 114; iv 225. 

— white (or Chillingham), iv 224. 

Caval veins, i 200. 

Cavia cutleri, i 134. 

Cavicornia, i 113; ii 352; ili 152. 

Caviide, i 134; ii 178. 

Cavius porcellus, i 134. 

Cavy, cutler’s, i 134. 

— restless, 1 134. 

Cavies, i 134; ii 178. 

Cebida, ii 326. 

Cebus capucinus, i 77. 

Cecidomyia destructor, iv 351. 

— tritici, iv 351. 

Celandine, greater, iv 80, 97. 

Cells, i 49, 51, 55-56, 467, 469-471, 

471, 484-486; ii 270; ili 2, 3-4, 5 
(illust.), 9-10, 12, 13, 317, 326, 333, 


INDEX 


334, 335, 338, 339, 349, 342; iv 5, 25 
(illust.), 26, 29, 30, 31-32 (illust.), 33, 
34) 35> 37) 39) 40 41, 42, 43, 44. 

Cell-walls, ii 270, 273. 

Cellulose, ii 273. 

Cement, i 35; ii 166. 

Cement-glands, i 418, 435; ili 363. 

Centaurea alpina, iv 82. 

Centetes, i 85. 

— ecaudatus, ii 33. 

Centipede, shield-bearing, ii 133-134 
(illust.), 436-437 (illust.); iii 165 
(illust.). 

— thirty-foot, i 394 (illust.); ii 132-133; 
Ml 371-372. 

Centipedes, i 342, 394-398; ii 132- 
134, 360, 435-437; ili 163-165, 370- 
3735 1V 14-15, 215-216, 329. 

— earth, ii 133; ili 225 (illust.). 

Centronotus Gunnellus, iii 426. 

Cephalochorda, i 293-297; ii 244- 

Cephalophus, ii 365-366. (245. 

— monticola, ii 169-170. 

Cephalopoda, i 311-317; ii 94-96, 
372-373, 392-3933 iii 30-33, 104, 108- 
130, 417-419; 1v 18-19, 45. 

Cephalopterus ornatus, iv 43r. 

Cephalo-thorax, of arachnids, i 386. 

— crustaceans, i 413, 414. (356. 

Cephus pygmeeus, iii 387-388; iv 

Cerambyx heros, iii 273, 394. 

Cerastes cornutus, ii 282; iv 407, 

Cerata, ii 357, 382. [408. 

Ceratodus, i 264, 265; ii 83-84, 454- 

Ceratophrys ornata, ii 305. [456. 

Ceratopogon, i 357; ii 12t. 

Ceratopsia, iv 470. 

Cercaria, i 444. 

Cerceris, iv 160. 

Cerci, i 345, 350. 

Cercolabes prehensilis, iii 253, 255. 

Cercoleptes, ii 326. 

— caudivovulus, iii 247-248, 255. 

Cercopide, ii 217; iti 178. 

Cercopithecus cephus, i 74. 

— diana, i 74. 

— sabzus, i 74. 

Cere, i 140, 166, 175. 

Cerebellum, i 52, 150, 263; iv 22, 23. 

Cerebral ganglia. See Brain gan- 
glia. 

Cerebral-hemispheres, i 52, 67-68, 
70, 149, 202, 263; iv 22-23 (illust.). 

Ceriornis satyrus, iv 148-149. 

Certhia familiaris, i 157; ii 59-60; 
iii 264. 

Cerura vinula, i 363; ii 313-314, 
359-360; ili 401-402. 

Cervical groove, i 402. 

Cervide. See Deer. 

Cervulus, iv 424. 

Cervus axis, ii 351-352. 

— Canadensis, i rrr. 

— dama, isi; iii 151. 

—- elaphus, i 111; iv 144-145, 373-374- 

— Hibernicus, iv 474. 

Cestoda, i 441-443; and see Tape- 
Worms. 

Cestracion Philippi, i 287; ii 89- 
go; ili 424. 

Cestus, i 483; iii 20. 

Cetacea, i 61, 68, 99-101; li 25-30, 
329, 430; il 83-86, 490-491; Iv 314- 
317, 473. See also Whales, Por- 
poises, &c 

Cetonia aurata, i 368, 369. 

Cetorhinus maximus, ii 88. 


029 


Cherocampa elpenor, ii 314. 

— porcellus, ii 314. 

Cheronycteris, ii 38. 

Cheropus, ii 43. 

— castanotus, iii 191-192. 

Chetoderma, i 341 (illust.); iii 222 

Cheetognatha, iii 21. {(illust. ). 

Chetopoda, i 425-432. See also 
Bristle- Worms. 

Chafers, i 368, 366 (illust.). 

Chaffinch, i 156; ii 187; iii 469 (illust.), 
470; iv 147 (illust.), 148, 348. 

Chalcides ocellatus, ii 77. 

— tridactylus, i 225. 

Chalicodoma muraria, iv 53-54, 

Chalk, i 496. [1g5. 

Chalk period, iii 309. 

Chamezleo Oweni, iv 15st. 

— vulgaris, i 227; ili 269, 270, 446. 

Chameleon, common, i 227 (illust.); 
lil 269 (illust.), 270, 446. 

— Owen’s, iv 151 (illust.). 

Chameleons, i 221, 226-227; ii 73-75, 
290-291, 425-426. 

Chamois, i 117-118; iii 248. 

— Alpine, ii 36s. 

Change of function. See Function. 

Chapman, ii 21; iii 460; iv 378. 

Charadrius pluvialis, i 169; iii 455. 

— Virginicus, iii 30s. 

Charzas graminis, iv 163, 352. 

Chasmorhynchus, iv 431. 

Chatterers, iv 43r. 

Cheek-pouches, i 72, 73, 74, 126, 
129; iil 192-193. 

Cheeks, i 37. 

Cheese-Fly, iii 178; iv 351. 

Cheetah, i 88; ii 10-11; iii 157-158; 
iv 368-369 (illust.). [iv 359. 

Cheimatobia brumata, i 364, 372; 

Cheironectes variegatus, iii 70. 

Cheirotherium, iv 467. 

Chelicere, i 386. See also Mouth- 
parts. 

Chelidon urbica, i 161; iii 461, 467, 

Chelifer cancroides, i389. [468. 

Chelmon rostratus, ii 87. 

Chelone imbricata, i 218; ii 72, 191; 
ili 55; iv 395-396. 

— midas, i 218; ii 191; ili 55, 446-447. 

Chelonia, i 203, 212-221; ii 191-192, 
333-334; lll 54-56. 

— S-necked, i 216, 217-219. 

Chelonids. See Turtles. 

Chelura terebrans, ii 222; iii 225. 

Chelydra serpentina, ii 72. 

Chemical changes within the body, 
i 43-44 (illust.); i1 1-3, 376-380. 

— elements, i 33. 

Chemistry, i 4, 17. 

Chenalopex Agyptiacus, i 177. 

Chervil, wild, iv 161. 


Chest. i 24, 46. 

Chevrotain, Asiatic, i 109, 110 
(illust.); iii 150, 152. 

— water, 1 109; ill 150. 

Chevrotains, i too; ili 150, 152. 

Chiasognathus Grantii, iv 159 


illust.). 
Chiffchaff, i 160; iii 185 (illust.). 
Chilognatha, i 396. See also Milli- 
pedes. 
Chilomonas, i 489 (illust.); iii 6 
Chilopoda, i 396. See also Centi- 
pedes. {(illust. ). 
Chimera, bottle-nosed, i 290, 291 
— monstrosa, i 290-291; ii 387. 


520 


Chimeras, i 257, 290-291 (illust.); ii 


335- 
Chimarrogale Himalayica, ii 34- 
35; Wl 7T. 


Chimpanzee, i 72 (illust.); ii 349; il 
160 (illust.), 161, 494; iv 382, 383 
(illust. ). 


Chinchilla, common, i 133 (illus 
— lanigera, i 133; iv 308. liv 308. 
Chipmunk, common, i 126. 
Chiromys, 11 320. 
Chironomide®, ii 121, 467-468. 
Chironomus plumosus, i 357. 
Chiroptera. See Bats. 
Chirotes caniculatus, ii 76; ii 209. 
Chiton marginatus, i 340. 
— polii, il 4o4 
Chitons, i 340-341 (illust.); ii 342, 
391-392: lil 104; 1v 16-17. 
Chlamydera, iv 406. 
Chlamydosaurus Kingi, i 
123-124. 
Chlamydoselache anguineus, i 
Chlorophyll, i 466, li 3, 270, 271, 
272, 273, 379: 1v 65, 66. 
Cholepus didactylus, i 135, 136; 
Chondrostina, 11 195. (ii 179-180 
Chordata, See also 
Vertebrates. 
Chordotonal organs, of insects, iv 
Choroid coat, i 58. (37 (illust.). 
Chough, i 154. 
Chromatophores, i 313. 
Chrysochloris capensis, 11 
Ml 202, 203. 
Chrysolophus Amherstia, iv 148 
— giganteus, iv 148. 
— pictus, 1172; iv 148. 
Chrysomela decemlineata, 
IV 3545 
Chrysomitris spinus, i 156 
Chrysopa, ii 114. 
— vulgaris, i 378. 
Chrysophanus phleas, i 36>. 
Chrysopide. Sce Lace-wing Flies. 
Chrysops cecutiens 
Chrysosplenium, iv 83 
Chrysothrix sciurea, i 78. 
Chrysotoxum bicinctum, ii 119 
Chubb, i 282. 
Chun, ii 287. 
Churn-Owl. 


i 62), 


292-293. 


ii 217; 


See Ni 


ht-Jar 


Cicada septendecim, ii 217; ili 224- 
225, 377, 380-381. 
— seventeen-year, li 217; ili 224-225 


illust.), 377, 380-381. 
Cicadas, i 352-353 (illust.). 
Cicindela campestris, i 367; ii 107. 
Ciconia alba, i 179: ii 55; ili 127; iv 
Cilia. See Cilium. (62. 
Ciliata, i 403: iii 5, $9. 
Ciliated grooves, of zoophytes, ii 

417-418. 

Ciliated membranes, i 49, 149. 
Cilium (pl. Cilia’, 1 so {illust.), 332, 
445, 470, 483, 484, 492, 493: 
= 248, 249, see 262). 203) 
265, 266, 398, 400, 417, 418, 446; ill 
8, 20, 38, 39, 
23, 3421 359) 360, 304, 400, 4 


ii 266-267; 


4345 


89; 915, 319, 320, 322, 

20, 421; 

Cimex lectularius, i 354; 1V 190. 

Ciona intestinalis, i 296 (illust.). 

Circulatory organs, i 38. 

— amphibians, 1 240-244, 253-254. 
— annelids, i 427-423. 

— birds, 1 146-147. 


INDEX 


Circulatory Organs (Couzt.) 


— crustaceans, i 408, 422. 


Circus zruginosus, i 174. 


echinoderms, i 452, 458, 463. 


- fishes, 1 261-262, 265, 272; 


ii 384. 


insects, i 348; 11 465-466. 


mammals, i 38-43, 67. 


molluscs, i 308, 317, 320, 


myriapods, ii 437. 
peripatus, 1 399-400. 


32, 349 


reptiles, i 200-201, 208, 215. 


cineraceus, 1 175. 
cyaneus, i 175. 


Cirolana borealis, i 415 (illust.); ii 
Cirratulus, i 430. 


Cirripedia. 
Cirroteuthide, 
Cirroteuthis, 11 
Cirrus (pl. 

401; L. 
Cisticola cursitans, iii 


Cirri), 
146. 


(143. 


See Barnacles. 


i 418, 426, 428 


Civet-Cats, 1 89; il 11-14, 226-227; 
ill 156-157, 247. 
— African, i 8g; iii 157 (illust. ). 


Cladocera, Vepens a 
“Clams”, 


Indian, i 89 (illust.). 
palm-, li 12-13, 
2 


IV 204, 323. 


Clarke, S. F., iii 448 
Class, i o. 
Classification, i 7, 21-499. 


amphibians, i 245. 
animalcules, i 425. 
arachnids, i 387 
arthropods, 1 342- 
artificial, iit. 
biblical, 1 7-8. 
birds, i 152. 

by definition, 1 10. 
— pedigree, i ir. 
— type, iro 


y 1 4to. 


echinoderms, 1 454. 
- fishes, i 257. 
flat-worms, 1 441. 


insects, 


i 350-351. 
invertebrates, 1 304. 
linear, i 10. 


mamunals, 1 68-70. 
molluses, i 311. 
myriapods, 1 396. 
natural, i 11. 

of Aristotle, 18, 60. 
— Cuvier, 110 

— Linnzus, 1 9-10. 
plants, iv 64. 
reptiles, 1 
sponges, i 4 
standpoint of, 1 7-11. 
vertebrates, i 60. 

— primitive, 1 293. 
zoophytes, 1 473. 


Clathrulina, i 406. 
Clausilia plicatula, ii 200. 
Clavellina, i 300. 
Claviceps purpurea, iv 08. 


Clavicle, i 29, 145, 207: 


Claws, i 64 


arachnids, i 391; ii 
birds, 1 141, 190; il 
insects, ili 273-274, 


mammals, i 78, 87, 8 
97, 133) 1345 
206, 244-245 (illust.), 


reptiles, iii 208. 


li 256; 


343- 


iit 201, 


il 26. 


iii 202, 298. 


st.), 264. 


89, 90, 91, 92, 
202, 203, 205, 
247}. 251, 252, 


Cleavage, iii 338. 

Cleavers, iv 97-98. 

Clegg, ii 120-121. 

Cleodora, iv 451. [30. 

Cléon dipterum, ii 465 (illust.); ili 

Clepsidrina blattarum, i 489, 498; 
iii 6 (illust.); iv 206-207. 

Clepsine, ii 149. 

Climbing birds, iu 263. 

Climbing-scales, iii 283, 284 (illust.). 

Clio, iv 451. 

Clione, iv 451. 

Clisiocampa neustria, i 314. 

Clitellum, i 431; ili 360. 

Cloaca, 1 60, 140, 146, 192, 200. 
215, 240, 261, 463 

Clover, iv 76. 

Clover-dodder, iv 76. 

Clupea harengus, i 283; ii 425; iv 
128, 129, 263-264. 


, 208, 


"= menhaden, iv 318. 


| Clupeide. 


— pilchardus, i 283; iv 265. 

— sprattus, 1 283; iv 264. 

See Herrings. 

Clytus arietis, ii 314. 
Cnethocampa processionea, ii 
Coal, i 2-3; 11 380. (346-347. 
Coal-Fish, iv 266-269. 


| Coati, ii 229, 230 (illust.); ili 247 


Cobitis tenza, ii 450. 

Cobra, common, i 234; 

— giant, 280. 

“Cobra de capello.” 
common. 

Cobras, i 232, 234: 

Coccide, iii 381; iv 350, 351, 400 

Coccinella, i 369; ii 100-110, 

— bipunctata, i 366, 369. 

— septempunctata, i 366, 360. 

Coccothraustes vulgaris, i 156. 

Coccus cacti, i 353: iv 260. 

Coccyx, i 27: iv 480. 

Cochineal, iv 260, 321. 

Cochinealinsect,i 353: iv 260 illust.). 

Cockatoo, great bl: ii 189-190 

Cockatoos, 1 166. {illust.). 

Cockchafer, i 368; ii 209; ill 224; iv 
354: 

Cockle, common, i 334; i 
180 (illust.) ; iv 296-207 

Cockles, i 334; ti 398; ili 180. 

Cockroach, i 343-350 (illust. 
498-499; ii tor-102, 250, 438: 
273-274, 378; iv 358. 

Cockroach gregarine, 
ili 6; iv 206-207 (illust.). 

Cocoons, 

— annelids, iil 360-361 (illust.). 

— arachnids, ui 374, 375. 

— beetles, iii 398 (illust.). 

— membrane-winged insects, i 370, 371; 
lit 388, 389; iv 110, 112, 115, 118, 126. 

— moths and butterflies, 1 360, 362, 363, 
364; ill 4oo, got, 402 (illust.); iv 250. 


il 80; Iv 339 
{(llust.), 301. 
See Cobra, 


ii 303. 


308, 


(3t5- 


a8 
» 381, 
ili 167, 


1 498-499; 


Cod-Fish, common, i 22 (illust.), 278; 
ill 425; iv 266 (illust.), 3 

Cod-Fishes, i 278- 279: y 265-268. 

Codonocladium, i pie 494 (illust.); 

Codosiga, iv 100 (illust.). hii 6. 

Celaria labyrinthiformis, i 475 


(illust.). 
Celenterata. See Zoophytes 
Ceelogenys paca, i133. 
Coelom, i 427. See also Body cavity. 
Coeloplana, i 483; iii s. 
Coenolestes, i 138; ii 42; ili 478. 
Coenosare, i 476, 478, 479; iv rot. 


Coenurus cerebralis, iv 361. 
Coffer-Fishes, i 278; ii 334; iv 340. 
Cogan, iv 318. 

Colchicum, iv 97. 

Coleoptera, i 351, 366-369; ii 107-110, 
209-211, 314-315, 326-327, 337, 358- 
359, 373» 439-440; ili 29-30, 177-178, 
223-224, 313-314, 393-399; iv 192- 
194, 354-355) 423+ 

Coleridge, i 183. 

Colies, iii 266-267. 

Colius macrurus, iii 267. 

Collar Animalcules, i 494; ii 267. 

Collar-bone, i 29; iii 202, 298. See 
also Clavicle. 

Collar-cells, i 484, 486, 494; ii 266. 

Collard, A.O., iv 292. 

Collembola, i 384-385; iii 176. 

Collocalia, iii 462 (illust.). 

Colobi, i 73. {ii 315. 

Coloborhombus fasciatipennis, 

Colobus guereza, i 73; ili 237, 238. 

Coloration, i. 16. See also Warning 
coloration and Courtship coloration. 

— amphibians, i 238, 251; ii 291, 304- 
305; ili 288; iv 153. 

— animalcules, ii 267, 273. 

— annelids, ii 308. 

— arachnids, i 390; ii 299-300, 308; 

idi ii [iv 168. 

— birds, ii 279, 281, 290, 295-296, 
309-311; lil 450, 465, 471; iv 132- 
134, 148, 387-388, 390. 

— birds’ eggs, ii 285-286. 

— crustaceans, ii 278, 279, 292-293; 
lili 175; iv 168-169, 444-445. 

— fishes, i 269, 274, 275, 276; ii 84, 
283-284, 291-292, 296, 305-306, 431; 
iv 154, 155, 156, 157, 158-159, 171, 
269, 270, 271, 272, 273, 442. 

— flat-worms, ii 271, 308, 446; iv. 203. 

— insects, i 361, 363, 364, 366, 367, 
368, 369, 376; ii 117, 118, 286-287, 
293-294, 296-300; 307-308, 311-316, 
360; iv 160-162, 176. 

— mammals, i 64-65, 119; ii 7-9, 18- 
19, 22, 178, 279, 283, 289-290, 295, 
302, 324, 366-367; ili 488; iv 140, 
145-146, 235-236, 239, 244. 

— molluscs, i 313; ii 285, 292, 296, 
306-307; ili 37. 

— plants, iv 81, 85. 

—reptiles, i 224, 232-233, 234-235, 
246; li 81, 281-282, 290-291, 303-304, 
311, 344-345; ili 211, 212, 287; iv 152. 

— reversed shading, ii 282-284. 

— zoophytes, ii 272, 285, 308-309, 361. 

Colossendeis, iv 447 (illust.). 

Colour-bodies, i 313. 

Colour-schemes. See Coloration. 

Colpoda cucullus, iii 321 (illust.), 

Coluber guttatus, iv 328. [322-323. 

— longissimus, iii 270. 

Colugo, i 86 (illust.); iii 281-282, 435. 

Columba livia, i 139, 167; ii 184; iv 
250-251, 487. 

— enas, i 167; ii 185. 

— palumbas, i 167; ii 185; iii 458. 

Columbe, i 152, 167-168. See also 
Pigeons. 

Columella, i 150. 

Coly, long-tailed, iii 267 (illust.). 

Colymbus arcticus, i 185; ii 54; iil 

— glacialis, 1 184. [60, 66. 

— septentrionalis, i 185; iii 66. 

Comatula rosacea, i 460, 461; ii 
264-265, 413, 414-415; lil 23; iv 482. 


INDEX 


Comb-Jellies, i 473, 483 (illust.); ii 
155-156 (illust.), 278; iii 5, 19-20 
(illust. ). (184. 

Commensalism, iv 74-75, 170-183, 

— crustaceans, iv 172-174, 179-182 

— echinoderms, iv 172. [(illust. ). 

— fishes, iv 170, 171. 

— insects, iv 175-179 (illust.). 

— molluscs, iv 172-174, 183. 

— siphon-worms, iv 182, 183 (illust.). 

— sponges, iv 172, 181-182. 

—zoophytes, iv 171, 172, 
182, 183 (illust.). 

Comparative method, i 12. 

Conan Doyle, i 121-122. 

Concha. See Ear-flap. 

Conch-Shell, iv 397. 

Condor, i 175; iv 432. 

Condylarthra, iv 472. 

Condyles, occipital— 

— amphibians, i 66. 

— birds, i 66, 143. 

— mammals, i 28-29, 66, 123; ii 176. 

— reptiles, i 66, 193. (315. 

Condylodeira tricondyloides, ii 

Condylura cristata, ii 37; iii 202; 
iv 418. 

Cone-Shells, i 321; ii 357; iv 340. 

Confucius, iv 244. (274. 

Conger vulgaris, i i 283; iii 434; iv 

Conies, i 68, 103-104; iii 248-250; iv 
472. 

Conjugation of Animalcules, iii 
323-325 (illust.). 

Connective tissue, i 25, 469. 

Conolophus subcristatus, ii 192. 

Conops flavipes, ii 119. 

Contour feathers, i 142, 143, 153. 

Contractile vacuole. See Pulsat- 
ing vacuole. 

Contractile vesicle, i 435. 

Conus, i 32T. 

“Convergence”, iii 193, 208, 213. 

Convoluta Roscoffensis, ii 271. 

Cony, Abyssinian, i 104 (illust.), iii 

-— Syrian, i 104. (250. 

— tree, ili25o (illust.). See also Conies. 

Cooke, li 199; ill 106; iv 215, 322. 

Coot, i 171; ii 240, 295; iii 61-62 
(illust.), 128, 456; iv 147. 

Copepoda, i 410, 420; ii 144, 254-255; 
ill 25-26, 363; iv 196-197, 283-284, 

Copilia vitrea, iv 452. (452. 

Coracias garrulus, ii 60-6r. 

Coracoid bone, i 30, 69, 145, 187: 

— process, i 29, 69 (illust. ). {ili 298. 

Coral (and see Corals)— 

—antler-, i 475 (illust.). 

— brain-, i 475 (illust.). 

— clove-, i 475 (illust.) 

— hedgehog-, i 475 (illust.). 

— madrepore, i 475 (illust.). 

— millepore, ii 160-161 (illust.). 

— mushroom, i 475 (illust.), 476. 

— organ-pipe, i 477-478, ii 341, 417. 

— red, i 23, 478 (illust.). 

— shrub-, i 475 (illust.). 

— sun-, i 475 (illust.). 

— tuft-, i 475 (illust.). 

Corals (and see Coral), i 465, 473, 
475, 476; ii 158-159, 272, 285, 308, 
328, 353; iv 102, 199, 440-441, 446, 
447-448, 459, 464. 

Coral-Fish, iv 437, 438 (illust.). 

Corallimorphus rigidus, iii 353 
(illust. ). 

Corallium rubrum, i 23 (illust.). 


179-181, 


521 


Coral polypes, i 23 (illust.). 

Cordiceps, iv 77. [(illust.). 

Corethra plumicornis, iv 37 

Cormorant, black, i 181; ii 48; iii 
63, 64, 471 (illust.). 

— green, i 181; ii 48; ili 63-64. 

Cormorants, i 152, 181; ii 48-49; 
iii 62-64. 

Corn-Crake, i 171; ii 240 (illust.)., 

Cornea, i 58. [368. 

Corn Thrips, i 355 (illust.); ii 216. 

Corn Wolf. See Moth, corn. 

Coronella levis, i 232. 

Corophiid@, iii 369. 

Corpus callosum, i 52, 68. 

Corpuscles, colourless, i 38, 42, 435 
49, 149, 469, 488; ii 269; ili 3; iv 79. 

— red, i 38, 147. 

— touch-, i 53-54. 

Cortex, cerebral, iv 22-23. 

Corvide, i 153-154; ii 187, 235-237. 

Corvus corax, i 153; iv 347. 

— cornix, i 154. 

— corone, i 153. 

— frugilegus, i 153; ii 235-236, iv 130- 

— monedula, i 153. (132. 

Corydaloides Scudderi, ii 463. 

Corythaix leucotis, iii 263. 

Corythopanes cristatus, i 223. 

Cosmia trapezina, ii 252. 

Cossus ligniperda, i 363; iv 352. 

Cotile riparia, i 161; iii 453. 

Cotingida, iv 431. 

Cottide. See Gurnards. 

Cottus gobio, i 274; iv 273. 

— scorpius, i 274. 

Coturnix communis, i 172; ii 239. 

Courtship and mating, iv 143- 

— amphibians, iv 152-154. (144. 

— arachnids, iv 166-168 (illust.). 

— birds, iv 146-151. 

— crustaceans, iv 168-169. 

— fishes, iv 154-159. 

— insects, iv 114, 118, 

— mammals, iv 144-146. 

— reptiles, iv 151-152. 

Courtship coloration, i 16; iv 402. 

— amphibians, iv 153. 

— arachnids, iv 168. 

— birds, iv 148. 

— crustaceans, iv 168-169 

— fishes, iv 154, 155, 156, 157, 158-159. 

— insects, iv 160-162. 

— mammals, iv 145-146. 

— reptiles, iv 152. 

Cowan, iv 257, 258. 


121, 159-166 


[(illust. ). 


Cowries, i 321 (illust.); iv 322-323 
Coyote, i 93. [ illust.). 
Coypu, iii 74. 

Crab (and see Crabs)— 

— Anderson’s blanket-, iv 180-181 
— bear-, i qrz (illust.). ((llust.). 


— buffoon, iii 172. 

—cocoa-nut. See Crab, robber. 

— countryman, ii 220. 

— demon-faced, iii 171, 172 (illust.). 

— devil, it 338. 

— dromia, i 411 (illust.). 

— edible, i 412; ii 140, 337-338, 403- 
404; ill 366-367 (illust.); iv 298 (illust.), 

— gulf-weed, ii 140. (299. 

— musical strand-, iv 37. 

— northern stone-, ii 338 (illust 

—robber or cocoa-nut, ii 
(illust.), 469-470; ili 170-171. 

—shore, i 412; ii 140; iv 197-199 
(illust. ). 


522 


Crab (Cont.) 

— spider, i qrt (illust.); ii 287-289. 

— sponge-, common, iv 181. 

— — Andaman, iv 181-182 (illust.). 

— squeaker, iv 37. 

— swimming or fiddler, iii 28 (illust.). 

Crabs, i 412; 11 138-141, 403-404; 443, 
469-470; ili 27-28, 170-172, 175, 277, 
332, 365-367, 368; iv T4-15, 35, 43; 
329. [1g0; mi 171. 

— swift land or swift-footed sand, ii 

Crake, spotted, i171. 

Crampe, iv 486. 

Crane, common, i 170 (illust.); ii 241. 

— crowned, ii 241 (illust.).— ((illust.). 

Cranes, i 152, 170; ll 240-242, 427 

Crane-Flies, i 358; ii 119 (illust.), 
215-216; iv 351 (illust.). 

Crangon vulgaris, i 412; ii 137: iv 
298, 299-300. 

Cranial flexure, i 203. 

— nerves, 1 52-53, 55; IV 19. 

Cranium. See Brain-case. 

Cranmer, iv 249. 

Crayfish, common or fresh-water, i 
412; li 137, 253 (illust.), 402-403; iii 
27, 277, 278, » 367-368 (illust.); iv 
13-14 (illust.), 30 (illust.), 31, 200, 
300. 

Creeper, common or tree-, i 157; i 
59-60 (illust.); 111 264, 463-464. 

Creodonta, iv 472. 

Crepidula, iii 413. 

Crex pratensis, i 171; ii 368, 240. 

Cricetus, ii 177. 

— frumentarius, i 129. 

Cricket, field-, i 383. 

— house-, i 383. 

— mole-, i 383 (illust.); ii 328, 359; ili 
222-223, 379-380, 381: iv 358. 

Crickets, i 381, 383; ii 315; 
380; iv 38, 162. 

Crinoidea, i 454. See also Feather- 
Stars and Sea-Lihes 

Cristatella, ii: 100 (illust.), 330-331 

Crocidura aranea, ii 34. i 

— Etrusca, i 85. 

Crocodile, estuarine, i 210, 212. 

— Indian, i 210. 

— Nile, i 210, 2rr (illust.); ii 70-71, 
333 (illust.); tii so-5r (illust.), 447; 
Tv’ 397; 39%. 

— West African, i 212. 

Crocodiles, i 203, 204-209, 210-212; 
i 70-71, 320, 424-425; lll 50-51, 124, 
447-448; iv 152, 336-337. 

— American, i 212. 

Crocodilia, i 203, 204-212 (illust.); 
and see Crocodiles and Alligators. 

Crocodilus cataphractus, i 212. 

— niloticus, i 210, 211; il 70-71, 333; 
iii 50-51, 447; iv 337, 391. 

— palustris, i 210. 

— porosus, i 210. 

Crop, i 146. 

Crossbill, i 156; ii 187-188 (illust.’. 

“Cross-Carrier ”, i 390. 

Cross-fertilization, of flowers, iv 
84, 85-89. 

Crossopus fodiens, i 84; ii 34. 

“Cross-Spider ”, i 390. 

Crotalus, iv 330. 

— durissimus, i 234; ii 80. 

Crow, carrion, i 153. 

— hooded, i 154 [307; iv 348. 

Crows, i 153-154; ii 187, 235-237; in 

Crowned Tyrant, ii 61 (illust.). 


iil 379" 


INDEX 


Crumen, iv 142. 

Crustacea, i 343, 402-422; ii 135-144, 
253-256, 278-279, 287-289, 292-293, 
337-338, 374, 400-406, 443-444, 469- 
470; ili 25-28, 169-172, 174-175, 225, 
277-278, 332, 362-369; iv 12-14, 35- 
37, 196-199, 216, 297-300, 439, 444- 
447, 452, 460, 465, 493- 

— bivalve, i 410, 419-420. 

— fork-footed, i 410, 420; ili 25-26, 
363; iv 196-197, 283-284, 452. 

— higher, i 410-416; ii 135-143, 220- 
222, 253-254, 400-405; iil 27-28, 365- 

— intermediate, i 410, 416. [369. 

— leaf-footed, i 410, 421-422; 11 405; ill 
26-27, 362-363. 

— lower, i 410, 416-422; ii 144-145, 
254-256, 405-406; ili 25-27, 362-365; 
iv 196-199. 

— sessile-eyed, i 410, 414-415; ii 141- 
142, 404-405; lil 174-175, 365. 

— stalk-eyed, i 410-414; i1 135-141; 
ili 365-368. See also Lobsters, 
Crabs, Opossum Shrimps, &c. 

—ten-legged. See Lobsters; Crabs; 
Crustacea, stalk-eyed, &c. 

Cryptobranchus lateralis, i 248; 
li 457; ili 48. 

Cryptoprocta ferox, 1 88; ii 12. 

Crypturi, i 152, 173. 

Cteniza, i 302. 

— ca#mentaria, iii 376-377. 

Ctenobranchia, 317, 318-321. 

Ctenophora, i 473, 483; il 155-156, 
279; lil 19-20. 

Ctenoplana, i 483; ili s. 

Cuckoo, common, i 162 (illust.); ii 
58; ili 449; iv 62, 328. 

— South African, i 162. 

Cuckoos, i 162; ii 309. [178. 

“Cuckoo spit”, i 353; ii 217; ill 


Cuculus canorus, i 162; ii 58; ili 449; 

— gularis, i 162 liv 62, 328. 

Cucumaria, i 462 (illust.). See also 
Sea-Cucumbers. 

Culex, i 356-357; iv 340. 

— annulatus, ill 403-404. 

— pipiens, i 356-357; ii 121, 442. 

Culicide, ii 121. 

Cumacea, i 410, 414 (illust.). 

Cunningham, iii 426, 431; iv 261, 

Curassows, iv 431. (281, 288. 


Curculionidae. See Weevils. 

Curlew, Stone-, i 169; iii 471. 

Curlews, i 169; ii 67, 68 (illust.). 

Cuscuta, iv 76. 

Cushat, i 167. 

Cusps, ii 6. 

Cuttle-bone, i 313-314; iv 322 (illust.). 

Cuttle-Fish, common, i 311-314 
(illust.); iii 418; iv 18-19 (illust.), 
3226 

Cuttle-Fishes, i 311-316; ii 94-06 
(illust.), 372-373, 392-393 (illust.); ili 
30733; 1V 20, 34-35, 45 (illust.), 444. 

Cuvier, i to. 

Cuvierina, iv 451. 

Cyamus ceti, i 415. 

Cyanecula suecica, i 160. 

Cyclas, ili 232 (illust.), 406, 407. 

— cornea, ii 249-250. 

Cyclophorus, ii 432. 

Cyclops, i 420 (illust.); ii 254-255; iii 
25-26, 363, 364. 

Cyclopterus lumpus, ii 202. 

Cyclostoma elegans, ii 200, 432; 
ii 106, 


Cyclostomata, i 257, 291-292; ii. g1- 
g2; and see Lampreys and Hags. 
Cyclothurus didactylus, iii 256, 
Cyclura carinata, iii 52. (257. 
Cydippe, i 483 (illust.); ii 155; ii 19- 

20 (illust.). 
Cygnus atratus, i 177. 
— Bewicki, i 177. 
— musicus, i 177. 
— nigricollis, i 177 
— olor, i177; iil 456, 457. 
Cynailurus jubatus, i 88; iii 157- 
158; iv 368-369. 
Cynips argentea, iv 82. 
Cynogale, ii 13. 
Cynognathus, iv 468. 
Cynomys Columbianus, iv 135. 
— Ludovicianus, i 126; ii 367; iv 135. 
— Mexicanus, iv 135. 
Cynopithecus niger, iii 159 (illust. ); 
Cypreea, i 321, 322. liv 426. 
— moneta, iv 322-323. 
Cypridina, iii 364. 
Cyprinid@, ii 195. 
Cyprinus carpio, i 282; ii 448. 
Cypris, i 419-420; iii 364. 
Cypselida, iii 462. 
Cypselus apus, i 163; iii 186, 462. 
Cyrena, iii 406. 
Cysticercus pisiformis, iv 362. 
Cystoidea, iv 459. 
Cystophora cristata, iv 312. 
Cytherea dione, ii 336. 
— spiny, ii 336. 
Cyttide. See John Dory. 


D 


Dab, iii 432; iv 269. 
— lemon, iii 432; iv 270. 


Dabb, i 222. 
Dabchick, i 185; ili 65-66 (illust.), 
Daddy-Long-Legs, i 358. [457 


Dace, i 283: iv 306. 

Dacelo gigantea, i 165. 

Dachshund, iv 221 (illust.). 

Dafila acuta, i 176. 

“Dam”, of Beaver, iv 136-139. 

Danaids, ii 311, 312. 

Danais chrysippus, ii 312. 

— echeria, ii 312. 

— niavius, ii 312. 

Dancing-Flies, iii 291. 

Dandelion, iv 80. 

Dannevig, Captain, iv 287, 298. 

Daphnia pulex, i 4109 (illust.), 422; 
ii 256, 405; ili 26 (illust.), 362-363 
(illust.). 

Darters, i 181; ii 49-50 (illust.): ili 64. 

Darwin, i 6, 11, 15; il 30, 192, 220, 
258, 2590, 342, 344, 365; iv 68, 88, 
143, 146, 149, 159, 161, 163, 210, 
217, 222, 235, 244, 248, 251, 441, 
478, 485, 487, 489, 492, 494. 

Darwinism, iv 478, 484-488. 

Dasychira pudibunda, i 364. 

Dasychone, iv 44-45. 

Dasypeltis, iv 421. 

Dasyprocta agouti, i 133. 

Dasypus minutus, ii 367. 

— sexcinctus, i 136. 

— villosus, ii 234. 

Dasyures, ii 322. 

Date-Shells, iii 411 (illust.). 

Daudebardia rufa, ii 200 


Daulias luscinia, i 160. 

Day, iii 116. 

Day-Flies. See May-Flies. 
Dead-man’s Fingers, i 477 (illust.). 
Dean, iii 41. 

Death-Adders, ii 80; iv 339. 
Death-feigning habit, ii 342-345. 


— arachnids and insects, ii 345, 373- 


— birds, ii 343-344. (374. 
_ mammals, i ii 343. 

— reptiles, ii 344-345. [224; iv 355. 
“Death-watches”, i 379; iii 223- 


Decapoda (Cephalopoda), i 314-315; 
11 30-31. 

— (Crustacea), i 410-412; ii 135-141, 
337-338, 400-404, 469-470; ili 27-28, 
1697172, 175, 365-368; iv 13-14. 

Deer, i 109, 110-112; ii 321, 367; ili 
152; lv 142, 144-145, 346. 

— Chinese water, i rz. 

— fallow, i111; iii r5x (illust.). 

—mouse-. See Chevrotains. 

— mule, iv 430. [142, 402. 

— musk-, i r10-111; ili 1g1 (illust.); iv 

— red, i zzz; iv 144-145, 373-374. 

— roe, i 112. 

— spotted, ii 351-352. 

— Virginian, iv 430. 

Defences of animals, i 17; ii 275- 
375. é es 

— precautionary measures, ii 276, 277- 
331. 

— resistance, ii 276-277, 332-362. 

— retreat, ii 277, 363-375. 

Degeneration, biological, i 298, 431, 
432; ili 420-421; iv 197, 197-199, 203. 

Degu, i 132 (illust.). 

Delphinapterus leucas, iii 83; iv 

Delphinida, ii 26-29. [316-317. 

Delphinus delphis, ii 27-28. 

Dendrelaphis, iii 270. 

Dendrocolaptide, iii 463. 

Dendrocopus major, i 162; ii 58. 

— minor, i 162. 

Dendrohyrax arborea. See Pro- 
cavia. 

Dendrolagus, ii 182. 

Dendronotus arborescens, ii 296. 

Dendrophis, iii 270. 

Dendryphantes capitatus, iv 167. 

Dental formule, of mammals, i 36, 
67, 72, 78-793 ii 6, 7. 

Dentalium, i 338; lil 221-222, 412. 

— indianorum, iv 323. 

— vulgare, i 336-330: 

Dentine, i 35, 102. 

Derbyshire-neck, i 43. 

Dermanyssus galling, iv 360. 

Dermaptera, iii 282. 

Dermatochelys. See Sphargis. 

Dermatocoptes, iv 196. 

Dermatophagus, iv 196. 

Dermatoptic vision, iv 39-40. 

Dermestes lardarius, ii 109, t10; 


Dermestide, ii 110. liv 355. 
Dermis, i 25. See also Skin. 
Descartes, i 203. 

Desman, Russian, ii 35; ili 71-72 
— Spanish, ili 72. {(illust.). 


Desmans, i 83; ii 35; ili 71-72, 246. 
Desmodus rufus, ii 39. _([(illust.). 
Desmognathus fuscus, iii 435 
Desoria glacialis, i 384; ii ar4. 
Development, i 11, 14, 18. See also 

Life Histories and Metamorphosis. 
— direct, iii 355. 


INDEX 


Development (Cowz.) 

— indirect, iii 355. 

— influence of food-yolk on, iii 345-348. 

-— acorn-headed worm, iii 420-421. 

— amphibians, i 62-63, 240-242, 249, 
254, 256; ii 457-458; iii 434-443. 

— animalcules, i 491, 493-494, 498; iii 
317-325, 333-335; 1V 206-207. 

— annelids, iii 318, 329-330, 358-361. 

— arachnids, i 387; ili 373-377. 

— ascidians, ili 332, 421-422; iv 105- 

— birds, i 151-152; ili 448-453. [106. 

— crustaceans, 1 409; ili 362-369; iv 
197-199. 

— echinoderms, iii 328, 354-357. 

— fishes, i 60, 264, 279; ili 422-434. 

— flat-worms, iii 329; iv 201-205. 

— insects, ili 377-404. 

— king-crabs, iii 369. 

— lancelet, iii 342, 344-345: 

_ mammals) 4 lil 474-494. 
— molluscs, iii 4o4-419. 

— moss-polypes, ili 330-331; iv 104. 

— myriapods, ili 370-373. 

— nemertines, iii 419. 

— peripatus, ili 370. 

— reptiles, i 203, 209, 216; iii 443-448. 

— sponges, i 485; ili 325-326, 341-342, 

— thread-worms, iv 205-206. (343. 

— zoophytes, i 471-472, 476, 478-479, 
480, 481, 482; il 327-328, 339-341, 
349-353; iV 103-104. 

Devil’s coach-horse, i 368 (illust.); 

Devis, iv 407. [ii 108. 

Dianthecia albimacula, iv 86. 

Diapheromera femorata, iii 379. 

Diaphora mendica, ii 313. 

Diaphragm, See Midriff. 

Diatoms, ii 248; iv 72. 

Dibranchiata. See Cuttle-Fishes. 

Dickens, i 383; iv 408. 

Dicotyles, iv 141-142. 

— labiatus, iii 489; iv 334-336. 

— torquatus, i 109; ii 233, 234; ili 149, 

Dicynodon, iv 468. (489. 

Didelphyidz. See Opossums. 

Didelphys azare, iii 480. 

— marsupialis, ili 255. 

— murina, ili 479. 

— Virginiana, 1 138; iii 260. 

Didus ineptus, ii 369-370. 

Difflugia, i 489 (illust.); ii 341; ili 6 

Digby, Sir Kenelm, iv 320.  [(illust.). 

Digestion, i 37-38; ii 1-3. 

Digestive ceca, i 348. 
Czecum. 

— cavity, i 34. 

— glands, i 34, 36-37. 

Digestive organs, i 34-38. 

— amphibians, i 240, 253; ii 194. 

— annelids, i 427; ii 259. 

— birds, i 146; ii 184. 

— crustaceans, i 407; ii 136-137. 

— echinoderms, i 452-453) 458; ii 413. 

— fishes, i 261, 271-272; ii 450. 
— insects, i 346-348. 

— mammals, i 67. 

— — carnivorous, ii 7. 

— — herbivorous, ii 165, 167, 168-169, 
I7I, 172, 176. [233-234 

— — omnivorous, i 34-38; ii 225, 226, 

— molluscs, i 308, 332-333. 

— nemertines, ii 391. 

—- reptiles, 1 199-200, 207, 215, 230. 

— siphon worms, ii 260. 

— thread-worms, i 448. 

— zoophytes, i 471, 473-474. 


See also 


523 


Digestive-tube and Breathing, 
ii 382-383. 

Digitigrade feet structure:— 

-— birds, ili 126. 

— mammals, 86, 87; ii 5-6 (illust.); iii 
134, 154-155, 157- 

Digits, i 24, 31-32. 

— amphibians, i 238, 248, 250, 252; ili 
48, 49, 121, 272, 288. 

— birds, i 141, 146, 149, 152, 161, 162, 
163, 164, 165, 166, 168, 170, 171, 173, 
176, 179, 180, 185, 188; iii 58, 59, 61- 
62, 65, 66, 126, 127, 128, 130, 153, 261, 
263, 264-265, 266, 295, 299, 473. 

— fishes, iii 119. 

— mammals:— 

— —— flesh-eating, i 86, 90, 91, 92; ili 
76, 78-79, 80, 84, 154, 155, 156, 157, 
247. 


gnawing, i123, 125, 128, 133; ili 
745 751 194, 195, 196, 197, 203, 205, 
252, 253. 

hoofed, i 104-105, 106, 107, 108, 
110, I13-114, 120; lii 130, 137-138, 
139, 142-144, 147, 148, 149, 150, 152, 
153. 


insect-eating, i 83, 86; iii 197- 

198, 202. (258-260. 

pouched, iii 190, 191-192, 206, 

— — bats, 181, 82; iii 244-245, 292, 293- 

— — conies, i 104; ili 249. [294. 

—- — edentates, i 136; ili 254, 256. 

— — elephants, i 102. 

— — lemurs, i 80; ili 241, 242, 243, 244. 

—-— man and monkeys, i 24, 31-32, 
73, 73) 775 78; iii 158, 233-234, 237, 
238, 240. 

— reptiles, i 196-198, 205, 209, 213, 275, 
218, 223, 225, 237; ill 54, 55, 122, 209, 
268-269, 270, 286. 

Dingo, i 94; ii 343; iv 222. 

Dinophilus, i 431. 

Dinornis maximus, iv 476. 

Dinornithide, iv 428. 

Dinosauria, iii 124; iv 469-470. 

Dinosaurs, armoured, iv 469, 470 

— beast-footed, iv 469. ((illust.). 

— bird-footed, iv 469-470 (illust.). 

