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ElEY
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UNlVtt^SlTY OF CALIFORNIA
KNTHROPOLOGY LIBRAKY
BRITISH MUSEUM.
A GUIDE
TO THE
EGYPTIAN COLLECTIONS
IN THE
BRITI;)] VillSEUM.
^^^
IIITH S3 PLATES A
A TIONS IN THE TEXT.
PRINTED BY
THE TRUSTEES.
-LINQ.
OF THE UNIVERSITY Of'cAUI'OPINIA.
AFFILIATED COLLEGES, SAN FRAH«ISCt.
1
I
Pl
GUIDE TO THE EGYPTIAN COLLECTIONS
BRITISH MUSEUM.
/
I BRITISH MUSEUM. .^^ f] £^.yf^>
A GUIDE
TO THE
EGYPTIAN COLLECTIONS
IN THE
BRITISH MUSEUM.
H77'// ,-? PLATES AND iSo ILLUSTRATIONS LN THE TEXT.
PRINTED BY ORDER OF THE TRUSTEES.
1909. PRICE ONE SHILLING.
HARRISON AND SONS,
PRINTERS IN ORDINARY TO HIS MAJESTV,
ST. martin's lane, LONDON.
Ze6 09^
J,
HiTlfflOPOLOGY UBRARY
PREFACE.
The Collection of Egyptian Antiquities in the British Museum comprises nearly fifty thousand objects, and many of its sections are unrivalled in completeness. It illustrates, in a more or less comprehensive manner, the history and civiliza- tion of the Egyptians from the time when their country was passing out of the Predynastic Period under a settled form of government, about B.C. 4500, to the time of the downfall of the power of the Queens Candace at Meroe, in the Egyptian Sudan, in the .second or third century after Christ. The monuments of Christian Egypt also form a very important series, and illustrate Coptic funerary sculpture and art between the sixth and eleventh centuries A.D.
The present Guide ^as been prepared with the view 01
providing the visitor to the British Museum with information
of a more general character than can be conveniently given
in the Guides to the several Galleries and Rooms of the
Department. An attempt has here been made to present
a sketch of the origin, the manners and customs, the
language, the writing, the literature, the religion, and the
^ burial rites of the peoples of Egypt, and of their history
^ under the successive dynasties ; embodying references to the
' several objects of the Collection which illustrate the different
9 branches of the subject. The te.xt is supplemented by an
abundant selection of cuts and plates of the most important
^ of the antiquities.
^
E. A. WALLIS BUDGE.
Department ok Egyptian and Assvrian
Antiquities, British Museum,
September 29, 1908.
Z^^o3f
A4
CONTENTS
PREFACE ..........
LIST OF PLATES .........
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS IN THE TEXT .....
CHAPTER I. THE COUNTRY OF EGYPT ....
,, II. ETHNOGRAPHY. LANGUAGE. FORMS OF
WRITING. DECIPHERMENT OF EGYPTIAN HIEROGLYPHICS, ALPHABET, AND \YRITING. NATIONAL CHARACTER „ III. — EGYPTIAN LITERATURE, SACRED AND PRO-
FANE
„ IV. MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. MARRIAGE.
EDUCATION. DRESS. FOOD. AMUSE-
MENTS. CATTLE BREEDING. TRADE.
HANDICRAFTS ....
„ V. ARCHITECTURE. PAINTING. SCULPTURE
„ VI. THE KING AND HIS SUBJECTS. MILITARY
SERVICE ....
„ VII. EGYPTIAN RELIGION
„ VIII. — EMBALMING. THE EGYPTIAN TOMB
„ IX. NUMBERS. DIVISIONS OF TIME. CHRONOLOGY
„ X. HISTORY OF EGYPT. ANCIENT EMPIRE
„ XI. — HISTORY OF EGYPT.
„ XII. HISTORY OF EGYPT.
,, XIII. — -HISTORY OF EGYPT.
HISTORY OF EGYPT. HISTORY OF EGYPT. A LIST OF THE PRINCIPAL KINGS OF EGYPT CARTOUCHES OF THE PRINCIPAL KINGS OF EGYPT INDEX ........
MIDDLE EMPIRE NEW EMPIRE PTOLEMAIC PERIOD ROMAN PERIOD ARAB PERIOD
PAGE V
ix xi
I
58
76 103
116 122
180 188 213 228 268
282 286 290
3°3
LIST OF PLATES
Plate I. Vignette from the papyrus of Queen
Netchemet ......
„ II. Text and vignettes from the sarcophagus
of King Nekht-Heru-hebt „ III. False door from the tomb of Shesha
„. IV. Sepulchral tablet of Thetha
„ V. Sepulchral tablet of Sebek-hetep
„ VI. Sepulchral tablet of Pai-nehsi
,, VII. Sepulchral tablet of Bak-en-Amen
„ VIII. Sepulchral tablet of Nes-Heru
„ IX. Painted relief from the tomb of Ur-ari-en
Ptah
„ X. Painted sepulchral tablet of Kahu
„ XI. Columns in the temple of Seti I
,, XII. Head of a priestess .
„ XIII. Seated figures of Kha-em-Uast and his
wife ......
„ XIV. False door from the tomb of A.sa-ankh
„ XV. View of a painted chamber in the tomb of
Nekht
„ XVI. Wall painting from a tomb
„ XVII. General view of the sarcophagus of Nekht
Heru-hebt ..... „ XVIII. General view of the sarcophagus of Nes
Qetiu
„ XIX. Sepulchral tablet of Ban-aa
,, XX. The Great Pyramid and Sphinx
XXI. The " Shekh al-Balad " . XXII. Tablet of Antef XXIII. Tablet of Sebek-aa . . „ XXIV. Tablet and figure of Sa-Hathor
SEE PAGE
6i
66 68 68 68 68 68 68
8t 8i
107
fi5
115 167
175 175
177
177 177 196 203 210 21 1
215
LIST OF PLATES.
Plate
XXV.
XXVI.
XXVII.
XXVIII.
XXIX.
XXX.
XXXI.
XXXII.
XXXIII.
XXXIV.
XXXV.
XXXVI. XXXVII.
xxxAaii.
XXXIX.
XL.
XLI.
XLII.
XLIII.
XLIV.
XLV.
XLVI.
XLVII.
XLVI II.
XLIX.
L.
LI.
LII.
LIII.
Statue of Usertsen III .
Head of Amen-em-hat III
Statue of Sekhem-uatch-taui-Ra
Stele of the reign of Sekhem-ka-Ra
Memorial cone of Sebek-hetep .
The Hall of Columns at Karnak
Head of a colossal statue of Thothmes HI
Statue of Amen-hetep III
The Colossi of Amen-hetep HI
Letter of Amen-hetep HI
Letter of Tushratta, king of Mitani, to
Amen-hetep III . Lion of Tut-ankh-Amen . Statues of a priest and his wife The temple of Abii Simbel Head of a colossal statue of Rameses II Sepulchral stele of Qaha . Vignettes from the papyrus of Queen
Netchemet ..... Hathor-headed capital Relief of Queen Ankhnes-neferab-Ra The goddess Nut .... Statue of Uah-ab-Ra Obelisk dedicated to Thoth, Twice-great Vignettes and text from the sarcophagus
of Nekht-Heru-heb ReUef of Ptolemy II The temple of Edfu . Granite shrine from Philae Tablet of Tiberius . Tablet of Tiberius . Tablet of Apa Pahomo .
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS IN THE TEXT.
Map of Egypt
The Delta of Egypt
The Entrance to the Valley of the Tombs of the Kings at
Thebes ....
The Nile-gods and their cavern The Nile-god in his cavern . The Nile-god bearing offerings The Nile-gods of the South and North The Nile from sea to source Statue of Hapi the Nile-god
Egyptian hunters of the Archaic Period, Nos. i-6 Ivory figure of a king .... Bone figure of a dwarf Bone figure of a woman carrying a child Bone figure of a woman with inlaid eyes Figure of Betchmes Figure of Nefer-hi Fox playing the double pipes Mouse seated on a chair Cat herding geese Lion and unicorn playing draughts The spearing of Apep .
A page of writing from the Great Harris Papyrus Demotic writing . Coptic inscription The Rosetta Stone Two wooden writing palettes Slab of limestone inscribed in hieratic
PAGE
2 3
5
9
9
II
12
23 24
24 25
25 26
26
27 28 29 30 31
36
38
41
43
54 56
Xll
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS IN THE TEXT.
Vignette and text from the papyrus of Ani
Vignette and text from the papyrus of Nu
Vignette and text from the papyrus of Heru-em-heb
Text from the Book " May my name flourish "
The ceremony of " Opening the mouth "
Marble sun-dial .
Head of a priestess
Relief, with a hippopotamus
Green schist bear
Egyptian house .
Egyptian hut
Ivory head-rest
The Bull Apis .
The Bull Mnevis .
Flint cow's head .
Jewellers drilling and polishing beads
Pylon and court of the temple of Edfu
Gateway to the temple of Rameses III
(lateway of Ptolemy IX at Karnak
Granite obelisks at Karnak
Pillars at Philae .
Statue of An-kheft-ka .
Figure of a priest .
Head of a statue of Neb-hap-Ra
Statue of Sebek-nekht .
Figure of a king .
Queen Teta-Khart
Head of Amen-hetep HI
Statue of Isis
I'igurc of ()en-nefer
Statues of Mahu and Sebta
The principal gods and goddesses of Egypt (57 tig
Khnemu fashioning a man on a potter's wheel
Osiris rising from the sarcophagus
Osiris in his shrine
Thoth weighing the heart
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS IN THE TEXT.
Xlll
Maat weighing the heart
Osiris on his Judgment Throne
Ra at sunrise
Ra at sunset
Flint amulets (4 figures)
The step pyramid at Sakkarah
A group of mastaba tombs .
Tablet for offerings
An Egyptian tomb
The soul visiting the body
Section of the Second Pyramid
Entrance to the tomb of Khnemu-hetep
Entrance to a royal tomb
Plan and section of the tomb of Seti I (
Wall painting from a tomb .
Coffin of Hes-Petan-Ast
Figures of Ka-tep and Hetep-heres
King Semti dancing before a god .
Relief from the tomb of Sherd
Relief from the tomb of Suten-abu
King Khufu ....
Section of the Great Pyramid
King Khaf-Ra .
King Menkau-Ra
Section of the Third Pyramid
King Usr-en-Ra An
Shrine of Pa-suten-sa .
Stele of Tatiankef
Lion of Khian
Statue of Amen-hetep I
The Temple of Luxor .
Scarabs of Amen-hetep III (2 cuts)
Kneeling statue of Rameses II
Facade of the Ramesseum
Statues of Rameses II (2 cuts)
Statue of Kha-em-Uast .
2 cuts)
PAGE
140 141 143 143 148 166 167 168 168 168 171 172
173 174
175 176 177 19b 192 194 196 197 199 200 202 204 219 220 225 229 233
235 241
243
244 246
XIV
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS IN THE TEXT
Statue of Seti II .
Statue of Ankh-renp-nefer
Head of Psammetichus II
Stele of Ptolemy II
Head of a statue of a Ptolem
Limestone window
" Pharaoh's Bed "
Coptic sepulchral tablet
Tablet of Pleinos .
Tablet of David .
Tablet of Abraam
Tablet of Rachel .
>■
PAGE 247
269 271
273 276
279 281 281 284 284
+ ■- 0 c» r .5,
INTRODUCTION
TO THK
EGYPTIAN COLLFXTIONS IN THE BRITISH
MUSEUM.
CHAPTER I.
The Country of Egypt and its Limits. The Delta. Oases. Lakes. The Nile. Inundation. Nile Festivals. Famines. Ancient and Modern Divisions of Egypt and the Sudan.
The Land of Egypt is situated in the north-east shoulder of the continent of Africa, and in the earhest times it con- sisted of that portion of the Nile Valley which lay between the Mediterranean Sea and the northern end of the First Cataract ; the Lsland of Abu, or Elephantine, and the town of Sunnu, or Sunt, the Syene of classical writers and the Seweneh of the Bible (Ezekiel xxix, lo), forming the southern boundary of the country. The northern limit of Egypt has, in historic times, always been the Mediterranean Sea, but its southern limit varied considerably at different periods. Under the Vth dynasty, about B.C. 3600, it was marked by Elephantine and Syene. Under the Xllth dynasty, about B.C. 2500, it was extended to Semnah and Kummah, about 250 miles to the south of Syene. Under the XVIIIth dynasty, about B.C. 1600, the southern frontier town was probably Napata, the modern Merawi, about 600 miles, by river, from Syene. A century later the Egyptians took possession of the Island of Meroe, and they appear to have built a town at a place about 930 miles from Syene, by river, to mark their southern frontier. Between B.C. 1200 and 600 the frontier was withdrawn to Syene, where it remained practically for several centuries. Under the Arabs, the
2.36 09f
MAP OF EGYPT FROM THE SEA TO LVCOPOLIS.
MAP OF EGYPT FROM AKHMIM TO SEMNAH. r.,^3
4 INTRODUCTION TO THK EGYPTIAN COLLECTIONS.
southern frontier was fixed at Dongola (a.d. 1275), the old Nubian capital, which lay about 570 miles from Syene. In 1873, Sir Samuel Baker extended it to Gondokoro, about 2,823 miles, by river, from Cairo. In 1895, the frontier town of Egypt in the south was Wadi Halfah, and it continued to be so until the capture of Umm Darman (Omdurman) in 1898. At the present time, the southern limit of Egypt is marked by the 22nd parallel of N. latitude, which crosses the Nile at Gebel Sahaba, about eight miles north of the Camp at Wadi Halfah, and its northern limit is the northernmost point of the Delta. The distance, by river, from the Camp to the Mediterranean Sea, is about 960 miles. The boundary of Egypt on the east is marked by a line drawn from Ar-Rafah, which lies a little to the east of Al-Arish, the Rhinocolura of classical writers, to Tabah, at the head of the Gulf of Akabah, by the eastern coast of the Peninsula of Sinai,^ and by the Red Sea. On the west, the boundary is marked by a line drawn from the Gulf of Solum due south to a point a little to the south-west of the Oasis of Siwah, and then proceeding in a south-easterly direction to the 22nd parallel of N. latitude, near Wadi Halfah.
The name " Egypt," which has come to us through the Latin "Aegyptus"' and the Greek " Aiguptos," is derived from one of the ancient Egyptian names of Memphis, viz., " Het-ka-Ptah," meaning " Temple of the Ka, or Double, of
Ptah " Q ^ V ° I ^ > or I VSlI^ • The common name for Egypt among the Egyptians was " Oem," or '' Oemt," i.e.,
the " Black Land," ^ i , in allusion to the brownish-black
®
mud of which the soil chiefl}' consists. Another name of
frequent occurrence in the literature is " Ta-Mera," the " Land
of the Inundation," ■'"'=3Lil]©-
The soil of Egypt is formed of a layer of sedimentary deposits, which has been laid down by the Nile, and varies in depth from about 40 to 1 10 feet ; the rate at which this layer is being added to at the present time in the bed of the river is said to be about four inches in a century. In prehistoric times the sea ran up as far as Esna, and deposited thick layers of sand and gravel ; upon these the rivers and streams flowing from the south spread the mud and stonj- matter
' The Peninsula of Sinai has been a province of Egypt for about 6,000 years.
DELTA, OASES, LAKES.
5
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The Delta of Egypt.
which they brought down with them, and thus the soil of Egypt was gradually built up. Near Esna begins the layer of sandstone, which extends southward, and covers nearly the whole of Nubia, and rests ultimately on crystalline rock.
The part of Egypt which lies to the north of the point where the Nile divides itself into two branches resembles in shape a lotus flower, or a triangle standing on its apex, and because of its similarity to the fourth letter of their alphabet, the
Greeks called it Delta, f\.
The Delta is formed of a deep layer of mud and sand, which rests upon the yellow quartz sands, and gravels and stiff clay, which were laid down by the sea in prehistoric times. The area of the Delta is about 14,500 square miles.
The Oases of Egypt are seven in number, and all are situated in the Western Desert. Their names are: i. Oasis of Siwah or Jupiter Ammon ; 2. Oasis of Bahariyah, i.e., the Northern Oasis ;
3. The Oasis of Farafrah, the Ta-ahet of the Egyptians ;
4. The Oasis of Dakhlah, i.e., tlie "Inner" Oasis, the Tchesti of the Egyptians; 5. The Oasis of Khargah, i.e., the " Outer Oasis," the Uaht-rest or " Southern Oasis " of the Egyptians ; 6. The Oasis of Dailah, to the west of Farafrah ; 7. The Oasis of Kurkur, to the west of Aswan.
The principal Lakes of Egypt are: i. Birkat al-Kurun, a long, narrow lake lying to the north-west of the Province of the Fayyum, and formerly believed to be a part of the Lake Moeris described by Herodotus ; 2. The Natron Lakes, which lie in the Natron Valley, to the north- west of Cairo ; from these the Egyptians obtained salt and various forms of soda, which were used for making incense, and in embalming the dead ; 3. Lake Menzalah, Lake Burlus, Lake Edku, Lake Abukir, now almost reclaimed, and Lake Mareotis ; all these are in the Delta. Lake Timsah {i.e., Crocodile Lake) and the Bitter Lakes, which were originally mere swamps, came into existence with the making of the Suez Canal.
6 THE FAVVUM AXD LAKE MOERIS.
The Fa3ryum which was in ancient times regarded as one of the Oases, is nothing more than a deep depression scooped out of the Hmestone, on which are layers of loams and marls covered over by Nile mud. The district was called by the Egyptians " Ta-she," or " Land of the Lake " ; at the present time it has an area of about 850 square miles, and is watered by a branch of the Nile called the " Bahr Yusuf," which flows into it through an opening in the mountains on the west bank of the Nile. The Bahr Yusuf, or " River of Joseph," is not called after the name of the
Tlic EiUiance to the Valley of the Touilis of ihe Kings at Thebes.
patriarch Joseph, but that oi some Muhammadan ruler. It is not a canal as was once supposed, but an arm of the Nile, which, however, needs clearing out periodicalh'. In the Fayyum lay the large bod\' of water to which Herodotus gave the name of Lake Moeris. He believed that this Lake had been constructed artificially, but modern irrigation authorities in Egypt have come to the conclusion that the mass of water which he saw and thought was a lake was merely the result of the Nile flood, or inundation, and that there never was a Lake Moeris.
Deserts, On each side of the Valle\- of the Nile lies a vast desert. That on the east is called the Arabian Desert,
THE NILE. 7
or Red Sea Desert, and that on the west the Libyan Desert. The influence of the latter on the cHmate of Egypt is very great, as for six months of the year the prevailing wind blows from the west. At many places in the Eastern and Western Deserts there are long stretches of sand scores of miles in length, and immense tracts covered with layers of loose pebbles and stone, and the general effect is desolate in the extreme. The hills which skirt the deserts along the Valley of the Nile are usually quite low, but at certain points they rise to the height of a few hundred feet. Nothing grows on them, and more bare and inhospitable places cannot be imagined. The accompanying illustration gives a good idea of the general appearance of the stone hills on the Nile. In the fore-ground are masses of broken stone, sand, rocks, etc., and these stretch back to a gap in the range of hills just below the letter A, whence, between steep rocks, a rough road winds in and out along the dreary valley which contains the sepul- chres of the great kings of the XVIIIth, XlXth and later dynasties. Under the light of a full moon the Valley is full of weird beauty, but in the day-time the heat in it resembles that of a furnace.
The chief characteristic of Egypt is the great river Nile, which has in all ages been the source of the life and prosperity of its inhabitants, and the principal highway of the country. The Egyptians of the early Dynastic Period had no exact knowledge about the true source of the river. In their hymns to the Nile-god they described him as the " hidden one," and " unseen," and his "secret places " are said to be "unknown." The river over which he presided formed a part of the great celestial river, or ocean, upon which sailed the boats of the Sun-god daily. This river surrounded the whole earth, from which, however, it was separated by a range of mountains. On one portion of this river was placed the throne of Osiris, according to a legend, and close by was the opening in the range of mountains through which an arm of the celestial river flowed into the earth. The place where the Nile appeared on earth was believed to be situated in the First Cataract, and in late times the Nile was said to rise there, between two mountains which were near the Island of Ele- phantine and the Island of Philae. Herodotus gives the names of these mountains as " Krophi " and " Mophi," and their originals have probably been found in the old Egyptian "Oer-Hapi" and "Mu-Hapi"; these names mean "Cavern of Hapi " and " Water of Hapi " respectively.
The underground caverns, or " storehouses of the Nile,"
THE NILES OF THE SOUTH AND NORTH.
from which the river welled up, are depicted in the illustra- tions here given. In the first the cavern is guarded by a hippopotamus-headed goddess, who is armed with a large knife and wears a feather on her head. Above are seated two
The two Nile-gods and their Cavern, and the hippopotamus goddess, who is armed with a huge knife, their protectress.
The Nile-god in his cavern, under the rocks at Philae, pouring out the waters which formed the two Niles.
gods, one wearing a cluster of papyrus plants on his head, and the other a cluster of lotus flowers ; the former represents the Nile of the South, and the other the Nile of the North. Each god holds water-plants in one hand. In the second illustration the god is depicted kneeling in his cavern, which
HYMNS TO THE NH.E-GOD.
is enclosed b}' the bod)' of a serpent ; he wears a cluster of water-plants on his head, and is pouring out from two vases the streams of water which became the South and North Niles.
The Egyptians called both their river and the river-god
" Hap " or " Hapi " | ""^ , | ^~^ ^^ ^ , a name of which
the meaning is unknown ; in very early dynastic times the
god was called " Hep-ur" y^ ^ ^r* ' ^•^'•. the "great Hep."
The name "Nile," by which the "River of Egypt" is generally known, is not of Egyptian origin, but is probably derived from the Semitic word nakJial "river"; this the Greeks turned into " Neilos," and the Latins into " Nilus,"
The Nile-god bearing offerings of bread, wine, fruit, flowers, etc.
Tlie Nile-gods of the South and North tying the stems of a lily and a papyrus plant round the symbol of " union," symbolizing the union of Upper and Lower Egypt.
whence comes the common form " Nile." The river appears in the form of a man wearing a cluster of water-plants on his head, and his fertility is indicated by a large pendent breast. In the accompanying illustration the gods of the South and North Niles are seen t}Mng stems of the lotus and papyrus plants round the symbol of "union"; the scene ^represents the union of Upper and Lower Egypt.
The ideas held by the Egyptians concerning the power of the Nile-god are well illustrated by a lengthy Hymn to the Nile preserved on papyrus in the British Museum (Sallier H, No. 10,182). " Homage to thee, O Hapi, thou appearest in this " land, and thou comest in peace to make Egypt to live. Thou " waterest the fields which Ra hath created, thou givest life
I" M
10 HYMNS TO THE NH.E-GOD.
" unto all animals, and as thou descendest on thy way from " heaven thou makest the land to drink without ceasing. Thou " art the friend of bread and drink, thou givest strength to the " grain and makest it to increase, and thou fillest every place " of work with work . . . Thou art the lord of fish . . . thou art " the creator of barley, and thou makest the temj:)les to endure " for millions of years . . . Thou art the lord of the poor and " needy. If thou wert overthrown in the heavens, the gods " would fall upon their faces, and men would perish. When " thou appearest upon the earth, shouts of joy rise up and all " people are glad ; every man of might receiveth food, and " every tooth is provided with meat . . . Thou fillest the store- " houses, thou makest the granaries to overflow, and thou " hast regard to the condition of the poor and needy. Thou " makest herbs and grain to grow that the desires of all " may be satisfied, and thou art not impoverished thereby. " Thou makest thy strength to be a shield for man." Else- where he is called the " father of the gods of the company of " the gods who dwell in the celestial ocean," and he was declared to be self-begotten, and " One," and in nature in- .scrutable.
In another passage of the same hymn it is said that the god is not sculptured in stone, that images of him are not seen, " he is not to be seen in inscribed shrines, there is no " habitation large enough to contain him, and thou canst not " make images of him in thy heart." These statements sug- gest that statues or figures of the Nile-god were not commonl)' made, and it is a fact that figures of the god, large or small, are rare. In the fine collection of figures of Egyjjtian gods exhibited in the Third Egyptian Room, which is certainly one of the largest in the world, there is only one figure of Hapi (No. io8. Wall-case 125). In this the god wears on his
head a cluster of papj'rus plants W, before which is the
Utchat, or Eye of Horus, "^p^, and he holds an altar from
which he pours out water. The only other figure of the god in the British Museum collection is the fine quartzite sand- stone statue (Southern Egyptian Gallery, No. 766) which was dedicated to Amen-Ra by Shashanq, the son of Uasarken and his queen Maat-ka-Ra. Here the god bears on his oul -stretched hands an altar, from which hang down bunches of grain, green herbs, flowers, waterfowl, etc. The statue was dedicated to Amen-Ra, who included the attributes of Hapi among his own.
THE COURSE OF THE NILE.
M
The true source of the Nile is Victoria Nyanza, or Lake Victoria, which Hes between the parallels of latitude o° 20' N. and 3; S., and the meridians of 31" 40' and 35 E. of Green- wich ; the lake is 250 miles in length and 200 in breadth, and was discovered in modern times by Speke, on August 3rd, 1858. Other contributory sources are Albert Nyanza, or Lake Albert, discovered by Sir Samuel Baker on March i6th, 1864, and Lake Albert Edward, discovered by Sir H. M. Stanley in 1875 ; the connecting channel between these lakes is the Semliki River. The portion of the Nile between Lake Victoria and Lake Albert is called the "Victoria Nile" (or the " Somerset River"); that between Lake Albert and Lake No is called the " Bahr al-Gebel " or " Upper Nile "; and that be- tween Lake No and Khartum is called " Bahr al-Abyad," or "White Nile." The total length of these three portions of the Nile is about 1,560 miles. At Khartum the White Nile is joined by the " Blue Nile " (or Abai, the Astapos of Strabo, which rises in Lake Sana and is about 1,000 miles long), and their united streams form that portion of the river which is commonly known as the " Nile." The distance from Khartum to the Mediterranean Sea is about 1,913 miles, and thus the total length of the Niles is about 3,473 miles. Between Khartum and the sea the Nile receives but one tributary, viz., the
_ce::Cf^ / The NILE
I Momphisf^T^ to SOURCE
12 INTRODUCTION TO THE EGYPTIAN COLLECTIONS.
Statue of Ijapi ihc Nile-gi)d.
[No. 766.]
THE NILE FLOOD OR INUNDATION. 1 3
Atbara, the Astaboras of Strabo, a torrential stream which brings into the Nile an immense quantity of dirty red water containing valuable deposits of mud. The Cataracts, or series of rapids, on the Nile are six in number : the first is between Aswan and Philae, the second is a little to the south of Wadi Halfah, the third is at Hannek, the fourth is at Adramiya, the fifth is at Wadi al-Hamar, and the sixth is at Shablukah. On the White Nile is a series of cataracts known as the " Fola Falls," and on the Blue Nile there are cataracts from Ruseres southwards for a distance of 40 miles.
The most important characteristic of the Nile is its annual flooding or Inundation. By the end of May, in Egypt, the river is at its lowest level. During the month of June the Nile, between Cairo and Aswan, begins to rise, and a quantity of " green water " appears at this time. The cause of the colour is said to be myriads of minute algae, which subse- quently putrefy and disappear. During August the river rises rapidly, and its waters assume a red, muddy colour, which is due to the presence of the rich red earth which is brought into the Nile by the Blue Nile and the Atbara. The rising of the waters continues until the middle of September, when they remain stationary for about a fort- night or three weeks. In October a further slight rise occurs, and then they begin to fall ; the fall continues gradually until, in the May following, they are at their lowest level once more. The cause of the Inundation is, as Aristotle (who lived in the fourth century B.C.) first showed, the spring and early summer rains in the mountains of Ethiopia and the Southern Sudan ; these are brought down in torrents by the great tributaries of the Nile, viz., the Gazelle River, the Sobat (the Astasobas of Strabo), the Giraffe River, the Blue Nile, and the Atbara. The Sobat rises about April 15, the Gazelle River and the Giraffe River about the 15th of May, the Blue Nile at the end of May, and the Atbara a little later. The united waters of these tributaries, with the water of the Upper Nile, reach Egypt about the end of August, and cause the Inundation to reach its highest level. The Nile rises from 21 feet to 28 feet, and deposits a thin layer of fertilizing mud over every part of the country reached by its waters. Formerly, when the rise was about 26 feet, there was sufficient water to cover the whole country ; when it was less, scarcity prevailed ; and when it was more, ruin and misery appeared through over-flooding. In recent years, the British irrigation engineers in Egypt have regulated, by means of the Aswan Dam, the Barrage at Asyut, and the Barrage near Al-
14 FAMINES IN EGYPT.
Manashi, a little to the north of Cairo/ the supply of water during the winter, or dry season, with such success, that, in spite of " low " Niles, the principal crops have been saved, and the people protected from want.
In connection with the adoration of the Nile, two important festivals were observed. The first of these took place in June and was called the " Night of the Tear,"
(=^F=i r/ywvv 'w* '^^v [1(1 III! ,^^, Qt:rJi e}i Hatiii, because it
was believed that at this time of the year the goddess Isis shed tears in commemoration of her first great lamentation over the dead body of her husband Osiris. Her tears fell into the river, and as they fell they multiplied and filled the river, and in this way caused the Inundation. This belief exists in Egypt, in a modified form, at the present time, and, up to the middle of last century the Muhammadans celebrated, with great solemnity, a festival on the iith day of Paoni (June 17th), which was called the " Night of the Drop," Lclat al-Niiktali. On the night of this day a miraculous drop of water was supposed to fall into the Nile and cause it to rise. The second ancient Nile-festival was observed about the middle of August, and has its equivalent in the modern Muhammadan festival of the " Cutting of the Dam." A dam of earth about 23 feet high was built in the Khalig Canal, and when the level of the Nile nearly reached this height, a party of workmen thinned the upper portion of the dam at sunrise on the day following the "completion of the Nile," and immediately afterwards a boat was rowed against it, and, breaking the dam, passed through it with the current.
The history of Egypt shows that in all periods the country has suffered from severe famines, which have been caused by successions of " low " Niles. Thus a terrible seven years' famine began in a.D. 1066, and lasted till 1072. Dogs, cats, horses, mules, vermin fetched extravagant prices, and the people of Cairo killed and ate each other, and human flesh was sold in the public markets. In Genesis xli, we have another example of a seven years' famine, and still an older one is mentioned in an inscription cut upon a rock on the Island of Sahal in the Eirst Cataract. According to the text, this famine took place in the reign of Tcheser, a king of the Ilird dynasty, about B.C. 4000, because there had been no satisfactory inundation of the Nile for seven }'ears. The king says that by reason of this, grain was very scarce, vegetables
' To these must now be added the Barrage at Esna.
DIVISIONS OF EGYPT. 1 5
and garden produce of every description could not be obtained, the people had nothing to eat, and men were everywhere robbing their neighbours. Children wailed for food, young men had no strength to move, strong men collapsed for want of sustenance, and the aged lay in despair on the ground waiting for death. The. king wrote to Matar, the Governor of the First Cataract, where the Nile was believed to rise, and asked him to enquire of Khnemu, the god of the Cataract, why such calamities were allowed to fall on the country. Subsequently the king visited Elephantine, and was received by Khnemu, the god of the Cataract, who told him that the Nile had failed to rise because the worship of the gods of the Cataract had been neglected. The king promised to dedicate offerings regularly to their temples in future, and, having kept his promise, the Nile rose and covered the land, and filled the country with prosperity.
Egyptian Geography.— From time immemorial Egypt has been divided into two parts, viz., the Land of the South,
Ta-Resii, jL © , and the Land of the North, Ta-Me/a,
The Land of the South is Upper Egypt, and its
northern limit in modern times is Cairo ; the Land of the North is Lower Egypt, i.e., the Delta, and its southern limit is Cairo. The ancient Egyptians divided the Land of the South into twenty-two parts, and the Land of the North into twenty parts ;
each such part was called Hesp 9 iiiH' , a word wliich
the Greeks rendered b}' nome. Each nome was to all intents
and purposes a little complete kingdom. It was governed by
a //eq, \ A , or chief man, and it contained a capital town in
which was the seat of the god of the nome and the priesthood, and every /leq administered his hesp as he pleased. The number of the nomes given by Greek and Roman writers varies between thirty-six and forty-four. Li late times Egypt was divided into three parts, Upper, Central, and Lower Egypt ; Central Egypt consisted of seven nomes, and was therefore called Heptanomis. The nomes were :
i6
THE NOMES AND THEIR CAPITALS.
UPPER EGYPT.
Nome. |
|
I. |
Ta-Kens. |
2_ |
Tes-Heru |
1 J- |
Ten. |
4- |
Uast. |
5- |
Herui. |
6. |
Aati. |
7- |
Seshesh. |
8. |
Abt. |
Q. |
|
10. |
Uatchet. |
I I. |
Set. |
Capital. God or Goddess.
Abu.i Elephantine. Khnemu. ■
Teb. Apollinopolis Heru-Behutet.
Ma(;na. Ed//}.
Nekheb. Eileithyias- Nekhebit.
POLis. Al-Kdb.
Uast. THEBES(orHERMON- Amen-Ra.
this). Luxor, Karnak.^
Kebti. CoPTOS. Kuft. ' Amsu, or
Menu.
Taenterert. Tentvris. Hathor.
Dciiderah.
Ha. DiOSPOLIS Parva. Han. Hathor.
Teni. This. An-Her.
Apu. Panopolis. Ahkuiun. Amsu or
Menu.
Tebu. Aphroditopolis. Hathor.
Shas-hetep. Hypselis. Khnemu.
Shiitb.
12. Tu- .... Nut-ent-bak. Hierakon- Horus.
polis.
13. Am-f-khent. Saut. Lykupolis. Asyut. Ap-uat.
14. Am-f-peh. Kesi. Kusae. Al-Kustyah. Hathor.
15. Unt. Khemennu. Hermopolis. Thoth.
AsliDtuncn.
16. Mahetch. Hebennu. Horus.
17. Anpu (?). Kasa. Kynon polls. Anubis.
Al-Kcs.
Het-suten. A I- Hi bah. Anubis.
Oxyr- Set. lur/iiiassd.
Suten-henen. Hi:rakle- Heru-shefit. OPOLis Magna. A/mas. (The Hanes of the Bible.)
21. Am-peh. Smen-Heru. Khnemu.
22. Maten. Tep-Ahet. Aphkodito- Hathor.
I'OLis. Atfih.
' Names printed in heavy type are Egyptian ; those in cajiitals are Greek, and those /';/ italics arc the names by which the places are known by the modern Arabs.
itS. Sept
19. Bu-t
20. Am-Khent
19. Bu-tchamui. Pa-Matchet.
KlIYNCllCS.
THE NOMES AND THEIR CAPITALS.
17
Nome.
1. Aneb-hetch.
2. Aa.
3. Ament.
4. Sapi-Rest.
5. Sapi-Meht.
6. Ka-semt.
7. Nefer-Ament.
8. Nefer-Abt.
9. Athi (?).
LOWER EGYPT.
Capital. God or Goddess.
Men-nefert. Memphis. Ptah.
Mit-RaJifuah.
Sekhem, Letopolis. Heru-ur.
Pa-neb-Amt. Apis. Hathor.
Tcheka. Amen-Ra.
Saut. Sals. Sd. Neith.
Khasut. Xois. Amen-Ra.
Pa-Ahu-neb-Ament. Hu.
Metclis (?).
Thekaut (Succoth), Pa- Atem, or
Tem (Pithom). Patu- Temu.
MOS. Tall al-MaskJifitaJi.
Pa-Asar. Busiris. Osiris.
Abu-Sh'.
10. |
Ka-Qam. |
Het - ta - her - abt. |
Heru-Khenti- |
Athribis. |
Khati. |
||
1 1. |
Ka-heseb. |
Hesbet (?), Ka-Hebset (?). Kabasos. |
I sis, or Sebek |
12. |
Theb- |
Theb-neter(?). Sebenny- TOS. Sainmaiind. |
An- Her. |
13- |
Heq-at. |
Annu (The On of the Bible). 11 ELIOPOLIS. Jllatanvnh. |
Temu. |
14. |
Khent-abt. |
Tchal. Tanis. Sdii' |
Horus. |
15- |
Tehuti. |
Pa-Tehuti. Hermopolis Minor. |
Thoth. |
16. |
Hatmehit. |
Pa-Ba-neb Tet. Mendes. Tiiiai al- A 11 id id. |
Osiris. |
I/- |
Sam-Behutet. |
Pa - Khen - en - Amen. DiOSPOLIS. |
Amen-Ra. |
18. |
Am-Khent. |
Pa-Bast. Pibeseth B U B ASTIS. Tall Bastah. |
Bast. |
.19- |
Ani-peh. |
Pa-Uatchet. Buto. |
TJatchet. |
20. |
Sept. |
Kesem. Phakussa. Fdkiis. |
Sept. |
The Sudan was divided into 13 nomes :
1 . Peh-Qennes. The region south of Meroe.
2. Maruat. Meroe. Bagrawir. Amen.
3. Napt. Napata. Amen.
15
1 8 THE PROVINCES OF MODERN EGYPT.
Nome. Capital. God or Goddess.
4. Peten-Heru. Pontyris. Horus.
5. Pa-Nebset. Pnups. Thoth.
6. Ta-Uatchet. Autoba (?).
7. Behent. Boon. Wadi Halfah. Horus.
8. Atefthit. Tasitia (?).
9. Nehau. Xoa.
10. Mehit, Meae. Horus.
11. Maamet. Ibrim. Horus.
12. Bekt. Bok. Kubban. Horus.
13. Het-Khent. P-alek. Philae. Bilak. Isis.
Under the Ptolemies, the district between Elephantine and Philae was called Dodekaschoinos, because it contained twelve schoinoi, or measures of land, but later this term was applied to the whole region between Elephantine and Hiera Sykaminos.
Under the late Roman emperors many of the nomes were subdivided, probably for convenience in levying taxes, and in still later times the governor of a nome, or province, bore the title of Duke (Aov^'j.
Modern Egypt is divided into 14 provinces :
LOWER |
EGYPT. |
||
Province. |
Capital. |
||
I. |
Baherah. |
Damanhur. |
|
--> 3- |
Kalyubi}'ah. Sharkiyah. |
Benha. Zakazik. |
|
4- |
Dakhaliyah. |
Mansurah. |
|
^. |
Manufi\'ah. |
Menuf. |
|
6. |
Gharbiyah. |
Tanta. |
|
UPPER |
EGYPT. |
||
Province. |
Capital. |
||
I. |
Gi/.ah. |
Gizah. |
|
2. |
Beni-Suwef. |
Beni-Suwef |
|
J- 4. 5- |
Min}'ah. Asyut. Girgah. |
Minyah. Asyut. Suhak. |
|
6. |
Ken a. |
Ken a. |
|
7. |
Nuba. |
Aswan. |
|
8. |
Fa}yum. |
Madinat al-F |
PROVINCES OF 'lllE SI' DAN. \g
The towns of Cairo, Alexandria, Port Sa'id, Suez,
Damietta, etc., are generally governed each by a native ruler. The provinces of the Sudan are as follows : I. Bahr al-Ghazal. 2. Berber. 3. Blue Nile Province.
4. Dongola. 5. Halfah. 6. Kassala. 7. Khartum Province.
8. Kordofan. 9. Mongalla. 10. Red Sea Province.
II. Sennaar. 12. Upper Nile Province. 13. White Nile
Province.
•J J-
?!
B 2
20
CHAPTER II.
Ethnography. The Land of Punt. National Character. Population. Language. Forms of Writing. Decipherment of Egyptian Hiero- glyphics. Young AND Champollion. Hieroglyphic Alphabet and Writing. Writing M.\terials.
The Egyptians. — The evidence of the monuments and the Hterature of Egypt proves that the I{!gyptians were of African origin, and that they were akin to the Hght-skinned peoples who inhabited the north-east portion of the African Continent. Further evidence of this fact is supplied by the " table of nations " preserved in the tenth chapter of Genesis, where it is stated that Cush and Mizraira were the sons of Ham Nov/ this Cush, or Ethiopia, is not the country which we call Abyssinia, but the Northern Sudan, or Nubia ; there- fore the Nubians (Cush) and the Eg}'ptians (Mizraim) were brethren, and they were Hamites, or .Africans. The relation- ship between the Nubians and the Eg}'ptians is also asserted by Diodorus, who declared that the Eg}'ptians were descended from a colony of Ethiopians, i.e., Nubians, who had settled in Egypt. And there is no doubt that from the earliest to the latest times a very close bond existed between the Northern Nubians and the P2gyptians, which manifested itself in the religion and religious ceremonies of both peoples. The Cushites were dark in colour, sometimes actually black, but there is no evidence which proves they were negroes ; and the Egyptians were red, or brown-red, or reddish yellow in colour. On the west of the Nile Valley lived the fair- skinned Libyans ; on the east the remote ancestors of the l^lcmmyes and the modern Bishari tribes, who were of a light brownish colour, and on the south, near the Equator, were negro tribes, which formed part of the great belt of black peoples that extended right across Africa, from sea to sea.
The dynastic Egx'ptians appear to have regarded a
countr\', or district, called Punt <§■ as their original
home, and ihe\- ccrtainl\- preserved down to the latest times
THE LAND OF PUNT. , 21
.some of the peculiarities in dress of the primitive inhabitants of that region. That Punt was situated a considerable distance to the south of Egypt is certain, and that it could be reached b}' land, and also by water by way of the Red Sea, is clear from the inscriptions, but there is no evidence available which enables the exact limits of the country to be defined. The despatch of several expeditions to Punt by the Egyptians is recorded, for the purpose of bringing back dnti spice,
"^ 'V\ , or m\'rrh, which was used freely for embalming
purposes. They started from some point on the Red Sea near the modern town of Ku.ser, and sailed southwards until they reached the river of the port of Punt which was situated on the east coast of Africa, probably in Somaliland. The expedition despatched by Oueen Hatshepet about I5.C. 1550 brought back boomerangs, a huge pile of myrrh, logs of ebony, elephants' tusks, sweet-smelling woods, eye-paint, various kinds of spices, dog-headed apes, monkeys, leopard (or panther) skins, " green " {i.e., pale) gold, and gold rings which are to this day used as currency in East Africa and are known as "ring money." Now, all these things are products of the region which lies between the southern end of the Red Sea, the Indian Ocean, and the Valley of the Nile, and it is impossible not to conclude that Punt was situated some- where in it. The Egyptian expeditions probably sailed up a river for a considerable distance, to a point where the products of Punt were brought by trading caravans for export, and there the Egyptians bartered for the myrrh, etc., which they required. The market place must have been inland, for the huts of the natives are represented in the bas- reliefs as standing close to the river.
The men of Punt wore a pointed beard and a loin cloth, which was kept in position by a kind of belt, from which hung down behind the tail of an animal. The beard of the Egyptian was also pointed, and gods, kings, and priestly officials on solemn, ceremonial occasions, wore tails. Thus in the Papyrus of Ani (Judgment Scene) the gods Thoth and Anubis wear tails, and the priestly official in the same scene wears the leopard's skin, the tail of which is supposed to be hanging behind him. In two statues of Amen-hetep III (Northern Egyptian Gallery, Nos. 41 2, 41 3), the tail is supposed to be brought forward under the body of the king, and its end is carefully sculptured on the space between his legs. The custom of wearing tails is common in Central Africa
22 EGYPT INVADEIJ HV ASIATICS.
at the present day, even the women, in some places, wearing long tails of bast (Schweinfurth, Heart of Africa, I, p. 295) ; and a recent traveller reports that the Gazum people wear tails, about six inches long, for which they dig holes in the ground when they sit down (Boyd Alexander, From the Niger, I, p. 78). Many other points of comparison between the Egyptians and the peoples of Central Africa could be mentioned in proof of the views that the indigenous dynastic Egyptians were connected with the people of Punt, and that Punt was situated in the South-Eastern Sudan.
As to the succession of peoples in the Nile Valley, or rather of that portion of it which is called Eg}'pt, many theories have been formulated in recent )-ears. Some of the most competent authorities think that the earliest dwellers in Egypt were black folk, who were driven out or killed off by a race of people who possessed many of the characteristics of the Libyans, and who came from the w^est, or south-west, and took possession of Egypt. It is thought that the next invasions of the country were made by peoples who came from the east, or south-east, and, having settled down on the Nile, mingled with the inhabitants. After these it seems very probable that Egypt was invaded by tribes whose home was some part of Western Asia, probably the country now called Southern Babylonia. Some think that they entered Egypt by the Isthmus of Suez, and others that they crossed from Arabia to Africa by the straits of Bab al-Mandib at the southern end of the Red Sea. Another view is that the invaders entered Egypt by the Wadi Hammamat, and that the}^ arrived on the Nile at some place near the modern town of Kena. Little bv little the invaders conquered the country, and in- troduced into it the arts of agriculture, brick-making, writing, working in metals, etc. Wheat, barley, and the domestic sheep seem to have been brought into Egypt about this time. The manners and customs of the new comers were ver)- different from those of the men they conquered, and their civilization was of a much higher character than that of the primitive Egyptians ; but, among the great bulk of the population, the beliefs, religion, and habits continued to pre- serve unchanged their characteristic African nature.
What the physical form of the primitive, pre-d}'nastic Egyptian was cannot be said, but it is probable that he resembled the dynastic Eg)ptians whose pictures are seen by hundreds in the tombs. If this be so, he was tall, slender of body, with long thin legs, small hands, and long feet. His hair was black and curly, but must not be confounded with
FA-AVTIAN FIUNTERS OF THE ARCHAIC rERIOD. 2.
B 4
24
riivsKUTE OF tup: ecvptjans.
the " wool " of the negro, his eyes black and slighth- almond- shaped, his cheek-bones high and often prominent, his nose straight—sometimes aquiline — and inclined to be flesh}- ; his mouth wide, with somewhat full lips, his teeth small and regular and his chin prominent, because his under jaw was thrust slightly forward. The women were yellowish in colour, probably because their bodies were not so much exposed to the rays of the sun as those of the men. The general character of the jjhysique of the Eg\-ptian has remained
7 Bone figure of a dwarf.
Ivory figure of a king. 1st dynasty (?) Archaic Period.
[No. 197, Tal)le-case L, Third Egyptian [No. 42, Table-case L, Third Egyptian Room.] Room.]
practically unchanged to the present day, and no admixture of foreign elements has affected it permanentl}-.
The physical features and dress of the primitive d}'nastic Egyptians are well illustrated by the accompan\-ing drawings and photographs. From Xos. 1-6 (page 23) we see that their hair was short and curly, their noses long and pointed, their eyes almond-shaped, their beards pointed, their arms and legs long, their hands large, and their feet long and flat. They w^ear in their hair feathers, probably red feathers from the tails ot parrots, such as are worn at the present day, and their loin cloths
EGYPTIANS OF THE ARCHAIC PERIOD.
^5
are fastened round their bodies by belts, from which hang short, bushy tails of jackals (?). No. i bears a hawk-standard, the s)'inbol of the god of the tribe, and is armed with a mace ha\ing a diamond-shaped head. No. 2 bears a hawk-standard and wields a double-headed stone axe. No. 3 is armed with a mace and a bow. No. 4 is shooting a flint-tipped arrow
\
■0
r:
M
I!
Bone figure of a womau carrying a child
on her shoulder. Archaic Period.
[No. 41, Table-case L, Third Egyptian
Room.]
P)one figure of a woman, with inlaid
lapis-lazuli eyes. Archaic Period.
[No. 40, Table-case L, Third Egyptian
Room.]
from a bow. No. 5 is armed with a boomerang and a spear, and No. 6 with a mace and a boomerang. The above illus- trations are drawn from the green slate shield exhibited in Table-case L in the Third Eg)'ptian Room.
To about the same period belongs the ivor}- figure of a king here reproduced (No. 7). He wears the Crowm of the South, and a garment worked with an elaborate diamond pattern. The
26
EARLY PORTRAIT FIGURES.
nose is flatter and more flesh}- than in the drawings from the slate shield, and the lips are fuller and firmer. In figures 8-10 we have representations of the women of the Archaic Period, about B.C. 4200. No. 8 is a female dwarf, or perhaps a woman who belonged to one of the pygmy tribes that lived near the Equator. No. 9 is a m.ost interesting figure, for it illustrates the hair-dressing and dress of the period. The features of the child, who is carried partly on the back and partly on the left shoulder, as at the present day, are well preserved. No. 10
Figure of Betchmes, a royal
kinsman.
[Vestibule, South Wall, No. 3.]
Painted liu;^.. .>..,. ■■^,-'- •■' -\--. ■■••
[No. 150, Wall-case 99, Third Egyptian
Room.]
Portrait Figures of Ofitciai.s of the IIIrd or IVth Uynastv. Ahout B.C. 3700.
represents a woman of slim build, \\ith blue ej'es, and wearing an elaborate head-dress, which falls over he.r shoulders.
National Character. — Herodotus, \\ho was an acute observer of the manners and customs of the Eg}-ptians, states (ii, 64) that the Egyptians were " be}'ond measure scrupulous " in all matters appertaining to religion," and the monuments prove him to be absolutely correct. The Eg\']jtian worshipped his God, whose chief s\-mbol to him was the sun, dail\' and
EGYPTIAN NATIONAL CHARACTER. 2/
regularl)', and prayed to him morning and evening. His attitude towards his Maker was one of absolute resignation. The power of God, as displayed by the Sun, and the River Nile, and other forces of nature filled him with awe, and made him to realize his helplessness. His views as to the dependence of men on the sun are well illustrated by the following extract from a hymn to Aten, the god of the Solar Disk : " When thou settest in the western horizon of heaven, " the earth becometh dark with the darkness of the dead. " Men sleep in their houses, their heads are covered up, their "nostrils are closed, and no man can see his neighbour; " everything which the}^ possess could be stolen from under " their heads without their knowing it. All the lions come " forth from their dens, every creeping thing biteth, the smithy
^y^W^^T
^mmmmmmmmm
The fox playing the double pipes for a flock of goats to march to.
[From a papyrus in the British Museum, No. io,oi6.]
" is in blackness, and all the earth is silent because he who " made them (i.e., all creatures) resteth in his horizon. When " the dawn cometh, and thou risest and shinest from the Disk, " darkness flieth away, thou givest forth thy rays, and the " Two Lands (i.e., Egypt) are in festival. Men rise up, they " stand upon their feet — it is thou who hast raised them — they " wash their bodies, and dress themselves in their clothes, and " they [stretch out] their hands to thee in thanksgiving for thy " rising." To the god of the city, or local deity, he also paid due reverence. He worshipped Osiris, the type and symbol of the resurrection, most truly, for on his help and succour depended his hope of eternal life. The Egyptians, who were men of means, spent largely during their lifetime in making preparations for their death, and they spared neither money
28
THE EClVl'TIAXS A LAW-AHIl )ING PEOPLE.
nor pains in their endeavours to secure for themselves Hfe in the Other World. They observed the Religious and Civil Laws most carefully, and any breach they might make in either they thought could be amply atoned for by making offerings or payment.
The Egyptian was easy and simple in disposition, and fond of pleasure and of the good things of this world. He loved eatijig and drinking, and he lost no opportunity of enjoying himself The Hterature of all periods is filled with passages in which the living are exhorted to be happ}-; and we ma}' note that in the iamous Dialogue between a man who is weary of life and his soul, the latter tells the man that'
A mouse seated on a chair, with a lalileof food before it. A cat is presenting to it a pahn branch, and behind it is a mouse bearing; a fan. etc.
[From a pa])yrus in the British Museum, No. io,oi6. ]
to remember the grave only brings sorrow to the heart and fills the eyes with tears. And after several observations of the same import, the soul sa}-s : " Hearken unto me, for, " behold, it is good for men to hearken ; follow after pleasure "and forget care." ^ In the Song of the Harper we read: " Bodies {i.e., men) have come into being in order to pass " away since the time of Ra, and }oung men come in their
^S^
¥M
j\
tup: song of the harper.
29
places. Ra placeth himself in the sk}' in the morning, and Temu setteth in the Mountain of Sunset. Men beget children and women bring forth, and every nostril snuffeth the wind of dawn from the time of their birth to the day when they go to the place which is assigned to them. Make [thy] day happy ! Let there be perfumes and sweet odours for thy nostrils, and let there be wreaths of flowers and lilies for the neck and shoulders of thy beloved sister who shall be seated by thy side. Let there be songs and the music of the harp before thee, and setting behind thy back unpleasant things of ever}' kind, remember only pleasure, until the day
A cat herding geese. [From a iiapyrus in the British Museum, No. 10,016.]
" Cometh wherein thou must travel to the land which loveth " silence."
The advice to eat, drink, and be happy, is also given to a high-priest of Memphis by his dead wife That-Lem-hetep on her sepulchral tablet (Southern Egyptian Gallery, Bay 29, No. 1027). She sa3^s : "Hail, my brother, husband, friend, " .... let ' not th}'- heart cease to drink water, to eat bread, to
30 MORALITY.
" drink wine;, to love women, to make a happ)' day, and to " seek thy heart's desire by day and b}- night. And set no " care whatsoever in thy heart : are the years which [we pass] *' upon the earth so many [that we need do this] ? "
The morality of the Egyptians was of a high character, and certainly higher than that of Oriental nations in general. Many of the Precepts of Ptah-hetep, Kaqemna, and Khensu- hetep bear comparison with the moral maxims of the Books of Proverbs and Ecclesiasticus. The view of the Egyptian as to his duty towards his neighbour is well summed up by Pepi-Nekht, an old feudal lord of Elephantine, who flourished under the Vlth d\-nast\', and said : " I am one who " spoke good and repeated what was liked. Never did I say
Tlie linn and the unicorn playing a game of diauglils.
[From a papyrus in ihe British Museum, Xo. io,oi6. ]
" an evil word of any kind to a chief against anyone, for I " wished it to be well with me before the great god. I gave " bread to the hungr)^ man, and clothes to the naked man. I " never gave judgment in a case between two brothers " whereby a son was deprived of his father's goods. I was " loved by my father, favoured by my mother, and beloved by " my brothers and sisters." Love of parents and home was a strong trait in the character of the Eg3-ptian ; and it was one cause of his hatred of military service and of any occupation which would take him away from his town or village. He prayed, to<3, that in the Other World he might have his parents, wife, children, and relatives, with him on his farm in
MAGIC AND WITCHCRAFT.
31
the Fields of Peace, and that when his spirit was on the way
thither, the spirits of his kinsfolk would come to meet him,
staves and weapons, so that they might
the attack of hostile spirits. Like all
loved music, singing, and dancing, and
ceremonials, processions, and display of
armed with their protect him from African people he was attracted by
every kind ; the satirical papyri (see the illustrations on pages 27-30), and even the wall-paintings in the tombs, show that he possessed a keen sense of humour. The peasant was then, as now, a laborious toiler, and as he was literally the slave of Pharaoh for thousands of years, the ideas of freedom and national independence, as we under- stand them, were wholly unknown to him.
All classes were intensely superstitious, and they believed firmly in the existence of spirits, good and bad, witches, and fiends and devils, which they tried to cajole, or wheedle, or placate with gifts, or to vanquish by means of spells, magical names, words of power, amulets of all kinds, etc. The magician was the real priest, to the lower classes at least, as he is to this day in Central Africa, for by the use of magical figures he assured his clients that he could procure for them the death, or sickness, of an enemy, riches, the love of women, dreams wherein the future would be re- vealed to them, and above all, the assistance of the gods. We find that about B.C. 312 a service was
regularly performed in the temple of Amen-Ra at Thebes to make the sun rise. In the course of it a figure of the monster Apep, who was supposed to be lying in wait to swallow the Sun-god, was made of wax, then wrapped in new papyrus on which the "accursed name" of the fiend was written in green ink, and solemnly burned in a fire fed by a special kind of herb, whilst the priest spurned it with his left foot and poured out curses on each of the thirty "accursed names" of the evil one. As the wax melted and was consumed, together with the papyrus and the green ink with which his name was written, so the body of Apep was believed to be consumed in the flames of the rising sun in the eastern skv.
The spearing of Apep.
32 LUCKY AND UNLUCKY DAYS.
From the evidence given at Thebes about B.C. 1200 against certain officials who were impHcated in a case of conspiracy against Rameses III, it appeared that a certain man had stolen a book of magic from the temple library. From this he obtained instructions how to make the wax figures which caused the sickness, quakings of the limbs, and death of those in whose forms they were made. An example of the wax figures which were used in the Ptolemaic period is exhibited in Table-case C in the Third Egyptian Room, No. 198. The core is made of inscribed papyrus, and in front, in the centre, is a piece of hair, presumabl)- that of the person on whom the magician who made the figure sought to exert his influence. Ever}- act of daily life had some magical or religious observance associated with it, and every day, either in whole or in part, was declared to be lucky or unlucky, in accordance with a series of events which were represented by the Calendar of lucky and unlucky days.
Superstition played as prominent a part in medicine as in religion. The practice of dismembering the dead in primitive times must have taught the Egyptians some practical anatomy, and the operations connected with mummification in the later period must have added largely to their knowledge of the arrangement of the principal internal organs of the body. The Egyptians were well acquainted with the importance of the heart in the human economy, and they appear to have had some knowledge of the functions of the arteries. A considerable number of medical prescriptions have come down to us, e.g., those which are inscribed on a papyrus in the British Museum (No. 10,059) ^"Q are said to be as old as the time of Khufu (Cheops), a king of the IVth dynasty, and those of the Ebers Papyrus, of the XVIIIth dynasty ; from these it is easy to see that they closely resemble in many particulars the prescriptions given in English medical books printed two or three hundred }-ears ago. Powders and decoctions made from plants and seeds were largely used, and the piths of certain trees, dates, sycamore-figs, and other fruits, salt, magnesia, oil, hone}-, sweet beer, formed the principal ingredients of many prescriptions. With these were often mixed substances of an unpleasant nature, e.g., bone dust, rancid fat, the droppings of animals, etc. In order that certain drugs might have the desired effect it was necessar}' for the physician to recite a magical formula four times (Ebers Papyrus CVTII). Other medicines again owed their efficacy to the belief that they had been actually taken by one or other of the gods whilst
MEDICAL PRESCRIPTIONS.
33
they reigned upon earth, and the authorship of certain prescriptions was ascribed to Ra. Thus according to the Ebers Papyrus (XLVI) Ra suffered from attacks of boils of a most mahgnant kind, and he made up a salve, containing sixteen ingredients, which gave him instant relief, and which was therefore certain to cure ordinary mortals. The following is a characteristic example of a prescription which, as is evident, contains a number of substances which are well known to be good for inflamed eyes, and also some others the special value of which is not clear : — ■ ■
"Another [prescription] for driving inflammation from the eye.
n
nix o
(^1
^l^Jltn
^m
.\\
A
^ I
=0= I
o
Myrrh i
'(Ireat Protectors' seed i
Oxide of copper i
Citron pips i
Northern cypress flowers i
Antimony i
dazelle droppings i
Oryx offal i
White oil i
34
MEDICAL PRESCRIPTIONS.
A a
9"
\^Directions for use?\^
^ "k —
e nil
^
" Place in water, let stand for one " night, strain through a cloth, and " smear over [the eye] for four days ; "or, according to another prescription, "paint it on [the e3'e] with a goose- " feather.''
/WvVv/v /NAAAAA
The Egyptian physician was called upon not only to heal his patients, but to beautify them, and we find prescriptions for removing scurf from the skin, for changing the colour of the skin, for making the skin smooth, and the following for removing- wrinkles from the face : —
rz> Ox "• Another [prescriplion] for driving; awav
^_ 111! I LP 1 J ^ )
wrinkles of the face.
Ill ^
o III
1^^"^ o o
t\N\N\/\ /N 111
ffiD(^
Kali of incense Wax
P>esh oil Cypress berries
\I)irectiflns for iise?^
A— a
\\\ Ik— a
@ I I 111^
" Crush, and rub down and "put in new milk and apply it "to the face for six days. " Take good heed [to this]." -'
' l-"or the hieratic le.xt see Papyrus Ehcrs, Plate 56. - Ibid, Plate 87.
EGYPTIAN LANGUAGE. 35
The population of Egypt was, in 1897, 9,734,405 persons, of whom 8,978,775 were Muhammadans, 25,200 Jews, and 730,162 Christians. The last census was taken on the 29th April, 1907, and the entire population of the country consisted of 11,272,000 persons, or nearl}' 16 per cent, more than in 1897.
The Egyptian Language is not Semitic, although it possesses many characteristics which resemble those of the Semitic languages, but in a less developed form. Of all the views on the subject which have been held in recent years, the most plausible one is that which makes Egyptian belong to the group of Proto-Semitic languages. The Egyptian and the Semitic languages appear to have sprung from a common stock, from which they separated before their grammars and vocabularies were consolidated. The Egyptian language developed rapidly under circumstances of which nothing is known, and then, apparently, became crystallized ; the Semitic language developed less rapidly, but continued to develope for centuries after the grov/th of the Egyptian language was arrested. To the period when Egyptian separated itself from the parent stock no date can be assigned, but it must have taken place .some thousands of years before Christ. Later, under the XVIIIth and XlXth dynasties, B.C. 1550 to 1300, a large number of Semitic words were introduced into the language, and in such compositions as the " Travels of an Egyptian " (see page 70) a great many are transcribed into Egyptian characters.
The Egyptian language as known to us appears in four divisions, viz. : —
1. The Egyptian of the Early Empire, which was studied and employed for literary purposes from about li.r. 4400 to about A.D. 200.
2. The Egyptian used in the ordinary business of life and for conversation, from about B.C. 2600 to 650.
3. The popular speech of the countr)-, from about 600 or 500 B.C. to the end of the Roman Period.
4. The ordinary language of the country, after Christianity was introduced into it ; this is called Coptic. It ceased to be used in Egypt as a spoken language, probably about the twelfth century, but the Holy Scriptures and the Services are in several places in Egypt read in Copticon Sundays and Festivals, although very few people understand what is being read. Four dialects of Coptic are distinguished: (i) That of Upper Egypt, called "Sahidic." (2) That of Lower Egypt, called "Boheiric." (3) The dialect of Suhak and its neighbourhood. (4) The
36 WRITING OF PRIESTS AND PEOPLE.
dialect of the district of the Fayyum. It is a noteworthy fact that, from the beginning of the second century of our era to the twelfth, the language of ancient Egypt was preserved, in a modified form, chiefly through the translations of the Holy Scriptures, which were made from Greek into Coptic.