— horned, iv 470. 

— reptile-footed, iv 469. 

Diodon, i 278; ii 334; iv 340. 

Diomedea exulans, i 183. 

Dionza muscipula, iv 69-70. 

Diphyes, ii 161. 

Diploblastica, i 467, 490, 491. 

Diplonychus, iii 382. 

Diplopoda, i 396. See also Milli- 
pedes. ((ilhust. ). 

Diplozo6én paradoxum, iv 201-202 

Dipnoi, i 257, 264-266. See also 
Lung-Fishes. 

Dipodide, iii 192, 194-197. 

Dipodomys Phillipsi, iii 193-194. 

Diprotodon, iv 474. 

Dipsacus laciniatus, iv 92. 

Diptera, i 351, 355-358; ii 119, 120- 
122, 215-216, 251, 314, 441-442, 462, 
467-468 ; ili 178, 289-200, 293, 311, 
313, 402-404; iv 127, 190-192, 349, 

Dipus jaculus, ii 319, 322. (35. 

— Mauritanicus, iii 196. 

“Discontinuous distribution ”, 
iv 410-412, 429, 430. See also Dis- 
tribution in space. 

Discophora. See Leeches. 

Distomum macrostomum, iv 202- 
203 (illust.). 


524 


Distribution in space, i 14-15; 
iv 409-455, 483. 

— acorn-headed worms, iv 438. 

— amphibians, i 245, 247, 248, 249, 
254, 255; Wi 213, 214, 272, 288; iv 
417, 419, 421, 426, 428, 432. 

— animalcules, iv 453-454. (452. 

— annelids, i 431-432; 11 445; iv 321, 

— arachnids, i 387, 389, 392; ii 131. 

— ascidians, iv 438, 451. 

— birds:— 

anserine, i 177-178; iv 309. 

game-, 1172; 11239; lll 450-452; 

iv 417, 419, 425, 431. 

perching, i 153, 155-156, 157, 

158, 159, 160, 161, 168; iv 417, 421, 

423, 425, 427, 431- 

picarian, i 161, 162, 163, 164; 

iv 425, 428, 431. 432 

running, i188, 189; iv 42t, 428, 

— — bustards and cranes, i 170. 

— — divers and grebes, i 184; iv 417. 

—— eagles and vultures, i 174, 175, 
176; iV 421, 43 

— — gulls, i 168; iv 437. 

— — herons and storks, 1 179, 180. 

— — owls, 1 165-166 

— — parrots, i 166; iv 427-428, 431. 

pelicans and cormorants, 1 181; 

53; li 62; iv 448. 

— — penguins, i 186; iv 437 


32. 


—— petrels and albatrosses, i 182 
iv 448. 

— — pigeons and sandgrouse, 1 139, 
167-168; iv 250, 423, 428. 

— — plovers, i 168; iv 423 

— — rails, i 171. 

— — tinamous, i 173; iv 432. 

— crustaceans, 1 410, 413, 416, 417, 
421; 1V 297, 444-447, 452 

— echinoderms, i 454, 456, 459, 461, 
464; 1V 440, 447, 452. 

— fishes:— 

= bony, i 260, 273, 274, 275, 276, 
277, 278, 270, 280, 282, 283; iv 263, 
264, 265, 266, 267, 268 , 270, 271, 


272) 273) 274, 275, 275, 417, 426 433, 
437-438, 443-444) 448. : 
ganoid, i 266, 268, 269; Iv 277- 
278, 417, 421. 


_- lung, i 264; 11 454-455; lv 417, 
421, 428, 433. 

— — chimeras, i 290, 291. 

—— round-mouths, i 291, 292. 

— — sharks and dog-fishes, i 284, 285, 


286, 287: iv 448. 

—— skates and rays, i 288, 290; ii 
357; IV 433. 

— flat-worms, i 445; 1 446; iv 342-343, 
361, 440. 

— insects, i 353, 361, 362, 367, 368, 
369, 378, 379, 382, 383; il 117, 118, 
204, 311, 312; iv 252, 417-418, 422, 
423, 426, 433-434, 452. 

— king-crabs, i 422-423. 

— lamp-shells, i 438. 

— lancelets, 1 293-204; iv 438. 

— mammals:— 

— —— egg-laying, i 70; li 44: iv 427. 

flesh-eating, 1 87-88, 89, go, or, 

93, 94, 95, 97-98, 99, 276; ill 247; iv 

303, 304, 311, 312, 313, 415, 418, 420, 

422, 424, 429, 436, 448. 

gnawing, i 124-125, 126, 127, 

128, 120, 130, 131, 132-133, 134; ill 74, 

192, 106, 203, 282, 283, 284; iv 135- 


136, 308, 416, 418, 420, 422, 425, 430. 


INDEX 


Distribution in space (Cowz.) 

— mammals (cov. ) 

hoofed, i 105, 106, 107, 108-109, 

LIO, ILI, 12, 114, 115, 116, 117, 118, 

; lil 248; iv 225, 226, 230- 

232, 233, 415-416, 418, 420, 422, 424, 

426-427, 429-430. ; 

insect-eating, i 83, 84, 85, 86; 11 

34, 355 iv 415, 418, 420, 422, 424, 429. 

pouched, i 69, 138; ill 260; iv 
411, 418, 427, 430. 

—— apes and monkeys, 1 72, 74, 75- 
76; IV 419-420, 424, 426, 429. 

— — bats, i 82, 83; ili 294-295; iv 424, 

7s 429. f _ 15, 415, 448. 

— — cetaceans, 1 ror; i1 28, 29; iv 314, 

— — conies, i 103. 

— — edentates, 1 136; iv 421, 425, 430. 

— — elephants, i 103; iv 424-425. 

— — lemurs, i 79; iii 240-241, 244; 
lv 420, 422, 427- . [316, 436. 

— — sea-cows, i 102; il 173; iv 313, 

— molluscs, i 314, 315, 316, 328, 334, 
337; iv 288, 295, 296, 419, 421, 433; 
438-439, 444, 451-452. 

— moss-polypes, i 436; iii 100; iv 439. 

— myriapods, i 397. (452-453. 

—nemertines, i 305; ii 444; iv 439, 

— peripatus, i 398. 

— reptiles, i 209, 210, 2 


122; li 23. 


223 ane 
236; ill 51, 52, 
, 211; iv 410, 417, 419, 421, 


54) 
425, 428, 432, 437, 448. 

— sea-‘‘spiders”’, iv 447. 

— siphon-worms, iv 439-440. 


— sponges, i 486, 487; iv 324, 447-448. 

— thread-worms, iv 453. 

— zoophytes, 1 473, 475, 476, 481, 483; 
IV 440-441, 453-454. (456-476. 

Distribution in time, i 15, 19; iv 

— amphibians, iv 463, 467. 

— animalcules, i 496; iv 458, 464. 

— arachnids, iv 462. 

— arthropods, extinct, iv 460-462. 

— birds, iv 471, 475-476. 

— crustaceans, iv 460, 465. 

— echinoderms, iv 459, 464. 

— fishes, iv 463, 466-467. 

— insects, iv 462, 465. 

— king-crabs, iv 462 

— lJamp-shells, i 438; iv 459-460, 464. 

— mammals, i t11-112, 127; iv 471, 
472-475 

— molluscs, iv 462-463, 465-466. 

— myriapods, iv 462. 

— reptiles, iv 463-464, 467-471. 

— sponges, iv 464. 

— zoophytes, iv 458-459, 464. 

Diver, black-throated, i 185; ii 54 
(illust.); iii 60 (illust.), 67. 

— great northern, i r84. 

— red-throated, 1185; ili 66. 

Divers, i 152, 183-185; ii 53: ii 64-66. 

Division of physiological labour, 
1 469, 481; 1164, 161, 417; iii Q-r10, To, 
317) 333-334, 339) 342; IV 5, 22, 39, 
100-101, 102-105 (illust.), 107, 110, 
III, 112, 114-127, 128-129, 130, 135, 
138, 177. 

Dixon, ii 57; iii 453, 455, 457, 465: 
iv 131. 

Dochmius duodenalis, iv 343. 

Dodo, ii 369-370 (illust.). 

Dog-Fish, piked, i 286; ii 335. 

— spotted, i 257-264, 284, 285 (illust.), 
286; ii 385-387; ili 424. 


Dog-Fishes, i 12-13, 257-264, 284, 
286; 111 40-41; iv 32, 39, 128-129. 

— spiny, 1 286. 

Dog-Louse, biting, iv 356. 

Dogs, &c., i 86, 92-94, 380; ii 15-16 
(illust.); ili 132-137 (illust.), 154-155, 
491-492; iv 220-222 (illust.), 367-368, 

Dog-Tick, iv 195. (383-384. 

Dog-Whelk, iii 412. 

Dolichosoma, iv 463. 

Doliolum, iii 39. 

Dolomedes fimbriatus, ii 131. 

Dolphin, common, ii 27-28 (illust.). 

— gangetic, ii 28 (illust.), 71. 

Dolphins, ii 26-29; iii 85. 

Domestication, iv 217-220. 

— birds, iv 246-251 (illust.). 

— insects, iv 251-260 (illust.). 

— mammals, iv 220-245 (illust.). 

Dorcatherium aquaticum, i 109; 

ili 150. 

Dories, i 273-274; and see John- 
Dory. 

Dorippe facchino, iti 172. 

Doris, i 326; ii 397; iii 412. 

Dormouse, common, i 131 (illust.); 
ll 176, 367; ill 251-252 (illust.). 

— fat, iv 244-245 (illust.). 

Doto coronata, ii 296. 

Dotterel, i 169; iii 465 (illust.). 

Double-Eyes, iv 47-48. 

Double-tube arrangement, of 
vertebrates, i 24, 61, 303. 

Dove, ring-, i 167. 

—rock-, i 167; and see Pigeon, blue- 
rock. 

— stock-, i 167; ii 185. 

— turtle-, 1167; ii 185. 

Doves, i 167; iv 133. 

Down-feathers, i 143. 

Draco volans, i 222; iii 287. 

Dragonet, gemmeous, ii 306; iv 158 

— sordid, iv 158. (illust. ). 

— spangled, iv 158-159. 

Dragon-Fly, demoiselle, i 376. 

— great, i 376. 

Dragon-Flies, i 374, 376; ii 114-115, 
464-465; iil 311, 312, 313 (illust.), 
383-385 (illust.); iv 43. 

Dragons, flying, i 222; ii 327. 

Drake, gray, i 376 (illust.). 

— green, i 376. 

“Drills”, iv 348. 

Dromzus Nove-Hollandiz, i 188; 
li 243; ili 130, 440, 450. 

Dromia, i 411 (illust.). 

Drone-Fly, ii 119, 216, 314, 441-452 
(illust.); ili grr. 

Drones, iv 252-253 (illust.), 254, 256. 

Droserace®, iv 68-60. 

“Drum ”, of ear, i157; ii 386-387. 

Dryandra, iv 89. 

Dryiophide, ii 79. 

Dryophis, iii 27r. 

Duck, ferruginous, i 176. 

— golden-eye, i 176. 

— long-tailed, i 176. 

— musk or “‘muscovy”, iv 248, rst. 

— steamer, iil 60. 

— tufted, i 176. [248. 

— wild, i 176; ili 58, 467 (illust.): iv 

Ducks (and see Duck), i 152, 176-177; 
ii 65 (illust.), 237-238; iti 58, 59-61; 
iv 26, 147-148, 247-248. 

— eider-, 176; iv 308-300. 

— — common, iii 59, 60 (illust.); iv 60 
(illust.), 309 (illust.). 


Ducks (Coxt.) 

— eider- (cond) 

— — Scandinavian, iv 309. 

— shoveller, i 176. 

Duck-Bill, See Duck-Mole. 

Duck-Mole, or Duck-billed Platy- 
Pus, i 69, 70 (illust.), 1433 li 44, 322; 
iii 69-70, 475, 477-478; iv 211, 212, 

Duckweeds, iv 95. [481-482. 

Duct:— 

— bile-, i 37. 

— thoracic, i 42. 

Ductless glands, i 43. 

Dugong, i 102; ii 173-174 (illust.); iii 
81-82, 490; iv 313-314. 

Dumble-Dor, i 368. 

Dunilin, i 169. 

Duyker-Boks, ii 365-366. 

Dwellings of Animals (see also 
Nests), i 18; iii 349. 

— annelids, ii 257-258; ili 358. 

— arachnids, iii 373, 374-377. 

— crustaceans, iii 368-369. 

— echinoderms, iii 355, 356, 357- 

— insects, ii 116; ili 380-381, 390-391, 
392, 393, 400; iv 1og-110, 111-112, 
TI5-117, 120, 122, 124, 125-126. 

— mammals, ii 477-478, 480, 482, 483- 
485, 491-492, 494; iv 135, 136-140. 
— molluscs, ili 407-411, 414-417, 418. 

— nemertines, iii 419. 

— reptiles, ili 444, 447, 448. 

— wheel-animalcules, iv 75. 

Dynastes hercules, i 368. 

Dytiscus marginalis, i 367, 368; ii 
108-109, 439; ili 29; iv 16. 


E 


Eagle, fishing-. See Osprey. 

— golden, i174; iv 61, 369, 370 (illust.). 

— white-tailed, i 174. 

Eagles, i 152, 173-175: iv 347. 

Ear, i 56, 59; and see Hearing, organs 
of. 

Ear-capsule, ii 386-387. 

Ear-flap, i 57, 81, 98; iii 74; iv 57. 

“Earlet’’, i 82. 

Earth-Wolf, i 87, 91-92 (illust.); ii z5. 

Earthworms, i 431, 467-468; ii 258- 
259, 328, 444-445; ill 3, 227-230 
(ilust.), 360-361; iv 8-9, 29, 34, 40, 
98, 329-330. 

Earwig, i 380-381 (illust.); ii 250, 359; 
iil 167, 377-378 (illust.); iv 44, 358. 

“‘Eating-cells”, ii 269. 

Echidna, i 70; ii 43, 44; ili 475; iv 

— aculeata, ili 475-477- (211-212. 

Echinococcus veterinorum, iv 
342-343 (illust. ). 


Echinodermata. See Hedgehog- 
skinned Animals. 

Echinoidea, i 454. See also Sea- 
Urchins. 


Echinomyia grossa, ii r19. 


Echinopora gemmacea, i 475 
(illust. ). 

Echinorhynchidz. See Thorn- 
headed Worms. 

Echinorhynchus, i 449. 

— gigas, i 449. {iii 92-93. 

Echinus esculentus, i 456; ii 412; 


Echimroidea (and Echiurus), i 433: 
ii 149-150, 410. 

Eciton drepanophora, ii 105-106. 

— hamata, li 104-106; iv 120. 


INDEX 


Economic Zoology, i 15; iv 208-330, 
394-400. 

Ectoderm, i i 467, 468, 470-471, 474, 
484; ili 339, 342, 344, 345, 359; iv 6, 
7, 8, 20, 24, 25 3°, 31, 33) 34, 35) 41, 

Ectoparasite, i iv 76. (46, 47. 

Ectosare, i 492, 493. 

Edentata, i 68, 136; li 41-42, 178- 
180, 234, 322, 327, 341-342; ili 253- 
257, 482; iv 421, 425, 430, 473-474. 

Edriophthalmata, i ii r41- 143. 

Eel, common, i 283 (illust.); ii 447-448; 
iii 214, 433-434; iv 128, 274. 

—conger, i 283; ili 434; iv 32, 274 
(illust. ). 

— electric, ii 86, 87 (illust.). 

— Mediterranean murzna, i 283-284. 

Eels, i 283-284; ili 43, 272; iv 274, 285. 

Eel-pout, i 279. 

Eel-Worm, beet, iv 363 (illust.). 

— root-knot, iv 363. 

— stem-, iv 363. 

Eel-Worms, iv 78; iv 362-363. 

Efferent branchial vessels or 
efferent gill arteries, i 242, 262. 

Efferent nerve-fibres, i 51, 52; ivo. 

Effodientia, ii 44. 

Efts, i246. See also Newts. 

Egg-bags, iii 363, 373, 374. 

Egg-capsules, iii 378 (illust.), 412 
(illust. ), 413, 418 (illust.), 424, (illust.), 
425 (illust. ). 

Egg-cells, iii 335-337, 338, 340, 344, 
345-3475 352, 353, 414, 478; iv 84, 85. 

Eggers. See Moths, lappet-. 

Egg-glue, iii 365, 368. 

Eggs and Egg-producing or- 
gans:— 

— amphibians, iii 434, 435 (illust.), 436, 
437 (illust. ), 438, 439 (illust. ), 440, 441, 

— annelids, iii 358, 360-361. [442. 

— arachnids, iii 373; iv 196. 

— ascidians, iii 421, 422. 

— birds, i rsr (illust.), 162, 163, 188, 
190; li 285-286 (illust.); ili 346, 347 
(illust.), 448, 449, 450, 451-452, 453 
(illust.), 454, 455-458 (illust.), 46r, 
462, 464, 465, 466, 471; iv 60 (illust.), 
186, 187-188, 214, 246, 250. 

— crustaceans, iii 362-363, 364, 365, 
369; iv 298. 

— fishes, i 264, 284; iii 346, 424, 425 
(illust.), 426-427, 429-430, 432; iv 
128, 263, 266, 268, 270, 272, 273, 275, 
286-287, 450-451. 

— flat-worms, iv 185, 201, 202, 204. 

— flukes, i 444. 

— insects, 1 350, 356-357, 358, 361, 372, 
373, 376, 377, 378; ii 464, 466, 467; 
iii 378-379, 380, 381, 382, 383 (illust.), 
387, 389, 397, 392, 396, 398, 399, 400, 
402, 403 (illust.); iv 72, 110, 111, 115, 
118, 119, 126, 191 (illust.), 192, 193, 
194, 253; 254, 351, 354- 

— king-crab, ili 369. 

— lancelet, i 294. 

— mammals, i 69; iii 475, 477, 478. 

— molluscs, i 314; ili 404, 405-406, 411, 
412-413 (illust.), 414, 417-418 (illust. . 

— myriapods, iii 371-373. 

— nemertines, ili 419. 

— peripatus, ili 370. 

— reptiles, 1276; ill 444, 445, 446, 447, 
448; lv 274. 

—- tape-worms, i 442-443. 

— thread-worms, iv 206. 

— zoophytes, i 472, 479. 


525 


Egg-sacs, of Cyclops, i 420. 

“Egg-tooth”, of embryo reptiles, iii 
445, 446 (illust.), 447. 

Eider ducks, i 176. [iv 339. 

Elaps corallinus, i 234; ii 79, 303: 

Elasipoda, iii 96-97; iv 447. 

Elasmobranchii, i 257, 
See also Sharks and Rays. 

Elateridz. See Beetles, click-. 

Elbow-joint, i 30. 

Electric organs, of fishes, ii 86, 91. 

Eledone moschata, i 315; ii 94; iii 
418. 

Elephant, African, i 103 (illust.); ii 
172; iv 242-243. 
— Indian, i 103; ii 172 
(illust.), 366, 367. 
Elephants, i 68, 102-103; ii 171-172, 
321, 349-350; ili 153, 490; iv 212, 

we 241—243, 334, 373) 394; 395, 424, 472. 
Elephant ’-shrew, i 1 83, 84 (illust.); 
ii 37-38; ili 197-198, 246. 

Elephas Africanus, i 103; ii 172; iv 
242-243. 

— Indicus, i 103; ii 172; iv 241-242, 
243, 366-367. ‘ 

— primigenius, iv 394, 475. 

ELK. i 112; iii 152. 

— Inish, iv 474 (illust.). 

Elliot, H. W., iv 305. 

Elysia viridis, ii 292. 

Elytra (sing. Elytron), 

— annelids, i 429; ii 408. 

— insects. See Wing-covers. 

Emarginula, ii 394. 

Emberiza cirlus, i 156. 

— citrinella, i 156. 

— miliaria, i 156. 

— sheeniclus, i 156. 

Embryo (and see also Development, 
Life Histories, &c.):— [(illust.). 

—amphibians, iii 439 (illust.), 443 

— fishes, iii 425 (illust.), 426 (illust.). 

— lancelet, iii 344-345 (illust.). 

-- mammals, iii 477 (illust.). 

— reptiles, iii 445, 446 (illust.). 

— tape-worms, iv 205. 

— vertebrates, i 62; ii 381-382 (illust.), 

— zoophytes, tii 340-341. [420-421. 

Embryologist, standpoint of, i 13-14. 

Embryology. See Development. 

Emeus, i 187, 188-189; ii 354; iii 128, 
130, 449, 450. 

Empide, iii 291. 

Empusa musce, iv 76, 77. 

Emys orbicularis, i 218; iii 54, 

Endoderm, i 467, 468, 470-471, 474, 
484, 490; ii 272; ili 339, 342, 344-343: 

Endoparasite, iv 76. [iv 6. 

Endosare, i 492, 493. 

Endoskeleton :— 

— amphibians, 239, 251-253. 

-~ birds, i 143-146, 186-187. 

— fishes, i 259-261, 271. 

— mammals, i 25-32, 66-67. [301. 

— primitive vertebrates, 1295, 298, 290, 

— reptiles, 1 193-199, 205-207, 214-215, 
229-230. 

Energy :— 

-— actual or kinetic, i 44. 

— potential, i 44. 

Engraulis encrasicholus, iv 265. 

Enoicyla pusilla, iii 386. 

Entellus Monkey, i 72-73 (illust.). 

Entomostraca, i 410; ii 254-256. 
See also Crustacea, lower. 

Eolis, i 326 (illust.); ii 306, 357. 


284-290. 


+ Iv 241-242, 243, 


(446. 


122 


22h 


526 


Eophrynus, iv 462 (illust.). 

Eozoic epoch, iv 457-458. 

Epeira diadema, i 390-392; ii 
129; li 276; iv 44. 

Ephelota gemmipara, iii = ° 


127- 


Ephemera danica, i376. —[(illust 

— vulgata, 1 376; li 465. 
Ephemeride, i 376-377; ii 115-116, 
Ephippium, iii 363. [465-466. 


Ephyre, i 482; iii 352 (illust.). 
Epicrium glutinosum, i 256. 
Epidermis (see also Skin), i 25, 63- 
64; Iv 25. 
Epigenesis, doctrine of, iii 336. 
Epiglottis, i 46; ii 429. 
Epinephelus hexagonatus, iv 437, 
Epipodium, i 324. (438. 
Epipods, ii gor, 403-404. 
Epipubic bones, i 69; iii 478. 
Epistylis, iv 99-100 (illust. ). 
Epithelium, i 468, 469-470 (illust.) ; 
Equus, i 106. fit 344. 
— Africanus or taniopus, i 107; iv 
— asinus, iv 238-239. (239. 
— Burchelli, i 107; iv 235. 
— caballus, i 107; ii 165-167; ili 132, 
134, 140-147; iv 233-238, 366. 
— onager, i 107. 
— Przewalski, iv 234. 
— tarpan, i 107. 
Erethizon dorsatus, i 132; iii 253. 
Eretmophorus, iv 28-29 (illust.). 
Erinaceus Europeus, ii 32-33, 342: 
il 484. 
Eriocampa limacina, iv 356. 
Eriodes arachnoides, i 77. 
Eristalis tenax, ii 119, 216, 
441, 442. 
Erithacus rubecula, i 160. 
Ermine, 1 98; ii 22 (illust.), 290; iv 
Errantia, i 429. [30 
Erycina, iii 108 (illust.). 
Erythrinus, ii 452. 
Eschricht, ii 27. 3 
Esox lucius, i 282; ii 84; iv 348, 
Esquimaux, iv 210, 213, 227- . 
233- (423. 
Ethiopian region, iv 413, 414, 4197 
Eucyrtidium, i 489 (illust.); i 6 
(illust.). (465. 
Eudromias morinellus, i 169; iii 
Eudyptes, iii 186. 
Eudyptula minor, i 136. 
Euglena viridis, i 489 (illust.), 404; 
ii 267, 272; ii 6, 88-89; iv go (illust.). 
Euglossa, ii 206. 
Eumeces Schneideri, ii 77. 
Eumenes arbustorum, ili 39 
Eumenid®, iii 392-303. ((illust. ). 
Euneces murinus, i 232; ii 79; ili 
53; Iv 338-339. 
Euphorbia, iv 80. 
Euplectella, i 486; iv 446. 
Euplotes, iii 88 (illust.). 
Eurypterida, iv 461-462 (illust.). 
Euscorpius Europeus, i 387. 
Euspongia officinalis, i 486, 487; ili 
— zimocea, iv 324. [326; iv 324. 
Eustachian tube, i 57, 203. 
Eustrongylus gigas, iv 362. 
Eutheria, i 68; and see Mammals. 
Euthyneura, i 317, 324-328. 
Evans, A. H., ii 241, 266; iii 466. 
Everitt, Nicholas, iv 376. 
Evolution:— 


— of wsthet 


314; 


lv 403-407. 
— of air-sacs, il 439. 


INDEX 


Evolution (Covz.) 

— of birds, iii 185. [20-23 (illust.). 
— of brain and nervous system, iv 6, 
— of crustaceans, iii 364-365. 

— of ear, iv 38-39. 

— of gill-clefts, 111 381-382. 

— of gill-pouches, iti 382. 


— of human civilization, iv 208. 
— of insects, ili 274. (452-453. 
— of lungs, i 47, 264, 269; ii 421-422, 


— of mammals, iii 143, 154, 158, 200, 
474-475) 481; WV 471, 472-473. 

— of metazoa, ili 333-334. 

— of parachutes, ili 281, 284, 286. 
—of sight organs, iv 40-41, 46-47 
— of teeth, i 12-13. ((illust. ). 
— of wings of insects, ili 314-315. 
Evolution theory, i 12-17; iv 477-494. 
— argument from classification, iv 478- 
development, iv 482. [480. 
— — form and structure, iv 480-482. 
geographical distribution, iv 


483. 


_ geological record, iv 483. 

— heredity, iv 492-494. 

— natural selection, iv 484-489. 

— supplementary factors, iv 489-491. 

— variation, 1v 491-492. (eqs. 

Ewart, Cossar, iii 142; 

Excretory organs:— 

— amphibians, i 238, 251. 

— animalcules, i 491, 492, 493. 

— annelids, i 425, 428. 

— ascidians, iv 106. 

— birds, i r4o. 

— crustaceans, i 408, 416, 422. 

— echinoderms, 1 453, 456, 458, 459, 
460, 463. 

— fishes, i 258, 261, 272, 284. 

— flat-worms, i 442. 

-- insects, i 349. 

— lamp-shells, 1 440 

— mammals, 1 43-45, 47-48. 

— molluscs, i 308, 310, 331, 333. 

— moss-polypes, 1 438. 

— nemertines, i 305. 

— peripatus, i gor. 

— reptiles, 1 199-200, 208, 215, 227. 

— siphon-worms, 1 433, 434- 

— thread-worms, i 448. 

— wheel-animalcules, i 435 

Excretory pores of Sea-Flowers 
(Anthozoa), i 474. [i 331. 

Exhalent aperture, of molluscs, 

Exoccetus, i 275-276; iii 288. 

— volitans, i 276. 

Exoskeleton, i 25; and see Shell, 
Carapace, Scales, &c. 

— amphibians, i 255; ill 214. 

— birds, i 141-143. 

— crustaceans, i 406. 

— echinoderms, i 452, 456, 

— fishes, 1 258-259, 266-260. 

— insects, 1 346. 

— mammals, i 25, 63-65. 

— reptiles, 1 192-193, 

—spider-like animals (arachnids), i 
385-386. 

Extensor muscles, 
Muscular system. 

Eye camera, iv 44- 46, 47-48. 

_— compound, 1 346; iv 43-44 (illust.). 

— pineal, iv 47 fillust.), 48. 

Eyeball, i 57-58 (illust.), 263 

Eye-cups, iv 41 (illust.), q2. 

Eyelid, third, i 140, 151, 205; 
iv 481. 


[ili 95, 97. 
460, 464; 


205, 213-214. 


i go8; and see 


iil 74; 


iv 235, 240," 


Eyelids, i 57, 225, 226, 228. 

Eyes. See Sight, organs of. 

Eye-spots, i 435, 480; ili 359, 360; 
Iv 40, 41, 42, 46. 


F 


Fabre, ii 210; iii 387, 392; iv 53, 54, 
108, 192, 195. 

Face, i 28-29, 73, 74, 75- 

Falco zsalon, i 174. 

— peregrinus, 1 174. 

— subbuteo, i 174. 

— tinnunculus, i 174. 

— vespertinus, i 174. 

Falcon, peregrine, i 173 (illust.), 174. 

— red-footed, i 174. 

Falcons, i 173-174; ii 46 
305, 306 (illust.) ; iv 61. 

False gill, i 263, 270; ii 386. (132. 

False Scorpions, i 387, 388-389; ii 

False Spiders, i 387-388; iii 169. 

‘“‘False-Wireworms”, ii 219; iii 225. 

Fane, Lady Augusta, iv 365. 

Fasciola hepatica, i 443-445: iv 202, 

Fats, i 33, 37-38. (360, 361. 

Feathers, i 142-143 (illust.) dy T4725 1545 
186, 188; iii 297-298, 301; iv 248-240, 

— ‘‘powder-down",i178-179. — [251. 


(illust.) ; iit 


— “rowing”, iii 296, 301. 

— “steering”, iii 296, 301. 

Feather-Stars, i454, 460, 461 (illust.): 
ii 413, 414-415, 264-265; iii 8, 23 
(illust.), 278 (illust.), 279, 328; iv 199, 

Feather tracts, i 142. (482. 


Fecundity, ii 345-347; ili 362, 425, 
436, 482-483; iv 193, 194, 202, 486. 


Feeding habits. See Food. 
Feet (see also Appendages and 
Digits):— 


— amphibians, iii 46, 48, 49. 

— arachnids, ili 276. 

— birds, i 161, 163, 164, 166, 178, 184: 
iii 58 (illust.), 59, 61 (illust.), 62, 65 
(illust.), 66, 127-128 (illust.), 261, 263, 
eee ; 264, saat 


iv 254 (jllust, i 
— mammals, i 24, 32: ili 71-72, 73, 74, 
75) 79, 77, 79, 81, 155 (illust.), 158 
(illust.), 233, 234, 238, 242 (illust.), 
243-244, 248, 249, 253, 258, 259, 260. 
— reptiles, iii 50, 268-270 (illust.). 
Felidge. See Cats proper. 
Felis caffra, iv 222. 
— cattus, 1 88; iv 


— concolor, i 88; ii 9. 386. 
— domesticus, iii 157, 158; iv 222-223, 
— leo, i 87; ii 9; iv 331, 369-371 


— leopardus, 1 87-88. 

— maniculata, i 88; iv. 222, 223. 
— onca, i 88. 

— pajeros, 1 88. 

— panthera, i 87-88. 

— pardalis, iv 420. 


-— tigris, 1 87; 11 7-93 iv 331-333, 371- 
— viverrina, ii 9; ili 75-76. [372- 
Femur, amphibia, i 241, 252; iii 183. 


— birds, 1 144. 

— insects, i 344; lili 163, 176. 

— mammals, 1 31-32. 

— reptiles, i 197-198. 

Fenestra ovalis, i 57. 

Fennec, i 93 (illust.), 04: ii 19, 270. 
Fern-Owl. Sce Night-jar. 


“Ferreiro”, iii 437-438 (illust.). 

Ferret, i 98° iv 369. 

Fetlock, of horse, iii 140-141. 

Fiber zibethicus, i 130; iii 73; iv 
307, 308. [183. 

Fibula, amphibians, i 241, 252; iii 

Pe mammals, i 31-32, 123-124, 125, 127, 
131; Uli 134-135, 147, 143, 149, 152, 
158, 190, 194, 237, 258. 

— reptiles, i 197-198. 

Fieldfare, i 159; iii 463. 

Filaria medinensis, iv 343. 

File-Fishes, i 277-278. 

File-Shells, iii 36-37 (illust.), 408. 

Filoplumes, i 142. 

Fin, adipose, i 282. 

— anal or ventral, i 257, 271, 273, 278- 
279, 282, 285, 288, 290. 

— caudal, i 257, 258; and see Tail-fin. 

— dorsal, i 257, 270, 273, 274. 

— pectoral, i 258, 266, 271. 

— pelvic, i 258, 266, 271. 

— unpaired, i 257, 258. 

Fins, of amphibians, iii 45, 46. 

— — arrow-worms, iii 21. 

—— bony-fishes, i 270-271, 273, 274, 
275, 276, 277, 278, 279, 280, 282, 283; 
iii 41-43, 115-116, 182, 272, 288, 289, 
427; iv 28-29, 158-159, 272, 275. 

— — cetaceans, ili 84. 

— — chimeras, i 290. 

— — lancelet, i 294-295. 

— — lung-fishes, i 264, 265, 266. 

—— molluscs, iii 33. 

— — round-mouths, i 291, 292. 

— — sharks and dog-fishes, i 257-258, 
285; ili 40-41. 

— — skates and rays, i 288; ili 44. 

Finches, i 156 (illust.); ii 187-188; iv 

— desert, ii 279. [150. 

Fingers. See Digits. 

Fin-rays, i 261; ili rr5, 118. 

Fire-cylinder, iv 106 (illust.). 

Fire-Flies, ii 323; iv 165-166. 

Fischer, iv 315. - 

Fisheries, iv 279-288. 

Fishes, i 12, 23, 60, 62, 257-292; ii 
83-92, 194-195, 283-284, 291-292, 
296, 305-306, 323, 330, 334-335, 355- 
357, 383-388, 421-422, 447-456; ili 
40-44, I15-116, 182, 214, 272, 288- 
289, 422-434; iv 32, 38-39, 46, 47-48, 
328-129, 154-159, 196-197, 200-201, 
204, 205, 214, 261-279, 317-318, 329, 
340, 348, 379-381, 392-393, 396-397, 
417, 419, 421, 428, 433, 437-438, 442- 
444, 448, 463, 466-467. 

— bony, i 259, 266-284. 
noids and Teleosts. 

— — cartilaginous, i 259, 284-290. 

— extinct, iv 463 (illust.), 466. 

— firm-jawed, i 273, 277-278. 

— soft-finned, 273, 278-280. 

— spine-finned, i 273-276. 

— tube-bladdered, i 273, 280-284. 

— tuft-gilled, i 273, 276-277. 

Fish-hatching, i 15; iv 284-288. 

Fish-Hawk, iv 61. 

Fishing-Frog, i 274; ii 84-85 (illust.). 

Fish-‘‘Lice”, ii 144; iv 196-197 
(illust.). 

Fish-Lizards, iv 468, 460 (illust.). 

“Fish Newts”, i 247-248. 

Fission (see also Development), iii 
318-320, 325-326, 327-328, 329, 330; 
335, 352; iV 99, IOI, 105. 

— multiple, iii 321-322, 325. 


See also Ga- 


INDEX 


Fissipedia, i 86-98. 
Dogs, Bears, &c. 

Fissurella Grzeca, i 323; ii 394. 

Flagellata, i 494-495; ii 266, 267- 
268; iii 8 

Flagellum (pl. Flagella), i 471, 484, 
494) 495, 498; ii 266, 267, 273, 274; 
iti 4-5 (illust.), 8, 322, 334, 335; iv 
Iol. 

Flamingo, common, i 177-178; iii 
460, 46r (illust.); iv 377 (illust.), 378. 

Flamingoes, i 152, 177; iv 378. 

Flat-Fishes, i 60, 61 (illust.), 279- 
280; ii 284, 297; iii 43, 431-432. 

Flat-Worms, i 304, 441-447; ii 151- 
152, 271, 308, 361, 445-446; ili 7, 20- 
21, 329; iv 200-205, 268-270, 342- 
343, 360-362. 

Flea, common, i 358; ii 122 (illust.); 
iii 178 (illust.). 

Fleas, i 355, 358; ii 222; ili 178, 314; 

Fleure, H. J., iv 35. [iv 192. 

Flexor muscles, i 407; iii 261. 

Flies, two-winged, i 351, 355-358; ii 
119 (illust.), 120-122, 215-216, 251— 
252 (illust.), 314, 441-442, 462, 467- 
468; iii 167, 178, 289-290, 291, 311, 
313 (illust.), 4o2-4o4; iv 127, 190- 
192, 349, 351- 

“Flittermice”, i 81. 

Floscularia, ii 263. 

Flounder, iii 432; iv 269. 

Flower, ii 166; iii 85, 487, 490. 

Flowers, iv 83-90. See also Plants. 

“Plowers of tan”, i 498; ii 270. 

Fluke, Liver-, 443-445 (illust.); iv 202, 
360, 36x (illust.). 

— Pollack-, i 200, 201 (illust.). 

Flukes, i 441, 443-445; ii 151; iv 200- 
203, 342. 

Flustra, i 436-437. 

Flycatcher, spotted, ii 61. 

Flycatchers, American or tyrant, ii 

— old world, ii 61. (6x. 

Flying Birds, i 152-186. See also 
Birds. 

Flying Dragons, i 222; iii 287. 

Flying-Fish, common, i 276. 

Flying-Fishes, i 275-276; iii 288- 
289. ling. 

Flying-Foxes. See Bats, fruit-eat- 

Flying Frog, ii 319 (illust.), 323, 327; 
iii 287-288, 

Flying-‘‘Lemur”, i 86 (illust.); iii 
281-282, 485. 

Flying-Mouse, iii 285 (illust.), 286. 

Fly-Mould, iv 76, 77 (illust.). 

Food, animals as a source of, iv 211- 
217, 261-300. 

— assimilation of, i 43; li 2. (324. 

— feeding at favourable times, ii 318- 

— — in suitable places, ii 324-331. 

— kinds of, i 33. 

— necessity for, i 32; ii 1-3. 

— process of digestion, i 37-38; ii 1-3. 

— relation between nutrition of plants 
and animals, iv 68-74. 

Food and Feeding Habits, i 17; 
ii 1-274. 

— of acorn-headed worm, 11 243, 246. 

— amphibians, i 240, 254, 255; ii 82- 


See also Cats, 


83, 192-194. 2 
—animalcules, i 488, 490; i1 266-270, 
272-274. [259. 


— annelids, i 429, 433; ii 146-149, 257- 
— arachnids, i 385, 392, 393; li 125- 
— ascidians, ii 245-246. [132. 


527 


Food and Feeding Habits (Cont.) 

— birds, i 151, 155, 157, 158, 160, 161, 
164, 175, 176, 179, 180-181, 183, 186; 
ii 45-69, 184-191, 235-243, 322; ili 
455, 465-466, 467-471. 

— crustaceans, ii 135-144, 220-222, 
253-256. 

-— echinoderms, ii 153-154, 264-265. 

— fishes, i 274, 275, 276, 278; ii 83-92, 
194-195, 323; iv 283-284. 

— flat-worms, i 445; ii 151-152, 271. 
See also Parasitism. 

— insects, i 352, 353, 354, 355, 356, 
359, 361, 363, 364, 365, 367, 368, 369, 
372, 382; 11 101-124, 202-217, 250- 
252, 326-328; iv 56, 110, 111-112, 
116, 119-120, 121, 122-123, 256, 259, 

— king-crab, ii 144-145. [260. 

— lamp-shells, ii 260-261. 

— lancelet, ii 243, 244-245. 

-- mammals, ii 1-44, 164-183, 224-234; 
ill 474-475. 

egg-laying, ii 44, 322; ili 477. 

flesh-eating, i 91, 94, 98-99; li 


5-25- 


gnawing, i 128, 129; ii 31-38, 

174-178, 321-322, 324-325. 

hoofed, i 106, 109; ii 165-171, 

321, 323-324, 366, iv 490. 

insect-eating, i 83; ii 31-38. 

See also Bats. 

pouched, ii 42-43, 180-183, 
322; iil 478-479. 

—-—apes and monkeys, ii 164-165, 
225, 320, 325, 326. 

— — bats, i 82; ii 38-40, 320-321. 

—— cetaceans, i 100-101; ii 25-30, 
490-491. 

— — edentates, ii 41-42, 178-180, 322, 

— — elephants, i 103; ii 321. (327. 

— — lemurs, ii 225-226, 320. 

— — man, i 32-34; ii 164, 225; iv 208- 
217. [490. 

— —sea-cows, 1 102; ii 173-174; ili 

— molluscs, i 311, 319; ii 94-100, 196- 
201, 247-250. 

— moss-polypes, ii 261. 

— myriapods, ii 132-134, 218-219. 

— nemertines, ii 93. 

— peripatus, ii 134. (65-74. 

— plants, i 33, 488; ii 3, 270-274; iv 

— primitive vertebrates, ii 243. 

—reptiles, i 199, 215, 218, 222, 223 
224, 225, 226, 232, 233, 236; il 70-81, 
IQI-I92, 320. 

— siphon worms, ii 149-150, 259-260. 

— sponges, i 484, 488; ii 265-266. 

— thread-worms, ii 222-223. See also 
Parasitism. 

— wheel-animalcules, ii 261-263. 

— zoophytes, i 466-467; ii 155-162, 
271-272; iV 103. 

Food-grooves, ii 265, 414-415. 

Food-vacuoles, ii 266, 268, 419. 

Food-yolk, i 152; iii 340, 345-347 
(illust.), 414, 417, 418, 424, 425, 431, 
434) 439) 442, 444, 475» 

Foot, mammals, &c. See Feet. 

— molluscs, i 307, 317, 319, 321, 323, 
326, 332, 334, 336, 337, 338, 339, 340, 
341; 11 94, 373; Ml 34, 35, 36, 103, 
104-106, 107-108, 180 (illust.), 1&1, 
218, 219, 220, 221, 232, 406, 408, 409, 
410, 413, 416, 417; iv 35 (illust.). 

— wheel-animalcules, iii too. 

Foot-jaws, i 404. See also Mouth- 
parts, of crustaceans. 


528 


Foot-stumps, i 425, ise 428; ii 408; 
iii 22-23, 98, 226, 227, 228; iv 199. 


Foramen esi. i 
poms repugnatoria, i 396, 


Forandatfans: 1 489, 495-4096 (illust.); | 
li 100, 248, 269-270, 341; li 6; iv 4 
Forbes, i 6; iit 
Forearm, i 24, 30 
Fore-limbs. See Limbs. 
Forest-Fly, ii 122; iv 190. 
Forficula auricularia, i 380-381; 
li 2503 ill 377- 378; iv 44, 358. 
Formic acid, ii 105, 359-360; iv 
118, 
Formica exsecta, iv 82-83; 
— fusca, i 373; iv 175-178. 
— pratensis, iv 119. 
— rufa, i 373; iv 116-118. 
— And see Ant and Ants. 
Fossores, iii 392-393. 
Foster, Sir Michael, iii rr. 
“Foumart”, i 08. 
Foussa, i 88; ii r2 (illust.). 
Fowl, red jungle-, i 172; iv 246. 
Fowls, domestic, i 172, 320; 
(illust.), 347; iv 148, 246-2 
— game-, i 172; iv 246-247 
Fowler, Warde, i 6. 
Fox, common, i 94; iv 372-373. 
— Sahara, i 93 (illust.), 94; ii 19, 279. 
— white or Arctic, ii 18-16 (illust.). 
Foxes, ii 15, 17-19; iv 326, 345. 
Foxglove. iv 80, 00, 94- 
Fratercula arctica, i 124 
Fredericella, iii 331 (illus 
Fregatus, i 1 181- 1 
— aquila, i 182; 


115-119. 


li 126 


illust. ). 


> un 66. 


53+ 
Frenulum, iii 312. 
Friar Birds, ii 309-311 (illust.). 
Frigate- Bird, great, i 182; il 52. 


Frigate-Birds, i 
(illust.); iii 62. 

Fringilla cannabina, 1156. 

— celebs, i156; ii 187; lil 469, 470. 

_ montifringillina, i 1 156. 

Frit-Fly, i ts 

Frog, bull-, 1254; lil 5o. 

— common or grass-, i 249-25 
ii 82, 192, 291, 422-423, 45 
50, 182-184 (illust.), 436-437; iv 408. 

— edible, i 254; iii 50; iv 153. 

— flying, it 319 (illust.), 323, 32 

— Guppy’s, i 255. [287-288 

“wrestler”, il 371-372. 

Frogs, i 249-255; ii 457-458; iii 8, 4o- 
50, 272, 332, 436-442; iv 26, 201, 152- 


154. 
— tree-, ii 82-83; iii 437-430, 441-442 
(illust.), 2 72. 
— — green, iii 272 (illust.); iv 392. 


— ‘‘water”, ili 50. 
Frog-Hoppers, i 353: ii 217: 
Frontal sinuses, iv ror. 
Frullania dilatata, iv 7s. 
Fucus, i 320; ii 198, 206. 

— serratus, iv 75. 

Fulcrum, iii 15, 16, 302, 310. 
Fulica atra, i 171; ii 240; ili 61-62, 
Fuligula cristata, i 176. (456 
— ferina, i 176; ili 59. 

— glaucion, i 176. 

— marila, i 176. 

— myroca, i 176. 

— vallisneria, ili 50. 


ili 178. 


INDEX 


Function, change of, i 13, 244, 260, 
263, 269; ii 80, 126, 386-387, 390, 393, 
499, 435; ili 31, 475-477; iv 28-29. 