Egyptian Writing was of three kinds, which are called " Hierogl\-phic," " Hieratic," and " Demotic." The oldest form is the hieroglyphic {i.e., sacred engraved writing), or purely })ictorial, which was employed in inscriptions upon temples, tombs, statues, sepulchral tablets, etc., and for monumental
r u " ' ,
A page of liicralic wriling from the Great Harris Papyrus.
purposes generally. At a very earh' period it was found that the hieroglyphic form of writing was cumbrous, and that in cases where it was important to write quick!}- on pap\-rus, the pictorial characters were inconvenient. The scribes, therefore, began first to modify, and secondly to abbre\iate the pictorial characters, and at length the forin of writing called hieratic (/.<'., the priests' writing) was developed. Hieratic was a style of cursive writing much used b\' the priests in cop)'ing literary compositions on papyrus from the IVth or Vth dynasty to the XXV Ith dynasty. This form of writing is well illustrated by the above reproduction of
TIIOTH THE IXVKXTOK OK WRITINC.
57
a page from the Great Harris PapYrus in the British Museum (No. 9999), which was written about B.C. 1200. The text is read from right to left, and the following is a transcript into hieroglyphic characters of the first two lines : —
AAA/*AA I /V\A^^V\
1 ®
(2
^^^ /VVXAAA
^^37 lis IS
I "^w 7\^ 1 I I s:']^ ^1
]
I ^ I <:^ 111
_^ _^^_M^-^3^ I I 1 _^
Between the end of the XXIInd and the beginning of the XXVIth dynasty the scribes, wishing to simplify hieratic still further, constructed from it a purely conventional system of signs from which most of the prominent characteristics of the hieroglyphic, or pictures, that had been preserved in the hieratic characters, disappeared. This new form of writing was called demotic {i.e., the people's writing), but it was known among some of the early Egyptologists as enchorial {i.e., native writing, or writing of the country). On the Rosetta Stone (Egyptian Gallery, No. 960) the visitor will see an example of the hieroglyphic and demotic forms of writing placed one above the other, and in the text we find that the hieroglyphic portion is called "the writing ot
the divine words," or letters.
1
and the demotic
" the writing of books," i.e., rolls of pap)'rus, fifl e/'~^^~' i]0
The invention of the art of writing was assigned to the god Thoth, who was the great scribe of the gods, and who is frequently represented holding a writing palette and a reed pen, and the hieroglyphics, or picture signs, were, therefore, called "divine, sacred, or holy." Hieroglyphics were used for monumental purposes until about the end of the third
38
DEMOTIC WRITING.
gf.jiT ■tt#»„
.,/'■
If- .'
SfirR^
.^ -• "^ ,
Demotic Writing.
COPTIC WRITINC;. 39
century A. I)., but it is tolerably certain that \'ery few people could read thertl or understand them.
During the Ptolemaic Period, though Greek was the language of the kings and the upper classes of the country, the temples were covered with inscriptions in hieroglyphics, and the Ptolemies and the Romans adopted old Egyptian titles, and had their names transcribed into hieroglyphics and cut in cartouches like the Pharaohs. In the reigns of Euergetes I (B.C. 267 to 222) and Epiphanes (B.C. 205 to 181) the priests promulgated decrees in honour of their kings which were cut on slabs of basalt in the hieroglyphic, demotic, and Greek characters, but on the sepulchral tablets of the period the inscriptions are usually in hieroglj^phics alone, because the natives throughout the country clung to these characters, which had, from time immemorial, been associated with their religious beliefs and ceremonies. In the Southern Egyptian Gallery, however, are exhibited several tablets which are inscribed in demotic as well as in hieroglyphics, and of these may be noted the tablet of Tut-i-em-hetep (No. 1028, Bay 25), who died B.C. 118; the tablet of Kha-em-hra (No. 997, Bay 25); and the tablet of Peta Bast (No. 1030, Bay 27). In the Roman Period we find that the use of demotic sometimes superseded that of hieroglyphics in public documents, and as an example of this may be mentioned the fine sandstone tablet inscribed, wholly in demotic, with a decree recording the dedication of certain properties to the gods who were worshipped at Karnak (Thebes) in the first century of our era (No. 993, Bay 27), This tablet was found at Karnak, in the Hall of Columns, where, no doubt, it was set up originally, and its inscription was cut in demotic, because, at that period, that form of writing was better understood than hieroglyphics. In the Roman Period hieroglyphic inscriptions were sometimes accompanied by renderings into Greek and Latin, e.g., No. 257, Third Egyptian Room, Wall-case No. 109. This is a portion of a statue of a priest bearing a shrine of Osiris. On the back of the plinth is an inscription in hieroglyphics containing an address to Osiris by a priest of the " fourth order," and on one side of the plinth arc cut in Latin and Greek " priest bearing Osiris."
Coptic is written with the letters of the Greek alphabet, and seven signs (cLj, q, ^, ^, X, (5^ 'f") derived from demotic characters, the phonetic values of which could not be expressed by Greek letters. A fine collection of sepulchral tablets inscribed in Coptic is exhibited in the Southern Eg)^ptian Gallery (Bay 32), and a long and most instructive
40
THE LORDS TKAVER IN COPTIC.
series of drafts of documents on potsherds and slices of lime- stone will be found in Table-case M in the Fourth Egyptian Room. In the cop}' of the Lord's Prayer (St. ^Matthew vi, 9) here appended the reader will find all the signs which are peculiar to Coptic save one ( <^)- The dialect is that of Lower Egypt. The two words marked b}' asterisks are Greek,
not Egyptian. |
||||
nenitwT |
expert |
rtif^Honfi |
JUL^- |
peqxoT^o |
Penioi |
ctkhen |
nipkt'oni |
niareftoiibo |
|
Our Father |
who art in the heavens. |
may |
be hallowed |
|
nxeneKpA.n. |
JUL^-pecI nxexeKJULeTOTpo. |
|||
entdie pekran. |
Maresi |
?ntche |
tek?7iefoi/>-o. |
|
thy name. |
May come |
thy kingdom. |
||
neTe^n^.K |
JUL^-peqcyuDTii |
juL4)pH'f ^en T-4>e |
||
PeteJinak |
inarefihopi |
eniphrcti |
kkci |
I ipkc |
Thy will |
let it be |
as |
in |
the heaven |
itejuL ^ixeit nsj<^>2>J- |
nenojiK |
Ttxe p^~c'f |
||
iiem hitchoi |
pikahi. |
Penoik |
ente |
rasti |
so upon |
the earth. |
Our bread |
of |
to-morrow |
JULHiq rt^-n |
JUL4)00T. |
OTO^ |
X^ |
nexeport |
meif nan |
enipJiooii. |
Ouoh |
kha |
ne/eron |
give it to us |
to-day. |
And |
forgive |
our debts |
e/>ol emphrcti hon cntenkho ehol ennv,
nan
to us
we also
forgive
eTecifoit itT^-it epuoox ovo^ .tjLnepcm^en
eteoi/on
entan
those who are our del)tors.
e^Q-rrt e nip^.cJULoc.'^'
ekhoun c pirasnios,
into temptation ;
ebolha pipethooii.
from that whic:h is c\il.
ouoh |
cnipercnten |
And |
bring us not |
^.XX^. * |
rt^,^JULeIt |
alia |
nalinicn |
but |
deliver us |
THE ROSETTA STONE. 4I
Decipherment of Egyptian Hieroglyphics. — Before the close of the period of Roman rule in Egypt, the hieroglyphic system of writing fell into disuse, and its place was gradually taken by demotic, i.e., a conventional form of the hieratic, or cursive writing. When the Egyptians became converted to Christianity, the\^ adopted the Greek alphabet, adding to it seven signs derived from demotic, to express the sounds peculiar to their language. The priests appear to have prosecuted some study of hieroglyphics until the end of the fifth centur}' A.D., but soon after this the power to read and
Coptic inscription on a slice of limestone. [No. 10, Table-case M, Third Egyptian Room.]
understand them was lost, and until the beginning of the nineteenth century, no Oriental or European could read or understand a hieroglyphic inscription. During the seven- teenth and eighteenth centuries many attempts were made by scholars to read and translate the Egyptian inscriptions, but no real progress was made until after the discovery of the Rosetta Stone. This " Stone " is a portion of a large black basalt stele measuring 3 feet 9 inches by 2 feet 4^ inches, and is inscribed with fourteen lines of hieroglyphics, thirt}^-two
42
THE ROSETTA STONE.
IlierotjlN phic Text
Demotic Text.
THE ROSETTA STONE.
43
Greek Text.
44 THE ROSETTA STONE.
lines of demotic, and fifty-four lines of Greek. (See Southern Egyptian Galler\', No. 960.) It was found in 1798 by a French officer of artillery named Boussard, among the ruins of Fort Saint Julien, near the Rosetta mouth of the Nile, and \\as removed, in 1799, to the Institut National at Cairo, to be examined b}' the learned ; and Napoleon ordered the inscrip- tion to be engraved and copies of it to be submitted to the scholars and learned societies of Europe. In 1801 it passed into the possession of the British, and it was sent to England in February, 1802. It was exhibited for a few months in the rooms of the Society of Antiquaries, and then was finally deposited in the British Aluseum.
The first translation of the Greek text was made b\- Du Theil and Weston, in 1801-02, and they rightly declared that the stone was set up as the result of a Decree passed at the General Council of Egyptian priests assembled at Memphis to celebrate the first commemoration of the coronation of Ptolemy V, Epiphanes, king of all Egypt. The young king had been crowned in the eighth year of his reign, therefore the first commemoration took place in the ninth year, in the spring of the year, B.C. 196. The Decree sets forth that, because the king had given corn and money from his private resources to the temples, and had remitted taxes and released prisoners, and had abolished the press- gang and restored the worship of the gods, etc., the priests clecreed that : Additional honours be paid to the king and his ancestors ; an image of the king be set up in every temple ; a statue and shrine be set up in ever\' temple ; a monthh' festival be established on the birthday and coronation day of the king ; this Decree be engraved upon a hard stone stele in the writing of the priests (hieroglyphic), in the writing of books (demotic), and in the writing of the Greeks (Greek), and set up in every temple of the first, second, and third class, b)- the side of the image of the king.
In 1802 Akerblad succeeded in making out the general meaning of several lines of the demotic text, and in identifying the equivalents of the names Alexander, Alexandria, Ptolem}', etc. In 1 8 19 Thomas Young publi.shed in the /iz/ar^/*?^^/^? Britannica, vol. 1\', the results of his studies of the texts, and among them was a list of sexeral alphabetic Egyptian characters to which, in most cases, he had assigned correct values. He was the first to grasp the idea of a phonetic principle in the reading of the Eg\-ptian hierogh-phics. and he was the first to apply it to their decipherment. Warburton, De Guignes, Barthelem)' and Zoega all suspected the existence
YOUNG AND CHAM ['(n.LlON. 45
of alphabetic hieroglyphics, and the three last-named scholars
believed that the oval, or cartoucJic f |, contained
a ro)'al name ; but it was Young" who first proved both points and successfull}' deciphered the name of Ptolemy on the Rosetta Stone, and that of Berenice on another monument, and it was Bankes who first identified the name of Cleopatra. The list of alphabetic characters was much enlarged in 1822 by the eminent scholar ChampoUion, who not only correctly deciphered the names and titles of most of the Roman Emperors, but drew up classified lists of the hieroglyphics, and formulated a system of grammar and general decipherment which is the foundation upon which all subsequent Egyptologists have worked. The discovery of the correct alphabetic values of Egyptian signs was most useful for reading names, but, for translating the language, a competent knowledge of Coptic was required. Now Coptic is onh' another name for Egyptian. The Egyptian Christians are called " Copts," and the Holy Scriptures, Liturgies, etc., which they translated from Greek soon after their conversion to Christianity, are said to be written in " Coptic." The knowledge of Coptic has never been lost, and a comparatively large sacred literature has always been available for study by scholars. ChampoUion, quite early in the nineteenth century, realized the great importance of Coptic for the purpose of Egyptian decipherment, and he made himself the greatest Coptic scholar of his time. His knowledge of Coptic was deep and wide, and to this important qualification much ot his success is due. Having once obtained a correct value of man\^ alphabetic and syllabic characters, his knowledge of Coptic helped him to deduce the values of others, and to assign meanings to Egyptian words with marvellous accuracy. The method by which the greater part of the Egyptian alphabet was recovered is this : It was assumed correctly that the cartouche always contained a royal name. The only cartoticJie on the Rosetta Stone was assumed to contain the name Ptolemy. An obelisk brought from Philae about that time contained a hieroglyphic inscription, and a translation of it in Greek, which mentioned two names, Ptolemy and Cleopatra, and one of the cartouches was filled with hieroglyphic characters which were identical with those in the cartouche on the Rosetta Stone. Thus there was good reason to believe that \}:\q cartoiicJie ow the Rosetta Stone contained the name of Ptolemy written in hieroglyphic characters. Here is the cartouche which was assumed to
46 DKCIPHKk.VlENT OF IIIKKOOLVPHICS.
represent the name Ptolemaios, or Ptolemy, the hieroolyphics being- numbered (A) —
1 D 2^
gSffl
and here is the cartouche which was assumed to represent the name Cleopatra (B; —
B
110
Xow in JB, the first sign, A, must represent K ; it is not found in A. No. 2 sign, _S5i&, is identical with No. 4 sign in A. This was assumed to be L. No. 3 sign, |], represents a vowel, and doubled, [jli , is found in A, Xo. 6. Xo. 4 sign, -^ , is
identical with X'^o. 3 in A, and it must have the value of O in both A and B. X'^o. 5 sign, D, is identical with No. i in A, and as A contains the name Ptolemy, the first sign, n, must be P. Xo. 6 sign, '^, is wanting in A, but its value must be A, because it is the same sign as Xo. 9, which ends the name Kleopatra. Xo. 7, ,:^:^, does not occur in A, but we see it in o\}:iQ.x cartoucJies taking the place of ^, the second letter in the name of Ptolemaios, and it must therefore be some kind cjf T. Xo. 8, <=>, we assume is R, because it is the last letter but one in the name of Kleopatra. Xos. 10 and ii signs, ^, we find after the names of goddesses ; the first of them is T; and the second is a "determinative." We now insert the alphabetic values in the two cartouches and obtain the followinij" results :
A [wyy] B Cr'i°pATR..Ag]
In the case of A it is quite clear that Ptol is the first part of the name of Ptolemaios, therefore £=z [|[] |1 must represent the second part of the name, or Maios. \\'e may then say that .=z is M, and the last sign |l is S, and that (|(j repre.sents
DECIPHERMENT OF HIEROGLVrillCS.
47
some /-sound, or t'-sound ; in the case of B we are certain of the vakies of all the signs except a, <=^ and O, but it is clear from their positions in the name that the first two must represent K and R. We have seen that the signs ^ are added to the names of goddesses, and as Kleopatra was regarded as a goddess, they are added to her name. They do not affect the name itself. The two royal names may now be taken out of the cartouches, and the values written under the characters thus :
A n ^ f[ ^^ .=: [Ifl P
P T O L M (I o. E) S
K L
\ ft °
E(0 O P
O
Takinir another cartouche { i
^ia
ht
we already know the signs, ^ .Sa^ |1 [| c=^> <=-, which repre- sent A. L. S= E (?), T. and R. The only Greek name which contains these letters in this order is Alexandres, or Alexander, and we therefore conclude that the last sign, — h — ,
is S. that '^^zz:^ is K' that \ is A> and that ^aa^vw is N-
A common title of the Roman Emperors was ^^^IJLIjI^^^-h— , and as we know all the signs but one {m\ with certainty we write down K-t]f|"S-R-S. which can only be " Kaisaros," or " Caesar." From this we again see that l]l] represents the at in Katcrapos^ and nToA,eyu,a(09, or ae in Caesar.
In this way the P^gyptian alphabet was recovered. Now if we look at the last line of the Egyptian text on the Rosetta Stone we shall find that in the cartouche
[ -ip I '_ [,1, I ■¥■ ^1 X ■•'^^3:- ( t j there are several signs
which have not been explained above, viz., -t" ^^ x "'"^:3l. [I[|.
48 DI-:CIPIIKRMENT OF IIIKROGLYPIIICS.
These signs, it is clear, form no part of the name of Ptolem)% and the position in whicli the)' are found suggests that they represent titles. \ reference to the Greek version (line 49) shows that Ptolemy is there called " everliving, beloved of I'htha," and it now remains to see if the hierogh-phics mean an\thing like these words. The sound and meaning of the
first sign, •¥", were well known from the statements of Greek writers who said that it was pronounced ancJi, and that it meant " living," or " life." Two of the three characters in the
group, X, we know to be P and T, and we are justified in
assuming that X represents the name of the god Phtha, or
as it is now read Ptah. Now, if ■¥" means " living " or " life,"
and X means " Ptah," ^1 must mean " for ever," and
""==31 [111 must mean "beloved." Of the first group, XI, we already know the value of the second sign o^, T, and of the second group w^e know that [1(1 has the value of I. Recourse must now be had to Coptic, so that the Coptic {i.e., Egyptian) words for "for ever" and "beloved" may be compared with the hieroglyphic originals. The common word for " for ever,"
" eternity," etc., is eneh, but there is no n in XI, so this \\\\\
not suit. We do, however, find the word (5^T". djct, which means " an age." " a long undefined period of time," and this
agrees well with the sound of X^.and shows that the sound ot
^ was something like DJ, and that =?^v= must have a T sound. The common word in Coptic for "to love" is juuep, mc>\ and we may therefore transcribe ""^^isl [I [^' by iiieri, and assume that it means something like "beloved." xAs the meanings here deduced for -1- X^ ' y"''^:3L[^[^ make good
sense in every text in which they occur we are justified in assuming them to be correct.
EGYPTIAN ALPHABETIC CHARACTERS. 49
The Eg}'ptian alphabetic characters are as follow : — A The Hebrew akph ^.
A
D A Pronounced like the Hebrew ^.
or \\ I The Hebrew yo(//i 1.
or (2 U or W The Hebrew ^ and T It had some-
times an ^-sound, like the Hebrew "i.
11 B Hebrew 1-
n P „ D-
M „ 72-
/V^A^^>V^
V
N
> R and L » "^ ^"d 7.
H „ n-
X (KH) „ ::, without the Dagesb.
Q
D or '•^.
SH „ tr-
„ )/•
52 IIIKROC.LVI'IIIC WRITING,
country, hA the skin of an animal, 'rCCCC^ water, ^^:>-^ actions performed with a knife, and ^ a pot of unguent or hquid.
1-
The god Khiicmu Metu " to speak " Sat " daughter " Kcsh '" Nubia " PeuttH " mouse " Mail " cat " Qcbh " Hbation " Svia " to slay " Merhet " oil "
rrr-i
[M^:^
Z/^^^/" " beer "
A
=0=
Hieroglyphs are written in perpendicular or horizontal lines as in A and B. In these examples the words are to be read in the direction in which the birds face, i.e., from left to right.
A.
1
> These words mean : " If thou wouldst be a perfect man make thou [thy] son well pleasing to God."
PAPYRUS AND PALETTE.
B.
\^'i-Miiiiir=iiu^'Mm}
nr'Zf'k\r^%t¥.^ff.
^^'
The writing' materials consisted of papyrus, palette, reed-pens, ink and ink-pot. Papyrus was made from the stem of the papyrus plant i^Cypcrns Papyrus), which grew in the marshes and pools near the Nile ; it is no longer cultivated in Egypt, but is found in the Sudan, where it grows to a height of from 20 to 25 ft., and has very thick stems. The exact meaning and derivation of " papyrus " are unknown, but the word is probably of Egyptian origin.- A sheet of pap}'rus was made in the following way : The stem was cut into thin strips, which were laid side by side perpendicularly, and upon these another series of strips was laid horizontally ; a thin solution of gum, or paste, was run in between them, after which the sheet was pressed and dried. By joining a number of such sheets together rolls of almost any length could be made. The longest papyrus in the Eg}'ptian Collection in the British Museum, No. 9999, is 135 ft. long and I ft. 5 in. wide ; the Papyrus of Ani measures 78 ft. by I ft. 3 in. ; the Papyrus of Nebseni, yG ft. by ?>\ in. ; the Papyrus of Nu, 65 ft. 6 in. by i ft. ih in. ; the Papyrus of Nekht, 46 ft. 7 in. by i ft. li in.
The palette, in P^gyptian vicstJiii \]\^^^^, usually
consisted of a rectangular piece of wood, from eight to sixteen inches long, and from two to three broad, at one end of which were sunk a number of oval or circular hollows to hold ink or paint. Down the middle was cut a groove, sloping at one end, in which the writing reeds were placed ; these were kept in position by a piece of wood glued across the middle of the palette, or by a sliding cover, which also served to protect the reeds from injury. A very good collection of palettes is exhibited in the Third Egyptian Room, Table-case C. Of special interest are the palettes of Ba-nefer, of the reign of
' These words mean': " I have given bread to the famishing, water to the thirsty, clothes to the naked, and a boat to him that was shipwrecked."
'- A recent view makes " papyrus " to be derived from the conjectural name pa-p-ior " that which is of the river."
c 3
54
toos
Wooden palelte inscribed with the
name of Aahmes I, B.C. 1600.
[No. 2, Table-case C, Thiid
Egyptian Room.]
Wooden palette of Rameri, an
ofiicial of Thothmes IV,
B.C. 1470.
[No. 3, Table-case C, Third
Egyptian Room.]
WRITINC, REEDS AND INK. 55
Pepi II, B.C. 3200 (No. 12,782); the palette of Aahmes I, the first king of the XVII Ith dynasty, about B.C. 1600 (No. 12,784) ; the palette of the scribe Pa-mer-ahau, who lived in the reign of Amen-hetep III, about B.C. 1450 (No. 5513); and the palettes of Amen-mes (No. 12,778) and a scribe (No. 5514), who lived in the reign of Seti I and Rameses II respectively. The hollows for the ink, or paint, generally black ancl red, are usually two in number, but some palettes have a dozen. The inscriptions on palettes usually contain prayers to the great gods of the Other World for sepulchral offerings ; but sometimes they are
dedications to the god Tehuti, or Thoth ^jT.r;/j, to whom the invention of the art of writing is attributed. The writing reed, in ligyptian qcsit ^^ ^ m , which served as a pen, was
about 10 inches long, and from y'^th to g^th of an inch in diameter ; the end used for writing was bruised and not cut. After the XXVIth dynasty, an ordinary reed, similar to that used in the East at the present day, was employed, and the end was cut like a quill, or steel pen. The ordinary palette will hold about ten writing reeds easily. The ink was made of mineral or vegetable substances mixed with gum and water. The earths, or ochres, or preparations of copper, were rubbed down on slabs with little mullers, several of which may be seen in the Third Egyptian Room, Table-case C. The ink-pot was called />rs ° Y7, and was usually made of
faience or porcelain. The hierogh'ph ri[i] represents the
palette, an ink pot, and a reed, united by a cord ; the whole stands for " scribe " and " writing."
Besides papyrus, scribes frequently used slices of white limestone of a fine texture, or boards plastered with lime, for writing purposes. On these they wrote drafts of literary compositions, hymns, school exercises, and sketches in outline of the figures of kings, gods, etc., made to scale. As examples may be mentioned No. 22, inscribed with the draft of a legal document which was drawn up in connection with a robbery of weapons from the Royal Arsenal by the Chief of the Treasury, about B.C. 1 100, and No. 41, inscribed in the hieratic character with a draft of a part of a famous work called the " Instruc- tions of Amen-em-hat I," king of Egypt, about B.C. 2500 (Third Egyptian Room, Table-case C). In the Ptolemaic Period pieces of broken earthenware vessels, or potsherds,
56 COPTIC INSCRIPTIONS.
commonh' known as ostraka, were much used for writing purposes. The inscriptions on these are chiefly of a business character, receipts or acquittances, etc. ; but certain of them contain extracts from Hterary works, e.g:, a school exercise consisting of Hnes 105-117 and 128-139 of the PJioejiissae of Euripides (No. 88, Third P"g}'ptian Room, Table-case C). After the introduction of Christianity into Egypt, the Copts, or Christian Egyptians, imitated their pagan ancestors, and wrote letters, lists of objects, prayers, extracts from the Scriptures, etc., on slices of white limestone. A fine collection of such Coptic inscriptions is exhibited in the Fourth Egyptian
Slab of limestone inscribed with a draft of a deed. Dated in the reign of
Heru-em-heb, about B.C. 1400. [No. 22, Table-case C. Third EgAptian Room.]
Room, Table-case M ; and of special interest are : Xo. 3. Liturgical fragment. Xo. 5. An undertaking by Abraham to take charge of a camel. X^o. 8. Religious exercise, Coptic and Greek hymns. X"o. 17. Extract from Psalm xcviii, "Sing unto the Lord a new Song," etc. X"o. 19. Part of the Alex- andrian Canon of the Mass, written in corrupt Greek b}' Apa PCihannes. No. 20. Fragment containing part of a Greek h}'mn and a letter in Coptic, conveying the salutation? of Dioskoros to his brother Ounaref and his mother Tnouba. X^o. 26. Letter from the priest Victor and Matthaios. to (lermanos and Isak (Isaac), authorizing them to sow their share of a field, and spccifj'ing the rent. No. 28. Document referring to the sale of a camel. It is dated on the second of the month Pashan.s, and witnessed by three persons ; — Dioskle and
COPTIC INSCRIPTIONS. 57
Ouanafrc^ of Pallas, and Gergorios of Remmosh. No. 41. Part of a letter requesting some monks to bless the writers, and to send holy water to them that they might sprinkle their sick beasts with it. No. 53. List of measurements of land, in which Greek arithmetical signs, etc., are employed. No. 57. Receipt for a holokotinos (solidus) paid as tax or rent by Zael for the "camels' field" for the ninth year. No. 60. School exercise in Greek and Coptic grammar ; on the obverse is a portion of a letter addressed to the authorities of a monastery. No. 61. Reading exercise. No. 62. Frag- ment of a school exercise, with rough drawings of animals. No. 65. Acquittance of Mizael Konstantinos for the first instalment of taxes for the year, signed by Severus. No. 66. Writing exercise for the formation of letters. The Copts sometimes covered the outside of an unbroken jar with lists, etc., e.g., the amphora, No. i66f. Fourth Egyptian Room, Wall-case No. 163. On this are written six lists of names of men, with those of their fathers and mothers, and it is probable that the inscriptions were written not later than the eighth century.
1 A form of the old Egyptian n.ime Un NEFER -^S^ I
» >
M
9 I
58
CHAPTER III. Egvptian Literature, Sacred and Profane.
Egyptian Literature. — The literature of Ancient Egypt, written in the hieroglyphic, hieratic, and demotic characters, is large, and the contents of the principal divisions of it may be thus summari/.ed : —
Religious literature : first and foremost is the great compilation of texts, partly magical and parti}- religious, to which was given the name " Per-em-hru," i.e., the " Book of Coming P^orth by Day," or, as it is now generally called, the Book of the Dead. This work is extant in three great Recensions, viz., the Heliopolitan, Theban, and Sa'i'te. The Heliopolitan Recension consists of a series of formulas of a semi-magical character, written in hieroglyphics, which were collected by the priests of An, or Heliopolis, about B.C. 3300. A large number of these formulas were in existence long before this period. The oldest copies of texts of this Recension are found in the P}'ramids of kings Unas, Teta, Pepi L Mehti- em-sa-f, and Pepi II at Sakkarah, but .series of the formulas from it were copied on coffins and sarcophagi down to about
I!.C. 200. Among such is the coffin of Amamu in the British Museum (Eirst Eg)'ptian Room, No. 6654). On this mag- nificent coffin are written some hundreds of lines of text in black ink, and a list of canonical offerings, according to the Liturgy of Eunerary Offerings, is appended. The coffin itselt was intended to represent the chamber of a ilhustaba tomb, and on the inside are painted pictures of doors and panels, similar to those which are found in the tombs about B.C. 3500. It is one of the finest of its class, and it was probabh' made before the Xlth dynasty (B.C. 2600). In connection with this must be mentioned the portion of a wooden coffin of Menthuhetep, a king of the Xlth dynasty, on which is in- .scribed a version of a part of the XV^IIth Chapter of the Book of the Dead (Second Eg}'ptian Room, Wall-cases 86-88).
The Theban Recension was generalh- written upon papyri in hieroglyj)hics, and was divided into .sections, or chapters, each of which had its distinct title, but no definite place in the series. It was much used during the XVIIIth, XlXth, and XXth dynasties. In the first half of the XVI I Ith dynasty the custom grew up of adding vignettes to certain chapters of this Recension, and before another century had passed so
THE BOOK OF THE DEAD. 59
many coloured illustrations were added to the papyri that
frequently chapters had to be abbreviated, and the scribes
were obliged to omit some of them altogether. This
Recension contained about 1 80 chapters, but no extant papyrus
contains them all. The chapters represent the theological
opinions of the colleges of On (Memphis), Herakleopolis,
Abydos, and Thebes, and are of the first importance for the
study of the Egj^ptian Religion. In the Rubric to the
LXIVth Chapter are mentioned two traditions which are very 1
valuable for the history of the Recension. In the one it is f
stated that the chapter was " found " in the reign of Semti, '
a king of the 1st d3'nasty, and in the other that it was " found "
in the reign of Menkaura (M}'cerinus), a king of the IVth
dynasty, by Heru-tata-f, a prince, the son of King Khufu, or ,
Cheops. Thus it is certain that in the XVIIIth dynasty it \\ •
was believed that the chapter was in existence in the earliest {"J
d}'nasties. Now we find from the Papyrus of Nu that there ';.'
were two forms of this chapter extant, and that one of these J!:
was twice as long as the other. The longer one is entitled t,l
" Chapter of Coming Forth by Day," and the shorter, " Chapter "'
of Knowing the ' Chapters of Coming Forth by Day' in a ; ',
Single Chapter." The rubric to the latter attributes the chapter {' 1
to the 1st dynasty, and thus it seems that even at this remote 1 )
period the " Chapters of Coming Forth by Day " were widely
known, and that the priests found it necessary to produce for
general use a chapter which contained the essence of them all.
The British Museum possesses the finest collection in the ; ;
world of papyri containing the Theban Recension, and of these i '
may be specially mentioned : The Papyrus of Nebseni,^ with f |
vignettes in black outline (No. 9900); the Papyrus of ' '
Ani, a magnificently coloured papyrus containing texts and vignettes not found elsewhere^ (No. 10,470); the Papyrus of Nu, with coloured vignettes, rubrics, etc., containing a good text throughout, and a large number of chapters not found elsewhere'' (No. 10,477); the Papyrus of Hu-nefer, a scribe who flourished in the reign of Seti I, with a fine series of brilliantly painted vignettes'' (No. 9901); and the Papyrus
' Photographs of this Papyrus have been published by the Trustees of the British Aluseum, ^2 2.f. per set.
- A full coloured facsimile has been published by the Trustees of the British Museum, in 37 plates, portfolio, £1 ii.v. 6ti^., half bound ^i 16s. The Egyptian Text is also issued with an English translation, etc., 4to., £i 10^.
■■' Also published by the Trustees of the British Museum ; "Facsimiles of the Papyri of Hunefer, Anhai, Kerasher and Netchemet, with supple^ rnentary text from the Papyrus of Nu,'' fol., £2 los.
6o
BOOK OF THE DEAD— TIIEBAN RECENSION
XV- I
Jk — 4
4
^~;j UT I
Ear
IT- 1 o
:«
m
Ml
It?
I'giliiiififliiMt
.'e^nui■j'>^|-'-'^!■?l;'^"^y^
X'ignette and text of the Theban Book of llu
Dead from the Papyrus of Ani. [Brit. Mus., No. 10,470.] XVIIIth dynasty.
Vignette and text of the Thehan Book oft
Dead from the Papyrus of Nil. [Brit. Mus., No. 10,477.] XVIIIth dynas
Plate I.
[See page 6l.)
t. -^ ~.
BOOK OF THE DEAD— SAITE RECENSION.
6l
of Mut-hetep, most valuable because it contains correct copies of early texts (No. 10,010).
Out of the Theban Recension grew another Recension, to which no special name has been given. It was written on papyrus both in hieroglyphics and hiera- tic, and its Chapters have no fixed order. It came into existence in the XXth dynasty, probably under the growing influence of the priests of Amen. Fine examples of the papyri of this Recension are the Papyrus of Queen Netchemet (see Plate I), the wife of Her-Heru, the first high priest-king of the XX 1st dynast}' (exhibited in the Southern Egyptian Gallery), and the PapyrusofAnhai, a priestess of Am(in.^ In the latter an entirely new style of decoration is employed, and gold is used in decorating the disk of Ra Harmachis for the first time.
Of the history of the Book of the Dead between B.C. 1000 and 650 little is known. Under the influence of the great renais- sance, which took place in the XXVIth dynasty, another Re- cension came into use, called the Sa'ite. In this the chapters had a fixed order, many new ones being inserted. The text was written both in hieroglyphics and hieratic, and it was decorated with a sericsof vignettes, in which all the figures were drawn in ])lack outline. The appearance of papyri of this Recension is monotonous and dull, and both the drawings and the hiero-
' Sec Note
» f
Vignette and Chapter of tlic I'.onk of llie Dead wiillen in liicialic for 1 leru-em-hel).
[Brit. Mus., No. 10,257.]
XXVItli dynast)-, or later.
3 on i)age 59.
62 FUNERARY WORKS.
glyphics are stiff and spiritless. Good examples of pap\-ri of this Recension are the Papyrus of Heru-em-heb, written in hieratic (No. 10,257), and the Papyrus of Heru, written in hieroglyphics (No. 10,479). The vignettes usually occupy small spaces at the top of the columns of text. The Recension in use in the Ptolemaic Period was the Saite, but before the Roman Period it was customary to write other and newer funerary works on papyri, and little by little the Book of the Dead, as a whole, became obsolete. It seems as if an attempt was made to extract from the old work the texts which were regarded as absolutely necessary for salvation, and as if the older mythology- was unknown to the Eg}'ptians of the period. It is cjuite certain that man}- of the scribes copied texts without understanding them, and that the meanings of many vignettes were lost.
About the beginning of the Ptolemaic Period the following works came into general use : I. The Shait EN Sensen
I w I i\D ^ I — " X — ■ A ■ I
(I (I ^_^_^ ^'•'■^^ ^^^ ^^^^^^ -^-Y^ I , or Book of Breathings.
Like the great Book of the Dead, this w^ork was declared to have been written b}' Thoth, the scribe of the gods, the " Heart of Ra." It contains a number of prayers for offerings, a series of declarations that the deceased has not committed certain specified sins, a statement that he has neither sin nor evil in him, and a demand that his soul be admitted into the heaven because " he gave food to the hungry, water to the thirsty, " clothes to the naked, and offerings to the Gods, and to the " Khu (beatified spirits)." A fine copy of this work is that written in the hieratic character for Kerashcr on a papyrus in the British Museum (No. 9995). In the first part are copies of vignettes from the Book of^ the Dead, but the details are modified to suit the religious beliefs of the period. Thus Thoth and not Horus introduces the deceased to Osiris, and Anubis and Hathor lead him into the Tudgment Hall instead of Maat.
2. The Lamentations of Isis and Nephthys, a work in which these goddesses lamented the sufferings and death of Osiris, and proclaimed his resurrection, and glorified him in the heavens. It was recited by two priestesses, who were ceremonially pure, on the 25th day of the month Choiak (December), and the words in the book were believed to be those which Isis and Nephthys actually said at their first mourning for their brother Osiris. Copies of them were written on papyrus and buried with the dead to ensure their resurrection and future happiness and glory.
BOOK OF TRAVERSING ETERNITY.
63
3. The Festival Songs of the Two Tcherti, i.e., of the Two Weepers, Isis and Nephthys, a work similar in character to the preceding. It was recited on five days of the month Choiak (December), during which the great annual festival of Osiris was celebrated. The priestesses who sang the verses of the work wore lambs'- wool crowns on their heads, carried tambourines which they beat from time to time, and bore on their arms bandlets with the names of Isis and Nephthys written upon them. The recital of the work was preceded by an address by the R7ier
//ed, or " Lector," and then the two priestesses sang the rhythmic sec- tions of the composi- tions alternately.
4. The Litanies of Seker, a short com- position of about 100 lines, containing two series of addresses to Seker, the god of the Other World. Fine copies of this and the preceding work are given in the Rhine! Papyrus (No. 10,188).
5. The Book of traversing Eternity {S/idii en sebebi lick
which of the
J
O ), a work in
the happiness blessed dead is described, and an account given of a journey through the Other World by the deceased, who visits the shrines of the gods, and takes part in the services of praise which are performed there by the spirits and souls
A
Mf
f"-^''- ) i.^1 v^ t«a;^'' tf>t.X : ' '
A copy of a Book of the Dead entitled " May my
name flourish ! " [Brit. Mus., No. 10,304.] Roman Period.
64
1500K OF OPENING THE MOUTH.
of the righteous, and enjoys the offerings which are made to them b}' the faithful on earth f Pap\-rus No. 29, at Vienna).
6. The Book of May my Name Flourish,^ a work which was very popular in the Roman Period. It is, in reality, a development of a long prayer which is found in the Pyramid Texts of the Vlth dynasty. Its object was to make the name of the deceased permanent in heaven and on earth, for it was a common belief, from the earliest to the latest times, that the man whose name was blotted out had no portion or existence in the other world. A nameless soul possessed no identit}-, and could not be introduced to Ra and the company of the gods. The British Museum possesses several copies of this work, written general!}- on narrow strips of papyrus, in a kind of hieratic, containing man)- demotic characters. (Xos. 10,108, 10,111, 10,112, 10,109, etc.)
7. Another work which obtained some popularit\- in the late period is the so-called Ritual of Embalmment. In this composition is given a large number of the formulas that were recited over the unguents, spices, and swathings during the process of embalming the body.
8. In all periods the burial of the dead was accompanied by the presentation of series of offerings. Up to the end of
the Vth dynasty a
comparatively small
number of names of
IP^ s^Cf^;^^^ "fe^^^^-^ ' \ offerings was inscribed
/'Vw f^u'^^^c"''-''^"!''^ ^^fe °" ^^"'^ walls of the
tombs, and in the presentation of such offerings consisted the ceremony of Opening" the Mouth of the dead. Under the Vlth dynasty a new and enlarged list of offer- ings was drawn up, and a series of formulas was added to it for recital by the priest as object after object was presented to the mumm'y. In many of these formulas there were plays of words upon the names of the offerings, each of which was symbolical of some divine being, or object, or act. Several new ceremonies connected
^i
rff
The ceremonies of " Opening the Mouth."
?^^i^■
GUIDES TO THE OTHER WORLD. 65
with the purification and censing of the mummy, and the use
of instruments in " opening the mouth and eyes " of the
mummy were introduced at this time. To this List of
Offerings, with its rubrics, the name of Liturgy of Funerary
Offerings may be given. Under the XVIIIth dynasty a
further development of the List of Offerings took place, and
new ceremonies were added, and the work was henceforth
known as the Book of Opening the Mouth. The visitor will
.see on the west wall of the Second Egyptian Room a large
coloured drawing in which the performance of ceremonies
connected with the opening of the mouth is represented.
One priest is supposed to be touching the mouth of the
mummy with the Ur-heka instrument, and is holding
other instruments ; the other priest is presenting vases of ■[
water. Behind them is the Kher HEB, or Lector, who is |
pouring out water from a libation vase and burning incense. |
The object of the Book of Opening the Mouth was: i. To
give the deceased a new body in the Other World, and 1
to make him to be divine. 2. To establish communion
between the living and the dead. In later days a statue
of the deceased took the place of his mummy in the
ceremonies, and then the chief object of the ceremonies,
formulas, and offerings, was to provide a dwelling place for
the Ka or '' double " of the deceased, and to make his soul
to take up its abode in the statue. The Book of Opening
the Mouth was in general use from the Vth dynasty to the
first or second century of our era, that is, for a period of 4,000
years, and copies of it made in the Roman Period are almost
identical with those found in the Pyramids of Sakkarah of
the Vlth dynasty.
9. An important section of the Religious Literature of PLgypt is formed by works which were intended to be used as Guides to the Other World. The oldest of these is a work in which pictures are given of portions of Restau, in the kingdom of the god Seker, and of several parts of the Sekhet-hetep, or Elysian Fields, and their positions in respect of the celestial Nile are shown. The descriptions of these places and the formulas which were to be recited by the deceased are written in hieratic, and these were to be learned by men on earth so that their souls might recognize the various regions as they came to them, and repeat the sacred words at the right moments. This "Guide" may be called the Book of enabling a man to travel over the ways of the Other World, but recent writers have named it the Book of the Two Ways. The finest and fullest copies of the work,
('-
66 liOOKS OF THE OTHER WORLD.
with illustrations in full colour, arc found in the coffins of Kua-tep and Sen, or Sena, the " chief physician," in the lidtish Museum (Nos: 30,841, 30,839}.
A second work of this kind istheBookof whatisin theTuat,
or Other World, or S/^(U dm Tuat, ^^^^"^ [ — >\ •
In this the Other World is divided into Twelve Sections corre- sponding to the Twelve Hours of the Night, and pictures are given of the various gods, demons, and fiends who were supposed to obstruct the way of those who were passing from this world to the kingdoms of Osiris and Ra. The texts contain the speeches of the Sun-god of night, called Afu-Ra, and describe the conditions of the beatified, or the damned, in each section, and give the names of the principal gods. The work is very lengthy, and complete copies of it must have been cumbrous, as well as costly. The priests therefore prepared a Summary of the Book of Am-Tuat, which was supposed to contain all that was absolutely essential for the soul to know that had to travel from this world to the next. The most complete copy of the larger work is given on the walls of the chambers in the tomb of Seti I, at Thebes, but one half of it is cut on the outside of the magnificent sarcophagus of Nekht-Heru-hebt, king of Egypt about B.C. 378 (Southern Egyptian Gallery, No. 923). (See Plate II.) Of portions of the " Summary " there are several copies in the British Mu.seum, both with and without illustrations (Nos. 9975, 9979, 998 1-9985, etc.). The pictures of this work were belie\-ed to be endowed with the same magical powers as the texts.
In the Book of Gates, a somewhat similar work, the road from earth to heaven is marked by a series of Gates through which the deceased hoped to pass. The texts, which are fully illustrated, describe the progress of the Boat of the Sun-god to the Kingdom of Osiris, the Judgment in the Hall of Osiris, the life of the beatified in the Elysian Fields, and the punish- ment of the wicked and of the foes of the Sun-god by dismemberment and burning. Following these comes a set of magical texts and pictures which describe and illustrate the ceremonies which were performed daily to make the sun to rise. They show that the Egyptians used to make a model of the sun, and place it in a boat, and then bring to it arrows to represent rays, and disks to represent the hours ; fire was next kindled with the fire-stick and applied to the model, and appropriate formulas having been recited, the body of the sun was believed to be reconstituted.
(See page 66.)
Plate II.
Wi3
S ' — ' "*- o 1^
^3 :=:
1,''
IIVMNS AND MACSrCAL TFATS. 6/
10. As an example of Rituals ma}' be mentioned the famous Daily Ritual of the Divine Cult, the texts of which were inscribed upon papyrus and cut on the walls of temples, e.g., Abydos. From this we learn that the king was supposed to perform daily a series of elaborate ceremonies in connection with the statue of Amen, and to present to it unguents, wine, incense, articles of sacred apparel, etc. By means of these he entered into communion with the god, who bestowed upon him his vital power, strength, and spiritual qualities.
11. Hymnology is well represented by the hymns to the gods Ra, Ka-Harmachis, Temu and Osiris, which are found in the great Papyrus of y\ni in the British Museum (No. 10,470), and by the fine Hymn to the Nile, of which two copies are pre- served in the British Museum (Sallier II, No. 10,182, and Anastasi VII, No. 10,222). Of somewhat different character, though equally interesting, are the Hymns to Amen contained in the Anastasi Papyrus II (No. 10,243). Under this head may be grouped the Litany of Osiris in the Papyrus of Ani, and the Addresses of Horus to his father Osiris in the Pap)Tus of Nebseni (No. 9900).
12. Service books are represented by the Book of Over- throwing" Apepi, a work which contains a series of spells and incantations that were recited in the great temple of i\men-Ra at Karnak (Thebes) on certain days of the month. These were directed against Apepi, the great foe of the Sun-god, and enemy of all goodness and truth, who took the form of a monster serpent, and waged war against all the gods daily. The rubrics contained directions for ceremonies, in which wax-figures were burned in the temple fires, whilst the priests recited the spells in the Book. There is a complete copy of the work in the British Museum (No. 10,188), which also con- tains a list of the accursed names of Apepi, and the text of the hymn of praise which was sung when the arch-fiend was overthrown.
13. Exegesis is represented by two valuable copies of a work which forms the XVI Ith Chapter of the Book of the Dead in the Pap}-rus of Ani (No. 10,470), and the Papyrus of Nebseni (No. 9900). In it a text treating of the origin of the gods and their relation to Ra, and of the doctrine of the union of Ra and Osiris, etc., is dissected, and each sentence of the work is followed by a statement of the opinions of the various great religious Colleges of Egypt.
14. An example of a rare class of work is found cut on a black stone slab in the Southern Egyptian Gallery (No. 797). The text states that it was copied from an inscribed board
68 BOOKS OF MORAL PRECEPTS.
which had become worm-eaten in the reign of Shabaka. king of Egypt, about B.C. 700. From what is legible on the slab we are justified in assuming that the work contained a sort of philosophical statement of the religious beliefs of a priest who was trying to systematize certain of the old traditions of the country, and to evolve a system of belief which should be consonant with the special traditions current at Memphis at that time concerning the god Ptah.
15. Another most important section of religious literature consists of the funerar}' inscriptions cut on sepulchral tablets, or grave-stones, which form so large a portion of the Egyptian collections of the British Museum. In the vestibule and galleries is exhibited a splendid series of such monuments, the oldest dating from the IVth dynasty, about B.C. 3800, and the most recent from the first century A.D. ; thus the series represents a period of about four thousand Acars. The value of these monuments is very great, for the}' not onl}' give the various forms of the prayer to the gods for sepulchral offerings in the different periods of Egyptian histor}-, but they afford a great deal of information about the attributes of the gods, and the}' illustrate the growth and deca}' of man}"- forms of belief, details of ritual, etc. On Plates III-VIII are reproduced good typical examples of sepulchral tablets of the IVth, Xlth, Xllth, XVIIIth, XlXth, and XXX th dynasties.
The number of the religious works of the Egyptians was very large, and in each great temple a small chamber was set apart as a librar}^ ; here the papyrus rolls, or books, were kept in boxes, and, in some cases, the names of the works were inscribed on the walls of the chamber. The number of the rolls in a temple library seems to have been comparative!}' small, for the list of books which is cut on the wall of the " House of Books," of the temple of Edfu, only contains the names of thirt\'-scven works.
Profane Literature. — Among works of a didactic and moral character ma}' be mentioned the Precepts of Kaqemna and the Precepts of Ptah-hetep. The first of these contains a .short series of admonitions as to general beha\iour, which were written towards the end of the Ilird dynast}', about B.C. 3900, and the second a group of aphorisms of high moral worth, by a high official who flourished in the reign of Assa, a king of the Vth dynast}-, about P..C. 3360. A late cop}' of the latter work is preserved in the British Museum. Other works of this class are The Instructions of Amen-em-hat I, a complete copy of which is given in the First Sallier Papyrus (No. 10,185), and the Maxims of Ani, preserved in the
(St'c/>a 0-e 6S.]
Plate 111.
False door from the tomb of Shesh.i, a royal scribe, who flourished in the reign of Khufu (Cheops), about B.C. 3700. [Vestibule, North Wall, No. 18.]
[See page 68.)
Plate V.
^i^^'^i.''''" '-^''tll
Painted "sepulchral labLi ,,i .-.Lck-hetep, scribe of the wiiir-crlLu . [Northern Egyptian Gallery, Bay 12, No. 513.] XVIIIlh dynasty.
{Sri /a^f 6S.)
Plate VI.
i^.Ar
If
■-mi .^- iBy ( iWbj j]j .
i;'iJ,:'':':'-;!'^i'iir-i!t-riK',\J-i|.--i ^-
41
.-> %
Sepulchral tablet^of Pai-nehsi, the overseer of the storehouse of gold from
the Sudan.
[Southern Egyptian Gallery, Bay 7, No. 299.] Xllth dynasty.
See page 68.)
Plate VII.
ij i'- i-c-i
;'| ! ' * J'- ^ -^
i ' '■
ssif'i' r^i-!;!"^,"' "'-"'.-1' '.'...*
^/ '
Sepulchral tablet of Bak-en-Amen, a scribe of the table and wine-cellar. Southern Egyptian Gallery, Bay 22, No. 751.] XlXth or XXth dynasty.
(SW/>ao-e 68.)
Plate VIIl.
:'''-.— ^A Kvf^
Sepulchral tablet of Nes-Heru, a priest. [Southern Egyptian Gallery, Bay 26, No. 941.] About B.C. 350.
FICTION AND TRAVEL. 6g
Egyptian Museum in Cairo. The latter work inculcates the highest standard of practical morality, and contains a lofty idea of the duty of the Egyptian to his god and his neighbour ; many of the counsels embody shrewd common sense and experience, and are similar to portions of the Book of Proverbs and the Book of Ecclesiasticus. The language in which the maxims are written is sometimes very difficult, for many of them are in the form of short, pithy proverbs.
A work of a somewhat similar character is the very interest- ing set of "Instructions" given by a high official to his son Pepi, which we know from the Second Sallier Papyrus and the Seventh Anastasi Papyrus in the British Museum (Nos. 10,182, 10,222). The writer entreats his son to adopt the profession of letters, which he points out leads to rich emoluments, ease, comfort, and dignit}% and he begs him to "love letters as thy mother." He then compares the toil and unpleasantness of the life of the blacksmith, carpenter, stone-cutter, barber, waterman, fisherman, farm-labourer, gardener, fish-seller, sandal-maker, laundryman, etc., and urges him to devote himself to his books. This work is commonly known as the Hymn in Praise of Learning ; it was very popular in schools under the XlXth and following dynasties, and portions of it, written on slices of limestone, were set as '" copies " for school-boys.
The Egyptians greatly loved works of Fiction and Travel, and the copies of such which have come down to us show- that they were full of marvellous incidents, and that they greatly resembled some of the sections of the "Arabian Nights " of a later period. The Tale of the Two Brothers, in the British Museum (No. 10,1 83J, is one of the best ex- amples of Egyptian Fiction. In the first part of the story we have a faithful de.scription of the life of the peasant farmer in P^gypt. Anpu, the elder brother, lives with his wife on a small farm, and Batau, his )'ounger brother, acts as his com- panion, steward, and servant. The wife of Anpu conceived great affection for Batau. One day, when he returned to the farm on an errand, she told him of her love ; Batau rejected her overtures, left the hou.se, and went about his ordinary work in the fields. When Anpu returned to his house in the evening, he found the rooms in darkness, and, going inside, he discovered his wife lying sick upon the floor and in a state which suggested she had been ill-treated and beaten. In answer to his questions she told him that Batau had attacked her and beaten her, and that she was sure when he next came back to the farm he would kill her ; she did not tell him that she had made herself sick by eating rancid
D
70 THE TALE OF THE TWO BROTHERS.
grease, and Anpu did not suspect her untruth. Anpu then took a large gras.s-cutting knife and went out to kill his brother when he arrived. As Batau came to the byre to lead his cattle into their stalls, the oxen told him that his brother was waiting behind the door to kill him ; looking under the door he saw Anpu's feet, and then, setting his load on the ground, he fled from the barn as fast as he could, pursued by his brother. Whilst they were running, the Sun-god Shu looked on, and, seeing that Anpu was gaining on Batau, caused a. river full of crocodiles to spring up between them, so that Anpu was on one bank and Batau was on the other. When Batau had explained the truth of the matter to Anpu, he departed to the Valley of the Acacia, and the elder brother went home, murdered his wife, and threw her bod}^ to the dogs.
The second part of the story is not so easy to follow. Batau went to the Acacia Valley, and placed his heart on the top of the flower of a tree, and passed some years in hunting the wild animals of the desert. Whilst there the gods made for him a wife, who was, however, subsequently carried off to be the queen of Egypt. By her orders the tree on which was the heart of Batau was cut down, and the heart fell to the ground, where, after some time, it was found by Anpu, who went in search of it. Batau having recovered his life, took the form of a bull, and, after a series of marvellous transformations, became the father of a king of Eg}'pt. The papyrus containing this story was written by the scribe Anna, and it was one of the rolls in the library of Seti II Menephthah.
The Story of the Doomed Prince is another good example of Egyptian Fiction, though the unique copy in the British Museum (Harris, No. 50OJ is incomplete at the end. In the story of the Possessed Princess of Bekhten we ha\e a short but interesting account of the driving out of a violent devil from the body of one of the sisters-in-law of the king of Egypt, by means of a statue of the god Khensu. The stele contain- ing the text is in Paris. Travel is well represented b\- the Adventures of Sa-Nehat (pap\rus at Berlin) ; the Story of a Shipwrecked Sailor, w ho was cast up on an enchanted island, and conversed with a serpent of fabulous length (papyrus at St. Petersburg) ; the Journey of Unu-Amen, who went to Berut to buy cedar wood for the Boat of Amen-Ra at Thebes, but was robbed on. his way there, and shipwrecked on his way back, being cast up on the Island of C}'i)rus (pap)'rus at St. Petersburg) ; and the Travels of an Egyptian, in a
ASTRONOMY, CHRONOLOGY, (JEOMETRY. 7 I
papyrus in the British Museum (No. 10,247). In the last work we have an account of the journey of an official who travelled in Syria and Palestine, and of the misfortunes which overtook him. He was robbed, his servants ran away, the pole of his chariot was smashed, and he suffered from heat by day, cold by night, and want of food and drink. For stealing fruit from a garden near the road he was haled before the local magistrate and fined heavily.
Stories of Magicians were as popular as books of travel, and of these may be mentioned the group contained in the Westcar Papyrus in Berlin. In one of them we are told of a famous magician who made a figure of a crocodile in wax which, when thrown into the river, became a huge, livine crocodile, and devoured the man who had done the magician an injury. In another the magician cut off a goose's head, and placed it in one part of the room, and the body of the bird in another ; he then recited certain words of power, and the head and body approached each other little by little, and at length the head sprang up on the neck, and the goose cackled. In another story we are told how one of the maidens who was rowing the royal barge on a lake dropped one of her ornaments into the w^ater. A magician having been brought, stood up and recited words of power, whereupon the half of the lake on w^hich was the boat transferred itself above the other half, and remained there whilst the maiden stepped out of the boat and picked up her ornament which was seen lying on a shard. This done, the magician repeated words of power, and the water, which had been standing up like a wall, flowed back into its place.
Under the head of Science must be included the inscrip- tions which deal with Astronomy, and contain lists of the Planets, the thirty-six Dekans, the Signs of the Zodiac (see the coffin of Heru-netch-tef-f, First Egyptian Room, No. 6678), etc.; Calendars (Papyrus No. 10,474); Geometry illustrated by the famous Rhind Papyrus in the British Museum (No. 10,057); Geography and Cartography, illustrated by the papyrus at Cairo in which the religious divisions of the Fayyum are described, and by the famous map of the district of the gold mines preserved in the Museum of Turin ; Chronology, as represented by the Turin Papyrus, which, when complete, contained the names of about 300 kings of Egypt, and the lengths of their reigns in years and months, or days. In connection with this branch may be mentioned the King List of Thunurei, found at Sakkarah, and the King Lists of Seti I and Rameses J I found at Abydos (Tablets of Abydos,
D Z
72
MEDICINE, ANATOMY, BOTANY.
I and 2); the remains of the List made for Rameses II are preserved in the British Museum (Southern Egyptian Gallery, Bay 6, No. 592).
A number of valuable books dealing with Medicine have come down to us, and of these one of the most interesting is the pap}'rus in the British Museum, No. 10,059. It contains copies of a number of prescriptions which date from the reign of Khufu, the builder of the Great Pyramid, about B.C. 3730, and several of the time of Amen-hetep III (B.C. 1450). The largest work on medicine is contained in the Ebers Papyrus at Leipzig, and there are medical papyri in the Museums of Paris, Leyden, Berlin, and California (Hearst Medical Papyrus).
Marble Sundial. Ptolemaic Period. [Southern Egyptian Gallery, Bay 29, No. 976.]
In all these \\'e find that magic was considered to be as efficacious as drugs ; man}- of the prescriptions are to all intents and purposes magical formulas, and several suggest charlatanism. Oil, honey, and tinctures or decoctions of simple herbs were largely used, and the long lisjt of names of plants, herbs, seeds, etc., in the Ebers Pap}Tus proves that, though the Egyptians had little idea of scientific Botany, they had a \cr}' wide knowledge of the properties of plants, etc. Anatomy was studied in a practical manner, especially for the purposes of embalming and bone setting, but as no treatises on the subject h^ye gome down to us, it is impossible to say
HISTORV AND BIOGRAPHY. y-}^
whether the Egyptians deserved the great reputations which they enjoyed as physicians. It is tolerably certain that they made no experiments in dissection, for the body was sacred to Osiris, and might not be dismembered, at all events in the later times. The commonest diseases among the Egyptians seem to have been ophthalmia, fever, maladies of the stomach, ulcers, " Nile boils," epilepsy and anaemia.
Biographical inscriptions form a very important section of the Literature, and they throw much light, not only on the social condition of the people, but also on the history of the country. Thus, the inscription of the official Ptah-shepses-, who was born under the IVth dynasty, besides enumerating the various high offices which he held, proves that he lived through the reigns of eight or nine kings, and thus fixes the order of the succession of several of them (see Egyptian Vestibule, No. 32). The official Antef lived under three kings, whose names he gives, and thus fixes the order of their succession (Bay 4, No. 99). (Plate XXII.) The stele ^ of Erta-Antef-Tatau says that the deceased was " Governor of the South" in the reign of Usertsen I, and thus we know that an Egyptian viceroy governed the Sudan as carl)- as B.C. 2433 (Bay 4, No. 196). The stele of Sa-Menthu describes how he went to the Sudan to bring back gold for the king of Egypt, and tells us that he made men, women, and children to work in digging out the quartz, and in crushing the ore and washing the gold from it (Bay 6, No. 145). From the biographies of the great Egyptian officials much of the history of Egypt can be pieced together.
The Egyptians did not write history in the modern sense of the word. Some of the kings, e.g., Thothmes III, inscribed annals on the walls of their temples, and many others set up inscriptions to commemorate great events. Thus Usertsen III set up at Semnah in the sixteenth year of his reign a stele to mark the frontier of Egypt on the south, and to proclaim his conquest of the Northern Sudan. Amen-hetep III, B.C. 1450, set up a stele at Semnah to record his conquest of the country of Abhat, and the slaughter of a number of Blacks (Bay 6, No. 411). Rameses II caused copies of his account of his fight against the Kheta, or Hittites, to be cut on stelae, and set up in various places throughout the kingdom, e.g., at Amarah and Abu-Simbel. Some of the Nubian kine^s also
' The word stele, from the Greek a-rijXr), means literally an upright stone, or pillar, or column, which was set up over a grave, like our tombstone, or in a public place as a memorial of some public event.
74 IlISTORICAI. ROMANCES.
caused good detailed accounts of their wars to be cut upon stelae, which were set up in their capital, and in many cases these are the sole authorities for the history of the period. Thus Piankhi (B.C. 740) gives a really fine account of his in\asi(;n and conquest of Egypt, even taking the trouble to describe the militar\' operations connected with the siege of great cities like Memphis, his love for horses, and his devotions at Thebes and Heliopolis. Heru-sa-atef, another Nubian king, gives on his stele a careful summary of his expeditions to various parts of the Sudan, and lists of the tribute which he received. Casts of both monuments are exhibited in the Southern Egyptian Galler\', Ba}- 18, No. 815, and Central Saloon, No. 793. The Stele of Nastasen (B.C. 525) at Berlin is another good example of this class of monument, and the text, which seems to mention Cambyses, is of great interest. Finally ma\' be mentioned the stele of the Decree of Btolemy I (B.C. 325), granting certain properties to the temple of Buto (see the Cast in Bay 28, No. 950). The finest general account of the reign of a king is that given b)- Rameses III (B.C. 1200) in the Harris Papyrus No. i, in the British Museum (No. 9999); but even in this more care is devoted to the glorification of the king than to the facts of history. The inscription of Menephthah (B.C. 1250), which is cut on the back of a stele of Amen-hetep III in the Egyptian Museum in Cairo, though containing useful historical indications
and mentioning the name of the Israelites iJlJ '' iJ
I '^ vT ' (^^"^ 27), cannot be regarded as a serious state- ment of fact, and must be classed with the panegyric written by the court scribe Penta-urt on the exploits of Rameses II.
The Historical Romances of the P^g^jjtians are represented by the narrative of the Capture of the town of Joppa (Harris Papyrus, No. 500), and by the Dispute between Seqenen-Ra, King of Thebes, and Apepi, King of Avaris (Sallier Pap}TUs, I, No. 10,185). Books of Magic are numerous, and of these may be mentioned Pap)-rus Salt, No. 825, and Harris Pap)'rus, No. 10,051. Several Mythological Legends are extant, viz., of the Resurrection of Osiris and the birth of Horus (on a stele in Paris) ; of the Creation of the World, Gods, and Men (British Museum Papyrus, No. 10,188) ; of the Wars of Heru-Behutet, or Horus, the War-god of Edfu (on the temple of Edfu ) ; of the Destruction of Mankind (in the tomb of Seti I); of how Unas killed and ate the Gods (in the Pyramid of Unas); of the Poisoning of Ra the Sun-god
POETKV AND LOVE SONGS. 75
(papyrus at Turin); of the Death of Horus b}' a scorpion's sting, and his resurrection through Thoth (text on the Metter- nich Stele); and of the Wanderings of Isis, with her son Morus and the Sex'en Scorpion-goddesses, in the Delta (text on the Metternich Stele). The History of Osiris, and of his murder by Set, has not yet been found in Egyptian texts in a complete form, but there are frequent allusions to this history in the inscriptions of all periods, and it is clear that we have a tolerably accurate version of it in the narrative written b\' Plutarch {De hide et Osiride).