Fungi, iv 65, 67-68, 76, 77, 78, 08. 

Fungia scrutaria, i 475, 476 (illust. ). 

Fungus-Animalcules, i 496-497; ii 
270; iii 322; iv 363. 

Funnel, of head-footed molluscs, i 313, 
317; li 393; ili 31, 32. 

“Punny-bone”, i 30. 

Fur, i 64, 06, 98, 130, 133-134; tii 68, 
69, 71, 76-77, 201, 202, 203, 204, 207; 
iv 136, 228-229, 243, 301-308. 

Furcula merrythought), i 144, 145, 
187; ili 298. 


Furnarius, iii 461, 464. 


G 


Gad-Flies, i 355; 


ii 11g (illust.), r20- 


Gadide. See Cods. (121; iv 43. 

Gadinia, ii 462. 

Gadow, ii 334; ili 46, 53, 117, 183, 212, 
268, 287-288, 271, 446; iv 338, 391, 
392, 432+ 


Gadus eglefinus, i lag 
— merlangus, i 279; i 
— morrhua, i 2 
— virens, iv 261 
Galagos, ii 320. 
Galanthus nivalis, iv 03. 
Galeodes araneoides, i 
Galeopithecus, iii 
Galeus canis, i 28s. 
Galium aparine, iv 97-93. 

Gall. See Bile. 

Gall-bladder, i 37, 110, 200, 241, 253, 
Galle, i 3. (262, 270. 


267. 
oe iv 26 
7. 


a 
w 
rs) 


281-282, 485. 


Galleria mellonella, iv 353. 
Gall-Fly, rose, ii 204-205 (illust.). 
iv 78-79, 


; 11 204-205; 


Gall-Flies, i 372 


Galline, i 
ili 450-452; iv 148-140. 

Gallinago ccelestis, i 169. 

— gallinula, i 169. 

— major, i 169. 

Gallinula chloropus, i 171; ii 
ili 61. 

“Galls”, iv 78-79 (illust.), 

Gallus bankiva, i 172; ii 2 

— domesticus, iv 246-247. 

Galton, Sir Francis, iv 218, 493. 

Gamble, ii 292, 308, 446: iv 342, 343. 

Game-Birds, i 152, 172-173; ii 238- 
239; Nl 450-452; iv 148-149, 375-377. 

Gammarus, i 414. 

— locusta, ii 142. 

— neglectus, ili 365 (illust.). 

Ganglion (pl. Ganglia), i 298, 303, 
307, 310, 314, 327, 333) 347) 349) 407, 
428, 440; iv 8, 11, 12, 13-14, 15, 16, 
17, 18, 19, 34, 35+ 

— brain (or cerebral), i 298, 310, 
349, 401, 409, 427, 428, 438, 440, 
444, 446. 

— buccal, of molluscs, i 327. 

— foot (or pedal), of molluscs, i 310, 333. 

—- lateral (or pleural), of molluscs, i 
310;,3 [i 309, 333. 

— wixceeal (or abdominal), of mollus 

Ganglion-cells. See Nerve- eos 

Gannet, common, i 181, 418; ii 50; iti 
62 (illust. ), 63; 455: 

Gannets, i 181; ii 62-63, 471. 

Ganoidea. See Ganoid Fishes. 


wo 
Ne) 
= e 


Ganoid Fishes, i 266-269 (illust.); ii 
453; lv 277-278. 

— ‘‘fringe-finned”, i 266, 268. 

“ray-finned”, i 268-269. 

Ganoid scales, i 266, 268. 

Gapers, i 334-335. 

— sand, i 334 (illust.); ii 250; iii 220. 

Gardener-Birds, iv 406-407 (illust.). 

Gare-Fowl, i184. See Auk, great. 

Gar-Fish, common, i 275. 

Garial, Gangetic, i 212 (illust.); ii 71. 

— Schlegel’s, i 212. 

Garialis Gangetica, i 212; ii 71. 

Garials, i 209, 212. 

Gar-Pike, i 268 (illust.); ii 453. 

Garrulus glandarius, i 153-154. 

Garstang, ii 305, 306, 308. 

Gasterosteide. Sce Sticklebacks. 

Gastrea theory, iii 341. 

Gastric (or peptic) glands, i 37, 146. 

Gastric juice, i 37; ii 160. 

Gastric mi, i 407-. 408; 11 136 (illust.). 

Gastrophilus equi, i 358; iv rot. 

Gastropoda (see also Snails and 
Slugs), i 3rr, 317-328; ii 96-100, 196- 
201, 247, 278, 306-307, 335-337, 373, 
393-397, 432-434, 459-462; ili 33-36, 
104-108, 180-181, 217-219, 412-417; 
iv 17-18, 35, 57-58, 397-308. 

Gastrosteus aculeatus, i 276; iii 

28; iv 154-157. 

— pungitius, i 276; ili 428, 430-431. 

— spinachia, i 276; iii 428, 431. 

Gastrula, iii 341, 342, 344. 

Gaur, i II4. 

Gavia, i 152, 168. 

Gayal, iv 22s. 

Gazella Arabica, i i 118; ii 353. 

— Bennetti, i 118. 

— Cuvieri, ii 353. 

— doreas, i118; ii 353. 

— euchore, ii 353; iti 187-188, 

— Granti, ii 353. 

— Scemmeringi, il 


353: 
— subgutturosa, i 118. 
Gazelle, Arabian, i 118; ii 353. 
— dorcas, i 118; ii 353 
— Indian, i 118. 
— Persian, 1 118. 
Gazelles, i 113; ii 353 (illust.). 


Gecarcinidz, lll 170. 
Gecarcinus ruricola, ii 
Gecinus viridis, i 161; ii 
Gecko, fringed, iii 286, 287 (illust.). 
— wall, i221 (illust. ); ii 319 (illust.); iv 
391. 
Geckos, i 221-222; 
ili 268-269. 
Geese (and see Goose), i 152, 177; ii 
237-238; iv 147-148, 248-249. 
Gehyra mutilata, iii 268. 
Gemmation (see also Development), 
lil 320-321, 325-326, 
330, 332, 335, 340, 342, 350, 4 
99, IOT, 103, 104, 105, 106. 
Gemmules, iii 326. 
Generalization, i 2-4. 
“Generalized type”, i 195-106, 4o5- 
Generic name, i o. [406, 422. 
Genet, common, i 89. 
Genetta vulgaris, i 80. 
Gennceus nycthemerus, i 172. 
Genus, i o. 
Geodephaga, ii 326-327. 
Geology, i 15, 17; iv 456-458. 
Geometridze (Geometers 


ii 102-103. 


il 73-74, 322, 371; 


327-328, 


97-208 ; 


Geomyidz. See Pouched Rats. 

Geomys bursarius, i 131; iii 204-205. 

Geonemertes Palaensis, ii 444. 

Geophilida, ii 133-134: ili 225. 

Geophilus longicornis, i 394, 397; 
iii 225. 

Geotrupes stercorarius, i 368. 

Gephyrea, i 304, 433-434. See also 
Siphon- Worms. 

Gerard, Sir Montague G., iv 332. 

Germ-cells, iv 490, 491, 492, 493- 

Germinal disc, 151. 

“Germ plasma”, iv 494. 

Germ theory, i 3. [ili 29. 

Gerris paludum, i 354; ii 123, 124; 

Gesner, Conrad, i 9; iv 387. 

Geum urbanum, iv o8. [(illust. ). 

Gibbon, Silver, i 71 (illust.); iii 160 

Gibbons, i 72; ili 160-161, 237-238. 

Gibson, Ernest, ii 303. [(illust. ). 

Gigantorhynchus gigas, iv 205-206 

“Gila monster”, iv 338 

Gill-aperture, amphibians, ii 457. 

— crustaceans, ii 403, 469. 

— fishes, iii 214. 

Gill-arches, amphibians, i 242. 

— embryo vertebrates, i 242, 244. 

— fishes, i 260, 266, 270; ii 386. 

Gill-arteries, afferent, i 262, 272. 

efferent, i 262. liv 201. 

Gill-cavity, or chamber, amphibians, 

— annelids, ii 408. 

— crustaceans, ii 400, 402, 403, 460, 

— fishes, ii 448, 451. [470. 

— insects, ii 466. 

— molluscs, ii 392, 393-394, 395-396 
(illust.), 397, 432-433) 459, 460 (illust. ), 
261, 462; il 31. 

Gill-clefts, acorn-headed worm, i 301. 

— amphibians, i 240-242, 248, 249, 254, 
256; iii 442-443 (illust.). 

— ascidians, ili 421-422. 

— embryo vertebrates, i 62-63, 67, 242, 
244; 11 381-382. 

— fishes, i 62, 258, 262-263, 264, 265, 
266, 270, 284, 286, 287, 288, 291; li 
381, 386-387, 388, 448. 

— formation of, ii 381-383. 

— lancelet, i 295-296: i1 389. 

Gill-cover, crustaceans, 1 403-404; ii 
400, 403. 

— fishes, i 264, 266, 270, 277; 1387, 388. 

— king-crab, ii 406. 

Gill-filaments, annelids, i 430. 

— fishes, 1 266, 270, 277; ii 388. 

Gill-folds, amphibians, ii 457. 

— crustaceans, ii 469. 

— fishes, i 262, 263, 265, 266; ii 383, 
385, 386, 388, 451. 

— king-crab, i 423; i1 406-407. 

Gill-formula, of lobster, ii 4or (illust.). 

Gill-openings, See Gill-clefts. 

Gill-plate, crustaceans, i 404. 

— molluscs, iii 405-406. 

Gill-pouches, acorn-headed worm, i 
301; li 390. 

— formation of, ii 381, 382. 

—lampreys and hags, i 292; ii 383, 
384 (illust.), 385. 

— salamanders, ii 457. 

— sharks and rays, ii 385-386. 

“ Gill-rakers”, 1i 387. 

Gills, ii 381, 387, 388-380, 420. 

— amphibians, i 240-242, 248, 249, 254, 
256; il 456, 457; ili 442; iv 207. 

— annelids, i 430; ii 408, 409, 410. 

— crustaceans, 1 403-404; il 400-402 


INDEX 


Gills (Couz.) 
(illust.), 403, 404 (illust.), 405, 406, 
443, 469, 470. [416. 

— echinoderms, i 458, 459; ii 413, 415, 

— fishes, i 62, 265, 270; 1i 387, 455, 456; 
lil 424; iv 200-201. 

— insects, ii 463, 464, 465, 466, 467, 468. 

— king-crab, ii 406. 

— lamp-shells, ii 411. 

— molluscs, i 308, 313, 317, 318, 322- 
324, 326, 332, 336, 337, 338, 340, 341; 
1 249, 392, 393, 394, 395, 396-397, 
398-399, 432-433, 459, 460, 461, 462. 

Gill-slits, See Gill-clefts. 

Giraffa camelopardalis, i 119-120; 
ii 170; ili sr. 

Giraffes, i 109, 119-120 (illust.); ii 170; 
ili 151 (illust.), 153. 

Girdle, of earthworm, i 431. 

Gizzard, i 146; ii 184 (illust.). 

Gjardiniere, iv 406. 

Glacier-‘‘ Flea”, i 384 (illust.); ii 214. 

Glandina, ii 96. 

Glandular pit, of hoofed mammals, 
i tro, 116, 117. 

Glareolus pratincola, i 169. 

Glass-Crabs, ii 279. 

Glaucus atlanticus, ii 100, 284. 

Glenoid cavity, i 29. [340. 

Globe-Fishes, i 278; ii 306, 334; iv 

Globigerina, i 489, 496 (illust.); iii 6 

Globigerina ooze, i 496. _[(illust.). 

Glochidium, iii 37 (illust.), 406-407 

Gloger, ii 347. {(illust. ). 

Glomeris, i 396. {iv 349. 

Glossina morsitans, i 358; ii 120; 

Glossiphonia, iii 361. 

Glossophaga soricina, ii 39. 

Glottis, birds, i 147. 

— mammals, i 34, 46; ll 429. 

Glow-Worms, iv 165-166 (illust.). 

Gluten, i 33. 

Glutton, i 98; ii 20-21. 

Glyphocrangon priononta, iv 444, 

Glyptodon, iv 474. (445 (illust.). 

Gnat, common, i 356-357 (illust.); ii 
r21 (illust.), 442 (illust.). 
— ringed, iii 403-404 (illust.). 

Gnats, i 355; ii 121, 251; ili 30, 403- 
404; iv 190, 340 (illust.). 

— fungus, iv 127. 

Gnu, i 178, 129 (illust.). 

Goat, Angora, iv 229 (illust.), 230. 

— Bezoar, i 117; ili 248, 249 (illust.) ; 
lv 230. 

— domestic, i 117; iv 229-230. 

— Kashmir, iv 230. 

— Rocky Mountain, i117. 

— wild, i117. 

Goats, i 29, 114, 117; ii 169, 352; iii 
248; iv 145, 229-230, 346-347. 

Goat-Sucker. See Night-jar. 

Gobies, i 275; ii 87. 

Gobio fluviatilis, i 282. 

Gobius niger, i 275. 

Godwit, bar-tailed, i 169. 

— black-tailed, i 169; ii 66 (illust.). 

Godwits, i 169; ii 68. 

Goeldi, iii 437. 

Goitre, i 43. (114, r1g (illust.). 

Golden-eyed Fly, i 378 (illust.) ; ii 

Goldfinch, i 156. 

Gold-Fish, i 282; iv 392-393 (illust.). 

Goliathus Drurei, i 368. 

Gomphocerus, i 381. [iii 350. 

Gonangium (pl. Gonangia), i 479; 

Goniaster, i 450, 457. 


529 


Gonophores, iii 350-351 (illust.). 

Gonopteryx rhamni, i 362. 

Goosander, i 177; ii 238; iii 61. 

Goose (and see Geese), bean, i 177. 

— bernicle, i 177. 

— brent, i177; ii 238 (illust.). 

— Egyptian, i177. [248. 

— gray-lag, i 177 (illust.); ii 238; iv 

— pink-footed, i 177. 

—solan. See Gannet, common. 

— white-fronted, i 177. 

Goosegrass, iv 97-98 (illust.). 

Gopher, common, iii 204-205 (illust.). 

— striped, i 126. 

Gordian-Worm, i 448. 

Gordius, i 448. (374. 

Gordon, Lord Granville, iv 369, 372, 

Gorgonia, i 478. 

— verrucosa, li 285. 

Gorilla, i 72 (illust.); ii 348; ili 160 
(illust.), 161, 236, 237, 494. 

—savagei. See Gorilla. 

Gosse, i 7. 

Gould, iv 405. 

Goura, i 167. 

Goureau, ii 316. 

Graber, iii 135, 165, 166, 232. 

Gralla, i152, 171; ii 240; ili 61-62. 

Granby, Marquis of, iv 376. 

Grant, Ogilvie, iv 148. 

Grantia compressa, i 486. 

Grapholitha nebritana, iv 352. 

Grapside, ii 469. 

Grapsus varius, iii 175. 

Graptolites, iv 458-4509 (illust.). 

Grasping Organ of Feather Stars, 
ili 279. ((illust. ). 

Grasshopper, migratory, i 382 

Grasshoppers, i 381-382; li 213, 315; 
ill 379-380; iv 38, 162. 

— desert, 11 282. 

— green, i 381, 382-383; iii 176-177 
(illust.), 379, 380 (illust.). 

Grassi, ii 212; ili 433; iv 121, 123, 124. 

Gravitation, laws of, i 3. 

Gray, iv 210. 

Grayling, iv 379-381 (illust.). 

Grebe, eared, i 185. 

— great crested, i 185. 

— little, i 185; 1i 65-66 (illust.), 457. 

— red-necked, i 185. 

— Slavonian, i 185. [64-66; iv 308. 

Grebes, i 152, 183-185; ii 53, 295; ili 

Greenfinch, i 156; ii 187. 

“Green-Fly.” See Aphides. 

Gregarines, i 492, 498-499; iii 322; 
iv. 206-207. 

Grenfell, W. H., iv 382. 

Greyhound, iv 221 (illust.). 

Grey matter, of brain, i 52. 

— of spinal cord, i 50-51. 

Grey Mullet, thick-lipped, iv 273. 

— thin-lipped, iv 273 (illust.), 381. 

Grey Mullets, i 275; iv 273. 

Gribble, ii 222; ili 225-226. 

Gristle. Sce Cartilage. 

Groos, Karl, iv 400, 401, 403. 

Grosbeak, iii 463 (illust.). 

Ground-Sloths, iii 256; iv 473-474. 

Grouse, black, i 17 39- 

— red, i 172-173; ii 239; iv 376-377. 

Grus cinerea, i 170. 

— communis, ii 241. 

Gryllidee. See Crickets. 

Gryllotalpa campestris, ii 
379-380, 381. 

— vulgaris, i 383; ili 222-223; i 


539° 


Gryllus campestris, i 383. 

— domesticus, 1 383. 

Guacharo, ii 188. 

Guanaco, i 122; ui 153; 

Guara rubra, i 180. 

Gudgeon, i 282. 

Guenon, green, i 74. 

Guenons, i 73. 

Guereza, i 73; ili 237, 

Guiana Pig, i 134. 

Guillemot, black, i 184. 

— common, i 184; iii 66, 453. 

Guillemots, i 184; ii 53. 

Guinea-Fowl, i 172; ii 239; iv 249- 

Guinea-Pig, i 134. [250 (illust.). 

Guinea-Worm, iv 343. 

Gulars, i 214. 

Gular sac, iii 287. 

Gull, black-backed (great), i 168. 

— — (lesser), i 168. 

— black-headed, 1 168. 

— common, i 168. 

— glaucous, i 168. ((illust. ). 

—herring, i 168 (illust.); i 57-58 

— Iceland, i 168. 

_ little, i 168. [305, 308. 

Gulls, i 152, 168; 11 51; ili 57-58, 304, 

Gullet, of mammals, i 35, 37, 49- 

Gulo borealis, i 98. 

— luscus, il 20. 

Gunnel, iii 426. {iv 266, , 276. 

Giinther, ii 296, 356, 448, 451; ill 425; 

Gurnard, grey, iv 273. 

— red, i 275; iv 273. {iv 272- 

Gurnards, i 275; ii 306; iii 11s, 

Gut. See Digestive-tube. 

Gymnophiona, i 245, 255-256; ili 45- 
46, 213-214, 442-443. 

Gyps Riippeli, i 175. 

Gyrinids. Sce Gyrinus natator. 

Gyrinus natator, i 367; ii 440; ill 
29-30. 


iv 232. 


236 (illust.). 


273 
11g; 


H 


Haacke, iii 76, 243. 
Habenaria bifolia, iv 87, 88. 
Habrocestum splendens, 
(illust. ). 
Haddock, i 278-279; iv. 267 (illust. ). 
Haddon, ii 450. 
Heckel, iii 341. 
Hemameeba, iv 341 (illust.). 
Hematococcus pluvialis, ii 
Hematopota pluvialis, ii 120. 
Hematopus ostralegus, i 160; ii 


iv 167 


[274. 
273- 


67-68. (468. 
Hemoglobin, i 38, 45, 428; ii 467- 
Hag-Fish, Californian, ii 383-384 


(illust. ). {(illust. ). 
— common, i 292; 11 or, 92 (illust.), 385 
Hags, i 291-292; ii 91-92, 383-385 
Hair, i 2s. 

— of mammals, i 25, 
also Fur. 
Hair-follicles, i 63 (illust.). 
Hake, iv 201, 
Halcyon, ii 54. 
Half-Loopers, iii 103. 
Haliaétus albicilla, i 174. 
Halibut, iii 425, 432; iv 268-269. 
Halichondria panicea, i 486; iv 
Haliclystus, i 482. [ror. 
Halicore dugong, i 102; ii 173-174; 
Wi 400; iV 313. 


Halictus, iv 109. 


63-65, 67. See 


268. 


INDEX 


Haliotis tuberculata, 
ii 393-394; iii qr2 
Halitherium, iii 83. 
Halobates, i 354; ii 124; iii 382. 

Halopsyche, iv 451. 

Halteres, i 355; iii 313. 

Haltica nemorum, i 366; 

— undulata, iv 354. 

Halticidz. See Beetles, flea-. 

Hamites, iv 466 (illust. 

Hamster, common, 1 129. 

Hamsters, i 129-130; ii 177. 

Hancock, H. J. B., iv 117. 

Hand, of mammals (see also Digits), 
i 24, 30, 313 ili 233-236, 237, 240 
(illust.), 241 (illust.), 242 (illust.), 
243-244, 251, 252 (illust.), 259-260. 

Hapale Jacchus, i 78. 

Haploceros montanus, i 117. 

Haplodactylus, ii 19s. 

Haplodontida, iv 418. (289, 

Hare, Alpine or Irish, i 9, 124-125; i 

— American, ii 289. 

Hares, 9, 123-125; ii 174-176 (illust. ) 
324; iii 188, 482, 483; iv 244, 346, 374 

Harelda glacialis, 1176. 

Harmer, iii 100, 330. 

Harpa, i 32:. 

Harpagophytum, iv 08. 

Harp-Shells, i 321. 

Harpy, crowned, i 174. 

Harpyhaliaétus coronatus, i 174. 

Harrier, hen, i 175. 

— marsh, i 174. 

— Montagu's, i 174-175. 

Harriotta, i 290 (illust.), 

Harte, Bret, iii 236. 

Hartebeest, iv 141 (illust.). Liv 360. 

Harvest (or Gooseberry-) “Bug es 

Harvestmen, i 387, 390 (illust.); i 

Hasarius Hoyi, iv 167-168. [r. 32. 

“Hastening of events”, law of, 
iii 119, 348, 439. 

Hastings, Marquess of, iv 213. 

Hatteria punctata, i 236-237; iii 
56, 444; iV 47, 410. 

Hausen. See Sturgeon, giant. 

Haviland, ii 213. 

Hawfinch, i 156. 

Headley, iii 290, 307, 472; iv 6r. 

Head-lobe, of sea- Soe ee. 1426; iv 

Head-Louse, i 354. (12, 13. 

Head-shield, iii 218. 

Hearing, organs of, iv 24, 32-33, 402. 

— amphibians, i 245, 254. 

— birds, i 150. 

— crustaceans, i 409; i 

— development of, iv 38: 

— fishes, i 263; il 386-387; iv 38-30. 

— insects, i 381, 382; iv 37-38 (illust.). 

— mammals, i 56-57 (illust.). 

— reptiles, i 232. 

—See also Balance and 
organs of. 

Heart (see also ee ae 

— amphibians, i 240-241, 25 

— arthropods, i 342, 348, 400, 408. 

— birds, i 147-148. 

_— fishes, 1 262, 265, 272. 

— invertebrates, 1 303. 


i 307-311; 


iv 324. 


_ B54 
ill 178; 1v 


291. 


hearing, 


((illust. ). 


— mammals, i 38-41 (illust.); iii 12 

— molluscs, i 308, 314, 317, 320, 325, 
328, 333, 340. 

— reptiles, i 200, 207-208. 


— vertebrates, i 63, 303. 
Heart-Urchin, purple, i 459; 
(illust. ). 


li 415 


' Hedge - Accentor. 


Heart-Urchins, i 459; iii 357 (illust. ). 

Heathcote, iii 164. 

See Sparrow, 
hedge-. 

Hedgehog, common, i 85 (illust.) ; ii 
32-33, 342; Uli 135, 484; iv 327. 

Hedgehogs, i 64, 83, 85; ii 333; iii 246. 

Hedgehog-skinned animals (echi- 
nodermata), i304, 450-464; ii 153-154, 
223, 264-265, 279, 340, 361, 411-416; 
iil 3-4, 23-24, 90-97, I14-115, 230, 
232, 278-279, 328-329, 354-357; iv 41, 
217, 344, 440, 446, 447, 452, 459, 465- 

— extinct, 111 93; 1V 459, 465. 

Heilprin, iv 409. 

Helcion pellucidum, ii 199. 

Heliastrea Forskaliana, i 


475 
Helicarion, ii 373; iii 181. [(illust.). 
Heliconids, ii 311-312. 
Heliosphera, i 489 (illust.); iii 6 
Heliozoa, i 496. (illust.). 


Helix arbustorum, ii 200. 

— aspersa, i 326-328; ii 196, 199, 335, 
433; lil 104, 414; iv 18, 31, 45, 58. 

— fruticum, ii 200. 

— hortensis, ii 200. 

— ichthyomura, ii 200. 

— lapicida, ii 200. 

— nemoralis, ii 200. 

— pomatia, i 328; ii 200. 

Hell-Bender, i 248; ii 456-457; ili 48. 

Helmet-Shells, i 321. (355; iv 338. 

Heloderma horrida, i 224; ii 354- 

— suspecta, i 224; iv 338. 

Helophilus, ii 110. 

Hemerobiidz. See Lace-wing Flies. 

Hemerobius, ii 114. {(illust. ). 

Hemiaster cavernosus, iii 355 

Hemichorda, i 293, 300-301. See also 
Acorn-headed Worm. (189. 

Hemicognathus leptorhyncus, ii 

Hemidactylus coctzi, iii 268. 

Hemiptera, i 351-355; ii 122-124, 
216-217, 316, 359, 440-441; ili 178- 
180, 380-383; iv 189-190, 350-351. 

Hensen, iv 283. 

Heptanchus, ii 386. 

Herdman, ii 296, 306; iv 204, 398, 399. 

Heredity, i 19: iv 486, 492-494. 

Hermione hystrix, ii 330. 

Hermit-' Crab, common, i 412 (illust.); 
ii 137-138 (illust. ), 403. 

— stopper-fisted, iv 446-447. 

Hermit-Crabs, i 412; ii 220. 

Hermiteles melanarius, i 

Hernandez, iv 387. 

Herodiones, i 152, 178-180. 

Herodotus, iv 223. 

Heron, boat-billed, i £70. 

— common grey, 1179; il 54-55; iv 375+ 

— night, i 1790. 


373 
[iillust. 


Herons, i 152, 178-179; iii 463; iv 61. 
Herpestes griseus, i 91; iv 386. 

— ichneumon, i go-gr; iv 386. 

—urva, ii 14. 

— Widdringtoni, i gr. (271. 


Herpetodryas carinatus, iii 270, 

Herrings, i 283; ili 425; iv 128, 129 
(illust.), 200, 263-265 (illust. ). 

Hesperornis regalis, ii 45 (illust.). 

Hessian Fly, iv 351. 

Heteralocha Gouldi, ii 64 

Heterocephalus, iii 204. 

Heterocera, i 360, 362-366. See also 
Moths. 

Heterodera radicicola, iv 363. 

— Schachtii, iv 363. 


Heterogeny, iii 382. 
Heteromita, i 480, 494; iii 6 (illust.). 
Heteropods, i 321; 11 gg-100 (illust.), 


278; iii 34-35 (illust.), 412; iv 35 
(illust. ). {(illust. ). 
Heteropora Hemprichii, i 475 


Heteroptera, i 353-355. 

Hexactinia, i 474-476. 

Hexamita, i 489 (illust.); iii 6 (illust.). 

Hexanchus, ii 386. 

Hickson, i 7; ii 372, 448; iii 175; iv 450. 

Hilara, iii 291. 

Hip-bone, i 31. 

Hip-girdles, i 31, 196; iii 119-120. 

— amphibians, i 239, 251, 253; ill 183. 

— birds, i 145; iii 125. 

— fishes, i 261. 

— mammals, i 37; iii 133. 

— reptiles, i 199, 215. 

Hippobosca PHU iv 190. 

Hippoboscide, ii 122; iv 190. 

Hippocampus Suiauerditi! i277; 
li 296; ill 43-44, 427. 

Hippoglossus vulgaris, iv 268-269. 

Hippolyte varians, ii 292-293, 294. 

Hippopotami, i 107-108; ii 171, 321, 
351; iit 148, 248, 489-490; iv 334. 

Hippopotamus, common (amphib- 
lus), i 107 (illust.); ii 171; ili 489-490; 
lv 373- 

— Liberian (Liberiensis), i 107. 

Hippospongia equina, iv 324. 

Hippotragus niger, ii 352, 354. 

Hirmoneura obscura, iii 290. 

Hirudo medicinalis, i 432; ii 147-148; 
lil 22; iv 42, 321. 

— officinalis, iv 321. 

Hirundo rustica, i 161; 

Hispa, ii 337. 

Hissing-Fly, ii 119 (illust.). 

Histeride, ii r10. 

Hister quadrinotatus, ii 109. 

Hoatzin, iii 472-473 (illust.); iv 431. 

Hobby, i 174; ii 370. 

Hock, of horse, iii 140-141. 

Hog, red river-, i 108. 

— wart, 1 108-109. 

Holarctic region, iv 415. 

Holocephali, i 257, 290-201. 
also Chimeras. 

Holothuroidea, i 454, 462-464; and 
see Sea-Cucumbers. 

Holt, iii 426; iv 158. 

Homarus vulgaris, i 302-304, 342, 
402-409; ii 135-137, 400-402; ili 169, 


(467-468. 
iii 461, 


See 


277-278; iv 297-299. 

Homer, iv 248. 

Homes, of animals. See Dwellings 
and Nests. (58. 


“Homing instinct”, i18; iv 54, 57, 
Homoptera, i 352-353. 
Homoris gutturalis, iii 464. 
— lophotis, iii 464. 
Homo sapiens, i7z. See also Man. 
Honey, iv 110, 251-252, 258-259. 
Honey-bag, ii 206. 
Honey-Bear, iii 247-248, 255 (illust.). 
Honey-comb, iv 254-255 (illust.). 
Honey-eaters. See Friar Birds. 
Honey-Guide, white-eared, ii 63-64 
Honey-Guides, ii ror. ((illust. ). 
Honeysuckle, iv 87, 88, 94 (illust.). 
Hoofed Mammals. See Mammals. 
Hoof-glands, i 116. 
Hoofs, of mammals, 
149, 152, 248. 
““Hook-and-eye” 


iii 143-144, 148, 
{i 362, 369-370. 
arrangement, 


INDEX 


Hoopoe, European, i 164 (illust.). 
Hoopoes, i 163-164; iii 454. 
Hoplocampa, fulvicornis, iv 356. 

— testudinea, iv 356. (268. 

Hoplodactylus Anamallensis, iii 

Hoplopterus cayanus, iv 404-405. 

Hop-‘‘ Spider”, red, iv 360. 

Horn, iv 310-311. 

Hornbill, great, ii 186, 242 (illust.). 

— rhinoceros, i 164 (illust.). 

Hornbills, i 164; ii 242; iii 466, 471. 

“Horncores”, ii 352. 

Horned “Toad”, Californian (rep- 
tile), i 223; iv 392. 

Hornell, iv 204, 398. 

Hornet, common, i 374; ii 250; iv 112. 

Hornets, ii 307. {iv 317. 

Horns, of rhinoceros, i 105-106; ii 350; 

— of ruminants, i 64, 112-113, 115, 116, 
117, 118, 120; ii 352-354 (illust.); iv 
Bir. 

Horse, Arabian, iv 236 (illust.), 237. 

-- Clydesdale, iv 237 (illust.). 

— Przewalsky’s, iv 234 (illust.). 

Horses, i 106-107; ii 165-167, 350-354; 
ili 129-130, 132, 134, 140-147; iv 190, 
IQI, 233-238, 366. 

— prehistoric, iii143;iv2 

— tarpan, or ‘‘ wild”, i 107; ii 350-351; 

— tiger. See Zebras. liv 234. 

Horse-bot, i 358; iv rgz (illust.). 

Horse-Fly, great, ii 120. 

Horse-Leech, i 433. 

“Horse-shoe Crab.” 
Crabs. 

Horse-Stinger, i 358, 376 (illust.). 

Horse-Worm, iv 362. 

Hotinus candelabrius, iii 179. 

— spinole, ili 179-180. 

Houghton, iv 239, 244. 

House-Fly, i 355-356, 358; ii 120, 251- 
252 (illust.); iii 275-276 (illust.); iv 
16 (illust.), 43, 77 (illust.). 

House-Martin, i 161; iii 461, 467, 
468, 471; iv 60. 

Houssay, ii 370; iv 130. {(illust. ). 

Hover-Fly, ii 119 (illust.), 216; iii 4o2 

Hudson, W. H., i 7; ii 10, 17, 303, 
305, 343) 37%, 372; lil 463, 480, 486; 
iv 404. 

Hugo, Victor, i 315; ili 419. 

Huias, ii 64 (illust.). 

Hulme, iv 318. 

Human body, structure and func- 
tions of, i 24y-s9. See also Man. 

Humboldt, iv 216. 

Humerus, i 29-30, 144, 197-198, 241, 
252; ili 118, 298. [89, 431. 

Humming-Birds, i 163; ii 191; iv 

Hunuman, i 72-73; ii 164-165. 

Hurst, iii 403. 

Huxley, i 2, 24, 402, 418, 435, 436; 

3) 254, 400, gor; ili 338; iv 282. 

Hyena, brown (brunnea), i gt. 

— spotted, or laughing (crocuta), i 91; 

— striped (striata), i gr. ii rq (illust.). 

Hyenas, i 87, 91; ii 14-15; iv 327. 

Hyenide. See Hyznas. 

Hyalinecia, ii 339. 

Hyalonema, i 486. [328, 339-34T. 

Hydra, i 465-473; ii 160; iii 2, 10, 327, 

— brown (fusca), i 466. (271-272. 

— green (viridis), i 465, 466 (illust.); ii 

Hydra-tuba (pl. Hydra-tube), i 

Hydrocarbons, i 33. [482. 

Hydrocherus capybara, i 134; ii 
178; lil 74-75. 


33) 234 (illust. ). 


See King- 


531 


Hydrocharis, iv 9s. 

Hydrochelidon nigra, i 168. 

Hydrogen, i 33; ii 378. 

Hydroid Zoophytes. See Zoophytes. 

Hydromedusz. See Zoophytes, 
hydroid. 

Hydrometride, ii 440. 

Hydrophid@, ii 80; iii 53-54; iv 339. 

Hydrophilus piceus, ii 109, 440; iii 
398, 399- 

Hydropotes inermis, i z11. 

Hydropsychide, ii 116. 

Hydrozoa, i 465-473, 478-483; ii 160- 
162, 278; ili 17- 19, 89-90; 1V 33-34. 

Hydrus bicolor, iii 54 (illust.). 

Hyla arborea, iii 272; iv 392. 

— Europea, ii 82-83. 

— faber, iii 437-438. 

— Goeldii, iii 442. 

Hylide. See Frogs, tree-. 

Hylobates leuciscus, iii 160. 

Hylobius, iv 35s. [(illust.). 

Hylodes Martinicensis, iii 439 

Hylotoma rose, iii 388. 

Hymenoptera, i 351, 369-374; li 102, 
103-107, 202-209, 250-251, 307, 358; 
lili 28-29, 386-393; iv 108-120, 194- 
195, 355-350. 

““Hyoid apparatus”, i 29, 193, 199, 
229 230, 244, 260; 11 58. 

— arch, i 260. 

Hyo-mandibular bone, i 271. 

cartilage, 1 260. 

cleft, i 260. 

Hypoderma, bovis, i 358; iv 349. 

— lineatus, iv 349. 

Hypogeophis, iii 443. 

Hyponomenta padella, i 365. 

Hypotriorchis sublutes, ii 370. 

Hypsiprymuus, ii 182. 

Hyracoidea. See Conies. (250. 

Hyrax, Abyssinian, i zo4 (illust.); ui 

— Syrian, i ro4. 

— tree-, ili 250 (illust.). 

Hystricomorpha, ii 178. 

Hystrix cristata, i 132; ii 342. 


I 


Ianthina, iii 413. 

Ibex, Alpine, i 117; iii 151 (illust.). 

— Arabian, i 117. [iv 230. 
— Grecian, i 117; ili 248, 249 (illust.); 
— Himalayan, i 117. 


— Spanish, i 217. {(illust.). 
Ibis, African (Ethiopica), i 179-180 
— scarlet, 1 179. 

Thises, i 179-180. [386. 


Ichneumon, Egyptian, 1 90-91; iv 

— grey, igz (illust.); iv 386. 

Ichneumons, i 90-91; iii 157. 

Ichneumon-Fly, yellow-legged, iv 
194 (illust.). 

Ichneumon-Flies, i 372-373; ii 107, 
360; ili 388 (illust.); iv 194-105. 

Ichthyomys, 1 129. 

Ichthyophis glutinosa, iii 442-443. 

Ichthyopsida, i 204, 237. 

Ichthyosauria, iv 468, 460. 

Idotea, i 415; ii 405. 

Iguana, common, 
(illust.); iii 52, 445. 

— ring-tailed, ili 52. 

—tuberculata. See Common. 

Iguanas, i 221, 222-223, 229; il 192; 
ili 52-53, 267. 


ii 192, 193 


i 220: 


532 


Iguanodon, iv 470 (illust.). 

Tlium (pl. ae 1 145, 196, 197, 199, 
247, 252, 2 

Tlysia cotati iii 211; iv 432. 

Imago, i 356, 350; and see Insects, 
vol. iii, &c. {iii 310. 

“Immortality of the Protozoa”, 

Impatiens tricornis, iv 91-92. 

Impennes, i 152, 186; iii 66-67. 

Inachus, ii 287-289. 

Incisors, i 35-36. See also Teeth. 

Indicatoridz. See Honey-Guides. 

Indicator Sparmanni, ii 63-64. 

Infusoria, i 492-495; ii 266-268. 
also Animalcules. 

Inhalent aperture, 
molluscs, i 331, 336. 

Ink-bag, of molluscs, i 313; 
373: iv 466. 

Insecta. See Insects. 

Insectivora. See Mammals, insect- 
eating. 


See 
of bivalve 


li 372- 


Insects, i i 8, 18, 342, 343-385; il 101- 
124, 202-217, 250-252, 282, 286-287, 
293-294, 296-300, 307-308, 311-316, 

» 320-328, 337, 340-347, 357-360, 


373: 437-442, 462-4 
165-167, 176-18 
3097315) 377-4043 


, 303; 399, 417-418, 422, 423, 
452, 462, 405. 

lon of, 1 350-351. 

— extinct, ii 463, 464. 

— fringe-winged, i 351, 355; ii 216. 
—half-winged. See Bugs. 
— membrane-winged, i 351, 


369-374; 


li 102, 103-107, 202-209, 
307, 358; ul 386-393; 
194-195, 355 
— net-winged, 1 ay -380 (illus 
Il 110-116, 211-213, 462 il 


383-386; iv 120-1 


— praying, i 381; ii 116-118; iii 378. 
See also Mantis, praying. 
—scale-winged. See Moths and 


Butterflies. 
— sheath-winged. See Beetles. 
“stick-” and ‘“‘leaf-”, i 381; ii 2 
200, 359; li 102-103 (illust.), 3 


— straight-winged, i 351, 380-333 


116-118, 213, 250, 200, eer il 
176-177, 377-380; iv 356-35 
— two-winged. See Flies. 


— wingless, i 351, 384-385; li 213-274; 
ii 176, 324, 377. (49-53- 
Instinct and intelligence, i18; iv 


— birds, iv 59-63, 130-134, 186. 

— insects, iv 53-56, 108-127, 176. 

— mammals, iv 135-142. 

— molluses, iv 56-58. 

Interambulacral areas, i 457-458. 

Interfemoral membrane, of bats, 
i Sr; ii 38. 

Intestine (and see Digestive-tube) : 

— aniphibians, i 240, 241 

— birds, i 146. 

— fishes, i 260, 262, 270, 272. 

— large, i 35, 146. 

— mammals, i 35, 37, 69; ili 12. 

— reptiles, i 200, 207, 208, 229. 

— small, 1 35, 146. 

Introduction, i 1-10. 

TInuus ecaudatus, i 73-75. 


9 253+ 


INDEX 


Invertebrates, general and classi- 
fication, i 8, 302-304. See also 
under the various groups. 

Ipnops Murrayi, iv 443 (illust.). 

Tris, i 58. 

Iron age, iv 208. 

Ischium, i 145, 196-197, 239, 252. 

Isolation, iv 488-489. 

Isopoda, i 414, 415 (illust.) ; 
143, 222, 404, 405; iv 199. 

Ivory, iv 394, 395, 475- 

Ixodes reduvius, iv 360. 

— ricinus, iv 195. 


ll 142, 


222, 


i 


Jacanas, iii 128, 129 (illust.). 

Jacares, i 210. 

Jackals, i 93; ii 15, 16. [iv 96. 

Jackdaw, i 153; ii 235, 236; ili 455; 

Jacobi, S. L., iv 286. 

Jaguar, i 88; ii 7, 10; ili 247; iv 142. 

Java Sparrow, i 156; iv 389. 

Jaw-bones, i 28, 69 (illust.), 
(illust.). See also Jaws. 

Jaw-joint, i 28-29, 123. 
Jaws. 

Jaws, amphibians, i 239, 240, 253. 

— birds, i 143-144, 166. 

— fishes, 1 259-260 (illust.), 266, 268, 
270, 271, 277-278, 282. 

— invertebrates. See Mouth-parts. 

— mammals, i 28-29, 66, 69, 86, 91, 

li 7. 

1 193, 199, 206, 210, 212, 

; ul 80-81. 

= vertebrates, 1 62. (458 (illust.). 

Jaw- -spines, of echinoderms, i 452, 

Jay, i153; iv 97. 

Jefferies, Richard, i 6, 7. 

Jelly - Fish (see also Comb-Jellies), 
i 465, 481-483; il 160, 278 i 


278 


See also 


3, 17-19, 89-9 327, 349-35. 

4) 40-41, 102, 344. 

ipound, i 481; ii 161-162, 417; 
ill 19, 327; 1V 103-104. 


Jelly-tubes, i 293-264. 

Jenkin, Fleeming, iv 488. 

Jenkins, J. Travis, iv 261, 283. 

Jenks, iv 208, 218. 

Jenner Weir, iv 149. 

Jerboa, Egyptian, ii 319 (illust.', 322. 
ili 196 (illust.). 

— five-toed, iii 195-196. 

— Siberian, i 131 (illust.); iil 195-106. 

— three-toed, ii 196. 

Jerboas, i 131; ii 279; iii 192, 104-107. 

John-Dory, i 273-274: iv 272 (illust.). 

Johnston, Sir Harry, ii 170; 1v 243. 

Jointed-limbed Animals (Arthro- 
poda), i 304, 342-4245 il 101-145, 202- 

» 400-407) 4 


ic, 1 342, 402-424. 
— classification of, i 342-343. 
— extinct, ii 342; iv 460-462. 


Joint-gills, ii 400-402. See also Gills. 
Jones, Rymer, iii 32. 
Jouannetia, iii 4ro-411. 
Julus guttatus, i 3096. 
— Londinensis, i 306. 
— terrestris, 1 396; 11 218-210; iii 


Jumping-Hare, Cape, iii 195 (illust.), 
252 (illust.). 
Jumping-Mice, i 131; 
197. See also Jerboas. 
Jumping-Mouse, North American, 
lil 194-195. [(illust. ). 
Jumping-Shrew, Cape, iii 197-198 
— rock, iii 198. (197-108. 
Jumping-Shrews, i 83; ii 37-38; ili 
Jungle-Fow], red, i 172; ii 239; iv 246. 
Jurinea mollis, iv 82. 
Justinian, Emperor, iv 259. 


ili 192, 194- 


K 


Kainozoic epoch, iv 457, 472-476. 

Kakapo, i 166; ii 310 (illust.), 320. 

Kallima inachis, ii 298 (illust.). 

Kanchil, i 109, r1o (illust.); iii 150, 
152 (illust.). 

Kangaroo, red, iii 180- 190 (illust. ). 

Kangaroos, i 14, 69; ii 42, 182, 
354, 367; ili 188-191, 478, 479 [illust. , 
480; iv 89. 

Kangaroo-Rat, common, i 130 
(illust.), 131; iii 193-194 (illust.). 

— Lesueur’s, ili 480. 


322 


— red, iii 480. 

Katydids, i 383. 

Kea, i 166. 

Kearton, C. and R.,i7; ii 52, 54; iil 
Keeble, ii 292. [185, 468. 


Kent, Saville, iv 437. 

Kerner, iv 64, 70, 82, 89, 90, 91, 92, 
93; 94, 96, 97+ 

Kerr, Graham, ii 456. 

Kestrel, i 174; iv 327. 

Kidneys. See Excretory organs. 

“King Charles’s oak-apples”, 
372. 

King-Crabs, i 343, 422-4235 Ui 144- 
145, 406-407; iii 369; iv 462. 

Kingfisher, European, i 164. 

Kingfishers, i 164-165 (illust.) 
il 453-454, 471. 

“King of the Herrings”’, i 290- 
291 (illust.); ii 387. 
Kinkajou, iii 247-248, 
Kipling, i 121; iv 223, 3 

Kite, i 175. 

Kite-Flying, iii 289-20r. 

Kittiwake, i 168; iii 455 (illust.), 456. 

Kiwis, i 187, 190; ii 68-69, 320; iit 
130, 449, 450. 

Knee, of birds, iii 65. 

— of mammals, iii 140-141. 

Knee-joint, i 32. 

Knee-pan, i 32. 

Knot, i 160. (2 

Koala, ii 180, 181 (illust.), 322; 

Koodoo, common, ii 366. 

Krait, iv 339. 

Krauss, ii 140; iii 171. 

Kreuz-spinner, i 390. 

Krieghoff, iii 290. 


Rasa 


illust.). 


60, 479. 
iil 259- 


L 


1332 


Labial palps, i 332; 
also Mouth-parts. 


ii 248, 240. See 


Labium, i 346. See also Mouth- 
parts. 
Labrax lupus, iv 351. 


Labrum, i 346. See also Mouth-parts. 


Labrus maculatus, i 276. 

Labyrinthodon, iv 467 (illust.). 

Lace coralline, i 437- (122-123. 

Lacerta agilis, i 191, 2253 li 281; ili 

— muralis, i 225; iii 267-268. 

— ocellata, iii 445-446. 

— viridis, i 225; iv 391. 

Lacertilia, i 203, 221-227; 
Lizards. 

Lace-wing Flies, i 377, 378; ii 114. 

Lacon murinus, ii 359. 

Lacteals, i 38, 42. 

Lactuca sativa, iv 93. 

Lady-Bird, seven-spotted, i 369. 

— two-spotted, i 369. 

Lady-Birds, i 366, 369 (illust.); ii rog- 
110, 308; iv 59. 

Lemargus borealis, i 286. 

Lagena, i 150. 

— seminuda, iv 454. 

Lagomys Alpinus, i 12s. 

Lagopus mutus, i 172; ii 290; iv 134. 

— Scoticus, ii 239; iv 376-377- 

Lagostomus trichodactylus, i 
133}: li. 17. 

Lagothrix Humboldti, i 77. 

Lake, iv 260. 

Lama guanacus, 1122; ill 153; iv 232. 
— lama, i 122; 

— pacos, 1 122; iv 231-232. 

— vicunia, i 122; ili 153. 

Lamarck, iv 477-478, 489. 

Lamarckism, iv 489-490. 

Lamella, of sponges, i 484. 

— of zoophytes, i 467, 468, 474, 479- 

Lamelle, iii 269. 

Lamellibranchia, i 311, 328-338; ii 
248-250, 398-399; ili 8, 36-37, 104, 
108, 180, 219-221, 405-411; iv 18, 
398-399. 

Lamna cornubica, i 286. 

Lampern, i 2g (illust.); ii gt; iil 
423; Iv 279. [iv 279. 

Lamprey, river, i 291 (illust. bs lil 423; 

— sea, i 291; ii 91-92; ili 423; iv 279. 

_— small, i 2gr; iil 423. 

Lampreys, i 291-292; ii 91-92, 383- 
385 (illust. }. 

Lamp-Shells, i 304, 438-440; ii 260- 
261, 279, 339-340, 411; li 8; iv 465. 

— extinct, ii 340; iv 459-460, 479. 

Lampyride, ii 323. 

Lampyris noctiluca, iv 165. 

Lancelet, i 61, 293-297 (illust.); ii 
244-245 (illust.), 382, 389 (illust.) ; iii 
8, 40, 214-215 (illust.), 342, 344-345 
(illust.); iv 46. 

Land-Snails. 

Langley, iii 307. 

Lanius collurio, i 158. 

— excubitor, i 158; ii 65. 

Lantern-Fly, Chinese, iii 179 (illust.). 

Lantern-Flies, i 353; ili 179-180. 

Lapwing, i 169; ili 454, 472 (illust.). 

— spur-winged, iv 404-405 (illust.). 

Larks, i 156; ii 370; iii 303. 

— desert, ii 279. 

Larus argentatus, i 168; ili 57-58. 

— canus, i 168. 

— fuscus, i 168. 

— glaucus, i 168. 

— leucopterus, i 168. 

— marinus, i 168. 

— minutus, i 168. 

— ridibundus, i 168. 

Larva (pl. Larva), i140; iii 347-348. 

— acorn-headed worm, iii 7, 420-421. 

Von. IV. 


and see 


See Snails. 


INDEX 


Larva (Coxz.) 

— amphibians, iii 434-435, 
439) 440, 441, 442, 443: 
Tadpoles. 

— annelids, iii 7, 359-360; iv 199. 

_— ascidians, i 298-299; iii 38-39, 421- 
422; iv 38, 46. 

— crustaceans, i 417; iii 25, 27-28, 364- 
365, 366-367, 368, 369; iv 197, 198. 
— echinoderms, i 450, 461; ili 7, 23, 

354-357: 

— fishes, i 292; iii 423, 431, 432-434. 

— flat-worms, i444; iv 201, 202, 204-205. 

—insects. See also Nymphs and 
Caterpillars. 

— —— membrane-winged, i 370, 
372, 3733 i 203, 204, 387, 388, 
390, 391, 392; IV 110, 115, 116, 
120, 194-195, 256. 

net-winged, i 374, 375, 376, 


436, 437, 
See also 


371, 
389, 
118, 


377) 


378-379; il 111-113, I14, 115, 116, 
467; ili 385-386. 
— — beetles, i 367, 369; ii 107, 109, 


II0, 209, 211, 337, 439; lll 223-224, 
394, 398; Iv 192, 193, 194, 329, 354 355- 

— — bugs, i 353; ii 123, 217, 359; 11 
224-225. 


— — flies, two-winged, i 357, 358; i 
121, 215, 216, 441-442, 467-468; ili 30, 
178, 402-403; IV 37, 127, 191, 215, 329, 
351. 

— — moths and butterflies. See Cater- 
pillars. 

— king-crabs, iii 369. 

— molluscs, iii 37, 404-405, 406-407, 
411-412, 414. 

— moss-polypes, iii 7. 

— myriapods, iii 372. 

— nemertines, ili 419. 

— sponges, iii 342. 

— zoophytes, ili 350, 353. 

Larynx, birds, i 147. 

— mammals, i 47 (illust.). 

Lasiocampa quercus, i 364; iv 163. 

Lasiocampide, iii 400. 

Lasius flavus, i 373; iv 119-120. 

— niger, i 373; iv 119. 

Latax lutris, ii 23-24; ili 77; iv 304. 

Lateral line, i 263, 271, 447, 448; iv 

Latex, iv 80-81, 93. (39. 

Latrodectus scelio, ii 127, 308. 

Laughing Jackass, i 164-165 (illust. ). 

Law, i 17. 

Leaf-green. See Chlorophyll. 

Leather, iv 310, 317. (351. 

“Leather-jackets”, ii 215-216; iv 

Lecanium ribis, iv 351. 

Leech, fish-, iv 200 (illust.). 

— green, iv 321. 

— horse-, ii 149. 

— medicinal, i 432: ii 147-148 (illust.); 
iii 22; iv 321. 


Leeches, i 425, 432-433; ii 147-140, 
409-410; ill 22, 99, 360, 361; iv 8, 42, 
— land-, ii 148-149. [200, 341. 


Leeuwenhoek, iv 43. 

Leg, i 31-32. See also Tibia and 
Fibula. 

Legs (see also Limbs, Appendages) : 

— arachnids, i 386, 389, 391, 393- 

— birds, i 141, 188; ili 58, 59, 62, 65, 
126-128, 129-130. 

— crustaceans, i 403, 406, 413, 414, 420; 
iii 28, 169-172, 277, 278. 

— insects, 1 345, 381, 382, 383; ii 113- 
II4, 115, 117, 123; ili 29-30, 165-167, 
176, 178, 222-223, 273, 274; iv 254. 


533 


Legs (Coxz.) 

— mammals, i 31-32; 11 354; ill 140, 150, 
161, 162. [163-165. 

— myriapods, i 394, 395, 396, 397: iii 

— peripatus, 1 399, 111 101. 

Lemming, Norwegian, i 130 (illust.). 

Lemmings, i 130; ii 177. 

Lemna, iv 95. 

Lemur, bear, iii 243 (illust. ). 

—catta. See Ring-tailed. 

— dwarf mouse-, ili 493. 

— ring-tailed, i Go (illust.). 

Lemurs, i 68, 79-80; ii 225-226, 320; 
lii_ 240-244, 492-493; 1V 140, 420, 
422, 424, 427, 473- 

— slow, ii 319 (illust.); iii 242-244. 

Lemuroidea. See Lemurs. 

Lens of Eye, i 58; iv 47-48. [247. 

Leopard, African, i &8; ii 5, 7, 10; ili 

Leopards, hunting, i 88; it 10-11 
(illust.); iii 157-158. 

Lepas anatifera, i 417-418; ii 254; 
Uli 363-364. (268. 

Lepidodactylus aurantiacus, ii 

Lepidoptera (see also Moths and 
Butterflies), i 351, 358-366; ii 120, 
214-215, 252, 293-204, 297-209, 307- 
308, 311-314, 346-347, 359-360; ill 
309-402; iv 351-353. (456. 

Lepidosiren, i 264, 265, 266; ii 83, 

Lepidosteus, i 268; ii 334, 453. 

Lepisma saccharina, i 384; ii 214. 

Leptocephalus brevirostris, iii 434 

— Morrisii, ili 434. {(illust. ). 

Leptodactylusmystacinus, iii 437. 

Leptodera oxophila, ii 222. 

Leptogorgia virgulata, ii 285. 

Leptoplana tremellaris, ii 152; iii 
20-21. (iii 357 (illust.). 

Leptoptychaster Kerguelensis, 

Leptostraca, i 410, 416; iii 365. 

Lepus Americanus, ii 289. 

—cuniculus, i 9, 124; ii 174-176; iii 
482; Iv 141, 243-244, 308, 375, 386. 

— timidus, i 9, 124; ii 174-176; ini 188, 
482, 483; iv 244. 

— variabilis, i 9, 124-125; il 

Lernza, iv 197 (illust.). 

Lett, W. P., ii 16. 

Leucandra aspera, i 487 (illust.). 

Leucania pallens, i 364. 

Leuciscus alburnus, iv 396. 

— cephalus, i 283. 

— phoxinus, i 283. 

— rutilus, i 282; ii 449, 450. 

— vulgaris, i 283; iv 396. [203. 

Leucochloridium paradoxum, vi 

Leuecopsis gigas, iv 195. 

Leverets, i 124; iii 483. 

Leverrier, i 3. 

Levers, iii 15 (illust.), 11g, 302, 310. 

Lewis, iii 300. (384 (illust.). 

Libellula depressa, i 375, 376: iii 

Lice, i 3543 i1 122, 124; ill 314; iv 190. 

Lichens, iv 6s, 75-76 (illust.). 

Liesk, ii 221. 

Life-histories, iii 316, 335-330, 349. 

— acorn-headed worm, ili 420-421. 

— amphibians, i 254; 11 457-458; ili 45- 
46, 434-443. 

— animalcules, 1 497, 498; iii 317-325, 
333-334; iv 341. 

—annelids, iii 329-330, 334-335, 358- 
361; iv 199-200, 206-207. 

— arachnids, ili 373-377: iv 195-1096. 

— ascidians, i 298, 299; ili 38-39, 421- 

22; iv 105-106. 


289. 


129 


534 


Life-histories (Con¢.) 


— birds, iii 448-474. [196-1909. 
— crustaceans, ill 27-28, 362-369; iv 
— echinoderms, 1 450, 461; ill 328-320: 


354-357- 
— fishes, iii 422-434; iv 282-283. 
— flat- worms, flukes, i 444-445; iv 
200-203. 
planarian worms, iii 329. 
tape-worms, i 442-443; lv 203- 
205, 342-343- ; 
— insects, membrane-winged, 1 
3725 ll 203; 
104-195, 256. 
net-winged, i374, 376, 3975 378" 
379; ii 464, 466-467; ili 383-386; iv 
12J-1206. (377-380. 
straight-winged, i 350, 380; i 
wingless, ili 377. [iv 192-104. 
— — beetles, 1 367; 1 211; ili 393-309; 
— — bugs, i 353; ii 217; ili 225, 380- 
383; iv 380-381. 


3725, 
iil 386-393; iv 108-120, 


— — flies, two-winged, i 356-357; ii 
467-468; ili 4o2-404; iv 72, 191. 

— — moths and butterflies, i 3 
361, 362, 363, 364, 365; il 309 402; 

— king-crabs, iii 369. [iv 72, 259. 
— lancelet, iii 342, 344-345. 

— mammals, ill 474-. ae 

— molluscs, 1 323-324; Ill 404-419. 


— moss-polypes, 1 436; ili 330-331. 

— myriapods, ili 370-373. 

— nemertines, ill 419. 

-— peripatus, ili 370. 

— reptiles, ili 443-448. 

— sponges, iil 325-326, 341-342, 

— thread-worms, i 448, 449; iv 205-2 
343-344- 

— zoophytes, 1 478-48 
328, 339-341, 349-353; IV ToI-104. 

Ligaments, i 330; ili 141-142, 2 

Ligia oceanica, ii 143. (301, 

Ligula, ii 205, 206. See also Mouth- 
parts of insects. 

Ligurinus chloris, i 156; ii 187. 

Lima, iii 36-37, 408. 

Limacina, iv 451. 

Limax, iii 4r4. 

— agrestis, 1 328; i1 247; iv 348. 

— maximus, ii 199, 201. 

Limb-gills, ii 400-402. 
Gills. 

Limbs (see also Appendages, Legs, 
Digits, &c.): 

_ amphibians, i 
iii 48-50, 117-170, 
(illust.), 212-214, 2 

— birds, i 1g0-141: 


482; iil 327= 


See also 


i 58, 59, 61-62, 


, 125-132, 261-267, 295-304. 

— fish, i 23. 

_— mamrials. 1 24, 29-32, 61, 66-67, 91, 
98, Too, rot, 102; il 25-26, 182; iii 
7o-86, 132-144, 147-162, 186-108, 
201-207, 233-260, 292-294. 

—reptiles, i 196-199, 207, 213, 215, 
216, 228, 232; ili 50-51, 53-56, 122- 


124, 208, 209, 211, 267-270. 
— vertebrates, 161; iti 117-120 (illust.). 
— evolution of, iii 117-121. 
— modiheation of, 1 61, 66-67, 70, 100, 
104, 127, 140. 
Limenitis misippus, ii 312. 
— sibylla, ii 312. 
Limicole, i 152, 168-169. 
Limnea stagnalis, i 328 
34, 104, 106, 414; iv 18. 
—- truncatula, i 444; iv 360, 361. 


sol 434s ii 


INDEX 


Limnobates stagnorum, i 354: ii 
123-124. 

Limnophilus rhombicus, i 
(illust. ). 

Limnoria lignorum, ii 222; iii 225- 
226. 

Limosa belgica, i 169; ii 66. 

— lapponica, i 169. 

Limpet, bonnet-, iii 413. 

— common, i 323: ii 197-199 (illust.), 
336-337, 395-396, 432-433; iil 104, 
272, 412, 415 (illust.), 416-417 (illust.); 
Iv 35, 42-43, 57-56 (illust.), 

-— John Knox's, 1323; 11 395-396 (illust. ). 

— keyhole, i 

Limpets, 1 
iii 416-417. 

Limulus, i 422-423 (illust.); it 144-145, 
406-407; ii 36 

— polyphemus, iii 369 (illust.). 

Linaria cannabina, ii 187; iii 470. 

Lincecum, ii 208. 

Linckia multiflora, iii 320 (illust. ). 

Linckiid@, iii 328, 320 (illust.). 

Line-Fishing, iv 261-262. 

Lineus marinus, i 305. 

Ling, iv 267-268. 

Linguatulide, i 387, 303; iv 1096. 

Lingulella, iv 460. 

Linnea borealis, iv 97 (illust. ) 

Linneus, 19-10, 351; ii 346. 

Linné, Karl von. See Linneus. 

Linnet, i 156 470 (illust.). 

Lion, i 87; iii yor: iv 98, 

x (illust.). 


375 


li 196, 197-199; 


Lipoptena cervi, iv 190. 

Lips, of arthropods, &e. 
parts. 

— of mammals, i 34, 69, 103, 

Lithinus nigrocristatus, 
(illust. ). 

Lithobius forficatus, i 304: ii 132- 
133; Ml 165, 371-372. 

Lithocolletis corylella, i 36s. 

Lithodes maia, ii 


See Mouth- 
(173. 


Lithodomus, iii 41r. [iv 297. 
Littorina littorea, i 318; ii 106, 460: 
— obtusata, 1 32 

— rudis, i 320; ii . 

Littorinide, ii 450-460. See also 


Littorina. 
Liver, i 37, 48. 
“Liver” tubes, i 348. 
Liverworts, iv 75 illust.. 
Livingstone, iv 215. 
Lizard (and see Li : 
— black-lipped tree-, i 222. 
— bronze-, ii 77 (illust.). 
— three-toed, i 2 
— capuchin, i 223. 
— common, 
cylinder, ii 77 (illust.). 

— European snake-eyed, i 225 (illust.). 
— eyed, ili 445- 446. 
— frilled, i 222; ili 
— eel lands, 


i225 


(illust. ). 


; it z92) iti 


51, 52 (illust 
— green, i 225; iv 
— sand, i 191-2 
— — Spanish, ili es 
stump-tailed, i 226 (illust.); ii 76. 
viviparous, ii 446. 

— wall, i < 6 iS 
Lizards \see also Tlewanas, Monitors, 
Xs) il 73-76, 


((illust.). 


Ui 122-123 


ii 281; 


[ 


1 100, 203, 221-227; 


Lizards (Cozz.) 
192, 281-282, 329, 333-334, 344-345, 
370-371, 424, 425; iii 51-53, 111, 
122-124, 184-185, 207-210, 267-270, 
286-287, 332, 445-446; iv 151, 152, 

— agamoid, i 221, [328. 

— burrowing, i 225. See also Skinks. 

— common, i 221, 225. 

— flying, i 222; iii 28 

— scale-footed, i 221, 222. 

— snake-, i 221, 223-224; ii 76. 

—-—reversible, ii 76; iii 209-210 
(illust. ). (282. 

— thorny-tailed, i 222; ii 77 (illust.), 

— Tunisian, ii 77 (illust.). 

— venomous, i 221, 2 
355 (illust.); iv 338. 

Llamas, i 120, 122 (illust.); iv 

Lloyd Morgan, i 7; ii 74, 343: iv 40, 
50, 53, 56, 59, 156, 186, 4or, 492, 494. 

Loach, common, i 283; ii 450. 

— spring, ii 450. 

Lobelia cardinalis, iv 80. 

Lobster, American, iv 297. 

— common, i 


222, 


) 
24-225; il 


302-304, 342, 402-409 
(illust.); ii 135-137, 400-402 (illust.); 
iii 169, 277-278 (illust.); iv 207-200 

— Norway, i 412. {illust. ). 

—rock-, i 410, 412 (illust.); it 137, 279, 
338; ili 368; iv 37. [43. 

Lobsters, iii 27, 332, 36. 


Lob-worm, common, ii 
“Local death”, i 43-44. i 
Locust, migratory, i 382; ii 2 
356-357 (illus 
— red-legged, iii 379 (illust.). 
Locusts, i 381-382; ii 213, 439; ili 379: 
iv 318, 356-358. (177. 
Locusta viridissima, i 383; iii 176- 
Locustella nevia, i 160. 
Locustidee. See Grasshoppers, green. 
Locust-shrimps, i 410, 413-414 
(illust.). 
“Lodge”, of beaver, iv 139-140. 
Logger-head, iii 5 
Loir. See Dorniouse, fat. 
Loligo vulgaris, i 314; 
Long, Francis, ii 19. 
“Longicorns”, iii 273. 
Lonicera alpigena, iv 94. 
— Etrusca, iv 87, 88. 
Looping movements, 
467; ili 99, 102-103, 107. 
Lophius piscatorius, i 274; ii 83- 
85; ili 115. 
Lophobranchii, i 2 
Lophohelia, iv 44 
Lophophore, i 
Lophopus crystallinus, i 438; i 
261; ill 100, 331. 
Lories, ii tor. 
Loriquets, ii ror. 
Loris, common, ii 


Gn 4r7-418. 


30H, 482, 


[(illust. ). 


320; ill 241, 242 
—gracilis. See Slende 
— slender, iii 241 (illust.), 242. 
Lota vulgaris, i 270. 
Love-Birds, i 166; iv 300-301 
Lower jaw-bone, i 28, 108. See 


also Jaws. (188. 
Loxia curvirostra, i 156; ii 187- 
Lubbock, Sir John. See Avebury, 

Lord. 

Lucanus cervus, i 368. 
Lucernaria, i 452. 

Luciola, iv 165-166. 

Lugard, Captain, iv 240. [ili 226. 
Lugworm, i 430 (illust.); i 4o8-409 ; 


Lumbricus herculeus, i 431; ii 258 

— rubellus, iii 367. {iii 228. 

Luminous organs, of insects, iv 

Lump-Fish, iii 425. [165-166. 

Lumpsucker, ii 292. 

“Lung-books”, i 386; ii 442-443. 
See also Breathing organs, of arach- 
nids. [ii 83, 456. 

Lung-Fish, African, i 264, 265 (illust). ; 

— Australian, i 264, 265 (illust.); i 
83-84, 454-456. [ii 83, 456. 

— South American, i 264, 265, 266; 

Lung-Fishes, i 257, 264-266; ii 83- 
84, 330, 422-423, 453-456; iv 29-30, 

Lungs, i 45-47; ii 420. (411-412. 

— amphibians, i 240-242, 244-245, 254, 
256; ii 422-423, 456, 457- 

— birds, i 47; ii 426-427 (illust.). 

— crustaceans, ii 443, 469. [421-422. 

— evolution of, i 47; ii 452-453; ili 

— fishes, i 264; ii 453-456. _—[(illust.). 

— mammals, i 45-47, 67; ii 427-431 

— molluscs, i 328; ii 432-434 (illust.), 
460, 461, 462. 

— reptiles, i 202, 209, 226-227, 230; il 

Lung-sac, ii 436. [424-426 (illust.). 

Lung-Worm, iv 362. 

Lures, of fishes, ii 84-86. 

Luth, i 216 (illust.). 

Lutra felina, ii 23. 

— vulgaris, ii 22-23; iii 76. 

Lycosa, ii rr4. 

— piratica, ii 130-131. 

— tarantula, ii 130. 

Lycoside, i 393; ili 373-374. 

Lydekker, i 17; iii 194, 493: iv 384. 

Lymph, i 38, 41-42, 469. 

Lymph-system, of annelids, i 428. 

— of mammals, i 38, 41-43 (illust.). 

Lymphatic glands, i 43. 

— vessels, i 42. 89. 

Lynx, Polar (vulgaris), i 88 (illust.), 

— Spanish (pardinus), i 88. 

Lyre-Birds, i 161. 

Lyriocephalus scutatus, iii 270. 

Lyrurus tetrix, ii 239. 

Lytta vesicatoria, iv 321. 


fey 


M 


Macacus cynomolgus, i 74. 

— ecaudatus, i 74. 

— nemestrinus, ili 233, 234. 

— rhesus, i 74. 

— silenus, i 74-75. 

Macaques, i 74-75. 

Macaws, i 166; iv 390 (illust.), 391. 

MacBride, iii 92. (287 (illust.). 

MacDonald’s hatching-bottle, iv 

Macgillivray, iii 6r. 

Machairodus, iv 474. 

Machetes pugnax, i 169. 

Machilis maritima, i 394. 

Mackerel, common, i 274; iii 42, 43, 
(illust.) ; iv 270 (illust.). 

— Spanish, iii 41-43. 

Mackerels, i 274; ii 84; iv 128-129, 
270-271. 

Mackerel-Pikes, i 275-276. 

Macrobiotus, i 394 (illust.). 

Macronucleus, i 493: iii 323, 325- 

Macropodidee. See Kangaroos. 

Macropomus viridiauratus, iii 

Macropus, ii 182. (427. 

— rufus, iii 189-190. 


INDEX 


Macroscelides tetradactylus, iii 198. 
— typicus, i 83; iii 197-198. 
Madrepora laxa, i 475 (illust.). 
Madrepores (madrepore corals), i 
452, 475. [95-96. 

Madreporite, i 452, 458, 463; ili 91, 

Maggot, i356. See Larve. 

Magot, i 74. 

Magpie, i 153. 

Maia, ii 287-289. 

— squinado, i 4r1 (illust.). 

Mail-Shells, i 340-341 (illust.); ii 342, 
391-392 (illust.); iii 104, 404-405; iv 
16-17 (illust.). 

Malacostraca, i 410. See also Crus- 
tacea, higher. 

Mallard. See Duck, wild. 

Malleolar bone, iii 152. 

Malpighi, i 12. 

Malpighian tubes, of insects, i 349. 

Maltby, W. B., ii 455. 

Mamestra brassicae, i 364; iv 352. 

Mammals, i 8, 60, 63-138; ii 1-44, 

164-183, 224-234, 279, 289-290, 295, 

301-303, 427-431; ili 68-86, 132-162, 

186-198, 199-207, 232-261, 281-286, 

292-295, 332; iv 29-30, 88, 89, 134- 

142, 144-146, 208-213, 220-245, 301- 

308, 325-327, 331-330, 345-347, 366- 

375, 382-387, 394-395, 415-416, 418, 

419-420, 422, 424-425, 426-427, 429- 

430, 480-482. 

egg-laying, i 69-70, 138; ii 44, 332: 

ili 69-70, 475-478; iv 211-212, 427. 

— extinct, i 111-112; ili 83, 143, 256; 
iv 471-475, 481-482. 

— flesh-eating, i 68, 86-99; ii 5-25, 
226-231, 343; ili 75-86, 154-158, 188, 
247-248, 491-492; iV 212-213, 220-224, 
303-307, 366-373, 382-386, 415, 418, 
420, 422, 424, 420, 436, 472-473. 

— gnawing, i 68, 122-135; ii 174-178, 
234, 321-322, 345-346, 366-368; iii 72- 
75, 188, 192-197, 202-205, 250-253, 
282-284, 482-484; iv 135-141, 212, 
307-308, 374-375, 386-387, 416, 418, 
421, 422, 425, 430, 473- 

— hoofed, i 68, 104-122; ii 165-171, 
231-234, 321, 350-354, 365-366; ill 
137r154, 186-188, 248, 249, 486-490; 
iv 140-142, I44-145, 212, 373-374, 
415-416, 418, 420, 422, 424, 426-427, 
429-430, 472. 

— insect-eating (see also Bats), i 68, 
83-86; ii 31-38; iii 71-72, 197-198, 
200-202, 245-247, 281-282, 484-485; 
iv 212, 415, 418, 420, 422, 424, 420, 
473+ 

— pouched, i 69, 136-138; ii 42-43, 
180-183, 322, 354, 430-431; iil 70, 
188-192, 205-207, 257-261, 284-286, 
478-481; iv 411, 418, 427, 430, 474. 

— Seealso Man, Monkeys, &c., Lemurs, 
Cetaceans, Sea-Cows, Elephants, 
Conies, and Edentata. 

Mammary glands. 
glands. 

Mammillaria, iv 95. 

Mammoth, iv 394, 475 (illust.). 

Mampalon, ii 13 (illust.). 

Man, i 15, 21-59 (illust.), 70-71; ii 6, 
225; ili 8, 158-162 (illust.), 233-237, 

Manakins, iv 431. (493-494. 

Manatee, i 102 (illust.); ii 173; iii 81- 
82 (illust.), 490. [ili 81-82, 490. 

Manatus Americanus, i 102; ii 173; 

Mandible, i 28. See also Jaws. 


See Milk- 


535 


Mandibles, i See also 
Mouth-parts. 
Mandibular arch, i 260. [[illust.). 
Manarill, i 75-76 (illust.); iv 145-146 
Mangousti, crab-eating, ii 14. 
Mangoustis, i 89, 90-91; ii 13-14; ili 
156-157; iv 386. (42, 295- 
Manis pentadactyla, i 136, 138; it 
Mantidz. See Mantis, praying-. 
Mantis, praying-, i 381; ii 117-118 
(illust.), 315-316; ili 167, 378 (illust.).. 
Mantis net-wings, ii 113-114 (illust.). 
Mantispes styriaca, ii 114. 
Mantispides, ii 113-114. 
Mantis religiosa. See Mantis, 
praying-. [404; ili 369. 
“Mantis-Shrimps”, i 413; ii 141, 
Mantle, of molluscs, i 308, 329, 330; 
il 432, 433- 
— -cavity, of molluscs, i 308, 312, 313, 
319-320, 327-328, 332; li 392. 
— -gills, of molluscs, i1 396-397. 
—-lobes, of molluscs, i 331, 338; iii 
Manubrium, i 479. (220-221. 
Manyplies, ii 169. See also Diges- 
tive organs, of mammals, herbivorous. 
Mareca penelope, i 176; iii 58. 
Marey, iii 311. (398. 
Margaritifera vulgaris, iv 205, 
Margarodes, iv 400. 
Markham, Gervaise, iv 244. 
Markham, Sir Clements, iv 315. 
Marmoset, common, i 78 (illust.). 
Marmosets, 1 71, 78-79; ii 225; iii 
494. 
Marmot, Alpine, i 126; iv 387. 
Marmots (see also Prarie-Marmots), 
1 126-127; iv 135. 
Marrow, i 24-25, 26, 28. 
Marshall, Milnes, i rq: ii 2; iii 337. 
Marsupialia, i 69; and see Mam- 
mals, pouched. 
Marsupial Mole. Pouched 
Mole. [iv 303. 
Martens, i 97-98; ii 22; ili 156, 247; 
Martin, H. T., iv 136, 139. 
Martin, house-, i 161; iii 461, 467, 
468, 471; iv 60. 
— sand-, i 161; ili 453. 
Mask, of insects, ii 115. 
Masking, ii 287-289. 
Mastacembelide, iv 426. 
Mastax, i 435. 
Mastodonsaurus, iv 467. 
Mataco, ii 341-342. 
Mating. See Courtship. 
Matter, i 4. 
Maxille, first, i 345-346. 
Mouth-parts. 
— second, i 345-346. See also Mouth- 


345-346. 


See 


See also 


parts. 

May-Fly, common, i 375, 376 (illust.}; 
ii 465 (illust.). 

May-Flies, i 374, 376-377; i 115-116, 


465-466; 111 30; iv 164-165 (illust.). 
M'‘Cook, ii 208, 200. 
Meadow-Flies, ii 119 (illust.). 
Median lines, i 447, 448. 

Medulla oblongata, i 50, 150, 203, 

253; iv 21. 

Medusa (pl. Meduse), i 478, 479, 

480, 481, 482. See also Jelly-Fish. 
— ‘covered-eyed”’, i 483. 

— ‘“naked-eyed”, 1 483. 

Megachile, iii 391. 

Megalobatrachus 
247; 11 457; ll 48. 


maximus, 


536 


Megalopa, iii 28, 366 (illust.), 367. 
Megalops thrissoides, iv 381. 
Megapelia (Goura) victoriz, ii 
Megapodiide, iii 450-. (18s. 
Megapodius eremita, i 
— Layardi, iii 451. 
— tumulus iii 452. 
Megatherium, ii 327; iv 473-474. 
Melanism, iv 384. (443: 
Melanocetus Murrayi, ii 85-86; iv 
Melanoplus femur-rubrum, iii 
379 [iv 249. 
Meleagris gallopavo, i 172; ii 239: 
Meles taxus, i 97; H 230; ill 156. 
Melianthus major, iv 87, 89. 
Melipona fasciculata, iv 251- 
Mellinus arvensis, i 373; ii 106. 
Mellivora, ii 231. 
Meloé, iv 193-194. 
Meloids. See Beetles, oil-. 
Melolontha vulgaris, i 36 
iii 224; iv 354. 
Melophagus ovis, iv 190. 
Melophorus, ii 206. 
Melopsittacus undulatus, iv 390. 
Membranipora, i 437. (i 245. 
Membranous labyrinth, amphibia, 
— — birds, i 150. 
— — fishes, i 263; 


8; 11 209; 


iv 39. 
56. 
— — reptiles, 1 203, 200, 
— — vertebrates, lower, iv 3g (illust.). 
Mendel, iv 493, 494. 
Menhaden, iv 318. 
Menopon pallidum, i 380: 
Mephitis suffocans, ii 301-303, 354. 
Merganser, red-breasted, i177; ii 54 
(illust.); ili 60-61 (illust.). 
Mergansers, iii 60-61. 
Mergulus alle, i 154. 
Mergus albellus, i 177. 
— merganser, 1177; iil 641. 
— serrator, 1177; il 54; ill 60-61. 
Merlin, i 174; iv 327. 
Merluccius vulgaris, iv 268. 
‘Mermaids’ purses”, iii 424. 
Merostomata, iv 462. 
Merriam, Hart, iii 253. {iii 298. 
“Merry-thought”, i 144, 145, 187; 
Mesenteries, i 473, 474, 476. 
Mesoderm,, iii 342, 344, 345; iv 47- 
Mesogleea, iti 330, 342- 
Mesotarsal ankle-joint, i 146, 190. 
Mesozoic epoch, iii 308; iv 457, 464- 
47%. 
Metacarpus, ii 197, 198; iii 134, 290. 
Metagenesis, iii 382, 42 
Metamorphosis, i 350; iii 377. 
also Life-histories. 
— acorn-headed worms, ili 420-421. 
— amphibians, ili 434-435, 438-439, 
— ascidians, iii 421. (442, 443 
— crustaceans, i 409. 
— echinoderms, i 450; ili 354-356. 
— fishes, iii 423, 431-433- 
— insects, membrane-winged, i 370; iii 
386-393; iv 195. [3793 ili 383-386. 
net-winged, 1 374, 376, 377, 378, 
straight-winged, iii 377-380. 
wingless, iii 377. [193. 
— — beetles, i 367; iii 393-399; iv 192, 
— — bugs, ili 380-383. 
— — flies, two-winged, i 356-357; iil 
402-404; IV 191. [iii 309-402. 
— — moths and butterflies, i 359-360; 
ili 405, 406-407, 411-412, 
— nemertines, iil 419. (414, 415. 


[iv 356. 


ll 111; 


See 


— molluscs, 


INDEX 


Metatarsus, i 31, 144, 146, 241, 252; 
ii 197, 198; iii 126, 134. 
Metatheria, i 68-69; and see Mam- 
mals, pouched. (333-334, 335+ 
Metazoa, i 490, 491; iii 2, 318, 325, 
Method, comparative, i 12. 
— scientific, i 1-4. 
Methone Anderssoni, ii 282. 
Mias, See Orang-utan. 
Mice, i 125, 127-131; ii 234, 321; iii 
483; iv 387. See also Mouse. 
Microbes. See Bacteria. 
Microcebus pusillus, iii 493. 
Micrococcus prodigiosus, iv 78. 
Microgaster glomeratus, i 372; iv 
194. (ror. 
Microglossus aterrimus, ii 189- 
Microlestes, iv 484-482. 
Micronucleus, i 493; ili 323- 
Microscope, effect on st 
zoology, i 10-12. 
Microstomum lineare, iii 320. 
Microtome, i 466. 
Microtus, i 1290; 11.177; iv 486. 
— agrestis (common field-vole 
— amphibius, i 129. 
— arvalis (southern field-vole), iv 486. 
—glareolus,i129. , 
Midge, black, i 357; ii 121. 
— plumed, i 357. 
Midges, i 357; ii 121, 467-468; iv 190. 
— sand-, ii 121, 468 (illust.); iv 190. 
Midriff, i 24, 46, 67, 148, 209; il 42 
Migration, i 18. ae 
— as means of protection, ti 329-331. 
— birds, i 168; ii 239, 241; iil 305; iv 


325- 
udy of 


), 1129. 


7s 
O. 


61-62. (263, 276. 
— fishes, ili 423, 426, 433, 434; iv 128, 
— insects, iv 127, 256-257. 

— mammals, 1 130. 

Miliola, i 489 (illust.); iii 6 (illust.). 
Milk, 1 65 (48x. 
Milk-glands, i 65-66; in 474-475, 
— apes and monkeys, i 71 

— bats, 181; iil 485. 

— cetaceans, ili 490-491. 

— edentates, iii 482. 

— elephants, ili 490. 

— lemurs, i 80. (477. 478. 
— mammals, egg-laying, 1 69; iN 475- 


— —— hoofed, 1 108; in 487, 488, 480. 

— —— insect-eating, 1 83; ill 484, 485. 

pouched, i 68-69; iii 478-479. 

— sea-cows, i 102. 

Millais, ii 48, 62, 63; ii 187. 

Millepora, i 480-481; ii 160-161. 

Miller’s thumb, i 274; iv 273. 

Millipedes, i 342, 394-398; ii 218- 
219, 360, 435-437; iii 163-164, 370- 
373; iv 14-15, 30, 31, 360. 

— flattened, i 396 (illust. ). 

— pill-, 1 306. 

— snake-, ill 225. (219; iii 372. 

earth, or common, i 396; 218- 

— —— London, i 306 (illust.). 

spotted, i 396 (illust.). 

Milvus ictinus, i 17s. 

Mimicry, ii 301, 309-317. 

— arachnids, ii 299-300, 316; ili 168. 

— birds, ii 309-311. 

— insects, ii 311-316; iv 160. 

— mammals, ii 37; ili 246-247. 

— plants, iv 81. 

— reptiles, ii 311; iii arr. 

Mimulus luteus, iv 90. 

Mineral salts, i 33. 

Minks. See Visons. 


Minnow, i 283. 

M'‘Intosh, iii 426. 

Mirikis, i 77 (illust.). 

Mitchell, Chalmers, iv 414. 

Mite, cheese-, i 393 (illust.); ii 443. 

— currant gall-, iv 360. 

— gall-, ii 217. 

— hair-, iv 196 (illust.). (341- 

— mange- or itch-, 1 393; iv 196 (illust.), 

— meal-, ii 217. 

— red fowl-, iv 360. 

Mites, i 387, 393; ii 132, 217-218, 442— 
443; Iv 15, 83, 195, 196, 360. 

Mitra, i 321. 

Mitre-Shells, i 321. 

“Moas”, iv 428, 475-476 (illust.). 

Meebius, iii 23r. 

Moggridge, ii 207. 

“Mohair ”, iv 230. 

Molars, i 36; and see Teeth. 

Mole, common, i &r (illust.), $6; ii 36- 
37 (illust.); iii 200-202 (illust.), 484- 
485 (illust. Je iv 3275 

— golden, i 86; ii 33-34 (illust.); il 
202, 203. 

— star-nosed, ii 37 (illust. 
418 (illust. ). 
Moles, i 86; ii 

Mole. 

Molecular vibration, i 54, 57. 

Molecules, i 54. 

Mole-Rat, common, ii 177-178 (illust.); 
ill 203-204 (illust. ). 

— great, 1 130. [204. 

Mole-Rats, i 130; ii 177-178; ili 203- 

Mole-Shrews, ii 35-36 (illust.). 

Molge cristatus, i 246; iii 46, 47; iv 

— palmatus, i 246; ili 46. (353: 

— taeniatus, 1 246. 

— vulgaris, ili 46. 

— Walltli, ii 334. 

Mollusca. See Molluscs. 

Molluscs, i 11, 304, 307-341; ii 93+ 
100, 196-201, 247-250, 279, 287, 292, 
296, 306-307, 335-337, 342, 357, 372- 
373, 391-399, 432-434, 459-462; ili 


; lili 202; iv 


> and 


oy 


28; ill 24 see 


30-37, 103-110, 180-181, 217-222, 
331, 404-419; Iv 16-19, 29, 31, 34-35, 
45-46, 56-58, 214-215, 288-207, 322- 


324, 349, 348, 397-399, 419, 421-422, 
33, 438-439, 444, 448, 451, 462-463, 
465-466. 

— bivalve, i 311, 


328-338; ii 248-250, 


337, 335, 336, 357, 398-309; in 8, 36- 
37, IO4, 108, 180, 219-221, 232, 4o5- 
411; iv 18, 34, 40, 45-46, 215, 288- 


297, 398-399. 
— extinct, iv 465-466, 470. 


— head-footed, i 311-317; ii 391-393; 


iii 104, 108-110, 417-419; iv 18-19, 
347-35, 45) 274, 438. 
— “headless”, i 331. 
— Primitive. See Protomolluscs. 
Molluscoida. See Moss-Polypes 
and Lamp-Shells. fiv 428. 
Moloch horridus, i 222; ii 333-334; 


Molva vulgaris, iv 267-268. 

Monads, i 494: ii 267-268; iii 6 illust.). 

— springing, i 489, 494 (illust.}; 11 267- 
268. 

“Money - Spinner” 
Spider), i 393; ii 218. 

Monitor, desert, ii 73, 282. 

— Nile, i 224-225 (illust.); ii 73. 

— Papuan, ii 73. 

— water, ii 73; ili 52 (illust.). [s2. 

Monitors, i 221, 224-225; ii 73; iii 51- 


(or Money- 


Monkey (and see Monkeys): 

— barrigudo, i 77. 

— Diana, i 74. 

— entellus, i 72-73 (illust.); ii 164-165. 

— green guenon, i 74. 

— guereza, 1 73. 

— Java, i 74. 

— miriki, i 77 (illust.). 

— moustache, i 74. 

— owl-faced night-, ii 319 (illust.), 320. 

— pig-tailed, ili 233, 234 (illust.). 

— proboscis, i 73. 

— red howling, i 76-77. 

— rhesus, i 74. 

— saki, black, i 78; iii 240, 241 (illust.). 

— spider, i 77; iii 239-240 (illust.), 255 

— squirrel, i 78. ((illust. ). 

— wanderoo, i 74-75 (illust.). 

Monkeys (and see Monkey, Baboons, 
&c.), 1 71-79; il 225, 325, 326, 348- 
349, 363-365; Ul 158-162, 223-240, 
493-494; iv 134, 140, 382, 419-420, 
424, 429, 473- 

— Capuchin, i 77. 

— clawed. See Marmosets. 

—colobi or African thumbless, i 73; 

— guenon, i 73-74. [iii 237, 238. 

— howling, i 76-77; iv 146. 

— macaques, i 74-75. 

— naked-tailed, i 76-77. 

— New World, i 76-78; iii 238-240. 

— Old World, i 72-76; and see Apes, 
Baboons, &c. 

— sakis, i 76, 78. 

— tailed, i 72. 

Monkey-Musk, iv 90 (illust.). 

Monk-Fish, i 286-287 (illust.). 

Monkshood, iv 80. 

Monodon monoceros, iv 394. 

Monotremata. See Mammals, egg- 
laying. 

Montagu, iv 149. 

Moor-Hen, i 171; ii 240, 295; iii 61. 

Moose, i 112; iii 52; and see Elk. 

Moquin-Tandon, ii 199, 2or. 

Mordella, iv 43. 

“More-Pork” Birds, iv 428. 

Morgan, Lewis H., iv 136. 

Morgan, Lloyd. See Lloyd Morgan. 

Morgan, T. Hunt, iv 494. 

Morone labrax, i 273. 

Morpho cypris, i 36r. 

— Neoptolemus, i 36r. 

Morphology, of animals, i rt-13, 17; 
iv 480-482. 

Morris, iii 434; iv 407. 

Morula, iii 338, 340, 341, 342. 

Mosasaurus, iv 469. 

Moschus moschiferus, i 110; iii 
151; iv 402, 

Moseley, i 7, 398. 

Mosquitoes, i355; ii 121, 215; iv 190, 
207, 341 (illust.). 

Moss-Polypes, i 304, 436-438; ii 
261, 279, 339, 410-411; ili 7, 8, 99- 
100, 330-331; 1V 104-105, 439. 

Motacilla alba, i 157. 

— flava, i157; ii 66. 

— lugubris, i 157: ii 65. 

— melanope, i 157; iii 125, 457-458. 

— Raii, i 157. 

Moth (and see Moths) : 

— antler, iv 163. 

— atlas, i 363. 

— black arches, ii 287. 

— brimstone, i 364; ii 297-298; iii ro2. 

— brown dolly, i 365. 


INDEX 


Moth (Conz.) 

— buff-tip, i 363; ii 299. 

— cabbage, iv 352 (illust.). 

— chimney sweeper, i 364. 

— cinnabar, iv 59. 

— clothes, i 36s (illust.); iv 353. 

— codlin, i 365; iv 352 (illust.). 

— common wainscot, i 364. 

— corn, iv 353 (illust.). 

— currant, i 364; ii 307. 

— death’s-head, i 363; iv 43. 

— diamond-back, iv 352. 

— dun-bar, ii 252. 

— early thorn, ii 300. 

— emperor, i 363; ii 120; iv 164 (illust.). 

— ermine-, little, i 365. 

— — white, ii 313. 

— gipsy, iv 353, 359- 

— goat, 1 363; IV 43, 352. 

— gold-tail, ii 360. 

— grass, iv 352. 

— great yellow underwing, iv 352. 

— green oak, i 365. [iv 352. 

— heart-and-dart, 1 364; ili gor (illust.); 

— humming-bird, iii 311. 

— lackey, i 364. 

— lobster, ii 313-314 (illust.). 

— magpie or currant, i 364; ii 307. 

— muslin, ii 313. 

— nun, iv 353. 

— oak eggar, i 364; iv 163 (illust.). 

— oak procession-, ii 346-347. 

— oak silk-, iv 260. 