Among the Legal Documents in the British Museum may be mentioned the papyri containing accounts of the prose- cution of the robbers who broke into and plundered the royal tombs under the XXth dynasty (Papyri Abbott, Nos. 10,221 and 10,052), and the process against a man who was charged with stealing a quantity of silver (Nos. 10,053, 10,054). Songs and Poetry are represented by the Love Songs contained in the Harris Papyrus, No. 500 ; the Song of Antuf, \\hich was sung to the accompaniment of the harp (Harris Papyrus, No. 500); and the Song of the Harper, written on the wall of a tomb at Thebes, in which the hearers are enjoined to be happy, to anoint and scent themselves, and to rejoice with music and song, until the day cometh when they must depart to the land " which loveth silence." The mutability of things, and the fleetingness of the world are also dwelt upon. The works enumerated in the above para- graphs are written in hieroglyphics and hieratic. The litera- ture written in demotic is considerable, and it consists ot books of magic, tales and stories, collections of moral aphorisms, legal documents, marriage contracts, etc.
76
CHAPTER IV.
Manners and Customs. Marriage. Polygamy. Honour paid to the Mother. The Child and ITS Name. Toys. Education. Dress. Food. Amusements. Dwelling Houses and Furniture. Agriculture and Cattle Breeding. Trade. Handicraft.s.
Manners and Customs. — The views of the Egyptians about marriage closely resemble those held by many African tribes, for they married their sisters and nieces, and sometimes indulged in polygamy. It is probable that the views as to marriage wiiich obtained generall}' in P2g}-pt were less rigid than those of Western nations. According to an ancienf legend Osiris married his sister Isis, who became by him the mother of Horus, and he was also the father of Anubis by his other sister Nephthys. Generall)' speaking, the Egyptian was the husband of one wife, who was the mistress of his house and the mother of his children, whether she was his sister, or his niece, or a stranger. Kings and noblemen married several wives, and became fathers of children by many of the women of their households. The Ptolemies, curiously enough, seeing that they were Greeks, married their sisters and nieces, like the Egyptians. Marriage in Egypt was, ncj doubt, arranged in the way common to the East, i.e., it was practical!}' a business transaction, great care being taken to jjrovide for the maintenance of the woman in the event of misbeha\iour either on her part or that of her husband. Whether any religious ceremony was performed at the marriage is unknown. Girls were married before they were fourteen years of age. The legitimate wife of a man is called
" Nebt pa," , /.c, " ladv of the house,'" and she might
ofcour.se, be "his beloved sister"; frequentl)-, however, the latter title is a euphemism for " mistress," or " concubine." To divorce or eject the " lad>' of the house " was a very
1 The MuhanuiKidan speaks of his wife as his " house," and the determinative to the Egyptian word shows that the ancient Egyptian held the same idea abovit his wife as the modern Arab.
THli WIFE AND MOTHER. "JJ
difficult matter, and it was probably the fear of possible pecuniar}^ complications which caused the Egyptian in so many cases to marry his sister or the woman whom he called by that name. Moreover, it was thus easier to keep the property in the husband's family.
The legal wife was one of the freest women in the world. She went about the house, and outside it, at will, and, unlike the modern Egyptian women, she wore no veil. If she pleased, she held converse with men in the village or market, and she suffered from none of the restrictions which are placed upon women in the East in modern times. When the wife became a mother her power and influence were greatly increased, and the literature of ancient Egypt contains many passages which illustrate the honour and esteem in which the " mistress of the house " was held by her children, and on scores of stelae in the Eg}'ptian Galleries the name of the mother of the deceased is given, whilst that of his father is not mentioned. The Egyptians, like many African tribes, traced their descent through their mothers, and the views which they held concerning the affec- tion due to the wife from her husband, and the love which a son should give to his mother, are well illustrated by two passages. In the Precepts of Ptah-hetep (B.C. 3200): "If " thou wouldst be a wise man, rule thy house and love thy " wife wholly and constantly. Feed her and clothe her, love "her tenderly, and fulfil her desires as long as thou Hvest, for " she is an estate which conferreth great reward upon her lord. " Be not hard to her, for she will be more easily moved by " persuasion than by force. Observe what she wisheth, and that " on which her mind runneth ; thereby shalt thou make her " to stay in thy house. If thou resistest her will it is ruin." In the Precepts of Khensu-Hetep (b.c. 1500) we read: " When thou art grown up, and art married, and hast a house, " never forget the pains which thou didst cost thy mother, " nor the care which she bestowed upon thee. Never give "her cause to complain of thee, lest she lift up her hands to " God in heaven, and He hearken to her cry [and punish " thee]."
The life of the woman in the lower classes was a hard one. She cooked the food for her husband and children, she wove the flax into linen, attended to all matters in the house, and usually managed to have a large family. She was a mother at the age of fifteen, or earlier, and a grandmother at thirty, by which time her body was bent, her forehead wrinkled, and her face withered, Among the upper classes the process of
78 EDUCATION.
physical deterioration was, of course, slower, but the results were the same.
Soon after a child was born a name was given to it, which usually had reference to some physical characteristic ; thus a
boy might be called " Nekht " ^-^-^^l f\ "Strong," and a girl
"Nefert" ?^ "Beautiful," or " Netchemet " |^ "Sweet."
Pious folk introduced the name of some god or goddess into
the child's name, r.^., " Ra-hetep " a Mt^ " Ra is satis-
fled," and loyal folk the name of the reigning king, e.j^.,
" Pepi-nekht " (I [I ^■^^''^ t-=/] " Pepi the strong one." Several
members of a family often bore the same name, but in these cases each was distinguished by some " little name " (i.e., pet- name), x^s a pet-name may be mentioned " Mai-sheraui,"
i.e., " Little Cat," or " Pussy," Q !]() ^^^^^ (1 .-wrl) • In well-to-
do families a special day was set apart for naming a child, and this name-day was usually celebrated with rejoicings.
P'or the first three years of its life a child was wholly in its mother's care, and she carried it about on her back or left shoulder (see the ivory figure No. 41 in Table-case L in the Third P^gyptian Room). For the ne.xt three or four }-ears of its life it went about naked, whether boy or girl, gentle or simple ; indeed- a grandson of Khufu, the builder of the Great Pyramid, went to school unclothed. The heads of children were clean-shaven, with the exception of a lock of hair on the right side of the head. Little girls .sometimes wore an amulet on their breast or body in order to avert the "evil eye," and perhaps a cheap bracelet or necklace. They pla\-ed with dolls, numerous examples of which have com.e down to us (see Standard-case C in the P'ourth Egyptian Room). Like all children, Egyptian children loved toys of all kinds. As e.xamples of the.se may be mentioned the cat with a mo\'- able lower jaw, the elephant and his rider, each having movable limbs, the negro being pursued by an animal, the ape drawing a chariot, the cat-headed dwarf, the lion killing its prey, the toy dog, hippopotamus, etc. The balls they pla}-ed with were made of porcelain, papyrus, leather stuffed with chopped straw, etc. (See Standard-case C.)
Education. — It is doubtful if the children of peasants and of the lowest classes went to school, or received any education at all ; both boys and girls were probably sent to herd the
SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES. 79
geese, to drive the sheep and goats to pasture or to the canal or river to drink, to look after the cows, to collect fuel for the fire, etc. It is unlikely that girls or women generally were taught to read and to write, but little is known about this matter. The boys of the professional and upper classes undoubtedly received a certain amount of instruction, for learning was highly esteemed throughout Egypt ; but speak- ing generally, the learning of the country was in the hands of the scribes. The profession of the scribe was one of great dignity and importance, and the highest offices in the land were open to him. The temples and certain offices of the Government maintained schools in which scribes were trained, and pupils were, of course, promoted according to their proficiency and ability. In the temple-schools boys were trained to copy religious texts both in the hieroglyphic and hieratic characters, and they studied religious literature, exegesis, the legends of the gods, funerary texts, etc. In the schools of the Government Departments the teaching was devised to suit the requirements of the Treasury, the Public Granaries, the Crown Lands' Department, etc., and the pupils studied arithmetic, the keeping of accounts, geometry, mensu- ration, the writing of reports, etc. In all schools boys were taught to be clean, diligent, obedient, respectful and well- behaved. Lessons began early in the morning and lasted till noon, when, as a papyrus in the British Museum says : " the " pupils left the school with cries of joy." The daily allowance of food for a boy was three bread-cakes and two jugs of beer, which were brought to the school-house by his mother every day. Corporal punishment was administered freely, and the back of the lazy boy who would not get up early, and that of the inattentive boy, received many stripes ; in one case a very bad boy was locked up for three whole months in a strong room in one of the temples.
School exercises were written on small whitewashed boards, slices of white limestone, and papyrus with a reed, and they usually consisted of extracts from ancient texts, religious or poetical, the contents of which were intended to improve the mind and form the morals and manners of the reader and copyist. (See Standard-case C in the Third Egyptian Room.) The education given in the colleges of the Priests was of a different character. There the young men studied magical and religious texts, several Books of the Dead, the doctrines of the cosmogony, and the histories and legends of the gods. They read the ancient writings with the priests whose duty it was to instruct them.
8o
DRESS AND ORNAMENT.
and learned by heart their expositions of the traditions accepted in the temples. One would expect the colleges to hav'e possessed glossaries, or dictionaries, and grammars, but it is doubtful if they did, for nothing of the kind has hitherto been discovered. History in the modern sense of the word was unknown, though some of the great kings caused Annals of their reigns to be written ; and recent excavations have shown that even the King Lists which were drawn up under the XVIIIth and XlXth d}-nasties are incomplete, and that
Head of a seated figure of a priestess wearing a fuU-pIaited
wig, bandlet, etc.
[Wall-case 103, Third Egyptian Room.] Wlllth dynasty.
they contain the names of some kings wrongl}' spelt. Astronomy was studied with .some success by the priests, and the maps of stars which were compiled by them were undoubtedly used for practical purposes in connexion with the agriculture of the countrw
Dress and ornaments. — The garments worn by the Egyptians were made of linen, for wool was regarded as
i; )
V,
Painted relief with scenes n-pioLiuing ci.uicing, iiu- -ia\igiiui ..i ciiiic,
l)reparations for a feast, etc. From the tomb of Ur-ari-en-I'tah.
[Assyrian Basement, No. So.] Vlih dynasty.
i; )
r L.\ It, j\.
{■:>ee page ai. )
Painted scpulcliial tablet of Kalui, a scribe of a storehouse of -Amen. [Northern Egyptian (;allery, Bay 12, No. 514.] NVIIIth dynasty.
LOIN CLOTH, GIRDLE AND TAIL. 8 1
unclean. The earliest masculine garment was the loin-cloth, the primitive form of which was preserved for ceremonial pur- poses until a late period. Above it a girdle, or belt, was usually added, and to this a tail, either that of some animal, or an imitation made of leather, was fastened. The tail is worn by many African peoples to this day. As time went en and fashion changed the loin-cloth developed into a sort of skirt, which varied in length, fulness, and folds, or a short kilt projecting in a peak just above the knees. Later both men and women wore a sort of shirt, and over this a loose flowing garment which reached from the neck to the feet. The linen worn by women of the upper classes was of very fine texture, and in the luxurious period of the XVIlIth and XlXth dynasties their apparel was often very voluminous. The dress of men and women under the Vlth dynasty is well illustrated by the scenes from a mastaba tomb (see the Assyrian Saloon) reproduced on Plate IX, and under the XVIIIth dynasty by the figures on the stele of Kahu (Bay 12, No. 514) (Plate X). Both men and women wore wigs, which were sometimes very full and heavy, but women plaited their natural hair. Sandals were made of papyrus and palm-fibre, neatly woven or plaited, and sometimes of goat skin, or gazelle skin, well tanned and stained a pink colour. (See Table-case A in the Third Egyptian Room and Standard-case L in the Fourth Egyptian Room.) The "cone" was worn on the head by men and women, sometimes with a lotus flower or lily attached to it. According to some it contained a ball saturated with oil or pomade of some kind, which ran slowly into the hair, and so spread over the head and shoulders, causing pleasing sensations to him on whose head the ball was. The headdresses of the king and queen were very elaborate, whilst those of ordinary folk consisted of a bandlet, more or less decorated. Men of position always carried a staff or walking stick as a sign of authority, and those whom the king had honoured by the gift of a gold collar wore it on every important occasion. Both men and women wore rings, anklets, bracelets, armlets, necklaces, elaborately ornamented collars, pectorals, pendants, amulets, and earrings, just as they do in Egypt and the Sudan at the present time. Egyptian women stained the nails of their fingers and toes a yellowish red with the juice of the henna plant ; they painted their faces with a sort of rouge, and their eyelids and eyebro\\"s with a preparation of antimony (stibium, or kohl), and they added under the eyes thick lines of paint to make them appear large and full. Both men and women sometimes decorated
E
82 DRESS AND TOILET.
their bodies with tattoo markings, which originally probably- had a religious, or tribal, import. The burning winds and heat made the use of unguents an absolute necessity, and oils and pomades were very largely used in all periods. Strong scented woods and herbs were pounded and mixed with oil, and rubbed into the body, and scents were in ancient days, as now, in great demand. Often women carried a fan and a mirror. A fine collection of mirrors is exhibited in Wall-cases Nos. 182-187 i" the Fourth Egyptian Room.
Food. — The food of the lower classes consisted chiefly of bread and vegetables. The bread was made of a kind of millet, like the modern dhurra, barley, and rarely of wheat. The grains were rolled and crushed on a stone and then both the flour and the bran were mixed with water into a stiff paste ; from this pieces were broken off and flattened out by the hand into cakes of various degrees of thickness, which were baked on hot stones, or in mud-lined ovens. (See the examples in Table-case H in the Third Egyptian Room.)
Bread-cakes were made in a variety of shapes, e.g., c^, ^, ^, (^3), ciED, Q=D, 0, Q), (0)' etc. Among vegetables may be mentioned onions, cucumbers of various kinds; beans, peas, lentils, radishes, pumpkins, water-melons, leeks, garlic, roots of the turnip and carrot class, and vegetables belonging to the class of the modern bdmia, bddingdn (egg-plant), ineliikJnyah (spinach), etc. All these grew in great abun- dance, and, in growing, needed little attention, and formed very important items in the food of all classes. (Compare Numbers xi, 4, 5: "And the children of Israel also wept "again, and said. Who shall give us flesh to eat? We " remember the fish, which we did eat in Egypt freely ; the " cucumbers, and the melons, and the leeks, and the onions, " and the garlick.") Milk was drunk in large quantities by the living and was offered to the dead, and cheese was everywhere a common article of food. Among fruits may be mentioned figs, dates, mulberries, grapes, and probabh- pomegranates. From both figs and dates syrups and sweetmeats must have been made. Fish wa§ largely eaten by the poorer classes, but from various passages in the texts we learn that the " eaters of fish " were unclean ceremonially. The animal food eaten consisted of the flesh of the sheep, goat, ox, ga/.cllc, ariel, the antelope and other animals of that class, etc. ; domestic animals intended for human food were often fattened artificially. Groups of swine are repre- sented on the rnonvirnent!i occasionally,' but the pig" must haye
FOOD, MODE OF EATING. 83
been regarded as an unclean animal. Among the birds eaten were the goose, duck, pigeon, dove, and the several kinds of birds which were found in the marshes all over Egypt in ancient days. Geese also were fattened artificially, and the trade in them must have been very large. (See the wall painting in Standard-case I in the Third Egyptian Room, where the inspection and counting of geese are represented.) Salt was obtained from the lakes on the sea-coast, and rock- salt from several places in the Western Desert. With cooked meats, stews, etc., various kinds of seeds of the spice class were probably eaten, as modern nations eat mustard and pepper.
The common drink of the country was beer, //c^jt x ,
made from barley, and probably flavoured with plants of various kinds which took the place of hops ; in the earliest Liturgy of Funerary Offerings mention is made of three or four kinds of beer. A sweet beer was made from honey. Wine made from grapes was drunk by the upper classes, and the lower classes drank date wine. This was, and still is, made by pouring water on ripe, fleshy dates, and letting it stand for a number of days, according to the strength of the wine re- quired ; after standing for a week or so the liquor becomes an exceedingly strong intoxicant.
Mode of eating. — The peasant sat, or squatted, on the ground and dipped his bread-cake into the mess of lentils or boiled vegetables which was in a bowl resting either on the ground or on a poor wooden stand. Well-to-do folk either sat on low stools, or lay on reed mats or cushions, and dipped their hands into the various bowls of boiled grain, meat, and vegetables which were placed on the small low stand that served as a table, round which they were grouped. Water was drunk from earthenware vessels, which were probably like the modern ku/a, or water-bottle, and wine and beer from bowls. The joint was roughly cut or broken into small pieces, probably before it was brought into the eating-chamber, but birds were pulled to pieces by the head of the house and his family or guests as they sat at meat. Fingers were wiped on the thin, flat bread-cakes, but after the meal a member of the hou.sehold brought a jug and basin and poured water over the hands of those who had eaten. The chief meal of the day was eaten about the time of sunset. The Egyptians were careful to inculcate moderation in eatincr and drinking'. Kaqemna, the sage, said : " If thou art sitting in company, " hate the food which thou likest ; restrain thy appetite, for " greediness savoureth of the beasts. Since one cup of water
E 2
84
AMUSEMENTS.
" will quench the thirst, and a mouthful of \'egetables stablish " the heart, and one kind of good food is as satisfying as " another, and a small quantity [of food] is as good as " a large quantity, the man who permitteth his appetite to " guide him is an abomination." On the other hand, the guest must take what his host gives him, and must eat it, for to leave it uneaten is indeed an unmannerly act. And Ptah- hetcp said: "When thou art seated among the guests of a " great man, accept what he giveth thee gracefully. Look " before thee, nor stare [at the food], nor look at it often ; he " who departeth from this rule is a boorish fellow. And speak " not to the great man more than is necessar\-, for one knoweth
Relief with a liippopiMamus. From the temple of Neb-hap-Ra Menlhu-hetep. [Northern Egyptian Clallery, Bay 3, No. no.] Xlth dynasty.
" not what word will displease him. Sj:)eak w hen he speakcth, " and thy word shall give pleasure."
Amusements. — The children of the poor were emplo\-cd as soon as possible in tending the animals in the field, and they had few toys to play v/ith ; the children' of well-to-do folk had painted wooden dolls, with hair made of strings of mud or porcelain beads, and movable joints, models of animals, etc. The chief amusement of men was hunting", and fishing, and fowling. Fish and water-fowl were usually caught in nets, but as bronze fish hooks have been found (see Table-cases 1^ and J in the Third Egyptian Room) the
HUNTING, FISHING, FOWLING. 85
rod and line must also have been used. The Egyptian sportsman set out on the marshes in a shallow boat with low bows and stern, taking with him his short fishing spears, harpoons, boomerangs (see Table-case E in the Third Egyptian Room), nets, his hunting-cat (see the wall-painting in Case I in the Third Egyptian Room), servants, and sometimes a favourite wife or daughter. Nets were cast for fish in certain parts of the marshes, and che boat was poled in among the high reeds and bulrushes where the birds congregated. The skilled boomerang thrower soon brought down many birds, and his efforts were ably seconded by his hunting cat. Among the birds may be mentioned the vulture, eagle, hawk, falcon, buzzard, kite, crow, lark, linnet, sparrow, quail, pelican, ibis, swallow, heron, goose, pigeon, etc. Occasionally the hippopotamus was attacked among the dense papyrus growths, and the animal was usually harpooned to death, as was the custom in the Sudan until recently, for the sake of the flesh. The crocodile was also sometimes caught. No hippopotamus has been seen living in Egypt in a natural state for very many generations, and the crocodile retreated south of Khartum soon after paddle steamers were placed on the Nile. The crocodile was considered to be a sacred animal for thousands of years, and a sacred crocodile was kept and worshipped as the God of the Nile at Khartum so recently as the year 1829. The numerous ivory objects found in Predynastic graves prove that the primitive Egyptians hunted and killed the elephant (see Table-case L in the Third Egyptian Room), and it seems as if a considerable amount of ivory passed into Egypt proper by way of the First Cataract, for the ancient Egyptian name
of the old frontier city was Abu f J^^I^J-^^' ^-^-^
" Elephant City " (hence " Elephantine "). At a very early period, however, the elephant must have retreated far to the south, for he plays no part in Egyptian mythology, and figures of the animal are rare. (See the carnelian elephant in Table- case F, in the Fourth Egyptian Room.) The bear also seems to have been hunted. (See page 86.)
The deserts on each side of the Nile were hunted in all periods, and if we may trust the paintings in the tombs excellent sport was always to be had. The animals most commonly hunted were the lion, lynx, leopard, panther, wolf, jackal, wild-dog, fox, hyaena, hare, gazelle, oryx, ibex, ariel, and many other animals of that class. In primitive times the
E 3
86 HUNTING WEAPONS, DOGS.
Egyptians caught many animals with the lasso (see the green slate shield exhibited in Table-case L in the Third Egyptian Room). The rope was thrown over the horns, or round the legs, of the animal, which was then easil}' pulled down. The weapons used in hunting" were clubs, bows, flint- tipped arrows, boomerangs, and doubled-headed axes, all of which are shown in the illustrations on page 23. The indi- genous ance-.tors of the dynastic Egyptians probably hunted the elephant, rhinoceros, and giraffe, but it is unlikely that many of these creatures remained in Egypt in the Historical Period. Dogs were employed largely in hunting, and several species are know n. The most useful and valuable was the large dog, something like the greyhound, with
Green schist bear. [Xo. 10, Table-case L, Third Egyptian Room.] Archaic Period.
prick ears and a long curling tail, of the same species which is used in Mesopotamia and Persia and the Sudan at the present da\-, and is called Salnki. The boldness of
this kind of dog, called in l^g\-ptian theseni ^. AT?'
is marvellous, for he will attack panthers and lions, and his fleetness is almost incredible. His speed is compared with that of a flash of light in the Book of the Dead (Chapter XXIV). The kings of the XVHIth dynasty were great hunters, and Amen-hetep HI, who hunted from the Euphrates in the North to the Blue Nile in the South, stages on his scarabs that he killed with his own hand ,1 To fierce lions during the first ten years of his reign. (See Table-case D, Fourth Egyptian Room, Nos. 925-929.)
Next to hunting dancing was perhaps the most favourite amusement of the Egyptians, and from Pyramid times the Egyptians delighted in watching men and women perform.
MUSIC AND DANCING. 8/
The dances were accompanied sometimes by youths who played a reed pipe or flute, single or double, or twanged
the strings of an instrument of the harp, ^#, or lute class.
(See the fine examples in Table-case A in the Fourth Egyptian Room.) The kings of the Ancient Empire loved a dance called the "dance of the god" which was danced by the Pygmies in Central Africa ; and two of them, Assa and Pepi, caused a Pygmy to be brought from his remote country to Memphis to dance before them. Dancing women danced and sang to the accompaniment of the tambourine, which
was also used, together with the sistrum S , cymbals, and
bells, in musical services in the temples. The drum, both the large drum which was beaten with tabs of leather, and the small hand drum, was a very favourite instrument of music, and was largely used in festivities by every class. Tumblers, acrobats, and buffoons afforded amusement to the spectators, and the drawings found on the walls of some of the tombs at Beni Hasan (B.C. 2300) show that many of the tricks exhibited at the present day were performed at that time. The well-to-do Egyptian hired dancers, singers, gymnasts, and musicians, and entertained his guests, both during and after feasts, with their performances.
The Egyptian loved to play draughts on earth, in
Egyptian sent r-r^^^ dtt^, and he earnestly hoped that he would
do the same in heaven. (See Standard-case F in the Third Egyptian Room, where the scribe Ani and his wife are repre- sented playing draughts in the Other World.) How the game was played is not known, bat there must have been several kinds of games, for the draughtboards are not all arranged in the same way. (For examples of them see Standard-cases C and H in the Fourth Egyptian Room.) The top of the box which held the draughtsmen formed the board on which the game was played. The Egyptians played a number of games with counters, but the methods are un- known. Numbers of dice have been found in the tombs, but it is doubtful if the die was known among the Egyptians of the Early Empire. Many of their games were, no doubt, games of chance. The modern equivalent of the draughts and counters of the ancient Egyptians is dominoes. The poor man, it seems from the texts, sometimes betook himself to
the house for swilling beer " \ 1 -^^ (J •www :^ 0 ^
88
DOMESTIC architecturf:.
where he got drunk, and babbled about his affairs, and fell about and hurt himself, and was then cast out of the door by his fellow drinkers who said : "out with this swiller,''
^ (j %> £5:5 ^ "^W fl ^^ (1 ^ ^1 • When his friends
came to seek him and upbraid him, they found him Ix'ing on the ground as helpless as a child (Maxims of Khensu- hetep, XIII). During the dark, moonless nights, after long weary days spent in hauling up water from the river, the peasant villager had little to amuse him, except games played
Egyptian house, with inner chamber and two liights of steps leading to the roof. [No. 292, Wall-case 107, Third Egyptian Room.] About B.C. 4000.
with counters and draughts, and the converse of 'his companions in tlic " bccr-house."
Dwelling Houses. — The king usually lived in a palace or large building within the precincts of some temple, or at a very little distance from one. His palace w^as probabl}^ like the large houses of modern times in Egypt, i.e., it had a court- yard with trees in the middle of it, and a large garden round about it. In the garden were fish-ponds and groves of fruit
DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE. 89
trees, palms, acacias, flowering shrubs with scented blossoms, and a limited number of flowers. There were arbours, too, covered with creepers and vines, and the gardeners watered the ground daily by means of small channels into which water was poured from the shdduf^ or the water wheel. The court- yards were paved, or tiled, or covered with floors made of inlaid painted porcelain work. The walls and ceilings of the rooms were painted with rich and intricate designs, and in a few of the rooms there were openings near the roof which served as windows. The royal furniture was probably richly painted and inlaid with ebony, ivory, porcelain, and, under the New Empire, metal vases of all shapes and sizes would be seen everywhere in the dwelling rooms. Certain large rooms were set apart for receptions and entertainments, and these probably contained large raised benches placed along the walls for the guests. The kitchen, pantr)^, stables, and general servants' quarters were outside the house, but the personal attendants on the king and queen, the steward, the master of the chambers, etc., had their apartments in the palace. The storeys were rarely more than two in number, and the roof, which was flat, was approached by a flight of steps, either from the courtyard or from the roof of the storey on the ground floor.
The houses of nobles were built on the same lines as the palace, but with less magnificence, and they seldom consisted of more than two storeys. There was a courtyard, with sets of small rooms built on three sides of it, and a portico on the fourth. On the flat roof were wind shafts by which the north wind was brought into the rooms, and a small amount of light was also admitted into them through openings in the upper parts of the walls, close to the ceiling. Then as now, at certain seasons of the year, some of the members of the family slept on the roof or in the courtyard, the remainder on the upper floor. Near the house were the wine-press, beer- house, stable, byres for cattle, bins for various kinds of grain, etc., and chambers for storing the fruit and vegetables from the estate. The garden contained a small lake, and in the ground round about, which was divided into oblong beds, were fruit trees and flowering shrubs with scented blossoms, vines, etc. The whole was enclosed within a thick mud wall built probably of crude brick. The farmhouse of one storey usually contained one living-room, one bed-room, and a number of small chambers in which grain was stored. On the roof was a small chamber to which the master retired in the cool of the evening ; this was approached by means of a flight
ii
90
FURNITURE.
of solid mud steps. The corn was ground and the bread baked in the courtyard, where also were kept the large porous earthenware jars, like the modern zh; containing the supply of water which was brought to the house from the Nile each morning and evening. The house and yard were enclosed by a strong mud wall, with one door in it ; in times of danger the cattle of the farm were driven from the fields into the yard. A good model of this kind of house is exhibited in Standard- case C, in the Fourth Egj'ptian Room. Here are seen the master sitting in the chamber on the wall, or roof, with a plate of food before him, and the wife rolling the dough for the bread-cakes of the e\ening meal. The house of the peasant labourer was a mere hut made of mud, the roof of which was
Egyptian hut. [No. 293, Wall-case 108, Third Egyptian Room. J
About B.C. 4000.
formed of layers of palm branches or straw. Small huts were made of reeds or palm trees bound together with twigs, and perhaps daubed with mud in the cold weather, and in the northern districts of mud ; in the summer a shelter of reed mats probabh' sufficed.
Furniture. — The Egyptians did not fill their houses with furniture like Western Nations. Their bedsteads were made of wood, which usually came from the Sudan, and consisted of a strong rectangular framework, about 15 or 20 inches high, across which was stretched plaited palm fibre, or rope ; the ankaril) of the Sudan is the modern equivalent. The covering of such beds was formed of thick padded linen sheets, and the
TOILET REQUISITES.
91
pillow was a support made of wood, or ivor}', more or less ornamented, w^ith a curved top for the neck to fit into. (See Wall-cases Nos. 97, 98, in the Third Egyptian Room.) Carpets were unknown, but plaited palm leaf or straw mats took their ])lace. Chairs (see Standard-case H in the Fourth Egy[-)tian Room) and tables were found in the houses of the wealthy, but only low stools were known in poor abodes. (For examples of a painted table, chairs inlaid with ivory and ebony, a couch-frame, stools, inlaid box, etc., see Standard- case L in the Fourth Egyptian Room.) Men, women, and children squatted or sat on the floor, or reclined upon mats, and in later days upon cushions made of padded linen. In houses of moderate size there was probably a raised mud bench, covered with mats in the receiving or eating room, for the use of the male members of the house, or their guests. There was also, pro- bably, a raised mud bench built against the outside of one of the walls of the house for the use of friends who sat there in the cool of the evening and for the men of the house to sleep on during hot nights. Niches, or square cavities cut in the walls, served as cupboards, and in one of these the lamp (see Wall-case No. 176 in the Fourth Egyptian Room), usually made of earthenware, stood.
The stores of clothing, etc., were kept in a very small room provided with a stout wooden door with a bolt-lock and key of simple pattern. (For examples of bolts and keys, see Wall-cases No.s. 180, 181, in the Fourth Egyptian Room.) The mistress of the house usually possessed a small strong box in which she kept jewellery, ornaments, and amulets, and perhaps also her toilet requisites ; in some cases the latter were kept in a special toilet box, which held eye- paint (stibium, or antimony, kohl), comb, hair-tweezers, pumice-stone, unguents and pomades, both scented and plain. (See Standard-case L in the Fourth Egyptiaji Roam.)
Ivory head-rest, or pillow, of Kua-tep. [No. 69, Wall-case 98, Third Egyptian Room.] Xllth dynasty.
92 AGRICULTURE.
Kitchen utensils were comparatively few in number. Fresh and sour milk (or curds), soft cheese, sheep-fat, etc., were kept in earthenware pots, some of which were undoubtedly glazed ; bowls made of earthenware or gourds were common, as were large open saucers. The cooking pots were usually of earthenware, or, among well-to-do people, of metal. Knives made of flint, stone, or metal, were common, and rough flesh forks ; in the later period spoons were used. Plates, in the modern sense of the w^ord, were unknown ; the thick bread- cake served as a plate for those who squatted round the bowl of cooked vegetables with pieces of meat on the top, and the thin flat cake was frequently used as a napkin. A stone corn-grinder and a kneading-stone were found in every house. The stock of grain for the family was kept in large earthen- ware jars, or in a kind of bin made of mud. Every house contained a figure of the god under whose protection the family lived, and to this adoration was offered at regular intervals ; it took part in the family councils, its lot was bound up with that of the famil}-, and it prevented wandering spirits of evil disposition from entering the house. There being no chimney to the house, the fire was lit wherever it was most convenient, and the smoke went out through the roof and the aperture in the wall which served as a window. The fuel was animal dung, and such refuse from the straw as could not be eaten by the cow or goat of the house, and, occasionally, pieces of wood. As matches were unknown, care was taken to keep a small amount of fuel smouldering under the ashes, so that whenever it was necessary to boil lentils, etc., the fire could be revived ; if the fire was out, recourse was had to the striking of flints, or to some neighbour, or to the temple fire. In primitive times the Egyptians seem to have used a fire-sticky like some of the tribes of Central Africa.
Agriculture and Cattle-breeding. — By far the larger part of the population of Eg"\-pt and the Eg}'ptian Sudan has been for many thousands of years past connected with the cultivation of the soil and the rearing of cattle, and on the success of the farmer and the cattle-breeder the prosperity of the whole country has always depended. In remote ages, before the estuary of the Kile was filled up by the mud which came down in flood-time from the mountains of Ethiopia and Nubia, and while still the sea flowed up the Nile as far as Esna, the primitive Egyptians were shepherds and herdsmen. The great cattle-breeding district was situated in the neighbourhood of the country now called Par Fur, or the " Home of the Furs," and even to the
CATTLE-BREEDINC.
93
present day the exportation of the beautiful cattle of the district forms a very important item of Sudan trade. The natives who lived by breeding cattle were called by the Egyptians " Menti," i.e., " cattle-men," and their modern descendants are called " Bakkarah," which also means " cattle- men." In all times thcv have been a wild and lawless folk,
The bull Hap (.A.pis), with ihe triangular blaze on his forehead, and the scarabs, etc., on his back. [Table-case H, Third Egyptian Room.]
ferocious, blood-thirsty, and cruel. The early cattle-men worshipped the bull, and this animal played a prominent part in later Egyptian mythology. Several kinds of bulls were worshipped in Egypt: Apis at Memphis, Mnevis at Heliopolis, and Bachis at Hermonthis, and one of the greatest of the titles of Osiris was " Bull of Amentet," or " Bull of the
94
OXEN AND COWS.
Other World." The cow also was worshipped under the name of Hathor, and a flint cow-head in the British Museum (Table- case M in the Third Egyptian Room) proves that her cult dates from the latter part of the Neolithic Period. The paintings on the walls of early tombs show that several kinds of cattle were known to the Egyptians, and the inscriptions make it clear that the old feudal lords and gentry of Egypt devoted much attention to cattle-breeding, and that
ThcSbiill Mer-ur:(Mnevis). [Table-case II, Third Eg3'ptian Room.]
they made a regular trade of it. (See the models of cows in the Wall-cases on the Landing of the North-West Staircase, No. 140, and the wall painting in Standard-case I in ' the Third Egyptian Room.) Oxen and cows were fattened like the smaller animals and geese, and, before they were turned out for the season into the deserts to browse upon the growth which followed the rains, they were branded, or marked in some way with their owner's name.
CAMEL, SHEEP, GOAT, HORSE, PIG
95
The camel was certainly known in the Predynastic Period, for the head of an earthenware figure of one was found at Abydos a few years ago ; but this animal cannot have been used for transport purposes, or bred by the early Dynastic Egyptians, for otherwise we should find pictures of him on the walls of the tombs. One of the earliest mentions of the camel is contained in the " Travels of an Egyptian " (Brit. Mus. Papyrus No. 10,247), where we find the Semitic word for
camel under the form kamadl
The camel plays no part in Egyptian mythology. The commonest beast of burden was the ass, which was bred in large numbers, and was employed like oxen for treading out the corn and for riding. One of the desert caravans of Her-Khuf, an old feudal lord of PZlephantine under the Vlth dynasty, contained 300 asses. The ass was ad- mired for his strength, endurance, and virility, and he appears in Egyptian mythology as a form of the Sun-god. Sheep and goats were always bred in large numbers. The horse may have been known in Egypt in the Xllth dynasty, but he was not bred there until the experience gained by the Egyptians in their Asiatic campaigns showed them his value in military operations. Horses must have been plentiful in Egypt under the XXIInd dynasty, " for Solomon had horses " brought out of Egypt," and " a chariot " came up and went out of Egypt, for " of silver, and an horse for an hundred X, 28, 29). Excellent representations of horses are seen in the wall-painting in Standard-ca^e D in the Third Egyptian Room, and in the battle-scene of Rameses II on the South Wall of the Fourth Egyptian Room, above the cases.
The pig is not often represented on the monuments, but a painting in a tomb at Thebes shows that swine were used on farms for treading out the corn. From a very early period the god of evil. Set, was believed to have appeared in the form
Flint Cow's head.
[\o. 86, Table-case M,
Third Egyptian Room.]
six hundred shekels and fifty " (1 Kings
of a " black pig " "^^H^^
, when he smote the Eye
of Horus {i.e., the Sun). The gods then decreed that pigs
96 AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS.
should be sacrificed to Horus, with bulls, sheep, and goats In one form of the Judgment Scene the pig is the emblem of evil, and also in the Book of the Dead (see Chapters XXXVI and CXI I). On the other hand, the sow was an animal sacred to Isis, and small figures of sows were worn as amulets attached to necklaces. (See the figures of sacred animals in Wall-case No. 121 in the Third Egyptian Room.) Under the early dynasties a species of ram, which became the symbol
of the god Khnemu j|, with flat horns projecting at right
angles from the sides of his head ^^, was common in Nubia, but it appears to have died out before the end of the Xllth dynasty. Another kind of ram /yj^, apparently indigenous to Nubia, became the symbol of the god Amen of the Siu^an. The principal instrument used in farming was the plough
""^^v^, the share of which was made of a piece of wood tied to a long pole; at the other end of the pole was fixed. a bar, which was made fast to the horns of the cows which drew the plough. This primitive instrument was little more than a stout stake tied to a pole which was drawn over the ground, and made a very shallow furrow. The stiff Nile mud was
further broken up by the hoe V, of which examples may be
seen in the Wall-case No. 102 in the Third Egyptian Room (No. 281, etc.). As soon as the fields were ready to receive the seed, the sowing took place, and when the seed had been cast into the furrows it was trodden in by the animals on the farm being driven over it. The sowing was done by hand, and no drill appears to have been used. The fields were watered either by allowing the water to flow from a large basin or reservoir on to them, or by machines which lifted the water from the canal to their level, or from the Nile itself. The commonest water-raising machine resembled the modern shaduf, which was worked by one or two men. Two stout stakes were driven firmly into the ground at the edge of the stream, and between them was tied a long pole, heavily weighted with a mass of mud or stone at one end. To the end of the longer half of the pole a rope and a leather bucket were tied. The labourer drew the pole down until the bucket entered the stream, and the weight of the counterpoise at the other end helped him to raise the water to the surface of the field, where he poured it into the channel leading to the growing crop.
TRADE, EXPORTS, IMPORTS, 97
At the harvest the crops were cut with the small sickle ^
(see Table-case K in Third Egyptian Room, Nos, 1-4), which in primitive times was made of flint or a series of flints set in a
wooden frame _ J>', and in later times of iron or bronze. The
wheat or barley was tied up into small bundles by the reapers, and carried to the threshing floor, where the grain was trodden out by animals — donkeys, swine, etc. The thresh- ing floor, as we may see from the wall paintings and pictures on papyri, was circular in form, and its edges were raised, n^ — ^1, thus preventing the animals, as they ran round and round in it, from scattering the grain with their feet. The operations of ploughing, reaping, and treading out the corn are well illustrated by the Vignette No. 35, from the Ani Papyrus. (See Standard-case G in the Third Egyptian Room.) When the grain had been trodden out, it was thrown up by hand into heaps, the wind blowing away the chaff whilst it was in the air. It was next carried in baskets, or bags, to the store or granary, which was usually near the house. Here it was either piled up in heaps on mud stands
with raised edges \sP\/\, or poured into large bins built in
the walls along. a rectangular courtyard. (See the models of granaries in Standard-case C in the Fourth Egyptian Room.) Trade. — The trade of Egypt appears to have been chiefly in the hands of the seafaring folk of the Delta, who probably worked the imports and exports of the country in connection with the Semitic merchants who traded in the seaports of Phoenicia and the Mediterranean generally. The chief export of Egypt was corn, which was carried all over the Mediterranean, and we know from Genesis, xii, xli-xliii, that when grain was scarce in other countries, the merchants were in the habit of going to Egypt to supply their wants. At intervals, however, serious famines cam.e upon Egypt (Genesis xli, 55, 56), and when corn could not be imported, the mortality among the people was very great. In the reign of Ptolemy III (B.C. 247) there was a famine in Egypt, and the King expended much gold in purchasing grain at a high price to save the lives of the people of Egypt, and he caused corn to be brought to Egypt from Eastern Syria, and Phoenicia, and Cyprus. Next in importance came the linen of Egypt, which, in the form of byssus, was famous throughout Western Asia. Under the XVIIIth dynasty considerable quantities of gold were exported from Egypt to Northern Syria, Assyria and Babylonia. The gold came
98 HANDICRAFTS.
from the Eastern Sudan and Punt, where at that time (B.C. 1500) it was produced in such large quantities that Tushratta writing to Amen-hetep III says : " Send me so much '• gold that it cannot be measured, more gold than that thou " didst send to my father; for in my brother's land ;/>., Eg)-pt), "gold is as common as dust" ! (Tell al-Amarna tablet, Xo. 8.) According to Diodorus (ed. Didot, p. 41) Rameses II received from his gold and silver mines in one year metal to the value of 32,000,000 minas, or iJ"8o,ooo,000 sterling. Another article of export was paper manufactured from papyrus.
Among the imports may be mentioned copper and tin from Cyprus and Northern Syria, cedar wood from the Lebanon Mountains, lapis-lazuli paste from Babylonia, myrrh and spices for embalming, skins, cattle, ebony, ostrich feathers, bows, pillows, chairs, couches, fans, mats, shields, etc., from the Sudan ; and a number of the products of India and Arabia must have found their way into Egypt by means of the caravans which crossed the desert to some place near the modern Suez or Kantarah, and some sea-borne goods entered Egypt by the route from the Red Sea to the Nile, 7'zV? Kuser and Kena. The importance of Egypt as a trading centre, and as the natural market half-way between the East and the West, was not fully recognized until the Ptolemaic Period, about B.C. 250. Business was carried on chiefly by barter, so much wheat, barley, or millet being the value of a sheep, bull, cow, or goat, linen, etc. The Egyptians used weights and measures, e.g., the royal cubit of 7 palms or 28 fingers, the little cubit of 6 palms or 24 fingers, the palm of 4 fingers, the hand of 5 fingers, the fist of 6 fingers, and the finger ; of dry measure, the hen, the tenat, the apt, etc. ; of weight, the teben ( = 3-5 ounces), the ket = J^th of a teben, etc. The u.sc of the scales was well known, but there is no evidence that the steelyard was employed before the Roman Period. Stamped money was unknown am.ong the Egyptians, but they appear to have used a currency which consisted of pieces of wire made of copper, iron, or gold, and gold-dust. Ring-money, made of gold, is represented in the painting on the south wall of the Fourth l^lgyptian Room ; and also the little bags containing gold dust. Ring-money in gold is in use at the present day along the east coast of Africa, and in certain parts of the Sudan copper wire still possesses great purcliasing powers.
Handicrafts. — The Egyptian of all periods was a skilled potter. In the earliest times the potter's wheel was unknown, and every ves.sel was shaped by the potter's hand or foot.
BASKET AND LINEN WEAVING.
99
V^essels of all sorts, shapes, and sizes were made with great skill, and in later periods were decorated with linear and other designs. The art of the potter throve until the advent of the conquerors from Asia, when it began to languish ; and in a few centuries earthenware vessels were superseded by stone. Good examples of Predynastic and Archaic pottery will be found in the cases on the Landing of the North- VVcst Staircase, and of the pottery of the later periods in the Fourth Egyptian Room. The Basket-weaver wove rush matting, plaited mats and sandals, and made ropes and baskets of all kinds. Specimens of his vv^ork will be seen in Table-case A in the Third Egyptian Room, arid in Wall-
ffi1!!?^-i:
Jewellers drilling and polishing beads, etc. [Northern Egyptian Gallery, Bay 12, No. 518.] XVIIUh dynasty.
cases 182-187 in the Fourth Egyptian Room. Owing to the abundance of flax in Egypt the trade of the linen-weaver was in all periods most flourishing, and the " fine linen of Egypt " was famous throughout Western Asia and the seaports of the Mediterranean. A staff of linen weavers appears to have been attached to each temple, and the sale of their work produced a large revenue ; a portion was paid to the king, and the re.st \yas kept by the priests. The citygof Apu
100 HANDICRAFTS.
(Panopolis, the modern Akhmim) was one of the chief seats of the linen industry, and to this day the dyed curtains of Akhmim are used throughout Egypt. The craft of the jeweller was very important, for, in addition to the rings, bracelets, necklaces, pendants, earrings, etc., which he made in gold and silver, he cut the amulets and ornaments in amethyst, garnet, agate, onyx, chalcedony, carnelian, jasper, mother-of-emerald, lapis-lazuli, turquoise, rock-crystal, basalt, porphyry, haematite, obsidian, coral, mother-of-pearl, etc. (See Table-cases F, J.) The finest work of the jeweller iDclongs to the Xllth dynasty, and the workmen of that period brought the art of inlaying precious stones and metals to a very high pitch of perfection. Some think that the Eg}'ptians understood the art of enamelling, but authorities are not agreed on this point.
The glass-maker's craft is a very old one in Egypt, and it is probable that the Phoenicians borrowed it from that country. Fine specimens of it in the British Museum are the turquoise - blue opaque glass jar of Thothmes III (Table-case H, No. 50, Third Egyptian Room), a blue glass bowl, and a variegated glass bowl from the tomb of Amcn-hetep II (Nos. 57, 59, in the same case), and an opaque glass stibium pot with a gold rim (Wall- ca.ses 182-187, No. 29). The porcelain maker produced the little figures, amulets, bowls, vases, ushabtiu-figures, tiles, beads, pendants, etc., in the beautiful blue, green, purple, violet, and brown glazed ware to which the name Egyptian porcelain is usually given. An exceedingly fine collection of objects in this material is exhibited in Wall-cases Nos. 151- 1 56 in the Fourth Egj-ptian Room. The leather worker pre- pared parchments forwriting materials, and madethe harness for horses and trappings for chariots, soldiers' belts (Table-case B, No. IQ3), sheaths for daggers (No. '^j), nets of fine meshes (Wall-case No. 187, Fourth Egyptian Room), seats for chairs (No. 5 Standard-case L, same room), bags in which barbers carried their razors, etc. (Wall-case No. 184, Fourth Egyptian Room.) Examples of the tools of the carpenter, blacksmith and coppersmith, stonemason, house-painter and decorator, etc., will be found in Table-case K and Wall-case 10.3 in the Third Egyptian Room.
Of the brickmaker's work specimens belonging to the reigns of Amen-hetcp III, Thothmes I, Thothmes III, and Rameses II are exhibited in Wall-case 175, Fourth Egyptian Room. Examples of the craft of the furniture maker in the form of tables, chairs, stools^ couches, toilet
JEWELLERS, METAL-WORKERS, ETC. 10 1
boxes, altar-stands, etc., are seen in Standard-case L and Wall-case No. 190 in the Fourth Egyptian Room. The work of the ivory carver went hand in hand with that of the carpenter as regards the inlaying of chair frames, jewel-boxes, etc. (see Nos. 13 and 16 in Standard-case L). Specimens of the highest form of his skill are seen in the chair-legs, human figures, spoons, etc., in Table-case A in the Fourth Egyptian Room. The caster-in-metal produced the splendid series of figures of the gods in Wall-cases 1 19-132 and Table-case H in the Third Egyptian Room ; fine examples are the silver figure of Amen-Ra (No. 42), gold figures of Thoth, Ptah and Rfi (Nos. 21, 25, 26), and the gold figure of Osiris (No. 34), The wood-carver made the models of men, boats, animals, etc., which were placed in the tombs (see Wall-case Nos. 192, 193, Fourth Egyptian Room), and dolls and children's toys (see Standard-case C, Fourth Egyptian Room). The dyer produced the salmon-coloured linen coverings for mummies (see Case L, First Egyptian Room), the brown mummy-swathings (see Wall-cases 93-96, Third Egyptian Room), and coloured wearing apparel (see Table-case E, Third Egyptian Room), etc.
The baker and confectioner found constant employment in every town and village in Egypt, for the Egyptians loved cakes made with honey, and fruit of all kinds, and bread and buns made into fanciful shapes. A great business was done in bread and pastr}' which were intended to serve as funerary offerings. Specimens of the bread and the stands on which the flat loaves were placed, will be found in Table-case H, Third Egyptian Room. The terra- cotta cones A which are exhibited in large numbers in Wall-
cases 1 10, III, are supposed by some to represent the loaves, of a pyramidal shape, seen in the hands of kings and others who are represented offering to the gods. The barber also found constant employment, for many had their whole heads and bodies shaved every two or three days. He also dressed the hair of ladies on ceremonial occasions, and made wigs (see the fine example in Wall -case H, Third Egyptian Room). The barber often united to his trade the profession of physician, just as was the case in Europe in the Middle Ages. The craft of the boat-builder was very important in a country where a river was the chief highway. Flat-bottomed boats and punts used in fishing in the canals, or fowling on the marshes, were made of bundles of
I02 BOATS, BARGES, RAFTS.
reeds, or papyrus, tied together, like the modern tof in the Sudan. Boats for carrying merchandize on the river were made of planks of wood pegged together, which were some- times kept in position by being nailed on to ribs, and others were merely tied round with ropes made of papyrus. One of the earliest known pictures of an Egyptian boat is seen on vase No. 1 60, in Wall-case No. 5, on the landing of the North- West Staircase. i\lodels of funeral boats, and barges and war boats are exhibited on the upper shelf of Wall-cases Nos. 99-110, in the Third Egyptian Room. The Egyptians were skilful boat builders, and they made rafts capable of carrying enormous blocks of stone, e.g., the obelisks which Queen Hatshepset set up at Karnak. They had equivalents of the modern broad ferry-boat, barge, lighter, etc., which they worked with oars or "sweeps "and sails, or towed, when going upstream, and when there was no wind.
103
CHAPTER V. Architecture, Painting, Sculpture, etc.
Architecture. — The history of the earhest form of Egyptian architecture cannot be written because, with the exception of the ruined tombs of the Archaic Period, aU the remains of the earliest temples have been destroyed or have perished. The oldest form of the house was, no doubt, a hut built of reeds, the roof of which was supported by a pole, i.e., a tree trunk, or poles ; its shape was round or oblong. The cold winds of winter prompted the Egyptian to make the walls of his abode of Nile mud ; this he mixed with water until it acquired the consistence of stiff paste, and then piled it up with his hands until the walls were as thick and high as he wanted them to be. All the walls inclined inwards, and so each helped to support the other; the roof was made of a layer of mud which rested on a number of pieces of palm trunks or small trees. The door probably faced the south, and an aperture, which served as a window, was cut high up in the north wall. (Sec the model of an early house, No. 174, North- West Staircase Landing.) Before the house was a small yard enclosed by thick walls made of mud, which inclined inwards, and a flight of solid mud steps led up to the roof. (See the models of early houses in Wall-cases Nos. 105-108 in the Third Egyptian Room.) Walls made of mud in this way are unsatisfactory, for they sag or bulge, and soon fall down. The invention ot the brick marked agreat improvement in the stability of buildings; and its use in the construction of houses, granaries, government buildings, forts, etc., became universal. A theory has been recently put forward that brickmaking was introduced into Egypt from Mesopotamia, but there is no reason why, in a land where all the soil is mud, which when well sun-dried becomes exceedingly hard, the idea of making bricks should not have been indigenous. Few things in the East last as long as a well-made brick, especially if it has been carefully baked ; and buildings, even when made of crude bricks, last for several hundreds of years, unless they are destroyed by the hand of man. The invention of the brick permitted the Egyptians to build the elliptical arch,
104
THE HOUSE AND TEMPLE.
which is frequently found in brick-built buildings ; the know- ledge of the arch is of ancient standing in Egypt. The early mud or brick house of the man of means was provided with a portico (the modern rakdbah), which was supported on palm trunks ; this portico suggested the colonnade of later days, and the palm trunks the stone pillars with palm-leaf capitals. The " house of the god," or temple, was at first built of mud, but what such a building was like is not known. Under the Ancient Empire the Egyptians built their temples of stone, and the oldest known example is that called the " Temple of the Sphinx" at Gizah. It is built on a simple plan, and con-
]\\'lon and court of the Temple of Edfu.
Ptolemaic Period.
sists practically of a large hall, in the form y , containing 1 6 pillars, each about 16 feet high ; the materials used were granite and limestone. It had neither formal door, nor windows, and such light as entered must ha\'c made its way in through oblique slits in the roof It has no inscriptions, or bas-reliefs, or paintings, and even in its present state its massiveness, dignity, and solidity greatly impress the beholder. Of the temples of the Xllth dynasty nothing is known, but of the New Empire several temples exist, and their general characteristics may be thus summarized. A broad path brought the worshipper to the gateway in the wall which
OBELISKS AND SPHINXES.
105
enclosed the temple precincts ; on each side of the path was a row of sphinxes, or rams, which symboHzed the guardian spirits of the place. Passing through the gateway he soon reached the main pylon, which consisted of a massive door- way and two towers. During festivals long painted poles, flying coloured streamers, were attached to the face of the pylon at regular intervals. On each side of the gateway was a colossal statue of the king,?and statues of the king were
Gateway in the Temple of Rameses III, at Madinat Habu, in Western Thebes.
About B.C. 1200.
often arranged at intervals along the front of the pylon. Before the pylon stood a pair of obelisks, and sometimes a pair of sphinxes, or sacred animals. The original significa- tion of the obelisks is unknown ; it is probable that they were connected with a solar, or even phallic cult, but as the texts afford no explanation of their meaning it is useless to theorize. Beyond the great pylon was an open court, with a colonnade,
io6
THE PVLOX AND HALL OF COLUMNS.
which was used as a sort of bazaar where holy objects, amulets, and things for offerings could be bought by the public. Here, too, the sick were laid that alms might be given to them, and here beggars of all kinds congregated, as they do in a modern mosque. Passing through a second pylon, thehypostyle hall, or hall of columns, was entered, and here the priests made their processions, and receiv^ed the offerings of the. faithful. Beyond the hall, or halls of columns, the laity werelnot per-
( Gateway of Ptoleni)- IX at Kaniak.
mitted to penetrate. The other chambrrs of the temple formed the sanctuary of the god, and contained his shrine. The little rooms round about the shrine contained the temple library, and the dresses, jewellery, and other sacred properties of the god, or gods, worshipped in the temple. At the extreme end of the temple was the shrine of the god, which was entered by no one except the king and the priests ; in it were kept a sacred boat, or ark, and a figure, or symbol, ot tbe god, or animal sacred to him.
Plate XL
(Seepage 107.)
TEMPLES.
107
The temples of Egypt from the XVIIIth dynasty to the Roman Period vary greatly in detail, but the general plan is always the same. The great temples of Karnak (see Plate XXX), Luxor, Abydos (see Plate XI), etc., awe the spectator by their size and majestic dignity ; the smaller temples of the Ptolemaic and Roman Periods are less grand, but are much more graceful buildings. The severity of the interiors of the older buildings is moderated by the reliefs and
Granile obelisks at Kaniak. That, on the right bears
the name of (.^ueen Hatshepset, and that on
the lefL the name of Thothmes I.
XVHIth dynasty, B.C. 1550.
inscriptions with which walls,-pillars, pilasters, architraves, etc., are covered profusel}', and the bright colours, reds, blues, greens, and yellows, in which many of the painted scenes were executed, added greatly to their general effect. The massive square pillars wore replaced in later times by pillars with
io8
THE PILLAR AND PILASTER.
eight sides, and the whole character of the simple round column was changed when its shaft was made to resemble a papyrus or lotus stalk, and its upper part was sculptured in the form of the flower of either plant. Both pillars and pilasters were sometimes decorated with figures of Osiris, cut on the front face in high relief, as at Abu-Simbel, and the capitals were often sculptured in the form of the head of Hathor (^the Cow-goddess), surm.ounted by a sistrum. The
Pillars with ornamental capitals in the Temple of Isis at Philae.
Ptolemaic Period.
pillar with the llathor-headed capital was suggested by the pole, or small tree trunk, surmounted by the head of a bull, ox, or cow, which the primitive Egyptians set up o\er the graves of their chiefs, a custom which sur- vives to the present day among certain of the tribes of Central Africa. Every temple had a sacred lake within its precincts, just as every large house possessed
PAINTING AND SCULPTURE.
109
lake in it. Each temple
a garden with an ornamental also was surrounded by a girdle wall, which was usually made exceedingly strong and was provided with fortified gateways. The space between the temple buildings and this wall was occupied by gar- dens and storehouses for the property of the priests, and also by the dwellings of private folk. Thus the girdle wall of the temple actually enclosed a small city, which in cases of popular panic or invasion became a city of refuge.
Painting and sculp- ture. — The Egyptians, from the IVth dynasty downwards, were in the habit of painting the bas- reliefs in their temples and tombs, and also their statues, and they seemed to have relied greatly upon paintings in bright colours to enhance the effect of the work of the sculptor. The earliest wall decoration consists of series of figures of men, animals, etc., traced or cut in outline, or sculp- tured in low relief, on tolerably smooth slabs of limestone ; sometimes the surfaces of the slabs were prepared with a sort of limewash, and the paint- ings painted upon it. The skill of the painter, even in
the remote period of the Painted portrait statue of An-kheft-ka, a
IVth dynasty, is marvel- Tv.r!^'''""r"\ .
, II - 1 IVth dynasty, about B.C. 3700.
lous, and the accuracy with [Northern Egyptian Gallery, Bay i. No. 33.]
l\
no
PAINTED STATUES AND PAPYRI.
which he represented every detail and characteristic of animate and inanimate objects is beyond praise. At all periods, how- ever, general scenes are more or less hard, a fact due to want of perspective. The Egyptians loved colour, and they used it wherever it could possibly be employed. A striking instance of this is afforded by the elaborately painted papyri of the Book of the Dead, which when once buried in the tomb were intended to be seen by no other eye than that of the spirit of the deceased !
,, , . ^ r ■ . . , ., Head of a !>ainU'c] Statue
Alabaster figure ol a priest seated on a throne r x- i i t^- ni
with steps. "^ Neb-hap- Ka Men-
IVth-VIlh dynasty. Xlih d -nast -
[No. 1 1;6, Wall-case 99, Third Egyptian Room.] rx' .1 -w ' ,■ ^ V- iV f- ■> ' ^-^ ^'t- J [Northern Egyptian dallery,
Bay 3, No. 104.]
The wall scul[:)tui'es were of two kinds, the bas-relief and the sunk relief. In the bas-relief the- sculpture is raised a little above the surface of the slab, and in the sunk relief it is a little below. The sunk relief is one of the most characteristic features of Egyptian sculpture. Of the hrst kind there are many examples in the l^gyptian Galleries of the British Museum, especially in the Vestibule at the north end of the Northern Galler}', where the slab from the tomb
BAS-RELIEFS.
I I I
of Ra-hetep at Medum (Egyptian Vestibule, No. 40), of the IVth dynasty may be specially noted. Several portions of fine and delicately painted bas-reliefs from the temple of Neb-hap-Ra Menthu-hetep, of the Xlth dynasty, at Der al-Baiiari, which are exhibited in Bay 2 of the Northern Gallery, are worthy of careful study. The sepulchral tablet of Sebek-aa, of the X Ith dynasty, should be noted (Bay 4, No. 1 20 ; see Plate XXIII). Examples of the sunk relief will be found in the Northern Egyptian Gallery, Bay i. Both paintings
Diorite statue of Sebek-nekht.
XI Ith dynasty.
[Xo. 164, Wall-case lOO, Third Egyptian Room.]
and reliefs, however, are unsatisfactory from the modern point of view, for while the head is given in profile, the eye is represented as if the figure were in a full-faced position. A front view is given of the shoulders, but the view of the other portions of the body is a mixture of profile and full face. These facts are calculated to give 3, false impression of the
112
CARICATURES.
skill of the painter and sculptor, which, as is admitted on all hands, was very great.
The artist was at a ver)^ early period fettered by tradition and conventionality, but sufficient proofs have survived to show
Figure of a king.
XII Ith dynasty. [No. 178, Wall-case 102, Third Egyptian Room.]
that when free to give rein to his fancy he could produce even caricatures and comic pictures of the most amusing character. Thus, in Pap}'rus No. 10,016, we sec the lion and the unicorn
STATUES AND PORTRAIT FIGURES.
113
playing a game of draughts, a fox playing a double pipe while animals of the gazelle class strut in front of him, a cat driving geese, and a cat presenting a palm branch to a mouse which is seated on a chair and holding a lotus. Behind the chair is another mouse bearing a fan and a bag with toilet requisites (see pages 27-30). In the reign of Amen-hetep IV, about B.C. 1420, there was a revolt against the conventional forms of painting and sculpture approved by the priests. For about twenty-five years, new designs and new colours were introduced, but they did not find favour among the people generally, and, when the king died, traditionalism promptly re- asserted itself, and the new capital which he founded near the modern village of Tell al-Amarna fell into ruin, and its splendours were forgotten.
The sculptured reliefs of the IVth and Vth dynasties, and the statues and portrait figures were in beauty and fidelity rarel}- equalled in later times, and certainly never surpassed. The chief employers of both painter and sculptor in the later dynasties were the priests, who required statues of gods and kings f o r the temples ; massive strength, an ex- pression of impass- ibility, and close adherence to exist- ing models were the traditional characteristics of such works. With private employers
the case was different, for they demanded of the sculptor portrait figures which should be representations of their friends at once faithful and pleasing. Among early portrait figures of fine work in the British Museum may be mentioned the ivory figure of a king, wearing a robe of elaborate pattern (Table-case No, 197, in the Third Egyptian Room ; see
F
C^ueen Teta-Khait, about B.C. 1600. [No. 187, Wall-case 102, Third Egyptian Room.]
114
I'ORTKArT STATUP:S and FKIURES.
page 24, Xo. 7; ; the statue of the official Nefer-hi of the 1 1 Ird dynasty (No. 150, Wall-case 99, Third Egyptian Room) ; the statue of Betchmes, of the 1 1 Ird dynasty (No. 3, in the Egyptian Vestibule, see page 1 10), and the statue of An- kheft-ka, of the IVth dynasty, (Bay i, Xo. 33, in the Northern Egyptian Gallery, see page 109).
On the second shelf of Wall-cases 99-109 in the Third
Head of a colossal >iaiuc ol Ameii-hetcp III, n.c. 1450. [Xorthern Egyptian C>alleiy, Bay 4, No. 416.]
Egyptian Room is e.xliibited a typical series of portrait figures in stone which illustrate the work of the period between the II Ird dynasty and the Roman Period. Special attention maybe given to the head of an official Xo. i86) in crystalline limestone ; the figure of Queen Teta-Khart, a wife ot .Aahmes I, U.C. 1600 (Xo. 187, see page 113; ; the porticjn
Plate XII.
{See page 115.)
Head of a stone figure of a priestess of the XVIIIth dynasty. [From the cast, No. 38,430, Wall-case 102, Third Egyptian Room.]
Plate XIII.
{See page 115.)
' /P- . ^4Skw^H9E^^Rn«^9n[^.S9MV^
Limestone sealed figures of Kha-ein-Uast and his wife. [No. 41,603, Wall-case 105, Third Egj-ptian Room.] XlXth dynasty.
THE RENAISSANCE
115
of the head of a figure, the "heretic king," Amen-hetep IV, or Khu-en-Aten, B.C. 1420 (No. 212); the figure of Queen Amenartas, of the XXVth dynasty, B.C. 700 (No. 232); the seated figures of Kha-em-Uast and his wife (Wall-case 105, Third Egyptian Room; see Plate XIII); the seated figure of Harua, one of the officials of Amenartas (No. 234} ; the two figures of officials of the Roman Period (Kos. 269 and 270) ; and the head of a priestess (see Plate XII).
In the Northern and Southern Egyptian Galleries among the finest examples of large statues may be mentioned the three grey granite statues of Usertsen III, b.c. 2330, each of which represents the king at a different period of his life (Nos. 158, 159, 160; see Plate XXV) ; the dark granite head of Amen-em-hat III, of the Xllth d>-nast)- (No. 774 ; see Plate XXVI) ; the red granite statue of Sekhem- uatch-taui-Ra, a king of the Xlllth dynasty (No. 276, Plate XXVII) ; the head of Thothmes III, b.c. i 5 5o(No. 360 ; Plate XXXI); the heads of Amen- hetep III, B.C. i45o(Nos. 416, 417) ; the w hite limestone statues of an official and his wife, of very fine work (No. 565) ; and the granite statue of Isis hold- ing a figure of Osiris between her wings (No. 964). The statues and portrait figures of the latter part of the XVIIIth, XLXth and XXth dynasties lack the fidelity to nature of those of the Ancient and Middle hLmpires, and it is clear that about B.C. 1200 both statues and figures were kept in stock by funerary masons, who merely added the names of deceased persons to them after they were sold. Under the Saite kings of the XXVIth dynasty a Renais- sance took place, and for a short time painters, sculptors, and scribes modelled their works on examples drawn chiefly from the monuments of the Ancient Empire.
F 2
Statue of Isis, holding a tiyun- of Osir 1 Dedicated by Shashanq, a high official.
Ptolemaic Period. [Southern Egyptian Gallery,
Bay 28, No. 964.]
ii6
CHAPTER VI.
The Kinc; and his Chief Officers of State and Subjects. Military Service.
The King" of Egypt was absolute master of the country, which had been given to him by the gods, and of every man, woman, and child, and of everything in it from one end to the other. He was the son of Heru-ur, ic, Horus the Great, the oldest of all the gods of Egypt, whose attributes were, at a later period, usurped b}- Ra, the Sun- god, and was declared to be of the very substance and essence of the god. He was believed to be a god, and was worshipped as a god, and his statues and figures were placed among the statues of the gods, and with them received the adoration of men. His word on any subject was final, his authority limitless, in his person he united the intelligence and strength of all beings in heaven and on earth ; men lived by his grace only, and at a word from him they were slain. In short, the Egyptians were serfs and bondmen of the king, the counterpart, image and symbol of the god of heaven.
He possessed five great names or titles: i. A Horus name, as the descendant of Horus. 2. A Nebti name, as representative of Nekhebit and Uatchit, the great goddesses of the South and North. 3. A Horus of gold name. The blood of the sun-god was supposed to be made of gold, and as the divine blood ran in the king's veins, a "name of gold" was given to him. 4. A Suten Bat name, as king of the South {Suten) and King of the North {Bat). 5. A Son of Ra name, or personal name of the king. Thus, the five names of Usertsen 1 1 1 were :
Horus name, Neter Kheperu. This was placed ^^t
in a scrckJi thus : —
The Horus name is sometimes called the " banner name " ; the serekky however, is not a banner, but a representation of a building of a funerar}- character.
1
THE PRIESTHOOD, MILITARY SERVICE.
119
himself "the eyes of the king in the South, and his ears in the North," "the eyes of the king in Thebes," etc. In the priest- hood were the following grades : i. 71ie nctcr hen, or servant
of the god I V ; 2. The ^/ ;/tV<'/-, father of the god ^ W^;
f ; 4. The Khcr heb, or " Lector,"
3. ThecF^, libationer/ J
or " precentor "
/H
etc There were several
kinds of minor priests, e.g., the hen ka, or priest of the Ka, the seni, or set em, the dunn lis, the dnun khe7it, and the ministrants in general. The title of the high priest of Memphis was " Ur-Kherp-hem," i.e., " Great Chief of the ham- mer," in allusion to his being priest of Ptah, the Blacksmith-god of Mem- phis ; that of the high priest of Heliopolis was ■' Ur-maau," i.e., " great seer " ; and that of the high priest of Thebes was " Chief prophet of Amen- Ra." Among the civilians the Scribes played the most prominent part in
the administration of the Statues of Mahu, a director of Works, and country, and in all periods Sebta, a priestess of Hathor, B.C. 1350. both " royal scribes " and [Central Saloon, No. 637.] " scribes " held many high
offices, especially in connection with the Treasury, and with institutions which possessed large properties, such as the great temples of Heliopolis, Memphis, Sais, Bubastis, Abydos and Thebes.
Military service.— The Egyptian was neither a fighting man nor a soldier by nature, and except for a {q.\n compara- tively short periods in her history, Egypt never had an Army in the sense in which the word is used by Western Nations. The Egyptian hated military service, and in any conflict which resembled war he Generally ran away. When a hostile force threatened the country, the head of each nome
F 4
I20 MILITARY EQUIPMENT.
collected a number of men from his district, and armed them as well as he could^ and then sent his contingent to some place appointed by the king. Individual nobles al.^o, no doubt, sent companies of men more or less armed from their estates to fight the king's battles. The peasant, ox fellah, was then, as now, a formidable opponent in a fight, when armed with a stout stick, or club, especially when he could fight under cover or behind a wall ; but anything like organized resistance terrified him, and rendered him useless. On the other hand, the native of the Sudan was a very fine fighter, and whenever it was possible Pharaoh stiffened his troops with regiments of Blacks. Thus, if we may believe the account of Una, the commander-in-chief of Pepi, a king of the Vlth dynasty, his army contained Blacks from every great province of the Sudan, and numbered " many times ten thousand." In the Asiatic campaigns, which produced such great spoil for Egypt, the organizers of these wars, which are better termed " militar}' raids," and the finest fighters in them were either Blacks, or of Sudani origin. Egypt had only need of soldiers in the strict sense of the word when it was necessar}' to suppress sudden rebellions in the provinces, or to compel tributary kings to pay what was due from them, or to provide escorts to Government trading expeditions. In times of peace the troops of the militia laid down their clubs, bows, daggers, and spears, and worked at their trades or cultivated the fields. Military exercises, drillings, manoeuvres, etc., there were none.
The Predynastic Eg)'ptian warrior armed himself with a .short, stout stick ; later it was weighted at one end with a piece of flint or stone, and so became a kind of club. A flat piece of flint, or stone, with a roughly-formed cutting edge, bound to a stick by thongs of leather, served as an axe. Double-headed axes were also known, and knives, spear- heads, arrow-heads, etc., were commonly used.
The equipment of the soldier of the Ancient Empire was simple. He wore a sort of skull cap, of leather (?\ with a feather or two stuck in the top ; he fought with a
club r, or mace, and a bow ^^s^, carrying his flint-tipped
arrows in a leather quiver slung over his back, and he caught the blows and arrows of his foe on a large leathern shield, which was sometimes ornamented with the badge of his master or his family. At a later period he wore a leathern shirt to protect his bod}', and he added to his arms a long spear, a knife, or dagger, with a curved blade -»t=<^, and .some-
THE HORSE AND CHARIOT. 121
times a battle-axe. The equipment of the mercenaries of a still later period differed in many details from that of the native Egyptian. (For examples of bows, arrows, daggers, spears, etc., see Table-case B in the Third Egyptian Room.)
The horse and chariot were unused in Egypt before the kings of the XVIIIth dynasty began to make conquests in Western Asia. At a comparatively early period the Egyptians began to fortify their towns with walls and strong gates, and in the Xllth dynasty King Usertsen III erected a series of forts in the Second Cataract to prevent the Nubians from descending the river and laying Egypt waste. One strong fort was built near Buhen (Wadi Halfah), another on the island now called Jazirat al-Malik, one at Semnah, and another exactly opposite at Kummah. The walls were built of mud bricks, many feet thick, and long slopes cased with stone were built against them. Within each enclosure were series of chambers for storehouses and barracks, and at one I
corner a small temple, dedicated to the chief god of the district. Another series of forts was built on the frontier between the north-east line of the Delta and Syria, generally of great strength.
The geographical position of Egypt made it unnecessary for her to possess a navy, and, moreover, the peasants were as little fitted to become sailors as soldiers. The most important sea-fight in which the Egyptians took part was the ^.
engagement in which Rameses III (B.C. 1200, or later) van- *j
quished the confederation of Libyan tribes. This king built ,». j
war-ships, and manned them with crews from the seafaring ij «
peoples of the Mediterranean, and he succeeded in gaining a P{
signal victory by sea and land over his enemies. '*■ '
I 22
CHAPTER VII.
EcYPTiAN Religion. Early belief in Spirits, Fetishes, Companies of Gods. The Word for God and " god." List of gods. Polvtheis.m. Onenlss of God. Legends of the gods. Osiris AND the Resurrection. The Judgment. The Other World. Doctrine of Retribution. Amu- lets.
Predynastic Religion. — From the evidence derived from a number of Predynastic graves it is perfectly clear that the Predynastic Egyptians believed in a future life ; for otherwise they never would have .buried with the dead food and flint weapons, etc., for the chase in the Other World. Whether they believed that the future life would be eternal cannot be said; but they certainly hoped that it would resemble the life on this earth.
Dynastic. — The religion of the ancient P^gyptians was of African origin, and in the earliest times had much in common with that of many of the peoples and tribes who live in Equatorial Africa at the present day. Earth, air, sea and sky were believed to be filled with spirits, some of whom were occupied in carr}'ing on the works of nature, and others in aiding or injuring man upon earth. Every object, both animate and inanimate, was inhabited b\' a spirit, which could assume any form it pleased, and occupy the body of any man, woman, quadruped, bird, fish, insect, reptile, tree, etc. The incarnations of certain of these spirits became gods at a very early period, e.g., the hippopotamus,^ crocodile, lion, bull, ram, dog-headed ape, dog, wolf, jackal, ichneumon, hawk, vulture, ibis, swallow, dove, and heron, certain kinds of snakes, uraeus, frog, beetle, grasshopper, mantis, and several kinds of fish. All the above were regarded as powers of good from the earliest to the latest times. On the other hand, certain animals, e.g., gazelle, the animal which is the symbol of Set,
Tvl , or ^5_J, the hyaena, the lynx, the scorpion, the
turtle, were incarnations of powers of evil. The heavenly bodies were regarded as powers of good, probably, in the
' See the flint hippopotami, crocodile, cow's head, fish, etc., in Table- case M (Third Egyptian Room).
EARLY BELIEF IN IMMORTALITY.
123
earliest times ; but the scorching heat of the sun, Hghtning, hurricanes, storms, flood, darkness, mist and fog were regarded as manifestations of spirits hostile to man.
In addition, the primitive Egyptians fashioned symbols of spirits, much in the same way as the native of Central Africa makes "fetishes."' All these they wor- shipped because they admired some quality or attribute in them, or because they feared them ; and the religion of the earliest period consisted of the performance of rites and ceremonies which had for their object the propitiation of them. Men gave gifts to the incarnations of the spirits to persuade them to withhold the evils which they might inflict upon them, and to protect them from every calamity ; moreover, they appealed to them as possessing the same feelings and passions as human beings. The dead were assumed to enjoy a renewed existence in the Other World, probably with benevolent spirits ; it is quite certain that this belief was current among the primitive Egyptians, at least among those who lived during the latter half of the Neolithic Period. Every district and every large city or town had its own spirit or object of worship, and most of the gods of Egypt of the Dynastic Period were selected from them ; often, no doubt, their names were changed, and their attributes added to.
At a very early period an attempt was made to group the gods into families containing husband, wife, and son ; these are usually called triads, examples of v\ hich are : Amen-Ra, Mut and Khensu at Thebes ; Ba-neb-Tet, Hat-mehit and Heru-pa-khart at Mendes ; Ptah, Sekhet and 1-em-hetep at Memphis. Another attempt to group the gods resulted in the Ennead or Company of nine or more gods.
Amen-Ra
Amset.
Anubis.
Asar (Osiris)
Asar (Osiris).
' The word " fetish " is derived from the Voitugnese /di'fiio, " a charm."
124
FORMS OF GODS AND GODDESSES.
Ilapi. Horus. Heru-pa-khart Khepeia.
(Harpokrates).
Khnemu.
Khensu. 17
Menthu-Ra. Nefer-Tem. Ptyh. Ptah-Seker. Qebhsennuf.
•Ra-Heru-Khuti Reshpu. Reshpu.
(Ra-Harmakhis). '
FORMS OF GODS AND GODDESSES.
125
Seker.
Set.
Tet.
Tehiiti Tuamutef.
(Tholh).
Het-Heru
(Hathor).
Het-Heru (Hathor).
Qetesh.
Maat.
Mert,
Nebt-het (Nephthys)
Nebt-het (Nephthys)
Menhet.
Nekhebit.
126
THE COMPANIES OF GODS.
Sekhet.
Serqet.
Taurt
(Thoueris).
Uatchit.
Uit-Hekau.
51
At HeliopoHs, the On of the Bible, the priests proclaimed the existence of three Companies of the gods. The first Compan}-
was called the "Great"' ] ] | | | | | ' the second the
■•■-^'-■■11111111
r* , and the third had no special
title ; these Companies represented the gods of heaven, earth, and the Other World respectiveh'. When all three companies were invoked they were represented thus :
imnnnniimmnii-
The CTods of the
Great Company were : Temu, Shu, Tefnut, St b, Nut, Osiris, Isis, Set, Nephthys ; Khenti-Amenti, Ra, Horus, and Uatchit were sometimes added. The gods of -the Little Company were: Ra, Am-Annu, Am-Antchct, Am-Het- Serqet, Am-neter-hct, Am-hetch-paar, Am-Sah, Am-Tep, Am-Het-ur-Ra, Am-Unnu-resu, and Am-Unnu-meht.
The common Eg)'ptian word for God and god is netek
^ , which is symbolized by the s
^i<Tn • o
' )
goddess is
TIIK WORD FOR COD AND "HOD." 127
/V\A/V\A
NETERT ^ : the plurals are NETERU "Tf] ov
<=^ ^ ^ I " gocl-^/' ^"itl ^^^ ETERIT ^ ^11 "^ S\ ' " goddesses." The original meaning of the word ^yiTER is unknown, but in the Dynastic Period it probably meant "jligh, exalted, sublime,_ divine, godlike," etc. ~~~~ — '
The follownig~afe~~some of the principal gods and god- desses, and the visitor will find an unrivalled series of figures of most of them in bronze, wood, stone, etc., exhibited in Wall-cases 1 19-132 in the Third Egyptian Room. Full descriptions will be found in the Guide to tJie Third and Fourth Egyptian Rooms, pp. 116-168:- —
AsAR, Osiris, r| J|, the man-god who rose from the dead,
was deified, and became the king of the Other World and judge of the Dead.
AsT, Isis, r ^1 , the sister- wife of Osiris.
Set I ^ , the principle of Evil, and opponent of Osiris.
Nebt-HET, Nephthys, |J ^, the wife of Set.
Anpu, Anubis, \\ ^ ^ ^ , the Dog-god, or Jackal-god, son of Set.
i
of Osiris.
Ap-UAT \J ^^ , the Wolf-god, a friend and companion n Xc 111 ^ ^
Heru, Horus, "Wv J[, existed in several forms, i'.^., Horus
the Elder (Aroueris), Horus the Blind, Horus the Child (Harpokrates), Horus, son of Osiris, Horus, son of Isis, etc.
Nu -iCnM' S*^^ o^ *'^^ primeval watery mass out of
which the world was made.
Ha PI § ^ ^^ 7ZCZ Jl, the Nile-god.
128 GODS AND n(~)DnESSES.
Khepera □S<=>()rii. the creator of the universe whose dvvellinor was \u.
Tehuti, Thoth, ^^Jf, who created the world and all things in it by a word.
KUNEMU f^ ^D\ y (-7)' '^^''^^^ assisted in carr)-ing out the work of creation.
Ptah X ^, who assisted Khnemu in the work of creation.
Ra ^^ ^, the Sun-god.
Seb(Keb) *^^ J, the Earth-god. Shu fi V c^. the god of the air.
Het-Heru, Hathor, i^ , a sky-goddess, who existed in seven forms.
-, D ^ s;i , , ,
Nut ^ J], a sky-goddess.
Tefnut J'i^^^J^. a rain-goddess.
Nekhebit J. 3, the great goddess of the South.
UatCHIT li i\l\ J\, the great goddess of the North.
Net, Neith, Jj, the self-created goddess of Sais, who
existed in four forms.
Bast TT J4, the great goddess of Rubastis.
Menu, or Amsu ^ip~ r^, god of virility and generation.
GODS AND GODDESSES.
129
Be
-JP
Anqet
A O
\'
■■^■"'^ Jxv^'
Tetun ""^^-^^ J,
i-gods of the Sudan.
Merul "^ Menruil Temu
_Sa>, or
w I
in human form.
, the Man-god, who always appears
HXP|A Mestha
riy-
Qebhsennuf
TUAMUTEF 'k
'\ The divine sons of Horus, son of Osiris, who assisted their father in performing the ceremonies con- nected with the mummifying and burial of Osiris.
Amen
jjxm^
, or Amen-Ra n'
1 AA/W\A
pfod of Thebes.
O I
nJn, the great
Mux
"^
, the female counterpart of Amen-Ra.
Khensu 1 V> J], the son of Amen and Mut. Like
Horus he had seven forms.
Iusaaset
, a goddess of Heliopolis.
, a deified phy-
Q, Q JPl^ 1 Q
I-EM-HETEP (Imouthis) sician of Memphis.
Seker ^=^ j\, god of the dead of Memphis
130 GODS AND GODDESSES.
Nefer-Tem 1 ^y^^-IT "^ ^fl ' ^ ^^^ ^^ Memphis.
The lotus was his symbol.
Maat ^^ ^ goddess of wisdom, right, truth, law, order, etc.
Sesheta T-^J), godde.ss of literature.
O
Meskhenit
roddess of birth.
Renenit .www J\, goddess of fertility, the harvest, etc.
Meh-URIT <>=«v ft <zz=> , a ver\' ancient sk\--goddess.
Sekhet I Y^l' ^ fire-goddess, the female counterpart of Ptah.
Ta-TEXEN ' 4.-1- '^^ M), a very ancient earth -god. I ^-s T T '^^^ 11
Menthu ^^ s= ^ Ji , an ancient war-god.
Aten (1 'v^^ , the god of the solar disk.
FOREIGN GODS AND GODDESSES. AnthAt ft(l Pn . a godde.ss of Syrian origin.
AnthrethA ^^^ ll ^ Pn ' goddess of the Kheta.
AsthArethit -^^ l\ \L, Ashtoreth, a goddess
of Syrian origin.
Qetesh M Jh , goddess of Syrian origin.
Kent ^^^^^ J)^ , a goddess of S}rian origin.
SACRlil) ANIMALS. I3I
Aasith ^ l\\ f\[/n> 3. goddess of the Eastern Desert.
BairthA J ^^ I ll y V) ' ^'■''■' ^'^^'^^^' counterpart of Ba'al Sephon.
Bar
Reshpu □
bolt.
, /.<-., " Baal," a Syrian war-god.
V'^' S^^ of the lightning and thunder-
SUTEKH
■?\ i:^
V\ %||, one of the chief gods of the Kheta
and Syrians.
ANIMAL-GODS AND GODDESSES, ETC.
vu A
, the Apis Bull.
Hap
Mer-ur ^^^ m 5^, the Mnevis Bull.
Bakha J ^-=- ^3 , the Bachis Bull.
Ba '^--> , the Ram-god.
Sebek n jUzz:^.^^, the Crocodile god.
Rerit
Apj.t
Shepuit
I^
^
The Hippopotamus-goddesses.
I \t 1 o
n (go
Ma-HES 5^1 {P-^' the Lion-god; lion-goddesses were numerous, e.^., Sekhet, Pekhth, Tefnut, etc.
1^2
SACRED ANIMALS, BIRDS, ETC.
Maftet y ^ c::^> ;3^V' ^he Lviix-goddess.
Bast V? -|), the Cat-fjoddess ; the word for "cat" was Man |(j^
Anpu [| p ^^ , the Dog, or Jackal-god.
Apuat ^ ^ , the Wolf-god.
Khatru
the Ichneumon "od.
The following birds were sacred : The phoenix, Bcnnu j^\ ^ : the vulture, Ncrdu (1 V\ v\ : the hawk,
Bdk (I ^^z::^ V\^ ; the hawk of gold, Bdk en nub
JO ''^zi:^ V\^ 'ww«A r^iw'n ; the divine hawk, Bdk netri, A _m o 111 '
the swallow, Ment aa>wsa "^=j ; the goose, i^^ , of which there were several kinds ; etc.
The following reptiles and insects were sacred : the turtle,
|, or Sneta \\'^^.'> ^'""^ snake, S(X-ta
; the scorpion, Serk \\ ^# ; the ApsJiait beetle,
1 L^^ ; the " pra\-ing mantis," Abit T iMJ ^ "^ ^^ ' ^^^^ grasshopper, Sanelieiiai, '^^ \^ ; KJieprerd the beetle, Scarabaeus sacer^
Apesh n
\ s'
POLYTHEISM.
The following- fish were sacred : The Abtn % ihc Ajit (I -wwvA ^^^ ^ which announced tlie rise of the Nile; the A/ja Q^ ^ ^ ; the At "^ <G-3 ; the Utu | %^ ^ ;
the ^Ic/J^t '=''===\V^\\\\ ^ ; the iVd?'- — fl<e=<; etc. Classical
writers mention the Oxyrhynchus, the Phagrus, the Latus,
the Lepidotus, the Silurus, the Maeotes, etc., but authorities
differ in their identifications.
Number of the gods. — As every district, city, town, and village possessed a god, with a female counterpart and a son, and also a being of evil, or devil, to say nothing of the creatures who, in modern times, would be called vaguely " spirits," or " fairies," it follows that the " gods " of the Egyptians must have been very numerous. The names of a great many have been lost, but about 200 gods are mentioned in the Pyramid Texts, about 480 in the Theban Recension of the Book of the Dead, and about 1,200 in the various works which deal with the Other World ; a total of about 2,200 names has been noted. The Egyptians tried to reduce the large number of their gods by declaring that their gods were merely forms of the great Sun-god Ra, who was said to have " created the " names of his members, which became the gods who are in the "following of Ra " (Book of the Dead, xvii, 1 1). The Egyptian system of Polytheism (not Pantheism) appears to have been well suited to the early conditions of the country, but several facts make it certain that attempts were made by the priests to give their religion a distinctly monotheistic character. The results of their endeavours in this respect find expression in many texts. Under the Ancient Empire we read in the Pyramid Texts of a God who was the lord of heaven, who gave life to the dead, and who was entirely different in every way from the "gods." In Mora! Precepts we have such phrases as : " The things which God doeth cannot be known." " The eating " of bread is according to the plan of God," i.e., a man's food comes to him through the Providence of God. " Labour in " the field which God hath given thee." " God loveth obedience " and hateth disobedience." " Verily a good son is the gift of ''God." "God is the righteous Judge." ^ "Wrong not thy " mother lest she lift up her hands to God, and He hear her
' From the Precepts of Ptah-hetep and the Maxims of Khensu-hetep.
134 THE CREATION OF THE WORLD.
" complaints (and punish thee)." " The muhiplying of words " is an abomination to the sanctuary of God." And the official Paheri says in his Biography (hne 42 j: " I never told lies to "another man, for T knew that God dwelt among men, and I " recognised Him " : —
In funerary texts the god referred to ma}- possibl}- be Osiris, god and judge of the dead, but in the Moral Precepts quoted above this is impossible, and it follows that the Eg}'ptians believed in a God Who was wholly apart from the " Companies " of Gods," and in His wise, inscrutable, and kindly Providence. The doctrine of Oneness, or Unity, we find in connection with the great God who created the universe and all that is in it, by whatsoever name he be called, Ra, or Tem, or Khepera, or Ptah, or Khnemu, or Aten. Thus Ra is the " Lord of heaven, lord of earth, maker of beings celestial, and " of beings terrestrial, the One God, who came into being in " primeval time, maker of the world, creator of men, maker " of the sky, creator of the Nile, fashioner of whatsoever is in "the waters, and creator of their life, maker of mountains, " creator of men, and women, and beasts, and cattle, and the " heavens and the earth" (Book of the Dead, Chapter CLXXH). In another passage it is said of this same god : " He is the " divine matter which produced the Two Companies of Gods, "every god came into being through him, God One alone,
"1 I Jj. He made what is when the earth began in
" primeval time, his births are hidden, his transformations " are multitudinous, and his similitude cannot be known." It has been argued that the Eg}'ptian idea of the Oneness of a god is a totall)- different thing from Monotheism, but, taking the facts as they stand, we are justified in sa}'ing that when the Egyptian declared that his god was One, ne/cr na
1^ 1 , his meaning was identical with that expressed b\-
the Hebrew in the words, "The Lord our God is one" (Deuteronomy vi, 4), and by the Arab in his declaration, " God, He is one" (Kur'an, Sicrah cxii).
The principal religious beliefs of the Egyptians may be summarized thus: The Creation. — In the beginning there
THE CREATION OF THE GODS.
135
existed an immense mass of water wherein lived the god Nu. He felt the desire to create this universe, and his heart, or intelligence, who was called Thoth, spake a word expressing this desire, and the world came into being. The first act of creation was the appearance of the sun from out of the water ; the light separated the heavens from the earth, and
the sk}^ was placed upon four pillars , which marked
the cardinal points.
The god Khnemu fashioning a man on a potter's wheel which he works with his foot. l^ehind stands Thoth, marking the years of his
Hfe on a notched pahii branch. ,/''< '
Creation of gods. — According to the priests of On, the god Khepera, a form of Ra, who was self-begotten and self-produced, fashioned a god and a goddess out of the matter of his own body, and these became the parents of a number of other gods and goddesses, ^.^., Osiris and Isis, Set and Nephthys. Horus and Anubis, etc. The priests of Hermopolis declared that Thoth was the primeval god, and that the sods he created were Nu and Nut, Hehu
136 CREATION AND DESTRUCTION OF MEN.
and Hehut, Kekui and Kekuit, Kerb and Kerhit. The first pair represent the watery mass out of which everything came ; the second, indefinite time, or eternity; the third, darkness ; and the fourth, night. The priests of Sais taught that their goddess Net (Neith) was self-begotten and self-produced, that she was the mother of Ra, the Sun-god, and at the same time a virgin-goddess.
Creation of men. — According to a very old legend, mankind was divided into four races: i. Reth, or
Remt, i.e., "Men," . ^ ^ ' ' these were the Egyptians.
2. Aamu I^,^^'' °^ ^^^^ peoples of the Eastern Desert.
3. Themehu ^~' V\i, i.e., the Libyans. 4. Nehesu
^v\ Q rV ' ' ^•^•' ^^^^ black and brown peoples, and Negroes
and Negroids, of the Sudan. The Egyptians or " Men," were formed out of the tears which fell from the Eye of Ra ; these dropped upon the members of his body and then turned into men and women. The Libyans came into being through some act of the Sun-god in connection with his Eye, and the Aamu and the Nehesu were descended irregularly from Ra. Another legend declared that man was made out of potters' mud on a wheel by Khnemu, the ram-headed god of Philae,
Destruction of mankind. — After Ra had been reigning for a considerable time, men and women began to speak contemptuously of him, and to blaspheme him. Ra assembled the gods and took counsel with them, and, as the result, he sent forth his Eye among mankind in the form of the goddess Hathor, who destroyed men from off the earth with the exception of a small company. The goddess Sekhet assisted in the slaughter, and for several days wandered about Egypt wading in pools of men's blood. At length Ra was appeased, and he stopped the work of slaughter ; but he was weary of man, and determined to withdraw himself from the management of his affairs. After taking further counsel with the gods he retreated to a newh'-constituted portion of heaven, and created there the Sekhet-hetepet, or Elysian Fields.
According to another legend preserved in the CLXW'th Chapter of the Book of the Dead (Papyrus of Ani. No. 10,470), a general destruction of mankind was caused b\^ the Flood, which was brought upon the world by the god Temu, who announced his intention of destroying everjthing in it, and of
BATTLE BETWEEN LIGHT AND DARKNESS. 1 37
covering the earth with the waters of the primeval oceMn Nu. The flood appears to have begun at Henensu, in Upper Egypt, the Khanes of Isaiah xxx, 4, and the Herakleopolis of the Greeks, and to have submerged all Egypt. All life was destroyed, and the only beings who survived were those who were in the " Boat of Millions of Years," i.(\, the Ark of the Sun-god, with the god Temu. The mutilated state of a large portion of the text makes it impossible to piece the details together, but it seems that, after the earth was covered by the Flood, Temu sailed over the waters to the Island of Flame, and took up his abode there. Subsequently he was succeeded by Osiris, whose authority was disputed by Set, the god of evil ; but eventually Set was overthrown, and Osiris ruled triumphantly.
The Legend of Horus and Set. — In very early times legends were current concerning the great fight which took place between Horus tlie Great, the Sun-god, the god of day, light, life, and of all physical and moral good, and Set, the god of night, darkness, death, and of all physical and moral evil. Set succeeded in carrying off the Eye of Horus, i.e., the Sun, and tried to devour it, but the Eye of Horus inflicted a deadly wound on Set, and cut off and carried away one of his thighs. At length Thoth, the intelligence of Ra, inter- fered, and made an arrangement between the two combatant gods, whereby the day (Horus) was to be a certain length, and the night (Set) likewise, and neither was to destroy the other. Because of this decision Thoth was called " Ap rehui," or "Judge of the Combatants." Now the moon was the second, or left, eye of Horus the Great, and it was much persecuted by Set during fourteen nights of every month. Each night Set succeeded in cutting off a piece from it, and at length no moon was left. Thoth, however, made new moons, which he placed in the sky month by month, and thus frustrated the evil deeds of Set. On one occasion Set was wandering about the sky in the evening and found there the crescent, or new moon, which he immediately swallowed, but he was eventually made to disgorge it by Thoth, who was watching over it. At a later period, when the moon was identified with Osiris, the enmity of Set was transferred to Osiris, and the legend entered upon a new phase ; Osiris became the symbol of moral good, and Set of moral evil and wickedness. «.
The views held by the Egyptians about Osiris from about B.C. 3800 to the Roman Period may be thus summarized : — Legend of Osiris. — Osiris, in Egyptian ASAR
138
lilSTClRV OF OSIRIS.
r| , was once a kint,'- who reii^-ncd in the south of Egypt ;
his sister-wife was called Isis, in Egyptian AsT rl^, and
their son Horus, in Egyptian Heru ^^ . He did great
good to all his people, and taught them the arts of agriculture, and made good laws for them, and ruled them justly. Xow
Osiris had a twin brother called Set , the SP/ril of
Plutarch, who was very jealous of him, and who lost no opportunity of undermining his authorit}' and reviling him, for he wished to see Osiris removed from his path, so that he might seize his brother's throne and wife. At length, by a stratagem, he managed to kill Osiris, by drowning him in the
Osiris rising from the sarcophagus with "life" in each hand. On each side are two of the children of Horus.
Nile. The river, however, carried the dead body of Osiris to the papyrus swamps in the Delta, where the waters deposited it on the lower branches of an acacia tree, which grew up round it and concealed it. Isis discovered, by magical means, where her husband's body was, and went to the place and took possession of it. Wishing to visit her son Horus, so that she might urge him to take vengeance on Set, she hid the body in a secret spot, and went off to the city of Buto to Horus. During her absence. Set found the body one night when he was out hunting, and recognizing it, he tore it into fourteen pieces, which he scattered about the country. Isis, having heard what Set had done, set out and collected the portions of the body of Osiris, and wherever she found one of them she buried it, and built a shrine over it.
THE RESURRECTION OF OSIRIS. 1 39
Now Isis was a ii^reat enchantress, and she learned from Thoth the knowledge of magical ceremonies and of most potent words of power. She was able to transform herself into any kind of creature, and to travel through earth, air, fire, or water with equal ease. Instructed by his mother, Horus, with^the-assistarftce of a number of his "followers," performed a series of ceremonies connected with the burial of his father, which had the effect of raising Osiris from the dead, and of establishing him as king in Amenti, i.e., the " Hidden Place," ©r-the Other World. When this was done, Osiris appeared to Horus and urged him to avenge him on Set, and shortly afterwards a great fight between Horus and Set took place. Set was defeated and, according to the XVHth Chapter of the Book of the Dead, mutilated by Horus, who suffered no injury whatsoever. The great fight took place near the modern city of Asyut, and lasted three days ; each god fought in the form of a wolf or bear. (Fourth Sallier Papyrus in the British Museum.)
The cult of Osiris is as old as Dynastic Eg}'ptian civiliza- tion, and, from the earliest to the latest times, he was regarded as the god-man who suffered, died, rose again, and reigned eternally in heaven. He was the " King of eternity, lord of " the— everlastingrress, the prince of gods and men, the god " of gods, king of kings, lord of lords, prince of princes, the " -govemot^ of — 4:he— workl, whose existence is everlasting" (Papyrus of Ani, Plate I). To the Egyptians Osiris was the god who " made men and women to be born again,"
(HP
>-r::^ji^^^i::^i ^^' ^^''^° '^^^^ ^^^"^ ^° ''^^
from the dead, and bestowed upon them everlasting life ; he was, in all times, the cause of their resurrection, and was also the resurrection itself. He was both god and man, and could s\'mpathize with them in sickness and death, and the idea of his human personality brought them comfort. The confidence with which men looked to himx as a being who knew neither decay nor corruption is best expressed in the words of a text on coffin No. 22,940 (Wall-case No. 40, First Egyptian Room). " Homage to /'"thee, O my father Osiris! Thy flesh suffered no decay, ' " worms touched thee not, thou didst not moulder away, " withering came not on thee, and thou didst not suffer
V) " corruption ; and I shall possess my flesh for ever and ever, " I shall not crumble away, I shall not wither, I shall not ." become corruption."
140
THE JUDGMENT.
The Kingdom of Osiris was situated in Sekhet-hetep
i.e., the ■' Field of Peace," a division of Sekhet- Aaru, or the " Field of Reeds." From the pictures of this region given in papyri we see that it was surrounded b}' a stream of water, and intersected by numerous canals, and, judging by the descriptions given in these pictures, it must have been considered to be a very fertile place. The wheat and the barle)- there grew to a great height, and plants, vegetables, and fruit trees abounded. The idea of the Sekhet-hetep was no doubt Osiris in his shrine. suggested by the fertile regions
of the Delta and the Oases in the Western Desert.
In one part of this kingdom was placed the Judg- ment Hall of Osiris, and there sat the great judge of the dead. The .soul of ever\- man was brought there and weighed in the " Great Balance " in his presence, by Thoth, the scribe of the gods. The .soul was represented b\' the heart O, and was weighed against the
Thoth in the form of an ape weighing the heart in the presence of Osiris.
The goddess Maat weighing the heart in the presence of the ape of Thoth. By her side is the Eater of the Dead.
feather p, .symbolic of righteousness {inaat). If the heart
failed to counterbalance the feather it was cast to an animal monster called Am-mit, i.e., "Eater of the Dead," which was part crocodile, part lion, and part hippopotamus. When the heart and the feather balanced exactly Thoth announced the
THE FORTY-TWO ASSESSORS.
141
fact to the gods of his company, and then the soul of the deceased was taken by Horns into the presence of Osiris, who rewarded him according to his deserts. Before the weighing of the heart took place the deceased was obliged, presumably, to pass along the Hall of Osiris, and to make the Negative Confession before the Two and Forty Assessors of the Dead, " who tried sinners, and fed upon their blood, on the " day when the lives of men are reckoned up in the presence of " the Good Being " (Osiris). Apparently each of these beings
^!l''Si'ifh;i»iM1iiiifj;;llUHil
The Judgment of Osiris, from ihe Book of Gates. A Osiris seated on a throne with nine steps. B The scales in which the hearts of the dead were weighed. C The pig, symbol of evil, in a boat under the charge of an ape, the comn.Tnion of
Thoth. D Anubis, the god of the tomb. E Heads of gazelle, typical of the enemies of Osiris.
asked him the question : " Ha.st thou committed such and such *' a sin " ? For his answers, as given in the Book of the Dead (Chapter CXXV), take these forms :—
" Hail, Long-strider, coming from Annu, I have not
"committed iniquity. " Hail, Eater of shades, coming from Oerti, I have not
" -Stolen. " Hail, Bad-face, coming from Re-stau, I have killed
" neither man nor woman.
142 DOCTRINE OF Rf:TRIBUTION.
" Hail, Flame, advancing and retreating. I have not
" robbed God. " Hail, Uamemti, coming from the house of slaughter. I
" have not committed adulter}-. " Hail, Two-horns, coming from Sa'is, I have not
" multiplied words overmuch."
The forty-two sins enumerated in the Negative Confession represent the chief sins abominated by the Egvptians under the XVHIth dynasty.
The texts connected with the examination of the dead .show that the Egyptian idea of sin was different from that of Western nations. With the Egyptian tlie com- mission of sin was regarded merely as a breach of the ritual law, or of the law of the community, and could be atoned for by the payment of goods or possessions ; this pa}-ment once made, the law-breaker considered that he was free from all obligation, real or moral. The idea of repentance finds no expression in Egyptian texts, and, curiously enough, there is no word in Coptic for " repentance." The translators of the New Testament from Greek into Coptic were obliged to use the Greek word fierdvoia. From the earliest times the Egyptians appear to have believed firmly that the righteous would be rewarded in the Other World, and the wicked punished, but there is no definite statement on this point in the texts until the XlXth dynasty, when the doctrine of retribution is clearly expressed. In the Second Part of the " l^ook of Gates " a number of beings are described as " those " who worshipped Ra upon earth, who spake words of power " against the Evil One (Apep), who made offerings to Ra, and " burnt incense to their own gods." Other beings are described as " those who spake truth upon earth, and who did not
"approach false gods" ^ (In ^^ . In return for this Ra
gave to them food and drink which should never fail, and decreed that their souls should never be hacked in pieces. Close b)', in the same section of the work, are mentioned the "rebels against Ra, who blasphemed the god when they were " upon earth, who thrust aside right, and cursed the god of the "horizon." As punishment for these deeds Ra decieed that they should be bound in chains, that their bodies should be cut in pieces, and their souls destro\-ed.
The rewards of the righteous were, moreover, graduated, for when Osiris decreed that such and such a soul was to receive an estate in his kingdom, the land measurers of
THE BEATIFIED IN THE FIELD OF PEACE.
143
heaven took their measuring ropes with them, and going into the Elysian Fields measured out for those who were deemed righteous plots, which varied in size according to their merits. According to another view the blessed lived always with the Sun-god in his boat, and travelled with him across the sky day by day. The " gods " in heaven spent their lives in ministering to their god Osiris, or Ra, and in performing his commands, and the duty of a certain number of them consisted in singing to him and praising him at dawn and at sunset. The spirits and souls of
The holy Ape-gods singing hymns of praise to Ra at sunrise.
The Jackal-gods and the Hawk
gods singing hymns of praise
to Ra at sunset.
the righteous, in their glorified bodies, became " beings and messengers " of God, and they sat on the great throne by his side. They wore the finest raiment, and white linen garments
and sandals, the\' ate of the "tree of life
f
and sat with the great gods by the side of the Great Lake in the Field of Peace, their bread and drink never grew stale, they neither thirsted nor hungered, and they enjoyed celestial figs and wine. In one portion of the kingdom of Osiris the blessed cultivated the divine plant Maat, whereon both they and Osiris lived, and eating the same food they became one with him, and shared with him his attributes of divinity, incorruptibilit}', and immortality.
The wicked who were in the Other World consisted of two classes: i. The enemies of Ra, the Sun-god. 2. The
144 PUNISHMENT OF THE WICKED.
enemies of Osiris, i.e., the souls of sinful men and women. The former were gathered together each night and did their utmost to prevent the sun rising morning b}' morning, but they were always seized by the angels of Ra and dragged b\' them to the eastern portion of the sky, where they were cast into the fiery caldrons of the god and consumed in their flames. The heavy mists and clouds of the morning represented the smoke of these caldrons, and the red glare of dawn was the reflection of their flames. Opinions differed as to the way in which the enemies of Osiris were disposed of. According to some, those who were condemned in the Judgment were devoured by the monster Am-mit, the "Eater of the Dead"; but others held
that they were dragged to the divine block of doom where they were beheaded b\- the headsman of Osiris, called Shesmu ^\. V'^nI- Sometimes their bodies were hacked
limb from limb by him, and sometimes they were seized upon by the " Watchers," who " carry slaughtering knives, and have cruel fingers," and cut the dead into pieces, which were thrown down into pits of fire, or into the great Lake of Fire. Here at one corner sat a monster who swallowed hearts and ate up the dead, himself remaining invisible; his name \\as " Devourer for millions of years."
The judgment of souls took place at midnight, and the righteous were rewarded, and the condemned punished before a new day began. The souls of all those who had died during the day were judged that day, and their cases disposed of finall\- ; eternal happiness was decreed for the blessed, and annihilation, not everlasting punishment, for the wicked. In late times there are passages in the texts which suggest that certain souls who set out from this world for the kingdom of Osiris failed to reach it, either because the amulets which were buried with their bodies were not sufifi- cicntly powerful, or because their offerings to the gods were too few when they were on earth. There is no evidence that such souls were believed to suffer, or that the portion of the Other World beyond which they had been unable to proceed was a sort of purgatory. The\' dwelt in darkness during the greater part of each day, but the Sun-god passed among them each night, and spake words on which they lived until the next night ; when he departed the\' wept as the doors of their abode closed on them, and shut him from their sight.
THE OTHER WORLD. 145
The views of the Egyptians about the position of heaven, PET ° ^ and the Other World clianged in different periods.
In the earHest times heaven was beheved to be situated above the large, flat rectangular slab of iron (or alabaster ?) which formed the sky. This slab was supported on four pillars, which were kept in position and presided over by the four sons of Horus, Mestha, Hapi, Tuamutef, and Qebhsennuf. These four gods sat on pillars, which, subsequently, were regarded as the four cardinal points. The stars were believed to be hung from the slab b}' hooks through holes, '^TT-' , like lamps from a ceiling. The righteous ascended to this heaven by means of a ladder. Osiris himself was obliged to use a ladder, and Horus and Set held each one
side of the ladder R, and assisted him to mount with their
fingers. The models of ladders and of the two forefingers which arc found in tombs commemorate this event.
The name given to the Other World was Tuat ic \\ , .
This region was not under the earth, or deep in it, but ran parallel with Egypt, which formed one side of it. A river flowed through the whole length of it. On the other side of the river was a range of mountains, and outside this was the great celestial ocean which surrounded the world. The Tuat was a valley which in the XlXth dynasty was believed to begin near Thebes, at Manu, the Mountain of Sunset, and, stretching northwards as far as Sais, bent round towards the east until it reached the region of Annu (On), when it turned to the south and continued until it ended at Bakhet, the Mountain of Sunrise. The Tuat was divided into ten sections, and had a vestibule at each end of it, and in the XlXth dynasty it included the local kingdoms of tht dead of Thebes, Abydos, Herakleopolis, Memphis, Sais, Bubastis, and Annu. Each section was guarded by a massive gate, with battlements, but its door flew open before the Sun-god as he traversed the Tuat nightly in his boat. According to one legend there was a small passage at Abydos called " Peka," i.e., the Gap, which connected this world with the I'uat ; and according to another there was a similar passage at Thebes. Be this as it may, the souls of all those who had died during the day assembled in the passage each evening and endeavoured to obtain a seat in the solar bark as the god passed by. In its passage the boat passed the kingdom of Osiris ; those who preferred a
G
146
mi-:etix(; of souls in tiii: othi-.k wokld.
material heaven disembarked at that spot, and those who desired to become hke Ra and to be with him remained in their places in the boat. For all souls, however, there was an examination of their credentials, and those who were not provided with amulets, and with formulas and words of power, were ejected.
Recognition of Friends. — From the statements made in pap}Ti and on coffins there is no doubt that the Egyptians believed that they would know and recognize each other in the Other World, and w^ould enjoy intercourse with their relatives and friends. In the Papyrus of Anhai (B.C. 1040), we see this lady meeting her father and mother in the Sekhet- hetep, or El}-sian Fields, and sailing with her husband in a boat on one of the canals ; in the Papyrus of Ani (B.C. 1500) we see the deceased seated with his wife Thuthu playing draughts; and the scribe Nebseni (B.C. 1550) says: "I have " seen the Osiris {i.e., his father), and I have recognized my " mother." In the Book of the Dead (Chapter LI I) the deceased prays : " May my ancestors, and my father and mother be given " unto me as guardians of my door, and for the ordering ol " my territory," and in Chapter LXVI II he declares that he shall have authority over his workmen and workwomen just as he had upon earth. On a coffin of the Xlth dynasty (B.C. 2600) at Cairo the gods Ra, Tem, Seb, and Nut are implored to grant the " gathering together of the ancestors " and kinsfolk of Sepa in the Other World," in the following words : " Let him traverse heaven, and earth, and the waters, " let him meet his ancestors, and his father, and his mother, " and his sons and daughters, and his brethren and his sisters, "and his friends both male and female, and those who have " been as parents to him {i.e., uncles and aunts), and his " kinsfolk {i.e., cousins or connexions), and those who have " worked for him on earth, both male and female, and the "woman whom he hath loved and known." ^ In the second
^ The text of this extract reads
n
III n ®
Crant ye this Sepa,
traverse earth,
he may traverse heaven,
he mav traverse the waters.
AMULETS AND WORDS OF POWER.
147
portion of the text it is declared that all these shall come forth to meet Sepa on his arrival in the Other World, and that they shall bear in their hands their staves, and their mattocks, and their ploughshares, and their clubs, so that in the event of any attack being made upon him by any hostile god, they may deliver their kinsman forthwith.
The use of amulets played a very large part in the Egyptian religion. They were generally made of stones and other materials believed to possess magical properties, which their wearers were supposed to acquire. A fine collection of Egyptian amulets is exhibited in the Fourth Iigyptian Room (Table-case F), where examples of every authorized shape and kind will be found. In connexion with these the unrivalled collection of scarabs should be examined (Table- cases D, E, G, I).
The following are the principal amulets mentioned in funerary te.xts or found in tombs with, or on, the bodies of
the dead : The scarab, or beetle, khcprcr
was the symbol of the god Khepera, and represented generation, new life, virility, and resurrection. The Heart, ab Oj symbol of the seat of life in the bodies of gods.
?J
xzx
O
J\ A D
his ancestors, he may meet his father, he may meet his mother,
A
O
he may meet his children and his brothers and sisters, he may meet
III
he may meet his uncles and aunts, he may meet
Q
AAAAAA
his connexions, he may meet his friends who did thint^s for
— »— n D @ I ^- A f<=xJ)O^AAAAA
this Sepa upon earth, he may meet his woman [whom] he loved
and knew, etc.
G 3
148
AMULETS.
The Oryx.
The Crocodile.
A Fish.
IIipi)opotamus. Flint amiilels of the Prcdynastic Period. [See Table-case M, Third Egyptian Room.]
AMULETS AND THEIR MEANINGS. 149
animals, and men, and emblem of the conscience ; it brought to the wearer the protection of both Osiris and Ra. The heart was associated with the scarab, and the same hekau, or words of power, were written on both. The importance of this amulet is shown by the fact that in the Book of the Dead six chapters are devoted to formulas for the protection of the
heart. The Girdle of Isis, thet n , assured the wearer of the
divine protection of the holy blood of the goddess. The Tet
u, a fetish, the original significance of which is unknown. In
later times it symbolized the tree trunk in which the body of Osiris was hidden by Isis, and also the upright, consolidated back-bone of the god. Its general meaning is stability. The
Pillow "^ typified the raising up and preservation of the
head. The Vulture AN brought with it the protection of
the great " Mother" Isis. The Collar ^^? gave strength and power to the breast, heart, and lungs, and symbolized the dominion of the wearer over all Egypt. The Papyrus
Sceptre I represented the strength, vigour, and virility of
youth, and abundance of every kind. 0'
The human-headed Hawk ^^ ensured to the deceased
the power of uniting his body, soul and spirit at will. The
Ladder n symbolized the ladder by which Osiris ascended
from the earth to heaven. Models of this were buried with the dead in the tombs, and when the deceased needed a ladder he uttered the Chapter of the Ladder, and the model ladder became as long as he wanted. The Two Fingers x*^ 1, index and medius, represent the fingers which Horus used when he helped his father Osiris up the ladder which reached from earth to heaven.
The Utchat '^^ typified the strength and power of the Eye of Horus, or Ra, i.e., the Sun-god, the two eyes =^S^5= gave to the wearer the strength and protection both of the Sun and Moon. The Ankh ■¥-, or symbol of "life." What
object this amulet represented is unknown. The Nefer T ,
or lute, signified " happiness, good luck," etc. The Serpent's
G 3
150 AMULETS AND THEIR MEANINGS.
Head ''-s:^ protected its wearer when alive a$^ainst snake bite, and when dead against the attacks of worms and serpents
in the tomb. The Menat {w represented nutrition, and the
union of the male and female powers of nature, generation,
etc. The Sma T symbolized animal pleasure. The Shen Q
was the emblem of the orbit of the sun in heaven. King Besh, of the Ilnd d}'nasty, wrote his name within this circle, which in an elongated form CZDl became the cartouche of the later kings. The s/^e// was the s)'mbol of the eternal pro- tection of the name by Ra.
The Steps /I symbolized the throne of Osiris, and procured for the wearer "exaltation" to and in heaven.
The Plumes (In symbolized Isis and Xcphthys, who had
their .seat on the forehead of Ra, and the Maati goddesses, or goddesses of Right and Truth. The Frog ^^ was
typical of teeming life and the resurrection. It was the symbol of the goddess Heqt, the wife of Khnemu, who made the first man on a potter's wheel, and ^^•hen laid on a dead person transferred to him the new life which was in the
body of the goddess. The Pesesh-Kef "W^ suggests the
idea of second birth in connexion \\ith the ceremonies of Opening the Mouth. The mouth of the mummy, or of a statue, was touched with this amulet, or instrument, whilst the* priest recited words of power ; as a result of that the mouth was " opened," z>., the deceased could henceforth talk, think, walk, eat, drink, etc., in the Other World. A fine example of this amulet in flint (Table-case M, Third Egyptian Room) of the Neolithic Period proves that the idea of " opening the mouth " is older than the dynasties of Eg\'pt. The Solar Disk on the horizon [O] symbolizes life which renews itself, resurrec- tion, virility, strength, etc. The Neterui ^'^ , or j j,
represent the two iron instruments used in the ceremony of " opening the mouth " ; their presence among the 'swathings of the mummy, or in the tomb, .secured for the deceased the protection of the gods of the South and the North.
On rare occasions all the amulets mentioned above have been found in one tomb, or on a single body. A good example of a collection of amulets found on a single body is No. 4 (Table-case K, Fourth Eg\-ptian Room). Here will
MACrdAL FIGURES. l^t
be Seen llraei, the nioidt, the utchat, the scarab, the s/ien, the triad of Isis, Nephthys, and Harpokrates ; the papyrus sceptre, the heart, the plumes, the two fingers, tets, etc. ; the places on the body on which they were found are indicated by the labels. Another class of amulets is represented by the figures of gods, goddesses, and sacred animals, which were either worn as pendants to necklaces, etc., during life, or placed among the swathings of the mummified body. Of these the British Museum possesses very large collections, and the finest examples of them will be found in Wall-cases Nos. 1 19-132, in the Third Egyptian Room. A very remarkable group of amulets or objects, which were intended to give protection to the tomb of the priestess for whom they were made, is exhibited in the Second Egyptian Room (Wall-
case No. y^). It consists of a Tet ft a human figure jackal ^^, and a reed, and each object stands on a small
inscribed brick of Nile mud. The ceremony in which these were used is described in the Book of the Dead (Chapter CXXXVII). The text is only found in the Papyrus of Nu (No. 10,477), ^"d the group of objects which illustrates it appears to be unique.
In connexion with the numerous ceremonies which found a prominent place in the cult of Osiris must be mentioned two classes of magical figures. It has already been said that the righteous who lived in the kingdom of Osiris were employed in the cultivation of the Madt wheat, on which both they and Osiris lived. Now, before this wheat could be grown, it was assumed that the land of the celestial fields had to be prepared and watered, and renewed with top-dressing, just like the fields on earth. These laborious agricultural works were performed by a celestial corvee^ which was under the general control of the " Henbiu," or gods of the Celestial Domain Lands. These gods provided estates for the blessed, and carefully watched the land measurers to see that they carried out their orders. They also provided gangs of beings to work these fields, and set taskmasters (Tchatchaiu) and time-keepers (Kheru ahau) over them, so that they might make them toil their appointed time. Why these beings were condemned to forced labour cannot be explained, for not a word is said which would suggest that they were sinners, and that their work was a punishment. The t^gyptian theologians appear to have been incapable of conceiving a heaven in which there was no corvee to perform menial tasks, and equally
G 4
1 52 THE USHABTl FlGUkE AND FORCED LABOUR.
incapable of imagining the existence of a corvee which did
not need the constant supervision of time-keepers and gangers.
Be this as it may, the Egyptians, as a people, hated
forced labour, and the priests found a way for them to
escape from it. The means chosen was the Shabti, or
Ushabti figure.^ The meaning of the word Ushabti is
unknown. Some associate the name with that of the persea
tree (shab, or shabt), but others connect it with the word
ushab, " to answer," and think the figure was called Ushabti,
because in the text cut upon it the figure " answers " and
says: " Verily I am there," etc. The Ushabti figure was a figure
made of wood, stone, porcelain, metal, etc., which was intended
to represent the person on whose behalf it was fashioned, and
it was supposed to carr)- a digging tool and a basket in which
to remove earth or sand from one place to another. In short,
the Ushabti figure is a model of a farm labourer or falldh.
On the figure it was customary to cut a formula which was
supposed to be said by the deceased in the Other World, to
this effect : " In the event of my being condemned to spread
" dust {i.e., sebakh or top-dressing) on the fields in the Tuat,
" or to fill the water-courses with water from the river, or to
" reap the harvest, such work shall be performed for me by
" thee, and no obstacle shall be put in thy way." Below this
formula were cut the words with which the figure was supposed
to answer : " Verily I am there, wheresoever thou mayest
" speak " (or call me). When the deceased found himself
in the Other World, and condemned to work in the celestial
coi-vee, he was supposed to utter the words rendered above,
and if they had been spoken in a correct tone of voice, the
figure would change into a full-grown man, who was provided
with a digging tool and basket, and who was capable of
performing field labours.
The dread of forced labour in the minds of the Egyptians resulted in the production of the immense numbers of Ushabti figures which are seen in all great museums. The number found in some tombs is \'ery large ; thus, Seti I caused 700 to be buried with him, and, at the present time, there are 149 figures in the Ushabti- box of Ankh-f-en-Khensu in Wall-case 116, in the Third Egyptian Room. The collection of Ushabti figures in the
'In Egyptian, Shabti J^^] ^ J '^ | , or Ushebti ^c^aj^^l ,
or Shauabti M|I^fl\J^I' MfiJ^I ' ''' '^'^ P^"''^'' Shabtiu, or U shabtiu.
PTAH-SEKER-ASAR FIGURES. I 53
British Museum (Second Egyptian Room) is unrivalled, and contains fine specimens of every period from about B.C. 2600 to B.C. 600. Worthy of note are the limestone figure of Aahmes I, the fine diorite figure of king Amen-hetep II, the granite figure of Amen-hetep III, the porcelain and wooden figures of Seti I, and the figures of Rameses III, Rameses V, Psammetichus I, and Uah-ab-Ra (Pharaoh Hophra).
Other figures which were highly esteemed as possessing magical powers were those to which the name of Ptah-Seker- Asar, or Ptah-Socharis-Osiris, has been given (see Second Egyptian Room, Wall-cases 89-92). Ptah was the creator of the world, according to the doctrine of Memphis ; Seker was the god of the Other World of Memphis ; and Asar, or Osiris, has already been discussed ; these three gods were united in the later theology, and the resultant god was regarded as the lord of Heaven, Earth, and the Other World. Figures of this triune god were made of wood, painted or gilded, and fixed on a rectangular stand, in which two cavities were usually hollowed out, one in front of the figure and one at one side. In the cavity in front a little piece of the body of the deceased was placed, and a cover was fitted over it, with
a figure of the hawk of Seker ^\^ upon it ; in the cavity in
the side of the pedestal a small roll of papyrus inscribed with prayers was inserted. The figure and pedestal were often inscribed with formulas in which the triune god Ptah-Seker- Asar was invoked, and it was believed that so long as the portion of the dead body that was in the pedestal of the figure was preserved, the body in the tomb would be kept in its integrity and everlasting life would be assured for the soul. Typical examples of these figures are Nos. 9870 and 9736 (Wall-cases 90 and 9 1 , Second Egyptian Room). Originally the figure on the pedestal was that of Osiris himself, standing upon the symbol of Maat, or Truth ^^=1 ; a good example is No. 20,868, which is hollow ; it contained the fine copy of the Book of the Dead of the priestess Anhai, which is in the British Museum (No. 10,472, Wall-case 90, Second Egyptian Room).
We have already seen that, after the murder and mutilation of the body of Osiris, the Man-god of the primitive Egyptians, by Set, the god of evil, Horus the son of Osiris, assisted by a number of beings who are called the Followers of Horus, performed a number of magical ceremonies, whereby the rejoining of the limbs of the god was effected, and the pre- servation of his body was secured for ever. The Egyptians
154 MUTILATION OF THE DEAD.
argued: Certain ceremonies were performed bj^JEiorus on the dead body of Osiris, and he was mummified, and as a result he rose from the dead ; we therefore will have the cere- monies which were performed over Osiris performed over our dead bodies, which shall be mummified, as was the body of Osiris, and we also shall rise from the dead. Every Egyptian from the time of the IVth dynasty, about B.C. 3600, believed that his existence in the Other World depended upon the mummification of his body in this world, and during his lifetime he made provision for his embalmment, and, when his means permitted, prepared a tomb in which his mummified body should be placed. Now the Eg}'ptian had several reasons for mummifying the dead :
1. He wished the souls of the dead to enjoy everlasting life.
2. He wished to maintain dwelling places for the Kau or " doubles " of the dead, so that they might not be obliged to wander about in the deserts in search of food. 3. He wished the dead to form a bond of union between the gods and himself 4. He believed that the soul came back to^the body from time to time. 5. He believed in the resurrection of the material body itself, and that at some future time it would be united to its soul for all eternity. This last was the chief reason why he preserved the body with spices, unguents, bitumen, etc., and, in spite of the very high state of civilization to which the Egyptians attained, the belief in the supreme importance of mummification was never wholly eradicated from the minds of ordinary folk, even after they had embraced Christianity.
In the most primitive times the dead were mutilated to prevent their returning to their native places to live upon the food needed for the living, but in the Dj-nastic Period the utmost care was taken to prevent the mutilation ot the body, and to preserve it from destruction caused b}' damp, dry rot, or worms. The texts state plainly that after the resurrection the body was to live upon earth, whilst the soul dwelt in heaven. In the Vth dynasty it was written : " The soul belongeth to heaven, and the body to earth," and in the Vlth dynasty it is said to king Pepi : "Thy essence " belongeth to heaven, and thy body belongeth' to earth." The same idea occurs in all dynasties down to the Ptolemaic Period, when we find in the "Lamentations of Isis" the words addressed to the deceased, who is identified with Osiris : " Heaven hath th}- soul, and earth hath thy body."
Before an account of the process of mummification is given, it will be well to note briefly the views
THE BODY, DOUBLE, AND HEART. 1 55
which the P^gyptians lield as to the relationship of the component parts of the material and spiritual man. Most peoples have divided man into three parts, body, soul, and spirit ; but the Egyptian system of the human economy was fnore complex. The material part of a man was the khat
C or body. Through mummification, and the prayers
which were recited over it after that process, the body obtained a degree of knowledge, and power, and glory, whereby it became henceforth lasting and incorruptible. This glorified
body was called a Sahu ft V^ Q . When a man was
born into the world there was also born with him an abstract individuality, or personality, which remained with him all the days of his life, and could only be separated permanently from him by death. To this personality is given the name
Ka ^y a word which has been translated by "double,
" genius, image, character, person, self," etc.