— pale tussock-, i 364. 

— pea, iv 352. 

— peppered, ii 293-294. 

— pine Hawk-, i 363; ii 314. 

— plume, common, i 366. 

— — twenty, i 366. 

— privet, i 363. [401-4 

— puss, i 363; ii 313-314, 359-360; 

— silkworm, i 364; ii 214; iil gor; iv 
259-260 (illust.). 

— silver Y, i 364; ili gor (illust.); iv 352. 

— tiger, i 363. 

— turnip, iv 352. 

— wax, Iv 353. 

— winter-, i 364, 372; iv 3509 (illust.). 

Moths (and see Moth), i 351, 358-360, 
362-366; ii 120, 214-215, 252, 313; ill 
312, 313, 399-402; iv 56, 72, 162-164, 
351-353- 

— burnet, ili 402. 

— clear-wing, i 362, 363. 

— — hornet, i 363; ii 313. 

— hawk-, i 362, 363; iv 88. 

— — elephant, ii 314. 

— lappet, iii 4oo. 

— large, i 362, 363-364. 

— leaf-miner, i 362, 365. 

— leaf-roller, i 362, 36s. 

— looper, i 362, 364. 

— owlet, 1 362, 364; ili 103, gor; iv 352. 

— plume, i 362, 365-366. 

— small, i 362, 365-366. 

— South American, ili gor. 

— spinner, i 362, 363-364. 

“Mother Carey’s chicken”, i 183. 

Mother-of-pearl, iv 398. 

Mouflon, iv 227. [406. 

Moulting process, of crustaceans, i 

Mountain Devil. See Moloch. 

Mouse, harvest (and see Mice), i 128; 
iii 483 (illust.). (347- 

— house-, i 128; ii 321; iv 346 (illust.), 

— wood-, or long-tailed field-, i 128. 

Mouse-Birds, iii 266-267. 


537 


Mouse-Deer, i 109; and see Chevro- 
tains. 

Mouth and Mouth-cavity (see also 
Mouth-parts, Jaws, &c.): 

— of acorn-headed worm, i 301. 

— of amphibians, i 238, 240, 253, 255- 

— of animalcules, i 492, 493, 494, 495- 

— of annelids, i 426, 427, 432; ii 147, 
148. 

— of arachnids. See Mouth-parts. 

— of ascidians, i 297, 298. 

-- of birds, i 143-144; and see Beak. 

— of crustaceans. See Mouth-parts. 

— of echinoderms, i 451, 452, 455, 4575 
458, 459, 460, 462. 

— of fishes, i 13, 258, 261, 265, 
271, 274, 276, 283, 284, 291-292. 

— of flat-worms, i 442, 443, 444, 

* 446. 

— of insects. See Mouth-parts. 

— of king-crabs. See Mouth-parts. 

— of lancelet, i 294. 

— of mammals, i 34, 46, 54-55. 

— of molluscs, i 307, 311, 331, 339; ll 
196-197, 198 (illust.). 

— of moss-polypes, i 437. 

— of myriapods. See Mouth-parts. 

— of nemertines, i 305. 

— of peripatus. See Mouth-parts. 

— of reptiles, i 13, 192, 193, 199, 206, 
216, 228, 229. 

— of siphon-worms, i 432; ii 150. 

— of thread-worms, i 447. 

— of vertebrates, i 303. [263. 

— of wheel animalcules, i 434-355: il 

— of zoophytes, i 466, 473, 476, 477, 
479, 481, 483. 

Mouth-parts and Mouth of Ar- 
thropods (see also Limbs, Jaws, 
Appendages): 

— arachnids, 1 386, 388, 390, 391, 394- 

— crustaceans, i 403, 404, 407, 408, 
413, 414, 417, 418, 421, 422; il r4r, 
142, 144; lil 277-278. 

— insects, 1 345, 346, 348. 

beetles, i 367; li 107. 

bugs, i 351-352; il 122-123 

(illust.), 216-217. 

flies, two-winged, i 355-356, 

358; ii 120, 121 (illust.), 215. 

moths and butterflies, i 359 

(illust.); ii 103, 214-215 (illust.), 252; 

iv 164. 

fringe-winged, ii 216. 

— — membrane -winged, i 370; ii 
205-206, 207; iv 254, 255 (illust.). 

net-winged, i 376, 377; ii 111, 

113, II4, 115, 116; ili 223, 386; iv 

122. {ii 102. 

straight-winged, i 345-346, 380; 

— king-crabs, i 423. (218 (illust.). 

—myriapods, i 395, 396; li 132-133, 

— peripatus, i 399, 401; ii 134. 

— sea-spiders, i 424. 

Movement, i 17-18. 

— amoeboid, i 49: ii 1-4. 

— ciliary, i 49: ili 4-8. See also Cilia. 

— euglenoid, ili 88-89. 

— muscular, i 48-49; ili 8-16, 17-18, 


270, 


445, 


122 


22, 


87-88, 112-113, 173-174, 199-200, 
231, 292. See also Muscular Sys- 
tem. 


—organs of (see also Appendages, 
Digits, Limbs): (216. 
— —acorn-headed worm, ili 215- 
amphibians, ili 45-50, 116-121, 
182-184, 212-214, 272, 287-288. 


538 


Movement, organs of (Cont.) 

animalcules, 1 490, 492, 494, 

495; ill 2, 4, 5, 8, 88-89, 231. 

annelids, 1 426, 430-431, 432; 
lll 22-23, 97-99, 226-230. 

— — arachnids, i 386; iii 168-169, 
175-176, 276, 280, 290-291. 

ascidians, iii 38-39. 

birds, 1 149; 11 56-67, 125-132, 

185-186, 261-267, 286, 295-308. 

crustaceans, 1 403, 406; iii 25- 

28, 169-172, 174-175, 225-226, 277- 

278, 366-367. 

echinoderms, i 451, 453, 455, 

457, 464; ill 3-4, 23-24, 90-97, 114- 

115, 230, 232, 278-279. 

fishes, i 257-258; lll 40-44, 115- 

116, 182, 272, 288-289. 2I. 

flat-worms, i 445, 446; ill 20- 

insects, 1 345; ill 28-30, 102- 

103, 165-167, 176-180, 222-225, 272- 

278, 309-315. 

lancelet, ili 40, 214-215. 

mammals, i 48-49, 98, too; il 

24-25; ill 68-86, 132-162, 186-198, 

200-207, 232-261, 281-286, 292-295. 

molluscs, i 307, 312-313, 317, 

323, 326, 332, 334, 336, 341; ill 30-37, 

103-110, 180-181, 217-222, 232 

moss-polypes, 111 99-100. 

— —— myriapods, 1 394, 395, 396, 397; 
ili 163-165, 225. 

— —— nemertines, iii 24. 

peripatus, i 399; ill ror-ro2. 

reptiles, i 195-199; ill 50-56, 

IIO-111, 121-124, 184-185, 207-212, 

267-272, 286-287, 308-309. 

siphon-worms, ill 230. 

thread-worms, ii 21. 

wheel-animalcules, i 4 

IOO-I01. [2 

zoophytes, 1 467, 483; i 

Mucous membrane, i 35, 5 3 

Mud-‘‘ Eel” or Siren, i 249; ii 457; 
iii 48-40, 273 (illust.). 

Mud-Fishes. See Lung-Fishes. 

Mud-Shrimp, i 416 (illust.); it 405; 
iii 365. 

Mud-Skippers, ii 87 (illust.), 448, 
450; iii 115-116, 182, 272. 

Musgil capito, i 275; iv 273, 381. 

— chelo, iv 273. 

Mugilide. See Grey-Maullets. 

Mules, iv 239-241, 479. 

Miiller, Johannes, i 12. 

Mullide. Sce Red-Mullets. 

Mullus barbatus, iv 271. 

— surmulletus, iv 271. 

Mungoose, Egyptian, i 90-91; iv 386. 

— Indian, i 91; iv 386 (illust.). 

Munia oryzivora, i 156; iv 389. 

Muntjacs, iv 424. 

Murena helena, i 283-284. 

Murenida. See Eels. 

Murex, i 320-321; ii 336. 

— Branden, iv 397 (illust.). 

Muride. Sce Rats and Mice. 

Mus decumanus, i 128; iv 375. 

— minutus, i 128; ili 483. 

— musculus, i 128; 11 321; iv 346. 

— rattus, i 128. 

— sylvaticus, i 128. 

Musca carnaria, ii 346. 

— domestica, i 355-356, 358; ii 120, 
251-252; ill 275 iv 16, 77- 

— vomitoria, i 358: iv 351. [ii 367. 

Muscardinus avellanarius, i 131; 


INDEX 


Muscicapa grisola, ii 61. 

Muscicapide, ii 61. 

Muscivora regia, ii 61. 

Muscle, “involuntary”, i 49; iii 10-13. 

— striated, iii 12-13 (illust.). 

— unstriated, iii 10-12 (illust.). 

— ‘voluntary’, i 49; iii 13. 

Muscles, i 48-49, 303, 469; ili 13-16. 
See also Muscular System and Move- 
ment. 

Muscle-fibres, iii 8-9, 10, 11-13, 14, 
18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 40, 91, 92, 93, 95; 
100, 105, 216, 228, 229, 272, 279. 

Muscular action, i 48-49. 
Movement. 

Muscular locomotion. See Move- 
ment and Muscular System. 

Muscular System, acorn-headed 
worm, iil 215-216. 

— amphibians, ii 272. 

—annelids, iti 22, 98, 99, 226, 228-229. 

— ascidians, iti 38-39. 

— birds, i r49; iti 261-262, 297, 299-303- 

— crustaceans, i 408; iii 278. 

— echinoderms, ili 91-92, 93, 95, 97, 
115, 278, 279. See also Water- 
vascular System. 

— fishes, ili 115-116. 

— flat-worms, ili 20-21. 

— insects, ili 163, 310-311. 

— lancelet, iii 40-345. 

— mammals, i 48-49; ili 135, 201, 202, 
233-236, 293. 

— molluscs, iii 31, 33, 36-37, 104-106, 
219, 222. 

— moss-polypes, iii 99-100. 

— peripatus, ili ror. 

— reptiles, ili 110-111, 208, 270. 

— siphon-worms, ili 230. 

— thread-worms, ili 21. 

— zoophytes, iii 18. 

Muscular tissue, iii 10, 13, 14. See 
also Muscular System. 

Musical organs, of insects, i 353, 
382, 383; iv 38. 

Musimon. See Mouflon. 

Musk, i 110-111. 

Musk-glands, i 205. 

Musk-Ox, i 115 (illust.). 

Musk-Rat, i 130; iii 73 (illust.). 

Musk-Shrew, i.83; iii 71. 

Musquash, i 130; iii 73 (illust.); iv 
307 (illust.), 308. 

Mussel, edible, i 335-336; iii 405, 406, 
407-408 (illust.) ; iv 294-295 (illust.), 

— culture, iv 295-296 (illust.). (348. 

Mussels, freshwater, i 328-333; i1248- 
249, 335) 398-399; ill 37, 220, 4c6- 

— sea, 1 335-337- (407 (illust.). 

Mussel-Shrimp, i 419-420 (illust.); 
ii 405-406; ili 25, 26, 364. 

Mustela Americana, iv 303. 

—erminea. See Putorius ermineus. 

—lutreola. See Putorius lutreolus. 

— martes, i 98; ii 22. 

— putorius. See Putorius feetidus. 

— Sibirica. See Putorius Sibiricus. 

—vison. See Putorius vison. 

— vulgaris. See Putorius vulgaris. 

— zibellina, i 98; iii 156; iv 303. 

Mustelida, i 97-98; ii 21-22; ili 156; 
iv 303-304. See also Martens and 
Weasels. 

Mustelus levis, i 28s. 

Mutilla Europea, i 373; ii 106. 

Mutualism, i 18; iv 67, 75-76, 170. 

Mya arenaria, i 334; ii 250; ili 220. 


See 


Mycetes caraya, iv 146. 
— seniculus, 1 76-77. 
Mycetophilide, iv 127. 
Mycetozoa, i 489, 496, 498 (illust.); 
li 270; iii 6, 8, 322. 
Mygale avicularia, i392; ii 106, 130, 
Mygnimia aviculus, ii 315. (443. 
Myliobatis aquila, i 288; ii 90; iii 
Mylodon, iv 474. (44. 
Myodes lemmus, i 130; ii 177. 
Myogale moschata, i 83; ii 35; ill 71- 
— Pyrenaica, iii 72. (72. 
Myopa ferruginea, ii 119. 
Myopotamus coypu, iii 74. 
Myoxid@, ii 176-177; iii 251-252. 
Myoxus glis, iv 244-245. 
Myrianida, iii 318 (illust.). 
Myriapoda (see also Centipedes and 
Millipedes), i 342, 394-398; 11 132- 
134, 218-219, 360, 435-437; ill 163- 
165, 225, 370-373; iv 14-15, 462. 
— insect-like, i 396, 397. 
— larva-like, i 396, 397-398. 
— spider-legged, i 396, 397. 
Myrmecobius, ii 42-43. 
Myrmecocystus Mexicanus, ii 
206-207. 
Myrmecophaga jubata, i 136; ii 
41-42; lll 256, 482. 
Myrmeleo, i 378; iv 16. 
— formicarius, ii 111-113. 
Myrmica rubra, iv 119 (illust.). 
Mysis, i 413; ili 365; iv 36. 
Mystacoceti, ii 26. See also Whales, 
toothless. (3st. 
Mytilaspis pomorum, iii 381; iv 
Mytilus edulis, i 335; ili 40s, 406, 
407-408; iv 294-295, 348. [385. 
Myxine glutinosa, i 292; ii 91, 92, 
Myxomycetes. See Mycetozoa. 
Myzostoma, iv 199 (illust.). 


N 


Naia bungarus, ii 80. 

— haie, ii 80. 

— tripudians, i 234; ii 80; iv 330. 

Nails, of mammals, 1 25, 64; and see 
Claws. 

Nais, iv 42 (illust.). 

Names, scientific, i 9. 

Narwhal, iv 304. 

Nasal cavities (see also Smell): 

— birds, i 147. 

— mammals, i 55-56 (illust.). 

Nassa reticosa, iii 412; iv 348. 

Nasua socialis, ii 229, 230. = (413. 

Natica Josephina, ii 98; iii 217, 218, 

Native Wolf, ii 42. See also Thyla- 
cinus. 

Natterjack, i 255. 

Natural classification, i 11. 

—history. See Zoology. 

Natural Selection, iv 484-488. 

— objections to theory of, iv 488-489. 

Nature-Study, i 5-7; iv 63-64. 

Naumann, ii 370. 

Nauplius eye, i 422. [198. 

— larva, i 417; ili 25, 364-365; iv 197, 

Nautilus, paper, i 315-316; iii 32-33, 
418. 

— pearly, i 316-317 (illust.); i1 335, 
393; li 108-109, 418; iv 18, 45 (illust.). 

—pompilius. See Nautilus, pearly. 

Nearctic Region, iv 413, 414, 418- 

Nebalia, i 416; ii 405; 111 365. (419. 


Neck, i 35. 

— -ligament, ii 165, 167. 

— -vertebrze, i 26-27, 66; iii 83-84. 

Necrophorus, iii 396-398. 

— Germanica, ii 109, 110. 

— vespillo, ii 109, 110. 

Nectogale elegans, ii 35; iii 71. 

Nekton, iv 435, 448. (450. 

Nemachilus barbatulus, i 283; ii 

Nemathelmia. See Thread-Worms. 

Nematodes, ii 222. 

Nematus ribesii, iv 356. 

Nemertea. See Nemertines. 

Nemertines, i 304, 305-307; ii 93, 
391, 4445 lil 24, 419; iv 10, 11, 439, 

Nemesia, i 392. (452-453. 

Nemobius sylvestris, i 383. 

Neo-Lamarckism, iv 491. 

Neomenia, i 341. 

Neomylodon, ii 327; iv 474. 

Neotropical Region, iv 413, 414, 
428-434. [iii 382-383. 

Nepa cinerea, i 354; ii 108, 124, 440; 

Nepenthes, iv 70-71. 

Nephridia (sing. nephridium), i 
gor. See also Excretory organs. 

Nephrops norvegicus, i 412. 

Nepide, ii 440-441; ili 382-383. 

Nereis, i 425-429; ii 146-147; iii g7- 
98; iv 12, 44. 

Nerita polita, iv 323. 
Neritic Zone, iv 435-441. 
Nerve-cells, i 51 (illust.), 471; iv 6- 
7) 9s 14s 17, 22-23. 
Nerve-centre, iv 9. 
gha, &c. 

Nerve-cord (see also Nervous Sys- 
tem), of invertebrates (higher), i 
303-304, 306-307, 349, 400, 401, 407, 
409, 428; iv 7-8, g (illust.), ro, 11- 
12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17. 

— of vertebrates (primitive), i 293, 296- 
297. [27. 

Nerve-fibres, i 51-52; iv 6, 8, 9, 14, 

Nerve-loop (see also Nervous Sys- 
tem), of molluscs, i 310, 318, 320, 324, 
325, 328; iv 17-18, 19. 

Nerve-plate, iv 20 (illust.). 

Nerve-ring (see also Nervous Sys- 
tem), of invertebrates (higher), i 303- 
304, 306-307, 310, 328, 333, 349, 407, 
409, 427, 428, 440, 443, 444, 448; IV 
7, 8, 11, 12, 14, 15, 16, 17, 19. 

Nerves, i 50. 

— auditory, i 56. 

— cranial, i 52-53, 55. 

— olfactory, i 55-56 (illust.). 

— optic, i 58. 

— sensory, i 53. 

— spinal, i 51. 

Nerve-tissue, iii 10. 
vous System. 

Nervous System, i 18, 49-53; iv 1- 

— amphibians, iv 21. (5, 19-20. 

— annelids, i 428; iv 7-10, 34. 

— arachnids, iv 15. 

— birds, i 149-150; iv 22. 

— crustaceans, i 407, 409; iv 12-14. 

— development of, in vertebrate em- 
bryo, iv 20. 

— echinoderms, i 454, 458. 

— evolution of, iv 6. 

— fishes, i 263, 270, 272; iv 21. 

— flat-worms, i 442, 444, 446. 

— insects, i 347, 349; iv 15-16. 

— invertebrates, higher, i 303-304. 

— lamp-shells, i 440. 


See also Gan- 


See also Ner- 


INDEX 


Nervous System (Covz.) 

— mammals, i 49-53; iv 19-23. 

— molluscs, i 309, 310, 332; iv 16-19, 

— moss-polypes, i 438. [34-35- 

— myriapods, i 395; iv 14-15. 

— nemertines, i 306-307. 

— peripatus, i 400, 4o1; iv 14, 15. 

— reptiles, 1 200, 202, 209. 

— sympathetic, i 50, 53; iv 19-20. 

— thread-worms, i 448. 

— — primitive, i293, 294, 295, 296-297, 

— vertebrates, i 63. (298, 301. 

— visceral, iv 10, 14, 16, 17. 

— wheel-animalcules, i 435. 

— zoophytes, iv 5-7. 

Nestor meridionalis, ii 191. 

— notabilis, i 166; ii 190, 191; iv 347. 

Nests and Nesting Habits (see 
also Dwellings): 

— amphibians, ili 437-438, 439, 442. 

— arachnids, 1 393; ili 374-377. 

— birds, i 163, 179, 188, 189, 190; ili 
449, 450, 451-452, 453-464, 466, 468, 
469, 472; lv 59-61, 130-132, 186, 187- 
188, 405-407. 

— fishes, iii 427-430; iv 157. 

— insects, i 373, 374, 379; il 208-209; 
il 390-391, 392, 393, 394-396; iv 53- 
54, IOQ-II0, I11-112, 115, 116, 117, 
120, 126, 252-253, 254-255- 

— mammals, iii 478, 480, 483, 484, 493. 

— molluscs, ili 408. 

— myriapods, iii 372. 

— reptiles, 1 209; iii 444-446, 447, 448. 

Net-Fishing, iv 262. 

Nettling organs, i 467, 471, 474; ii 
306, 309, 357, 361; iv 103, ro4. 

Neurons, iv 6, 7, 8, 9, 20, 23 (illust.). 

Neuroptera, i 351, 374-380; ii 110- 
116, 156, 157-158, 160, 161, 162, 211, 
213, 462-467; ili 30, 383-386; iv 120- 

Newman, Edward, iii 396. (126. 

Newt, common, iii 46. 

— crested, i 246 (illust.); ili 46, 47: iv 

— small, i 246. [152 (illust. ). 

— Spanish, ii 334. 

— webbed, i 246; ili 46. 

Newts, i 245-246; ii 83, 457; ili 46, 
II7-I1Q, 120-121, 332, 434, 435- 

— ‘‘ Fish”, i 247-248; and see Sala- 
manders. 

Newton, Alfred, iv 61, 246, 249, 309, 
387, 389, 406. 

Newton, Sir Isaac, i 3. 

Nichomache, ii 339. [74. 

Nictitating membrane, i 192; iii 

Night-hawk. See Night-jar. 

Nightingale, i 160; iv 149. 

Night-jar, i 163; 11 56-57 (illust.); ii 
453- [(illust.), 454. 

Night -light animalcule, iv 453 

Nitrogen, i 33, 44; iv 65-68. 

Noctiluca, i 489, 495 (illust.); ii 6; 
iv 453, 454+ 

Noctuidez. See Moths, owlet. 

Nodosaria, i 489 (illust.); iii 6. 

— scalaris, iv 454. 

Nopal, iv 260. 

Nose, of mammals, i 34, 55, 81; and 
see Smell. 

Nose-leaf, of bats, i 82-83. 

Nostrils, amphibians, ii 423. 

— birds, i 182-183; ili 62. 

— fishes, i 258, 265; ii 422-423. 

— mammals, i 46, 72, 76, 100; ii 430. 

— reptiles, 1 205, 216; il 424-425; ill 

! Notarchus, iii 107 (illust.). [208, 


539 


Nothura maculosa, ii 343. 

Notidanus griseus, i 287. 

Notochord, i 61, 292-293, 295, 298, 
301; ili 38-39, 40, 214, 216, 344. 

Notonecta, i 354-355; iii 29. 

— glauca, ii 124. 

Notonectide, ii 440. [iii 206-207. 

Notoryctes typhlops, ii 43, 329; 

Nototrema, iii 442. 

Nuchal, i 214. (187. 

Nucifraga caryocatactes, i 154; ii 

Nucleus (pl. Nuclei), i 39, 469, 490, 
49T, 493, 494, 496, 498; iii 317, 318, 
319, 320, 323-325, 338; iv 493. 

Nucula, i 338; iii 108. 

Nudibranchia, i 324, 326; ii 100, 
306-307, 382; ili 36. 

— arquatus, i 169; ii 67. 

— phzopus, i 16g. [iv 249-250. 

Numida meleagris, i 172; ii 239; 

Nummulina, i 496. 

Nurse Hound, i 286. 

Nut-cracker, i 154; ii 187. 

Nut-hatches, i 157; ii 187; iii 264, 
454- 

Nutrition, i 32. See Food. 

Nyctea Scandiaca, i 165; ii 279. 

Nycteribia, iv 190. 

Nycticebus tardigradus, ii 319, 
320; Ill 241, 242. 

Nycticorax griseus, i 179. [320. 

Nyctipithecus trivirgatus, ii 319, 

Nymphalide, iil 400. 

Nymphs, bugs, ili 381. 

— insects, net-winged, ii 464-465, 466; 
i 30, 384-385; iv 121, 122, 123. 

— — straight-winged, ili 378. 


O 


Oak, iv 79, 81-82. 

“Oak-apples”, iv 79. 

“Oak spangles”, i 372. 

Obelia, i 478-480. 

Occipital bone, i 28. 

— condyles. See Condyles. 

Ocellus (pl. Ocelli), i 376. 

Ocelot, iv 429. 

Ocneria dispar, iv 353, 359. 

Octactinia, i 474, 476-478; iv ro2. 

Octobothrium merlangi, iv 200. 

— pollachii, iv 200, 201 (illust.). 

Octocoralla, i 476-478. See 
Sea-F lower, eight-rayed. 

Octodon degus, i 132 (illust.). 

Octodons, i 131-132. [410. 

Octopoda, i 315-316; iii 31-33, 418- 

Octopus, common, i 315; ii 94; iii 31- 
32, 109-110 (illust.), 418. 

-— musky, il 04. 

— vulgaris. See Octopus, common. 

Octopi, i 315; iv 18-19, 56-57, 348; 
and see Octopus. 

Ocypoda, arenaria, ii 141. 

— ceratophthalmus, ii 140-143; iii 171. 

— macrocera, iv 37. 

Ocypodide, ii 140; iii 171. 

Ocypus olens, i 368. 

Odonata, ii 464-465; ii 383-385. 

Odontoceti, ii 26. See also Whales, 


also 


toothed. 
Odontoid peg, i 194. 
Odontophore. See Rasping organ. 


Odynerus parietum, i 374. 
— reniformis, iii 392 (illust.). 
Ccodoma, ii 208-209. 


540 


Ccophylla smaragdina, iv 115- 

Cdemia fusca, i 177. (116. 

— nigra, 1177. 

Cdicnemus scolopax, i 169; iii 471. 

stride, iv ror. 

Estrus ovis, i 358; iv 191. 

Ogle, iv or. 

Oil-Birds, ii 188. (454. 

Oil-gland, of birds, i 140; ili 56-57, 

Okapi, ii 170-171 (illust.); iii gr. 

Okapia Johnstoni. See Okapi. 

“Old-man’s beard”, i 372. 

Olfactory cells, i 55-56; iv 31-32 

— nerves, 1 55~-56 (illust.). ((illust. ). 

Oligocheta, i 429, 430-431; ii 140; 
lll 227, 360-361; iv 199-200. 

Oligoneuria, ii 466. 

Oliva. See Olive-Shells. 

Olivella biplicata, iv 324. 

Olive-Shells, i 321 (illust.); ii 218. 

Olm, i 249 (illust.); ii 457; ii 48. 

Omasum, ii 169. See also Digestive 
organs of mammals, herbivorous. 

Ommatidium, iv 43. 

Onager, i 107. 

Oncea venusta, iv 452. 


Onchidium, ii 330; ili 414, 415 
(illust.), 435. 

Oniscus murarius, i 415; 11 222. 

Ontogeny, iii 335. 

Onuphis conchilega, ii 330. 

Opelet, i 476. (358-359. 


Operculum, annelids, ii 258, 339; iii 


— arachnids, 1 386. 


— fishes. See Gill-cover. 
— king-crab, ii 406. (iii 415-416. 
— molluscs, 1 319; 11 336 (illust.), 460; 


— moss-polypes, 11 339. 
Ophidia, i 203, 227-236 
Ophidiaster diplex, iii 329 (illust.). 
Ophiocephalus, ii 451. 


Ophiuroidea, i 454. See also Brittle- | 


Stars. (34, 35-36. 
Opisthobranchia, i 317, 324-326; iii 
Opisthocomus cristatus, ili 472- 

473: IV 431. 

Opisthoteuthis, iii 33 (illust.). 
Opossum, Azara’s, ili 480 (illust.). 

— common, i 69, 138; ili 260 (illust.). 
— mouse, iii 479. 

— water, ill 70 (illust.). 

Opossums, ii 42, 180, 181, 234, 343: 

ili 255, 260, 478. 
Opossum-Shrimps, i 410, 412-413 

(illust.); ili 365; iv 36 
Optic cup, iv 46-47. 

— lobes, i 149-150, 203; iv 21-22. 

— nerves, i 58, 149, 151; iv 47. 

— tracts, i 149. 

— vesicle, iv 46. 

Opuntia coccinellifera, iv 260. 
Oral hood, i 204. 

Oral papilla, i390. [160. 161, 494 
Orang-utan, i 72 (illust.); ti 349: i 
Orbits, i 57, 71, 80. 

Orca gladiator, ii 27; iii 85. 
Orchids, iv 74-75, 36-88 (illust.). 
Orcynus thynnus, iv 270, 381. 
Oreotragus saltator, iv 142. 
Organic selection, iv 492. 
Oriental Region, iv 413, 414, 424- 
Oriole, golden, i 155-156. (426. 
Orioles, i 155-156; ii 309-311 (illust.) 
Oriolus decipiens, ii 310-311. 

— galbula, i 155. 

Ormer, i 307-311 (illust.), 322-323: ii 

393-394; iil 412; iv 35. 


INDEX 


Ornithopoda, iv 469-470. 

Ornithoptera, i 362. 

Ornithorhynchus paradoxus, i 
70; li 44; iii 69-70, 475, 477-478; iv 
211, 212, 481-482. 

Orthagoriscus mola, iv 448. 

Orthoptera, i 351, 380-383; ii 116- 
118, 213, 250, 299, 315-316, 327, 359: 
ill 176-177, 377-380; iv 356-357. 

— leaping, i 380, 381-383. 

— running, i 380-381. 

Orthotomus sutorius, iii 459, 460. 

Orycteropus capensis, i 136, 137; 

Oryzorictes, ii 33. [ii 42. 

Osborn, iv 492. 

Oscinis frit, iv 351. 

Osculum, i 484, 486; ili 325, 326, 342. 

Osgood, Fletcher, iv 353. 

Osmerus eperlanus, i 282; iv 276. 

Osmia papaveris, iii 391. 

Osphradium, i 310-311. 

Osprey, i 175; ii 48; iv 6r. 

Ossicles, i 29. 

— auditory, i 57. 

Osteoglosside, iv 433. 

Ostracion quadricornis, i 278; ii 
334; iv 340. 

Ostracoda, 1 410, 419-420; ii 255, 
405-406; ill 25, 364. 

Ostracodermata, iv 463 (illust.). 

Ostrea, iii 409. 

— angulata, iv 288. 

— edulis, i 338; iii 406; iv 288. 

— Virginiana, iii 405; iv 288. 

Ostrich, African, i 187, 188 (illust.); 
ii 367-368; ili 130, 153, 449; iv 5 
251. [449. 

— American, i 187, 188; ill 130, 153. 

Ostriches, i 188; ii 354; ili 128-132, 
153, 186; iv 146. 

Otaria stelleri, i 08. 

— ursina, ili 492; iv 304-307. 

Otaridz. See Sea-Lions. 

Otis australis, iv 150. 

— tarda, i170; ii 241-242; iv 150, 377. 

— tetrax, iv 377. 

Otocorys alpestris, i 156. 

Otocysts, iv 33, 34, 35 (illust.), 36, 
37, 38. 

Otolicnus, ii 320 

Otoliths, iv 33, 34, 35, 36. 

Otter, common, i 98; ii 22; ili 76. 

— feline, ii 23. 

— sea, ii 23-24; ill 77 (illust.). 

Otters, i 98; ii 22-24; ii 76-77, 492. 

Oval window, i 57. 

Ovary, iii 340; and see Eggs and 
Egg-producing organs. 

Oven-Birds, iii 461 (illust.), 464. 

Ovibos moschatus, i 115. 

Ovicells, iv 104. 

Ovipositor, i 370, 372, 377, 382, 
ii 203, 204 (illust.), 205; iii 379, 3 
(illust.), 381, 386-387 (illust.), 3 
(illust.); iv 194, 195 (illust.). 

Ovis argali, iii 186-187, 248. 

— aries, ii 168; iv 226-229. 

— Canadensis, i 116. 

— montana, iii 187. 

— musimon, i 116; iv 227. 

— tragelaphus, iv 227. 

Ovules, iv 8s. 

Ovulum angulosum, iv 323. 

— patulum, ii 285. . 

—uniplicatum, ii 285. 

Ovum (pl. Ova), ili 335-337. 
also Egg-cells. 


See 


Owl, barn-, i 165; iv 327-328. 

— burrowing, i 166; iv 135. 

— fish, i 166. 

— great-horned or eagle, i 166. 

— hawk, i 166; ii 319 (illust.). 

— long-eared, i 165. 

— pigmy, i 166. 

— short-eared, 1 165. 

— snowy, 1 165; ii 279. 

— tawny or wood-, i 165. 

Owls, i 152, 165-166; ii 46, 322; Iv 
327-328. 

Ox-bot, i 358. 

Oxen (and see Cattle), i 109, 113-115; 
ii 167-169, 225, 352; Iv 224-225. 

— European, i 114; iv 225. 

— Hungarian, iv 224 (illust.). 

Ox-Fly, ii 120. 

Oxidation, ii 377. 

Ox-Peckers, ii 62-63 (illust.). 

Ox-Warble Flies, iv 349 (illust.). 

Oxyethira costalis, iii 385 (illust.), 
386. [420; iv 65-68, 76. 

Oxygen, i 33, 45: ii 377-380, 382, 383, 

Oxythyrea funesta, iv 82-83. 

Oxytricha, iii 88 (illust.). 

Oxyuris vermicularis, iv 343. 

Oyster (and see Oysters) : 

— American, ili 405; iv 288. 

— common, i 338; ii1 406. 

— “flat”, iv 288. 

— pearl-, iv 205, 398 (illust.). 

— Portuguese, iv 288. (204 

Oysters, i 338; ii 398; ili 409; iv 288- 


— thorny, ii 336; ili 409. 
Oyster-catcher, i 169; ii 67-68. 
Oyster-culture, i 15; iv 288-204 
Ozothalilia, 11 198. [(illust. ) 


i 


Paca, i 133-134. (324. 

Pachydesma crassatelloides, iv 

Pachyornis elephantopus, iv 475, 
476 (illust.). 

Pacinian bodies, iv 27 (illust.). 

Packard, iii 165. 

Packing cells, i 471. 

Padus humilis, iv 430. 138, 403. 

Pagurus Bernhardus, i 412; ii 137- 

Palearctic Region, iv 412, 413, 414- 

Palemon, iv 35, 36. (418. 

— Jamaicensis, ii 137. 

— serratus, i 412; ii 137, 292, 403; iil 
169; iv 298, 299-300. 

Paleodiscus, iv 459. 

Palzozoic epoch, iv 457, 458-464 

Palingenia horaria, i 375 (illust.). 

Palinurus vulgaris, i 412; ii 137, 
279, 338; ili 368; iv 37. 

Palisade-Worms, iv 343, 362: 
see Strongyles. 

Pallas, ii 140. (334 

Pallial line, of bivalve molluscs, 1 331, 

Palm, i 24, 30-31. See also Hand. 

Palm-Cat, ii 226-227 (illust.). (227. 

Palm-Civets, Asiatic, ii 12-13, 226- 

Palmer Worm, ii 360. 

Palm-Thief. See Crab, robber-. 

Palolo viridis, iv 216-217. 

Palolo Worm, iv 216-217. 

Palp, i 346. See also Mouth-parts. 

Paludicella, iii 33x (illust.). 

Paludina vivipara, i 320; iii 4r4; 
iv 17-18. 

Palustra, iii gor. 


and 


Pancreas, i 37, 146, 200, 241, 253, 261, 

Pancreatic juice, i 37. (272. 

Pancreatin, iv 320. 

Panda, iv 429. 

Pandion haliaétus, i 175; ii 48. 

Pangolin, long-tailed, i 136, 
(illust.). 

Pangolins, i ii 42, 295, 333) 342: lil 257. 

Paniscus cephalotes, i ii 360. 

Panther, Asiatic, i 88. 

Panthers, i 87-88. [462. 

Panyptila Sancti Hieronymi, iii 

Papilio machaon, i 362. 

— meriones, ii 312. 

— merope, ii 312. 

Papille, of tongue, i 54-55 (illust.). 

Papillosa, ii roo. 

Papio babium, i 76. 

— hamadryas, i 75. 

— mormon, i 75-76; 

Parachute, iii 281. 

— amphibians, iii 288. 

— arachnids, ili 289. 

— birds, iii 286. 

— mammals, ili 282, 283, 284-285, 286. 

— reptiles, ili 286, 287. (281-2809. 

“Parachute animals”, ii 327; iii 

Paradisea apoda, i 154, 155. 

Paradise Bird, great, i 154, 
(illust.). 

Paradise Fish, iii 427; iv 393 (illust.). 

Paradoxures, ii 12. 

Paradoxurus typus, ii 226-227. 

Parakeet. See Parroquet. 

Parameecium, i 489, 492-493; ii 266, 
361-362; ili 5, 6. 

— caudatum, ili 323-325. 

Parapandalus spinipes, 

Parapod, of molluscs, iii 35. 

Parapods, of annelids. See Foot- 
stumps. 

Parasitism, i 18; iv 170, 184-185. 

— animalcules, iv 78, 206-207, 341, 349, 

— annelids, iv 199-200. (363. 

— arachnids, iv 195-196. 

— birds, iv 185-188. 

— crustaceans, iv 196-199. 

— fishes, iv 188. 

— flukes, iv 200-203, 342, 360, 361. 

— insects, iv 78-79, 189-196, 356. 

— molluscs, iv 188-189. 

— plants, iv 76-77. 

— tape-worms, i 442-443; iv 203-205, 
342-343, 361-362. (363. 

— thread-worms, iv 78, 205-206, 362- 

Pareiasaurus, iv 468 (illust.). 

Parenteau, ii 199, 201. 

Parietal foramen, i 193, 203. 

“ Parr’, iii 432. 

Parra jacana, iii 128, 129. 

Parroquet, grass, iv 390. 

— slight-billed, ii 189. 

Parrot, blue-mountain, ii 191. 

— gray, i 166; iv 389. 

— ka-ka, ii I91. 

— kea, i 166; ii 191 (illust.); iv 347. 

— owl, i 166-167; ii 189, 319 (illust.), 
320. 

Parrots (and see Parrot), 1 152 166- 
167; ii 188-191; iii 265-266; iv 389- 

— hanging, iii 266. [391- 

— nestor-, 1 166, 

— pigmy, ili 266. 

Parrot-Fish, ii 361; iv 437. 

Parrotlets, i 166. 

Partridge, common, i 172; ii 239. 

— red-legged or French, i 172. 


138 


iv 145-146. 


155 


((illust. ). 
iv 445 


INDEX 


Parus ater, i 158. 

— ceeruleus, 1 158. 

— cristatus, i 158. 

— major, i 158. 

— palustris, i 158. 

Pasang, i 117. [469- she 

Passer domesticus, i 156; ii 187; 

— montanus, i 156; ii 187; ili 470. 

Passeres, i 152-161. See also Perch- 
ing-Birds. 

Pastor roseus, i 155. 

Patagium, iii 292. 

Patella. See Knee-pan. 

Patella vulgata, i 323-324; ii 197- 
199, 336-337, 395-396, 432-433; il 
104, 272, 412, 416-417; iv 42, 57-58. 

Path-Wasp, i 373; ii 106. 

Paunch, ii 168. See also Digestive 
organs of mammals, herbivorous. 

Pauropoda, i 396, 397-398. 

Pauropus, i 398. 

Pavo cristatus, i 172; iv 148. 

Peacock, i 172; ii 239; iv 148, 149. 

Pearl-fisheries, iv 398-399. 

Pearls, iv 205, 398-399. 

Pearson, Karl, iv 493. 

Peccary, collared, i 109; ii 233 (illust.); 
ili 149, 489- 

— white-lipped, iii 489; iv 334-336. 
Peccaries, i 109; 11 234, 351; 11 149- 
150, 487, 489; iv 141-142, 334-336. 
Peckham, Dr. and Mrs,, ii 316; iv 55, 

56, 166, 168. [(illust. ). 


Pectanthis asteroides, iii 90 
Pecten, i 337, 151; ili 36-37, 409; iv 
45-46, 295. 


— Jacobzus, i 337. 

Pectinaria, ii 339. 
Pectinatella, iii 100. 

-~ gelatinosa, iii 100. 

Pectines, i 386. 

Pectoralis major, iii 300. 
Pectoral muscles, i 149; iii 300. 
Pedal cords, i 309, 310; iv 16-17. 
Pedetes caffer, iii 195, 252. 
Pedicellariz. See Jaw-spines. 
Pediculus capitis, i 354. 


Pedipalpi. See Whip-Scorpions. 
Pedipalps, i 386. See also Mouth- 
parts. 


Pedipes, iii 107 (illust.). ((llust.). 

Peewit, i 169; ii 286; iii 454, 472 

Pelagic Zone, iv 435, 448-455. 

Pelagonemertes, iii 24; 
(illust. ). 

Pelagothuria, iii 24 (illust.). 

Pelamides, ii 28. 

Pelargonium, iv 94. 

Pelecanus, ii so. 

— onocrotalus, i 181. 

— trachyrhynchus, iii 62. 

Pelias berus, i 234; ii 80, 282 

Pelican, European, i 18r. {ili 307. 

Pelicans, i t52, 180-181; ii 50 (illust.); 

Pelican Fish, iv 446 (illust.). 

Pelvis, iii 119, 120. 

— amphibians, i 239, 241, 253- 

— birds, i 144, 145; iii 132. 

— fishes, i 259, 261. [159. 

— mammals, i 27, 31, 69; ii 120, 133, 

— reptiles, i 196, 197, 199. 

Penguin, blue, i 186; iii 67 (illust.). 

— emperor, i 186; iii 67. 

— king, i 186, 187 (illust.). 

Penguins, i 152, 186, 187; ii 54-55, 

— crested, iii 186. (329; 1ii 66-67. 

Pennatula, i 478; iv 102. 


iv 453 


3 Hl 445. 


541 


Pentacrinus, i 459-461 (illust.). See 
also Sea-Lilies. 

Pentastomum tznioides, i 393. 

Pepsin, iv 320. 

Pepsis, ii 106. 

Peptic, or gastric glands, 1 37, 146. 

Peptone, i 37. 

Perameles, ii 43; iii 191. 

Peramelid@, iii 191-192. (381. 

Perca fluviatilis, i 269-272; ii 84; iv 

Perch, climbing, ii 451-452 (illust.); 
ili 116, 272. (381. 

— common, i 269-272 (illust.); ii 84; iv 

Perches, i 273; ii 388; iv 197. 

Perching Birds, i 152-161; iii 261- 
263; iv 387-389. 

“Perching mechanism”, of birds, 
1149; ili 261-263. 

Perch-“ Louse”, iv 197 (illust.). 

Perdix cinerea, i 172; 11 239. 

Perez, iv 123. 

Perga Lewisii, iii 389-390. 

Pericardium, i 325, 327, 320, 333, 
342, 348, 400, 408, 435. 

Pericheta, iii 227-228. 

Periophthalmus, ii 448, 450; iii 115- 


— Keelreuteri, ii 87. (116, 272. 
— Schlosseri, iii 116. 
Peripatus, i 342, 392-402 (llust.); it 


134, 360, 434-435; iii 101-102, 274, 
370; iv 14, 15. 

Periplaneta Americana, i 343. 

— orientalis, i 343-350; ii 250, 438; ill 
273-274, 378; iv 358. 

Perissodactyla, i 104-107; iii 137- 
147, 487-488; and see Mammais, 
hoofed. 

Peristaltic movements, iii 11. 

Periwinkle, i 318-320 (illust.); ii 196, 
459-460; iv 97, 297, 438, 489. 

Perla bicaudata, i 377. 

Perlida, ii 116, 463-464. 


Pernis apivorus. i 17s. 

Perodicticus potto, ii 320; iii 243. 

Perognathus fasciatus, i 131. 

Perris, iv 123. 

“Persian lamb”, iv 220. 

Perspiration. See Sweat. 

Pests, agricultural, i 18, 120; 

Petauroides volans, iii 286. 

Petaurus breviceps, iii 285. 

— sciureus, iii 284-285. 

Petrels, i 152, 182-183. 

— storm, i 183; ii 52, 53. 

Petrogale, ii 182. 

— xanthopus, iii 479. 

Petromyzon, ii 384. 

— branchialis, i 291. 

— fluviatilis, i 291; ii gr; 

— marinus, i 291; ii gt-92; 

— Planeri, iii 423. 

Pettigrew, iii 68, 81, 131. 

Phacocheerus thiopicus, i 108. 

— Africanus, 1 100. 

Phaéthon, i 182; iii 62. 

— zthereus, i 182. 

Phagocytes, ii 260. 

Phalacrocorax Capensis, ii 48. 

— carbo, i 181; ii 48; ill 63, 64, 471. 

— graculus, i 181; ii 48; iti 63-64. 

Phalenopsis Schilleriana, iv 86- 
8 (illust.). 

Phalanger, common, iii 259 (illust.). 

— long-snouted, ii 181-182 (illust.); 
iv 89. 

Phalangers, ii 180-182, 234, 322; ii 
258-259. 


(359. 
iv 3497 


iil 423: Iv 
iil 42° 3 


542 


Phalangers ae 
— flying, ii 2 
— — squirrel, 1 are 


Phalanges, sing. Phalanx (and 
see Digits): 

— birds, i 146. 

— mammals, i 31, 32; ili 84. 

— reptiles, 1 198. 

Phalangistide, ii 180-182. 

Phalangium opilio, i 390. 