When the Ka left the body at death it was necessary for the living to find a habitation, and to provide meat, and drink, and shelter for it. Otherwise it would be obliged to wander about in search of food, and if it failed to find it, would return and wreak vengeance on the living. Provision was therefore made for the Ka in the tomb of the dead person of whom it had once formed a part. First a statue was made in stone, or wood, and fashioned to represent the deceased. Over this a long series of ceremonies was performed, and at the end of them the deceased was declared to have obtained the powers of talking, thinking, walking, etc., and the statue was supposed to be in a fit state to receive the Ka should it be pleased to enter into it and dwell there. A special chamber was set apart in the tomb for the statue, and through an opening in one of the walls which communicated with the hall of the tomb wherein the offerings were made, the Ka inhabiting this statue was able to enjoy the smell of the incense, meat, wine, and other offerings. It had power to leave the statue and to wander about at will on earth and in the Other World ; and there are suggestions in the texts that it might take up its abode in the body of a living man from which his Ka had temporarily gone forth for some purpose of its own.
With the Ka was closely connected the Ab , or heart,
which was regarded as the seat of life and the source of the
156 THE SOUL AND VITAL POWER.
emotions ; it possessed two phases, one material and the other spiritual. It corresponds with the "dual .soul" of many tribes in the Sudan at the present day. The spiritual heart could be stolen from a man by the exercise of magical powers ; and this belief survives among certain peoples in Central Africa at the present day. Another attribute of a
man was the Sekhem I® ^^^^ y> o^' vital power, which was
intimately connected with the Ka, and seems to have possessed a form similar to it. The mental and spiritual attributes of
man were grouped in the Khu ^^^ V;;., the exact meaning
of which it is very hard to define. The Khu seems to have been a shining, translucent, transparent, intangible essence of a man, and the word is on the whole perhaps best rendered by spirit. The Khu escaped from the tomb and made its way to heaven, where it joined the "imperishable spirits" who lived with Ra. It is probable that the Sahu, Ab, Sekhem, and Khu were all attributes of the Ka.
That part of a man which was, beyond all doubt, believed to be everlasting and to enjoy eternal existence
in heaven in a state of glory, was the Ba i*^^ , or
soul ; it was associated with the Ka, and, like the heart, appears to have possessed a dual nature. It could li\"e in a state of invisibility, and yet could take form at pleasure ; it is often depicted as a human-headed hawk,
^^. The object of all the ceremonies which were performed
over the mummy or the statue in the tomb was to bring back the soul from heaven to the body in which it dwelt on earth, aiid when the priest told the kinsfolk of the deceased that " Horus had recovered his eye," i.e., that the soul had returned to the body, they felt that everlasting life and happiness were secured for him. The souls of the blessed lived with the " spirits " in the heaven of Ra, and when they appeared in the sky they did so under the form of stars.
The soul was usually accompanied by the Khaibit
T , or shadow, which may be compared with the aKia
of the Greeks, and the umbra of the Romans. It had an independent existence, and was able to separate itself from the body at will, but hostile fiends might attack it, and therefore the deceased prays in the Book of the Dead
THE Sl'IKIT AND SHADOW. I 57
(Chapter XCII) : "Let not be shut in my soul, let not " be fettered my shadow, let a way be opened for my soul and " for my shadow, and let them see the Great God." It is very difficult to know where the functions of each of these parts of a man began and ended, for even the Egyptians became confused in dealing with them, and the texts often contradict each other. The main facts are, however, quite clear. The Egyptians believed in the existence of body, double, spirit, soul, and shadow, at all periods, and the views which they held about each are best understood by reference to the religious beliefs which exist at the present time among the A-Zande, or Nyam-N\'am, the Bantu, the Mafibattu, and cognate tribes in Central ^Africa. Under the influence of foreigners the primitive views became modified as time went on, but in all essentials the Egyptians who served under the Romans believed what their ancestors believed 5,000 years before.
T
I! I
158
CHAPTER VIII. Embalming. The Egyptian Tomb.
Mummy is the name given to the bod}' of a human being, or creature, which has been preserved from decay by means of spices, gums, natron, bitumen, etc. ; strictly speaking it should only be given to the body preserved b}- bitumen, for "mummy" is derived from a word which appears in Arabic under the form inwnM, and means " bitumen." The oldest preserved bodies known were prepared with salt and soda, and bitumen was certainly not used on a large scale for embalming purposes before the XXI Ind dynast}', about B.C. 900. The embalmed bod}', swathed in linen, was called b}'
the Egyptians qcs \ , ^ 5 > or qcsdn [1 V\ ^^ ,
which has passed into Coptic under the form kos. The word " mummy " is not of Egyptian origin.
In the latter part of the Neolithic Period the P!^g}'ptians, in some places at least, decapitated and dismembered the dead, but subsequently, probably as a result of change in religious thought, they took steps to preserve them. At first bodies were merely dried in the sun, and then placed in a hole in the ground, in a sitting position, just as they are to this day by the A-Zande ; later the}' were laid on one side, with the legs bent upwards, and their knees near the chin. Evisce- ration of some kind appears to have been practised, but not of a very elaborate character. The finest and most complete example of the class of preserved bodies which were buried in a crouching position is exhibited in the First Eg}'ptian Room, Case A. Here we see, lying on his l^eft side, a Pre- dynastic Egyptian, with hair of a reddish tint ; the knees are bent to a level with the top of the breast, and the hands are placed before the face. He was dolichocephalic, or long-headed, and he was both physically and mentally entirely different from the Dynastic Egyptians, whose skulls, in respect of measurements, occup}' a middle position between the dolichocephalic and the brach}xephalic, or
METHODS OF EMBALMING. I 59
short-headed. Round about the body are vessels which held food, flint weapons, etc. At this period the body was sometimes wrapped in the skin of some animal, or rolled up in a reed mat.
Soon after the beginning of the Dynastic Period, pro- bably as the result of the growth and development of the cult of Osiris, the Egyptians began to devote more care to the preservation of the bodies of the dead, and the earliest known examples prove that the brain and viscerae were removed, and that the placing of bodies in a crouching position in graves was abandoned, at all events among the ruling classes. The doctrine of Osiris taught that the human body was a precious thing, and men took care to embalm it and swathe it in linen, so that it might be ready for the return of the soul to it, when it would begin a new life in the kingdom of Osiris.
The Egyptian texts supply no details of the methods employed in embalmment, but classical writers describe the processes at some length, and the mummies which have been unrolled and examined prove that their statements are on the whole correct. According to Herodotus (ii, 85) there were three methods of embalming in use in his time. In the first or most expensive way, the brains and viscerae were removed from the body, which was carefully washed with palm wine, and then sprinkled with powdered spices. The cavities in the head and body were next filled with pounded myrrh, cassia, etc., and the opening in the abdomen through which the viscerae were taken out was sewed up. A tank con- taining a solution of salt, or soda, was prepared, and the body was steeped in it for seventy days. At the end of this period it was taken out of the solution, dried, and anointed with sweet-smelling unguents ; then the swathing with linen strips was begun. Sometimes, in the case of women, the cheeks and lips were painted, the eye-lids smeared with eye-paint, and other attempts made to give to the face the semblance of life before swathing. The fingers and toes were each swathed separately, then the legs and arms, and finally, when pads ^nd wads of linen had been fixed in various places to keep the swathings in position, and to give to the mummy the traditional form of the mummy of Osiris, the body and head were wrapped up in large sheets of linen, which were held in place by stout bands. As each swathing was placed on the body, a priest who was specially appointed said the formula which applied to it, and in cases where a large number of amulets were used, these objects, which were
l6o METHODS OF EMBALMING.
intended to give to the mummy the protection of tiie various gods, were inserted, under his directions, in their proper places between the swathings. When the swathing of the body was ended, the name of the deceased was usually written in ink on one of the outer coverings.
In the second method of embalming, the viscerae were removed by means of oil of cedar, and the flesh was dissolved off the bones by a preparation of soda ; mummies which were prepared bj^this process consist of nothing but skin and bone. The third method was used almost exclusively for the poor ; the body was steeped in a preparation of soda for a period of seventy days, and then handed over to the relatives for burial. The period which elapsed between death and burial varied in length. From the inscriptions we learn that in one case the embalming lasted 1 6 days, the swathing in linen 35 days, and the burial 70 days, i.e., 121 days in all. In another, the embalming occupied 66 days, the preparations for burial 4 days, and the burial 26 days, in all 96 days. According to the Bible (Genesis 1, 3), the embalming of Jacob occupied 40 days, but the period of mourning was 70 da\-s. Certain stelae in the British Museum' mention 70 days, and we may assume that this period was commonly observed, at all events, in Graeco-Roman times.
Cost of embalming. — According to Diodorus, who lived about B.C. 40, the methods of embalming were three in number ; the first cost one talent of silver, about ;^250 ; the second, twent}^ minae, about £60 ; and the third very little indeed. In the description of the first method given both by Herodotus and Diodorus, it is said that the intestines were removed from the body previous to embalm- ing, but neither writer says what was done with them after- wards. We know, however, that they were cleansed, and wrapped in linen with powdered spices, salt, etc., and placed in a series of four jars, or vases, to which modern writers have given the name Canopic Jars. They were thus named by the early Egyptologists, who believed that in them they saw some confirmation of the legend handed down by certain ancient writers to the effect that Canopus, the pilot of Menelaus, wdio is said to have been buried at Canopus, in Egypt, was worshipped there under the form of a jar with small feet, a thin neck, a swollen body, and a round bade. F^ach " Canopic " jar was dedicated to one of the four sons of Horus, or sons of Osiris, who were also the gods of the
' E.g., No. 1 03 1 (.589), Bay 27.
THE GODS OF THE INTESTINES. l6l
four cardinal points ; and each jar was provided with a lid made in the sliape of tlie head of tlie deity to whom it was dedicated. The names of the four gods were : —
1. Mestha l\ [11(1 J, or Amset (jlx fl^^; he was
man-headed.
2. Hapi A n (](] ^ ; he was dog-headed.
3. Tuamutef >lc v\ ^ ; he was jackal-headed.
AAAAAA
4. Qebhsennuf a i| ^ |V ''^^^1^11''^"=- eTI J 1"^^ ^^'^s hawk- headed.
/W«V\A
These gods represented the south, north, east, and west respectively, and the goddesses with whom they were asso- ciated were Isis, Nephthys, Neith, and Serqet. Mestha protected the stomach and large intestines ; Hapi, the small intestines ; Tuamutef the lungs and heart ; and Qebhsennuf the liver and gall bladder. The custom of mummifying the intestines separately is as old as the Vlth dynasty at least, and the gods of the cardinal points who presided over them are mentioned several times in the texts of Unas, Pepi, and other kings of the Vth and Vlth dynasties. The four jars were usually placed in a coffer, or chest, specially prepared for the purpose ; and this is frequently depicted in representations of funeral processions. The Ani Papyrus shows the four sons of Horus standing by the coffer containing the mummified intestines of the deceased, and his renewed body
rising through the cover of it, holding " life " -r- in each
hand (see page 138). Among the fine collection of
" Canopic " jars in the British Museum may be specially
mentioned the set made for Kua-tep, Xlth dynasty,
No. 30,838 (Third Egyptian Room, Wall-case No. 112),
and the sets Nos. 22,374-7, and 9562-5, of the later period,
in Wall-cases Nos. 74 and 75 (Second Egyptian Room).
/ The custom of mummifying the dead appears to have
/ been unknown in the Predynastic Period. In the earliest
I attempts made to preserve the body, the plan followed was to
/ remove the intestines, and then to dry it in the sun, or to rub
it with salt The skulls found in the tombs are usually empty,
1 a fact which proves that the embalmers were able to remove
^ the brain and membranes without injury to the bridge of the
l62 MUMMY PORTRAITS, PAPYRUS CASES.
\_ nose ; sometimes they contain bitumen, or some kind of resin, which must have been introduced into them b}- the way i through which the brains were extracted, i.e., through iho-^ ^lostrils. Mummies cured with unguents and spices do not lasf long when unrolled; the skin of those cured with natron, z'.e., a mixture of carbonate, sulphate, and muriate of soda, is hard, and comparatively durable, but it hangs loosely from the bones, which are white and somewhat friable ; bodies from which the intestines have been removed, and which have been preserved by being filled with bitumen, are quite black and hard, and practically speaking, last for ever. The dead [poor were sometimes merely salted and laid in a common 'pit or cave. At one period the dead were embalmed in noney r the treatment of the child who was found in a sealed jar of hone\', mentioned by the Muhammadan writer 'Abd al-Latif, and the body of Alexander the Great being well- known instances of the custom.
Under, or soon after the XXVIth dynasty, the Egyptians began to place their mummified dead in brightly painted cartonnage cases, decorated with inscriptions containing the pedigree of the deceased, religious texts, figures of gods, etc., and to set them upright in the halls of their houses. The faces were painted to resemble those of the dead, and attempts were made to reproduce the natural colour of their skins, hair, and eyes, and even to represent small physical peculiarities. A man's immediate ancestors formed a part of his household.
About the beginning of the Graeco-Roman Period, or in the first century after Christ, it became the custom among the ruling class in Egypt to insert painted portraits of the dead in the linen swathings over their faces. Specimens of such portraits ma}' be seen in Case Y in the Second Egyptian Room, and in Wall-cases Nos. 70 and 71. A century or two later further attempts were made to abolish from mummies the funerary swathings, etc., and the dead were placed in papyrus cases, which were moulded to their forms, and were painted with coloured representations, Qf_ their clothes and ornaments. Very fine examples of such painted papyrus cases are exhibited in Wall-cases 64 and 65 in the First Egyptian Room, and they are of special interest as showing what kinds of garments and jeweller}' were worn by the Graeco-Egyptian ladies of Egypt, and how they were decorated. In the case of men, painted portraits were inserted over the faces, and the rest of the mumm}' was covered with plaster, usuall}' coloured pink or
INFLUENCE OF CIIRISTIANITV ON EMBALMING. 163
red, and ornamented with faulty imitations of the scenes found on the old cartonnage cases. The best example of this kind of mummy is that of Artemidorus, exhibited in Wall- case 6t, in the First Egyptian Room. The figures of the gods, etc., are painted in gold, and the mistakes in them prove that the artist did not understand the signification of the scenes which he was copying. The old theology of Egypt was forgotten, the meanings of the old funerary texts and scenes were lost, and the artist found himself obliged to use the form of address to the dead customary among the Greeks, i.e., " O Artemidorus, farewell ! "
The Egyptians, even after their conversion to Christianity, continued for a time to mummify their dead, and to bury them with the old ceremonies ; but before the end of the third century A.D. the art of embalmment had fallen into general disuse. The pagan Egyptian embalmed his dead because he believed that the " perfect soul " would return to the body after death, and that it would enter upon a new life in it ; he therefore took pains to preserve the body against the corruption of the grave. The Christian Egyptian believed that at the Resurrection he would receive back his body, changed and incorruptible, and that it was unnecessary for him to preserve by means of spices and unguents that which he would obtain, without any trouble on his part, by faith through Christ. Little by little, as a result of this belief, the observance of the old pagan ceremonies ceased, and with them embalmment in the Egyptian fashion. The views which Anthony the " Father of the Monks of the Egyptian desert " (a.D, 250-355), held on this matter are of importance. According to Athanasius : "The Egyptians were in the habit " of taking the dead bodies of righteous men, and especially " those of the blessed martyrs, and of embalming them and " placing them, not in graves, but on biers in their houses, " for they thought that by so doing they were paying honour " to them." Anthony besought the Bishops to preach to the people, and to command them to cease from this habit, and he showed " That it was a transgression of a command for a " man not to hide in the ground the bodies of those who were "dead, even though they were righteous men. Therefore " many hearkened and were persuaded not to do so, and they " laid their dead in the ground, and buried them therein." When he was dying he entreated his monks, saying : " Permit " no man to take my body and carry it into Egypt, lest " according to the custom which they have, they embalm me " and lay me up in their houses And ye know that I
164 MU^rMV SWATITIXC.S.
"have continually made exhortation concerning- this thini^ " and begged that it should not be done, and ye well know "how much I have blamed those who observed this custom. " Dig a grave then, and bury me therein, and hide my body "under the earth, and let these my words be observed care- " fully by you, and tell ye no man where ye lay me until the " Resurrection of the Dead, when I shall receive this body " without corruption from the Saviour." (See The Life of AntJio>iy, by Athanasins, in Migne Patrologiae, Ser. Grace, torn. XXVI, col. 972.)
The linen mummy swathings must now be mentioned. These were made from flax, and were of various thicknesses. Surviving examples vary in length from a {&\x inches to about 15 feet, and in width from 2 to 10 inches; some are made with fringe at each end. Mummies are often found wrapped in linen sheets, se\eral feet square, and the out- side covering of all is sometimes of a purple or salmon colour. Under the Ancient Empire, mummy swathings were quite plain, but under the Middle Empire, blue stripes occasionally appear at the ends, and the sheets in which the mummies of kings were wrapped, e.g., Amenhetep III and Thothmes III, Avere covered with hierogl)^phic texts from the Book of the Dead. At a later period texts in the hieratic character appear on the swathings, accompanied by vignettes drawn in outline. The principal seat of the linen industry in Egypt was Panopolis, the modern Akhmim, and, at a very early period, the weavers attained to such skill, that in a square inch 540 threads may be counted in the warp and Tio in the woof. About the third centur}- of our era, the mummies of wealthy people were wrapped in "royal cloth " made wholly of silk and decorated with figures of gods, animals, etc. The visitor will find a large collection of mummy swathings and sheets exhibited in Table-case E, in the Third Eg}'ptian Room. Here are the fringed linen ^yinding-sheet of Tehuti-sat, a singing woman of Queen Aahmes-nefert-ari, B.C. 1550 (No. i) ; two swathings inscribed with texts from the Book of the Dead (Nos. ii, 12) ; a roll of linen inscribed with the names of Piankhi Seneferef-Ra, B.C. 700 (No. 13); grave .shirts from Akhmim (Nos.- 18-27) ; and specimens of embroidered linen, with figures of saints, etc. (No. 39 ff) ; a portion of a Coptic stole embroidered with scenes from the life of Christ, and squares of linen worked with coloured figures of birds (doves ?), and the Cross and
symbol of "life" V within wreaths (Nos. 40-5 i).
PREDVNASTIC GRAVES. 165
In ^the same case is a good general collection of reels, spindles and spindle whorls, and carding instruments, etc., used by workers in linen. In Table-case J is a fine collection of pieces of linen ornamented with patterns and designs woven in coloured threads, or worked in wools, from the tombs of Egyptian Christians, dating from A.D. 300 to 900. Of special interest are the squares with figures of Adam and Eve (No. 4), St. George slaying the Dragon (No. 18), and God the Father among the Seraphim (Nos. 21-24). The fine pieces of yellow silk, one with arabesque designs and an Arabic inscription in the Kufi character, are remarkable (Nos. 25-27). Of bier-cloths, the finest example in Europe is probabl)' that seen in Wall-cases 70 and 71, in the Second Egyptian Room. This cloth is embroidered in coloured wools, with a frieze of cherubs holding necklaces, baskets of fruit, flowers, etc. In the centre two cherubs are supporting a crown, within which is worked a cross, and the rest of the cloth is ornamented with doves, vases of fruit and flowers, rosettes, etc. It belongs to the period after A.D. 350.
The Egyptian Tomb. — The care taken by the Egyptians to preserve the bodies of their dead would have been in vain if they had not provided secure hiding places for their mummies. The mummy had to be guarded against the attacks of thieves and of wild animals, and placed beyond the reach of the waters of the Inundation. In primitive times the dead of all classes were buried in graves which were dug on the skirts of the desert, in the sandy or rocky soil ; this custom was dictated by economical considerations, for the mud soil of the country, every yard of which was cultivated, was too valuable to the living to be devoted to the dead. The graves were usually oval in shape, and comparatively shallow, and they were covered over with slabs and layers of sand (see Case A, First Egyptian Room) ; it is probable that they were marked by some kind of stone or stake driven into the ground near the head of the grave. The graves, in which bodies were buried in a sitting position, , were, of course, deeper than those in which they were laid on their sides. Over the graves of chiefs, huts made of reeds and grass were built, and offerings of food and drink were probably placed in them, as well as in the graves. At a later period mud houses took the place of the reed huts, and, still later, such houses were built of stone. In the Archaic Period the buildings over the graves of the kings were rectangular in form, and they contained many chambers, wherein, no doubt, the ceremonies connected with the burial
1 66
TIIK PYRAMID ToMI'..
of kings were performed, and stores of provisions of all kinds for the use of the deceased were placed. At this time men and women of lower rank were buried in shallow graves, the sides of which were protected with crude bricks, and the poorest Iblk of all were buried together in pits, which belonged to the community.
In the Ilird dynasty, king Tcheser ( ^^ j, whose name a late tradition coupled with a very severe Seven
The Step ryraniid al Sakkarali.
Years' Famine, built himself, at Sakkarah, a magnificent tomb in the form of an oblong pyramidal building with six steps, to which the name of Step Pyramid has been given. Its total height is about 197 feet, and the length of its sides at the base is: south and north 352 feet, east and west 396 feet.
LTZU'
A common name for the tomb is Pa tcJictta
" House
of eternity," and tombs were endowed with estates by wealthy folk in perpetuity. The commonest form of tomb made for royal personages and nobles at this time, and for several centuries afterwards, was the heavy, massive building of rectangular oblong shape, the four sides of which were four walls sym- metrically inclined towards their common centre. To this building the name of mastaba, i.e., " bench," has been given.
)!
Plate XIV
(See pane 167.)
false door from the .Mastaba tomb of Asa-ankh, a liigh official who flourished in the reign of King Assa, about B.C. 3400. [Vestibule, South Wall, No. 53.]
THE MASTABA TOMB.
167
It was thus called by the Arabs, because all the examples with which they were familiar, being more than half buried in sand, resembled the long low seats which are common in oriental houses. The exterior surfaces of the mastaba are not flat, for the face of each course of masonry, formed of stones laid vertically, is a little behind the one beneath it, and if these recesses were a little deeper, the external appearance of each side of the building would resemble a flight of steps. The height of the mastaba varies from 1 3 feet to 30 feet, the length from 26 feet to 170 feet, and the width from 20 feet to 86 feet. The plan of the mastaba is an oblong rectangle,
l\ I \.('i
'3.
f J .. '~~r r:
A group of Mastal)a tombs at Sakkarah.
and the greater axis of the rectangle is usually in the direc- tion from south to north. Mastabas were arranged in rows symmetricall}' on all sides of the Pyramids at Gizah. The mastabas at Sakkarah are built of stone and brick. The entrance to the mastaba is usually on the east side. Near the north-east corner is sometimes found a series of long vertical grooves, or a " false door " (see Plate XIV), which is some- times called the stele. Near the south-east corner is generally another opening, but larger and more carefully made ; in this is sometimes found a fine inscribed limestone false door, and sometimes a small architectural facade, in the centre of which is a door. The top of the mastaba is quite flat.
The interior of the complete mastaba consists of: i. A chamber. 2. The Serdab. 3. A pit. 4. A mummy-chamber. The walls of the mastaba chamber may be ornamented with sculptures or not. In it, facing the east, is a talse door, which is
THE HALL OF OFFERINGS AND ALTAR.
Tablet for offerings, or altar, of Heru-sa- Ast, a scribe. [Southern Eg\'ptian Gallery, Bay 14, "No. 1034.]
E D
An Egyptian tomb of the ma^taba
class. A. — The hall of the tomb in which
offerings w«re made. B, C— The pit, or shaft, leading to the
mummy chamber. D. — A small corridor. E. — The mummy chamber.
The soul, in the form of a human- headed bird, descending the pit of the tomb to visit the mummy in the mummy chamber.
DESCRIPTION OF THE MASTABA. 169
usually inscribed. At the foot of the false door, on the bare ground, is often seen a tablet for offerings, made of granite, alabaster, limestone, etc., on which are sculptured figures of meat and drink offerings — cakes, loaves of bread, geese, a haunch of beef, vases of unguents, fruit, vegetables, flowers, etc. In many tablets for offerings small tanks, or hollows, with channels, are cut, and in these libations of wine were supposed to be poured. A large collection of such tablets for offerings of all periods, from the IVth dynasty to the Roman Period, is exhibited in the Egyptian Gallery, Bays 14 and 16. Some- times a pair of stands for offerings, made of stone, is found by the stele ; examples of these are exhibited in Wall-case No. 200, in the Fourth Egyptian Room. In the south or north wall of the mastaba chamber is usually a narrow chamber built of large stones, partly hidden in the masonry, to which the name of Serdab ^ has been given. Sometimes the serdab is isolated from the chamber, but usually it is con- nected with it by means of a rectangular passage, or slit, so narrow that the hand can be inserted in it with difficulty. Inside the serdab the statue of the deceased, which was intended to serve as a dwelling-place for the Ka, or double, was placed, and the passage was made in order to conduct to it the smoke and smell of the burning incense and offerings. The serdab is sometimes called the " Ka-chapel," and persons of means and position generally appointed a " priest of the Ka " to offer up offerings morning and evening. The pit, or shaft, of the mastaba was rectangular, square, or oblong, but never round, and it varied in depth from 40 to 80 leet. It led to the chamber below the ground where the mummy was laid. At the bottom of the pit, on the south side, was an opening into a passage from 4 to 5 feet high ; this passage led obliquely to the south-east, in the same direction as the upper chamber, and then expanded on all sides and became the sarcophagus chamber, or mummy chamber. When the dried or mummified body had been placed in the sarcophagus, and the cover of the .sarcophagus had been sealed, the pit was filled with stones, mud, and sand, and the deceased was thus preserved from all ordinary chances of disturbance.
The ornamentation of the mastaba consisted of sculptured scenes of three classes : i. Biographical. 2. Sepulchral. 3. Those referring to the cult of the dead and funerary gifts. In them we see the deceased hunting, fishing, making pleasure
' Strictly speaking the serdab is a lofty, vaulted, subterranean chamber, with a large opening in the north side to admit air in the hot weather.
I/O I'NRA.MIDS.
excursions by water, listeninj^ to music and watching women dance, overseeing building operations, or the work of ploughing, sowing and reaping on his estate, the manage- ment of cattle, the bringing of offerings to his tomb, etc. The reader will gain a good idea of the general arrangement of the false doors inside the mastaba chamber, and the painted decorations and sculptures of an ordinary mastaba, by examining the complete monument exhibited in the Assyrian Saloon. This was built originally on the side of a small spur of the mountain near Sakkarah for Ur-ari-en- Ptah, a royal scribe and councillor who flourished in the reign of Pepi II Nefer-ka-Ra, about B.C. 3100. It is inter- esting to note that two " false doors " are found on the south wall of this ma.staba, one for Ur-ari-en-Ptah and one for his wife Khent-kaut-s, and that the former contains a list of names of about ninety canonical offerings. The decorations of ma.stabas never include figures of gods, or the emblems which at a later period were considered sacred.
The next form of the tomb was the pyramid,' which is to all intents and purposes merely a mastaba built on a square base, with the greater part of it above the surface of the ground. It contained a long passage, with a sarcophagus chamber, or mummy chamber, at the end of it. The place ot the mastaba chamber was taken by a small temple, or chapel, built outside the {:)yramid, in which funerary gifts and offerings were made ; the pit of the mastaba was represented by a long passage, which sloped either upwards or downwards ; and the mummy-chamber in each case was substantially the same. The principal pyramids of Egypt are those of Abu Roash, Gizah, Zaw}'et al-'Aryan, Abu-Sir, Sakkarah, Lisht, Dahshur, Al-Lahun, Hawarah, and Kulla. In the Egyptian Sudan there are pyramids at Kurru, Zuma, Tankasi, Gebel Barkal, Nuri, and Kagrawir, but all these are inferior in design and construction to the pyramids of Eg3''pt. The latest of the pyramid tombs in the Sudan were built probably during the first or second century A.D. by a scries of native queens, each of whom bore the name of " Candace." A great many theories, chiefl\- of an astronomical character, have been formulated about the Pyramids of Gizah : but it is now generally thought that they were tombs and nothing else, and there is no evidence to justify us in believing that they
^ The word "pyramid" seems to be derived from the Egyptian Peremus , which probably means "a building with a sloping side."
172
ROCK-HEWN TOMBS OK THK XIITIi DYNASTY
were built by any of the Hebrew patriarchs, or that they were the "Granaries of Joseph," or that they contain chambers filled with gold and precious stones, which have not yet been discov^ered or cleared out. The kings of the Xllth dynasty followed the example of their predecessors of the Vth and Vlth dynasties, and built pyramids for their tombs, but they were on a much smaller scale. The pyramids of Amenemhat I and Usertsen I were at Lisht, those of Amenemhat II and Usertsen III were at Dahshur, the pyramid of Usertsen II was at Al-Lahun, and that of Amenemhat III was at Hawarah. Nobles and high officials built p\-ramidal tombs, usually about
EnU"ancc to tlu- lonih of Khnemu-liclep, an oiticial, at Beni Hasan.
XHth (]ynastv.
30 feet high, which were supposed to contain the three essential parts of the tomb, the upper chamber, the pit, or shaft, and the mummy chamber ; but as a matter cf fact, the body was buried in the brickwork which formed the base of such a pyramid ; there was no pit, and the p\-ramid itself represented the upper chamber.
Rock-hewn tombs. — The pyramid tomb was suitable for regions where the ground was flat, but the Egyptians who dwelt in places near mountains began at an early period of history to hew tombs in them. Thus at Aswan (Syene) the mountains on the west bank of the Nile contain three tiers
ROCK-HEWN TOMBS OF THE XVHITH DYNASTY,
^/ J
of tombs, the oldest beinc^ those of nobles and governors of Elephantine under the Vlth and Vllth dynasties. These are approached by means of a staircase cut in the slope of the hill, down the middle of which a smooth path was made for the purpose of drawing up the coffins and sarcophagi of the dead. At the top of the staircase the hill was scarped, and here the chambers of the tombs were hewn. The " false doors " were cut in the solid rock, and were above the mouth
Entrance to a ro}-al tomb in the Valley of the Tombs of the Kinss.
of the shaft, or pit, at the bottom of which, in chambers made for the purpose, the mummies were placed. Some of the tombs of the Xllth d}-nasty on the north side of the hill have long corridors leading to the mouths of the pits, and above these are the " false doors," before which statues were some- times placed.
Under the XVIIIth dynasty rock-hewn tombs of great size were made, and the finest examples of these are
174
TOMB OF SETI I.
undoubtedly the Tombs of the Kings at Thebes. The annexed plan and section of the tomb of Seti I will give an idea of the extent of the largest of them. A is a flight of steps, B a corridor, C a second flight of steps,
V -5
Ji '" '~-
S .S r-
p cj o
D a corridor, E, F, and G are rectangular chambers, H and I corridors, K an ante-chamber, L the large six-pillared hall in which stood the king's sarcophagus and mummy, and M, N, O, P, O arc chambers in which funerary ceremonies were performed. Under the sarcophagus is another staircase, which
I'
J!
Plate XV.
[See page 175.)
View of a painted chamber in the tomb of the scribe Xekht.
XVII Ith dynasty, about B.C. 1450.
Jl
M
Plate XVI.
{Seepaoe 175.)
c-^„, . n r )ya"-P'i'ntiiig from a tomb.
Scene. Payment of tr.bute. Sudani men bearing rings of gold, logs r\-nrt), 1- • °^ '^•'"'■'J'' panther-skins, apes, etc ^
[^orthern Egyptian Gallery, Bay 13, No. 520.]
TOMli DECORATION.
175
leads to an unfinished passage, its entrance being about 1 50 feet beiow the entrance to the first staircase ; the total length of the tomb is about 700 feet. The walls of the corridors and of most of the chambers are decorated with hieroglyphic texts and vignettes which iUustrate mythological legends and the funerary ceremonies, all painted in bright colours, and on the roof of the great hall are painted lists of the thirty-six Dekans and other stars, and several figures of solar and stellar sods. The Tombs of the Kings were all
Wall-painting from a tomb. Scene : Servants of a high official bearing offerings to the tomb. [Northern Egyptian Gallery, Bay 12, No. 517.]
built on practically one and the same plan ; the modifica- tions which are found in the details are due partly to struc- tural difficulties, and partly to the variation in the length of the time which was devoted to their making. They cover a period of about 550 years, i.e., B.C. 1600- 1050. At the entrances to some of the tombs of nobles and high officials gardens were laid out and trees planted, and these were, of course, maintained out of the endowments of the tombs.
176
TOMB EQUIPMENT.
Limestone coffin of IIes-Pet:in-Abl.
Ptolemaic Period.
[Southern Egyptian Gallerv, Bay 26,
No. 968.]
UndcrtheXXVIth dynasty attempts were made to re- produce tombs after the plans of the XlXth dynasty, and a few very remarkable tombs, e.g:, that of Peta- Amen-apt at Thebes, were the result. The decoration was, however, inferior, and the scribes who drafted the texts for the walls con- tented themseh-es with making extracts from the old funerary compositions, and invented few that were wholly new.
The poor were buried in shallow graves made in the desert, or in caves and hollows in the mountains. Some of the caves in the Theban hills are literally filled with skulls and bones and the remains of badly made mummies, and the same may be said of several " mummy pits," in many parts of Egypt, which were the common property of the neighbouring towns. .Among such remains are found cheap porcelain scarabs and poorly moulded figures of the gods, and sometimes coarse papyrus sandals, which prove that the equipment of the poor for their journey to the Other World was cheap and meagre.
Tomb Equipment— To describe here in detail all the varieties of objects which may be fittingly grouped under this head is
Jl
Plate XVII.
{See page 177.}
Jl
Plate XVIII.
[See page 1 77-)
Plate XtX.
{See page I77.)
Sepulchral tablet of Ban-aa, a scribe IJsortlicrn Egyptian Gallery, Bay 9, No. 474.] XVIIIlh dvnast^
COFFINS, CAX(3PIC |AKS, HE ART-SCARAB.
177
impossible, but the principal requirements of the dead of well- to-do folk may be thus enumerated : I. Coffin, or coffins, painted and decorated according to the means of the relatives. A fine collection of coffins, which illustrates all the important varieties between is.C. 2600 and A.D. 300 is exhibited in the First and Second Egyptian Rooms. Fine sarcophagi in wood and stone will be found in the Second Egyptian Room and in the Southern Egyptian Gallery (see Plates XVII and XVIII). 2. A stele, or sepulchral tablet, recording the name and pedigree of the deceased, and containing usually a prayer to certain gods for sepulchral offerings (see Plate XIX). Examples of almost every kind of sepulchral tablet in stone will be found on the shelves in the Egyptian Galleries, and brightly painted wooden tablets are exhibited in the Third Egyptian Room (Wall- cases N OS. 99-113). 3, A set of Canopic Jars (see above page 160). 4. A statue, or figure, seated or standing, usually inscribed, which was intended to form a duelling place for the "double" (Ka) of the deceased, and to re- ceive the offerings of his friends and relatives. (See the double statue of Ka-tep and Hetep-heres from their mastaba at Gizah, and Third Egyptian Room, Wall-case 99 ff.) 5. A ushabti figure, t.c, a figure which was sup- posed to transform itself into a living man in the Other World at the command of the deceased, and to perform any agricultural work which he might be condemned to do. In some tombs scores of ushabtiu have been found, and when a large number was buried in a tomb, a special box to hold them was provided. (For examples see Second Egyptian Room, Wall-cases Nos. 77-82.) 6. A Heart-scarab, i.e., a model of a beetle (of the Goliath species?) usually in hard green stone, which was either inserted in the breast of the deceased, where it was intended to take the place of his heart which had been removed during the process of mummification, or was fastened
H
Painted limestone figures of Ka-tep and his wife Hetep-heres.
IVth dynasty, B.C. 3750. [Vestibule, East Doorway, No. 14.]
Iji^ TO.MH K(;2UIPMENT.
on the bre.'ist over the heart. It was inscribed with the text of Chapter XXXb of the Book of the Dead, in which the deceased prays that his heart may be victorious in the judg- ment, that no hostile or lying w'itnesses may appear against him, etc. This prayer is very old, and a Rubric to the LXIV^th Chapter proves that it was in existence earl\- in the IVth dynasty. Frequently the heart-scarab was inserted in a rectangular temple-shaped plaque, or pectoral (see Table- case I, in the Fourth Egyptian Room}. 7. A cop}^ of some religious text or texts (Book of the Dead), written upon stone, wood, or papyrus. In the Vth dynasty such texts were cut on the walls of pyramid chambers, corridors, etc. In the Xlth dynasty they were traced in ink on the stone mummy chambers and on the sides of wooden sarcophagi. (See the coffin of Amamu in the First Egyptian Room, Case C.) In the XVIIIth-XXVIth dynasties they were written on rolls of papyrus which were placed in the coffin with the mummy, or between the legs of the mummy, or in a niche in the wall of the tomb. Sometimes the mummy was wrapped wholly in inscribed pap)-rus, and sometimes the texts were written on the linen swathings. 8. A set of vessels (bowls, jars, vases, bottles, etc.) for holding unguents, oils, astringent liquids, etc., for use in the Other World. These were made of granite, diorite, breccia, alabaster, etc., and their shapes are often exceedingly graceful. A very complete collection of them will be seen in the Fourth Egjptian Room ; the oldest date from the Archaic Period, and the series continues to the XXV Ith dynasty at least. 9. Royal ladies and priestesses were usually provided with a toilet box containing combs, mirror, hair-pins, hair-tweezers, sandals, tubes of eye-paint, flasks of sweet unguent, etc. ; for an example see Standard-case L, in the Fourth Egyptian Room. 10. A Pillow made of wood, ivory, alabaster, etc.
The tombs of the wealthy \\ere provided whh chairs, tables, couches, stools, boxes, painted and inlaid to hold jewellery, scents, etc., and many articles which the Egyptians used daily in their professions. The sistrum, cymbals, and bells which the priestess used in the temple were buried with her ; the bow and arrows of the hunter, the favourite inscribed staff of authority of the official, the spear, dagger and axe of the warrior, the palette and colour-pots of the artist, the sceptre or symbol of- office of the governor, children's toys and dolls, dice, draughts, and counters used in games — all these things went to form the equipment for the tomb in individual cases, and examples of them are to be seen in the Third and Fourth Eg)-ptian Rooms.
BEADS, NECKLACES, JEWELLERY. 1 79
Of personal ornaments of the dead the variety is endless, but a very good general idea of them may be obtained from the collections in the Table-cases in the Fourth Egyptian Room, In Case F, one side is filled with amulets, many of which were worn for decorative purposes during life by their owners, and the other side contains a collection of necklaces and beads belonging to various periods between B.C. 1700 and A.D. 100. The beads are made of gold, amethyst, garnet, carnelian, mother-of-emerald, lapis-lazuli, agate, topaz, glass, etc., all which materials were believed to possess magical properties, and the pendants were intended to bring luck, long life, health, etc., to their wearers. The necklaces of the early period will be found in Case J, some of which belong to the period of the Early Empire ; the porcelain beads and necklaces are in Case B. At one period unpierced, round and conical beads were made in Egypt. (See Table-case L, Second Egyptian Room.) They were found placed in semi- circular rows on a layer of clay, which was intended to serve as a necklace or breastplate for a mummy. A fine display of gold rings, pendants, bracelets, etc., will be found in Table-case J in the Fourth Egyptian Room. Worthy of special note are : the gold bracelets of Nemareth (Nos. 134, 135), the gold uraeus (No. 105), the " heart-scarab" in massive gold setting (No. 132), the hawk of gold (No. 133), gold pendant (No. 137), gold pectoral (No. 138), gold bangle with figures in gold and silver alternately (No. 140), gold lion (No. 175), Scarab of Sebekemsaf, a king of the XlVth dynasty (No. 195), gold rings inscribed with the names of Thothmes III, Hatshepset, Shishak I, Amen-hetep III, and Ptolemy III (Nos. 198, 201, 217, 237, 266), silver rings inscribed with the names of Amen-hetep IV, Shishak, and Psammetichus (Nos. 390, 392), and a very fine collection of 64 scarabs in agate, onyx, lapis-lazuli, etc., from the tomb of a princess of the Xllth dynasty, about B.C. 2400 (No. 382).
H 2
i8o
CHAPTER IX.
Numbers Cardinal and Ordinal. Divisions of Time : The Calendar, Sothic Period. Chronology.
Numbers. — -The numbers i to 9 are expressed by short perpendicular strokes, £'.^'"., | = i, ||=-, ||| = 3. =4. = 5, '"=6, ""=;, "" = 8, and ||| =9. The number 10 is
III III nil III
expressed by n, 100 by (^ , 1,000 b}' T , 10,000 by \ 100,000 by ^^ , 1,000,000 b\- ^ , and 10,000,000 by Q ; tens up to
90 are expressed by repeating the sign for ten, fl , so many times ; hundreds up to 900 by repeating the sign for hundred, Q. , so many times ; thousands up to 9,000 by
repeating the sign for thousand, T , so man\' times, and so on. The following extract will illustrate the use of these signs : —
I. Ru geese Tl ITT ^^^^ Hf] = 6,820
Khet-aa eeese T ^^ 11 = 1,410
Turpu geese i ^(S(a '^'' '""' n ~ ''5^4
Tchau geese (D ' '' ' ' ==: jrc
Mest geese T T 1 T = 4,060
Water fowl 1 1 TlTtl HH =: 25,020
Me... birds iniinir.iii " ="•-"
Pat birds Paash birds Birds
DIVISIONS OF TIME.
11
e
(3^
e
^(a
l»l = 21^700 = 1,240 = 6,510
Total No. of b
irds ^ X\
(^(^ n
nnii nn II
126,254
II. %. |e4) ^_^ 5^5^1^1^5^5^1^S^5^ ]]]]]]]]] '
Large loaves 992,750.
Fractions
=*. r=i,
(2(se nnn (2(5(2 nn ,
n
!
100'
1 00 (i>
^ .„u- ^ luuu. , , /;n = 43, etc. Ordinal numbers are indicated by '=x=s^ placed before the figure, or by Q
placed after it ; t'.^. ^^^^^ = " sixth,''
O = "seventh."
Divisions of Time. — The smallest fraction was the djit, Then came the //at
, one third of a second, or "the twinkling of an eye."
, second ; the <^^/ ^^A , minute;
and the iiniiut ^^ ^"^^^^^^ hour. Twenty-four hours made
one day, /'/7^ ''-' ^y> , ten days made one week, and
thirty days one calendar month, c=^ii. Twelve months plus the five epagomenal days made one vague or calendar year, renpit ^^^^•^ ^ | G . Longer periods of time were : — •
= 30 years.
= 120 ,.
Set period 1 Two-Henti period Heh |c- Tchetta
m
= An Age.
= Eternity. H 3
102 SOTHIC PERIOD, THE YEAR.
We also have : —
= Millions of \-ear.s.
= 10.000,000 }-ears.
= 1,000,000,000.000 years.
= 1 0,000,000,000,000 }'ears.
= 1 ,000,000,000,000,000,000 }'ears.
In late times the Sothic Period and the Phoenix Period were used by the Greeks, but there is no evidence that either was known to the Ancient Egyptians.
Chronology, and the ancient Egyptian Year. The Calendars of Lucky and Unlucky Daj's indicate that in very early times the Egyptian Year consisted of 12 months each of 30 days, j'.e., that the primitive year contained 360 days. Whether the Egyptians ever tried to use the lunar year of 354 days there is no evidence to show. Now the progress of the seasons would, in a few years, soon convince those who used the year of 360 days that their year did not agree with the solar year, and that it was too short, and they would be obliged to add to its days in some way. The inscriptions prove that even at so early a period as the reign of Pepi II ot the Vlth dynasty, the Egyptians were in the habit of adding five days each year to their year of 360 days, and that before B.C. 3000 the year in common use contained 365 days. These " five days " are known as " the days over the year "
( '^ % © . or O '" ^ %"P.or "the five I <=> Jl mil III II <:z^ Jl II 1 I I
epagomenal days," and they were said to be the days on
which Osiris, Horus, Set, I sis, and Nephthj-s respectively were
born. The primitive )^ear of 360 days was divided into three
seasons. The first season was Shat, or Akhet, J^T^j ; it began about July 19 and ended about November 15, and corresponded practically with the period of the Inundation.
The second season was Pert <=z> ; it began about November 15 and ended about March 15. The third season was Shemu ;^^;;^ ; it began about March 15 and ended about Juh' 13.
TIIK SEASONS AND THE MONTHS.
I8
These seasons to the Egyptians represented roughly Winter, Spring, and Summer. Each season contained four months, which were in early times called the first, second, third, and fourth month of that season ; in later times a' name was given to each month. The following was the early calendar : —
I II
I I I
II II
CO
CO
CO
, ist Month of sowing
, 2nd
, 3i"d
, 4th
I ^ 0
II ^~^
>, 1st Month of growing
, 2nd ., ,,
I I 1^ 0
* - Si"^'
I I I 1^ Q
'"'^'^^^ , ist Month ot inundation
. I . A^A>'V^A > O
rd
I v\ I
,4th
y
Coptic Name.' Thoth.
Paophi.
Athyr.
... C'hoiak.
Tybi. "1
I ... Mechir. I ^1^
> i
Phamenoth, 1 --Tj
i
Pharmuthi. J ... Pachons. "^
j
Payni. I h
f H
Epiphi. I ^
Mesore. J
^ The Coptic names are derived from the ancient Egyptian names ; thus Thoth" is from , V^ /A', whose festival was celebrated in that month.
Choiak " is from the name of the festival A'ahraka LJ V U , and so on.
I I I O III
to represent the whole period of the
- We should naturally expect
Inundation, and not merely the first two or three weeks of it ; and ,H I H,
cannot originally have referred at all to the period of the Inundation. This subject, however, is one of difticultv.
H 4
lcS4 CHRONOLOGY.
To these twelve months, as already said, five days were added, and the year thus formed is generally known as the " vague (or wandering) year," and the *' calendar year." Now it is clear that since this vague year of 365 days was shorter than the true year, or "solar year," of 365+, by nearly a quarter of a day, every fourth vague year would be shorter than the true year by nearly a whole day. Moreover, given a sufficient number of years, the vague year would work backward through all the months of the year, until at length the first day of the vague year would coincide with the first day of the .solar year. Thus, supposing the first day of the vague and solar years to have coincided on January i, B.C. 2000, two hundred years later the first day of the vague year would have worked back about 50 days ; and five hundred years later, i.e., about B.C. 1300, the first day of the vague year would fall in the height of the summer instead of in the depth of winter. This defect in their year of 365 days would soon become apparent, and we may be sure that they were not long in discovering some means for correcting it. According to some authorities the Egyptians knew the length of the true, or solar, year with considerable exactitude, and if this be so they were well able to plan their farming operations without any reference to the vague year. According to others the Egyptians were ignorant of the solar year, but were acquainted with a Sothic year, which is so called because it began on the day when the star Sept (or Sirius, or Sothis, or the Dog Star) rose heliacally, that is to say, with the sun. This happened on July 19 or 20, and as this date was very near the time when the Inundation began, the Egyptians considered it most convenient for their year and the Inunda- tion to begin at the same time. The Sothic year contained practically 365-I days, i.e., a few minutes more than the true, or solar, year ; and the Sothic Period, i.e., the length of the time which must elapse between two risings of Sothis heliacalK', contained 1,460 Sothic years, or 1,461 vague, or calendar, years.
It has now to be considered how the above facts bear upon Egyptian chronology. To make a complete scheme of Egyptian chronology we need a complete list of the kings of Egypt, and to know the order in which each succeeded, and the number of years which each reigned. Now, such a list does not exist, for the lists we have only contain selections of kings' names ; and of many a king neither the order of his succession nor the length of his reisn is known. The facts at
THE KING LISTS. 1 85
present available do not permit the making of a complete detailed scheme of chronology, but one which is approximately correct in many parts of it can be framed. As authorities for the names of the kings there are : — i. The Royal Papyrus of Turin, which, when complete, contained over 300 royal names. 2. The Tablet of Abydos,^ made for Seti I, containing seventy- six names. 3. The Tablet of Sakkarah, containing fifty Wiames. 4. The Egyptian monuments of all periods. 5. The King List of Manetho.- The Turin Papyrus, which was com- piled about B.C. 1500, gave the lengths of the reigns of the kings, but unfortunately most of them are broken. Manetho compiled his King List, it is said for Ptolemy II Philadelphus, in the first half of the third century B.C., but, as the work in which it appeared is lost, we only know it by the copies which have come down to us in the Chronicle of Julius Africanus (third century A.U.), in the Chronicle of Eusebius, Bishop of Caesarea, who died about A.D. 340, and in the Chronography of George the Monk (eighth century A.D.). Eusebius himself also compiled a King List, but his results differ materially from those of Manetho as given by Africanus. |j
Manetho divided the kings of Egypt into thirty dynasties, i
which he arranged in three groups : Dynasties I -XI, XII- ;;,
XIX, and XX -XXX. He also gave the lengths of the reigns ' ,
of the kings, and the cities of their origin, Memphis, Elephan- 1
tine, Thebes, etc. ' \
Now, although a great many credible facts are to be 1. 1
gathered from the above authorities from which we are ; j
justified in making the general deduction that the period of | j
dynastic civilization lasted between four and five thousand I •
years, they none of them help to fix an exact date for the ' }
reign of the first dynastic king of Egypt, who, by general ' '
consent, is said to have been Mena or Menes. If Manetho's List were trustworthy, the difficulty would be settled, but unfortunately one version of it makes 561 kings reign in 5,524 years, whilst another gives the number of the kings as 361, and their total reigns as 4,480 or 4,780 years. Many Egyptologists have accepted Manetho's statements with modifications, but others have tried to work out more accurate results, astronomically, by the use of the Sothic Period. It has already been said that the Sothic Period of 1,460 years is
' A second Tablet of Abydos, made for Rameses II, is exhibited ia the Northern Egyptian Gallery, Bay 6, No 592.
" To thfse n-ay be added the fragment of a stele (now preserved at Palermo), from which the names of a few of the Predynastic kings of Lower Egypt have been recovered.
1 86 CENSOKINUS AND THE SOTHIC I'liRIOD.
equal to 1,461 vague, or calendar, years, and it is argued that, if we can find mentions of the risings of Sothis (Sirius, or the Dog-star) expressed in terms of the vague year, and if we can also fix a date for the beginning or end of a Sothic Period, it will be possible to arrive at fixed points in Egyptian chrono- logy. Fortunately some three or four mentions of the rising of Sothis are known in the inscriptions, and thanks to Censorinus, who wrote his work {De Die Natali) a.d. 238, it is known that a Sothic Period came to an end A.D. 139.^ If this be so, it is clear that the Sothic Period to which he refers began in B.C. 1321, the one before that in B.C. 2781, the one previous in B.C. 4241, and so on. The next step is to work out the mentions of the risings of Sothis which are expressed in terms of the vague, or calendar, year, and, provided that the statement of Censorinus be trustworthy and the calculations of modern investigators be correct, it is possible to assign a date in ordinary Julian years to such risings of Sirius.
Want of space renders it impossible to discuss here the various systems of chronology which have been formulated by Egyptologists and others, but the dates proposed by the principal authorities for some of the dynasties may be thus grouped : —
Dynasty. |
Dates provosed. |
|||||
I. |
2. |
3- |
4- |
5- |
6. |
|
I |
5869 |
5702 |
5613 |
5004 |
4400 |
3315 |
III |
5318 |
5147 |
5058 |
4449 |
3966 |
2895 |
VI |
4426 |
4402 |
4310 |
3703 |
3300 |
2540 |
XII |
3703 |
3404 |
3315 |
2851 |
2466 |
2000 |
XVIII |
1822 |
1655 |
1796 |
1703 |
1700 |
1580 |
XIX |
1473 |
1326 |
1404 |
1462 |
1400 |
1320 |
XX |
1279 |
1 183 |
1195 |
1288 |
1200 |
1200 |
Of these systems the one proposed by the late Dr. H. Brugsch (No. 5) agrees best with the general evidence of the monuments as to the length of the period of Dynastic
^ He says : " The Egyptians in the formation of their Great Year had no " regard to the moon. In Greece the Egyptian Year is called ' cynical '(dog-like), " and in Latin ' canicular' because it commences with the rising of the Canicular " or Dog-star, to which is fixed the first day of the month which the Elgyptians " called Thoth. Their civil year had but 365 days without any intercalation. " Thus with the Egyptians the space of four years is shorter by one day than the " space of four natural years, and a complete synchronism is only established at " the end of 1,461 years." (Chapter XVIII.) " But of these [eras] the beginnings " always take place on the first day of the month which is called Thoth among " the Egyptians, a day which this present year corresponds to the Vllth day of
"the Kalends of July (June 25), whilst a hundred years ago this same
" day corresponded to the Xllth day of the Kalends of Avtgust (July 21), at ^' which lime the Dog-star is wont to rise in Egypt." (Chapter X.XI.)
7 po^j^^tt'
SYSTEMS OF CHRONOLOGY. 1 87
civilization ; it 1.^ therefore used, with some modification of the dates of the XVI If th dynasty, in this book. It has been declared that the intervals which he placed between the Vlth and the Xllth, andthe Xllth and the XVIIIth dynasties are too long, but, on the other hand, many objections can be urged against the reductions recently suggested. It is proposed to reduce the date given by Brugsch for Menes, B.C. 4400, to B.C. 3315 ; but there is no evidence in support of the reduction. The view has been steadily growing for years that some of the dates proposed by Brugsch for the kings of the XVIIIth dynasty must be reduced, and as this view is supported by the evidence derived from the recently published Babylonian Chronicles, and the general testimony of recently excavated monuments, the dates of the reigns of the early kings of that dynasty may well be brought down nearly one hundred years. The other evidence on the point, being of an astronomical character, can only be dealt with by experts. Egyptian chronology is a difficult subject, chiefly because of an insufficiency of facts about the reigns of the kings of the Vllth-XIth, and the Xlllth-XVIIth dynasties. Every year, however, witnesses the removal of a certain number of difficulties, and as long as excavations are made in Egypt a stead}' increase in the knowledge of the subject may reasonably be hoped for.
1 88
CHAPTER X, THE HISTORY OF EGYPT.
Palaeolithic Period.
The onl\- remains of this Period in the British ^Museum are flint axes, borers, scrapers, etc., t}'pical examples of which are exhibited in Table-case M in the Third P^gyptian Room.
Neolithic Period.
Towards the end of this Period Egypt was divided into two kingdoms, of the South and of the North ; of the kings of the latter a few names are known from the Palermo Stele, e.g., Seka, Khaau, Tau, Thesh Neheb, Uatch-nar or Uatch-ant, Mekha, etc. No date can be assigned to the rule of these kings, but they probably all reigned before B.C. 4500. Whilst Egypt was divided into two kingdoms the country was invaded, probably more than once, by a people who made their way thither from the East, or South- East, and settled as conquerors in the Nile Valle}' and Delta. They brought with them a civilization superior to the African, and appear to have introduced wheat, barley, the sheep, the art of writing, a superior kind of brickmaking, etc. After a time, length unknown, there arose a king who succeeded in uniting the Kingdoms of the North and South under his sway ; that king was Mena or Menes.
DYNASTIC PERIOD— ANCIENT EMPIRE. First Dynasty. From the city of This.
About I5.C. 4400.
Mena, the Menes of the Greeks, was the first d3-nastic king of Egypt, and has been identified by some with king Alja Q^, whose tomb was discovered in 1897 at Abydos.
RISE OF THE WORSHIP OF OSIRIS.
189
Nothing is known of his reign from the monuments, but a
tradition preserved by Greek writers declared that he
^ altered the course of the Nile, and so redeemed from
the river a large tract upon which he built the
first city of Memphis. Among the objects in the
British Museum bearing the name of Aha may be
j^^^ mentioned some clay sealings for small wine-jars, a
portion of an ivory box, and parts of two ebony tablets.
(Table-case L in the Third Egyptian Room.)
Q^
Nar-
MER.
Khent. Tcha.
Teta, or Atet, was the successor of Mena according to the King Lists. In recent years this king has been identified by some with a king whose name is provisionally read Nar-mer ; others, however, take the view that Nar-mer is one of the names of Betchau, a king of the Ilnd dynasty.
The next two kings were Ateth and Ata, but of their reigns nothing is known ; accord- ing to some authorities we are to identify King Khent with the former, and King Tcha with the latter. There are several small objects in the British Museum inscribed with the name of Tcha (Table-case L), and several jar- sealings (Wall-case on Landing).
^
The reign of the next king Semti p..yy^, or Ten, formerly
.: ^fffflP
known as Hesepti ....■, , was important. A legend preserved
in the Book of the Dead states that the short form of the LXIVth Chapter of that work was " found " during his reign ; and on the tablet exhibited in Table-case L, Third Egyptian Room (No. 124), the king is repre- sented dancing before a god, who wears the White Crown and is seated within a shrine placed on the top of a flight of steps. As in later texts Osiris is called " the god on the steps," and the White Crown is one of his most characteristic emblems, we are probably justified in identifying the figure in the shrine with that of Osiris. It is probable that the worship of Osiris assumed an importance in the reign of Semti hitherto unknown, and that it was at this period that the cult of this god began to displace the worship of ancestors, which, up to
Ten.
I90
SEMTI DANCING BEFORE HIS GOD.
that time, appears to have been general. It is clear that tradition assigned to his reign a period of literary activit}-. The name of Semti also occurs in connexion with a recipe in a book of medicine for driving the disease ukhedu out of the body. (For objects bearing his name see Table-case L, and for wine-jar sealings see Wall-cases on Landing.)
The sixth king of this d}'nasty was Atab, or Atchab, otherwise known as Merpeba, or Merbapen. (For a number of (jbjects bearing his names see Table-case L and Wall-cases on Landing.)
The next king, according to the King Lists, was called
King Semti dancing before ihe god who wears the White Crown.
Semerkha, or Hu, or Nekht, or Semsu, the Semempses ot Manetho. (For objects bearing his name see Table- ^^ case L and Wall-cases on Landing.)
This dynast)' was brought to a close b}- the reign of a king called Qebh in the later Lists ; the correct form of his name is, however. Sen, and his Horus name is Qa. (For objects bearing his name see Table- case L and Wall-cases on Landing.)
A
Qa.
Second Dynasty. From the city of This.
About B.C. 4133. The first king of the Hnd dynasty was Kha-Sekhemui Q Y Y ' other names of whom were Betchau, Xeter-baiu, and
WORSHIP OF APIS AND M NEVIS. 19I
Besh. From the reliefs on the statues of this king which were recovered from his tomb at Abydos, we may assume that Besh fought many battles, and conquered his enemies. From a design on one of his vases we learn that he was probably the first to enclose his personal name within the Shell nu sign Q, which was afterwards elongated into the
cartouche ( | when royal names became longer. In
this design we see the vulture-goddess Nekhebit uniting the South and the North, and holding in one claw the sign Q ,
with the name Besh written within it thus ;
Betchau, or Besh, has been identified by some with Narmer. There are no objects bearing the name of Nar-mer in the British Museum, but a good cast of a green slate shield of '■
Betchau is exhibited in Wall-case 10 on the Landing of the North-West Staircase. The designs on this remarkable object are reproduced in the Guide to the First and Second Egyptian ,i
Rooms, p. 40ft. The objects found in the tomb of Besh prove :
that the Egyptians were, even at this early period, skilled in |
stone-cutting, statue-making, and working in metals, and that ,
their religious and social institutions must have been estab- ,
lished for many generations. (See the copper vases and wine- > J
jar sealings on the Landing, and the interesting group of „,
objects, fragments of vases, etc., in Table-case L.) ' j
Besh was followed by Hetep-Sekhemui ^-Q-^ Y Y ' "^ ' '
whom we have a fragment of a stone vase (Table-case L, J ;
No. 162); and by Ra-neb and En-neter (see the fragment «f
of a bowl in Table-case L, No. 163). During the reign of Ra-neb, who was also called Ka-kau, the worship of the Apis Bull of Memphis, the Mnevis Bull of Heliopolis, and the Ram of Mendes was either reconstituted, or addi- tional shrines were founded or old ones repaired (For typical figures of these gods see Table-case H, Third Egyptian Room.) After Uatchnes, of whom nothing is known, came a king who as the representative of Horus was called Sekhem-ab, and as the representative of Set, Perabsen. In Table-case L are ajar-sealing and a fragment of a stone vase, and in the Wall-case on the Landing a fine, hard grey granite stele, inscribed with his Set name.
Sent or Senta is mentioned in connexion with a certain medical work which was either written or edited in the reign
192
SECOND DYNASTY.
Slab from the tomb of Sherd, a Priest
of the Ka of Sent, a king of the
Ilnd djTiasty, B.C. 4000.
[Vestibule, South Wall, No. i.]
SEVEN YEARS FAMINE. I93
of Semti, the fifth king of the Ist dynasty. Nothing is known of Sent's reign, but we find from the tomb of Shera, a priest, that services were performed on behalf of his Ka or "Double" and that of his predecessor Perabsen. Shera the priest probably lived at the end of the Ilnd, or at the beginning of the 1 1 Ird, dynasty. A fine slab from his tomb is exhibited in the Egyptian Vestibule, No. I.
Of the remaining kings of the Ilnd dynasty, Neferkara, Neferkaseker, Hetchefa, and Bebi, or Tchatchai, their names onl}' have survived.
Third Dynasty. From Memphis.
About B.C. 3966.
The greatest of the kings of this dynasty was Tcheser, or ,■/
Tcheser-sa, who is renowned as the builder of the famous '••!
Step Pyramid at Sakkarah. This pyramid is about 200 feet high, and has six "steps," 38, 36, 342,. 33. 3i. and 2g\ feet- /$\?./.f i high respectively ; the lengths of its sides at the base are : * S
north and south, 352 feet, east and west 396 feet. A tomb of '
Tcheser, who has been identified with this king, was ,
discovered at Bet Khallaf in 1901. Details of his reign are wanting, but, according to a legend preserved on a '
rock stele on the Island of Sahal in the First Cataract, a ,
Seven Years' Famine came upon Egypt in his time, and ' 1
want and miser\- were universal. Greek tradition ascribed to Tcheser great medical knowledge, and he is said to have been ,
a patron of literature. Among the objects of this king in the 1 1
British Museum may be mentioned the fragment of a slate vase (Table-case L, No. 169), and the very interesting small glazed tiles (Nos. 208, 209, in the same case; and see Table- case K in the Fourth Egyptian Room, Nos. 863-869), which were found inlaid in the wall of the doorway in the pyramid of King Tcheser.
The other kings of this_dynasty, Hen-Nekht, or Sa-Nekht, Tcheser - Teta, ' SetchesV and Nefer - ka - Ra Huni"^\vere unimportant ; the last named is mentioned in the famous Book of IMoral Precepts known as the Prisse Papyrus, where he is said to have been the predecessor of the great king Seneferu. With the ending of the 1 1 Ird dynasty the period of Egyptian History called the Archaic Period closes. During these dynasties civilization had advanced greatly in Egypt. The habitations of the living were now built of brick, with wooden roofs supported on pillars ; and the dead were provided with
194
CHANCE IN liUKIAL CUSTOMS.
stone-built tombs,
s, called mastabas, in ^\hich they were laid at full length, instead of in contracted positions. The art of writing" had been introduced, and the beginning of the hiero- gl}-phic system invented. Sculptors and metal workers had
Relief from the tomb of Suten-abu.
Ilird or IVth dynasty, B.C. 3700,
[Vestil.ule, South Wall, No. 5.]
attained considerable skill, and potters had learned how to apply glaze. The progress made during the Archaic Period can be successfully studied by the visitor from the valuable collection of objects exhibited in Table-ca.se L in the Second Egyptian
CONQUEST OF SINAI AND THr<: sOdaN. 195
Room, and in the Wall-cases on the Landing of the North- West Staircase. Special attention should be given to the green slate shields, sculptured in relief with hunting scenes, and to the fine display of vases and bowls, in diorite, granite, porphyry, jasper, breccia, limestone, alabaster, etc., in Wall- cases 137-142, 194-204, in the Fourth Egyptian Room. To the same period probably belong: — i. The portion of a sculptured stele, with the Horus name of a king, which was found at Wadi Magharah in the Peninsula of Sinai (Egyptian Vestibule, No. 2). 2. The very interesting red granite statue, of a most archaic character, of Betchmes, a royal kinsman and axeman who was attached to the body-guard of the king (Egyptian Vestibule, No. 3). 3. The text on a limestone slab in which the hieroglyphics are not divided by lines (Egyptian Vestibule, No. 4). 4. Relief from the tomb of ['
Suten-abu (Egyptian Vestibule, No. 5). '*'
Fourth Dynasty. From Memphis. I
Adoia B.C. 3733. [\
With the accession of Seneferu one of the most important periods in the history of Egypt opened, and it was marked by i
the conquest of the Sudan and the Sinaitic Peninsula, by the building of the Pyramids, and by the production of bas- , 1
reliefs, sculptures, wall-paintings, etc., which for fidelity to nature and delicacy of execution were never surpassed. ,
Several of the earlier kings of Egypt had trade relations with j
the natives of Sinai who worked the famous copper and !
turquoise mines of Wadi Magharah ; but Seneferu invaded the country and conquered it, and cut reliefs on the rocks in which he is represented clubbing the rebellious natives. He was the first to group four of the royal titles within
a cartouche thus :
He also raided the Sudan, and captured, as we learn from the Palermo Stele, 7,000 men, i.e., slaves, and 200,COO animals, i.e., oxen, cows, goats, etc. The men were, no doubt, brought to Egypt and made to labour there on the king's works. During the reign of Seneferu, Egypt was invaded by certain Eastern tribes by way of the desert ; and the country .seems to have suffered from a famine. Seneferu was probably buried in the Pyramid of Medum, which is called the " False Pyramid," and is of an unusual shape ; it is about 1 1 5 feet
196
CHEOPS AND THE GREAT PYRAMID.
high, and consists of three stages, which are 70, 20, and 25 feet high respective!}-. He also built a pyramid at DahshCir.
His queen was Mert-tefs <:z::> "^ 1, who survived him
and was living during the reigns of Khufu and Khafra ; a limestone false door from her tomb is exhibited in the
Egyptian Vestibule, No. 7« T^ he governor of Seneferu's pyramid at Medum was Ka-nefer (for his sepulchral stele see the Egyp- tian Vestibule, No. 8), to whose memory a pious son set up the ;■ ■ memorial tablet No. 9.
Seneferu was succeeded by Khufu, the Cheops of the Greeks, the son of Shaaru
czsa 'k ^^ ^1 , the greatest
G
king of the dynasty ; he is said to have reigned sixty-three years. He may have been a great warrior, like Seneferu ; and a relief on the rocks at Wadi Magharah in the Sinaitic Peninsula represents him in the act of clubbing a typical foe in the presence of the ibis-headed god Thoth. He was, however, a far greater builder, and he has been known to fame for some thousands of years as the builder of the Great Pyramid (see
Kinsj; Kliufu (Cheops). [Vestibule, South Wall, No. 13.]
Plate XX).
building, which
called " Khut,"
This wonderful the Egyptians
^^^» A , stands
a leds;e of rock
on the cdi^e of
forming the " skirt " (hence the name GizaJi) of the desert, on the western bank of the Nile, about 5 miles from the river, near the \illage -of Al-Gizah. It covers an area of \2\ acres. It is 451 feet high, and the flat space at the top is about 30 feet square. The length of each side at the base is 755 feet; but before the outer la}-ers of stone were removed and used in Cairo for building material each side was 20 feet longer, and the pyramid itself was about 30 feet higher. It was originalh'
{Seepage 196.)
Plate XX.
.,^'--
'^.
197
■J I u
^^
A "^ §'?
CJ ^
tvd o
S^'t3
O
O
198 THE GREAT PYRAMID,
co\ered with inscribed slabs of smooth limestone or polished granite, and it is calculated that it at present contains 85,000,000 cubic feet of masonry. The illustration on page 197 illustrates the general arrangement of the chambers and corridors inside the pyramid, and the corridor and mummy chamber beneath it. The stone used in building was quarried at Tura, on the eastern bank of the Nile, about 8 or 9 miles from the pyramid site. It was rolled down to the river on a made road, and ferried across in barges, and then rolled up the embanked road and causeway to the rock. According to Diodorus (i, 6^), the building occupied at least twenty years, and some 300,000 men were employed in the work. Herodotus says (ii, 64) that ten years were consumed in the quarrying of the stone, and ten more in building, and that the men worked in gangs of ten thousand, each gang working three months at a time. A group of three casing" stones from the Great Pyramid are exhibited in the Egyptian \'esti- bule, Nos. 10-12, and also a plaster cast of a statue of Khufu (No. 13). Attached to the Great Pyramid was a funerar\' temple in which commemorative services were performed; and either towards the end of the king's reign, or soon after his death, one of the chief priests in it was Ka-tep, who held the
office of " Prefect of the sa " ^7 V\ ^SW^ , i.e., of the " fluid oi
life." Ka-tep was a " ro}-al kinsman," and his wife Hetep- heres was a " royal kinswoman." For the statues of Ka-tep and his wife, see page 177, and for "false doors" from his mastaba tomb, see Egj^ptian Vestibule, Nos. 14.-17, and foi his censers, see Wall-case 200 in the Fourth Eg}-ptian Room Nos. 52, 53. Another official who flourished about this period was Shesha, from whose tomb came the limestone stele in the Egyptian Vestibule, No. 18.
During the reign of Khufu a large number of fine tomb.' were built round about the Great Pyramid, and in some ol them fine monolithic sarcophagi were placed. An excellent idea of this class of monument may be gained from ar examination of the cast of the sarcophagus of Khufu-ankh (Egyptian Vestibule, No. 19).
Here, because the monument is associated with the name o: Khufu in the inscription of Thothmes I V, must be mentionec
the Sphinx, in Egyptian Hu 8^ v^ .^^ . The early historj
of this wonderful man-headed lion is unknown, but it seemi that some work upon the rock out of which it was fashionec was undertaken hv Khufu. Under the XHth d\ nast\' th(
THE SPHINX.
199
headdress, called Jiciiuiies, was cut, and it is possible that an attempt was made to give the face some resemblance to that of Amen-em-hat I II, or one of his predecessors, about the same time. At a later period the Sphinx was identified with Ra- Harmachis, probably under the influence of an ancient tradition which connected it with the Sun-god. It is 150 feet long and 70 feet high ; the head is 30 feet long and the
face 14 feet wide. Origi- nally the face was painted a bright red, and traces of the colour are still visible. Traditions and supersti- tions have gathered about it in all ages, and it is probable that the rock out of which it was made was regarded with veneration in primitive times. In the Middle Ages the natives believed that the Sphinx kept the sands of the Western Desert from swallowing up the village of Gizah. A portion of the painted limestone uraeus, or asp, from the forehead and a portion of the beard of the Sphinx are exhibited in the Egyptian Vestibule, Nos. 20 and 21.
Khufu was succeeded by Tet-f-Ra, of whom nothing is known ; and he again was succeeded by Kha-f-Ra, the Chephren of the Greek writers, who is famous chiefly as the builder of the Second
^^ A , i.e., the
' Great." Its height is about 450 feet, the length of each ^ide at the base is 700 feet, and it is said to contain about 60,000,000 cubic feet of masonry, weighing some 4,883,000 tons. It was first opened by Belzoni (born 1778,
King Khafia (Ihephix-n)
Pyramid at Gizah, called in Egyptian " Ur
200
THE PYRAMID OF CHEPHREN.
died 1823) in 18 16. It was originally cased with polished stone, but only towards the top has the casing been pre- served. The illustration on page 171 shows the arrangement of the corridor and sarcophagus chamber, which is very different from that of the Great Pyramid. A funerary chapel was attached to the pyramid ; and among those who ministered in it was Rutchek, the chief of the libationer priests, who
calls himself a "friend of
Pharaoh
"P?
(For an architrave and an inscription from his tomb see Egyptian Vestibule, Nos. 22 and 23.) The Pyramid it- self was in charge of the " ro\-al kinsman " Thetha, who was the ro}'al steward, and "over- " seer of the throne of " Pharaoh," and priest of Hathor and Neith. Two fine doors from the mastaba tomb of Thetha are exhibited in the Northern Egyptian Gallery (Hay i, Nos. 24 and 25), together with a short inscription refer- ring to the burial of his father and mother (No. 26). The perfection to which the sculptor's art had attained at this period is well illustrated b\- the casts of statues of Chephren, from the hard stone originals in the Museum in Cairo, exhibited in the Egyptian V^estibule, Nos. ^7 a-^d 28. A fragment of an alabaster vessel from the king's tomb, bearing his name, is in Wall-case 138 in the Fourth Egyptian Room, No, 56.
Men-kau-Ra, the Mykerinos of Greek writers, reigned, it is said, about sixty-three years ; no details of his reign are
King MenkanrS (Mykerinos [Vestibule, South Wall, No. 30.]
THE PYRAMID OF MYKERINOS. 201
known, and he is chiefly famous as the builder of the Third Pyramid at Gizah, which the Egyptians called "Her''
^^^ A. This pyramid, is between 210 and 215 feet high, and
the length of each side at the base is about 350 feet. The illustration on page 202 shows the position of the corridors and the mummy chamber, which is 60 feet below the surface of the ground, and also indicates the damage which was done to the pyramid by the Khalifa Al-Mamiln, who, believing that it was full of gold and precious stones, tried to demolish it. The pyramid was originally cased with slabs of granite, many of which still remain in position. In the mummy chamber were discovered a stone sarcophagus, a wooden coffin, the cover of which was inscribed with the king's names and titles and an extract from a religious text, and the remains of a .1
mummy wrapped in a cloth. These were despatched by ■!,
ship to England in 1838, but the ship was wrecked, and the sarcophagus was lost ; the fragments of the coffin and the ^
mummy were recovered, and are now exhibited in Case B in the First Egyptian Room. In the reign of Men-kau-Ra 1
certain Chapters of the Book of the Dead were revised or '
composed by Herutataf, a son of Khufu, or Cheops, who was renowned for his learning. A cast of a statue of i
Men-kau-Ra, and a sepulchral stele of Khennu, a " royal kinsman " and councillor of the king, are exhibited in the ,
Egyptian Vestibule, Nos. 30 and 31. |
In the reign of Men-kau-Ra was born a child to whom J
the name of Ptah-Shepses was given, and who was a play- j
fellow of the princes and princesses in the palace. In the J
reign of the next king, Shepseskaf, he married the royal
princess Maat-kha - n , and lived on through the
reigns of Userkaf, Sahu-Ra, Nefer-ari-ka-Ra, and two or three other kings of the Vth dynasty. Under each king he filled a number of important offices, and at his death was probably considerably more than 100 years old. He was buried in a fine large mastaba tomb at Sakkarah, from which the great door in the Egyptian Vestibule, No. 32, was taken. The facjade is inscribed in fine bold hieroglyphics, and the sculptured decorations on the sides are good examples of the best funerary reliefs of the period. The upper parts of each of the main perpendicular lines of text contained the name of a king, but of these only two now remain.
202
Plate XXI.
{See page 203.)
An Egyptian official of the IVth dynasty. Cast of the wooden statue of the Shekh al-Balad, or " Shekh of the Village." [Egyptian Vestibule, No. 35.]
DEVELOPMENT OF SUN-WORSHIP. 203
The beauty of the statues of the IVth dynasty is
well illustrated by the painted limestone portrait statue of An-kheft-ka, a royal kinsman, which was found at Dahshur (Bay I, No. 33), and the headless statue of an official found at Gizah (Vestibule, No. 34). The standing figures of the Shekh al-Balad (sec Plate XXI) and the Scribe are wonderful examples of fidelity to nature (see the casts in the Egyptian Vestibule, Nos. 35 and 36). The finest bas-relief of the period is that from the tomb of Ra-hetep at MedCim (Egyptian Vestibule, No. 40) ; and the wall decorations of the ordinary mastaba tomb of this time are illustrated b}' the sculptured slabs from the tombs of Ari (Egyptian Vestibule, Nos. 41-43), and Afa, a steward and head-gardener (No. 44), and Ankh-haf, the scribe (No. 45), etc.
Fifth Dynasty. From Elephantine.
About B.C. 3566.
The kings of this dynasty are: -Userkaf, Sahu-Ra, Kakaa, Nefer-ari-ka-Ra, Shepses-ka-Ra, Kha-nefer-Ra, User-en-Ra An, Men-kau-Heru, Tet-ka-Ra Assa, Unas.
The reigns of all these kings, from a historical point of view, are comparatively unimportant. During the reign of Userkaf a great development of the cult of Ra took place in Egypt, and the worship of the Sun-god, according to the form established by the priests of Heliopolis, became dominant in the land. In the reign of Userkaf, or in that of one of his immediate successors, the title of " son of Ra " was added to the other royal titles, and, as the son of the Sun-god, the king took a special name. Userkaf built at Abu-Sir the pyramid
called "Ab-ast" /^JirjA- Sahu-Ra appears to have
made a raid into Sinai, for he is represented in a rock-relief at Wadi Magharah in the traditional attitude of clubbing a native of the countr\-. He built, at Abu-Sir, the pyramid called
" Kha-ba " Q 1*^^ A . For an alabaster vase inscribed with
the Horus name of this king, Neb-khau, see Wall-case 138, No. 58 ; and there is in the British Museum also a cylinder seal inscribed with his name (No. 48,023). The next important king of this dynasty is User-en-Ra, whose name, as son of Ra, was An. He carried on mining operations in Sinai, and probably suppressed
204 DEVELOPMENT OF TRADE IN THE SI DAN.
revolts there among the natives ; but details are wanting: He built at Abu-Sir the pyramid called " Men-ast '
From this, prcjbabl}', came the fine grey granite
funerary vase inscribed with his name =4^ ( „,>^ ] P <=> ]• l
(Sec Fourth Egyptian Room, Wall-case 194, No. 51.)
Usertsen I, a king of the] Xllth dynasty, wishing for some reason to commemorate User-en-Ra, dedicated to him a black granite statue, the lower portion of which is in the Egyptian Vestibule, No. 48. On one side of the throne is the royal prenomen, and on the other the nomen, which is repeated on the king's belt. A plaster cast of a stone statue of User-en-Ra is also exhibited in the Vestibule, No. 49.
Assa, the next king of im- portance, worked the quarries in Wadi Hammamat, near the old high road which ran from Kena on the Nile, in Upper Egypt, to a place near the modern. Kuser (Cosseir) on the Red Sea, and the copper and turquoise mines in the Peninsula of Sinai. He built at Abu -Sir the
pyramid called " Nefer " I A •
King User-en-Ra An, B.C. 3433.
[Vestibule, South Wall, No. 49.] During the reign of Assa a
development of trade be- tween Egypt and the Sudan ensued, and an Egyptian official called Ba-ur-tet succeeded in reaching the " Land of
the Spirits" and bringing thence a pygmy tenk ^4vl'
whom he gave to the king. The pygmy actually came from the land of Punt, which tradition declares was the original home of the Eg}'ptians. He was employed to dance the " dance of the gods " before tiie king. It seems to have been
PYGMIES BROUGHT TO EGYPT. 205
the custom in still earlier times to import pygmies from the Sudan, for skeletons of two were found near the tomb of Semempses, a king of the 1st dynasty, at Abydos.
Unas, the last king of the Vth dynasty, the Onnos of Manetho, carried on the usual mining operations, and, it is said, built a temple to Hathor at Memphis. He is chiefly famous as the builder of the first of a very remarkable series of pyramids at Sakkarah, the corridors and chamber walls of which were covered with series of formulae of the greatest value for the study of the Egyptian Religion. The pyramid of Unas was about 60 feet high, and the length of each side at the base was 220 feet ; in front of its door stood a portico which rested on granite columns with palm-leaf capitals. One of these columns now stands in the Egyptian Vestibule, No. 50. (For an alabaster vase from his mummy chamber,
inscribed with his name and titles
Wall-case 138 in the Fourth Egyptian Room, No. 57.)
The funerary reliefs of the Vth dynasty are very fine. Those worthy of note are : a " false door," from the tomb of Khnemu-hetep, a councillor and libationer and an officer of the palace of Userkaf (Egyptian Vestibule, No. 51) ; a portion of the facade of the tomb of Neka-ankh, a priest who ministered in the tomb of Userkaf (No. 52) ; a massive " false door" from the tomb of Asa-ankh, from Sakkarah (No. 53) ; a slab sculptured in low relief with a figure of the royal kinswoman Thetha (No. 60) ; and a slab from the tomb of Khnemu-hetep, a chief of Nekheb (No. 61).
Sixth Dynasty. From Memphis.
About B.c, 3300.
The kings of this dynasty were : —
1. Teta. 4. Mer-en-Ra.
2. Userka-Ra. 5. Nefer-ka-Ra Pepi II.
3. Ra-meri Pepi I. 6. Mer-en-Ra Tchefau(?)-
em-sa-f.
Teta, the first king of this dynasty, was neither a warrior nor a great builder ; and details of his reign are wanting. He built a pyramid at Sakkarah, the interior of the chambers and corridors of which are covered with inscriptions of a religious
2o6 UNA AND HF.R-KHUF IN THE SCdAN.
character ; it is commonly known as the " Prison P\-ramid.' Of the monuments of this king in the British Museum may be mentioned a grant of land to the god Khenti Amen.ti of Abydos (Egyptian Vestibule, Xo. 74) ; an alabaster vase from his pyramid, inscribed with his name and titles (Wall- case 138 in the Fourth Egyptian Room, Nos. 59 and 60) ; and a fine breccia bull, to which the royal names and titles have been added in recent times (No. 61).
Ra-meri, or Pepi I, was probably the greatest king of this dynasty. He worked the granite quarries at Elephantine, or Syene, and in the Wadi Hammamat, and he established his power in the Peninsula of Sinai, where he ruled the local tribes with a strong hand. His reign was one of industrial progress ; and trade and handicrafts flourished thoughout the country under his fostering care. Under the leadership of a favourite official named Una, he despatched a very large army composed of men drawn from all parts of the Sudan, to put down a wide-spread revolt which had broken out among the dwellers in the Eastern Desert called " the Aamu, who lived on the sand." Una gained a decisive victory, and was promoted to very high honours. Pepi I built a pyramid at Sakkarah, the walls of the chambers and corridors of which were covered with inscriptions of a religious character ; from this comes the fine alabaster vase, inscribed with his name and titles, in Wall-case 138 in the Fourth Egyptian Room, No. 66. (For two fine " false doors '"' from the tomb of Qarta, a high official of Pepi I, see Egyptian Vestibule, Nos. 75, 76.)
Pepi I was succeeded by Mer-en-Ra I Tchefaui?) em-sa-f, who carried on the works begun b}- his father, and built a pyramid at Sakkarah, from which came the fine alabaster vase in Wall-case 138 in the Fourth Egyptian Room, No. 66. He was succeeded by Nefer-ka-Ra Pepi II, who according to tradition lived to the age of 100 }'ears. During his reign Egypt was in a state of prosperit}', and there was great activity in trailc and handicrafts. At this time flourished the famous official Her-khuf, who was the master of a caravan which traded between Egypt and the Sijclan, which country he visited four times. On the last occasion he brought back a pygmy from "the land of the Spirits," which' King Pepi II bade him bring to Memphis. Detailed orders were sent to the effect that the pygmy was to be watched during the day so that he might not fall into the water, and his sleeping place was to be visited ten times each night by properly qualified people, for, said the king : " I wish to see " him more than all the tributes of Sinai and Punt." Other
MASTABA TOMB OF UR-ARI-EN-rTAlI. 20/
prominent traders in the Sudan on beiialf of the king at this time were Pepi-nekht, Mekhu, who died there, and whose body was brought back to Egypt by his son Sabben, etc.
Among the objects of the time of Pepi II may be mentioned a portion of a doorway made by himi at Abydos, and a sepulchral stele of Nefer-Senna, from his tomb at Denderah (Egyptian Vestibule, Nos. 77 arid 78). Among the priests who ministered in the chapel attached to the pyramid of Pepi II was Heb-peri, whose stele is exhibited in the Egyptian Vestibule, No. 79. The most important monument of his reign is the mastaba tomb of Ur-ari-en-Ptah, a royal kinsman and scribe, libationer, and councillor, from Sakkarah, which has been re-built in the Assyrian Saloon (No. 80). It is a good typical example of the tomb of noblemen and high officials of the period. The painted reliefs are interesting, and are typical of the wall decorations of tombs towards the close of the V^Ith dynasty. The inscriptions show that both Ur-ari-en-Ptah and his wife were buried in the chamber beneath the mastaba ; the list of offerings, some 90 in number, is exceptional!}- long.
Of the last king of the Vlth dynast}', Mer-en-Ra II Tchefa-em-sa-f, nothing is known.
The funerary art of this period is well illustrated by the stelae and "false doors" ofj Sennu (Bay i, No. 81), Ptah- hetep, a priest (No. 82), Erta-en-ankh, a royal kinsman and councillor (No. 83), Uthenaa, whose " good name " was Pena (a very interesting relief. No. 84), Atu, a scribe and superintendent of the " Great House of the Six " (No. 85), Behenu, a priestess of Hathor (No. 88), and a portion of a slab from the roof of a tomb, with flutings, which are probably intended to represent tree trunks (No. 90). All these, with the exception of No. 81, are in the Egyptian Vestibule. To this period also probably belong the libation tanks, and tablet for offerings of Antkes, Khart-en-Khennu, and Senb (Bay ]4, Nos. 93-95).
Besides the larger remains of this period, the scarabs in the Table-cases in the Fourth Egyptian Room should be examined. Several of them are inscribed with names of the kings of the first six dynasties, but it is not certain how many, or if any, of such scarabs are contemporaneous, and for this reason they have not been described in the preceding paragraphs. On the other hand, of the fine collection of scarabs of officials, inscribed with their titles, scores certainly belong to the period of the first half of the
208 THE FH ARAOI I AND HIS POWER.
Ancient Empire, and are of the greatest interest and historical value.
The monuments prove that between the IVth and Vlth dynasties the Egyptians lived in a state of serfdom, and that they regarded their king as the owner of both their souls and bodies. He was the very essence of God in human form upon earth, and his power was absolute; even in the Other World his authority was held to be equal to that of the great gods of the dead. The Pharaohs of this period were masters of the Pern'nsula of Sinai, and of the Eastern Desert between Egypt and the Red Sea ; and the memory of the raid which Seneferu made in the Sudan probably induced the warlike tribes of that countr}' to permit Egyptian caravans to pass from Syene to the Blue and White Niies unmolested.
At the close of the V^Ith d\-nast\- a period of general disorder appears to have set in, the chiefs of cities such as Suten-henen (Herakleopolis), AsyQt and Thebes contending among themselves for supremacy. Of the histor}' of this period nothing is known. According to Manetho Tversion of Africanus) we have : —
Seventh Dynasty. From Memphis,
Seventy kings m seventy da\'s.
Eighth Dynasty. From Memphis.
Twenty-seven kings in 146 years.
The Tablet of Abydos supplies after Neter-ka-Ra, the name of the last king of the Vlth dynasty, the following sixteen names, which represent, presumabh^ the kings of the VII Ith dynasty:—
I. |
Men-ka-Ra. |
9- |
Nefer-ka-Ra Tererl. |
|
2. |
Nefer-ka-Ra. |
10. |
Nefer-ka-Heru. |
|
3. |
Nefer-ka-Ra Nebi. |
II. |
Nefer-ka-Ra Pepi senb, |
|
4- 5. |
Tet-ka-Ra . . |
12. |
Senefer-ka Annu. |
|
Nefer-ka-Ra |
Khentu. |
13. |
.... kau-Ra. |
|
6. |
Mer-en-Heru |
14. |
Nefer-kau-Ra. |
|
7. |
Senefer-ka. |
15. |
Nefer-kau-Heru. |
|
8. |
N-ka-Ra. |
16. |
Nefer-ari-ka-Ra. |
THE PRINCES OF THEBES. 209
Under the rule of these kings the princes of Herakleopohs succeeded in gaining their independence, and thus the seat of the government of Egypt was removed from Memphis up the river to Suten-henen, the modern Ahnas, about 60 miles south of Cairo.
Ninth Dynasty.
Nineteen kings in 409 years.
Tenth Dynasty.
Nineteen kings in 185 years.
The Turin Papyrus contains a series of fragmentary '
names, which may represent those of the kings of one or the ;
other of these dynasties ; the fourth of these is Khati, whose name is also found on a rock in the First Cataract, and on a bronze bowl in the Museum of the Louvre in Paris.
Among the kings of the Tenth Dynasty may be placed king Ka-meri-Ra in whose reign lived Khati, prince of Siut, \
or Asyiit. About this time war appears to have been going ,
on between the princes of Herakleopohs and the princes of ,
Thebes, and the prince of Siut sent troops to support the ;
Herakleopolitans against the Thebans. For a time the Thebans were beaten, but at length they gained the mastery j
over the princes of the North, and founded a new dynasty. j
Of the period represented by dynasties Vll-X there >
are no monuments in the British Museum, with perhaps the |
exception of a few scarabs.
Eleventh Dynasty. From Thebes.
About B.C. 2600.
The founder of this dynasty was, most probably, Antefa, a local chief of the Thebai'd, whose titles were Erpa d
and Ha ^ g^, and " great prince of the nome of the Thebai'd,
" the satisfier of the heart of the king, the controller of the " Gates of the Cataract, the support of the South, making " the two banks of the Nile to live, chief of the Priests, the " loyal servant of the Great God, the Lord of Heaven." He was probably succeeded by two or three chiefs of similar
I
210 .MKN'THU-IIETKI'S TKMl'LE AT DKR AL-JiAl lARI.
name who made no claim to the sovereignt}' of the Northern Kingdom, whicli was then in the liands of the princes of HeraklcopoHs. The first of Antefa's successors who claimed to be " King of the South and of the North," and " Lord of the two Lands," i.e., all Egypt, was Uah-ankh Antef-aa, who was succeeded b)^ Nekht-neb-tep-nefer Antef, and he was followed by Sankh-ab-taui Menthu-hetep I. These facts are derived from the important stele of Antef, a priestly official, which is exhibited in the Northern Egyptian Gallery, Bay 4, No. 99 (see Plate XXII). Among the officials who flourished in the reign of Uah-Antef and his son was Thetha, whose sepulchral stele, inscribed with a biographical notice, is exhibited in the same Bay (No. lOO . Erom his tomb also came the inscription which formed the facade No. lOl), and the reliefs (Nos. I02, 103), on which are represented members of the family of the deceased bearing offerings. The order of the remaining kings of the dynast}' is doubtful. Several of them were called Menthu-hetep, and the}' may be distinguished by their prenomens thus : —
Neb-hapt-Ra Menthu-hetep, Neb-taui-Ra Menthu-hetep. Neb-hap-Ra Menthu-hetep. S-ankh-ka-Ra Menthu-hetep.
The first of these kings, Neb-hapt-Ra Menthu-hetep, probably Menthu-hetep II, appears to have been an able ruler, who reigned for about 46 years. He was a great warrior, and established his authority from one end of Egypt to the other. Among his other achievements was the pacifying of the Aamu, or the tribes of the Eastern Desert and Sinai. He built a fine temple at Der al-Bahari, the remains of which have been recently discovered and excavated. This building is unique in being associated with a pyramid- tomb. The fragments of the painted limestone reliefs which have been found among its ruins lack nothing in finish, fidelity to nature, and execution, whilst \n design and general treatment they may be compared with some of the best funerary reliefs of the Vth dynasty. In the Northern Gallery, Bay 3, an interesting collection of such fragments is exhibited, and worth}^ of note are : Head of a painted limestone statue of Neb-hapt-Ra Menthu-hetep. wearing the crown of the South (No. 104) ; portion of a painted relief, with a figure of the king being embraced by
[See J^agc 210.)
Plate XXII.
•£ '^
cu i^ I — I •" b/l O
w
Plate XXIII.
{See paqe 211.)
Sepulchral tablet of Sebck-fia, an overseer of transport, sculptured with scenes
representing the presentation of offerings, etc.
[Northern Egyptian Gallery, Bay 4, No. 120.] Xlth dynasty, B.C. 2600.
MENTIIU-IIK'I'EP'S EXPEDITION TO PUNT. 1*11
Ra (No. 105) ; relief, with a seated figure of the king and his prenomen f O ^^Z^ | 1 (No. 106) ; rehef, with a figure of a
king grasping an Aamu foe by one leg (No. 108) ; relief, with a figure of a hippopotamus (No. 110) ; relief, with a figure of a prince called Menthu-hetep (No. Ill); slab, inscribed Sma-taiii, the Horus name of the king (No. 117) ; and a portion of an inscription referring to the overthrow of the Aamu by the king (No. Il8).
To the period of the Xlth dynasty may be attributed the following interesting tablets and reliefs: Relief, from the tomb of Sebek-aa at Kurnah (see Plate XXIII), on which are represented the preparations for a funeral feast, the figure of the deceased lying on his bier, etc. (Bay 4, No. I20). <
The cutting of the figures and design is of a most unusual .
character; and for the general treatment of the subject this stele is probably unicjue. Other tablets, probabl)' somewhat later in date, are: Tablet of Khensu-user, set up by his son Sehetep-ab (Bay 3, No I2i), tablet of Sa-Menthu (Bay 2, No'. 122), tablet of Menthu-hetep (Vestibule, North Wall, ;
No. 123), and tablet of Mer-shesu-Heru and his friends (Bay 2, No. 124). The portion of a wooden coffin inscribed in hieratic with part of the XVIIth Chapter of the Book of \
the Dead, in Wall-case 87 in the Second Egyptian Room, belongs to this period ; the text was written for one of the Menthu-hetep kings. j
During the reign of Sankh-ka-Ra Menthu-hetep, who ,
was probably the last king of the dynasty, an expedition, J
under the command of a general, Hennu, was despatched to Punt, by way of the Red Sea. The object of the expedition
was to obtain a supply of anti '^ , or myrrh, which
was largely used for purposes of embalming. Hennu succeeded in reaching Punt, and in bringing back large quantities of all the products of that remote country. Details of the reign of Sankh-ka-Ra are wanting, but with, or soon after, his death the Xlth dynasty and the Ancient Empire came to an end. The length of the period which elapsed between the close of the Vlth and the close of the Xlth dynasty is unknown. Some authorities make the interval between the Vlth and the XI 1th dynasty to be about 650 }'ears, others less than 500 years, and others less still.
The following monuments probably belong to the period which immediately preceded the rise to supreme power of
I 2
212 AM EN EM HAT I.
Amenemhat I, the first king of the Xllth d\-nast\' : Black granite seated statue of Menthu-aa, or Aa-Menthu, an. Erpa and Ha Prince, son of the lady Mert (Vestibule, No. 127) ; tablet of the lady Nefert-tu, set up in her honour by her son Menthu-hetep (Bay i, No. 128), and the tablets of User (Bay i, No. 129), and Aqer (Bay i, No. 130). The tablet of Antef, son of the lady Oehet, or Heqt, and overseer of the king's cattle and preserves of water fowl (Vestibule, No. 133), and the important inscription of Antef, the son of the lad}' Mait (Bay 4, No. 134), and the Pra}'er of N-Antef-aqer to Anpu, lord of Sepau (Vestibule, No. 135), are all interesting, and are characteristic productions of this period.
213
CHAPTER XI.
MIDDLE EMPIRE. Twelfth Dynasty. From Thebes.
About B.C. 2466.
Amenemhat I, the first king of the Xllth dynasty, appears T-> /- ^ /:/; to have ascended the throne after a period of
B.C. 2400. , , r^ 1 • •
^ anarchy, and, even after his accession, the members of his own household conspired against him. The king tells us, in his Instructions, how one night, after he had composed himself to sleep, a number of armed men burst into his chamber and tried to murcier him. Leaping from his couch he attacked his assailants, and put them to flight. (See Sallier Papyri I and III, and the slice of stone No. 41 in Table-case C in the Third Egyptian Room.) Amenemhat drew up a survey of the country, and set boundaries to each nome, or province, and he framed a set of regulations for the supply ot water for irrigation to the different towns. Work went on in the quarries of Hammamat and Tura, and the king restored the temples at Tanis, Bubastis, Abydos, etc., and founded a temple to Amen at Karnak. He built the fortified
palace of Thet-taui °^^^^'^^", near Memphis, and a ]j}Tamid
tomb called " Oa " z] jT A , at Lisht. He invaded the Sudan,
conquered the four great tribes there, viz., the Matchaiu, the Uauaiu, the Satiu, and the Heriu-sha, and made himself master of their country as far as the modern Korosko or Ibrim (Primis). His reign was prosperous, and in his time "no man went hungry or thirsty." He associated his son U.sertsen I with him in the rule of the kingdom in the 20th year of his reign. Usertsen I was a great builder, and he rebuilt, or re-founded,
R r '>^'^■^ '^^^ famous temple of Annu, the On of the
4JJ- j^ji^Iq g^jif^^j t^j-^g Heliopolis of classical writers, the
sanctuary of the Bull Mer-ur (Mnevisj. Before the temple
2 14 IWASION OF THE SUDAN.
he set up two obelisks, the p)Tamidions of which were cased in copper ; the one now standing is 65 feet high. Pie set up an obehsk at Begig in the Fayyum, and carried on the works of restoration of the temples which his father had begun. In the 43rd )'ear of his reign he invaded Nubia, and com- pelled the tribes to pa\- him tribute, which the official Ameni collected and brought safel}' to Egypt. Ameni was despatched twice subsequently to Nubia to bring back gold and other products of the Sudan. The name given to Nubia in the
inscription which records these facts is Kash v_^« V\ ,
hence the Biblical Cush, which does not, however, mean Ethiopia in the modern sense of the term, but Nubia. Usertsen I built a fort and a temple at Behen, the modern Wadi Halfah, and appointed a " Governor of the South " to rule over Nubia, or the Northern Sudan. The old copper mines in the Wadi Magharah were reopened, and new ones at Sarabit al-Khadim were also worked ; the king built his pyramid tomb at Lisht, and associated his son with him in the rule of the kingdom a year before he died.
Among the monuments of his reign may be mentioned : A fine red granite stele on which are sculptured figures of Khnemu and Sati, gods of the First Cataract, and his Horus name, from Philae (Bay 5, No. 136) ; head of a colossal granite statue of Usertsen I, wearing the Crown of the South (Bay i, No. 137) ; and a fragment of a chalcedony vase inscribed with the king's
prenomen f - ^ U 1 i^^- 67, Wall-case 138, P'ourth Egyptian
Room). Of his officials there are the painted stele of Athi, who died in the 14th year of the king's reign (l^ay 3, No. 138) ; the stele of Neferu, the overseer of the royal water-transport at Behen, or Wadi Halfah (Bay 3, No. 139), and two stelae and a statue of Antef, the son of Sebek-unnu and the lad}' Sent. Antef was a confidential serxant of the king and superintended the royal private apartments in the palace ; he died four years before his master, i.e., in the 39th year of the reign of Usertsen I. (Sec Bay i. No. 140 ; Bay 3, No.s. 141 and 142.)
The reign of Amenemhat II was prosperous, but uneventful ; -3 P and no militar}' expeditions of imj^ortance
■ ■ '^ ' were necessar}- either in the Peninsula of Sinai or in Nubia. There was a large colon\' of Egyptians at Sarabit al-Khadim, and a temple was built there in this reign to Hathor, the goddess "of the land of
Plate XXIV.
{See page 215.)
\
Sepulchral tablet and seated portrait figure of Sa-Halhor, a mining inspector in the Sudan, in the reign of Amenemhat II, v,.z. 2400. '^ [Southern Egyptian Gallery, Bay i, No. 143.
EXPEDITION TO PUNT. 21 5
the turquoise." The search for gold was carried on actively in the Sudan, under the direction of Sa-Hathor, who tells us on his stele (Bay i, No. 143; see Plate XXIV) that he worked in the mining districts when he was a young man, and that he made the chiefs wash out the gold ; he brought back turquoises and went to the Land of the Blacks, or Sudan, and collected the products of the country for his master. His knowledge of stone working induced the king to send him to superintend the hewing of the ten royal statues which he placed before his pyramid tomb. An interesting event of this period was the despatch of an expedition to Punt under the direction of Khent-khat-ur, who returned safely with his men in the 28th year of the king's reign. In the third year of Amenemhat II died the Erpa Sa-Menthu, a royal scribe and overseer of works. He was born in the reign of Amenemhat I, and was appointed scribe, etc., by Usertsen I. His sepulchral stele is a fine example of its class (Bay 6, No. 145). Another interesting stele of this reign is that of Khenti-em-semti, a ro}'al official, and confidential servant and treasurer to the king ; he visited Elephantine and Abydos (Bay i. No. 146}. The official Khenti-em-semt-ur was a libationer priest who ministered in the chapel attached
to
the ro}'al pyramid called " Kherp " y A (Bay i,
No. 147). The door socket (Bay 5, No. 148), dated in ,
the 30th year of the reign of Amenemhat 11, comes from a j
royal building in Lower Egypt, and the seated figure of j
Hathor (Bay i, No. 149), dedicated to the goddess by Seneferu, *
the overseer of the boats, from Sarabit al-Khadim, dates from . J
the time of the opening of the new mines in the Peninsula of Sinai. The three dated stelae of Amenemhat (13th year), Sehetepab (19th year), and Menu-Nefer (29th year) are valuable examples of the funerary stelae of this reign (Bay i, No. 150 ; Bay 7, No. 151 ; and Bay 5, No. 152), and the stelae of Seneferu (Bay 3, No. 153), and Sen-atef (Bay i, No. 154).
The reign of Usertsen II was long and prosperous, but
uneventful. Active labour went on in the turquoise and gold
mines, and the quarries at Elephantine were worked under
R r '?'if\f\ ^'^^ direction of Sa-Renput, the Governor of
• ' ^ ' Nubia. Usertsen II built a pyramid tomb at Al-LahCm, of wonderful design and construction. It seems that he developed trade in the Red Sea, and took care to keep in check the tribes of the Eastern Desert. Classical writers call him " Sesostris " and describe him as a great
2l6 OCCUPATION OF THE SUDAN.
conqueror and traveller, but up to the present the Egyptian monuments have not justified these assertions. Among the monuments of his reign may be mentioned the stele of Sebek-hetep, the boat-builder, and Tchaa, a palace official (Bay 9, No. 155, and Bay i, No. 156), each of which is dated in the 6th year of Usertsen II, and the lower portion of a black granite figure of Sa-Renput, the " Great Chief in Ta-Kenset " {i.e., Nubia), the " great father of the King of the South, and the great one of the King of the North." Sa-Renput held many high offices at Elephantine and was one of the greatest of the feudal chiefs of his time (Vestibule, No. 157).
Usertsen III, who was associated with his father in the rule B r "2111 °^ ^^^ kingdom, was probably the greatest king 666' Q^ |.j-^g Xllth dynasty. The principal events of his reign were the conquest and occupation of all the Northern Sudan. As a preparation for this work, he made, or cleared out, a canal about 250 feet long, 34^ feet wide, and 26 feet deep, in the First Cataract, so that he might pass boats through it to the south. In the 8th year of his reign he sailed up to Wadi Halfah, and, passing on to one of the great " Gates " in the Second Cataract, he built two forts, one on each bank, at the places now called Semnah (west bank) and Kummah (east bank). He also built a fort to the north, on the Island Gazirat al-Malik, and others probably on the islands in the Nile to the south. In fact, he occupied the whole of the gold-producing country of the Northern Sudan. He set up a stele at Semnah to mark the limit of his kingdom on the south, and caused to be inscribed on it a decree in which the Blacks were prohibited from entering Eg\'ptian territor}' without permission, t^ight years later he set up two inscribed stelae in which he vaunted his own boldness, prompt action, and invincibility, and abused the Blacks, calling them cowards, runaways, etc. He says : " I have seen them, I made " no mistake about them. I seized their women, I carried off " their men and women when I came to their wells, I slew their " bulls, I destroyed their grain, and set fire [to their houses]." Usertsen III established a line of forts at regular intervals along the River Nile between Elephantine and the famous rock called Gebel Dosha, and garrisoned them with Eg}'ptian troops; and was thus able to ensure the safe transport of gold into Egypt, where the precious metal was required in ever-increasing quantities. He repaired and added to man)' of the great temples of Egypt, r.^i,'-., Tanis, Bubastis, Abydos, Herakleopolis, Thebes, Elephantine, etc., and he built a pyramid tomb for
Plate XXV.
{See page 217.)
Granite statue of Usertsen III, B.C. 2330. [Norlhern Eg>-ptian Gallery, Bay i, No. 159.] Xllth dynasty.
LAKE MOERIS. 21/
himself at Dahshur. Among the monuments of this king and his reign may be mentioned : Three grey granite statues of Usertsen III (Nos. 158, 159, 160) which were found in the South Court of the temple of Neb-hap-Ra Menthu-hetep at Der al-Bahari. These fine statues appear to represent the king at different periods of his life, and in finish and execution they stand unrivalled among the monuments of the period. On the plinth of No. 158 (Bay i) are cut the king's Horus name Neter Kheperu, and his name as king of the South and North
(see above, page ii6)( OQ LJUU 1 ^^^^ Plate XXV). Head
of a colossal granite statue of Usertsen III (Bay i, No. 161) ; a portion of a seated figure of the king from Sarabit al-Khadim (Bay I, No. 162) ; and the lower portions of two quartzite statues of the king (Vestibule, Nos. 163, 164). No. 164 was usurped by Uasarken II, of the XXIInd dynasty, who cut his cartouches upon the pedestal. The building activity of the king at Bubastis is marked by the granite slabs from that site in Bay 23 (Nos. 166 and 167) on which is cut the royal prenomen. No. 167 is of interest, for here we see part of the prenomen of Rameses II cut over that of '
Usertsen III. Of the prominent officials who flourished in this reign we have the stele of An-her-nekht, the overseer of the granaries, dated in the 7th year (Bay i, No. 168) ; the ;
stele of Ameni, who carried out certain works at Elephantine ,
in connexion with the king's expedition into Nubia, dated in j
the 8th year (Bay 3, No. 169) ; and the stele of Sebek-hetep, j
a warder of a temple, dated in the 13th year (Bay 5, No. 170). »
Amenemhat III reigned about fifty years, and devoted all 1
R r ?-200 ^^^^ energies to improving the prosperity of his ' ' -^ ' kingdom. Art, sculpture, architecture, and trade of all kinds flourished under his fostering care ; and the remains of his buildings and inscribed monuments bear witness to the activit)' which must have prevailed among all classes of handi- craftsmen during his reign. The mines of Sinai, the Wadi Hammamat, Tura, and elsewhere were diligently worked, and the king carried out large irrigation works in connexion with the great natural reservoir in the Fayyum, which is commonly known by the name of Lake Moeris (from the Egyptian Mu-ur,
or Ma-ur) ^^^^^^^^ ^^ , ^ — t -^^ ^^^^aa^ . The circumference of
this reservoir was 150 miles, and its area 750 square miles ; its average level was 80 feet above the Mediterranean. In Nubia also he appears to have undertaken irrigation works, for several
2l8 IRRKiATION WORKS I\ KOVI'T.
"levels" are cut on the rocks near the Forts of Usertsen III at Semnahand Kummah, with the years of the king's reign in which tlic\' were cut. The\' show that the level of the river during the inundation was about 26 feet higher than it is at the present time. Amenemhat III is also thought to have built the Labyrinth, which Herodotus says (ii. 148) contained twelve courts, and 3,000 chambers, 1,500 above ground and 1,500 under ground, and covered an area about 1,000 feet long and 800 feet broad. It was dedicated to the crocodile-god Sebek ; and many sacred crocodiles v/cre buried in a place specially set apart for them. Amenemhat III built a pyramid at Hawarah, and he and his daughter Ptah-Xefert were buried in it. From the ruins of the chapel at the entrance to this pyramid came the limestone slab inscribed with the king's names and titles exhibited in Kay 5 (No. 171)-
Foremost among the monuments of this reign must be mentioned the colossal grey granite seated statue, and the head, which probably belongs to it, exhibited in the Southern Egyptian Gallery (Bay 22, Nos. 774, 775 ; see Plate XXVI). The inscription on the pedestal of the throne was cut there by order of Uasarken II, a king of the XXIInd dynasty ; but it is certain that an earlier inscription existed, w'hich was erased to make room for the new one. The features of the face and the general treatment of the head resemble tho.se of all other extant inscribed statues and figures of Amenemhat III ; compare the cast of the statue in the Hermitage at St. Petersburg (Bay 2, X^o. 172), and the cast of a head from a statue of the king (No. 172, in Wall-case lOi, in the Third Egyptian Room). To his reign also belong the famous sphinxes which were found at San (Tanis) in 1861, and were for many }-ears attributed to the Hyksos, because the name of Apepa was cut on a shoulder of one of them. On the cast of one of these exhibited in the Central Saloon (X^'o. 173) are inscribed cartouches of Rameses II, Mer-en-Ptah II, and Pasebkhanut. Of officials who (lourishicd in this reign we have the fine white limestone shrine of Pa-suten-sa, from Medum, surmounted by the figure of a hawk (Bay i. No. 174) ; the stele of Nebpu-Usertsen, one of the king's personal attendants (Bay 2, Xo. 175) ; the stele of Usertsen-senbu
I I ^ ' I 1 I I I ^ ^ veritable ro\-al kinsman, and
a commissioner of the revenue, dated in the 25th )-ear of the king's reign (Bay I, No. 177) ; and the stele and altar of Sebek-her-heb and Kemen, dated in the 44th )car of the
(See page 218.)
Plate XXVI.
Head of a colossal sealed statue of Amenemhat III (?), B.C. 2300. [Southern Egyptian Gallery, Bay 22, No. 774-]
PROSI'KRITV UXDEK TUK TWELFTET DVXASTV. 219
I
■'Vlta»'
king's reign 1 (Bay 3, Nos. 179, 180). The stele of Tati-ankef
(Bay 5, No. 181), the son of Tenauit, is of peculiar interest, for
it was found in Malta (see page 220).
The reign of Amenemhat IV was short, and monuments
of his reign are few. His name is found on the rocks in the
copper mines in Sinai, and on
a rock at Kummah in Nubia,
but details of his reign are
wanting. An interesting glazed
steatite plaque, bearing his
name and that of Prince
Ameni, will be found in Wall- case 1 50 in the Fourth Egyp- tian Room, No. I.
The last ruler of this dynasty
was Sebek-neferut-Ra, the
Skemiophris of Manetho, and
sister of Amenemhat IV ; her
reign was short, and her
monuments are few. The
most important is the glazed
cylinder-seal inscribed with
four of her royal names, ex- hibited in Table-case D, Fourth Egyptian Room, No. 134.
In connexion with theXI Ith dynasty must be mentioned King Her, who may have been a son of Amenemhat III, or of Usertsen III (see his scarab, No. 37,652), and an Usertsen with the prenomen ot Seneferab-Ra, who is some- times called Usertsen IV.
The rule of the Xllth dynasty was long and pros- . perous ; and art, and sculpture, and literature flourished. The art of the period is developed directly out of that of the
Ancient Empire, but one of the most prominent character- istics is an increased tendency towards realism which is especially seen in the designs and workmanship of small
1 The name of the king is not given, but Amenemhat III must be referred to.
Shrine dedicated to Osiris by Pa- suten-sa, scribe, who flourished in the reign of Amenemhat III, B.C. 2300.
[Northern Egyptian Gallery,
Bay I, No. 174]
220
SEPULCHRAL STELAE.
objects. The Scarabs of the Xllth dynasty are particularly interesting and beautiful, and a splendid set of examples is exhibited in the F"ourth Egyptian Room. The sepulchral stelae of the period are also very interesting, and many of them exhibit clearly the transition stages between the " false
^m^'^mmm.'vX^^
i /j>^-A /■■•V.J 1 x.i '-^Ci^ f^—r ^r'" I (^-->-:,t-^-g= /"■■>■' I
Sepulchral stele of Tatiankef, the son of Tenauit. Found in Malta. [Northern Egyptian Ciallery, Bay 5, No. 181.] Xllth dynasty.
door " of the mastaba tomb of the Ancient Einpire and the stele, or tablet, which stood by itself in the tomb. The British Museum Collection is rich in Xllth d}-nasty stelae, comprising examples of every important \ariety. The inscriptions upon them usually open with the formula suten-
ta-hetep 1 A , which is followed by a prayer to one or
THE PRAYER FOR OFFERINGS. 221
more gods for sepulchral offerings and for "glory in heaven, "strength upon earth, and triumph in the Other World." Opinions differ as to the meaning of the formula sutoi id hetep. Some think that it is a prayer to " the king to give an offering " ; and others that it is a prayer for " an offering like that of a king " ; and many different renderings have been proposed by Egyptologists. It is of course possible that, under the IVth dynasty, the formula may have been a prayer that an offering might be given by the king, for the king was regarded as the equal of Anubis and Osiris and other gods of the dead ; but it is manifestly impossible that every man throughout Egypt could expect the king to send him an offering at his death, and we are therefore driven to conclude that the original meaning of the formula was forgotten at a very early period, and that it was only prefixed to funerary texts at the dictates of custom or tradition. If it had any meaning at all in the later dynasties, it would probably be that of a petition to one or more gods for the gift of an offering like unto that made for a king after his death. Sepulchral stelae are also valuable because they give the titles of the offices held by deceased persons, and because they often supply biographies of men who played important parts in the history of their country.
Among stelae and other monuments of historical value of this period may be mentioned : Stele from the tomb of Khnemu-hetep at Beni-Hasan (Vestibule, No. 182) ; statue of Amenemhat, a veritable royal kinsman,^ and master of the robes (Bay i. No. 183) ; seated figure of Ameni, inscribed with a prayer for offerings (Bay i, No. 184) ; stele of Nekhta, a Ha Prince (Bay i. No. 185); stele of Anher-nekht, chief clerk of grain supply (Bay i. No. 186); stele of Antef, an overseer of priests (Bay i. No. 187) ; stele of Sa-Anher, a deputy keeper of the seal, with figures of eighteen of his children and relatives bearing offerings (Bay i. No. 189) ; stele of the lady Khu, with figures of her two husbands and twelve children (Bay I, No. 190) ; stele set up to the memory of sixteen persons and their mothers (Bay 2, No. 191) ; stele of Sebek-aaiu, with hieroglyphics inlaid with blue paste (Bay 2, No. 193) ; stele of Ameni, of unusual style (Bay 2, No. 194) ; stele of Erta-Antef-tatau, a governor of the Sudan (Bay 4,
\
stiieii rckh, "royal kinsman." The title of "royal kins-
man " was often bestowed upon officials by kings as a reward for faithful services ; Amenemhat means that his title was not honorary.
222 TABLETS FOR OlFKRINCS.
No. 196) ; and stele of Antef, with an inscription of twenty lines in whicli the deceased describes his virtues and abilities (Bay 7, No. 197J. As examples of the w^all -paintings on the tombs of this period may be mentioned the slabs from the tomb of Tehuti-hetep, a high official who flourished during the reign of Amenemhat ■ II (Bay 2, Nos. 198-200 ; Bay 7, No. 201). To the same period, or a little later, belongs the sandstone obelisk which was set up to the memory of an Egyptian official of the copper mines at Sarabit al-Khadim in the Peninsula of Sinai (Bay i, No. 202).
The other monuments of ihe Xllth d\masty consist of altars, or tablets for offering's, of which a considerable number are exhibited in Bays 14, 16, and 17. Among the altars of the Xllth dynast)' ma\- be noted that of the Ha prince Usertsen, a superintendent of the prophets, sculptured with figures of vases and two tanks, and inscribed with an address to the living (Bay 17, No. 269). The altar is a rectangular, flat slab of stone, with a projection which was intended to serve as a spout, from which the drink offerings were supposed to run off into a vessel placed to receive them. In the altar small rectangular tanks were sometimes cut, but usually the surface was sculptured with figures of haunches of meat, bread-cakes, fruit, flowers, unguent vases, libation jars, etc., and on the edges and sides were inscribed prayers for funerary offerings of meat and drink and for things which were deemed necessary for the dead. The Eg}^ptians believed that the material things placed on such altars possessed, like animated creatures, tw'o bodies and spirits ; their bodies were consumed by the priests and others, and their spirits by the gods. Some believed in the trans- mutation of offerings-.
Wc now come to a jjcriod, i.e., that of the XII Ith, XlVth, XVth, XVIth, and XVIIth d\-nasties, which is full of diffi- culties. Not only is the order of the succession of the kings of these dynasties unknown, but authorities differ greatly in their estimate of the length of the period of their rule. Some say that the interval between the Xllth and the XVlIIth dynasties consisted of more than 500 years, and others that it was less than 200 \xars. The figures given b)^ Manctho are as follows : —
Xlllth dynasty. iM-om Thebes. 60 kings in 453 years. XlVth ,, „ Xois. ^6 „ in 1^4 (or 484 years).
XVth ,, Shepherds. 6 „ in 284 years.
XVIth „ Shepherds. 32 „ in 5 18 years. XVIIth ,, Shepherds. 5 (?) kings in i 5 i years.
Plate XXVII.
{See page 223.
/f-*'^
Granite statue of King Sekhem-uatch-laui-Ra.
rx, ,, T- • --. „ ■„ Xlllth or XlVth dynasty, B.C. 2000.
[Aorthern Egyptian Gallery, Bay i. No. 276.]
Plate XXVIII.
{See page 223. )
rTlfci Aiii&iilirtii
Stele of the reign of Sekhem-ka-Ra, a king of the Xlllth dynasty, about B.C. 2000. [Northern Egyptian Gallery, Bay 2, No. 277.]
Plate XXIX.
{See page 223.)
fliG3J
ft'''
A %
>. '
Memorial cone ot Sebek-hetep, a scribe, who flourished in the reign ot
Sebek-em-sa-f, B.C. 2000.
[Northern Egyptian Gallery, Bay i, No. 280.] Xlllth dynasty.
THIRTEEN ril AND FOURTEKXTH DVNASTIl.S. 22^
The total of these }'ears is 1,590 according to one reckoning and 1,290 according to another, but it is impossible to accept either, and we must therefore assume that the total of i,5go or 1,290 years represents the length of the reigns of the kings at Thebes, and of those who ruled in the Delta. In fact it is clear that, except at rare intervals, between the Xllth and the XVIIIth dynasties a king of the North and a king of the South were always reigning at the same time in Egypt, and that neither was sufficiently strong to make him- self master of the whole country. The evidence derived irom the monuments seems to indicate that the power of the Theban kings declined steadily at the beginning of this period, and that, as it declined, the power of the nomad Semites from the east, who are known as Hyksos or Shep- herds, increased until the end of the period, when the Theban kings became strong enough to make themselves masters of the whole country. The names of a considerable number of kings, who may be assumed to have reigned during the XII Ith and XlVth dynasties, are known from scarabs and larger monuments, but nothing is known of their reigns.
Of the monuments of the period in the British Museum may be specially noted : Red granite seated figure of Sekhem- uatch-taui-Ra, a king of the Xlllth or XlVth dynasty. This is a fine piece of sculpture, and is unlike any other statue in the gallery. The body lacks the heaviness of the statues of the earlier period. On the throne are cut, in outline, figures of two lions placed back to back. Above them are the signs
sa dnkJi ■^W' •¥") ^'-^-i the " fluid of life," which the king derived
from Ra, the Sun-god (see Plate XXVII ; Bay i, No. 276). Of interest also are three stelae of private individuals, each of which mentions the name of a king, viz., Sekhem-ka-Ra (see Plate XXVIII), wiih the Horus name of Sankh-taui (Bay 2, No. 277), Sebek-hetep, with the prenomen of Kha-nefer-Ra (Bay 5, No. 278), and Ab-aa (Bay 5, No. 279). To this period belongs the axe handle of Sekhem-uatch-taui-Ra '(Sebek-hetep) a king (Table-case E, Third Egyptian Room, No. 104). To a somewhat later period belong the interesting memorial cone of the scribe Sebek-hetep, who flourished in the reign of Sebek-em-sa-f (see Plate XXIX), of the XlV^th dynasty, a unicjue object (Bay i. No. 280), and the royal inscribed green stone scarab, with a human face, set in a gold plinth, which probably came from the tomb of this king at Thebes (Table-case J, Fourth Egyptian Room, No. [95). Of interest, too, are the royal stele of the little-
224 'mE SIIKI'IIKRI) KINGS OR HYKSOS.
known king Ap-uat-em-sau-f (Bay 3, No. 281); the stele of Hetep-neteru and Tehuti-aa, which mentions another hitherto unknown king (Ba}' 4, No. 282); the stele of Ptah-sankh. mentioning king Ra-Hetep (Bay 5, No. 283) ; and the slab from the temple of Osorkon II at Bubastis, inscribed with the name of Sekhem-khu-taui-Ra (Bay 23, No. 284).
To a great many stelae of private individuals, who flourished between the Xllth and the XVIIIth dynasties, it is difficult to assign exact dates, for very few of them mention royal names, and the inscriptions cut on them afford no clue. Fine examples of the transition period of funerary sculpture, stelae, etc., are : Stele of Neba, an inspector (Ba}' i, No. 285) ; grey granite portrait figure of an official of Athribis (Bay 2, No. 288) ; granite figure of Nefer-ari, from Bubastis (Bay 2, No. 289) ; stele of Pai-Nehsi, the store keeper of the gold which came from the Sudan (Bay 7, No. 299) ; stele of Antef-Aqer-ankh-khu (Bay 7, No. 301) ; stele of Queen Mer-seker (Bay 9, No. 330).
The Hyksos. — Comparati\ely soon after the down- fall of the Xlllth dynast}-, the Delta and northern parts of Egypt were little by little occupied by a con- federation of Semitic nomad tribes to whose leaders, on the authority of Flavius Josephus, the historian (who died about A.D. 100), the name of Hyksos or Shepherd Kings has been given. The word H}'ksos is derived from two Eg}'ptian
words Heqii-Shasu [^'^1 IH " "m, 4 _^ ^^^ ' ' ^•^'•' ^'^'^ Shekhs or Governors of the Shasu,^ or nomadic tribes of the Eastern Desert, Syria, etc. It is extremal}' unlikely that they fought for the possession of Egypt ; and we may assume that they migrated into the Delta, and that, after a few generations, the}^ found that their power and numbers were sufficiently great to enable them to assume the master}^ of the whole countr}' of Lower Eg}'pt. The Hyksos, who had settled in the Delta, adopted, little by little, the manners and customs of the Egyptians ; and at length their chiefs adopted the Egyptian language and religion, and assumed the titles of the old Pharaohs, and became to all intents and pur-poses Egyptian kings. They apparently worshipped several gods, the chief
^ The word Shasii means primarily "robber," and J^|^ | i ^ r^^\/i is the " land of the robber," i.e., the nomad desert man, who plundered caravans at every opportunity. Later, S/iasti ](\(\ ^ :|: p '^ w| [ , means merely " pastoral desert tribes."
ANTI(.)UITIES OF THE HYKSOS PERIOD.
225
of whom was Siitekh
]
(3 1=^
and him they identified
with Set [l^'y , or Suti ^^"%], the old Egyptian
god of darkness and evil.
According to Josephus the chief kings of the Hyksos were : Salatis, who reigned at Memphis, and fortified the city of Avaris, near Tanis, and garrisoned it with 250,000 men ; he reigned 13 years. He was succeeded by Beon, who reigned 44 years, and Apachnas, who reigned 36 years and 7 months, and Apophis, who reigned 61 years, and Jonias who reigned 50 years and i month, and Assis, who
Granite lion inscribed with the name of Khian, a Hyksos king, about B.C. iSoo. [Northern Egyptian Gallery, Bay 5, No. 340.]
reigned 49 years and 2 months. Of the objects in the British Museum which belong to the Hyksos Period may be mentioned : I. The famous Mathematical Papyrus (No. 10,058), which was written in the reign of Aa-user-Ra
/©^^-^nl or Apepa I ; 2. A red granite slab from the
temple of Bubastis, inscribed with the name of Apepa
inOl (Bay 23, No. 339) ; 3- A scarab inscribed Aa-peh,
the prenomen of Nubti, a king whose cartouches appear on the famous Stele of 400 years ^ (No. 32,368) ; 4. The granite
• It was discovered at San (Tanis) by Mariette, who had the inscription copied ; the stele was then carefully buried, and it has not since been seen.
K
226 WAR BETWEEN HYKSOS AND THEBAN PRINCES, lion (Ba)' 5, No. 340) on the breast of which is cut the cartouche 1 1 ( O 0 ^ '^^'^^ J Sjiser-en-Rd, i.e., the prenomen of
King Khian [ ® (|[| ^ '^^^^^ |. This hon was purchased at
Baghdad, but \\.'~, provenance is unknown. Besides these the British Museum possesses a large number of scarabs of the Hyksos Period inscribed with the names of kings and royal personages.