Phalarope, grey, i 169 (illust.), 170; 


—- red-necked, i 169. iil 127-128, 
Phalaropus fulicarius, i 169; ii 127, 
— hyperboreus, 1 169. (128. 
Phallusia mammillata, i 2096 
(illust. }. 
Phallus impudicus, iv 98. 
Pharyngeal bones, lower, i 276. 
Pharynx, annelids, 1 427, 429, 430- 
—ascidians, i 297, 298; li 245, 246, 
389-390. 
— flat-worms, i 445, 446; 1 151, 152. 
lancelet, ii 389, 390. 
mammals, 1 34-35. 
molluscs, 1 308. 
nemertines, ii 391. 
— wheel-animalcules, i 435. 
Phascolarctos cinereus, 
101; ll 259-260, 479. 
Phascolomyida, ii 183; 111 480. 
Phascolomys. See Phasculumyide. 
Phasianella, iii 106. 
Phasianus Colchicus, i 172; i 
Phasmid@, ii 359: 11 378-379. 
Pheasant, Amherst’s, iv 148. 
— Argus, iv 148. 
— common, 1 172. 
— gold, 1172; 
— silver, 1172. 


ii 180, 


iv 148. 


Pheasants, i172; ii 239; ili 300 ilust.). 
Pheasant-Shells, iii 106. 
Phelsuma Andamanense, ii 268 
Phenacodus, iv 472, 473 (illust.). 
Phengodes Hieronymi, iv 165. 
Phidippus morsitans, iv 168. 
Phileanus spumarius, ii 217. 
Philemon Timorlaoensis, 11 310- 


Philepitta, iv 423. (gur. 
Philhetzrus socius, iii 463. 
Philine aperta, i 324; ii 100 
Philodina roseola, i 435; ii 262; 
iil 100. liv 477 


Philosophical Zoology, i 16-17, 19: 
Phoca Caspica, iv 313. 
— Greenlandica, i 99; 1 
— Sibirica, iv 313. 
— vitulina, i 99. (26-27. 
Phoceena communis, i 100-101; ii 
Phocide. See Seals, true. 
Pheenicopterus roseus, iii 460, 461; 
iv 377, 378. 
Pholadidea, iii 410. 
Pholas dactylus, i 335, 336; ili 221, 
Phoraspis, ii 315. [409-410. 
Phormosoma luculenta, iii 94-95. 
Phryganea grandis, i 375 (illust.). 
— striata, iii 385 (illust.), 386. 
Phryganeide. Sce Caddis-Flies. 
Phrynosoma cornutum, i 
Phrynus, i 389: iii 160. 
Phyllirhoé, i 326; iii 36. 
Phyllomedusa Jheringi, iii 437. 
Phyllopertha horticola, i 368. 
Phyllopoda, i 410, 421-422; li 255- 
256, 405; ii 362-303. 
— gill-footed, 1 421-422. 
Phyllopteryx eques, 11 296; iv 75. 


iv 


223; 


(392. 


| Pilidium, iii 419 (illust.). 


INDEX 


Phylloscopus rufus, i 160; iii 185. 
— sibilatrix, 1 160. 
— trochilus, i 160. [ii 39, 40. 
Phyllostoma spectrum, i 82-83; 
Phyllostomata, i 82-83. 
Phylloxera vastatrix, i 353; ii 217; 
Phylogeny, iii 335. [iv 350. 
Physalia, ii 161-162; iv 344. 
Physeter macrocephalus, ii 29; 
Physics, i 4, 17. [iv 316, 317. 
Physignathus Lesueuri, iii 53. 
Physiological selection, iv 489. 
Physiology, standpoint of, i 13. 
Physophora hydrostatica, 1 161, 
162 (illust. ). 
Physostomi, i 273, 280-284. 
Phytophthora infestans, iv 76. 
Phytoptus ribis, iv 360. 
— vitis, 1 218. 
Picarie, i 152, 161-165. 
Picarian Birds, i 152, 161-165. 
Pica rustica, i 153. 


Piscicola, iv 200 (illust. ). 
Pisciculture, i 18; iv 284-288. 
Pisidium, iti 407. 

Pissodes, iv 355. 

Pitcher Plants, iv 70-72. 


Pithecia Satanas, i 78; iii 240, 241- 
Placoid scales, i 12-13, 259, 261, 
Placula, iii 338, 339. (288. 


Placuna placenta, iv 324. 
Plagiolepis, ii 206. 
Plaice, i 279; ii 291-292; 
Plan, of work, i 17-19. 
Planaria gonocephala, ili 7 (illust.). 
— lactea, i 445 (illust.). 


[269. 
lil 432; iv 


Planarian worms, i 441, 445-447, 
483; ii 151-152, 271, 308, 361, 445— 
446; ili 7, 20-21, 32 9 iV 41, 440. 

— land forms, i 446; ii 152. 

Planes minutus, ii 140. 

Plankton, i 420; ii 29, 330; iv 283- 
284, 435, 449-455, 459- (414. 


Planorbis corneus, i 328; ii 434; iii 


Picid@, 111 264-265. Plantain-Eater, African, iii 263 
Picucules, iii 463-464 (illust.). 

Piculets, ii 264. 4to (illust.). | Plantigrade feet structure, am- 
Piddocks, i 335 (illust.); ii 221, 4o9- phibians, iii raz. 

Pieride, i 361-362; 11 312; and see | — insects, iii 166. 


Pieris. 
Pieris brassicae, i 362; ii 214; il 309- 
400; iv 161, 162, 194, 352. 
— napi, i 362; 
— rapz, i 362; i 
Pigeon, blue meet i 139-152, 167; 


352. 


— mammals, i 94 (illust.); ili 135-136, 
155, 156, 158, 162. 

Plant-Lice. See Aphides. 

Plants, association of animals and, iv 

carnivorous, iv 68-74. (74-76. 

classification of, iv 64. 


186; iv 250-251, 487 (illust.). — defences of, iv 80-83, 90-95. 
— crowned, i 167 (illust.); i1 185 — dispersal of, by animals, iv 95-98. 
— nutmeg,, i 186. (illust.’. | — food of, i 33, 488; li 3, 270-274; iv 
—wood-, i 167; ii 185, 286; ill 4 — parasitism, iv 76-77. (65-74. 


Pigeons, i 130-152 (illust.); 11 184, 185- 


pollination of, iv 83-90. 


186; iii 286 (illust.), 304, 305 (illust.), | — relation between nutrition of ani- 
470-471; iV 250-251, 487 (illust.). mals and, iv 68-74. [353- 
— ‘fruit"-, ii 185-186. Planula (pl. Planulee), iii 342, 350, 


— ground-, 11 185. 
— tree-, ii 185-186. 

“ Pigeon’s milk *, 1151; 
Pigs, i 67, 105, 108-10 
; i 487, 488-489; iv 98, 204, 
Pika, Sibenian: 1 125 (illust.). 
Pikas, i 125; and see Calling-Hares. 
Pike, bony, ii 334. ((llust.), 381. 
-—— common, i 282; ii 84; iv 348, 380 
Pikes, i 282. 
Pilchard, 1 283: 


ill 470-471. 


351; 


lv 265. 


“Pill Bugs”, ii 342. 

Pillow-Fish, ii 306. 

Pimpla instigator, iv 194. 

Pindar, iv 247. 

Pine Marten, i 08; ii 22. 

Pineal body, i 203. 

— eye, 1 203; iv 47 (illust.), 48. 

Pinguicula, iv 68. 

Pinna. See Ear-flap. 

Pinnipedia (see also Sea-Lions, Wal- 
ruses, and Seals), i 86, 98-99; 1 24- 
25, 329; 111 77-86, 492. 

Pinnules, i 459; i 26s. 

Pintail, i 176. 

Piophila casei, iii 178; 

Pipa Americana, iii 50, 

Pipe-Fish, iii 427. 
great, 1277; ill 427. 

Pipit, meadow, i 157. 

- Richard's, i 157. 

— rock, 1157. 

— tree, i157. 


Pipride, iv 


iv 351. 


441, 442. 


31. 


Plasma, 1 38, 42, 147, 428, 469. 
Plasmodiophora brassice, iv 78: 


lv 363. 


Plastron, of turtles and tortoises, i 


214, 217, 218, 220; il 334. 


| Platalea leucolodia, i 180. 


Platanista Gangetica, ii 28-20. 

“Plate Beaver”, iii 74. 

Platyhelmia, i 304, 441-447; and see 
Flat-Worms. 


Platypus, duck-billed. See Duck- 
Mole. 

Plecotus auritus, i 82. 

Plectognathi, i 273, 277-278. 


Plectrophenax nivalis, i 156. 

Plesiosauria, iv 468, 469. 

Pleurobranchus membranaceus, 
il 306. 

Pleuronectes flesus, iv 269. 

— hmanda, iv 269. 

— microcephalus, iv 270. 

— platessa, i 279; iv 360. 

Pleuronectida, See }lat-Fishes. 

Pliny, iv 245, 369, 389, 399. 

Plotus, ii 49; iii 64. 

Ploughshare bone, i 144; ili 202 
(illust.), 298. (455; iv 61-62. 

Plover, golden, i 169 (illust.); iti q54— 

— — American, iii 30s. 

— grey, 1 160. 

— Kentish, 1 169; it 286; iti 453. 

— ringed, i 169; ii 286; iv 133 (illust.). 

Plovers, i 152, 168-169; ii 67-68, 296; 
ili 465; iv 377, 423. 

Plumatella, i 437; ii 261; iti 337. 

Plumbago, iv 93. 


Plume coralline, i 437. 
Plum-‘‘ Spider ”, red, iv 360. 
Plumularia, i 480. 

Plunkett, Sir Horace, iv 246. 
Plusia gamma, i 364; ili 4o1; iv 
Plutarch, iv 239. [352. 
Plutella cruciferarum, iv 352. 
Pluteus (pl. Plutei), iti 355, 356. 
Pneumatic duct, ii 452. 
Pneumoderma, iv 451. 

Pochard, i 176; iii so. 

Pocillopora favosa, i 475 (illust.). 
Pocket-Gopher, common, i 131. 
Pocket-Mouse, banded, i 131. 

— common, iii 193-194 (illust.). 
Podargus, iv 428. 

Podicipes, i 185; iv 308. 

— auritus, i 185. 

— cristatus, i 185. 
— fluviatilis, 1 185; 
— griseigena, i 185. 
— nigricollis, i 185. 
Podura aquatica, i 384. 

-— villosa, iii 176. 

Poe, iv 408. 

Pogonomyrmex barbatus, ii 208. 
Pogy, iv 318. 

Pointer, iv 367 (illust.), 368. 


ili 65-66, 457. 


[(illust. ). 


Poison-bag, echinoderms, ii 361 
— fishes, ii 356-357 (illust.). 

— insects, iv 118. (234. 
Poison fangs, of reptiles, i 224, 230, 


Poison-glands, amphibians, ii 355. 
— arachnids, 1 386, 388, 391; ii 125, 


= echinoderms, 1 1458. {126. 
— insects, it 105, 358. 

— molluscs, ii 97, 357- 

— myriapods, i 394; ii 133. 

— nemertines, ii 93. (355; iv 338. 


— reptiles, 1 224, 230, 234; li 80, 354- 

Poison-spines, of echinoderms, ii 
361 (illust.). 

— of fishes, ii 305-306, 355-357 (illust. ). 

Polar bodies, iii 336-337 (illust.). 

Pole-Cat, i 97-98; ii 22. 


Pole-Cats, water-, ii 22; and see 
Visons. 

Polian vesicles, iii 92. 

Political Economy, i 17. 

Pollack, iv 200. (92. 


Pollen, iv 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91, 

“Pollen basket”, of bees, iv 254 
(illust. ). 

Pollination, of flowers, iv 83-90. 

Polyacanthus viridiauratus, iii 
4273 iV 393- 

Polyborus tharus, ii 303. 

Polycheta, i 429-430; 11 146, 408; ili 

— free-living, 1 429. [22 

— sedentary, i 429-430. 

Polycirrus aurantiacus, ii 380. 

Polyclades, ii 151, 152. 

Polydesmus complanatus, i 396. 

Polyergus rufescens, i 373. 

Polygordius, i 431-432; ili 99, 350- 

Polylophus, iii 326. [360. 

Polynema gracilis, iv 194. 

— natans, ili 28-29. 

Polynoé, i 429; ii 408. 

Polynoids, ii 408; ili 358. 

Polyommatus alexis, i 362. 

Polype, freshwater, i 465-473 (illust.); 
li 160, 271-272; ili 2, 10 (illust.), 327, 
328, 339-341. 

Polypterus, i 266-268; ii 334, 421, 453. 

Polyrhachis, iv 115. 

Polystomella imperatrix, iv 454. 


INDEX 


Polystomum integerrimum, iv 
201. [(illust. ). 

Polyxenia cyanostylis, iv 33 

Polyzoa, i i 436-438; il 261, 339, 410- 
411; ili 7, 8, 99-100, 330-331; iv 104- 
105. 

Polyzonium Germanicum, iii 373. 

Pomatoceros triqueter, ii 258. 

Pompilius exaltatus, i 373. 

— viaticus, ii 106. 
Pond-Skater, i 354; 
440; ili 29 (illust.). 
Pontobdella, iii 361. 

Pony (and see Horses): 

— Norwegian, iv 235-236 (illust.). 
— Shetland, iv 237, 238 (illust.). 
Porbeagles, i 286. 

Porcellana platycheles, iii 368. 


ii 123 (illust.), 


Porcupine, Brazilian tree-, ili 253, 
255 (illust.). 

— brush-tailed, i 132. 

— Canadian tree-, i 132; ili 253. 


— common, i 132; ii 342. 

Porcupines, i 64, 125, 131-135; i 
178, 3335 i 252-253. 

Porcupine Worm, ii 339. 

Porcus babirussa, i 109; iii 488. 

Porgana marnetta, i 171. 

Porifera. See Sponges. 

Pork “measles”, i 443. 

Porpoise, i i 67, 100-101 (illust.); 11 26; 
iii 490-491. 

Porschinsky, ii 315. 

Portal circulation, i 41, 202. 

— vein, i qr. 

Porte croix, i 390. 

Porthesia aurifiua, ii 360. 

Portuguese Man-of-war, ii 161- 
162; iv 344. 

Posterior nares, i 46, 147. 

Potamides, iii 417. [108. 

Potamocherus penicillatus, i 

Potamogale velox, ii 35; ii 72. 

Potato-Fungus, iv 76. 

Potato plant, iv 76. 

— thrips, i 355 (illust.). 

Potto, Bosman’s, iii 243 (illust.), 244. 

Pottos, ii 320. (479. 

Pouch, of marsupials, iii 193, 206, 478- 

Pouched-Bear, ii 259- 260, 479. 

Pouched-Jerboa, iti 192. 

Pouched “Lion”, iv 474. 

Pouched mammals. See Mammals. 

Pouched-Mole, ii 43 (illust.), 328-329; 
iil 206-207. 

Pouched-Rats, i 130-131; 
193, 204-205; iv 418. 

Poulpe. See Octopus. 

Poulton, ii 286, 293, 294, 297, 300, 
303, 305, 314, 359: ii 399; Iv 160, 162. 

Poultry-Louse, pale, ii 111. 

Power, Madame Jeanette, iv 57. 

Poyou, 1 137 (illust.). 

Pracellodomus sibilatrix, iii 464. 

“Prairie Dog”. See Prairie-Mar- 
mot, common. 

Prairie-Marmot, Columbian, iv 135. 

— common, i 126-127 (illust.); ii 367; 

— Mexican, iv 135. [iv 135. 

Pratincola rubetra, 1 160. 

— rubicola, i 160. 

Pratincole, i 169. 

Prawn, sop, ii 292-293, 294. : 

— common, 1 412; ll 137, 292, 403; ML 
169; iv 298 (illust.), 299-300. 

— freshwater, ii 253-254. 

— Jamaica, ii 137. 


iil 192- 


543 


Prawns, iii 27, 365; iv 35, 36, 444- 
445 (illust. ). 

Praying -Insects, i 381; and see 
Mantis, praying-. 

Preformation, doctrine of, iii 336. 

Premolars, i 36. See also Teeth. 

Priapulus, ii 410 (illust.). 


| Primates, i 68, 70-79. See also Man, 


Apes, and Monkeys. 
Prionocrangon ommatosteres, iv 
445 (illust.). 
Prionodura, iv 407. 
Pristis antiquorum, i 288; ii 89. 
Proboscidea. See Elephants. 
Proboscis, of acorn-headed worm, ili 
215, 210. 
— elephants, i 102; ii 171-172. 
— insects, 1 359, 363; li 205, 206, 214, 
— molluscs, i 320, 339. {2rs. 
— nemertines, i 305-306; ii 93. 
— siphon-worms, i 433; li 150. 
--— tapirs, 1 105. 
Proboscis-Bear, ii 229, 230 (illust.). 


| Proboscis-sheath, of nemertines, i 


305-306. 

Procavia Abyssinica, i 104; ili 250. 

— arborea, ili 250. 

— Syriaca, i 104. 

Procellaria pelagica, i 183. 

Proctotretus multimaculatus, ii 
344-345- (247. 

Procyon lotor, i 94; ii 229-230; iii 

Proéchidna, i 70; iii 475. 

Proglottides, iv 204. 

Pro- -legs, i 360, 361, 362, 
365; il 314; ili 102, 103. 

Proneomenia, i 341 (iJlust.). 

Prongbucks, i 109, 112-113; iii 151 
(illust. ). (34-35. 

Prosobranchia, i 317, 318-324: iii 

Prosopistoma, ii 466 (illust.) ; iii 30. 

Prosthiostomum, ii 152. 

Prostomium, iii 359; iv 32. 

Proteas, iv 89. 

Protection of eggs and young, 
118; ili 349, 362. 

—amphibians, ili 434-435, 
438-439, 440-441, 442, 443+ 

— annelids, i 8, 361. 

peach aides ill 373-374, 375- 

— Virds, iii 448, 449, 451-452 453» 454s 
457, 464-474; iv 60 (368 

— crustaceans, ili 362-363, 365, 367- 

— echinoderms, iii 355, 356-357- 

— fishes, ill 423, 424, 426-430. 

378, 379, 380, 381, 
383, 387-388, 389-390, 391-392, 
394-396, 4oo, 402; Iv 56, 115, 
118, 120, 126, 256. 

— mammals, i 65; ili 474-475, 
478-480, 481, 482-483, 485, 486, 
488, 490, 491, 492, 493, 494 

— molluscs, iii gog, 405-406, 412-413, 
414, 417-418 

— myriapods, iii 

_ peripatus, i 

— reptiles, ili 444, 445, 446, 447- 

-- zoophytes, ili 350, 352-353- 

Protective mimicry. See Mimicry. 

Protective resemblance (see also 
Masking and Mimicry), ii 278, 282- 
283, 285, 289, 294-295, 300. 

— amphibians, ii 291. 

— arachnids, ii 299-300. 

— ascidians, ii 278. 

— birds, it 279, 281, 290, 297-296; iil 
450, 453, 471; lv 132-134. 


363, 364, 


436-437, 


382- 
3935 
117, 


— insects, ili 


477> 
487. 


544 


Protective resemblance (Cowz.) 

— birds (Conz.) 

— — eggs and young, ii 285-286. 

— crustaceans, ii 278, 279, 292-293. 

— fishes, ii 283-284, 291-292, 296. 

— insects, ii 282, 286-287, 293-294, 
296-300; ili 399; iv 160, 161-162. 

— mammals, ii 18, 279, 289-290, 295; 
ii 488. 

— molluscs, ii 278, 285, 287-289, 292, 

— reptiles, ii 281-282, 290-291. (296. 

— zoophytes, ii 278. 

Proteids. See Albuminoids. 

Proteles Lalandii, i 91-92; ii 15s. 

Protelide, i 87, 91-92; and see Pro- 
teles. 

Proterospongia, iv 100-101 (illust. ). 

Proteus anguineus, i 249; ii 457; 
ili 48. 

Proteus animalcule, i 488-491; i 
268-269, 418; ili 2, 6, 231, 318-319; 
lv 4-5. 

Protochordata, i 60, 292-301. See 
also Lancelet, Ascidians, and Acorn- 
headed Worm. 

Protohydra, i 480. 

Protomolluscs, i 311, 339-341; 
391-392; lll 222, 404-405; 1V 16-17, 

Protomyxa, i 497, 498. (215. 

Protoplasm, i 39, 43-44, 469, 484, 
487-488, 490, 492, 498; 11 1-3, 260, 
268, 270, 379; M11; 1V 1-3, 449, 484. 

Protopterus, i 264, 265; i 83, 456. 

Prototheria, i 69-70. See Mam- 
mals, egg-laying. 

Prototracheata. Sce Peripatus. 

Protozoa, i 304, 487-499; 11 163, 266- 
270, 272-274, 341, 301- 
ili 2, 4, 5, 6, 8-9, 88-89, 
333-335; IV 40, 49, 7 77, 99-101, 
206-207, 363, 449) 453) 454-455) 455) 

— ameeba-like, 1 492, 495-498. [464- 

Proventriculus, i 146. 

Prussic acid, ii 360. 

Psalter, ii 169. See also Digestive 
organs of mammals, herbivorous. 
Psammodromus Hispanicus, ii 
Psephurus, i 268. (446. 

Pseudobranch, i 263: ii 386. 

Pseudobranchus striatus, iii 40. 

Pseudoceros velutinus, ii 308. 

Pseudopods, of animalcules, i 490, 
495, 496; ii 268-269, 279; ili 2, 3, 4; 
iv 4-5. 

Pseudoscorpionide, i 387, 


ili 265-266. 
Psittacus erithacus, i 166; iv 389. 
Psocus fasciatus, i 379. 
Psolus ephippifer, iii 357. 
Psopheticus stridulans, iv 37. 
Psychide, iii 4oo. 
Psychology, i 17. 
Psychropotes, ii 
Ptarmigan, i 172; 
134 (illust.). 
Pteranodon, iii ; iv 471. 
Pterasteride, iii 356. 
Pteridophyta, iv 64. 
Pteroceras, ii 336. 
Pterodactylus, iv 470-471 (illust.). 
Pteromalus pontiz, iv 194. 
— puparum, iv 194. 
Pteromys petaurista, iii 282-283. 
Pteronarcys, ii 464 (illust.). 
Pterophorus pterodactylus, i 366. 


6 (illust.). 
ii 2go (illust.); iv 


INDEX 


Pteropoda, i 325-326; ii 278; ili 35- 
36, 412; IV 451. 

Pteropus, i 81-82; ii 321; iv 212. 

— edulis, i 82; iii 245. 

Pterosaur, paddle-tailed, iii 308-309 
(illust. ). (471. 

Pterosauria, iii 292, 308-309; iv 470- 

Pterotrachea, i 321; ii 9g (illust.) ; 
iv 35 (illust.). 

Pteryle, i 142. [155. 

Ptilonorhynchus holosericeus, i 

Ptinide, iv 355. 

Ptyodactylus homolepis, iii 268. 

Pubis, i 145. 

Puff Adder, ii 80, 303-304; iv 339. 

Puffin, common, i 184; iti 66. 

Puffins, i 184; ii 53. 

Pug Dog, i 383, 38, (illust.). 

Pulex irritans, i 358; ii 122; iii 178. 

Pulicidz. See Fleas. 

Pulmonary artery, i 40-41. 

Pulmonata, i 317, 324, 326-328; ii 
10C, 330, 461-462. 

Pulsating vacuole, i 491, 493, 494, 
496; il 419. 

Pulvillus, iii 274-275, 276. 

Pulvinaria ribesia, iv 351. 

Puma, i 88; ii 9 (illust.), 10; ili 247. 

Pupa (pl. Pupe): 

— beetles, i 367; iii 394 (illust.); iv 192. 

— bugs, ili 381. 

— flies, two-winged, i 356, 357; ii 442 
(illust.), 468 \illust.); iii go2 (illust.), 
403-404 (illust.); iv gr (illust.). 

— insects, membrane-winged, i 370, 
371, 372; ili 387, 388, 389, 391; iv 
I10, 112, 115, 117, 118, 120, 177, 195, 
255, 256. 

— — net-winged, i 377, 378, 379; ili 

6. 

s and butterflies, i 360, 361, 
362, 363, 364, 365; 111 399-400 (illust.), 
gor (illust.), go2 (illust.). 

Pupil, of mammals, i 58, 93, 94. 

“Pure cultures”, i 4. 

Purple-Shell, i 320-321; ii 96-97 
(illust.), 394-395; ili 412 (illust.), 416; 
iv 348. 

Purpura lapillus, i 320-321; ii 
97, 394-395; ili 412, 416; iv 348. 

Putorius ermineus, i 98; ii 2 

— foetidus, i197; ii 22; iv 369. 

— lutreolus, iii 76; iv 304. 

— Sibiricus, iii 76. 

— vison, iii 76; iv 304. 

— vulgaris i 98; ii 21, 290. 

Pycnogon, shore, i 424 (illust.). 

Pycnogonida, i 343, 424; iv 447 
(illust. ). 

Pycnogonum littorale, i 424. 

Pygera bucephala, i 363-364; ii 
299. 

Pygopodes, i 152, 183-185; ili 64-65. 

Pygopus lepidopus, i 222. 

Pylocheles, iv 446-447. 

Pyloric ceca, i 272. 

Pyloric sac, i 453. 

Pyrosoma, i 300; iv 106. 

— gigantea, iv 106. 

Pyrrhocorax graculus, i 154. 

Pyrrhula Europea, i 156. 

Python, Indian (molurus), i 231, 232 
(illust.). 


395 
— mo 


— West African (sebx), i 231, 232 
(illust. ). 
Pythons, i 232: ii 79, 320; ill 270, 445. 


Pythonomorpha, iv 469. 


Q 


Quadrate bone, i 143, 193, 206, 215, 

Quadrumana, iii 253. (237. 

Quadrupeds, i 8. 

Quail, i 172; ii 239. 

Quercus pubescens, iv 81-82. 

Querquedula crecca, iii 58. 

—_ quetta, 1176. 

Quill-feathers, i 142-143 (illust.), 
153, 155, 156, 157, 158, 163, 173, 178, 
182, 186; ili 296-297, 301. 


R 


Rabbit, i 9, 124 (illust.); ii 174-176, 
324, 325, 345-346, 366-367; ili 11, 12, 
202, 482; iv 140, 141, 243-244, 308, 
346, 375, 386. 

— angora, iv 243, 244 (illust. ). 

— chinchilla, iv 243. 

Raccoon, common, i 94 (illust.); ii 

Rachis, i 142. (229-230; ili 247. 

Radiale, i 144, 197, 198, 252; ili 299. 

Radial vessels. See Ambulacral 
vessels. 

Radiates (Radiata), i rr. 

Radiolaria, i 496; ii 341; iv 76, 77, 
453) 4545 458. 

Radiolarian ooze, i 496. 

Radius, i 30, 144, 196, 197, 241, 251, 
252; ili 118, 134, 141, 149, 158, 237, 


299. 

Radula, pl. Radule (see also Rasp- 
ing organ), i 310; ii 95, 96, 97, 196, 

Radula sac, i 310; ii gs. [198. 

Raia batis, i 288; ii 386; iii 424; iv 
278. 

— clavata, i 288; ii 334; iv 278. 

Rail, land-, i 171; ii 240 (illust.), 343- 

— water-, i171; ii 344. (344, 368. 

Rails, i 152, 171; ii 240, 343-344, 368; 
ili 61-62, 186. 

Rallus aquaticus, i 171. 

Ramulina globulifera, iv 454. 

Rana Catesbyana, i 254; ili 50. 

— esculenta, i 254; iii 50; iv 153. 

— Guppyi, i 255. 

— temporaria, i 249; ii 82, 192-194, 
201, 422-423, 457-458; ili so, 182- 
184, 436-437. {iti 383. 

Ranatra linearis, i 354; ii 124, 440; 

Rangifer tarandus, i 111; iii 152; 
iv 219. 

Ranide, i 254. 

Raphides, iv 8o. 

Raphidia ophiopsis, i 377. 

Rasores, ii 238. 

Rasping organ, of molluscs, i 308- 
310, 311, 339; ii 94-96 (illust.), 97, 
99, 196, 247, 248. 

Rat, black, i127; and see Rats. 

— common or brown, i 127; iv 375. 

—water-. See Vole, water-. 

Rats, 1 127; ii 234, 321; iv 346, 347. 
See also Mole-Rats, Pouched- Rats, 
&e. 

Ratite, i 152, 186-190; ii 243; ili 128- 
132, 449-450. 

Rat-Kangaroos, ii 182. 

“Rat-tailed Maggot”, ii 216, 441, 
442 (illust.). 

“Rattle”, i 235; ii 304 (illust.). 

Rattlesnake, i 234-235 (illust.); ii 
80 (illust.), 304 (illust.); iv 135, 339. 


See also Frogs. 


Raven, i 153; ii 235, 236, 237; iv 96, 

Ray, John, i 9. [130, 347) 408. 

Ray, thornback, i 288 (illust.); ii 334: 

— whip-, i 288. [iv 278 (illust.). 

Rays, i 257, 284, 287-290; ii go, 385- 
387; Ill 44, 424-425; iv 204, 278, 348. 

— eagle-, 1 288; ii go (illust.); iii 44 
(illust.). [(illust. ). 

— electric, i 290 (illust.); ii go, or 

— sting, i 288-290; ii 356, 357; iv 205. 

— true, i 288. 

Ray-Animalcule, i 496; iv 76, 77 
(illust.), 449 (illust.), 453, 454, 458. 

Ray Lankester, 1 400; iv 282, 325. 

Razorbill, common, i 184 (illust.); iii 
66. 

Razor-Shells, i 355 (illust.); iii 220 
(illust.}; iv 215. 

Reason, i 52; iv 53. 

Réaummr, iii 388. 

Recapitulation, law of, i 14; ii 9, 
15, 29, 394; lil 118-119, 142-143, 321, 
3357336, 337-339, 348, 432: iv 482. 


Rectal gills, ii 464. See also Gills, 
of insects. 

Rectrices, i 143; iii 297. See also 
Feathers. 


Rectum, ii 464-465, 466. (128. 

Recurvirostra avocetta, iii 127- 

Redia (pl. Rediz), i 444. 

Red-Mullet, plain, iv 271. 

— striped, iv 27: (illust.). 

Red-Mullets, iv 271-272. 

Red- or Forked-Worn, iv 362. 

Redpole, lesser, i 156. 

— mealy, i 156. 

“Red-Spider ”, i 393; ii 218, 443. 

Red-spotted Bluethroat, i 160. 

Redstart, i 160. 

— black, i 160. [190. 

Reduvius personatus, ii 123; iv 

Redwing, i 160. 

Reed, ii 169. 

Reed-fish, i 266, 268 (illust.); ii 453. 

Reeve, iv 322. 

Reeves, W. H., iv 292. 

Reflex actions, iv 9 (illust.), 24, 33, 
34, 49, 50. 

Regeneration, biological: 

amphibians, iii 332. 

— annelids, ii 374-375; ili 329. 

— birds, iii 332. 

— crustaceans, il 374; ili 331-332. 

— echinoderms, i 454; iii 328-329. 

— flat-worms, ili 329. 

— mammals, ili 332. 

— moss-polypes, iii 331. 

— reptiles, ii 371; ili 332. 

— sponges, iii 325, 326. 

— zoophytes, iii 328. 

Regulus cristatus, i 160. 

— ignicapillis, i 260. 


Reindeer, i 111-112; ili 152; iv 218, 
21g (illust. ). 

“Reindeer Age”, i 112. 

Remiges, i 143; iii 296. See also 
Feathers. 


Rengger, iv 146. 

Rennin, ii 169. 

Reptiles, i 60, 191-237; ii 70-81, 191- 
192, 281-282, 290-291, 303-304, 311, 
320, 333; 344-345, 354-355, 370-371, 
424-426 ; ili 50-56, 110-111, 121-124, 
184-185, 207-212, 267-272, 286-287, 
308-309, 332, 443-448; iv 29-30, 47, 
48, 151-152, 214, 317, 328, 336-337, 
348, 378, 391-392, 395-396, 417, 419, 


INDEX 


Reptiles (Couz.) 
421, 425, 428, 432, 437, 463-464, 467- 
47%. 

— extinct, ii 328, 329-330; ill 124, 292, 
308-309 (illust.); iv 463-464, 467-471 


— flying. See Extinct. [(illust.). 

— terrible. See Dinosaurs. 

— toothless, i 212-221. See also 
Turtles and Tortoises. 

— varied-toothed, iv 467-468. 

Respiratory organs. See Breath- 


ing organs. 
Respiratory trees, of echinoderms, 
li 414; ili 96, 97. 
Retepora, i 437 (illust.). 
Reticulum, ii 168. See also Diges- 


tive organs of mammals, herbivo- 
rous. 

Retina, i 58. 

Retinaculum, iii 312. [99- 


Retractor muscles, i 334, 438; iii 
Retropinna Richardsoni, iv 275. 
Reversion, iv 488. 
Rhabdites, ii 36r. 
Rhabdoceeles, ii 151, 152. 
Rhabdophora, iv 458-459. 
Rhacophorus pardalis, iii 287-288. 
— Reintwardti, ii 319, 323; ili 288. 
— reticulatus, iii 441-442. 
— Schlegeli, iii 439. 
Rhamphastide, ii 186-187. 
Rhamporhynchus, iii 308-309. 
Rhea, common (Americana), i 188. 
— Darwin’s (Darwini), i 188. 
— long-billed (macrorhynca), i 188. 
Rheas, i 188 ; ii 243; iii 130, 153, 449. 
Rhina squatina, i 286-287. 
Rhinoceros, common or black (bicor- 
nis), i 106 (illust.); ii 350; iii 138-139, 
140. [350; iii 139 (illust.). 
— Indian (unicornis), i 106 (illust.); ii 
— white (sinus), iii 138. 
Rhinoceroses, i 64, 105-106; ii 350; 
ili 138-140, 488; iv 334, 373- 
Rhinoderma Darwini, iii 440-441 
(illust.). 
Rhinolophus ferrumequinum, i 83. 
— hipposideros, i $3. (83. 
Rhinopoma microphyllum, i 82- 
Rhizocrinus, iv 446. 
Rhizomys, iii 204. 
Rhizopoda, i 492, 495-498; ii 268- 
270, 341. See also Animalcules. 
Rhodeus amarus, ii 452 (illust.). 
Rhodites rose, i 372: ii 204-205. 
Rhombus levis, iv 268. 


— maximus, i 279; ili 431-432; iv 268. 
Rhopailia, iv 41 (illust.). 
Rhopalocera, i 360-362. See also 


Butterflies. 
Rhyacophilides, ii 116. 
Rhynchites betula, iii 394-396. 
Rhynchocephala, i 203, 236-237; 
iii 56, 444; iv 410, 464, 467. 
Rhynchodesmus terrestris, ii 446. 
Rhynchops, ii 52. 
Rhynchosuchus Schlegeli, i 212. 
Rhyssa, iv 195. 
Rhytina, ii 173-174. 
Ribs, amphibians, i 239. 
— birds, i 144-145. 
— fishes, i 261. 
— mammals, i 29, 46. 
— reptiles, i 194-195, 206, 237; ii 424; 
lil rro-111, 287. 
Rice-Bird, i 156. 
Richardia Athiopica, iv 80. 


545 


Ridley, H. N., iii 483. 

Rimula, ii 394. 

Ring-muscle, ii 171. 

Ring-Ousel, i 160. 

Rissa tridactyla, i 168; iii 455, 456. 

Ritzema Bos, ii 235, 347; iv 326, 
328, 358. 

River-Shrew, African, ii 35° 

River-Worm, red, 1 431; iv 203-204. 

Roach, i 282; ii 449 (illust.), 450. 

Robin Redbreast, i 160; iii 185; iv 

Robinson, Louis, iii 234. [96. 

Rock-Badgers. See Conies. 

Rock-borers, i 335. 

Rock Goby, i 275. 

“Rock Hoppers”, iii 186. 

Rock-Kangaroos, ii 182. 

Rock-Lobster. See Lobster. 

Rock-Wallaby, yellow-footed, iii 
479 (illust.). 

Rodentia, See Mammals, gnawing. 

Rods and Cones, i 58; iv 47. 

Rolliing-up habit, ii 341-342. 

Rolt, H. A., iv 379. 

Romanes, ii 154, 324; ili 19, 95, 115, 
234; iv 385, 4or, 478, 488, 489, 494. 

Rondeletius, iv 315. 

Rook, i 153 (illust.); ii 235, 2364illust.), 
354; ill 185, 186, 463; iv 130-132 
(illust.), 348. 

Rorqual, ii 29; iii 85. 

Rose-bedeguars, i 372. 

Rose chafer, i 368, 369 (illust.). 

Ross, iv 207, 341. 

Rotalia, i 489 {illust.); iii 6. 

Rotatoria. See Wheel-Animalcules. 

Rotifer (and see Wheel-Animalcules): 

— crown, ii 262 263 (illust.). 


— flower, ii 263. 

— rose-coloured, 1 434-435 (illust.); ii 
262; ili roo (illust.). 

Rotifera, i 304, 434-435; and see 
Wheel-Animalcules. 

Round-mouths, i 257, 291-292; ii 
91-92, 383-385; iii 423; iv 278-279. 

Round-Worm, i 447-448 (illust.); iv 

Roy, iii 307. (343. 

Rozites gongylophora, ii 209. 

Ruff, i 169; iv 147. 

Rumen, ii 168. See also Digestive 
organs of mammals, herbivorous. 
Rumia crategata, i 364; ii 297-298: 

iii 102. 

Ruminants (see also Mammals, 
hoofed), i 29, s0g-122; ii 351-354, 
365-366; ill 150-153, 489-490. 

— “‘hollow-horned”, i113; ii 352. 

Running Birds, i 152, 186-187; ii 
243, 354, 367-368; ill 128-132, 449- 
450; iV 475-476. {iii 248. 

Rupicapra tragus, i 117; ii 365-366; 

Ruthenica, iv 82. 

Ruticilla phenicurus, i 160. 

— tithys, i 160. 


S 


Sabella, ii 339, 409. 

Sabellaria, i 430; ii 339. 

Sable, American, iv 303. 

— Russian, i 98; iii 156 (illust.); iv 303. 

Saccopharynx pelecanoides, iv 
446. 

Sacculina, iv 197-199 (illust.). 

Sacral vertebre, i 27, 144, 194, 239. 


546 


Sacrum, i 27, 31, 144, 241, 257; iil 82, 
84, 120, 125, 133. 

Saddle-Oysters, iii 408-409 (illust.). 

Sagitta, iii 21 (illust.); iv 42. 

Saitis pulex, iv 166-167 (illust.). 

Sajous, i 76-77. 

Saki, black, i 78; iii 240, 241 (illust.). 

Sakis, i 76, 78. 

Salamander, black, i 245; ili 436. 

— giant, i 247; ii 457; iii 48. 

— Mississippi, i 248; ii 456-457; iil 48. 

—siren, i 249; ii 457; ili 48-49, 213 

— spectacled, ii 423. ((illust.). 

— spotted, i 238-245 (illust.); 1183, 304; 
ili 46-47 (illust.), 436. 

— three-toed, 1 248; ili 48, 435. 

Salamanders, i 245, 247-249; ii 423, 
456-457; ill 46-49. 

— fish, 11 83; ili 48. 


Salamandra atra, 1 245; ili 436. 
— maculosa, i 238-245; ii 83, 304; ili 
40-47, 436. (435: 


Salamandrella Keyserlingi, iii 
Salamandrina perspicillata, ii 
Saliva, i 36, 37; ii 212-213. (423. 
— of insects, iv 122, 124, 125. 
Salivary glands, i 36 (illust.); ii 168. 
Salix, iv 89. 
Sallust, 9 
Salmo fario, i 282; iv 275-276, 379. 
— salar. See Salmon. 
Salmon, i 282 (illust.); ii 388; ili 182, 
426, 432-433 (illust.); iv 128, 154, 155 


y 294. 


(illust.), 275, 276, 379. 
Salmon Family, i 
Salps, i 300; ii 278; i 422 (illust.); 
Salt, common, i 33. [iv 106. 
Saltamentum Sardicum, iv 271 


80-282. 


Salticus scenicus, i 393; i 131; i 
Salts of lime, i 33. (276. 
Sanderling, i 160. 

Sanderson, G. P., iv 332. 
Sand-Flies. See Midges, sand- 
Sandford, i 106. (220. 


Sand-Gaper, i 334 (illust.); ii 250; iti 

Sand- Grouse, i 152, 167-168; i 2 

— Pallas’s, 1 168; ii 279-281. 

Sand-Hoppers, i 414, 415 (illus 
142, 404; ill 174-175, 365, 368. 

Sandias, ii 212; iv rer. 

Sand-Martin, i 16; ili 453. (128. 

Sandpiper, common, i 169; iii 127, 

— curlew, i 169. 

— green, 1 160. 

— purple, i 169. 

— sharp-tailed, i 169. 

— Temminck’s, i 169. 

— wood, i 160. 

Sandpipers, i 160 (illust.); iv 147. 

Sand-Rats, iii 204. 

Sand-Wasp, common, i 373: ii 106. 

— field, or fly-storing, 1 373: il 106. 

Sand-Wasps, i 373; ii 106 (illust.). 


Sarcina ventrieuls, iv 76, 78 
(illust.). 

Sarcophaga carnaria, iv 72. 

— Sarraceniz, iv 72. 341. 


Sarcoptes scabei, iv 196 (illust.), 
Sarcorhampus gryphus, i 175; iv 
Sardine, i 283; iv 26s. [432. 
— phosphorescent, ii 319 (illust.). 
Sarracenia variolaris, iv 71-72. 
Sars, iv 282. 

Satin-Bird, iv 406. 

Saturnia carpini, i 363; iv 164. 

— Pernyi, iv 
— yama-mai, iv 260. 


200. 


INDEX 


Sauropoda, iv 46y. 

Sauropsida, i 204. 

Savage, ii 103. 

Saville Kent, ii 153, 159, 272. 

Saw-Fishes, i 288; ii 8g (illust.). 

Saw-Fly, apple, iv 356. 

— Australian, iii 389-390. 

— cherry and pear, iv 356. 

— corn, iil 387-388 (illust.); iv 355. 

— gooseberry and currant, iv 356. 

— plum, iv 356. 

— rose, iii 388 (illust.). [iv 355 

— turnips, i 371 (illust.); 11 204; ili 389; 

Saw-Flies, i 370-371; ii 202-204, 387- 
390; iv 160, 355-356. 

Saw-Wort, iv 82-83 (illust.). 

Saxicava, 1 335. 

Saxicola, iv 133. 

— enanthe, i 160; iii 185. 

Saxidomus arata, iv 324. 

Saxifrage, golden, iv 88. 

Scale-Insect, apple, iii 381; iv 350 

— currant, iv 351. ((illust.), 351. 

— gooseberry and currant, iv 351. 

Scale-Insects, iii 3 IV 350, 351; iv 

Scales, amphibians 214. [400. 

— birds’ legs, 1 141-142; ili 297. 

— fishes, i 264, 269, 271, 280, 283. 

— — ganoid, i 266-268. 

— — placoid, 1 12-13, 259, 261, 288. 

— mammals, i 42. 

—reptiles, i 192-193, 205, 213-214, 
223, 225, 226, 228, 237; ili 210. 

Scale-Worm, ii 408 (illust.); ili 358. 

Scallop, edible, i 337-338. 

— pilgrim, i 337 (illust.). (45-46. 

Scallops, i 337-338; ili 36-37, 409; iv 

Scansores, iii 263. 

Scaphander, ii too. 

Scaphirhynchus, i 268. 

Scaphites, iv 466 (illust.). 

Scaphopoda, i 311, 333-339; ii 247- 
248; iii 221-222, 411-412; iv 18. 

Scapula, i 29, 69, 187, 197, 198, 241, 
252; iii 201, 293; and see Shoulder- 
girdles. 

“Scar” of Limpet, iv 57-58. 

Scarabeeus sacer, i 368; ii 209-211. 

Scarus, ii 361; iv 437. 

Scaup, i 176. 

Scelimena, iii 29-30. 

Scent-glands, iv 142 (illust.), 152. 

Scepastus pachyrhyncoides, ii 

Scharff, iii 105. (315. 

Scheltopusik, i 223 

Schiemenz, ii 98. 

Schiller, iv 403. 

Schimper, iv 64. 

Schistocerca (Acridium) pere- 
grina, i 382; ii 213. 

Schizopoda, i 410, 412-413. 

Schizotarsia, i 396, 397. 

Schmankewitsch, iv 493. 

Schmidt, Oscar, iii 148. 

Schneider, iv 56. 

Sciara militaris, iv 127. 

Science, i 1, 2. 

Scientific Method, i 1-4. 

Scincide, iti 207-208. 

Scincus officinalis, i 225; 
282; 

Scissor-bills, ii 52 (illust.). 

Sciuride. See Squirrels. 

Sciuropterus volucella, iii 233. 

Sciurus laticaudatus, iii 247. 

— vulgaris, i 129; ii 367; ill 483-484; 


(illust.). 


ii 76, 77, 


iii 207-208. 


iv 308. 


Sclater, W. L., ii 311, 316; 

Sclerotic coat, i 57. 

Scolopax gallinago, ili 127, 128. 

— rusticula, i 169; ii 68. 

Scolopendra morsitans, i 397. 

Scolopendrella, i 397. 