Another Hyksos king, Aa-qenen-Ra Apepa II, is made known to us by Sallier Papyrus II (No. 10,185), which shows that he was a contemporar)- of one of the Theban kings called Seqenen-Ra. According to this document there was enmity between Apepa II and Seqenen-Ra, his vassal, but as the papyrus is mutilated the result of their enmity is unknown.
During one portion of the Hyksos Period a group of petty kings, or chiefs, each of whom was called Antef-aa, ruled either at Thebes or Coptos, and a few of their monuments have come down to us. In the British Museum are : i. Stone memorial pyramid of Antef-aa Ap-Maat (Vestibule, South wall, No. 341) ; 2. Slab sculptured with a figure of Antef Nub-kheper-Ra (Ba)- 4, No. 342) ; 3. Gilded coffin of Antef-aa (Wall-case 2, First Egyptian Room).
It has been said above that there was enmity between Apepa II and Seqenen-Ra, but the monuments prove that there were three kings who bore the Seqenen-Ra prenomen, and it seems that all three waged war against the H>'ksos in the north; their full names were Seqenen-Ra (I), Tau-aa, Seqenen-Ra (II), Tau-aa-aa, Seqenen-Ra (III), Tau-aa-qen. The greatest warrior of the three was undoubted 1}- the last named, and it was he who determined to throw off the yoke of the foreigner. He was supported by all classes of Egyptians, for the Hyksos were hated, and especially by the priests of Amen-Ra at Thebes, who regarded the demand of the Hyksos king that Seqenen-Ra III should worship the god Sutekh as a grave insult to their god Amen-Ra. Seqenen- Ra III refused to worship Sutekh, and proclaimed his independence. Of the battles which were fought during the war that followed nothing is known, but it is clear that in one of them the brav^e leader in the struggle for national independence was slain. When his mummy was unrolled at Cairo, in 1886, it was seen that the lower jaw-bone was broken and the skull split ; there were also large wounds in the side of the
VICTORY OF TPIE PRINCES OF THEBES. 227
head and over the eye, and one ear had been hacked away. Tau-aa-qen was succeeded by his son (?) Ka-mes, whose reign was, however, short. To him belonged the fine bronze axe-head inscribed with his names and titles exhibited in Table-case B in the Third Egyptian Room (No. 5), and the spear head, similarly inscribed, of which see a cast in the same case (No. 191). Ka-mes had several children by his wife Aah-hetep, and some of their sons may have ruled for a short time ; but the country was very unsettled, and the first to succeed in restoring law and order was Aahmes, or Amasis I, the founder of the XVI 1 1th dynasty.
K 2
228
CHAPTER XII.
THE NEW EMPIRE.
The Eighteenth Dynasty. From Thebes.
About B.C. 1600.
Under this dynasty Egypt formed her empire in Western Asia, and conquered and occupied the Egyptian Sudan, probably so far south as the Bahr al-Ghazal. The H\-ksos were expelled from Egypt by the first kings of the d}-nast}-, and the peoples in the Eastern and Western Deserts were held in check with a firm hand. King after king made frequent raids on a large scale into Syria and the Sudan, and on each occasion brought back untold spoils, a considerable proportion of which was expended on the building of great temples like those of Karnak, Luxor, and Der al-Bahari. Trade developed to an unprecedented extent, and riches increased; and the king and his priests and nobles were able to gratify their love of splendid temples, colossal statues, lofty obelisks, large palaces, fine houses and gardens, decorated furniture, elaborate jewellery, costly tombs, etc. Under the patronage of the priesthood and the temple-schools education prospered, literature, art, painting and sculpture flourished, and the vast works which were undertaken by the Government encouraged handicraftsmen of every kind in the production of the best work. Among the kings of this dynasty were the greatest and most powerful sovereigns that ever ruled Egypt, viz., Thothmes III and Amen-hetep III.
The first king of the dynasty was Aahmes, or Amasis I, R r T/^nrt ^^'^° carried on the war against the Hyksos ■ * * which Seqenen-Ra had begun. . He captured
the city of Avaris, the stronghold of the Hyksos, and turned the enemy out of the country, and in the fifth year of his reign he captured the city of Sharuhen (mentioned in Joshua xix, 6), in Syria. He subsequentl}- invaded Xubia and compelled the tribes to pay tribute. Among the monu- ments of his reign are the massive granite altar inscribed with YiVj, name (Bay 16, No. 343); the head of a seated
THE PRIESTS OF AMEN-RA.
229
figure of Nefert-ari, his wife (Bay 12, No. 344); the ushabti figure of the king (Wall-case 84, Second Egyptian Room, No. 129) ; and the portrait of the Queen (Case I, Third Eg}'ptian Room, No. 3).
Amen-hetep I, the son of Amasis I, continued the war in Nubia, and the rebuilding of the temple of Amen and other sanctu- aries ; he was the founder of the great brotherhood of the Priests of Amen. From a building made by him at Der al-Bahari came the magnifi- cent painted limestone statue of the king, in the mummied form and with the White Crown of Osiris, exhibited in the Northern Egyptian Gallery (No. 346), and the stele on which are sculptured figures of Neb-Hapt- Ra Menthu-hetep and Amen- hetep I (Bay 9, No. 347). Other interesting monuments of this reign are : the stele of Pa-shet, a judge, who is seen adoring the king and queen (Bay 7, No. 348) ; and a stele with figures of the king and queen (Bay 9, No. 349). The inscriptions and scenes on several stelae show that Amen-hetep I and his queens were included among the gods ; see the stelae of Hui (Bay 8, No. 352), Pa-ren-nefer (Bay 8, No. 353), Amen-em-apt (Bay 10, No. 354), Amen-men (Bay 10, No. 355), and Hui, son of Nefert-itha (Bay ir, No. 357j.
I, or Thothmes I, the son of Amen- hetep I, made Napata, at the foot of the Fourth Cataract, the border of his kingdom to the south ; and he waged war in Northern Syria. He added to the temple of
Tehuti-mes B.C. 1550.
'A^.
,*'%.
0^ ■ «
Statue of Amen-hetep I, B.C. 1600, in the form of Osiris, wearing the Crown
of the South.
[Northern Egyptian Gallery,
Bay 3, No. 346.]
230 hatshepset's expedition to punt.
Amen, and set up obelisks at Karnak. Among objects bearing his name are two bricks and a steatite vase inscribed with his prenomen and name (Wall-cases 150 and 175 in the Fourth Eg)'ptian Room).
Thothmes II, the son of Thothmes I and Mut-Xefert, married his half-sister Hatshepset ; during his short reign, war was carried on in Syria and Nubia, and many temples in Egypt and forts in Nubia were repaired or rebuilt. Among the monuments of this reign may be mentioned the scarabs in Table-case D (Fourth Egyptian Room) and a portion of a slab inscribed with his Horus name (Third Egyptian Room, Wall-case 103, No. 937).
After the death of Thothmes II, his widow Hatshepset reigned alone for some }'ears, and she built the famous temple of Der al-Bahari, the walls of which she decorated with reliefs illustrating her Expedition to Punt. The temple was called " Tcheser-Tcheseru," i.e., " Holy of' Holies," and the architect was Senmut ; it was built close to the temple of Menthu-Hetep Neb-hap-Ra, and was ranged in three terraces. It was enclosed by a wall, and was approached by an avenue of sphinxes, which led to the pylon at the entrance, where stood two obelisks. She also set up two great granite obelisks in honour of her father Thothmes I. About twenty years before her death she associated her nephew Thothmes III with her in the rule of the kingdom. Man\- scarabs, a gold ring, a wooden cartouche, and an alabaster vase, inscribed with her names and titles, are exhibited in the Fourth Egyptian Room (Table-cases P and J and Wall-case 139).
Thothmes III, the son of Thothmes II and the lady Aset, was the greatest of all the kings of Egypt ; he reigned for about 53 years, 21 years as co-regent with Hatshepset, and 32 years alone. Soon after he became sole ruler of Egypt he began a series of campaigns in Palestine, Syria and other countries of Western Asia, and his arms were ever\-where victorious. In the first campaign he captured the city of Megiddo, in Syria, and brought back an immense quantit}- of spoil. Subsequently he undertook some fifteen campaigns into different parts of Western Asia ; and towards the close of his reign he appears to have raided the Sudan. The vast wealth which he drew from Asia enabled him to be a generous friend of the priesthood, and to repair, rebuild and enlarge and found sanctuaries for the great gods of Egypt. He carried on extensive building operations at Heliopolis, Memphis, Abydos, Denderah, Coptos, Der al-Bahari, Madinat Habu, Hermonthis. PLsna, Edfu, etc. ; but his greatest work was the colonnade
Plate XXX.
{See page 2t,\,
The Hall of Columns in the great temple of Amen-Ra, at Karnak.
i^LATE xxxi.
(^ee page ^2,1.)
I
Head from a colossal granite statue of Thoilimcs III bc ii;;o [Aorthern Egyptian Gallery, Bay 2, No. 360.] '
d
THE Conquests oe thoThmes lit. 231
which he built in the temple of Amen at Karnak, 150 feet long, 50 feet wide, with 50 columns and 32 rectangular pillars (see Plate XXX). He founded the temple of Sulb (Soleb) near the Third Cataract, and dedicated a temple at Semnah to Usertsen III. At Karnak and elsewhere he set up magnificent granite obelisks, one of which, commonly called Cleopatra's Needle, now stands on the Thames Embank- ment. He was buried in the valley of the Tombs of the Kings at Thebes; and his mummy was wrapped in a linen sheet inscribed with the text of the CLIVth Chapter of the Book of the Dead, and extracts from the Litany of Ra.
Among the many monuments of Thothmes HI and his reign may be mentioned : I. The magnificent head, in red granite, from a colossal statue of the king, found by Belzoni at Karnak (No. 360, Northern Gallery; see Plate XXXI) ; the total height of the head and crown is 9 ft. 5 in., and the width of the face is 2 ft. 7^ in. 2. Massive granite monument with figures of the god Menthu-Ra and Thothmes HI in relief (Bay 2, No. 363J. 3. Fragment of the obelisk set up by the king at Heliopolis (Bay 12, No. 364); and a door jamb from a temple of Thothmes HI at Wadi Halfah (Bay 10, No. 365). Of interest, too, are the cast of a granite sphinx bearing the name of Thothmes HI on its breast (Northern Gallery, No. 366J ; the cast of the famous granite stele inscribed with an address to the king- by Amen-Ra, in which the god describes the exploits of Thothmes HI (Central Saloon, No. 367) ; portion of a stele dated in the 35th }^ear' of Thothmes HI (Bay 11, No. 368) ; slab with scenes of Amen- hetep I and Thothmes III adoring the gods (Bay 12, No. 369), Among smaller objects inscribed with his name may be mentioned the glass jug, gold rings, razor (?), tools and weapons in bronze, and bricks made of Nile mud, exhibited in the Third and Fourth Egyptian Rooms. There are also the stele of Messnau, a priest in his temple (Bay 8, No. 372), and the statue of Netchem, who prayed to the royal Ka
of Thothmes HI J "^ Li (o t!^ ^ J (Bay 9, No. 373).
To the joint reign of Thothmes HI and Hatshepset belongs the statue of Anebni, the master of the armoury, which was set up to his memory by his august master and mistress (Bay 9, No. 374).
Amen-hetep II fought in Syria, and penetrated ihe Sudan as
B C moo ^'^'" ^^ Wad Ba-Nagaa, about 80 miles north of
Khartum ; he caused the body of one of the
232 WAR IN SYRIA AND THE SUDAN.
chiefs whom he had slain in Syria to be sent to Napata (Gebel Barkal), and hung upon the city walls to strike terror into the Nubians. Of monuments of his reign ma}' be noted : The royal ushabti figure in diorite (Wall-case 84. Second Egyptian Room, Xo. 7) ; the glass and alabaster vessels (Table-case H in the Third Egyptian Room), and the axe-head in Table-case B in the Fourth Egyptian Room ; the stele of Athu, second priest of the king (Bay 4, No. 375) ; and the portion of the bowl dedicated by the scribe Tehuti- mes (Bay 12, No. 376).
The reign of Thothmes IV was short and unimportant. He made one or more raids into Nubia, an expedition into Syria ; and in the first year of his reign he set up a tablet between the paws of the Sphinx stating that the god of the Sphinx, Herukhuti-Khepera-Ra-Temu, appeared to him one day before he was king, and bade him remove the sand which had closed him in on all sides, and promised him that he should become king if he obeyed. Thothmes undertook the work, and in due course became king. His inscription mentions king Khaf-Ra (Chephren) in connexion with some work (probabl)- a clearing of the sand) performed for the Sphinx. Among _ the monuments of his reign may be noted the stele of Amen-hetep, an officer who accompanied the king into Western Asia and the Sudan (Bay ii, No. 377) ; and the stele of Nefer-hat, overseer of the works in the Temple of Abydos (Bay 8, No. 378). Thothmes IV married a lady named Mut-em-uaa, who became the mother of Amen-hetep HI. The granite boat which was dedicated to the queen as the counterpart of the goddess Mut, is exhibited in the Northern Gallery (Bay 7, No. 379). For a portion of the head of her seated figure from the boat see Bay 7, No. 380. Some think that Mut-em-uaa is to be identified with_ the daughter of Artatama, king of Mitani.^
Amen-hetep III, the Memnon of the Greeks, declared
himself to be an incarnation of the god Amen-Ra ; he
reigned about 36 }-cars. In ihe fifth \'ear of his reign he
marched into the Sudan and crushed a rebellion at Abhat,
RC T/icn taking 750 prisoners. He subsequently travelled
' ' ^-^ ' in many parts of that countr\-, and built a magnificent temple there, near the modern village of Sulb (Soleb), which he dedicated to himself as the god of the Sudan. He made many expeditions into Western Asia, and whilst there he enjoyed lion-hunting on a large scale ; on the
' Tell al-Amarna Tablet at|Berlin, No. 24.
AMEN-HETEP III IN WESTERN ASIA.
233
large scarabs exhibited in Table-case D (Fourth Egyptian Room) he states that he shot with his own hand one hundred and two fierce lions during the first ten }^ears of his reign. His frequent visits to VV^estern Asia enabled him to continue the friendh' personal relations with the kings and rulers which his father inaugurated ; and he married several of their daughters, e.g., a daughter of Kadashman-Bcl, king of Karaduniyash ; a daughter of Shutarna, king of Mitani ; and a daughter of Tushratta, king of Mitani. He also married a sister of Tushratta called Gilukhipa, who arrived in Egypt with three hundred and seventeen of her principal women. The greatest and best beloved of his wives, however, was Thi,
VjR «t ""V^^SSJ.
Tlie Tomple of Luxor, built by Amen-betep III, B.C. 1450.
who must also have been of foreign extraction. Judging by the appearance of the mummies of her father, luaa and her mother Thuaa, which have recently been found, it seems that the former was not an Egyptian, but a native of some part of the Eastern Desert or Southern Syria, while the latter was a native Egyptian woman. Their daughter Thi was a very remarkable woman in every way, and it seems beyond question that her son Amen-hetep IV derived from her the monotheistic views which he held.
The building operations of Amen-hetep HI were on a very large scale, and extended from one end of Egypt and
:234 CONQUESTS OK AMEX-HETEP III.
Nubia to the other. He built the Apis chapels at Sakkarah ; at Thebes he built a pylon ; at Karnak the temple dedicated to the Theban triad, Amen-Ra, Alut and Khensu ; in the Southern. Apt {i.e., Luxor), a temple to Menthu, and a temple to the goddess Mut, from which come the series of statues of Sekhet, a fire-goddess, exhibited in the Northern Eg}'ptian Galler\-, Nos. 381 410. All these buildings were on the east bank of the Nile. On the west bank he erected a great temple, the Memnonium, and in front of it set up two huge statues of himself which are generally known as the Colossi of Memnon (see Plate XXXIII). The northern statue was said to emit a sweet, sad note daily at sunrise, and for this reason was known as the '' vocal statue of Memnon " ; the sound was never heard after the statue was repaired by the Emperor Septimius Severus (a.D. 193-21 i). Amen-hetep III also built a temple at Al-Kab, and another to the god Khnemu at Elephantine, and at Saddenga in the Sudan he built a temple in honour of his wife Thi, who was also probably worshipped there, as the king himself was worshipped in his temple at Sulb, which has already been mentioned.
The reign of Amen-hetep III was long and prosperous, and his kingdom extended from the city of Ni, on the Euphrates, to Karei, in the Sudan. He developed the gold mines of the Sudan to an unprecedented extent, and exported gold to the countries of Western Asia. The monuments of this reign are numerous ; among them may be specially mentioned : I. A tablet inscribed with an account of the crushing of the revolt in Nubia in the fifth \'ear of his reign, set up b\- Meri-mes, goxernor of the Sudan (Bay 6, No. 411). 2. Two colossal seated statues of Amen- hetep III (see Plate XXXII), from the Memnonium (Ba)- 8, No. 412 ; Bay 9, No. 413. 3. Upper portion of a colossal statue (Bay 6, No. 415J, and two heads from colossal sandstone statues of the king (Bay 4, No. 416; Bay 5, No. 417)- 4. Head from the granite sarcophagus of the king (Central Saloon, No. 418). 5. Grey granite column from a temjjle built by him at Memphis (?) It was repaired by Menephthah I under the NIXth dynasty, and about 100 years later Set-nekht inscribed his cartouches upon it (Bay 7, No. 419). The monuments of his officials are also numerous. The most interesting are: Granite coffin of Meri-mes, governor of the Sudan (Bay 12, No. 420); stele of Sururu, a high official (BAy 7, No. 422), seated figure of Kames, a king's messenger (Ba}- 5, No. 423) ; a slab, w ith cornice, from the tcjmb of Pa-ari, an overseer of the granaries
iSet page 234.
Plate XXXI I.
Colossal sealed statue of Amen-hetep III, B.C. 1450. [Northern Egyptian Gallery, Bay 8, No. 412.]
(Seepage 234.)
Plate XXXIII.
u
H c
^•3 ^ o
" e
I
t
BUILDINGS O^ AMEN-HETEP lit.
235
of Amen-Ra at Thebes (Bay 10, No. 424) ; stele of Apni, a master of transport (Bay ii, No. 425); painted statue of Pa-ser, an Erpa, from Der al-Bahari (Bay 13, No. 427); granite statue of Amen-hetep, an Erpa, from Bubastis(Bay 12, No. 428), etc. Of special interest are the two fine red granite lions, which were found in the ruins of a temple at Gcbel Barkal, at the foot of the Fourth Cataract. No. 430 dates from the reign of Amen-hetep III, and appears to have been made by him for the temple of Sulb ; No. 431 was, according to the inscription, made by Tut-ankh-Amen, a later king of the XVIIIth dynasty, who "repaired the monuments of his father Amen-hetep" (see Plate XXXVI). The name of a late Nubian king, Amen-Asru, is found on each lion, and it is
Scarab of Amen-hetep III, recording Scarab of Amen-lutep III, recording
tlie names of the parents of Queen the slaughter of 102 lions by the king
, Thi. [No. 29,437.] in the first ten years of his reign.
[No. 12,520.]
possible that he may have brought both lions to Napata from Sulb, and placed them in his own temple. Stelae Nos. 432 (Bay 10) and 433 (Bay 9) are of a most unusual character. No. 432 is a late (Ptolemaic) copy, written in hieratic, of the deed of endowment of the fimerary chapel of Amen- hetep, the son of Hap, the famous architect who built the
236 THE TELL AL-AMARNA TABLETS.
Colossi, dated in the thirty-first year of the reign of Amen- hetep III. Xo. 433 is inscribed with a series of addresses which can be read both perpendicular!}' and horizontally. Among smaller objects inscribed with the names of Amcn- hetep III and Queen Thi ma}- be noted the bronze menat amulet, stamp, vase, brick, stibium pot, plaque, scarabs, etc., which are exhibited in the Third and Fourth Egyptian Rooms.
Of the greatest importance for the histor}- of this reign are the Tell al-Amarna Tablets, a fine collection of which is exhibited in Table-case F in the Babylonian Room. They consist of a series of letters and despatches, etc., written chiefl}' to Amen-hetep III and his son Amen-hetep IV, by kings and governors of countries, provinces, and towns in Western Asia. Nearly all are written in a Semitic dialect, and in the cuneiform character. They were found in a chamber to the east of the palace of Amen-hetep IV, in the city of Khut-Aten, near the modern Tell al-Amarna. Among the royal letters in the British Museum are : Draft of a letter from Amen-hetep III to Kadashman-Bel, king of Karadum'}ash (No. 29,784); a letter from Kadashman-Bel to Amen-hetep III (No. 29,787) ; letters from Tushratta, king of Mitani, to Amen-hetep III (Nos. 29,792, 29,791); letter from Burra- buriyash to Amen-hetep IV (No. 29,785); letter from Tushratta to Thi, queen of Eg}'pt (No. 29,794) ; etc.^ (see Plates XXXIV, XXXV).
Amen-hetep IV was the son of Amen-hetep III and Queen B C izioo ^'^'' '^"^ reigned about 20 years. in his \outh he became a warm devotee of the god Aten, whose visible symbol was the solar disc, and rejected the cult of Amen, or Amen-Ril, the king of the gods. During the first few }-ears of his reign he lived at Thebes, and
built there a Benben J J UTJ . or shrine, dedicated to
/vWV^/v /WVSAA
Ilarmachis ; and it seems that this was regarded by the priests with disfavour. The pretensions of the priests of Amen were unbearable to him, and he therefore decided t-o leave Thebes and build a royal capital elsewhere. The site chosen by him
^ Full descriptions of all the tablets have been published by the Trustees of the British Museum, with summaries of the contents and the texts in The Tell al- Amarna Tablets in the British Museum, Autniype plates, iS92,8vo. Price 28^-.; and see ilie Guide to the Babylonian and Assyrian Collections, Second Edition, 190S, pp. 177-192.
(See page 236. )
Plate XXXIV.
.,^t%f/4ft\
"^.•/K^V^ ^^;>' 1^ -"\t^ /lit,-
Letter from Amen-hetep III, king of Egypt, to Kadashman-Bcl, king of Karaduniyash. [No. 1, Table-case F, Babylonian and Assyrian Room.]
li
(Sec page 236.)
Plate XXXV.
m
"^f'Wk
>'J
IfM.^
NoH" T^'hl"" ■^■"^'"■''^li\'Y"i^. -f Mjtani, to Amen-hetep III, king of Egypt. No. 8, Table-case F, Babylonian and Assyrian Room.] fe t,>P
I
I
MONOTHEISTIC CULT OF ATEN. 237
was on the east bank of the Nile, near the modern villages of Haggi Kandil and Tell al-Amarna. There he built a temple to Aten, a palace for himself, and houses for his officials. As the new capital grew, so the enmity between the king and the priests of Amen increased. This can hardly be wondered at, for he caused the name and representations of the god to be obliterated from the monuments. Having moved to his new city, which he called Khut-Aten, he abandoned his name of Amen-hetep, because it contained the name of the god he despised, and adopted the new name of Khu-en-Aten, i.e., the " Spirit of Aten." In his new capital he established a new form of the ancient cult of Aten, as he understood it, in the temple Het-Benben ; and the new worship was carried on with the forms and ceremonies which had been in use in Heliopolis for some two thousand years. Incense was burnt on the altars, offerings of all kinds were made, but no bloody sacrifices were offered up ; on certain occasions the king himself officiated. The followers of Aten declared that their god was almighty, and that he was the sole creator of the universe ; they ascribed to him a monotheistic character, or oneness, which denied the existence of any other god. Their god was " One Alone," and different in nature from any of the other gods of Egypt. It was the intolerance of the followers of the cult of Aten as formulated by Amen- hetep IV which made them hated by the priests of Amen- Ra at Thebes.
The palace and houses of the new city were beautiful, and were richly decorated. Art developed in a new direction, and was characterized by a freedom and a naturalism which are never met with, before or after, in Egyptian history. It sanctioned the use of new colours and new designs. The reliefs and pictures of the king prove that his features were unusual in character. He had a high, narrow, receding forehead, a large aquiline nose, a thin mouth, projecting chin, a slender neck, rounded chest, and his figure in many respects resembled that of a woman (see Wall-case 105, Third Egyptian Room, Nos. 213 and 214). Whilst the king was playing the priest in his new city, and making arrangements for building shrines to Aten in the Sudan, his Asiatic Empire was breaking up. The Tell al-Amarna letters show how rapidly the desert tribes began to harass the Egyptian garrisons in Syria and Palestine, and to hem them in. x\men-hetep IV made no attempt to maintain his
238 ECVPT LOSES HER ASL\TIC EMPIRE.
authorit}' in Asia, or to keep what his fathers had won in battle, and there is no record of any mihtary expedition during- his reign. Shortly after his death Eg}'pt had lost her Asiatic Empire, his new city was destroyed, the cult of Aten died out, and the shrine of Harmachis which he built at Thebes was pulled down, and the stones rebuilt into the temple of Amen. Amen and his priests had prevailed.
Among the monuments of this reign may be mentioned : I. Base of a statue of Amen-hetep IV, inscribed with the names and titles of Khu-en-Aten ; his cartouche as Amen- hetep IV has been mutilated (Bay 13, No. 435). 2. Base of a statue inscribed with the names of Khu-en-Aten and his wife Nefertith (Bay 13, No. 436). 3. Stele of Ptah-mai, inscribed with prayers to Aten and Ra (Bay 10, No. 438). The Tell al-Amarna letters to Amen-hetep IV will be found in Table-case F in the Bab3donian Room ; the scarabs, rings, etc., in Table-cases D and J ; and a fine porcelain boomerang in Wall-case 150, in the Fourth Egyptian Room. (For a rough outline drawing of Queen Nefertith (?) see Table-case C in the Third Egyptian Room, No. 4.)
The last kings of this dynasty were Tut-ankh-Amen, Ai, and Heru-em-heb; the first two of these married members of the family of Amen-hetep IV. Heru-em-heb was a wise and just king, and his reign was long and prosperous. Of the monuments of these reigns may be mentioned : the red granite lion inscribed with the name of Tut-ankh-Amen (Bay 10, No. 431 ; see Plate XXXVI) ; the stele of Thuthu, a steward of Ai (Bay 12, No. 439); the granite statue of Heru-em-heb (Bay 13, No. 441), and the statues of Heru-em- heb and the god Menu, or Amsu (Baj- 12, No. 442); the stibium tube of Tut-ankh-Amen and his wife Queen Ankh- sen-Amen (Wall-case 183, Fourth Egyptian Room, No. 23).
The statues, stelae, etc., of the XVIIIth dynasty are numerous, and many of them are of great interest as illustrating the perfection to which art attained under the patronage of wealthy kings and the priests of Amen. Among them may be noted the following: Figure and steleof Nekht-Menuor Nekht Amsu, holding a stele (Bay 2, No. 443) ; figures of Ari-neferu and his wife Apu (Bay 3, No. 444) ; stele of Amen-em-hat, inscribed with adorations to Osiris (Bay 5, No. 447J ; granite figure of Kamesu, a scribe (Bay 7, No. 452) ; stele of Pashet, guardian of the northern lake and northern pillars of Amen
(See page 238.
Plate XXXVI.
o
I
Plate XXXVII.
[See page 239.
Seated statues of a priest, or high official, and his wife. 1
[Southern Egyptian Gallery, Bay 18, No. 565.] XVIIIth or XlXth dynasty.
THE EGYPTIANS AND THE HITTITES. 239
(Bay 8, No. 455) ; stele of Nefer-renpit, sculptured with a scene representing the ceremony of Opening the Mouth (Bay 8, No. 456) ; stele of Tehutimes, captain of the guard of the city gate of Memphis (Bay 8, No. 460) ; stele of Heru-em-heb a high official, and two door-jambs inscribed with a h}'mn to the Sun- god (Bay 8, Nos. 461-463) ; stele of Neb-Ra, on which are
sculptured four e\'es and two ears ^^ (Bay 9,
No. 467) ; stele of Ban-aa, a royal scribe (Bay 9, No. 474) ; stele of Hem and Sutui, twin brothers, architects and clerks of the works at Thebes early in the XVIIIth dynasty (Bay 9, No. 475) ; stele of Pashet inscribed with praises of the Syrian god Reshpu (Bay 10, No. 478); stele of Qaha (Bay 10, No. 483); stele of Mahu, captain of the king's bow (Bay 10, No. 487) ; stele of Anna (Bay 1 1, No. 503) ; stele of Sebek- hetep, scribe of the wine-cellar (Bay 12, No. 513) ; sepulchral monument of Thuthu, with pyramidal top and libation basin attached (Bay 13, No. 549); granite figure of Qen-nefer, a high court official (Central Saloon, No. 556) ; three small inscribed pyramids (Bay 18, Nos. 558-560) ; painted shrine of Ani, a gardener (Bay 18, No. 561), etc. To the period of the XVIIIth dynasty may probably be attributed the seated statues of a priest, or high administrative official, and his wife in Bay 18, No. 565 (see'Plate XXXVII). This monument is undoubtedly one of the most beautiful examples of Egyptian sculpture in the British Museum. Here, too, must be noted a very rare object, viz., a complete wooden door, from the tomb of Khensu-hetep at Thebes, on which is cut a scene representing the deceased making offerings to Osiris-Khenti- Amenti, in the presence of Hathor, lady of Amentet (Vestibule, North Wall, No. 566).
Nineteenth Dynasty. From Thebes.
About B.C. 1370.
Rameses I, the first king of this dynasty, appears to have ascended the throne when he was an elderly man. He made an attempt to enter into friendly relations with Sapalul, the chief of the Kheta, or Hittites ; and he seems to have raided the Sthdan. Monuments of his reign are few (see the scarabs inscribed with his name in Table-case D in the Fourth Egyptian Room).
240 CAPTURE OF KADESH ON THE ORONTES.
The early years of the reign of Seti I, the son and successor of Rameses I, were spent in fighting. He attacked the Shasu, or nomad tribes of the Eastern Desert and of Palestine and Syria, and defeated them with great slaughter, and advanced to the city of Kadesh, on the Orontes, and conquered it. He returned to Egypt laden with spoil, including cedar wood from Lebanon for making a new barge for Amen-Ra at Thebes. He made raids in the Sudan, and forced the natives to assist him in reworking the old gold mines and opening up new ones. He reopened the copper mines in Sinai, and all the large quarries, for he needed much stone for his buildings. He began to build a great temple at Abydos, but did not live to finish it : the walls and pillars are ornamented with religious scenes and figures of the gods, and the sculptures and reliefs are among the most beautiful of Egypt. In one of the corridors is the famous King List, or Tablet of Abydos, which contains the names of "jG kings, the first name being that of Mena or Menes. At Karnak he added 79 columns to the Hall of Columns (see Plate XXX); at Kurnah (Thebes) he finished the temple begun by his father Rameses I ; and he built a splendid tomb in the Valley of the Tombs of the Kings (see page 174! From this tomb came his magnificent alabaster sarcophagus which is now preserved in Sir John Soane's Museum in Lincoln's Inn Fields. Seti I built a temple at Dulgo, near the Third Cataract, probably in connexion with the gold trade carried on by the government ; he opened up roads to the gold deposits in the Wadi Ulaki, in the Eastern Desert ; and he built a temple at Radassi}-ah on the old caravan road which ran from Edfu to the emerald mines of Gebel Zabara, near Berenice, on the Red Sea; and dug wells at many places in the desert. His reign was comparatively short, 10 or 15 years at most, and he was succeeded by his second son Rameses II, whom he had made co-regent. Among the monuments of his reign are : Large wooden Ka-figure of Seti I, found in a chamber in his tomb (Central Saloon, No. 567) ; three painted slabs from the tomb of Seti I (Central Saloon, Nos. 568-570) ; and a grey granite clamp from a wall in Seti's temple at Abydos, inscribed with his prenomcn
fo^^^l (Bay 18, No. 572). Among smaller objects may be
noted the scarabs, glazed vase, and ushabtiu figures of the
king exhibited in the Second and Fourth Egyptian Rooms (Wall-cases 78, 79, 150 and 152). A stele set up by him at Wadi Halfah in the first year of his reign is in Bay 13
THE GREAT IIITTITE WAR.
241
(No. 574), and ihc stele of Ruma, a scribe and priest in his temple at Ab3-dos, is in Bay 1 1 (No. 573). The beautifully illustrated Papyrus of Hunefer was written in this reign (No. 9901).
Ramessu, or Rameses II, the Sesostris of the Greek writers, the son of Scti I, was associated with his father in the
rule of the kingdom at an early age ; he was probably between 20 and 30 years old when he became sole king of I, "^^ii^ik I'-gypt- -^^ reigned 6y
^, W^r years, and died aged
about 100 years. He married many wives, among them being some of his own near relatives, and was the father of about 1 1 1 sons and 5 1 daughters. During the first two or three years of his reign he made war on the tribes of the Sudan, and his victories over them were com- memorated by the rock- hewn temple at Bet al-Wali, near Kalabshah. Reproductions in plaster of the scenes of the paying of tribute to him are exhibited on the North and South walls of the Fourth Egyptian Room. In the fourth year of his reign Rameses was fighting in Syria, and so began the series of battles with the Kheta and their allies which lasted for fifteen or six- teen years. In the end neither side was victorious, and finally Rameses was obliged to make a treaty with the prince of the Kheta, in which it was agreed that Egypt was not to invade Kheta territory, and that the Kheta were not to invade
L
Kneeling statue of Rameses II holding a
tablet for offering. [Southern Egyptian Gallery,
Bav 17, No. 584.]
242 THE BATTLE OK KADESH.
Egypt. The Kheta adinitLcd the sovereignty of Rameses over all territor\' south of the Nahr al-Kalb, or Dog River, near Berut, in Syria, and the region north of it was to be Kheta territory for ever. The most important among the long series of battles was the Egyptian attack on Kadesh, on the Orontes ; it was temporarily successful, but it cost Rameses dear. During the struggle, Rameses had charged among the enemy far ahead of his troops, who had either been killed or had run away. When the king realized his position, he found that he was surrounded by the foe, and was in the greatest danger of being slain. Undaunted, however, he girded on his armour, and in
the strength of the gods Menthu and Bal (Baal, ] «cz:> K|)
he turned on his foes, and cut his way through them, slaying large numbers as he escaped from their midst. " I was," said the king, " by myself, for my soldiers and my horse- " men had forsaken me, and not one of them was bold " enough to come to my aid." This episode was treated in a highly poetical manner in a composition generalh- known as the Poem of Pentaurt. As a matter of fact Pentaurt was not the author, but merely the scribe who made the fullest copy of the work known, namely, that in the British Museum Papyrus, Sallier III. Thirteen years after the conclusion of the treaty with the Kheta, i.e., in the thirt}'- fourth year of his reign, Rameses II married the daughter of the prince of the Kheta, whose Egyptian name was Maa-Ra- ur-neferu.
Rameses ^^'as a great builder ; his name is found ever\'- where on monuments and buildings in Egypt, and he frequently usurped the works of his predecessors and inscribed his own name on statues, etc., which he did not make. The smallest repair of a sanctuary was sufficient excuse for him to have his name inscribed on pillars, architraves, door- jambs, and every prominent part of the building. His greatest works were : I. The rock-hewn temple of Abu- Simbel, dedicated to Amen, Ra-Harmachis and Ptah (see Plate XXXVIII); its length is 185 feet, its height 90 feet, and the four colossal statues of the king in front of it are each 60 feet high. In the large hall are eight square pillars, each 30 feet high, each with a colossal figure of Osiris, 17 feet high, standing against it. 2. The rock-hewn temple of Bet al-Wali at Kalabshah. 3. The Ramesseum at Thebes, called by Diodorus the " Tomb of Os}mand\-as," and by Strabo the " Memnonium." The granite statue of the king
(.S-<,'c' page 242. )
Plate XXXVIII.
n 2
BUILDINGS OF RAMESKS II.
243
which stood before the second p}'lon was 60 feet hi^h, and weighed about 900 tons. He completed the Hall of Columns at Karnak ; added to the temple of Amen-hetep III at Luxor ; and set up several statues of himself and two granite obelisks, each about 80 feet high. In the Delta he rebuilt Tanis, which became a city of the first importance, and he built the city of Pa-Temu, the Pithom of Exodus i, 11, which is now called Tall al-Maskhutah ; from the latter place came the statue of the " Recorder of Pithom " (Bay 21, No. 776)- At Memphis, Abydos, and every im- portant city of Egypt and Nubia, he carried on building operations ; and he dug wells in Wadi Ulaki, in the desert
Facade of the Ramesseum in Western Thebes.
About B.C. 1330.
to the east of Dakkah, and worked the gold mines there. His reign was one of great material prosperity, and he lived long enough to carry out every work of importance which he planned. He was not a great soldier like Thothmes III, or a great administrator and diplomatist like Amen-hetep III ; and the glory and power, and the territory of Egypt were not so great as in the days of those kings. Few of the works carried out by Rameses can be compared with those of the great kings of the XVIIIth dynasty in beauty of design, finish, and solidity.
L 2
244
lUILDIXCS OF RAMESES II.
The monuments of this rei^n are very numerous, and among them may be noted the following : Wooden Ka-figure of Rameses 11, from his tomb at Thebes (Central Saloon,
Statue C.I Rameses II, %vilh the Upper part of a statue of Rameses II.
name of Mer-en-Piah I cut on the I'ound on the Island of Elephantme,
shoulders and 'breast. [Central Saloon, Bay 14, No. 5S2.] [Central Saloon, No. 577.]
No. 575). Upper portion of a colossal granite statue of
Rameses II, which was originally painted red. and was one of a pair that stood in the Ramesseum in Western
Plate XXXIX.
{See page 245.)
Upper portions of a colossal statue of Rameses II, B.C. \x-\o. [Central Saloon, No. 576.]
STATUES OF RAMESES II. 245
Thebes (see Plate XXXIX) ; weight about 7 tons 5 cwt. (Central Saloon, No. 576). Colossal statue of Rameses II, on the shoulders and breast of which are cut the prenomen and name of Seti Mer-en-Ptah (Central Saloon, No. 577). Statue of Rameses II from Elephantine (Bay 14, No. 582). Kneeling statue of Rameses II, holding before him a tablet of offerings (Bay 17, No. 584). Portion of a statue of Rameses II ; on one side of the plinth is sculptured a figure of a favourite wife called Batau-anth : from Sarabit al-Khadim in the Penin- sula of Sinai (Central Saloon, No. 587). With these should be compared the cast of the head of a colossal statue of the king which was set up before the temple of Ptah at Memphis (Central Saloon, No. 588), and the cast of another colossal statue of the king at Abu-Sim bel (Vestibule, No. 589). The width of the face of the latter is 8 feet 9 inches, and the length from brow to chin is 9 feet 8 inches. From the temple built by Rameses at Abydos comes the famous King List, or Second Tablet of Abydos, which, when complete, contained the prenomens of 52 of his predecessors on the throne of Egypt (Bay 6, No. 592) ; from Athribis (Benha) comes the granite lion (Bay 14, No. 593) ; from Abu-Simbel the interesting pair of hawk-headed sphinxes (Bay 15, Nos. 594, 595); from Pithom the granite hawk (Central Saloon, No. 596) ; and from Memphis the fist of a colossal statue (Bay 16, No. 597)-
Of considerable interest, too, are the granite columns (Nos. 598, 599)- The first is from the temple of Bubastis, and on it, in places, are seen the names of Osorkon II ; its total height is 20 feet 8 inches and its weight about 1 1 tons 5 cwt. The second is monolithic and is froni the temple of Heru-shefit, the Arsaphes of the Greeks at Herakleopolis ; in places the names of Menephthah I have been added. Its height is 17 feet 2 inches, and its weight about 6 tons 12 cwt. The altar of Rameses II is in Bay 16 (No. 600). In connexion with the colossal statues of this period may be noted the upper portions of two statues of Queens or 'goddesses, in the Central Saloon, Nos. 601, 6o2. They were found by Belzoni at Abu-Simbel, and most probably represent wives of Rameses II.
The art of the reign of Rameses II is illustrated by several small objects bearing his name, e.^;., the scarabs (Table-case D, Fourth Egyptian Room) ; gilded vase for e}'e-paint (Wall- case 143, Fourth Egyptian Room) ; a scribe's palette (Table- case C, Third Eg\'ptian Room) ; a beautiful glazed bowl inscribed v.ith the king's names and titles (Wall-case 151,
246
KHA-EM-UAST THE MAC.KIAX.
Fourth Eg}'ptian Room) ; model for a relief, with a figure of the goddess Qetesh (Table-case C, Third Egyptian Room) ; glazed boomerang (Wall-case 151, Fourth Egyptian Room); bronze figure of the king (Wall-case 191, same room), etc.
The statues and stelae of officials of Rameses II are numerous, and the inscriptions on them suppl}' much infor- mation about the works and administration of the countr}-. Thus we have : the statue of Panehsi, the scribe and director of the storehouse of gold from the Sudan (Central Saloon, No. 603) ; the kneeling figure of Paser, a Governor of the Sudan (Central Saloon, \o. 604) ; the stele of Amen-em- ant, a scribe of the soldiers, who held several high offices (Bay II, No. 607) ; the stele of Setau, another Governor of the Sudan (Bay 17, No. 608) ; the stele of Amen-hetep, a king's messenger (Ba}' 19, No. 610) ; the stele of Ptah-em-uaa, keeper of the king's stables (Bay 20, No_. 6ll) ; and the stelae of Bakaa and Nefer-hra, who died in the thirt}--eighth and sixty-second years of the king's reign respectively (Bay 19, No. 612 ; Bay 20, No. 613). Tlie inscribed statue of Kha- em-Uast (Bay 18, No. 615), a son of Rameses II, is of great interest, both historically and linguistically. Kha-em-Uast was a Sr;// priest in the temple of Ptah of Memphis, and a man of great learning, and he was held in high repute as a magician. He managed the affairs of the country for about twent}--five }'ears before his death, which took place in the fifty-fifth )'ear of the reign of his father.
Statue of Kh;i-eni-Uast, son of Rameses II. [Southern Egyptian (iallery,
Bay iS, No. 615.]
THE LIBYAN WAR.
247
Mer-en-Ptah, or Menephthah, was associated with his father in the rule of the kingdom for about twelve years before he became sole king. In the fifth year of his reign Egypt was attacked by a confederation of tribes from Libya, and by certain peoples from the northern shores and islands of the Mediterranean. Menephthah fortified his towns and collected an army, and in the fierce battle which followed he was victorious. The Libyan king barely escaped with his life; but six of his brothers and sons and over 6,000 of his soldiers were slain, and 9,000 were taken prisoners. It is probable that the Exodus took place during the early }'ears of this reign. In the year of his victory he caused a Hymn of Triumph to be cut upon the back of a stele of Amen-hetep III at Thebes, and among the peoples of Palestine whom he conquered are mentioned the
Israelites,
Statue of Seti II Mci-cii-I'tah II, king of Egypt, H. C. 1266, holding a shrine sur- mounted by a head of the ram of Amen. [Southern Egyptian Gallery,
Bay 21, No. 616.]
His
mumm}' was found in the tomb of Amen- hetep II at Thebes, and is now in Cairo. Like his father he caused his names to be cut on monuments which he
had not made, ^.^., the lion of Amenemhat III (No. 173), the pillar of Amen-hetep III (No. 419), and a statue (No. 577) and pillar of his father (No. 599). Among the monuments of his reign may be mentioned the door-jamb from his temple
248 MONUMENTS OF THE NINETEENTH DYNASTY.
at Memphis (No. II69). The remaining kings of the XlXth dynast}' were : —
I. Seti II Mer-en-Ptah. See his statue holding a shrine with a head of Amen (Bay 21, No. 616), a shib from his tomb at Thebes (Central Saloon, No. 617), and a plaque and a scarab in the Third and Fourth Eg}'ptian Rooms (\\\all- case 124 and Table-case D). The D'Orbiney Papyrus in the British Museum containing the Tale of the Two Brothers was written during the reign of this king. 2. Amen-mes, of whose reign nothing is known. 3. Sa-Ptah, of \\ hom man\- reliefs are found at various places in Egypt. On his deatli a period of anarchy followed, and nothing like order prevailed in the country until Set-nekht, a relative of Rameses II, obtained supreme power.
The smaller monuments of the XlXth d}'nast\' in the
British Museum are very interesting, and, though the work of
the sculptor and engraver is not so good as that of the
XVIIIth dynasty, it is important for illustrating the methods
employed at a time when quantit}- was more valued than
quality. The inscriptions too are valuable, for they afford
much information on minor points of the Eg}'ptian religion.
Among the statues and stelae of this period ma}' be noted :
a finely sculptured relief from the tomb of Mes, a priest of
the Ka (Bay 17, No. 635); the stele of Amen-Ra-mes, a
priest of the statue of King Mer-en-Ptah (Bay 20, No. 636) ;
the painted limestone statues of Mahu and his wife Sebta, fine
work (Central Saloon, No. 637) ; the granite figure of Rui,
high-priest of Amen (Central Saloon, No. 638) ; the stele of
Ptah-mes, the comptroller of the grain suppl}^ of Egypt
(Central Saloon, No. 642) ; the stele of Pa-ser, the scribe and
master mason of all Eg}']5t (Central Saloon, No. 643) ; the
seated figure of Pa-mer-ahau, a commander-in-chief (Central
Saloon, No. 644) ; the stele of the superintendent of all the
priests and all the gold workers of the Sudan, from Wadi
Halfah (Central Saloon, No. 645) ; the stele of Qaha, a master
craftsman, on which are sculptured figures of the S}'rian
deities Kent and Reshpu and Anthat (Anaitis), and the
Egyptian god Menu, an important monument (i^a}- 10,
No. 646; see Plate XL); the stele of the god Reshpu
(Bay 17, No. 647) ; stele of Heru, painted with a scene of
the worship of Kent, or Qetesh, Reshpu and Menu (Ba}- 17,
No. 650) ; the stele of Tata-aa, an o\-erseerof scribes (Bay 12,
No. 652) ; the granite coffin of a high-priest of Memphis
• (Bay 17, No, 654).
I
(See page 248.)
Plate XL
Sepulchral stele of Qaha, sculptured with figures of the foreign deities
Kent, Reshpu, and Anthat, and the Egyptian god Menu. [Northern Egyptian Gallery, Bay 10, No. 646.] XlXth dynasty.
249 Twentieth Dynasty. From Thebes.
About B.C. 1200.
We learn from the great papyrus of Rameses III that after the downfall of the XlXth dynasty the land of Egypt fell into a state of anarchy, every man acting according to his own judgment, and no one holding supreme authority for many years. The country was in the hands of the nobles and the governors of the cities who fought against each other. This continued for some years, and then " years of want "
succeeded, and a certain Syrian called Arsu (I ^ 1 (^ 1 Q?> ,
rose to power. Gathering his followers about him, he levied tribute and seized the goods of the people. As he paid no honour to the gods of Egypt and did nothing for their temples, they in due course set him aside and placed on the throne Set-nekht, who brought the country into order, and re-established the worship of the gods, and provided the temples with offerings. His reign was short, and he was succeeded by Rameses III, the chief event of whose reign of 31 years was the victory of the Eg)'ptians over a confederation of peoples from Philistia, Cyprus, Crete, and the northern shores of the Mediterranean, who attacked Egypt by land and sea. Rameses III collected an army and a fleet, and in the battle which followed on the coast of Southern Palestine; his forces were victorious. Multitudes of the enemy were slain on land, and those who succeeded in reaching their ships could not escape, for the fleet of the Egyptians hemmed them in, and a great slaughter ensued. Rameses then marched through Syria, and having collected much spoil, returned to Egypt. Soon afterwards the Libyans attacked Egypt on the west, but they were quickl}' defeated and spoiled.
Rameses appears to have kept one fleet in the Mediter- ranean and one in the Red Sea, for trading purposes, and ' this " sea-power " was probably the source of the great material prosperity of Egypt under his reign. The peace and security of the country were such that he could boast : " I made it possible for an Egyptian woman to " walk with a bold and free step whithersoever she pleased, " and no man or woman among the people of the land would " molest her." Rameses built the so-called " Pavilion " and the great Temple of Madinat Habu at Thebes, and a small palace at Tell al-Yahudiyyah (see the glazed tiles, etc., from it in the
250 ROBBERY OF ROYAL TOMBS.
Fourth Eg\'ptian Room), and he richly endowed the temples of Heliopolis, Memphis, and Thebes, and gave them gifts of an almost incredible amount.^ Lists of all his benefactions and a \-aliiable summary of his reign are preserved in the great Papyrus of Rameses III, the longest Egyptian papyrus in the world (see page 74). Among the monuments and small objects bearing .his name may be mentioned : The base of a pillar from a shrine of Rameses III (Bay 18, No. 716) ; a slab from one of his buildings at Sakkarah (Central Saloon, No. 717) ; and the royal ushabtiu figures (Wall- case 85, Second Egyptian Room, Nos. 12, 13).
On the death of Rameses III the power of Egypt began rapidly to decline, and the succeeding kings of the dynasty, each of whom bore the name of Rameses, found their authority more and more usurped by the high-priests of Amen, the great god of Thebes. Among the objects inscribed with the name of Rameses IV are scarabs (Table-case D, Fourth Egyptian Room), a fragment of an alabaster vase (Wall- case 137, same room), and the stele of Heru-a, a royal scribe (Bay 24. No. 719).
Under the rule of Rameses V-VIII the people of Thebes became poor, and the living were driven to plunder the tombs of kings and queens for the sake of the gold ornaments on the mummies and in the coffins. Under Rameses IX the government undertook a prosecution of the principal thieves, and appointed a commission to report upon the extent of the robberies of the royal tombs. Part of the statement of the examination of the tombs is preserved in the Abbott Papyrus in the British Museum (No. 10,221). During the course of the enquiry a number of the accused were beaten on the hands and feet, and confessed to breaking into the tombs of Sebek-em-sa-f and queen Nub-kha-s. In the reign of Rameses IX, the high- priest of Amen, called Amen-hetep, held great power, and induced the king to authorize him to levy taxes on the people for the maintenance of his temple and priesthood. Under Rameses X further prosecutions of the tomb robbers took place, but the government was powerless to stop the depredations. Rameses XI and Rameses XII were weaker than their predecessors, and allowed the high-priest of Amen to rule the countr}-. On the death of Rameses Xll, the
' E.g., 2,756 images of the gods, 113,433 men, 490,386 oxen and cattle, 1,071,780 aruras of land. 514 vineyards, 160 towns, 71,000 bundles of flax, 6,272,431 loaves of bread, 19,130,032 bundles of vegetibles, 1,933,766 jars of honey, 5,279,552 bushels- of corn, etc.
THE PRIEST-KINGS OF THEBES. 25 I
high-priest, Her-Heru, seized the supreme power, and assumed all the titles and functions of the king of Egypt. But the priests of Amen were as little able to maintain the power of Egypt as the kings Rameses, and they could not make their authority effective even in the Delta, or Northern Egypt. Thus it fell out that Egypt became once more divided into two kingdoms, viz., the Kingdom of the North, ruled from Tan is by Nessu-ba-neb-Tet, whose name was Graecized by Manetho under the form of Smendes, and the Kingdom of the South, ruled from Thebes b}' Her-Heru, the first of the priest-kings of Egypt. For some years, however, Smendes must have been king of all Egypt, for when repairs of an urgent character were needed for the temples of Thebes, it was he who had the quarries opened, and collected the workmen, and directed the building opera- tions which saved one of the temples from falling down.
The monuments of the XXth dynasty are characterized by coarseness of work and lack of finish, but the inscrip- tions on them are of considerable value linguistically. Among large objects may be mentioned the granite coffin of Setau, a governor of the Sudan (Bay 19, No. 720) ; the libation basin (Bay 19, No. 722); the seated figures of Amen-Ra and Mut (Bay 18, No. 728); the stele of Pai, comptroller of a chief queen (Bay 22, No. 752) ; and the shrine of Amen-em-heb, a scribe of the king's bowmen (Bay 17, No. 754).
Twenty-First Dynasty.
B.C. 1050 (?) Kings of Tanis. Priest-kings of Thebes.
Nessu-ba-neb-Tet (Smendes). Her-Heru. Pasebkhanut I. Paiankh.
Amen-em-Apt. Painetchem I.
Sa-Amen. Painetchem H.
Pasebkhanut H. Masaherth.
Men-kheper-Ra.
Painetchem HI.
The reigns of all these kings are historically of little importance. As soon as Her-Heru had proclaimed himself king at Thebes, he assumed a series of titles indicating that he was the temporal as well as spiritual head of Egypt. One of the chief works carried out by the priest-kings was in connexion with the repair and removal of the royal mummies
252 THE PRIESTS OF AMEN LEAVE THEBES.
from their tombs to places of safety. The mummies of Seti I and Rameses II were removed from tomb to tomb, but the pillaging continued, and we read that man}' of the ro}'al mummies required to be repaired, re-swathed, and pro\'ided with new coffins. The rule of the priest-kings was not successful, and several serious riots seem to have occurred at Thebes through their neglect of the temporal affairs of the country. One of the most important objects of the reign of Her-Heru is the cop}' of the Book of the Dead which was written for his wife Queen Netchemet ; an important portion of it was presented to the British Museum by His Majesty THE King in 1903, and this is exhibited in the Southern Egyptian Gallery, No. 758 (see Plates I and XLI). The vignettes are very fine examples of the work of the period, and the texts contain interesting h}'mns to Ra and Osiris, and a valuable version of one of the most important sections of the Book of the Dead, viz.. Chapter XV II. This papyrus was found at Thebes. A number of ushabtiu figures, inscribed with the names of Nesi-Khensu, Hent-taui, the Painetchems, Maat-ka-Ra, and other members of the families of the priest- kings, will be found in Wall-cases 153, 154, in the Fourth Eg}'ptian Room. The largest monument of this d}"nast}- in the British Museum is a lintel from a temple of Sa-Amen at Memphis (No. II70). In the First Eg}'ptian Room are exhibited several very fine mummies and coffins belonging to the period of this dynast}', and in the Second Room several typical examples of ushabtiu figures and boxes, which illustrate the funerary art of the period. The monuments of the Tanite kings are few and unimportant.
The history of the next two hundred and fift}- }-ears (B.C. 1 050-800) is full of difficulty. When the rule of the priest-kings of Thebes came to an end the Kingdom of the South appears to have passed into the hands of a series of weak and incapable men, not one of whom succeeded in making himself " King of the South and North." On the death of the last Tanite king of the XXLst dynasty (about B.C. 950), the Kingdom of the North was seized by Shashanq, a descendant of a Lib}-an chief, who established his scat of power at Bubastis. He and his descendants formed the XXI Ind dynasty, which lasted till about B.C. 760. About this time the priests of Amen departed from Thebes to Nubia, and soon afterwards the supreme power in the North was seized by local chiefs dwelling at Tanis (XXIlIrd d}'nasty), who made a league with all the feudal lords in the Delta, with the view of taking possession of the whole country.
{See J>age 252.
Plate XLI.
WXWwumWp?
;|-tij Vj ^^' j^^ h\\ g ^ { > ^ K.-J\\\\i¥^ Mgj 'is%W- '^-
X 'rt"
^ >,
rt 1)
cy
M'C a,
- O rt
■;«x: Oh -C c ^
T3 0)
SHISIIAK INVADES PALESTINE. 253
When news of this reached Piankhi, kin^- of Nubia, he forthwith invaded Egypt and conquered it. After his return to Nubia, a Nubian dynasty was estabhshed at Thebes, and a local chief of Sa'is became King of the North, about B.C. 72,^. He represents the XXIVth dynasty. The kings of the XXVth dynasty (about B.C. 700) were Nubians, and the kings of the XXV Ith dynasty were descendants of the chiefs of Sals who were conquered by the Nubian king Piankhi, about B.C. 740.
Twenty-Second Dynasty. From Bubastis.
About B.C. 950.
The first king of this dynasty was Shashanq I, the Shishak of i Kings xiv, 25 ; 2 Chronicles xii, 5, 7, 9. He was of Libyan extraction, being descended from Buiu-uaua
J^(]()^-f]^®^, a Libyan prince, who flourished about B.C. 1 1 50, and one of whose descendants married Meht-en-usekht, high-priestess of Amen, and became the facher of Nemareth, who in his turn became the father of Shashanq. A daughter of Nemareth owned the inlaid gold bracelets exhibited in Table-case J in the Fourth Egyptian Room (Nos. 134, 135). The principal event in the reign of Shashanq was the invasion of Palestine and capture ot Jerusalem. He spoiled the Temple, and carried off much gold and silver, and took away the bucklers and shields of Solomon, and also the golden quivers which David had taken from the king of Zobah. He gave Jeroboam, king of Judah, one of his daughters to wife. On his return to Egypt he caused a record of this campaign to be cut upon the second pylon of the Temple of Karnak, and added a list of all the towns and villages which he had conquered in Palestine. Among them are the names of many places familiar from the Bible narrative, but the statement that "the king of Judah" is mentioned is incorrect. Shashanq repaired the Temple of Mut at Thebes, and set up in it a number of seated granite statues of the goddess Sekhet, two fine examples of which, inscribed with the king's names and titles, are exhibited in the Southern Egyptian Gallery, Nos. 763, 764. A son of Shashanq named Auputh was viceroy of the South, to whom is due the removal of the royal mummies from their tombs to the tomb of Ast-em-khebit
254
TEMPLE OF OSORKOX II AT BUBASTIS.
at Der al-Bahari, where, together with the coffins and funerary furniture, they were secreted, the pit being filled up with sand, stones, etc., and the entrance careful!)' walled up. This hiding place remained intact until 1872, when it was discovered accidentally by the Arabs. (For the inscribed base of a statue of Auputh, see Bay 19, No. 765.)
Another son of Shashanq I, named Ua- sarken, or Osorkon I, became king of Egypt, and married Tashet- Khensu, and Maat-ka- Ra, the daughter of Pasebkhanut II, the last of the Tanite kings of the XX 1st dynasty. The son of Osorkon I and Maat-ka-Ra was called Shashanq, and was made high priest of Amen ; he dedicated to the god the fine quartzite statue of Hapi, the Nile-god, ex- hibited in the Southern Eg\-ptian Galler}-, Ba\- 22, No. 766. Osorkon I \\as succeeded b}' The- keleth I, who was suc- ceeded b}' Osorkon II, famous for the works which he carried out in the Temple of Bast, the great goddess of Bu- bastis, the Pibeseth of the Bible. From this site came many important monuments, among which may be men- tioned : The massive granite Hathor-headed capital of a pillar (see Plate XLII ; Bay 16, No. 768) ; and the slabs sculptured with figures of Osorkon II and Bast, and figures of Osorkon II and his Queen Karama (Bay 23, No. 769). Osorkon II per- petuated the names of the great kings his predecessors, and
Seated figure of Ankh-ronp-ncfer, the
" (joocl Recorder" of the town of
Pithom, who flourished in the reign
of Osorkon II, about B.C. 900.
[Southern Egyptian (Gallery, Bay 21, No. 776.]
(Av/«^6'254.)
Plate XLII.
Halhor-headed capital from the" temple of Osorkon II at Bubastis. [Central Saloon, No. 76S.] XXIInd dynasty, B.C. 866,
CONQUEST OF EGYPT 15Y I'lANKHI. 255
according!}- we find on granite slabs from his temple the names of Khufu, Khafra, etc., and figures of Amen-hetep II, Seti I, etc. (Bay 23, Nos. 771-773). Like Rameses II, Mer- en-Ftah, and other kings, Osorkon II caused his name to be cut upon monuments of other kings, e.g., the statue of Usertsen III (V^estibule, No. 163) and the grey granite statue of Amenemhat III (Bay 20, No. 775)- ^^ his reign flourished the good recorder of Pithom, whose statue (Bay 21, No. 776) was found at Pithom. The reigns of the other kings of this dynasty, Shashanq II, Thekeleth II, Shashanq III, Pamai, and Shashanq IV were unimportant.
Twenty-Third Dynasty. From Tanis.
B.C. 766.
The principal kings of this dynasty were Peta-Bast and Osorkon III, who reigned in the Delta.
It seems that a short time before the reign of Peta-Bast, the priests of Amen had found it impossible to maintain their position at Thebes, and therefore, having hidden the mummies and coffins of the members of their order in a secret place, which was not discovered until 1892, they retreated to the South and settled at Napata, a city at the foot of the Fourth Cataract. (For examples of the coffins of the priests of Amen of this period, see First Egyptian Room, Wall-cases II 15.) A few years after their arrival, they appear to have persuaded Piankhi, the king of the Northern Sudan, to invade Egypt and to seize the kingdom of the South at least, to which, in view of the close relationship of the governing powers at Napata with those at Thebes, he might be assumecl to have a just claim. For sometime Piankhi did nothing, but at length, in the twenty-first year of his reign, hearing that all the princes of the Northern Kingdom had united their forces, and were attempting to seize the country, he ordered his army to advance into Egypt. In a very short time great successes were reported. Thereupon he joined his troops, and his progress was victorious and rapid. City after city fell before his attack, and on the capture of Memphis, Egypt lay vanquished at his feet. The governors came in one after another, and at length Tafnekhth, their leader, sent in his submission accompanied by gifts. Piankhi filled his boats with spoil and returned to Napata, where he built a great temple to Amen, and set up a stele recording his victories.
256 NUBIAN KINGS OF EGYPT.
(For a cast of the stele see Central Saloon, No. 793-) After Piankhi's return to Nubia, Osorkon III, perhaps with Thekeleth III as co-regent, reigned at Thebes. To the latter half of this d)'nasty probably belongs the stele of Prince Auuaruath, son of Osorkon and high-priest of Amen (Bay 22, No. 777). and the monument mentioning a king with the Horus name of Ka-nekht-kha-em-Uast (Bay 21, No. 778).
Twenty-Fourth Dynasty. From Sais.
The principal king of this d\'nasty was Bakenrenef, the Bocchoris of the Greeks, the son of Tafnekhth of Sais. His reign was short, but tradition assert that he was one of the six great law-givers of Eg\'pt. About this time a Nubian called Kashta ruled at Thebes, and married Shep-en-Apt, the high-priestess of Amen ; their son Shabaka became the first king of the XXVth dynast)'. Among the monuments of this period may be mentioned : The altar, stand, and libation bowl, dedicated by Nes-Amsu to Kashta, Shep-en- apt, and Amenartas (Bay 20, No. 794) ; the base of a statue in.scribed with the names of Shep-en-Apt I, Shep-en-Apt II, etc. (Bay 20, No. 795) ; and the alabaster vessel of Kashta and Amenartas (Wall-case 139, Fourth Egvptian Room, No. 84).