Scomber colias, iii 41-43. 

— vernalis, i 274; ili 42, 43; iv 270. 

Scombridz#. See Mackerels. 

Scopelus engraulis, ii 319. 

Scorpio, i 387. 

Scorpion, field-, i 387. 

— house-, i 387. 

— rock-, i 387. 

Scorpions, i 385-387 (illust.): ii 125, 
442-443; ili 168-169, 373; Iv 15. 

Scorpion-Flies, i 377-378 (illust.); ii 
IIlI. 

Scorpionids. See Scorpions. 

Scorpion-Shells, ii 336. 

Scorpion-Spiders, i 389. 

Scoter, black, i177. 

— velvet, i177. 

Scott Elliot, iv 64, 83, 89. 

“Scratching” birds, ii 238. 

Scrobicularia, ii 249, 250 (illust.); 
ili 219 (illust.). 

Scrub-Turkey, iii 451-452. 

Scrupocellaria, iv 10s. 

Scudder, ii 307. 

Scutes, of reptiles, 1 192, 205, 209, 
210, 223; il 333 (illust.). (6s. 

Scutigera, i 307; ii 133-134, 436; iil 

Scyllarus arctus, i 411 (illust.). 

Scyllium canicula, i 257-264, 284, 285; 
ii 385-387; ili 424. 

— catulus, 1 286. 

Scyphomedus@, i 480, 481-483. See 
also Hydroids. 

Sea-Anemones, i 465, 473-474 
(illust.); ii 156-158 (illust.), 28 


iv 412. 


341, 361, 417-418 (illust.); 327- 
328 (illust.), 353: iv 7, 25 (illust.), 76, 
Sea-Bass, ili 425 (illust. ). (217. 


Sea-Bear, iii 79 4925 iv 304-307. 

Sea-Breams, ii 19s. 

Sea-Butterflies, ii 278. 

Sea-Cat, i 290-291 (illust.); 
(illust.). 

Sea-Centipede, i 425-429 (illust.); ii 
146; ill 97-98 (illust.); iv 12, 44. 

Sea-Cows, i 68, ro1-1o02 (illust.); ii 
173-174 (illust.), 329; ii 81-83 
(illust.), 490; iv 213, 313-314, 436, 


li 387 


473: 

Sea-Cucumbers, i 454, 462-464 
(illust.); ii 264, 414, 416 (illust.); ii 
24 (illust.), 92, 95-97 (illust.), 230, 
328, 357; 1V 199, 217. 

— footless, iii 97 (illust.). 

Sea-Ear. See Ormer. 

Sea-Flowers, i 473-478; and see Sea- 
Anemones, Corals, &c. 

— eight-rayed, i 474, 476-478; 

— six-rayed, i 474-476. 

Sea-Hare, i 324-325; ii 397; ill 35 
(illust.), 218, 412. [iv 75. 

Sea-Horse. Australian, ii 296 (illust.); 

— short-snouted, i 277 (illust.); ili 43- 
44, 427 (illust.). 

Sea-Lemon, ii 397 (illust.); iii 412. 

Sea-Lilies, i 454, eas (illust.); ii 
265, 413, 415; ili 8, 23, 328; iv 199, 

446 (illust.), 447, 459- 

Sea- Lion, Steller’s, i 98, 99 (illust.). 

Sea-Lions, i il 24-25; iil 77-79 
(illust.), 492; iv 304-307. 


iv 102. 


Sea-Lizards, iv 468, 469 (illust.). 
pecs, i 436-437 (illust.), 478; 
[339, 8: 

“ea-Mouse” » 1 429; ii 147 (illust.), 

Sea-Net, i 437 (illust.). 

Sea-Otter, iv 304. 

“Sea-Parrots ”, i 184. 

Sea-Pens, i 473, 478; iv 102. 

Sea-Scorpion, i 274. 

Sea-Serpents, iv 469. 

Sea-Slater, ii 143 (illust.), 405; iii 
365, 368; iv 199. 

Sea-“Spiders”, i 343, 424 (illust.); 
iv 447 (illust.). 

Sea-Squirts, i 293, 297-300 (illust.). 
See also Ascidians. 

Sea-Urchin, edible, i 456-459 (illust.); 
lll 92-93 

Sea-Urchins, i 454, 456-459; ii 264, 
289, 340 (illust.), 36x (illust.}, 412 
(illust.), 413, 415-416 (illust. } ); ili g2- 
95, 355-356, 357 (illust.); iv 4r, 199, 

— irregular, i 459. (217, 459- 

— regular, i459. 

Sea-weeds, iv 64, 95. See also Alge. 

Seal, common, i 99 (illust.); iii 78 
(illust.), 80-81. 

—harp, or Greenland, i 99; iv 312, 
313 (illust.). 

— hooded or bladder-nosed, iv 312. 

— northern fur-, ili 79, 492; iv 304-307. 

Seals, i 98-99; ii 24-25; iii 492. 

—eared. See Sea-Lions. 

— true, i 98-99; ili 80-81; iv 312-313. 

Sebaceous glands, i 63-64; iii 476- 
477; iv 196. 

Secretary Bird, i 
(illust.) ; iv 328. 

Sedentaria, i 429-430. 

Sedgwick, Adam, i 398: ii 360; iii 102. 

Segmentation, i 61, 343, 349; ii 375, 

— annelids, i 425, 426, 427, 431. [382. 

— arachnids, i 385-386, 388, 392. 

— crustaceans, i 402-406, 416, 420; iv 
13-14. 

— insects, 1 343, 345, 349, 359, 384. 

— myriapods, 1 394, 395- 

—- peripatus, i 399. 

— vertebrates, i 61, 295; iv 19. 

Segmented Worms. See Annelida. 

Seiler, Raphael, iv 387. 

Selache maxima, i 286. 

Selachoidei, i 284-287. 
Sharks and Dog- Fishes. 

Selenia illunaria, ii 300. 

Self-fertilization of Flowers, iv 
84, 85. 

Selous, ii 352; iv 364, 365, 370. 

Semilunar fold, iv 481. 


176; ii 46-48 


See also 


Semi-plantigrade feet struc- 
ture, iii 156, 157. 

Semnopithecus entellus, i 72-73; 

— nasica, 173. [ii 164-165. 


— roxellanus, i 73. 

Semon, i 7; ii 83, 127, 189, 354, 357, 
455; lil 53, 258, 285, 450, 451, 452, 
477; iV 211, 212, 252, 313. 

Semper, ii 315, 444, 445, 450, 461; 
lil r8t. 

Sense Organs, i 18; iv 2-5, 24-25: 
and see Sight, Hearing, Smell, &c. 

— evolution of, i59; iv 6. 

— special, i 263-264, 350. 

— amphibians, i 245, 256; iv 26, 29- 

—animalcules, i 491; iv 40. —_[30, 32. 

—annelids, i 428-420; ii 146, 148; iv 
25, 26, 28, 20, 34, 40, 42, 44-45. 


INDEX 


Sense Organs (Coxz.) 

— arachnids, i 386-387, 388, 389, 
392; iv 44, 45. 

— ascidians, iv 38, 46. 

— birds, i 150-151; iv 26, 27, 29-30. 

— crustaceans, i 408; ii 136; iv 28, 30- 
31, 35-37. 

— echinoderms, i 454, 463-464; ii 154, 
415, 416; iv 41; and see Tube-feet. 
— fishes, i 263-264, 272; iv 28-29, 30, 

32, 38-39, 46, 47- 

— flat-worms, i 446. 

— insects, i 349-350; ili 387; iv 26, 28, 
29) 30, 31; 43-44, 45, 164-166. 

— king- crabs, i 1 423. 

— lancelet, iv 46. 

_— mammals, i 53-59; ii 24, 227, 228, 
232; Iv 27, 28, 29, 30, 31-32, 140-142. 

— molluscs, i 310-311, 332; il 331; iv 
28, 29, 30-31, 40, 41, 42-43, 45- 

— myriapods, i 395, 396, 397; iv 30, 31. 

— peripatus, i 399, 402. 

— reptiles, i 203, 209, 213, 228, 
232, 2373 iv 27, 29-30, 47, 48. 

— wheel-animalcules, i 435. 

— zoophytes, i 479, 480, 482, 483; iv 
25, 26, 28, 33-34, 40-41. 

Sensitiveness, iv 2-3. 

Sensory nerves, i 53. 

Sepia officinalis, i 311-314; ii 94-96, 
392-393; ili 418; iv 18-19, 322. 

Septa, of sea-flowers, i 474, 476, 477- 

Seriatopora subulata, i 475 (illust). 

Serinus canarius, iv 387-389. 

Serpentarius secretarius, i 176; 
ii 46-48; iv 328. 

Serpula, i 430: ti 258, 339, 409. 

Serranus atrarius, iii 425. 

Serratula lycopifolia, iv 82-83. 

Sertularia, i 480. 

Sete, i 408, 409, 426, 429, 431, 432, 
433; ii 146, 360; and see Sense 
Organs. 

Sewellels, iv 418. 

Shag, i 181; ii 48; iii 63-64. 

“Shagreen”, iv 317. 

Shanny, i 27s. 

Shark, basking, i 286; ii 88. 

— blue, i 284-286 (illust.); ii 88; 

— Greenland, i 286. 

— grey six-gilled, i 287. 

— hammer-headed, i 285-286 (illust. ). 

— Japanese frill-gilled, i 287. 


390, 


230~ 


iii qr. 


— Port-Jackson, i 287; ii 89, go; iii 
24 (illust.). 
— rondeletian, i 286; i1 88; iv 340. 


— thresher or fox-, ii 88-89. 

— zebra, 1 286. 

Sharks, i 257, 284-290; ii 88, 385-387; 
ili 40-41, 424-425; iv 128-129, 204. 

— comb-toothed, i 287. 

Sharp, ii 117, 203, 210, 213, 251, 313, 
466; ill 30, 225, 264, 379, 388, 389, 
303, 3943 IV 113, 215, 355, 355 

Sheep, i 29, 114, 115-117; 11 168, 352; 
ili 248; iv 142, 226-229. 

— Archar, iii 186-187 (illust.). 

— Barbary, iv 227. 

— bighorn, i 116. 

— flat-tailed, iv 228. 

— merino, iv 229. 

— mouflon, i 116. 

— Rocky Mountain, iii 187. 

Sheep-bot, i 358: iv 191. 

Sheep-‘“‘tick”, iv 190 {illust.). 

Sheldrake, i 177; iii 58 (illust.). 

Shell-glands, i 416, 422. 


547 


Shell-membrane, iii 347. 
Shell-muscle, of molluscs, i 307. 
Shells, of animalcules, i 489, 495-496: 
ii 341. 
— crustaceans, i 406, 419-420; ii 40s. 
— lamp-shells, i 438-439; ii 339-340. 
— molluscs, i 307, 310, 316-317, 318- 
319, 320, 321, 324, 325, 327, 328, 329- 
331, 334-335, 336, 337, 338, 339, 341; 
ii 335-337, 394; iii 32, 35, 36-37, 408, 
409-410, 411, 415, 416; lv 322-324. 
— turtles and tortoises, i 214, 218, 219, 


Shields, G. O., iv 364. (220. 
Shield-Urchins, i 459. 

Shin-bone, i 32. 

Shipley, ii 260; iiig2. [411; iv 348. 


“Ship-Worm”’, i 335; iii 410 (illust.), 
Shore Lark, i 156. 
Shoulder-blade, i 29; iii 201, 298. 
Shoulder-girdles, i 196; iii 119-120. 
—— amphibians, i 251. 

—— birds, i 145; iii 298. 

—— fishes, 1 261; iii 118. 

— mammals, i 29, 69; ili 132. 

—— reptiles, i 198, 215. 

— -joint, i 29-30. 

Shrew, common, i 84-85. 

— garden, ii 34, 35 (illust.). 

— lesser, 1 84. 

— Tuscan, i 84 (illust.), 85. 

— water, 1 84; li 34. 

— web-footed, ii 35; ili 71. 

Shrews, i 83, 84-85; ii 34-35, 37; ili 
73; iv 327. 

— burrowing, ii 34. 

— swimming, ii 34-35. 

— — Himalayan, iii 71. 

— See also Jumping-Shrews, 
Shrews, Elephant - Shrew, 
Shrew, &c. 

Shrike, grey, i 158. 

— red-backed, i 158. 

Shrikes, i 158; ii 64-65; iv 133. 

Shrimp, common, i 412; ii 137; iv 
298, 299-300 (illust. )- 

— freshwater, i 415; ii 142. 

Shrimps, ii 403; ili 27, 
445 (illust.). 

Shuckard, iii 391. 

Sialidee, ii 466-467. 

Sialis lutaria, i 377; ii 466-467. 

Sibree, iv 336. 

Side-gills, ii 401-402. See also Gills. 

Sight, organs and sense of, iv 24, 39- 
48, 401-402. 


Tree- 
Musk- 


365; iv 35, 


— development of, iv 46-47. erg. 
ibi i 249, 251; ili 213- 

— animalcules, iv 4o. 

— annelids, i 426, 432; iv 40, 42, 44-45. 


— arachnids, i 386-390, 392, 399; iv 44, 


— ascidians, iv 46. [4s. 
— birds, i 150-151. 
— crustaceans, i 409, 414, 417, 420, 


2; 1V 43, 445. 

— echinoderms, i 451, 458; iv 41. 

— fishes, i 60, 263, 270, 279-280, 285, 
291; IV 46, 47, 443-444. 

— flat-worms, i 446; iv 41. 

— insects, i 346, 352-353, 358, 
376; IV 43-44, 45, 121, 164-166. 

— king-crabs, i 423. 

— lancelet, iv 46. 

— mammals, i57- 58. 
— molluscs, i 312, 317, 327, 328, 3 
iii 218-219; iv 40, 41, 45, 444. 

— myriapods, i 395, 397. 

— peripatus, i 309, 402. 


223 


oo 
co 


548 


Sight (Conz?.) 

- pycnogons, i 424. 

— reptiles, i 203, 213, 225, 226, 228; 
ili 208, 210, 212; iv 47, 48. 

— wheel-animalcules, i 435. 

— zoophytes, i 482; iv 4o-41. [367. 

“Signalling coloration”, ii 366- 

Silene nutans, iv 86. 

— pumilio, iv gq. 

— 5. Elizabethze, iv 94. 

Siliceous spicules, of sponges, i 
485, 486 (illust.). 

Silk-glands, iv 116, 259 

Silk-industry, iv 259-260. 

Silkworm-mould, iv 77. 

Silkworms, i 360; ii 214; iv 259-260 
((illust.). 

Silpha atrata, ii 109-110. 

Siluride, i 280; iii 426-427. 

Silurus glanis, i 280, 281. 

Silver-Fish, i 384 (illust.; ii 214. 

Simia satyrus, i 72; ii 349; iii 160, 
161, 494. 

Simmonds, iv 213, 233, 310. 

Simonea folliculorum, iv 106 

Simroth, iii 105. {(illust. ). 

Simuliide, ii rzr, 468. 

Sinclair, iii 371, 372, 373; iv 216. 

Single tube arrangement, of 
invertebrates, higher, i 303. 

Siphon, of echinoderms, i 458; ii 413. 

Siphonaria, ii 462. 

Siphonariada, ii 461-462. 

Siphonophora, i 481; ii 161-162; iii 
10, 327; IV 103-104. 

Siphonops annulatus, i 255: iii 
213-214. 

Siphons, of molluscs, i 320, 334, 335: 
ii 96, 249-250, 331, 336, 305, 462; iii 
219, 220, 221, 410, 411; iV 40. 

Siphon-Worms, i 304, 433- 
149-150, 259-260, 410; iii 

— bristl also 
Dristle-T: (317. 

Siphuncle, of pearly nautilus, i 316- 

Sipunculus nudus, See Siphon- 
Worms. 

Siredon Mexicanus, i 249. 

and see Sea- 


See 


Sirenia, i 68, 1o1-102; 
Cows. 
Sirenidee. See Salamanders, siren 


Siren lacertina, 1249; il 457; ili 48- 
Sirex augur, iii 387. (49, 213. 
gigas, 1 371} il 203; ili 386-387. 

Siri cide, iv 195. 

Siskin, i 156. 

Sitaris humeralis, iv 

Sitones lineatus, iv 354. 

Sitta ceesia, i157; 11187; iii 264, 454. 

Skater, common, ii 124. 

— pond.-, i 354; ii 123 (illust.), 440; iii 
29 (illust.). 

Skates, i 284, 287-288 (illust.) ; ii 90, 
386; iii 44, 424 (illust.); iv 39, 278, 
348. 

Skeleton (see also Endoskeleton, 
Exoskeleton, Shell, Scales, Cara- 
pace, &c.): 

— axial, i 26-20. 

—influence of, on development of 
breathing organs, li 412-414. 

— acorn-headed worm, i 301. 

— amphibians, i 239-241 (illust.), 251- 
253 (illust.); ili 183 (illust.). 

— ascidians, i 298. 

— birds, i 143-146 (illust.); iti 265 
(illust.), 298-299 (illust.); iv 475-476. 


{(illust. ). 
192-193 


INDEX 


Skeleton (Coxz.) 

— echinoderms, i 452, 455, 456-458, 
460, 462, 464; iii 355; and see Test. 

— fishes, 1 259-261 (illust.), 277. 

— invertebrates, higher, i 303; iii 14. 

— lancelet, i 294, 295. 

— mammals, i 25, 26-32 (illust.); ili 14, 

g (illust.), 83-84, 132-135 (illust.), 
141-143, 190-191 (illust.), 236 (illust.), 
237, 293-294 (illust.); iv 473-475 
(illust. ). 

— moss-polypes, i 436, 437. 

— reptiles, i 192-199 (illust.)}, 204, 205- 
207, 228-230; ili 
110 (illust.), 124 (illust.), 309; 1v 468- 
471 (illust. ). 

— sponges, i 484, 485, 486, 487. 

— vertebrates, 1 60-62, 302-303. 

land, iii 119-120 ‘illust.). 

-— primitive, 1 292-293. 

— zoophytes, i 475, 476, 477, 478, 480; 
Ml 328. 

Skeleton shrimps, i 4t5 (illust.) 
ll 142, 404- 495; iii 277 (illust.). 

Skimmers, ii (53-54. 

Skin (and see Exoskeleton), i 44-45, 

— amphibians, 1 238-239, 245, 247, 251, 
255; ili 214. 

— fishes, i 258-259, 263, 284, 291, 292. 

— mammals, i 25. 


213-215, 221-222, 


— molluses, i 313. 

— pcripatus, i 399. 

— reptiles, i 220, 226, 228. 

Skin-glands, i 238-239; ii 435+ 

Skink, common, i ii 76, 77 
(illust.); ili 207-208 (illust.), 282. 

Skinks, i 221, 225; ii 75-76; ili 207- 
208. 

Skip-Jacks. Sce Beetles, click-. 

Skua, common or great, i 168 (illust.); 


— long-tailed, 1 168. [ii 52. 

— pomatorhine, i 168. 

— Richardson's, i 168; ii 52. 

Skuas, i 168; ii 52 (illust.). 

Skull, amphibians, i 239, 252. 

— birds, i 143; ii 242 illust.). 

— fishes, i 259, 271. 

— mammals, i 27-28 (illust.), 66, 79 
(illust.), 103; ii 7 (illust.), 16 (illust.), 


31 (illust.), 176 (illust.). 

— reptiles, i 193, 205-206, 209, 210, 
215, 227, 229. (354. 

Skunk, American, ii 301-303 (illust.), 

Skunks, i 07; iii 247. 

Skylark, i 156: iii 455 (illust.), 456, 
468-460 (illust.); iv 408. 

Slade, R., ili 104. (104, 413. 

Slime-glands, i 309: ii 134, 360; ili 

Slipper Animalcule, i 459, 492-403 
(illust.) ; ii 266, 361-362; ili 5, 6 
(illust.), 323-325 (illust.). 

Sloth, three-toed, ii 178-179 (illust.); 
ili 256, 481 (illust.), 482. 

— two-toed, i 136 (illust.); ii 179-180. 

Sloths, i 14, 136; ii 178-180, 295, 322, 
327; ili 254, 256; iv 75. 

— ground-, ili 256; iv 473-474. 

Sloth-Bear, iv 334. 

Slow-Worm, i 223-224. 

Slug (and see Slugs): 

— black, i 328; ii 199-201 (illust.), 247, 
434) Iv 348 (illust.). 

— great, li 199-201. 

— grey field-, i 328; 

— red, ii 200 (illust.). 

Slugs, i 317, 326, 328; 11 96-100, 199- 
201, 247, 292, 296, 306-307, 330, 357, 


((illust. ). 
ii 247; iv 348 


Slugs (Coxz.) 
374, 382, 393-397, 432-434, 459-462; 
iil 33-36, 217-219, 412-417; iV 31, 35, 
88-89, 214. 

— land-, i 328; and see Slug. 

— sea-, i 324, 326; li 100, 306-307, 382; 

Smeathman, iv 125. [iii 36. 

Smell, organs and sense of, iv 24, 30— 
32, 402-403. 

— amphibians, iv 32 (illust.). 

— birds, i 149, 182-183. 

— crustaceans, i 409; iv 30-31 (illust.). 

— fishes, i 261, 265, 272; il 422-423; 
iv 31-32. 

— insects, i 350; iv 30-31 (illust.), 164. 

— mammals, i 55-56 (illust.); ii 227; iv 
140-142. 

— molluscs, i 310-311; iv 31 (illust.). 

~- myriapods, iv 30-31 (illust.). 


Smelt, common, i 282; iv 275, 276 

Smew, i 177. { illust.). 

Smith, Anderson, iii 426; iv 324. 

Smith, Fred.,i7; it 115, 156; iil 428; 

Smith, S. 1., ii ryo. {iv 154. 

Smooth Hound, i 28s. 

Snail (and see Snails): 

— Alpine, ii 200 (illust.). 

— apple-, ii 460-461 (illust.). 

— bush, ii 200 (illust.). 

— field, 11 200 (illust.). 

— garden, i 326-328 (illust.); ii 196, 
199; 335, 433; Mi 104, 414; iv 18 


(illust.), 31, 45, 58. 
— glass, iii 180-181. 
— hedge, ii 200 (illust. ). 

— operculate land-, ii 200 (illust.). 
— pond-, 1 328; 11 434; ili 34, ro4, 106, 

414; iv 78 (illust.). 

— purple, i 320-327; ii 96-97 (illust.), 

394-395; ili 412 (illust.), 416; iv 348. 
—river-, i 320; ili 414; iv 17-18: 

(illust. ). 

— Roman, i 328; ii 200 (illust.). 

— round-mouthed, ii 200 (illust.), 

— South American land-, ili 414. 

— stone, ii 200 (illust.). 

— trumpet-, 1328; ii 434; ili 414. 

— violet-, iii 413 (illust.). 

— worm, ill 413-414. 

Snails and see Snail), i 307- 311, 317- 
ial oP 100, 199-201, 247, 287, 330, 
» 393-397, 432-434, $59" 

462; 11 ne = 104-108, 180-181 

219, 412-417; iv 17-18, 29, 31, 35, 88— 
— comb-gilled, i 318-3 (89, 214. 
— fore-gilled, i 318-324; 


— hind-gilled, i 317 


ii 34 


35-36. 
— land-, i 326-328; ii 199-201 (illust.); 
ili 414. |461-462. 
— lung, i 317, 324, 326-328; ii 100, 330. 
—sea-, i 307-311 (illust.), 318-3 
(illust.); ii 278, 285, 287, 288, 3 


lll 412-413; iv 397-398, 451 lillust.). 

— shield-gilled, 1 318, 322-324. 

_ Wing: footed, 1 325-326; lil 35-36 
(illust.), 412; iv 451 (illust.). 

Snake (and see Snakes): 

— A€sculapian, ili 270. 

— American black, ili 270. 

— Brazilian wood-, iii 270, 271 (illust.). 

— coral, i 232, 234; ii 79, 303, 311; iv 
330. 

— coral cylinder, iii 211; 

— corn, iv 328. 

— egg-eating, iv gor. 

— European blind, i 236. 


iv 432. 


Snake (Conz.) 

— grass, i 232, 233 (illust.); ii 78; iii 53, 

— rat, iv 328. (270, 444-445. 

—rattle-, i 234-235 (illust.); ii 80 
(illust.), 304 (illust.); iv 135, 339. 

— smooth, i 232-233 (illust. ). 

— wart, iii 53. 

Snakes (see also Snake, Pythons, 
Boas, Vipers, &c.), i 203, 227-236; 
li 76-81, 303-304, 311, 320, 330, 425; 
Ml 53-54, 110-111, 184, 210-212, 270- 
272, 444-445; iv 152, 328, 338-340, 
391. (212 (illust.). 

— blind-, i 232, 235-236; ii 79, 329; iii 

— burrowing. See Blind-Snakes. 

— cylinder-, iii 211. 

—sea-, i 232, 2343 ii 80; iii 53-54 
(illust.); iv 339. 

— shield-tailed, ii 79; ili211-212(illust.). 

— simple-toothed, i 232-233. 

— tree-, iil 270-271. [272. 

— whip, i 232, 233-234; ii 79; iii 271- 

— wood-, iii 270. {ili 64. 

Snake-Birds, i 181; ii 49-50 (illust.); 

Snake-Flies, i 377; ii 111. 

Snake-headed Fish, ii 451 (illust.). 

Snipe, i 169. 

— common, i 169; iii 127, 128. 

— great, i 169. 

— Jack, i 169. [288, 201. 

Snout, fishes, i 268-260, 275, 276, 282, 

— mammals, 183, 108; iii 201-202. 

Snowdrop, iv 92-93 (illust.), 97. 

Sociology, i 17. 

Sodium chloride, i 33. [455- 

Solan Goose, i 181, 418; iii 62-63, 

Solaster papposus, i 454. 

Soldier-Crab. See Hermit-Crab. 

Soldier-Fly, ii 119 (illust.). 

Sole, common, i 279-280; 
32, 26g (illust.). 

= lemon, See Dab, lemon. 

Sole-bones, i 32. 

Sole-region, i 24. 

Solea vulgaris. See Sole, common 

Solen, i 335; iii 220; iv 215. 

— ensis, i 335+ 

— siliqua, i 335. 

Solenodon, i 85; ii 33. 

Solenomya, iii 108. 

Solenostoma, iii 427. 

Solmaris coronantha, iv 33 (illust.). 

Solpugide, i 387-388; ili 169. 

Soma, iv 490, 491, 492. 

Somateria Dresseri, iv 309. —_ [309. 

— mollissima, i 176; iii 59, 60; iv 60, 

Somerville, iv 349. 

“Song-birds ”, i 152. 

Song-box, i 149. 

Soothsayers, i 381; ii 116-118. See 
also Mantis, praying-. 

Sorex minutus, i 84. 

— vulgaris, i 84-85. 

Sound-waves, i 56-57. 

Spalacidz. See Mole-Rats. 

Spalax typhlus, i 130; ii 177-178; 
ili 203-204. 

“Spanish Fly”, iv 321 (illust.). 

Sparida, ii 195. 

Sparling. See Smelt. 

Sparrow (and see Sparrows): 


iil 432; Iv 


— hedge-, i 160; iii 185. {(illust. ). 
— house-, i 156; ii 187, 224; iii 460-470 
— tree-, 1156; ii 187; ili 470. (348. 


3parrows (and see Sparrow), iv 202, 

3parrow-Hawk, i 174 (illust.). 

3Spatangus purpureus, i 459; ii 415. 
Vo. IV. 


INDEX 


Spatula clypeata, i 176. 

Spatularia, i 260. 

Spawn (see also Eggs): 

— of amphibians, iii 436-437, 439. 

— of molluscs, iti 412-414 (illust.), 417- 
418 (illust.). [i 14; iv 477, 478. 

“Special creation”, doctrine of, 

Species, i 9. 

Specific name, i 9. 

Spectre-Tarsier, i 80 (illust.); ii 319 
(illust.), 320; iii 244 (illust.). 

Spelerpes bilineatus, iii 435. 

Spencer, Herbert, iv 4or, 403. 

Speotito cunicularia, i 166. 

Spermaceti, iv 316. 

Spermaphyta, iv 64. 

Spermary, iii 340. 

Spermophilus citillus, i 126, 

— tridecemlineatus, i 126. 

Sperms, iii 335, 336, 340. 

Spheroma, i 415. 

Sphargide, i 216-217 

Sphargis, i 216-217 5 

Spheniscus minor, iii 67. 

Sphex ichneumonea, iv 56. 

Sphinx ligustri, i 363. 

— pinastri, 1 363; iv 87. [ili 326, 342. 

Spicules, i 477, 485 (illust.); ii 341; 

Spider (and see Spiders): 

— Australian flying-, iii 289 (illust.). 

— Australian poisonous, ii 127, 308. 

— bird-catching, 1 392; ii 130, 443 
(illust. ). 

— garden- (or ¢ross), 1 390-392 (illust. ); 
ii 127-129, 443; iit 276. (276. 

— harlequin-, i 3933 ii 132 (illust. i iil 

— hedge- (or field), i392; ii 130; ili 374 

— house-, i 392; ii 129 (illust.), 130, 
443; ili 168, 374. 

— mascarene, ii 308-309. 

— raft-, ii 131. 

— tarantula, ii 130; ili 168, iv 341. 

— water-, i 392-393; ii 131; ill 375-376 
(illust. ). 

Spiders (and see Spider), i 387, 390- 
393; il 126-131, 299-300, 316, 345, 
373-374, 442-443 5 i 168, 276, 289, 
290-291, 373-3773 iv 15, 44, 45, 166- 

— crab-, iii 168. [168, 329, 341. 

— four-lunged, i 392. 


— hunting, ii 130, 131 (illust.); iv 166. 
— jumping, ii 131; ili 168, 175-176 
— segmented, i 392. [(illust. ). 


— trap-door, i 392; ili 376-377 (illust.). 

— two-lunged, i 392-393- 

— unsegmented, i 392-393. 

— wolf-, 1 393; ii 130-131; ili 373-374. 

Spider-like animals (arachnida), 
1 342, 385-394; H 125-132, 217-218, 
299-300, 308, 316, 345, 373-374) 442- 
443; ili 168-169, 175-176, 276, 280, 
373-377; Iv 15, 166-168, 195-196, 341, 

— extinct, iv 462. [360, 462. 

Spilosoma menthastri, ii 313. 

Spinal bulb, iv er. 


Spinal cord (and see Yee 
column), i 26, 50-51 (illust.), 52; i 
19, 20. 


Spinal marrow, i 24-25, 26, 28. 

Spinal nerves, i 51; iv 19, 20; and 
see Nervous System. 

Spines, of echinoderms, i 452, 456- 
457; ili 93, 94-95 

— fishes, i 271, 273, 274, 275, 276, 278, 
286, 288; ii 333-334. 

— mammals, i 64; ii 333 

— molluscs, i 336. 


549 


“Spinnerets ”, i 392; ii 127 (illust.), 
129. (129. 

Spinning-glands, i i 389, 391; ii 127- 

Spiracle, i 258, 286; ii 386; iv 201. 

Spiracular cleft, i 258, 260, 263; ii 
386-387. 

Spiral valve, i 261. 

Spirocheete cholerz asiatice, iv 78. 

— Obermeieri, iv 78. 

Spirorbis, i 430; ii 258, 339; 
359 (illust.); iv 75. 

Spirula, i 315 (illust.). 

Spittle. See Saliva. 

Spleen, i 43. 

Splenic fever, i 3. 

“Splint-bones ”, iii 142. 

Spondylus, ii 336; iii 409. 

Sponge (and see Sponges), bath-, i 
486, 487 (illust.); iii 326; iv 324. 

— bread-crumb, i 486; iv 101. 

— cup-, iii 326 (illust.). ((illust.). 

— freshwater, i 487; ii 272; ili 326 

— glass-rope, i 486. 

— horse, iv 324. 

— zimocca, iv 324. 

Sponges (and see Sponge), i 304, 484- 
487, 494; li 163, 265-266, 285, 309, 
341, 418; iil 3, 8, 325-326, 341-343; 
iv ror, 324, 447-448, 464. 

— calcareous) i 486, 487 (illust.). 

— siliceous, i 486-487. 

Spongilla, i 487; il 272; iti 326. 

Spontaneity, iv 2-3. 

Spoonbills, i 180. 


iii 358+ 


Spore-formation, iii 321-323. See 
also Development. 
Spores, i 498-499; iii 322; iv 98, 206. 


Sporocyst, i 444; iv 202-203. 

Sporoducts, iv 206. 

Sporosacs, iii 351. 

Sporozoa, i 492, 498-499; ili 322; iv 
206-207. See also Animalcules. 

Sporting Zoology, i 15; iv 364-381. 

Sprat, i 283; iv 197, 264. 

Sprat-‘‘ Louse”, iv 197 (illust.). 

Springbok, iii 187-188. 

Springers. See Spring-Tails. 

Spring-Fly, great, ii 119 (illust.). 

Springing apparatus, of insects, 
384; iii 176, 177-178, 179. 

Spring-Tails, i 384-385; 
176 (illust.), 377+ 

Spurges, iv 80, 89, 97. 

Squamata, i 227. 

Squatarola Helvetica, i 169. 

Squid, common, i 314. 

Squids, i 314-315; ii 94-96, 392; i 
30-33, 417-418; iv 18-19, 45, 340. 

Squilla, ii 404. 

— Desmaresti, i 413-414. [369. 

— mantis, i 411, 413 (illust.); ii 141; ili 

Squirrel, common, i 125; ii 367, 368 
(illust.); ili 483-484; iv 308. 

— ‘‘flying-” American, ili 283. 

— — brown, i 126; ili 282-283. 

Squirrels, i 125-126; ii 176-177; iii 
246-247, 251; iv 97. 

— “flying ’-, 1 126; ii 327; ili 282-284. 

— — African, i126; iii 283-284 (illust.). 

— ground-, i 125-126. 

Stable-Fly, ii 120. 

Staby, Ludwig, iv 286. 

Stainton, ii 252. 

Staphylinida, ii 108. 

Star-Fish, common, i 450-454 (illust.); 
ii 153-154; lil go-g2 (illust.); iv qr 
(illust. ). 


li 214; ili 


130 


20° 


Star-Fishes, i 450-454 (illust.); ii 153- 
154, 413 (illust.), 415; ill 3-4, 90-92, 
232 (illust.), 328-329 (illust.), 356- 
357 (illust.); iv 199, 459. 

Starling, common, i 155 (illust.); ii 
236; iv 408. 

— rose-coloured, i 155. 

Starlings, i 155; ii 236; iv 348, 408. 

Statoblasts, iii 330-331. 

Stauropus fagi, ii 313, 314. 

Staveley, ii 124, 128; ili 374, 375- 

Steatornis Caripensis, ii 188. 

Steatornithide, ii 188. 

Stebbing, ii 143; iii 171. (64. 

Steganopodes, i 152, 180-182; iii 62- 

Stegocephala, ii 334; ili 214; iv 463, 
467. 

Stegosaurus, iv 460, 470. 

Stegostoma tigrinum, i 236. 

Stenobothrus, i 381. 

Stenopteryx hirundinis, iv 190. 

Stenorhynchus, ii 287-289. 

Stentor, iii 3r9. 

Stephalia corona, iv 104. 

Stephanoceros, ii 262, 263. 

Stercorarius, i 168; ii 51-52. 

— catarrhactes, 1 168; ii 52. 

— crepidatus, i 168; ii 52. 

— parasiticus, i 168. 

— pomatorhinus, i 168. 

Sterlet, iv 277, 278. 

Sterna Cantiaca, i 168. 

— Dougalli, i 168. 

— fluviatilis, i 168; iii 453. 

— macrura, i 168. 

— minuta, i 168; iv 133. 

Sternal sinus, i 408. 

Sterne, iv 408. 

Sternum, amphibians, i 239, 251. 

— birds, i 145, 186-187; ili 209. 

— mammals, i 29, 69, 145; lll 202. 

— reptiles, 1 195, 206; iii 300. 

Stevenson, Robert Louis, iii 236. 

Stickleback, fifteen-spined or sea, i 
276; iii 428 (illust.), 431. 

— ten-spined, i 276; ill 430-431. 

— three-spined, i 276; ili 428 (illust.); 
iv 154-157. 

Sticklebacks, i 16, 276; iii 427-431; 
iv 154-157, 196. 

Stigmata (sing. Stigma), i 348, 338- 
390, 395-397, 401; ii 434-440, 442; IV 


193. 

“Stilt Urchin”, iii 04-95 (illust.). 

Stimulus (pl. Stimuli), i 53-54, 55; 
iv 3-5 (illust.), 9, 24-26, 29-30, 32- 

Sting, of arachnids, i 386. a3) 

— of insects, i 373; 1 105, 357-358 
(illust. ). 

Stinging -cells. 
gans. 

Stink-glands, insects, i 353-354; ii 
315, 358-360. [iv rar 

— mammals, i 97-98; ii 301-303, 354; 

— myriapods, i 306; ii 360. 

Stinkhorn, iv 08. 

Stint, little, i r6o. 

Stoat, i 98; ii 22, 289; iv 303, 345. 

Stomach (and see Digestive organs): 

— honey-comb, ii 168-169. 

— rennet, il 169. 

—amphibians, i (illust.), 253 
(illust. ). {(illust. ). 

— birds, i r4o (illust.), 146; ii 184 

— crustaceans, i 407-408 (illust.). 

— echinoderms, i 452-453, 455+ 

— fishes, i 261, 270 (illust.). 


See Nettling or- 


24 


INDEX 


Stomach (Cowz.) 

— mammals, herbivorous, i 109; ii 165, 
167, 168-169 (illust.), 171, 172; iii 
490. [ii 39-40, 225. 

— — omnivorous, i 35, 36 (illust.), 37; 

— molluscs, i 308, 309 (illust.). 

— reptiles, i 207 (illust.), 208. 

— zophytes, i 473, 474 (illust.), 479. 

Stomatopoda, i 410, 413-414; ii rqr. 

Stomoxys calcitrans, ii 120. 

Stone Age, iv 208, 210, 228, 233. 

— newer, iv 224, 226. 

— older, iv 226, 233. 

Stone chat, i 160; iv 133. 

Stone-Flies, i 374, 377; ii 116, 463- 
464 (illust. ). 

Stork, American wood, ii 55. 

— marabout, i 179. [iv 62. 

— white, 1 179; ii 55; ili 127 (illust.); 

Storks, i 152, 179; ii 55; ili 127, 307; 
iv 62. 

Stratiomys chameleon, ii 119. 

Stratum (pl. Strata), iv 456-457 
(illust.). 

Strepsiceros kudu, ii 366. 

Strepsilus interpres, i 169; ii 67. 

Strepsiptera, iii 314; iv 192. 

Streptoneura, i 317, 318-324. 

Striges, i 152, 165-166; and see Owls. 

Stringops habroptilus, i 166; ii 
189, 319, 320. 

Strix flammea, i 165; iv 327-328. 

Strombus, i 321 (illust.); ii 373; ili 
107 (illust.), 180, 18x (illust.). 

— gigas, iv 397. 

Strongyle, armed, iv 362. 

— giant-, iv 362. 

— stomach-, iv 362. 

Strongylus armatus, iv 362. 

— contortus, iv 362. 

— filaria, iv 362. (48s. 

Struggle for Existence, i 65; iv 

Struthio camelus, i 188; ii 243; ili 
130, 153, 449. 

Strychnos nux-vomica, iv 80. 


| Sturgeon, common, i 268 (illust.); iv 


— giant, iv 277. (277 (illust. ). 

— Giildenstadt’s, iv 277. 

— shovel-nose, i 268 (illust.). 

— slender-beaked, i 268-269 (illust. ). 

—spoonbill or paddle-fish, 1 2 
(illust. ). 

Sturnus vulgaris, i 155; ii 237. 

Stylaster, i 480-481. 

Stylopid@, iv 192. 

Stylops, iii 313 (illust.), 314. 

Stylops aterrimus, iv 192 (illust.). 

Subclavius, iii 300. 

Succinea putris, iv 202 (illust.). 

Suckers, of bats, iii 245 (illust.). 

Suctoria, iii 320. 

Sugarbush, iv 89. 

Sugar Squirrel, ii 284-285. 

Suide, ii 231-234. 

Sula Bassana, ii 50; iti 62-63, 455. 

— piscatrix, ii 53. 

Sulphuric acid, ii 08. 

Sun-Animalcules, i 489, 496 illust.); 
iii 6 (illust.). 

Sun-Birds, i 157; iv 89. 

Sundews, iv 68-6g (illust.). 

Sun-Fishes, i 278; iv 448 (illust.). 

Sun-Star, i 454. 

Supporting tissue. 
Gristle, &c. 

Surface tension, i 467. 

Surnia ulula, i 166; ii 319. 


69 


See 


Bone, 


Sus cristata, iv 373. [373- 

— scrofa, i 108; ii 231-234; iv 232-233, 

Susliks, i 126; and see Gophers. 

Susuk, ii 28-29 (illust.). 

Swainson, iv 479. 

Swallow-Fly, iv 190 (illust.). 

Swallows, i 161; ii 56; ili 304, 305, 
461, 467-468; iv 60, 328. 

Swan (and see Swans): 

— Bewick’s, i 177. 

— black, i 177. 

— black-necked, i 177. (457- 

— white or mute, i 177; iii 456 (illust.), 

Swans, i 177; ii 65, 237-238; iii 58, 

Sweat, i 44-45. (147-148. 

Sweat glands, i 44-45; iii 476-477. 

Swift, common, i 163; and see Swifts. 

— palm, iv 61. 

Swifts, i 163; ii 56; iii 186, 304, 305, 
462; iv 328. 


| Swim-bladder, of fishes, i 269, 272, 


273, 280; ii 421-422 (illust.), 450, 452- 
453) 454 455; ill 431, 432. 
“Swimmerets”, i 403; iii 27. 
Swimming-bells, iii 19; iv 103. 
Swimming-feet, i 420, 421-422. 
Swimming-plates, iii 20. 
Swine. See Pigs. 
Sword-Fish, common, i 273. 
Sword-Fishes, i 273. 
Syanceia, ii 356. 
Sycandra raphanus, i 487 (illust.). 
Syllis ramosa, iii 330. 
Sylvia atricapilla, i 160. 
— cinerea, i 160. 
— curruca, i 160. 
— hortensis, i 160. 
— undata, i 160. 
Symbiosis, iv 67, 75-76, 170. 
Symmetry, bilateral, i 21-22, 447, 
450 452: ili 93-94. [93-94- 
— radial, i 23, 450, 451, 452, 466; lil 
Sympathetic ganglia, i 53. 
Sympathetic System, i 50, 53; and 
see Nervous System. 
Symphyla, i 396, 397. 
Synageles picata, ii 316. 
Synallaxis phryganophila, iii 464. 
Synapta, i 464; ili 97 (illust.), 230. 
Syncoryne, iii 350 (illust. ). 
Syngamus trachealis, iv 362. 
Syngnatha, i 396. See also Centi- 
pedes. 
Syngnathus acus, i 277: iii 427. 
Synotus barbastellus, i $2. 
Syrinx, i 149, 175. 
Syrittus pipiens, ii 119. 
Syrnium aluco, i 165. 
Syrphus, ii 216; iti 402. 
— balteatus, 1 119; ili 402. 
— Pyrastri, iii 402. [280. 
Syrrhaptes paradoxus, i 168; ii 


AL 


Tabanus bovis, i 358: ii 119, 120. 

Tachyeres cinereus, iii 60. 

Tactile Organs. See Touch, organs 
of. 

Tadorna cornuta, i 177: iii 58. 

Tadpoles, i 62-63; ii 192-104 (illust.), 
457-458; ill 4, 45-46 (illust.), 434-436, 
437) 435-439 (illust.), 440, 441, 442, 
443, 493. 

Teenia ccenurus, iv 361, 362. 

— echinococcus, iv 342-343 (illust.). 


Tenia (Coz2.) 

— saginata, iv 342. 

— serrata, iv 362. 

— solium, i 441-443; iv 204. 

faguan, iii 286. 

fail (see also ‘Vail-fin): [45, 49, 47 

— amphibians, i238, 245, 250, 254; iii 4, 

— ascidians, ili 38-39. [298, 301, 302. 

— birds, i 185, 186; ili 264, 266, 296, 

— mammals, i 76, 77, 78; ili 70, 71, 72, 
73) 74, 79, 77, 82, 84, 85, 159, 188- 
190, 239-240 (illust.), 243, 244, 247- 
248, 251, 253, 255 (illust.), 256, 257, 
258, 259, 260, 282, 283, 286, 479-480; 
iv 140, 228-229. 

— reptiles, i 194, 224; 11 371; ill 50, 51- 
52, 53-54, 56, 211, 272, 308, 309. 

Tail-coverts, i 143; ili 297. 

Tail-fin, of amphibians, i 246; iii 45, 
46, 442, 443. 

-- crustaceans, i 408-409; iii 27; iv 36. 

— fishes, i 258, 264, 271; ii 450; ili 4o- 

—lancelet, i294. (41, 182, 288-289. 

— mammals, aquatic, i 98, 100. 

— round-mouths (cyclostomata), i 29r. 

— See also Fins, caudal. [ili 30. 

Tail-rods, of insects, ii 465-466, 467; 

Tail-shield, iii 211-212. {(illust.). 

Tailor-Bird, Indian, ili 459, 460 

Talegallus Lathami, iii 451-452. 

Talitrus locusta, i 414, 415: ii 142, 
404; lll 174-175. 

Talorchestia, ii 14r. 

Talpa Europea, i 86; ii 36; iii 200- 
202, 484-485. [256. 

Tamandua tetradactyla, iii 255- 

Tamias striata, i 126. 

Tanagra cherophyllata, i 364. 

Tanrec. Sce Tenrec. 

Tantalus loculator, ii 55. 

Taonius abyssicola, iv 444. 

Tape-Worm (and see Tape-Warms): 

— beef, iv 342. 

— broad, iv 342. 

— common, i 441-443 (illust.), iv 204. 

— fish, iv 204. 
— simple, iv 203-204 (illust.). 
Tape-Worms, i 441-443; ii 151; iv 
203-205 (illust.), 342-343, 361-362. 
Tapir, Brazilian, i 105 (illust.); iii 487 
(illust.), 488. 

— Malayan, ili 138 (illust.), 488. 

Tapirs, i 14, 15, 105; ii 166, 327; iil 
137-138, 488. (488. 

Tapirus Americanus, i 105; ili 487, 

— Indicus, iii 138, 488. 

Tarantula, ii 130; iii 168; iv 341. 

Tardigrada, i 387, 394. 

Tarentola Mauritanica, i 221; ii 

Tarpon, iv 381. (319: iv 391. 

Tarsipes rostratus, ii181-182; iv 89. 

Tarsius spectrum, i 80; ii 319, 320; 
ili 244. 

“Tarso-metatarsus ”, i 146; ili 126. 

Tarsus, amphibians, i 241, 252, 253. 

— birds, i 145-146; ili 126. 

— insects, 1 344. 

— mammals, i 32; and see Ankle. 

— reptiles, i 197, 198, 199, 204, 207. 

Tassel-Tails, i 384; iii 377. 

Taste, organs and sense of, i 54-55, 
56; iv 24, 29-30, 403. 

— amphibians, iv 29-30. 

— annelids, iv 29. 

— birds, iv 29-30. 

— fishes, iv 29-30. 

— insects, iv 29 (illust.). 


INDEX 


Taste (Coxt.) [(illust. ). 
— mammals, i 54-55 (illust.); iv 29-30 
— molluscs, iv 29. 

— reptiles, iv 29-30. 

Taste-buds, i 55; iv 29-30 (illust.). 

Taste-cells, i ss. 

Teal, i 176; iii 58. (34. 

Tealia crassicornis, i 476; ii 289, 

Tear-chamber, of snakes, i 228. 

Teasel, iv 92 (illust.). 

Teats, i 66, 108; and see Milk-glands. 

Tectibranchs, i 324; ii 100; iii 35. 

Teeth, i 12-13, 37. 

— carnassial, ii 7, 15. 

— evolution of, i 12-13. 

— amphibians, i 253. 

— birds, extinct, ii 45, 296. 

— fishes, i 12-13, 27, 261, 275, 276, 
282, 284, 287, 288; ii 84, 86, 88, 89- 
QO, 195. (illust. ). 

— mammals, egg-laying, iv 481-482 

flesh-eating, i 86, 57, 88, 92, 

94, 98; ii 6-7 (illust.), 14, 15-16 

(illust.), 25. 

gnawing, i 123 (illust.), 125, 

128, 132, 133, 134; i 174-175, 177, 

178. 


hoofed, i 67, 106, 108, 109, 110, 
III, 113, 120; ii 166 (illust.), 167- 
168, 171, 232-233 (illust.), 234, 351. 
insect-eating, ii 31-32; ili 246. 
— —— pouched, ii 181, 182, 183. 

— — bats, i 81, 82; ii 39. 

— — cetaceans, ii 27, 29, 67, 349. 

— — edentates, i 67, 136; ii 41, 179- 
180. (172 (illust.), 350. 

— — elephants, i 102-103 (illust.); ii 

— — lemurs, ii 226. 

—-—man and monkeys, i 35-36 
(illust.), 67, 71, 76, 78-70; li 6, 225, 
348-349; iv 146. 

— — S€a-cows, 1 102. 

— molluscs, ii 95-96 (illust.). 

—reptiles, i 199, 207, 209, 210, 212, 
224, 230, 232, 233, 234, 237; il 192, 
354-355: 

Tegenaria, i 392; ii 129, 130. 

— civilis, 1 392. 

— domestica, i 392; ili 374. 

Teleostei, i 266, 269-284; ii 84-88, 
194-195, 355-357, 388, 447-452; ill 
cs 425-434; iv 128, 263-276, 317- 
318. 

Teleostomi, i 257, 266-284. See also 
Teleostei and Ganoids. 

“Telescope Fish”, iv 393 (illust.). 

Telson, i 403. 

Tench, i 283; ii 448. 

Tendons, i 48; iii 262, 299, 300, 301. 

Tennent, iv 396. (33 (illust.). 

Tenrec, common, i 84 (illust.), 85; ii 

— rice-, ii 33. 

Tenrecs, i 34-35 (illust.); 11 33. 

Tensor muscles, iii 300, 30r. 

Tentacles, of annelids, ii 308; iii 360. 

— ascidians, ii 246. (416; ili 24, 97. 

— echinoderms, i 462, 463, 464; ii 264, 

— molluscs, * 307, 310, 311-312, 324, 
327, 328; ili 31, 37, 103, 108-110, 
218; iv 28, 58. 

— zoophytes, i 466, 467, 473, 474, 476, 
4775 479, 483; il 155, 156-158, 160, 
416, 417; li 20, 89-go; iv 28, 33. 

Tentaculocysts, iv 33 (illust.). 

Tenthredinide, iii 388. 

Terebella conchilega, ii 330, 409 

Terebratula, i 438. {illust. ). 


sat 


Teredo navalis, i 335; iii 410, 411; 
iv 348. 

Termes bellicosus, i 379; iv 124-126. 

— lucifugus, i 379; iv 123-124. 

— tenuis, iv 356. 

Termite (and see Termites): 

— light-shunning, iv 123-124 (illust.). 

— warrior, iv 124-126 (illust.). 

— yellow-necked, iv 122-123. 

Termites, i 374, 379; ii 110, 212-213; 
iii 223, 383; iv 16, 120-126, 356. 

Tern, Arctic, i 168. 

— black, i 168. 

— common, i 168; iii 463 (illust.). 

— little, i 168; iv 133 (illust.). 

— roseate, i 168. 

— sandwich, i 168. 

Terns, i 168; ii 51; ili 463; iv 133. 

Test, of ascidians, i 297-298; ili 421. 

— of echinoderms, i 457-458, 459; ii 
340, 413; ili 92-93, 95. 

Testacella, ii roo; ili 415. 

Testudo, Greca, i 312; ii r9z; ili 54; 

— nigrita, i 218. [iv 391-392. 

— polyphemus, ili 447. 

— sulcata, i 2109 (illust.). 

— sumeirei, iv 392. 

Tetrabranchiata, i 316-317. 

Tetraceros, iv 424. 

Tetranychus autumnalis, iv 360. 

— rubescens, iv 360. 

— telarius, ii 218, 443; iv 360. 

Tetrao Scoticus, i 172. 

— tetrix, 1172. 

— urogallus, i 172; ii 239. 

Tetrarhynchus, iv 204 (illust.). 

Tetrodon, i 278; ii 306, 334; iv 340. 

Tettix, i 382. 

Textularia agglutinans, iv 454. 

Thalamita natator, iii 28. 

Thalassicola pelagica, iv 449. 

Thalassochelys caretta,iii 55. 

Thalassophryne, ii 355-356. 

Thalessa, iv 195 (illust.). 

Thallophyta, iv 64-65. 

Thelyphonus, i 389. 

Theobald, iv 325. 

Theory of Evolution, i 12-17. See 
also Evolution. 

Theridium nervosum, iii 374-375. 

Theropoda, iv 469. 

Thick-headed Fly, ii 119 (illust.). 

Thigh, i 24. 

— -bone, i 31-32. 

— -joint, i 31. 

Thomiside, iii 168. 

Thomson, Arthur, iv 494. 

Thomson, Wyyville, i 7. 

Thoracic duct, i 42 (illust.). (368. 

Thoracostraca, i 410-414; ili 365- 

Thorax (and see Cephalo-thorax) : 

— arachnids, i 388. 

— birds, i 148. 

— crustaceans, i 402, 403-404, 410, 413, 
414, 415, 416, 418, 420, 427. 

— insects, i 345, 347, 352, 356, 359 

—- mammals, i 24-25, 42. 

— reptiles, i 193-194, 206. 

Thoreau, i 7; iv 153, 408. 

Thornback, See Ray. 

Thorn-headed Worm, i 442, 449; 
iv 205-206 (illust.). 

Thorny Oysters, ii 336; ili 409. 

Thread-cells. See Nettling organs. 

Thread-Worms, i 304, 447-449; ii 
222-223; ill 21; iv 205-206, 343-344, 
453- 


552 


Thresher, i 286. 

Thrips cerealium, i355 (illust.); ti 216. 

— minutissima, i 355. ((illust. }. 

Throat pouch, of birds, iv 150 

— of reptiles, iv 152 (illust.). 

Thrush, common, or song-, i 159; ili 

— missel-, i 160. [457, 458; iv 96. 

— rock-, iv 96. 

Thrushes, i 158-160; iii 185; iv 348. 

Thumb, of mammals, i 31, 71, 73, 77; 
78, 79, 81. See also Digits. 

Thumb-joint, i 3:. 

Thylacinus, ii 16 (illust.), 42 

Thylacoleo, iv 474. 

Thymus gland, i 43. 

Thynnus albicora, i 274. 

— pelamys, i 274. 

—thynnus. See Orcynus thynnus. 

Thyroid cartilage, i 47. 

— gland, i 43. 

Thysanoptera, i 351, 355; ii 122, 216. 

Thysanura, i 384, 307. 

Tibia, amphibians, i 241, 252, 253. 

— birds. See ‘‘ Tibio-tarsus”. 

— insects, i 344. 


— mammals, i 32, 123-124, 125, 127, 


131; il 134-135, 141, 149, 158, 190, 
— reptiles, i 197. 258. 
“Tibio-tarsus”, i 144, 146; iii 126. 


Tickell, iii 245- 

Ticks, 1393: il 132; iv 195 (illust.), 360. 

— dog, iv 195. 

— sheep, iv 190. 

Tiger, i 87; ii 5, 7-9; iil 247, 491; iv 
331-333 (illust.), 371-372. 

— sabre-toothed, iv 474. 

Tinamous, i 152, 173: ii 343. 

Tinca vulgaris, i 233; ii 448. 

Tinea granella, iv 353. 

— pellionella, i 365. 

Tipula oleracea, i ; 

Tipulide. See Crar 

Tit (and see Tits): 

— blue, i 158. 

— coal-, i158. 

— crested, i 158. 

— great, 1158. 

— long-tailed, i 158; ili 261-262 

— marsh, i 158 

— penduline, iii 459 (illust.). 

Tits, or tit-mice, i 157-158 (illust.); ii 
60; iv 202, 328; and see Tit. 

Titlark, i 157. 

Toad (and see Toads): 

— African, clawed, iii 50. 

— common, i 250 (illust.), 255; li 82, 83 
(illust.), 304; ili 50, 436-437; iv 328. 
— horned (California). See Horned 

“Toad”. {((illust.). 
—horned (South America), ii 305 
— Surinam water-, iii 49, 50 (illust.), 

441, 442 (illust.). 
Toads (and see Toad), 

305, 4573 


8; ii 119, 215. 
-Flies. 


[459. 
illust.), 


se 249, 255; ll 304- 
iii 49-50, 436, 440-442; IV 


— fire-bellied, iv 417. (152, 417. 
— tongueless, ili 50. 
Toddy-Cats, ii 12-13. (320-321. 


Tokophrya quadripartata, iit 

Tolypeutes tricinctus, ii 341-342. 

Tomopteris, iii 22-23 (illust.). 

Tongue, amphibians, i 253; ii $2. 

— birds, i 161, 163; iv 29. 

— fishes, i 261, 292. 

— mammals, i 29, 34) 37, S455, 120; 
ii 38, 30, 42, 182; iv 209. 

— reptiles, i 199, 207, 224, 


226, 230- 


INDEX 


Tongue-Shells, iv 460 (illust.). 

Tongue-Worms, i 387, 393 (illust.); 

Tope, common, i 285. liv 196. 

Tornaria, iii 420, 421 (illust.). 

Torpedo, i 290. 

-— marmorata (marbled torpedo), i 290; 
li go (illust.), g1, 410. 

— nobiliana, i 289 (illust.). 

Tortoise (and see Tortoises): 

— European pond-, i 218; iii 54, 122 
(illust.), 446. 

— Gopher, iii 447. 

— Grecian, i 212-216 (illust.); ii 191; 
ili 54; iv 391-392. 

— soft American, i 221. 

— — Gangetic, i 221. 

— — Nilotic, i 220 (illust.), 221; iii 55. 

Tortoises (and see Tortoise), i 203, 
212-221; ii 71-72, 333, 334, 424; iil 
54-55, 121-122, 446-448; iv 151, 391- 

— American snapper-, ii 72. [392- 

— giant, i 218; ii 191-192. 

— hinged, ii 334. 

— land and freshwater, i 216, 217-218. 

— side-necked, i 216, 219. 

— snake-necked, ii 72. 

— soft, 1 216, 219-221; ili 54~55 (illust.). 

“Tortoise- shell”, i 219; 
395-396. 

Tortrix viridana, i 36s. 

Totanus glareolus, i 169. 

— hypoleucus, i 169; iii 127, 128. 

— ochropus, i 160. 

Toucans, i 162; ii 126-187. 

Touch, organs and sense of, i 53-55; 
iv 24, 25-29; and see Sense Organs, 
Tentacles, &c. 

— amphibians, iv 26 (illust.). 

— annelids, i 428; iv 25 (illust.), 26, 28. 

— birds, iv 26 (illust.), 27, 20. 


li 72; iv 


— crustaceans, i 409; iv 2 
— echinoderms, i 454. 

— fishes, iv 28-29 (illust.). 
iv 26 (illust.), 28. 
iv 27 (illust.), 


o 


— insects, i 349-350; 
— mammals, i 53-54, 55; 
— molluscs, i 310; iv 28, 
— reptiles, iv 27, 29. 
— zoophytes, i 466; iv 2 
Touch-corpuscles, i 53- 
lv 26, 27 (illust.), 28. 
Trachea, i 46-47. 
Trachee, ii 434. 


4 (illust.); 


Qu 
Y 


See also Air-tubes. 


Tracheal gills, ii 463. See also 
Gills, of insects. 
Tracheal tubes, i 348. See also 


Air-tubes. 
Tracheata. See Centipedes, &c., 

Insects, and Spider-like Animals. 
— primitive. See Peripatus. 
Trachinus draco, ii 357. 
— vipera, ii 305-306, 357. 
Trachypetra bufo, ii 282. 
Trachyphyllia Geoffroyi, i 

(illust.). (76. 
Trachysaurus rugosus, i ii 
Tragopan, scarlet, iv 148-140. 
Tragulide, i 109: ili 150, 152. 
Tragulus Javanicus, i 109, 110; ili 
Tragus, i $2 {150, 152. 


Transparency, of marine animals, | 


ii 278-279. 
Transverse process, i 194, 2 
Trawling, iv 262-263 (illust.). 
Tree-Kangaroos, ii 182; iit 257-258. 
Tree-Shrews, i 83; ii 37. 
— Bornean, i 83; iti 246-247 (illust.). 
Trematoda. Sce Flukes. 


Tribonyx Mortieri, iii 61. 

Triceratops, iv 470. 

Trichechus rosmarus, i 98; iii 79- 
80; iv 311-312, 394. [(illust. ). 

Trichina spiralis, 343-344 

Trichocysts, ii 362. 

Trichodectes latus, i 380; iv 356. 

Trichoglossus chlorolepidotus, 
li 191. 

Trichophaga tapetzella, i 365. 

Trichosurus vulpeculus, iii 259. 

Triclades, ii 151, 152. 

Tricondyla, ii 315. 

Tricorythus, ii 466. 

Tridacna, ii 357; iii 408. 

Trigger-Fish, iv 20s. 

Trigger-hairs, i 471. 

Trigla, i 275; iii 115. 

— cuculus, iv 273. 

_ gurnardus, i iv 273. 

— pini, i 275. 

Trilobites, ii 342; iv 460 (illust.), 461. 

Trimen, ii 3r2. 

Trimeresurus, iii 272. 

Tringa acuminata, i 169. 

— alpina, i 160. 

— canutus, i 169. 

— minuta, i 169. 

— striata, i 169. 

— subarquata, i 169. 

— Temmincki, i 169. 

Trionyx ferox, i 221. 

— Gangeticus, i 221. 

— triunguis, i 221; ili 55. 

Triphena pronuba, iv 352. 

Triploblastica, i 468, 490, 491. 

Triton. See Molge. 

Trochammina coronata, iv 454. 

— nitida, iv 454. 

Trochide, i 322. 

Trochilide, ii ror. 

Trochilium apiforme, i 363; ii 313. 

— crabroniformis, ii 313. 

Trochospheres, iii 7, 359-360 (illust.), 
364-365, 404-405 (illust.), 411-412 
(illust.), 414, 415 (illust.). 

Troglodytes parvulus, i 160. 

Trogonide, i 266. 

Trogons, 111 266. 

Tropic-Bird, red-Beaked i 182. 

Tropic-Birds, i 181-182; iti 62. 

Tropidonotus natrix, i i 23 
ili 53, 270, 444-445. 

Trout, common, i 282; ti 292; iv 275- 

Truffles, iv 98. (276 (illust.), 379. 

Trumpet -Animalcule, iii 319 
(illust. ). 

Trumpet-Shell, i 328; ii 434; ili 4r4. 

Trumpeters, ii 240-242. 

Trunk, of body, i 2s (illust.). 

— of elephants. See Proboscis 

Trygonide, i 288-290; ii 357: iv 204. 

Trygon pastinaca, 1 200; ii 357. 

Trypanosoma, iv 349. 

Tsetse-Fly, i 358; ii 120 
Igo, 239, 24, 349- 

Tuataras, i 203, 236-237 (illust. 


iv 


ii 78; 


illust.); iv 


; il 


56, 444; IV 47, 410. 

Tube, dorsal, i 24. 

— ventral, i 24. 

Tube-construction, annelids, ii 257 

| 258 (illust.), 330. 

| — insects, it 337 (illust.). 

Tube-feet, of echinoderms, i 451, 453, 
454) 455, 457) 458, 459, 460, 462, 463, 
464; ii 413 (illust.), 415, 416; ili go, 
91, 92, 93, 95, 96, 232. 


Tube-nosed Birds (Tubinares), i 
152, 182-183; ii 53; and see Petrels 
and Albatrosses. [204. 

Tubifex rivulorum, i 431; iv 203- 

Tubipora musica, i 477; ii 341, 417. 

Tubularia, i 480; ii 160. 

Tunicates. See Ascidians. 

Tunny, i 274; iv 270-271, 381. 

Tupaia tana, i 83, 84; iii 246-247. 

Tupaiida, i 83; iii 246-247. 

Turbellaria, i 441, 445-447; ii 151- 
152, 271, 445-446; lll 7, on 329. 

Turbot, i 60-6: (illust.), 279 (illust.) ; 
ili 425, 431-432 (illust.); ee 268. 

Turdus iliacus, i 160. 

— merula, i 159. 

— musicus, i 159; ili 457, 458. 

— pilaris, i 159. 

— torquata, i 160. 

— viscivorus, i 160. 

Turkey, i 172; ii 239; iv 249-250. 

Turner, iv 387. 

Turnip ‘‘ Flies”. See Beetles, flea-. 

Turnstone, i 169; ii 67. 

Turret-Shells (Turritella), i 321. 

Turtle, edible, iii 55, 446-447. 

— green, i 218; ii rgz. 

— hawk’s-bill, i 218; ii 72 (illust.), rgt; 
lil 55; iv 395-396 (illust.). 

— leathery. See Turtles. 

— loggerhead, iii 55. 

Turtles (and see Turtle), i 203, 212- 
221; il 71-72, 333, 334, 4245 ill 54-56, 
446-448. 

— leathery, i 216-217 (illust.); iii 55, 56. 

Turtur communis, i 167; ii 185. 

Tusks, of mammals (see also Teeth), 
1 102, Tog, TIO, 111} li 348-350. 

Tusk-Shells, i 311, 338-339 (illust.) ; 
ii 247-248 ; iii 221-222, 411-412; iv 

Tusser, iv 249. (18, 323. 

Twite, i 156. 

Tylenchus devastatrix, iv 363. 

— scandens, ii 222-223. 

Tylopoda, iti 152-153. 

Tylototriton Andersoni, ii 334. 

Tympanic cavity, i 57. 

— membrane, i 57, 192. 

Type, classification by, i 10. 


— “generalized”, i 195-196. 
— ‘‘theoretical”, i 196. 
Typhlonectes compressicau- 


data, iii 443. 
Typhlonus nasus, iv 443 (illust.). 
Typhlopide, i 235-236; ii 79, 329; iii 
212. [212. 
Typhlops vermicularis, i 236; iii 
Tyrian purple, i 321; iv 397. 
Tyroglyphus faring, ii 217. 
— siro, i 393; ii 443. 


U 


Udonella caligorum, iv 201. 

Ulna, i 30, 144, 196, 197, 241, 251, 252 
ili 118, 134, T41, 143, 149, 152, 158, 
237, 299 

Ulnare, i 144, 197, 198, 252; iii 299. 

Umbrella-Bird, iv 43t. [237- 

Uncinate process, i 145, 187, 206, 

Ungulata, i 68. See also Mammals, 
hoofed. 

— even-toed, 1 107-122. 

— — non-ruminating forms, i 107-109. 

— — ruminants, i 109-122. 

— odd-toed, i 104-107. 


INDEX 


Unio, i 328; ii 248-249, 335; ili 37, 
406-407. 

Unpaired fin, i 257, 258. 

Upper arm, i 24. 

Upper arm-bone, i 29-30; iii 298; 
and see Humerus. 

Upupa epops, i 164. 

Uraster rubens, i 450-454; ii 153: 

Ureter, i 48. [iii go-92; iv qx. 

Uria grylle, i 184. 

—troile, i 184; ili 66, 453. 

Urinary bladder, i 48. 

Urochord, i 298. 

Urochorda, i 293, 297-300. 
Ascidians. 

Urodela, i 245-249; ii 456; iii 45, 46- 
49) 212-213, 434-436. 

Uromastix, i 222; ii 77, 282. 

— acanthinurus, ii 77. 

— spinipes, i 222. 

Uropeltide, ii 79; iii 2x1-2712. 

Uropeltis grandis, iii 211-212. 

Uropsilus soricipes, ii 36. 

Urostyle, i 251. 

Urotrichus, ii 36. 

Urside, i 94-95; iii 155-156, 491; and 
see Ursus. 

— sub-, i 94; ili 247-248. 

Urson, iii 253. [iv 334, 372. 

Ursus arctos, i 95, 227-228; ili 155; 

— ferox, i 95. 

— labiatus, ii 228; iv 334. 

— Malayanus, ii 227. 

— maritimus, i 95; ii 19, 227; iii 75- 76, 

— ornatus, iv 429. (155-156; iv 334. 

Urus, i 114; iv 224. {iv 208-408. 

Utilitarian Zoology, i 15-16, 18; 

— animal esthetics, iv 400-408. 

— — foes, iv 321-363. 

——-— forms injurious 
industries, iv 345, 363. 

— — — personal enemies, iv 321-344. 

— — friends, iv 219-224, 325-330. 

— — pets, iv 382-393. 

— — products used for decorative pur- 
poses, iv 394-400. [300. 

— animals as a source of food, iv 211- 

— domestication of animals, iv 217- 
260; and see Domestication. 

— sporting zoology, iv 364-381. 

Utricularia, iv 73-74, 95. 


Vv 


Vaccination, iv 79, 320. 

Vacuum (pl. vacua), iii 268-269. 

Vagus nerve, i 53. (iii 454, 472. 

Vanellus cristatus, i 169; ii 286; 

Vanessa, Atlanta, i 361. 

— cardui, i 361. 

— Io, i 361; ii 215; iv 56. 

— polychloros, i 36r. 

— urtice, i 361; ii 275, 294. 

Van Someren, ili 456; iv 60. 

Varanus griseus, ii 73, 282. 

— Niloticus, i i 224; ii 73. 

— prasinus, ii 73. 

— Salvator, ii 73; ili 51-52. 

Variation, iv 486, 491-492. 

Varro, iv 248. 

Vegetative Propagation, i 299; iii 
316-332, 422. See also Development 
and Life-histories. 

Vein, portal, i 41. 

Veins, i 39-41; and see Circulatory 
organs. 


See also 


to human 


553 


Velella, ii 161; iv 450 (illust.). 
Veliger, iii 406 (illust.),414, 415 (illust.). 
Velum, i 479; iii 406. 

Venous sinus, i 200, 240, 262. 

Ventral cord. See Nerve-cord. 

Ventral plates, iii 114. 

Ventral shields, i 228; iii 110-111, 
270-271. 

Ventricle, i 40; and see Circulatory 
organs. 

Venus mercenaria, iv 323. 

Venus’s Flower-Basket, i 486; iv 
446 (illust.). 

Venus’s Fly-trap, iv 69-70 (illust.). 

Venus’s Girdle, i 483; iii 20 (illust.). 

Verification of Generalization, 
1 3-4. 

Vermetus, iii 413-414. 

Verneuilina pygmea, iv 454. 

Verreaux, ii 47. 

Vertebree (and see Vertebral column): 

— atlas, i 26-27 (illust.). 

— chest-, i 27. 

— loin-, i 27. 

— neck-, i 26-27, 66, 144. 

— sacral, i 27. 

— tail, i 27, 144, 186. 

Vertebral column, amphibians, i 
239, 251, 256. 

— birds, 144-145, 186. 

— fishes, i 260-261, 271. (254. 

— mammals, i 26-27 (illust.), 66; iii 

— reptiles, i 193-194, 214-215, 221-222, 
229-230, 237; iii 110-111. (x15. 

Vertebral ossicles, i 455; iii r14- 

Vertebrates, classification and essen- 
tial characters, i 60-63. [304. 

— contrasted with invertebrates, i 302- 

—See also Vertebrates, primitive ; 
Round-mouths (Cyclostomata), 
Fishes, Amphibia, Reptiles, Birds, 
and Mammals. 

— “cold-blooded”, i 191. 

— primitive, i 292-301; ii 92, 243-246; 
iii 38-40, 214-216. See also Lance- 
let, Ascidians, and Acorn-headed 
Worm. 

Verworn, iv 494. (112. 

Vespa crabo, i 374; ii 250-251; iv 

— Germanica, iv 111-112. 

— vulgaris, i 373; li 250-251. 

Vespertilio Bechsteini, i 82. 

— Daubentini, i 82. 

— mystacinus, i 82. 

— Nattereri, i 82. 

Vespertilionide, i 82. 

Vesperugo Leisleri, i 82. 

— noctula, i 82. 

— pipistrellus, i 82; ili 292-293. 

— serotinus, i 82. 

Vespidee. See Vespa. 

Vicunia, i 122; iii 153, 248. 

Vidua, iv 421. 

Vine-Louse, i 353; and see Aphis, 
vine-. [222; ili 21. 

Vinegar- or Paste-Eel, i 448: ii 

Violet, iv 97. [iv 407-408 (illust. ). 

Viper (and see Vipers), horned, ii 282; 

— Russell’s, iv 339. 

— water, ili 53. 

Vipers (and see Viper), i 232, 234-235; 
ii 80-81; ili 445. 

— pit”, i 235. 

— tree-, ili 272. 

Vipera, arietans, ii 80; iv 339. 

— Russelli, iv 339. 

Viperidz. See Vipers. 


554 


Visceral arches, amphibians, i 242. 

— embryo vertebrates, 1 62; ii 381 

— fishes, i 260. ((illust.), ger. 

Visceral clefts, amphibians, i 242. 

— embryo vertebrates, i 62; ii 381-382 
(illust.), 421. 

— primitive vertebrates, i 293. 

— fishes, 1 260. 

Visceral hump, of molluscs, i 308, 
309, 312, 313, 316, 318-319, 322-324, 
325, 327- (259. 

Visceral skeleton, of fishes, i 258- 

Vison, ii 22; ili 76; iv 303-304. 

— American, iii 76; iv 304. 

— European or Russian, ili 76; iv 303. 

— Siberian, iii 76. 

Vitreous humour, i s8. 

Vitrina pellucida, ii 37 

Viverra civetta, i 89; ili 157. 

— zibetha, i 89. (227; ill 156-157. 

Viverride, i 87, 88-91; ii 11-14, 226- 

Vizcacha, i 133; ii 17-18 (illust.). 

Vocal chords, i 47. 

Vogt, Carl, ii 27, 32, 229, 230, 321, 350, 
363; i 85, 150, 160, 196, 249, 331. 

Voice, organs of, birds, i 147, 149. 

— mammals, 1 47. 

— reptiles, i 202. 

Voice-box, i 47. 

Vole, bank-, i 129. 

— field- (common), 1 129; ii 177. 

— — (southern), ii 177; iv 486. 

— water-, i 128 (illust.’, 129; ili 73. 

Voles, i 128-129; ili 73, 483; iv 130, 

Volucella pellucens, ii iro. [340. 

Volutes, i 321. 

Volvox, i 489, 494-495 (illust.); ii 274; 
iil 6, 334-335 (illust.). 

Von Baer, i 11. 

Vorticella, i 480, 493-494; ii 266, 418; 


iii 2, 5, 6, 8-9, 319-320, 321, 323, 325- 
Vosseler, ii 255. 
Vultur monachus, i 175. 
Vulture, black, i 175. 
— eagle-, ii 303. 
— Riippel’s, i 175 (illust.). 
Vultures, i 152, 173-175; 11 69; iv 328. 
— American, i 175. 
W 
Wagtail, blue-headed, i 157. 
— grey, i 157; ili 125 (illust.), 457 
(illust.), 458. 
— pied or water, i 157; ii 65. 
— white, i 157. 
— yellow, i157; 11 66 (illust. ). 
Wagtails, i 156-157; ti 65- ili 185. 
Waldheimia, i 438-430 (illust.). 
Wallace, i 7, 11; ii 40, 189, 284, 309, 
311, 312, 346, 349; ili 282, 287, 204, 
494; 1V 132, 140, 143, 160, 212, 346, 
409, 410, 472, 417, 419, 422, 426, 433, 


478, 494: 

“Wallace’s line”, iv 424, 426. 

Walrus, i 98; ii 24-25, 349; ili 79-80 
(illust.), 492; iv 311-312, 394. 

Walton, Taak, iv 364. 

Wampum, Indian, iv 323-324 (illust.). 

“Wandering cells”, ili 3-4. See 
also Cells. 

Wanderoo, i 74-75 (illust.). 

Wapiti, i 111. 

Warbler, blackcap, i 160 (illust.). 

— Dartford, i 160. 

— fan-tail, iii 459-460. 


INDEX 


Warbler (Cozz.) 

— garden, i 160 (illust.). 

— grasshopper, i 160. 

— marsh, i 160, 

— reed, i 160; iii 458. 

— — great, iii 458 (illust.). 

— sedge, i 160. 

Warblers, i 160 (illust.) ; iv 202. 

Warde-Fowler, W., ii 65. See also 
Mimicry. 

Warning coloration, i 16; 
iv 58-59, 160, 402. 

— acorn-headed worms, ii 306. 

— amphibians, ii 304-305. 

— annelids, ii 308. 

— ascidians, ii 306. 

— fishes, 1i 305-306. 

— flat-worms, 11 308. 

— insects, ii 307-308, 360; ili 399; iv so. 

— mammals, ii 301-303. 

— molluscs, ii 306-307. 

— plants, iv 81. 

— reptiles, ii 303-304, 311. 

— sponges, li 309. 

— zoophytes, ii 308-309, 361. 

Warnings, spurious. See Mimicry. 

Wart-Hog, African, iv 373. 

Wart-Hogs, i 108-109. 

Wasp (and see Wasps): 

—- common, i 373; il 250-251. 

— common sand-, i 373- 

— fly-storing sand-, i 373. 

— mud-, i 374. 

— path-, i 373. 

Wasps, i 16, 373-374; ii 206, 250-251, 


ii 301; 


307, 358; ill 311-312 (illust.), iv 29- 
30 (illust.), 55-56, 59, 111-112 (illust. }, 
— sand-, i 373. [192, 356. 


— solitary, 1 374; ill 391-393. 
Waste-products, 1 44-46; ii 377. 


Waste-removing organs. Sce 


Breathing organs and Excretory 
organs. 

Water (H,0), i ii 270, 271, 273, 
377-380, 382 20; 1v 65-66, 76. 


Water-Boatmen, i 354-355; ii 124, 
440; li 29 (illust.). 

Water-Fleas, i 419, 421, 422 (illust.), 
466-467; ii 256, 405; in 26 (illust.’, 
362-363 (illust.). 

Water-’guana, ili 53. 

Water-Hen, iii 61. 

— Mortier’s, iti 61. 

Water-Pheasant. See Jacana. 

Water-Scorpions, i 354; li 124, 440- 
440; ili 382-383. 

Water-testing organ, of molluscs, 
i 320, 333; iv 31. 

Water-vascular system, of echino- 
tie i 452, 457, 458-459, 463; ii 
2, 414-416; ili 91-92, 95-96, 97. 

Waterton, Charles, 17; iti 239. 

Watson, Alfred, E. T., iv 364. 

Wax-glands, iv 254 (illust.). 

Weasel, common, i 98; ii 21, 290; iv 
326 (illust.). 

Weasels, i 97-98 (illust.): 
ili 156; iv 303, 326, 345. 

Weaver-Birds, i 156. 

Webs, of arachnids, i 391, 392; ili 374; 
and see Nests. 

Weever, aera ii 

— lesser, i 

Weever-Fish, li 305-306. 

Weevil (and see Weevils): 

— apple-blossom, iv 354. 

— birch-, iii 394-396 (illust.); iv so. 


li 20-22; 


357: 


Weevil (Coxz.) 

— biscuit-, iv 355. [(illust. ). 

—corn-, i 369 (illust.); iv 354-355 

— nut-, i 369; ii 272 (illust.). 

— pea-, iv 354. 

— rice-, i 369 (illust. de 

Weevils, i 369; ii 211, 315, 337; iii 
224, 394-396; iv 50, 354-355. 

Weismann, iii 319; iv 491, 492, 493, 

Welhaven, J. S., iv 408. (494. 

Wels, i 280 (illust.). 

Whale (and see Whales): 

— fin-back (or Rorqual), ii 29; iii 8s. 
— Greenland or northern ‘“‘right”, i 
10F; ii 29, 30; ili 491; iv 314-315. 

— killer-, ii 26, 27 (illust.); ili 85. 

— southern “fright”, iv 315. 

— sperm- (or Cachalot), ii 29; iv 316, 
317 (illust.), 403. 

— white, iii 83 (illust.); iv 316-317. 

Whales (and see Whale), i 61, 99-101; 
li 26-30; iii 83-86, 490-491; iv 209- 
210, 314, 317- 

— toothed, ii 26-29; iv 316-317. 

— toothless, or whalebone, ii 26, 29-30; 
iv 314-316. 

““Whalebone”’, i 100, 107 (illust.); ii 
30 (illust.); iv 314, 315. 

Whale-Louse, i 415 (illust.); ii 143. 

Wheatear, i 160; iii 185 (illust.); iv 
133. 

Wheat-Eelworm, ii 222-223 (illust.). 

Wheel-Animalcules, i 304, 434-435: 
li 261-263, 410; ill 100-01. 

Wheel-organ, i 434, 435; ii 410. 

Whelk, common, i 321 (illust.); ii 06, 
97, 394-395; il 412, 413 (illust.); iv 

— dog-, iv 348. (348. 

Whewell, i 11. 

Whimbrel, i 169. 

Whinchat, i 160; iv 133. 

Whip-poor- Will, ii <8. 

Whip-Scorpions, i 387, 380 (illust.); 
ii 125-126, 443; ili 169 (illust.). 

“Whiskers”, of mammals, iv 28 

White, Gilbert, i 6; iii 380, 466, 467, 
471, 483; iv 319. 

White-“ Ants”. See Termites. 

“Whitebait”, iv 264. 

White matter, of spinal cord, i 50-51. 

Whitethroat, i 160 ‘illust.). 

— lesser, i 160 (illust.). 

Whiting, i 279; ii 283; iv 200, 267. 

Whooper, i 177. 

Whydah Finches, iv 421. 

Widgeon, i 176; iii 58. 

Wiedersheim, iii 118. 

Wildebeest, i 118. 

Willey, iii 110, 214, 418. 

Willows, iv 89, 92. 

Wilson, E. B., iv 494. 

Wilson, Gregg, iii 478. 

Windhover, i 174. 

Windpipe (and see Breathing organ): 

— birds, i147; ii 427. 

— mammals, i 46-47 (illust.). 

Wing-covers, beetles, i 366; ii 31 
ili 313, 314. 

— insects, straight-winged, 1 345, 380. 

Wing-coverts, of birds, i 143, 178; 

Wings :— {iti 297. 

— bats, i 81; ili 292-294. 

— birds: 

game, iii 300. 

perching, i 153, 155, 156, 158, 
160, 161; ili 303, 304. 

— — picarian, i 163; iil 304. 


53 


Wings (Coxz.) 

— birds (Cozz.) 

running, i 188, 189, 190; iii 130- 
132. (66. 

— — auks, divers and grebes, i 184; iii 

= eagles and vultures, i 174, 175; 
ill 305, 306. 

—— gulls, iii 304, 305, 308. 

— — herons and storks, i 178, 179, 180; 
lii 307. (181; iii 307. 

—-—pelicans and cormorants, i 180, 

— — penguins, i 186; iii 67. 

— — petrels and albatrosses, i 183. 

—— pigeons and sand-grouse, i 140- 
143, 145, 167; iii 304, 305. 

— — plovers, i 168; ili 305. 

——rails, i17r. 

— — structure and action of, i 140-143, 
145; lil 295-296, 298-299, 300-301 

— insects: [(illust.), 302-308. 

fringe-winged, i 351, 355. 

membrane-winged, i 351, 369- 

370; iii 28-29, 311 (illust.), 312, 313 

(illust.); iv 14. 

—— net-winged, i 351, 374, 376-379; 

lil 311-313 (illust.); iv rer. 

straight-winged, 345, 351, 380. 

— — beetles, i 351, 366; ili 313; iv 192. 

— — bugs, i 351-353. 

—— flies, two-winged, i 351, 355; iii 
311; iv 190. 

— — moths and butterflies, i 351, 358- 
359 (illust.), 361-365; ili 311-313 
(illust. ). 

— — evolution of, iii 314-315. 

— — modification of, iii 312-314 (illust. ). 

— — structure and action of, iii 309- 
312 (illust.). 

— reptiles, iii 287, 308-309. 

Wing-Shells, i 32: (illust.); iii 107, 
180, 181 (illust.). 

“Wire-Worms”, ii 211; iii 224; iv 


354. 

Wissman, Major von, iv 240. 

Wolf (and see Wolves): (372. 

— common, i 93; iv 369, 370 (illust.), 

— prairie, i 93. 

— Tasmanian, ii 322. 

Wolves, i 93; ii 15-17; iv 134, 334, 
369-372. 

Wolff, Caspar Friedrich, iii 336. 

Wolf-Fish, i 275; ii 86. 


Wolverene. See Glutton. 
Wombat, i 6o (illust.); ii 183 (illust.), 
322; ili 480. 


““Wonder-nets”, ii 430. 

Wood, J. G., ii 371; iv 117. 

Wood-borer, large, i 371 (illust.) ; ii 
203; iii 386-387 (illust.). 

Wood-borers, or Wood-Wasps, i 370- 
371; ll 203; ili 386-387; iv 195, 355. 

Woodcock, i 169; ii 68 (illust.). 

Woodlark, i 156. 


INDEX 


Wood-Louse, i 415 (illust.); ii 222; 
and see Wood-Lice. 
— pill, ii 143, 222, 342. 

— water, li 143, 222, 405. 
Wood-Lice, i 415; ii 222, 342, 405, 
444; iii 368; and see Wood-Louse. 
Woodpecker (and see Woodpeckers): 

— great spotted, i 162; ii 58. 

— green, i 161; iii 263 (illust.). 

— lesser-spotted, i 162. 

Woodpeckers, i 161-162; ii 58, 187, 
370; ili 264-265, 454; iv 347. 

— three-toed, iii 264-265. 

Woodward, Smith, iv 471. 

Wood-Wasps. See Wood-borers. 

“Wool”, of sheep, &c., iv 227, 228- 
229 (illust.), 230, 232. 

“Woolly bears”, i 360; and see 
Caterpillars. 

“Worm-castings”, i 430; ii 257, 
259; ili 226, 230. 


“Worms.” See Annelida, Earth- 
Worms, Flat-Worms, Thread- 
Worms, &c. 


Wrack, ii 198. 

Wrasse, Ballan, i 276. 

Wrasses, i 276; ii 86. 

Wren, common, i 160, 161. 

— fire-crested, i 160 (illust.). 

— golden-crested, i 160 (illust.). 

— willow, i 160. 

— wood, i 160. 

Wrens, i 160-162; iii 185. 

Wrist-bones, i 30-31; iii 299; and 
see Radiale and Ulnare. 

Wunderlich, iii 492. 

Wuychuchol, iii 71-72 (illust.). 


x 


Xanthoptera semicrocea, iv 72. 

Xenophon, iv 375. 

Xenophorus, ii 287, 288 (illust.). 

Xenopus levis, ili so. 

Xenos, iv 192. 

Xiphias gladius, i 273. 

Xiphocera asina, ii 282. 

Xiphosura, i 343, 422-423; ii r4q- 
145, 406-407 ; iii 369. [391. 

Xylocopa violacea, i 374; iii 390- 


Y 


Yak, i 114; iv 225. 

“Yellow cells”, iv 76, 77. 
Yellow-hammer, i 156 (illust.). 
Yew, iv 80. 

Yolk. See Food-yolk. 
Yolk-sac, iii 425, 432, 432. 


555 


Young (see also Larvz). 

— amphibians. See Tadpoles, Larve, 

— annelids, iii 358, 361. [&c. 

— arachnids, i 392; iii 373-376. 

— birds, i 151-152, 153, 158, 161, 163, 
165, 166, 167, 168, 170, 172, 176, 189; 
ii 285-286 (illust.); iii 448, 449, 450, 
452, 460 (illust.), 466-474 (illust.); iv 
186, 187 (illust.). 

—care of, See Protection. 

— crustaceans, iii 363, 365, 367-368; 
and see Larve. 

— echinoderms, iii 355; and see Larve. 

— fishes, iii 431-434. 

— insects. See Larvae, Nymphs, and 
Caterpillars. 

— mammals, i 65, 68-69; ii 430-431; 
iii 477 (illust.), 478-480 (illust.), 481 
(illust.), 482-494; iv 312-313. 

— myriapods, iii 372. 

— reptiles, i 209; ili 443-445, 447. 

Yung, iv 493. 

Yungia aurantiaca, ii 308. 


ZL 


Zamenis constrictor, iii 270. 

— mucosus, iv 328. 

Zapus Hudsonianus, iii 194-195. 

Zebra, Burchell’s, i 107; iv 235 
(illust.), 247. 

Zebras, i 107; iv 140, 235 (illust.), 239. 

Zebra-mules, iv 239-241 (illust.). 

Zebra Shark, i 286. 

Zebu, i 114; iv 225 (illust.). 

Zeus faber, i 273-274; iv 272. 

Zoxa, iii 27-28 (illust.), 366-367 

Zooid, i 436, 437. [(illust. ). 

Zoology, is. 

— esthetic. See #sthetic Zoology. 

—economic. See Economic Zoology. 

— in Middle Ages, i 9. 


— of sport. See Sporting Zoology. 
— philosophical. See Philosophical 
Zoology. 


— utilitarian. See Utilitarian Zoology. 

— ways of studying, i 5-17. 

Zoophytes, i 304, 436, 465-483; ii 
155-162, 271-272, 308-309, 340-341, 
361, 416-418; ili 17-20, 89-90, 327- 
328, 339-341, 349-353; IV 5-7, 25, 26, 
33-34, TOT-104, 440-441, 449-450, 
453-454, 458-459, 464. 

— extinct, 1v 458-459. 

— hydroid, i 465-473, 478-483 (illust.); 
ii 160-162 (illust.), 340-341; ili 327, 
328, 350-352; iv 102-104. 

Zoospores, ii 273. 

Zootoca vivipara, i 225; ili 446. 

Zostera, iii 369. 

Zygena malleus, i 285-286. 

Zygenide, iii 402. 


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