Twenty-Fifth Dynasty. From Nubia.
B.C. 700.
Shabaka, or Sabaco, whom some identify with So of 2 Kings xvii, 4, was a contemporary of Sargon and .Sen- nacherib, kings of Assyria. With one or other of these kings he must have had correspondence, for two .seals bearing the name of Shabaka were found among the tablets of the Royal Library at Nineveh. (See Nineveh Gallery, Table- case I, No. 32, etc.) Among the objects bearin'g his name are several scarabs, and an alabaster vase in the Fourth Eg)'ptian Room (Table-case D and Wall-case 139), and a basalt slab (Bay 25, No 797) inscribed with a cop\- of a m\-thological text, copied by the king's order from an old, half obliterated document. The portion of the text surviving contains legends of Ra, Osiris, Set, Horus, Ptah and other gods ; and it seems to
TIRIIAKAII AND HEZEKIAM. 257
imply that all their powers were absorbed by Ptah, in whose temple the slab was set up. Of Shabaka's sister, the great Princess Amenartas, may be mentioned the following objects: A fine inscribed statue (Wall-case 107, Third Egyptian Room), her lapis-lazuli scarab (Table-case D, P^ourth Egyp- tian Room), and a steatite cylinder inscribed with her names and titles (Wall-case 193, same room). This princess possessed great power in Thebes, and she repaired portions of some of the great temples of that city, and built a small chapel near the temple of Amen. She re-established the worship of the gods, and devoted a large proportion of her property to the restoration of their statues and the obser- vance of their festivals.
Shabaka was succeeded b}- Shabataka (see a bronze shrine dedicated by him to Amen-Ra in Wall-case 123 in the P^ourth Egyptian Room), of whom little is known. Ke was followed by Taharqa, the Tirhakah of the Bible, (2 Kings xix, 9), the son of a farmer and the lady Aqleq, who began to reign between B.C. 693 and 691. He was an ally of Hezekiah, king of Judah. About 6^6, Esarhaddon, king of Assyria, crushed the revolt in Palestine, and six }'ears later he invaded Egypt, defeated Taharqa, captured Memphis, and appointed twenty governors over the various provinces of the country. After the death of Esarhaddon, in 668, Taharqa returned and proclaimed himself king of Egypt at Memphis ; but Ashur-bani-pal, the new king of Assyria, marched against him and defeated his forces, which were assembled at Karbaniti, a city probably situated near the north-east frontier of Egypt. Taharqa fled, and Ashur-bani-pal marched into Egypt, crushed the enemy, and re-appointed the governors who had been appointed by his father.
Taharcja repaired several temples at Thebes, and built a large temple to Amen at Napata, and a small one in honour of Usertsen III at Semnah. P'or a bronze figure of the king", and two plaques and scarabs bearing his name, 'see Table-case K, Wall-case 193, and Table-case D in the Third and Fourth Egyptian Rooms.
The successor of Taharqa was Tanuath Amen, the Tanda- manie of the cuneiform inscriptions, who had been co-regent with him. After the death of Taharqa, as the result of a dream Tanuath Amen invaded Egypt, and captured Helio- polis ; he tried to turn the Assyrians out of Memphis, but failed. Hearing that the king of Assyria was coming with a large army, he fled to Thebes, whither he was followed
M
258 NECHO AND JOSIAH, KING OF JUDAII.
by the Assyrians, who sacked the city. Tanuath-Amen fled once more, and his subsequent history is unknown. A cast of the Stele of the Dream is exhibited in Bay 22, No. 799, and an account of the burning and pillage of Thebes is given on the great cylinder of Ashur-bani-pal (Table- case H, Bab}'lonian Room), and the calamities which came upon the city are described b}' the prophet Nahum (iii, 10).
Twenty-Sixth Dynasty. From Sais.
About B.C. 666. Psemthek I, or Psammetichus, was the son of Nekau, governor of Sais, and married Shep-en-Apt, the daughter of Piankhi and Amenartas I. Thus, by -marriage, he obtained a claim to the throne of Eg}'pt. He appears to have fought against the Assyrians on every opportunity for many }'ears, and at length by the help of Carian and Ionian mercenaries he succeeded in expelling them, and in making himself master of all Egypt. He established garrisons at Elephantine, Pelusium, Daphnae, and Marea. He protected the Greeks, a colony of whom he settled in the city of Naukratis. He encouraged trade of every kind, and embarked in man\' commercial enterprises. He rebuilt, or enlarged, the temple of the goddess Neith of Sais (see bronze figures of her in Wall-case 125, Fourth Eg}^ptian Room), and built a galler)- in the Serapeum at Sakkarah. Among the monuments of his reign are : An intercolumnar slab sculptured with a scene representing the king making an offering to the gods ; from the temple of Temu at Rosetta (Bay 24, No. 800). A shaft of a column, and a portion of a statue, inscribed with his names and titles (Bay 24, Nos. 801, 802). For smaller objects inscribed with his name see the Foundation Deposits and the figure of Isis (Table-cases K and H, Third Egyptian Room), his ushabti figure (Wall-case 78, Second Egyptian Room), and his scarabs (Table-case D, Fourth Egyptian Room).
Nekau, or Necho, maintained an army of Greeks, and two „ P , fleets, one in the Mediterranean and one in the
0 . ^^Q^ gga. He recut and enlarged the old canal which in the time of Seti I joined the Nile and the Red Sea, and is said to have emploj-ed 120,000 men in the work. He led an army into Syria, and fought with Josiah, king of Judah, who attempted to bar his progress in the valley of Megiddo ; Josiah was struck by an Egyptian arrow which penetrated his disguise, and he died (2 Kings xxiii, 29 ff. ; 2 Chron. xxxv, 22).
PHARAOH HOPHRA AND ZEDIiKIAH.
259
B.C. 596.
Necho advanced towards the Euphrates, but was met at Karkemish by Nebuchadnezzar II and his army, and in the battle which followed he was defeated. Among the small objects inscribed with his name are : A bronze shrine (Table-case H, Third Egyptian Room), a porcelain vase (Wall-case 157, Fourth Egyptian Room), an alabastron (Wall-case 139, Fourth Egyptian Room), and a limestone
draughtsman (Standard- case C, Fourth Egyptian Room).
The reign of Psammeti- chus II, the son of Necho, was short and unimportant ; but he appears to have made a raid into Nubia. He repaired several of the large temples at Heliopolis, Memphis, Karnak, and Elephantine. Among the monuments of his reign is a head from a colossal statue of the king, found near the south end of the Suez Canal (Bay 23, No. 803). For small objects inscribed with his name see the scarabs in Table-case D, and a portion of a sistrum in Wall-case 157, Fourth Egyptian Room. Under Haa-ab-Ra Uah-ab- Ra, the Pharaoh Hophra of Jeremiah xliv, 30 and the Apries of the Greeks, Egypt prosperity, directly due to the encouragement he gave to commerce, and to the business qualities of the Greeks who lad settled in Naukratis and elsewhere in Egypt. He made fin expedition inLo S\'ria. Zedekiah, king of Judah, :ounted upon his help to repulse Nebuchadnezzar II ; Dut failing to do so, Hophra incurred the denunciations of the prophet Jeremiah : " And this shall be a sign to you, saith 'the Lord, that I will punish you in this place, that ye may ' know that my words shall surely stand against you for evil : ' Thus saith the LORD : Behold, I will give Pharaoh-hophra
M 2
Head of a colossal statue of Psammetichus H, about B.C. 596. ^Southern Egyptian Gallery, Bay 23, No. 803.]
snjoyed a , B.C. 592.
period of great
260 NEBUCHADNEZZAR ATTEMI'TS TO INVADE EGYPT.
"king of Egypt into the hand of his enemies, and into the " hand of them that seek his hfe ; as I gave Zedekiah king of "Judah into the hand of Nebuchadnezzar king of Bab}lon " his enemy, and that sought his life " (Jeremiah xHv, 29-30). Pharaoh Hophra was dethroned by his own soldiers, who made their general Aahmes (Amasis II) king in his stead. Among monuments bearing his name are a limestone stele, on which is sculptured the figure of the king (Bay 22, No. 804), and a portion of a statue of Pefa-Net, the king's chief ph\-sician (Central Saloon, No. 805). Amasis II treated his former master with kindness, but, as
op w, Hophra persisted in raiding the countr}-, ' • ^' ' further fighting ensued. In the end, Hophra was slain by his own soldiers on board his boat. During the reign of Amasis II Nebuchadnezzar II attempted to invade Egypt, with what success is unknown. During this long reign of about 44 years the countr}- in general enjo}-ed peace and prosperity, and the quarries were re-opened and man}' temples restored ; remains of his building activity are visible on the sites of all the great sanctuaries of Egypt. He was a generous patron of the Greeks, and granted them lands and many privileges. Among the monuments of his reign arc : Two granite tablets for offerings, or altars (Bay 16, No. 806 ; Bay 17, No. 807) ; a stele, dated in his eighth }'ear, recording the dedication of a building to Neith, goddess of Sais (Ba}- 24, No. 808) ; a weight inscribed with his prenomen (Wall- case 180, Fourth Egyptian Room), and handles of two sistra (Wall-case 187, same room).
Amasis II married Thent-kheta, b}' whom he became the father of Psammetichus III. He was also the official husband
of the famous high-priestess of Amen. Ankhnes-neferab-Ra, the daughter of Psammetichus II and the Lad}- Takhauath, and the adopted daughter of Nit-Aqert TNitokris, high priestess of Amen.^ The magnificent sarcophagus in the Southern Egyptian Gallery was made for her i^l^ay 24, No. 811). It is undoubtedl}- one of the finest monuments of the XXV I th dynasty in the British Museum. (See Plates
GSESI=^nrr(SE]Q
Plate XLlII.
{See ^agc 261.)
Queen Ankhnes-nefcrab-Ra, daughter of Psanimetichus II and Queen Thakhauath, wearing the head-dress of Isis-Hathor. From the cover of the sarcophagus of the queen. [Southern Egyptian Gallery, Bay 24, No. 811.] About B.C. 600.
Plate XLIV
{See page 261.
Tlic Sky-gwldcss Nut. I'-roni the inside of tlie sarcophagus of <v?ucen Ankhnes-neferab-Ra. [Southern Egyptian Gallery, Bay 24, No. 811.]
Pt-ATE XLV.
{See page 261.)
^^
Kneeling statue of Uah-ab-Ra, a prince, governor, and commander-in-chief, about B.c. 600. [Soulhern Egyptian (lallcry, Bay 21, No. SiS.]
XX VI til dynasty.
THl' PKRSIANS INVADE EGYPT. 26l
XLIII, XLIV). The reliefs and figures are carefully executed, and the hieroglyphics are well cut. In the Ptolemaic Period this sarcophagus was used for a royal scribe named Amen- hetep, or Pi-Menth, his name being inserted in the cartouches and the feminine suffixes being changed to masculine. Ankhnes-neferab-Ra built a chapel at Thebes, from which came slabs Nos. 8l2, 813 (Bay 24). Worthy of note also arc two fine bronze figures of Harpqkrates-Amen and Menu, which were dedicated to Queen Ankhnes-neferab-Ra b)' priests in her temple (see Table-case H, Third Egyptian Room). Amasis II had a daughter, Ta-Khart-Ast (for a portion of a statue of her see Bay 24, No. 814).
The last king of this dynasty was Psammetichus III. During his short reign, which lasted six months only, the Persians under their king Cambyses invaded Egypt, and, having defeated the Egyptians at Pelusium, marched on to Memphis and captured it. After a short time Camb}'ses put Psammetichus to death, and Egypt became a province, or satrapy, of Persia.
During the rule of the XXVIth dynasty over Egypt, it appears that several native Nubian kings ruled the Northern Sudan from Napata, the modern Gcbel Barkal. Among these were Aspelta and Heru-sa-atef, the former of whom probably reigned about B.C. 625 and the latter about ]5.C. 580. For casts of stelae recording the Coronation of Aspelta and the Annals of Heru-sa-atef, see Bay 18, No. 815, and Bay 20, No. 816. A cast of a stele inscribed with an edict against the eaters of raw meat is in Bay 20, No. 817.
Under the XXVIth dynasty a great revival of art and learning took place, due partly to the settled condition of the country under a firm government, and partly to the material prosperity which obtained at that period. The painter and sculptor took for their models the reliefs and statues of the Early Empire, and the funerary masons and scribes cut or wrote on the stelae and tombs texts which were composed under the Vlth dynast}', or earlier. The monuments of the period are more often made of dark limestone, dark green or grey schist, and basalt than granite, which was so commonly used for coffins, statues, stelae, etc., under the Middle Empire. These substances give to the large monuments of the Saite Period a sad and sometimes heavy effect. Among the many fine examples of the sculpture of the period may be mentioned : The black basalt kneeling statue of Uahab-Ra, a prince and general of the army (see Plate XLV; Bay 21, No. 818) ; the portion of the kneeling figure of Khnem-ab-Ra-Men, prefect
262 PERSIAN OCCUPATION OF EGYPT.
of Sais, holding a shrine of Neith (Bay 23, No. 819' ; the portion of a figure of Ankh-p-khart, a priest who had ministered in the temple for eight}- }-cars (Bay 24, No. 820) ; and the libation bowl dedicated to the goddesses Mut and Hathor (Bay 22, Nos. 821, 822). The casts of the Cow of Hathor and the Hippopotamus of Smetsmet are also very instructive (Bay 25, No. 823 ; Bay 26, No. 824). Of the massive stone sarcophagi and coffins, Nos. 825-829 are ver\' fine important examples. On the two granite sarcophagi of Nes-qetiu (No. 825) and Hap-men (No. 826) are cut the figures of all the gods who were believed to protect the dead ; but the others (Nos. 827-29) are plainer. The sepulchral stelae are very numerous ; interesting examples will be found in Bays 21, 22, etc.
Twenty-Seventh Dynasty. From Persia.
B.C. 527.
The rule of the Persians over Egypt lasted about one hundred and ten years. Cambyses, having established himself as king, set out on an expedition to the Sudan. On his way thither he despatched an army of 50.000 men to the Oasis of Jupiter Ammon, now known as Siwah, to secure the submission of the tribes ; but, after reaching Khargah, these troops were never more heard of Cambyses continued his march into Nubia, where, it seems, he came in touch with a native army somewhere near the Third Cataract. According to the annals of Nastasenen, king of Nubia, his boats were captured on the river, and all his soldiers slain after a fierce fight. Greek tradition states that Camb}-ses committed man\' sacrilegious acts in Kgypt ; but the inscription of Utcha-her-resenet, the chancellor of Sais, records that Cambyses cleared out the temple of Neith in that cit\', restored its revenues, and reinstated its priests. This done he went to the temple in person, and performed acts of worship, like the Pharaohs of old. The money which he gave the chancellor enabled him " to provide with a coffin the man who was too poor to buy " one, and he took care of the children."
Darius I, Hystaspes, was a wise and enlightened king,
and he tried to understand the religion and customs of the
R r cpj Egyptians. He established a coinage, cn-
' ' ■^ * couraged trade, subscribed mone\' for expenses
I I
DARIUS THE LAWGIVER.
263
Incurred in the discovery of a new Apis Bull, supported religious institutions, and commissioned the chancellor Utcha- her-resenet to found a school for the training of scribes. He was tolerant ; and built a temple to Amen-Ra in the Oasis of Al-Khargah, on the walls of which is cut a remark- able hymn to Amen. He also completed the canal between the Nile and the Red Sea, which Necho began, and so added greatly to the prosperity of the country. In the latter part of his reign the Egyptians, led by Khabbesha, revolted against the Persian rule with some success. Darius determined to set out from Persia to put down the rebellion, but died before he could do so. The triumph of Khabbesha was short-lived, for Xerxes the Great marched against him, defeated his forces, and reduced the R C /iRfi country to servitude worse than before. Xerxes * * ^ * did nothing for the gods or people of Egypt, and left few traces of his reign in the country. An alabaster vase inscribed with his name in four languages, Egyptian, Persian, Median and Babylonian, which was found at Halicarnassus, is exhibited in tlie Gold Room in the British Museum. For fragments of other vases, on which his name appears in Egyptian letters, within a cartouche, and with the additions " Pharaoh, the Great," as here given, see Wall-cases Nos. 28 and 29, in the Babylonian Room. A cast of a stele, dated in his fourth year, with a bilingual inscription in Egyptian and Aramean, is exhibited in the Semitic Room (Second Northern Gallery, Wall-case 29). In the reign of Artaxerxes I another revolt, headed b)' Inaros, a Libyan, who was assisted by the Athenians, broke out, and at the battle of Papremis, the satrap of ligypt, Akhaemenes, was killed and his forces defeated. Subsequent]}- the Persians defeated the Egyptians, and Inaros was captured and taken to Persia, where a few years later he was impaled and flayed alive.
Darius II, Nothus, repaired the temple of R r A9A -'^men-Ra at Al-Khargah, and • ' ^ ^' added his name to its walls. In his reign the Egyptians at length succeeded in throwing off the Persian yoke. Their leader, Amyrtaios, has been thought to be Amen-rut-meri-Amen.
B.C. 466.
264 DOWNFALL OF THE l'ERSL\N RULE.
Twenty- Eighth Dynasty. From Sais.
B.C. 420 (?).
According to the King List of Manetho the XXVIIIth dynasty consisted of one king, who was named Amyrtaios ; JuHus Africanus and the Syncehus state that he reigned six years, and make Sais the seat of his rule. At one time authorities identified Amyrtaios with the kingAmen-rut, whose
name 1 ! fof^'^^l S ffl ™ Vx fl S^
is found on a plank from a coffin preserved at Berlin. The form of the prenomen, however, proves that Amen-rut lived at a period anterior to Amj'rtaios, and the identification must, therefore, be abandoned.
Twenty-Ninth Dynasty. From Mendes.
B.C. 399.
Of the five kings of this dynasty onl\- three appear to have left remains, viz. Naifaaurut (Nepherites), Haker (xA.choris), and Psamut ; their reigns were unimportant, their total length being onl\- about tv\ enty-one years.
Thirtieth Dynasty. From Sebennytus.
B.C. 378.
Nekht-Heru-hebt, the Nektanebes and Nektanebus I of R r -tR classical writers, succeeded in overthrowing the ' ' ^' ' dynasty of Mendes, and m.adc himself king of all Egypt, which he ruled with success for a period of eighteen years. He repaired several of the temples of Memphis and Thebes, and the temple of Darius I at Al-Khargah, and revived the custom of setting up obelisks. He also founded the temple of Horus at Hebt, the modern Behbit-al- Hagarah. During his prosperous reign more attention was given to the performance of ceremonies connected with the
Plate XLVI.
[See page 265. )
■ CI;
1119
Obelisk dedicated to Thoth by King Ileru-nekht-hebt, B.C. 378. [Southern Egyptian Gallery, Bay 31, No. 919.] XXXth dynasty.
;/'.'l
1
Plate XLVII.
(See page 26s.)
\{
SARCOPHAGUS OF NEKHT-HERU-HEBT. 265
dead, and, as a result, a considerable number of statues, stelae, etc., which may be attributed to his reign have come down to us.
Among his monuments worthy of special note are :
I. A pair of obelisks, inscribed with his names and titles, and '"||
dedicated to " Thoth, the Twice Great," before whose temple
they were set up. They were taken from a town in the Delta
during the eighteenth century, and stood for many years before
one of the mosques of Cairo (see Plate XLVI). (Bays 31, 32,
Nos. 919, 920.) 2. Portion of a statue of Amen-Ra (?), dedicated 1 |^
to the god b\' this king. (Bay 30, No. 921.) 3. Sarcophagus ^ ■
of Nectanebus I. (See Plate XLVI I.) This most valu- ; '
able and interesting object is one of the most remarkable j
monuments of this king. The inside is decorated with
figures of the gods, and on the outside are cut the texts Ji
and illustrations of a series of sections of the great | '■
funerary work entitled the Book of what is in the Tuat j I
(/.r., the Other World). The Tuat was a long narrow valley .|j |
which ran parallel with Eg}'pt, and was neither above nor j' '
below this earth ; a river flowed through its whole length.
It was entered on the left bank of the Nile near Thebes,
ran due north as far as Sais, then curved to the east, and p
finally terminated where the sun rose. This valley was , ft;
divided into ten sections, and at each end was a sort of
ante-chamber or vestibule. Each section was filled with its
own peculiar beings, many of whom were hostile to the dead
who wished to pass through it in the Boat of the Sun-god,
which traversed it nightly. The god himself could only do
this by uttering words of power. The Book of what is in the
Tuat was supposed to contain these words of power ; and
copies of it were written on papyri, or cut on sarcophagi, so
that their possessors or occupants might be able to recite
tliLin in case of need. The representations of the gods
which accompanied the texts enabled the dead to recognize
the several beings of the Other World when they met them,
and to recite the appropriate words of power. On the
rounded head of the sarcophagus the First Section of the
Tuat is sculptured, and on the foot the Ninth Section ; on
the right hand side are the Second and Sixth Sections,
and on the left are the Third and Eighth Sections (Bay 25,
No. 923). These Sections refer to the kingdoms of the dead
of Thebes, Abydos, and Sais ; the other six Sections were
probably sculptured on the cover, which was destroyed in the
eighteenth century ; those relating to Memphis and Heliopolis
are omitted.
266 THE LAST NATIVE KING OF EGYPT.
Xectanebus I was succeeded by his son Tchehra (Teos, or Tachos), in whose reign the Persians led by Artaxerxes II made an attack upon Egypt, but failed to conquer it. Teos was succeeded by his son Nekht-neb-f, or Nectane-
R r -jcR ^^^ ^^' ''^ whose reign the Persians, under • • Sb • Artaxerxes III, once again obtained possession of the countr}-. The reign of Nectanebus II, who was the last native king of Egypt, was on the whole peaceful and prosperous ; he repaired many temples, and his name is found on buildings in all the great sanctuaries from Philae to Sebennytus in the Delta. The statues and stelae of the period are well-cut, and the work is tasteful and delicate. Among them may be mentioned : A granite statue of Nectanebus II (Bay 29, No. 924); the two intercolumnar slabs on which are representations of the king kneeling and making an offering (Bay 27, No. 926 ; Bay 28, No. 927) ; and a small gilded door from the model of a shrine, on which the king is represented kneeling and making an offering (Table- case C, Fourth P^gyptian Room).
The Persians, having succeeded in obtaining the supreme power once again, held it for a period of about eight years ; but their rule was hateful to the PZgyptians, and w^hen Alexander the Great (born B.C. 356, died 324), who had defeated Darius III at the Battle of Issus, B.C. 332, arrived at Memphis, he was welcomed as the saviour of the country. He marched to the Oasis of Siwah (Jupiter Ammon) and entered the temple of Amen-Ra, and worshipped the god, who acknowledged him to be his son and therefore the rightful king of Egypt. Soon after, in B.C. 331, Alexander founded the city of Alexandria.
In the scramble for the provinces of Alexander's great Empire which took place at his death, Egypt fell to tJie share of one of his generals, Ptolemy Lagus, who adminis- tered the country in the name of Alexander's sons, Philip Arrhidaeus and Alexander II of Egypt, the former of whom never set foot in the countr}- ; the latter was brought thither as a child of si.x \ears, and was murdered when he was thirteen years old (B.C. 31 1), but in spite of these facts Ptolemy Lagus cau.sed buildings to be erected in their names, and ruled the country as their lo\-al ser\ant. To the period B.C. 332-306 belong the portion of a clepsydra inscribed with the name of Alexander the Great (Bay 29, No. 948) ; the portion of a clepsydra inscribed with the name of Philip Arrhidaeus (Ba\- 29, No. 949) ; and the papyrus of Nes-Amsu, containing the Book of Overthrowing Apep,
ALEXANDER THE GREAT CONQUERS EGYPT.
267
which is dated in the twelfth year of " Pharaoh Alexander, the son of Alexander," i.e., Alexander II (No. I0,l88). In the seventh year of his reign Alexander II restored to the temples of the city of Pe-Tep (Buto) the property which had been wrested from it by Xerxes the Great : a cast of the stele which commemorates this fact will be found in Bay 28, No. 950.
268
CHAPTER XIII.
THE PTOLEMAIC PERIOD.
Under the capable rule of the earlier Ptolemies, Egypt became prosperous and powerful, and in the reign of Phila- delphus she was the wealthiest country in the world. Though they and their court were Greeks and spoke Greek, the language of the priesthood and people was Eg}'ptian, and the native religion of the country remained practicall}- unchanged. As time went on, however, Greek became more and more the official language, and Egyptian was only used officially for religious purposes. The Ptolemies worshipped the P^gyptian gods, offered up sacrifices to them, and rebuilt and endowed many of their temples, e.g., at P)enderah, Edfu, PZsna, Philae, Dakkah, etc. They adopted Eg)-ptian names and titles, married their sisters and nieces, and in every way they adopted the habits of Egyptian Pharaohs ; man}' were crowned with all the ancient rites and ceremonies at Memphis. The}' did not, howexer, permit the priests to interfere in the government of the countr}-, which was administered on Greek lines, and though at times their power was skilfully disguised, it was nevertheless ubiquitous and effective. The revenues which the}- drew from Eg}'pt were very large, and no other monarchs in the world at that time possessed such vast wealth as the Ptolemies. This was due to the encouragement which the}- gave to com- mercial enterprises of ever}- kind, and to the freedom to trade which was enjoyed b}- the Jews, who had settled in large numbers not onh' in Alexandria, but also in the rich provinces of the I^""a}-}-um, and in the ThebaVd, and in S}'ene.
Ptolemy I, Soter I, B.C. 304, foundetl the Alexandrian Library and Museum, settled a number of Jews in Alexandria, and introduced the worship of the 'god Hades, who was henceforth known in Egypt as Serapis, /.('., Asar- Hapi, or Osiris-Apis. (See Wall-cases 176-181, Eourth Egyptian Room.) P^or a relief and an inscription from his buildings at Terenouthis. see Ba\- 2;, Xos. 951, 952.
Ptolemy II, Philadelphus, B.C. 287 or 286, founded the cities of Berenice Troglod}-tica, on the Red Sea, and Arsinoii
:m'l
m
Plate XLA^II.
[See page 269.)
Relief with llgures of Ptolemy II, Pliiladelphus, and (Juccii Ai^inuc, ahoul i;.c. 260. [Soulhein Egyptian Gallery, Bay 25, No. 953.]
MANETHOS HISIORY OF EGYPT.
269
in the Fayyum, and built the famous Pharos, or lighthouse, at Alexandria, one of the seven wonders of the world. In his reign the priest Manetho wrote a History of Egypt, of which only the King List is extant, and the famous Greek version of the Old Testament, known as the Septuagint, was compiled. He added largely to the Alexandrian Library, which is said at that time to have contained 400,000 works. For stelae, sculptured with reliefs in which Ptolemy H and Queen Arsinoe are represented making offerings to the
WJ'
J
Stele sculptured with a scene representing Ptolemy II, Philadelphus,
making offerings to Amsu, or Menu, Uatchet, etc., about B.C. 260. [Southern Egyptian Gallery, Bay 25, No. 954.]
gods, see Bay 25, Nos. 953-955 (see Plate XLVIII) ; a portion of a ro}-al edict is in Bay 28, Xo. 956.
Ptolemy III, Euergetes I, B.C. 246, conquered the greater portion of Western Asia. He was a patron of the arts and learning, and he repaired and rebuilt many of the ancient tem{)lcs. To commemorate, his victories and the benefits.
fi
270 THE ROSETTA STONE.
which he conferred on Egypt, the priesthood assembled at Canopus in the ninth year of his reign, and passed a Decree conferring special honours on the king and his queen Berenice. It was ordered that the Decree be cut in the Greek and Egyptian languages on stelae to be set up in the most prominent places in temples of the first, second, and third class throughout Egypt, in order that all men might read of the king's bounty. The Egyptian version was in.scribed in two kinds of writing, viz., in hieroglyphics and in demotic. The Decree also ordered that one day be added to the calendar every fourth year, thus anticipating the leap-year of modern times. For a cast of the Decree of Canopus see Ba}- 28, ^^o- 957' Ptolemy III began to build the temple of Edfu (see Plate XLIX), B.C. 237, which was finished by Ptolemy XI, B.C. 57. Objects inscribed with his name are not common. (For a g'old ring which was made in his reign see Table-case J, Fourth Egx'ptian Room.)
Ptolemy IV, Philopator I, B.C. 222 or 221, added a hall to the temple which the Nubian king, Ergamenes, built at Dakkah, and dedicated a temple to Homer. He defeated Antiochus the Great at the Battle of Raphia, but did nothing further to break his power. He organized elephant hunts in the Sudan, and transported the animals b}' sea to Egypt for military purposes ; a Greek inscription set up by Alexandres, general of the elephant hunts of Ptolem)^ IV, is in Ba}' 26, No. 958.
Ptolemy V, Epiphanes, B.C. 205, was a great benefactor of the temples of Eg}'pt ; and to mark their gratitude to him the priests of all P^^gypt met in solemn as.sembl}- at Memphis in the ninth year of his reign, and passed a Decree ordering that increased honours be paid to the king and his ancestors, that a statue of him be set up in each of the temples, and that a copy of the Decree, inscribed upon a stone stele, in hiero- glyphic, demotic and Greek writing, be likewise set up in each temple of the first, .second, and third class throughout Eg}'pt. This Decree was duly carried out, for portions of three or four stelae, inscribed with the text of it, have been discovered. Most important of all is the stele which was found by M. Boussarcl in 1798, which, because it was dug up near Rosetta, is commonly known as the Rosetta Stone (see No. 960, Southern Egyptian Gallery). A special interest attaches to this monument, for from it Thomas Young, in 1 816 181 8, deduced the values of se\eral letters of the Egyptian alphabet, and succeeded in reading the name of Ptolemy. Next with the help of this text and of an obelisk from Philae, the
{See page 270. )
Plate XLIX.
6 §
a s
_ o
D- o
Plate L.
{See pa^e 271.)
Granite monolithic shrine dciluauu ii. vW i^nliless Isis of Philae by Ptolemy IX (?), Euergetes II, n.c. 147-117. [Southern Egyptian Gallery, Bay 30, No. 962.]
TEMPLE OF EDFU COMPLETED.
271
Frenchman ChampoUion read the name Cleopatra, and formu- lated a correct system of Egyptian decipherment. (For details see page 41 ff.) During the reign of Ptolemy V, the Egyptians invoked the protection of Rome.
Ptolemy VI, Eupator, died the year he became king. During the reign of Ptolemy VII, Philometor (B.C. 173), the Jews were permitted to build a temple at Onion, Onias being high-priest. (For a stele on which are sculptured figures
-i^F^
Head of a statue of one of Uie Ptolemies, about B.C. 300. [Southern Egyptian Gallery, Bay 27, No. 947.]
of Ptolemy VII and the two Queens Cleopatra, see Bay 27, No. 961.) Ptolemy VIII was murdered. Ptolemy IX, Euergetes II, B.C. 147-117, finished the temple of Edfu, and repaired many temples both in Eg)'pt and Nubia. From one of these came the fine monolithic granite shrine (see Plate L) in which a sacred bird or animal was kept (Bay 30,
2/2
EGYPT BECOMES A ROMAN PROVINCE.
No. 962). It was found lying on its side among the ruins of a Coptic church on the Ishmd of Philae; it had been utilized b\' the builders of the church as the base of a Christian altar. Ptolemy X, B.C. II7) conferred great benefits on the temples of the First Cataract (see Bay 29, No. 963) ; Ptolemy XI and Ptolemy XII were killed in B.C. 87 and 81 respecti\el\- ; Ptolemy XIII, B.C. 80-51, began to build the temples of Denderah and Esna ; Ptolemy XIV, B.C. 51, and his sister Cleopatra were left b\- their father, Ptolemx' XIII, under the guardianship of the Roman Senate, and Pompey was inade their guardian. After the battle of Pharsalia, Pompe}- fled to Egypt, and was murdered at the instance of Ptolemy XIV, who had banished his wife Cleopatra. In B.C. 48, Julius Caesar landed in Egypt, defeated Ptolem\', ^\■ho was drowned, and reinstated Cleopatra. Ptolemy XV was appointed co-regent ; but he was murdered b}' Cleopatra's orders in B.C. 45, and Ptolemy XVI, Caesarion, son of Julius Caesar and Cleopatra, was named co-regent in his stead. After the defeat of Antony by Octaviaiuis and the death of Antony and Cleopatra, Egypt became a Roman Province, B.C. 30.
The 1^2g3'ptian antiquities of the Ptolemaic Period in the British Museum consist chiefly of Stelae inscribed with funerary texts ; they are comparatively small in size, and arc painted in bright colours. 71ie reliefs, in which the figures of the gods are represented, are delicately cut, and the hieroglyphics have the slender form which is one of the chief characteristics of the inscriptions of the period. The texts often contain the ages of the deceased persons, and details concerning the length of time occupied in the process of mummification, which are wholly wanting in the funerar}' monuments of an earlier period. Among the gods mentioned on the stelae is Serapis, who represents a fusion of the old Eg}'ptian gods, Osiris and Apis. (I"or figures of this god in terra-cotta see Table-case M in the Fourth Egyptian Room.) The stone coffins of the period are in the form of a mumm}-, a nd are usuall}' carefully cut and finished. We ha\e alread}- seen that two important edicts of the priests of Memphis and Canopus were cut on stelae in two forms of Egyptian writing, viz., hierogl}^phic and demotic, and in Greek ; there are also several examples of funerar)- monuments in the British Museum in which the hieroglyphic text is followed b\' a rendering in demotic and Greek. In the case of small objects, r.g:, mumni}- labels, the inscriptions are in demotic and Greek only.
Among the noteworthy monuments of this period are : A statue of the goddess Isis, holding before her a figure of Osiris,
COLOSSAI. CRANITK UKETLK.
-/J
whom she protects with her wings, dedicated to the goddess b\^ one Shashanq (Bay 28, No. 964) ; massive green granite beetle, symbol of Khepera, the self-produced god, the creator of the universe, and the type of resurrection (Central Saloon, No. 965) ; stone serpent, with the bust of a woman (Bay 32, No. 966) ; green basalt coffin of the lady Ankhet (Bay 29, No. 967) and the limestone coffin of Hes-Petan-Ast (Bay 26, No. 968) ; limestone window from the clerestory of the temple of
Limestone window with nuillions in the form of pillars with Ilalhor-headed capitals. From the temple at Dendcrah.
[Southern Egyptian Clallery, Bay 25, No. 972.] Ptolemaic Period
Denderah (Bay 25, No. 972 j ; and a marble sun-dial from .Ale.Kandria (Bay 29, No. 976). An interesting group of stelae, with demotic inscription.s,isexhibited in Bay 27 (Nos. 983-990) ; and in Bay 29 (No. 994) is the stele of Euonymos, with an inscription in Greek and demotic. Among the stelae which give the ages of deceased persons may be noted tho.se of Her-abu, a priest of king Sahu-Ra (?), who lived fifty }'ears, seven months, and five days (Bay 30, No. 995) ; Tashermut,
N
274 STELE OF TH AT-I-EM-IIETEP.
a priestess who died aged ninety-seven years (Bay 27, No. 996) ; and Berenice (?) who died aged sixty-four years, eight months, and twent}'-six days (Bay 29, No. 998).
Of all the stelae of this period the most interesting is that of the lady That-I-em-hetep, who belonged to a famih- that reckoned among its members several princes of Memphis and high priests of Ptah (Bay 29, No. 1027). She was born in the ninth year of the reign of Ptolemy XIII, about B.C. 71, and when fourteen years old she was married to her half-brother, the priest P-shere-en-Ptah (see his stele in Bay 27, No. 1026). During the first twelve )'ears of her married life she gave birth to three daughters, but no son, which caused her husband great grief. She and her husband prayed to the god I-em-hetep, the son of Ptah, for a son, and the god, appearing to P-shere-en-Ptah in a dream, promised to grant his prayer if he carried out certain works in connexion with the temple. When the priest awoke he caused the works to be taken in hand, and soon after they were completed his wife gave birth to a son who was named I-em-hetep, and surnamed Peta-Bast (see his stele in Bay 27, No. IO30). Four years afterwards That-I-em-hetep died, and was buried with due ceremony by her husband, whom she addresses thus : " O my brother, my husband, my friend, " the Ur-kherp-hem {i.e., high priest of Memphis), cease not to " drink, to eat, to be drunken, and to marry wives, and to enjoy " thyself, and to follow the desire of thy heart by day and " by night ; and let not sorrow or sadness find a place in " thy heart during all the years which thou .shalt live " upon earth. Amenti {i.e., the land of the dead) is the land " of stupor and darkness, and a place of oppression for those " who are therein. The august ones sleep in their mummied " forms ; they cannot awake to see their brethren, they cannot " look upon their fathers and mothers, and they are unmindful " of wives and children. The living water which the earth
" hath for its dwellers is stagnant water for me I no
" longer know where I am, now that I have arrived in this " valley [of the dead]. Would that I had water to drink from " a running stream, and one to sa\- to me, ' Remove not th\- " pitcher from the stream ' ! O that my face were turned " towards the north wind on the river bank that the coolness " thereof might quiet the anguish which is in my heart 1
" He whose name is Universal Death calleth ever\-one to " him ; and they come unto him with quaking hearts, and thc}- " arc terrified through their fear of him. With him is no " distinction made between gods and men, and the great are " even as the little in his sight. He showeth no favour to those
QUEEN CANDACE. 2/5
" who long for him ; for he carrieth away the babe from his " mother, as well as the aged man. As he goeth about on " his way, all men fear him, and, though all make supplication " before him, he turneth not his face towards them. Entreaty " reacheth not unto him, for he will not hearken unto him that " maketh supplication, and him who presenteth unto him " offerings and funerary, he will not regard."
The ideas expressed in the above extract have their origin in the materialism which found its way into Egypt under the rule of the Ptolemies.
THE ROMAN PERIOD.
Egypt, having become a province of the Roman Empire on the death of Cleopatra, B.C. 30, was forthwith placed under the rule of a Prefect, and administered like any other Roman Province. Under the strict but just rule of her new masters Egypt prospered, for trade flourished, and life and property were, on the whole, well protected by the laws of Rome. Reference has already been made (see page 255) to the Nubian kingdom founded by Piankhi, who made Napata his capital ; it musi; also be noted that at the same period, between B.C. 500 and the end of the Ptolemaic rule, a second Nubian kingdom was founded by some unknown Sudani chief on the Island of Meroe, with a capital at Meroe, on the Nile, about 50 miles south of its junction with the Atbara. When the Romans began to rule over Egypt the Mero'itic Kingdom was in a flourishing state, and the authority of its sovereign, who appears to have been Queen Amentarit^ (having also the title Candace, which was common to all the Queens of Meroe), probably extended northwards as far as the First Cataract. In B.C. 29 Candace made a treaty with Cornelius Gallus, the first prefect of Egypt; but, five years later, when iElius Gallus was prefect, she invaded Egyptian territory and slew the Roman garrisons of Philae and Syene. In revenge the Romans invaded Nubia and marched to
' The hieroglyphic form of her prenomen is f / 11 I ,
and her nomen was Kenthahebit
']l\^l\l\
O
, whence, prob-
ably, the title Candace is derived. Her tomb is at Meroe (Northern Ckoup of Pyramids, No. i).
N 3
276
DKFKAT OF CAXDACK.
Xapata, which they sacked and burned ; and Candace was forced to submit. From that time onward little is heard of the Kingdom of Meroi- ; but the pyramids which still stand near Meroe prove that the Nubians observed the old Egyptian customs in connexion with the burial of their dead in chambers under the ground. The}' offered sacrifices to Osiris, Isis, Nephthys, Anubis, and other gods of the cycle of Osiris, and recited the ancient formulas, which are also written in hiero- glyphics on the walls of the funerary chapels ; and in some instances they reproduced on the walls whole scenes, eg:, the Weighing of the Heart, and the P}'lons of the Other World,
The buildint; at I'hilac cnninionly known as '• J'haraoh's Bed."
Roman Period.
from Ptolemaic copies of the Book of the Dead, as for example, on the sandstone relief from a pyramid chapel at Meroe w^hich is exhibited in l^a\- 31, No. IO49. On the right Queen Candace is seated, her consort by her side, holding symbols of sovereignty, her feet resting on representatives of conquered tribes. Immediately in front of the large figure of the queen we see her pouring out libations to Osiris, and round about her are vases of wine, beer, unguents, bulls for sacrifice, etc., for the funerary feast. In her company are priests, officials, relatives, and others, who bear ofierings, palm branches, etc. This relief was originall)- coloured red. Also may be mentioned
f:ii
!l
Plate LI.
[See page 277.)
K **■•**' f ■"■ J rf" '
?p||K^Mi
\ \
^^PXWfB'i- , ,_, , . -i .. ,:T' j"''f ' ■
Tablet recording the restoration of the temple of Mut by the Emperor Tiberius Caesar, about a. d. 20. [Southern Egyptian Gallery, 'Bay 27, No. 1052,]
Plate LII.
[See paq;e 277.)
-Q^JaP^g
'<t»»\''. «-<:5»;'
ir^#:yTi
TOaSaaKsalm^': Tratbr^
■ iiiiSJKi^iiab^-
Tablet recording ihc selling up ol a slalue lo the goddess Mul, and the lestoralion
pf cerlain buildings i.y the Emperor Tiberius Caesar, about A.D. 20.
[Soulhern Egyptian Gallery,! Bay 29, No. 1033.]
RO?*IAN CENTURIONS IN TIIK SLTDAN. 277
the two altars with Meroitic Inscriptions exhibited in Ba}' 30, Nos. 1050, IO51. The Meroitic cliaracter has not yet been deciphered.
Nearly all the Roman emperors from Tiberius (a.D. 14) to Decius (a.D. 249) adopted Egyptian names and titles, and caused their names to be written within cartouches like those of the Pharaohs. The stele in Bay 27 (No. 1052) states that Tiberius rebuilt portions of the temple of Mat at Thebes (see Plate LI) ; and another stele (Bay 29, No. 1053) refers to the setting up by him of a statue of the goddess Mut, and the re-endowment of the portion of the temple wherein it stood (see Plate LII). In the reign of Nero (a.d. 54-69) two centurions sent into the Sudan to report on the general condition of the country reached the marshes near Shambi, about 700 miles south of Khartum. Tradition asserts that Christianity was preached in Alexandria towards the close of his reign, and that St. Mark arrived in that city, A.D. 69. To this period belongs stele No. 1057 (Bay 32), which was set up to mark the gratitude of the Egyptians to Nero for appointing F. Claudius Balbillus, prefect of Egypt. Hadrian visited Egypt twice, and founded the city of Antinoopolis in memory of his friend Antinous who was drowned in the Nile ; when at Thebes he went with the Empress Sabina to view the Colossi (see Plate XXXIII). Marcus Aurelius (a.d. 161-180) was a just ruler and favoured Christianity in Egypt; in his reign the walls which surrounded the Sphinx at Gizah were repaired (see stele, No. 1058, Bay 32). Septimius Severus (a.d. 196) issued an edict against the Christians in Egypt, and his successor, Caracalla (a.d. 211), encouraged the pagan Egyptians and favoured their religion. Decius (A.D. 249) made a systematic attempt to destroy the Christians, and every person was called upon to offer sacrifice to the gods, or suffer death. In the reign of Diocletian (a.d. 284), the Blemmyes, aconfederationof tribes who lived in the Eastern Sudan, became so powerful that they compelled the Roman garrisons to withdraw from the Dodekaschoinos/ and the emperor was obliged to hire the Nobadae, or tribes of the Western Desert, to keep them in check. He also agreed to pay the Blemmyes a fixed annual sum to refrain from raiding Roman territory in Egypt, and built a temple at Elephantine wherein representatives of all the peoples concerned might swear to observe the covenant in the presence of their respective gods. Diocletian in fact abandoned
' /.(., the portion cif the Nile \'alley between Syene and Hieiasykaniinos, which was 12 sihocni (hence the name), or 70 miles, in length.
N 3
and the pillar al
the ?od giidstoi difficult public 1
278 CHRISTIANITY IN THE SUDAN.
the Sudan. In 304 he issued a savage edict against the Christians in Egypt, and the persecution which followed it was marked with ferocious cruelt}'. Many thousands of Egyptians fled to the desert monasteries to avoid conscription, and embraced Christianity. From one of his buildings on the Island of Philae comes the stone bearing the names of Diocletian and Constantine (a.d. 324) (No. 1059, Bay 26).
In 378 Theodosius the Great proclaimed Christianity the religion of his Empire, and many temples in Lower Egypt were turned at once into churches ; but the ancient Eg}'ptian gods were worshipped as usual in Upper P2g}-pt Marcianus (a.d. 450-457) invaded Nubia and punished the Blemmyes and Nobadae for raiding Roman territory ; they paid a huge fine, gave hostages for their future good behaviour, and made an agreement to keep the peace for one hundred years. In return they stipulated that they .should be allowed to make pilgrimages annually to Philae, and to borrow the statue of Isis from time to time, so that they might take it about the country, and give the people the opportunity of invoking the protection and blessing of the goddess. In the first half of the sixth century the Nubians embraced Christianity, and Silko, king of the Nobadae, founded a kingdom having its capital at Dongola. During the reign of Justinian (a.d. 527-565) the hundred years' truce came to an end, and the Blemmyes and Nobadae again began to give trouble. Justinian, believing that the cause of the revolt was the annual pilgrimage to Philae, sent his officer Narses thither, with strict orders to close the temples of Isis. Narses threw the priests of Isis into prison, con-| fiscated the revenues of the goddess, and carried off the statues of the gods of Philae to Constantinople.
In the reign of Heraclius the Persians, under Ghosroes, invaded Egypt (A.D. 619), which they held for ten years. Owing to the desertion from the Persians of the Arab tribes, who had now attached themselves to the victorious troops of Muhammad the Prophet (born at Mekkah. Aug. 20, A.D. 570, died in June, 632), Heraclius was able to attack the Persians, in Syria, and defeating them became master of Egypt once more. In 640 *Amr Ibn al-Asi, the general of the Khalifa Omar, conquered Eg>pt. and thus the country! became a province of the newly-founded Arab Empire. r ;!jg
During the rule of the Romans, which lasted from B.C. 30 j ,i„j'j to A.D. 640, the Greek language entirely superseded Egyptian \^
\ero, V wll be E?}-ptiai Wiethe bury the: 'lie fune cent'jry , different kieroajvp ''' t'ci
for official purposes, and it was also usually employed in the funerary inscriptions. Interesting examples are the stele of
m the Apostle,
ARAB CONQUEST OF EGYPT.
279
'olitta, inscribed with a metrical text (Bay 26, No. 1083), ,nd the stele of Artemidorus (Bay 26, No. 1084). On the (illar altar (Bay 31, No. 1086) is a dedication in Greek to he god Serapis of the city of Canopus ; and on the square and stone slab (Bay 26, No. 1087) is a very interesting but lifificult text recording the cleansing and restoration of some )ublic building near the town of Kom Ombo in Upper ^gypt, whilst Gabriel was Duke of the Thebaid. Other nteresting inscriptions in Greek are found in ostraka, or )otsherds, many of which are dated in the reigns of Claudius,
Sepulchial tablet sculptured with figures of doves, pillars, leaf patterns, etc. [Southern Egyptian Gallery, Bay 30, No. 1156.]
^ero, Vespasian, Trajan, Antoninus, Sabinus, Pertinax, etc., vill be found exhibited in Table-case C in the Third ig}'ptian Room. During the early centuries of Roman ule the Eg}'ptians continued to mummify their dead, and to )ury them with the ancient rites and ceremonies. The use of he funerary stele or tablet continued down to the fourth :entury A.D. ; but the gods represented on them appeared in lifferent forms, and Greek or demotic took the place of iierogl}'phics. In the region about Thebes and to the south >f that city the cult of Osiris and Isis continued until about L.D. 560, and a simple system of muinmification was practised 1 connexion with the worship of the dead.
The most important event during the rule of the Romans v^as the introduction of Christianity by St. Mark the \postle, who, according to tradition, preached the Gospel
N 4
2Ho ECVPTIAN CHRISTIANS.
in Alexandria about A.l). 69. The knowledge of the new religion spread rapidly, and converts multiplied and, though no direct proof is forthcoming at present, there is reason to think that before the middle of the second centur)- an account of the life of Christ and His words and works existed in the Egyptian tongue. Men who had embraced Christianity retired into the desert to lead a life of austerity and con- templation, among whom may be mentioned Frontonius, who collected seventy di.sciples, and withdrew to the Xitrian Desert between A.D. 138 and 161, and Paul the Anchorite,i who died about A.D. 250, aged 113 }^ears. The life an teaching of Anthony, born 250, died 355, induced thousand to become monks. Pachomius, in 320, systematize monasticism, but he required the recluses to work for their living whilst they cultivated spiritual excellences. Women as well as men flocked to the desert, and nunneries existed in many places in Eg\'pt. The number of such reclu.ses was great ; at Nitria alone there were 5,000 monk.s, and, in addition, 600 lived solitary lives in the neighbouring desert. At Oxyrhynchus there were 10,000 monks, and the bishop had charge of 20,000 nuns. In the monasteries of Nitria and Panopolis, and elsewhere, the Hoh' Scriptures were trans- lated from Greek into Eg}-ptian {i.e., Coptic, see pages 35-39) and Syriac, and other Oriental languages ; and copies of them were carried by monks and fugitive Christians into Nubia, and even into remote Abyssinia, b}' way of the Blue \ i Nile. In the Oases of the Western Desert were numbers of ] ^ Christians in the fourth and fifth centuries ; wherever the monk went he took Christianity with him. Still, in spite of the spread of the new religion, the beliefs which the Egyptians had received from their pagan ancestors also flourished in Egypt for centuries after the preaching of St. Mark, and people of all classes clung to their amulets, and words of power, an magical ceremonies, e\en after they had embraced ChristianityJ For a very long time the Cross was regarded as an amulet possessing the greatest magical power possible, and the Name of Christ was held to be the greatest of all words of power.
The principal doctrine of the Egyptian Christians, o Copts, is that God the Father and Christ are of one and the ) Same nature ; Arius held that God and Christ are only similar in nature, and was declared a heretic. The Copts are called Monophysites, because they believed, and still believe, that Christ is of one nature only, and Jacobites because their views as to the nature of Christ are identical
PERSECUTION OF CHRISTIANS.
281
with those of one Jacob, a famous preacher of the Monophysite doctrine. The head of the Coptic Church is the Patriarch, who is chosen from among the monks of the Monastery of St. Anthony in the Red Sea Desert. The Copts attach great importance to Baptism, they face the East when praying, and the}^ pray seven times a da}'. They make use of Confession, and keep five Fasts and seven Festivals. The Copts were persecuted severel}' in the reigns of Hadrian, Decius, Diocletian, and Julian the Apostate (A.D. 361), but the cruellest of the persecutions of the Roman emperors was that of Diocletian
Sepulchral tablet of Pleinos, a " reader.'' [Southern Egyptian Gallery,
Bay 32, Xo. 1 145.]
Scpuiciuai Laljlt'i ot David, an Egyptian Christian. [Southern Egyptian Gallery,
Bay 30, No. 1160.]
in 304. The Copts commemorated the sufferings of their community on this occasion by making the Era of the Martyrs, by which they date their documents, begin with the day of Diocletian's accession to the throne, I'.r., August 29th, A.D. 284. In the reign of Justinian the Copts split up into two great parties, z'.e., the Melkites, or Royalists, which included all those who were in the service of the Government, and the Jacobites, or ordinary inhabitants of the country ; henceforward each party chose its own Patriarch. The;
282 THE ARABS IN EGYPT.
dissensions between them materially aided the Conquest of Egypt by the Arabs.
Side by side with Christianity there also sprang up in Egypt, under Roman rule, a number of sects to which the title " Gnostic " has been given. They derived many of their views and beliefs from the religion of the ancient Egyptians, and they admitted into their system many of the old gods, e.g., Khnemu, Ptah, Ra, Amen, Thoth, Osiris, etc. The founders of Gnosticism, a word derived from the Greek gjiosis, " knowledge," claimed to possess a superiority of knowledge in respect of things divine and celestial, and they regarded the knowledge of God as the truest perfection of knowledge. The characteristic god of the Gnostics was Abrasax, or Abraxas, and he represented the One who embraced ALL within him.self. They attributed magical properties to stones, which, when cut into certain forms, and inscribed with legends, or m}-stic names, words, and letters, afforded, they thought, protection against moral and ph}-sical evil. An unusualK- fine collection of Gnostic Gems and Amulets is exhibited in Table-case N, in the Fourth Eg)'ptian Room : No. I speaks of the " Father of the World, the God in Three Forms " ; No. l8 shows us the lion-headed
serpent Knoumis and the m}\stic symbol 5$S 5 ^'°- ^5 makes the Osiris-Christ to be Jah of the Hebrews, and also Alpha and Omega ; Nos. 36, 37, and 44 have figures of Abraxas cut upon them ; No. 87 mentions Solomon's Seal, No. no, the six Archangels: and of peculiar interest are No. 231, engraved with a representation of the Crucifixion, and No. 469, engraved with a representation of the Birth of Christ.
THE ARAB PERIOD.
A.D. 640-1517.
As the Arabs were materially assisted in their conquest of Egypt by the Copts, the new masters of the .country treated the latter with great consideration for about 100 years ; but, from A.D. 750 onwards, they persecuted their Christian sub- jects at intervals with great sevcrit}'. The non-Christian inhabitants of the country embraced Islam, or the doctrine of Muhammad the Prophet, and, with the religion of the Muslims, the knowledge of the Arabic language spread throughout Egypt. It gradually superseded Egyptian, or Coptic, and about the end of the twelfth century it became
Plate LI 1 1.
(See page 283.)
.y y.
1) <(,
C C o
C M
(^ =* d
CLO
< tj o"
O rt
pen ^-
COPTIC MONUMENTS. 283
the common language of the country, Coptic ceasing to be spoken except in monasteries and remote villages. In 642 the Arabs, under Abd-Allah bin Sa'd, occupied the Egyptian Sudan, and ten years later they marched to Dongola, destroyed the church and the town, and levied an annual tribute, or Bakt, consisting of 360 or 365 men upon the Nubians, which was paid with more or less regularity for nearly 500 years. On several occasions the Arabs invited the Christians of Nubia to embrace Islam, but the latter steadily rejected the offer, paid their tribute, and continued to worship God according to the teachings of their Jacobite priests, who were appointed to their office by the Patriarch of Alexandria. Many hundreds of churches were built in the Sudan between a.d. 540, when the Christian religion was established by Silko, king of the Nobadae, and 1450, when the Christian kingdom of Aiwa, on the Blue Nile, was destroyed. During the greater part of these 900 years the Liturgy was recited in Greek, and the services were con- ducted after the manner laid down by the spiritual authorities in Alexandria. Certain Books of the Bible and various Offices were translated into Nubi, the language of the country ; but of these few remains are extant.
In Egypt the Copts founded and maintained many monas- teries, and built many churches ; and from these come two remarkable series of monuments, inscribed in Greek and Coptic, which are exhibited in Bays 28, 30, and 32 of the Southern Egyptian Gallery. The greater number of them belong to the period between 600 and looo A.D., and among them may be noted: — The stele of Isos(?), inscribed in Greek with a prayer to the " God of Spirits " (Bay 26, No. 1094); the stele of Pahomo (see Plate LIII), the father of a monastic settlement, with figures of the military saints Apakene and Victor (Bay 30, No. 1103) ; the apse from the shrine of a saint, on which are sculptured vine branches, with doves seated on them, and figures of flowers, shells, fish, etc. : a very interesting object (Bay 32, No. II04) ; the stele of John the Deacon, inscribed with a lament on the bitterness of death (Bay 30, No. II05) ; an altar slab from a church (Bay 32, No. II06) ; three stelae, inscribed with invocations to saints (Bays 30, 32, Nos. 1107-1109) ; apse from a shrine of a saint from a church at Philae (Bay 30, No. 1 1 13) ; and a group of stelae commemorating the holy women Helene, daughter of Peter, deacon and steward of the Church of St. John, in Esna, in Upper Egypt (Bay 30, No. 1 1 15), Sara, Rachel, Teucharis, Trois, and Rebecca
I
284
COPTIC MONUMENTS.
(Bay 32, Nos. IIl6 II20). Many of the sepulchral stelae are richly sculptured with pediments of shrines, pillars with elaborate carvings, figures of doves, and everywhere are pro- minent the cross, which is assumed to be identical with the
ankJi •¥-, the old Eg}'ptian symbol of "life," and the crown.
On several of them also are seen Alpha and Omega, A 12. The most elaborately decorated stele is that which was set up for the child Mary in the old church at Suhak. The
Sepulchral lablel of Abrnam, tlie " perfect monk.'" [Soulhern I-lgyptian Gallery,
Bay 30, No. 1136.]
Sepulchral tablet of Rachel, a Christiq
lady. [Soulhern Egyptian (iallery,
Bay 32, K(i. 1 1 17.
design is good, the cutting excellent, and it is one of the finest examples extant of this class of monument (Ba}- 32, No. 1123).^ A ver>' interesting group of Coptic documents, consisting of affidavits, letters, invoices, contracts, extracts from the Scriptures and from liturgies, h}-mns, etc., is exhibited
' Copies and Iranslaiions of most of ihc (iixck and Ci)]Hic inscriptions have been published by the Trustees of the British Museum in "Coptic and Greek Texts of the Christian Period from Ostraka, Stelae, etc., in the British Museum." With ico plates. 1905. Foolscap. £1.
\
THE ARAB DYNASTIES. 285
in Table-case M in the Fourth Egyptian Room. In division 4 of the same case is a good collection of Coptic crosses, pendants with figures of St. George, etc., from Panopolis. Se\eral \er}- fine examples of linenwork from Coptic graves and churches will be found in Table-cases E and J in the Third Egyptian Room, and a handsome bier cloth in Wall- cases 70 and 71, in the Second Egyptian Room.
Soon after the Arabs had conquered Egypt, they found it , necessary to keep a strong garrison at Syene, the modern Aswan. In order to relieve the soldiers of the garrison from the duty of a pilgrimage to Mekkah, an order was issued from Fostat, the first x'\rab capital in Egypt, near Old Cairo, that a pilgrimage to Aswan counted as a pilgrimage to Mekkah ; hence for some two or three hundred years Aswan was regarded as a holy place, and pious Muslims were brought there from all parts to be buried. A collection of gravestones inscribed in Kufi, or Kufic, a form of Arabic writing, from the old Muhammadan cemetery at Aswan, is exhibited in the Second Northern Gallery (Wall-cases 52-54). The oldest example is that of Azhar, son of Abd as-Salam, who died in the year of the Hejira 252 = A.D. 866.
The Arab dynasties which ruled Egypt and the Sudan between 656 and 15 17 are as follows : —
'Omayyad Khalifas^ a 'Abbasid Khalifas Tulunid Khalifas Fatimid Khalifas Ayyiibid Khalifas Bahrite Mamluks Circassian Mamluks'
D. 661-750. , 750-868.
868 913. , 913-1193. , 1 193-1249. , 1 249-1 382. , 1382-1517.
The Arab domination came to an end in 15 17, when .Selim, sultan of Turkey, conquered the country, and Egypt became a Turkish Province, or Pashalik.
' The word Khalifa means " successor," i.e., of the Prophet. - The word Manili'tk means " slave."
286
A LIST OF THE PRINCIPAL KINGS OF
EGYPT.
PREDYNASTIC PERIOD.
Kings of Lower Egypt.
I u. |
6 Neheb. |
2 Seka. |
7 Uatch-nar, or Uatch-Ant. |
3 Khaau. |
8 Mekha. |
4 Tau. |
9 a. [10 ff. wanting]. |
5 Thesh. |
|
DYNASTIC PERIOD. |
|
First Dynasty. |
Sent. |
Neferka-Ra. |
|
B.C. 4400. |
Xeferka-Seker. |
Hetchefa. |
|
Mena (Menes). |
|
Teta. |
|
Ateth. |
Third Dynasty. |
Ata. |
B.C. 3q66. |
Semti (Ten). |
•J y |
Merpeba (At-ab). |
Sanekht. |
I.Iu (Smerkha). |
Bebi (Tchatchai). |
Sen (or, Oebh). |
Nebka-Ra. |
Tche.ser. |
|
Teta (Hen-nekht). |
|
Second Dynasty. |
Setches. |
Neferka-Ra Huni. |
|
B.C. 4133. |
|
Neterbaiu. or Betchau, or |
Fourth Dynasty. |
Besh. |
|
Hetep-sekhemui. |
B.C. 3733. |
Kakau. |
Seneferu. |
Baenneter. |
Shaaru. |
Uatchnes. |
Khufu (Cheops). |
Perabsen. |
Tctf-Ra. |
LIST OF PRINCIPAL KINGS.
287
Khaf-Ra (Chephren). Menkau-Ra (Mykerinos). Shepseskaf. Sebekka-Ra. 1-em-hetep.
Fifth Dynasty.
B.C. 3566.
Userkaf,
Sahu-Ra.
Neferarika-Ra.
Shepseska-Ra.
Khanefer-Ra.
Useren-Ra An.
Menkau-Heru.
Tetka-Ra Assa.
Unas.
Sixth Dynasty.
B.C. 3330.
Teta.
Userka-Ra Ati. Pep! I. Meren-Ra I. Pepi II. Meren-Rcl II.
Eleventh Dynasty.
B.C. 2600.
Antef, the Erpa. Antef Uah ankh. Antef Nekht-neb-tep-nefer. Menthu-hetep I. Menthu-hetep II. Menthu-hetep III. Menthu-hetep IV. Menthu-hetep V. Menthu-hetep VI. Menthu-hetep VII.
Twelfth Dynasty.
B.C. 2466.
Amenemhat I. Usertsen I. Amenemhat II. Usertsen II. Usertsen III. Amenemhat III. Her.
Amenemhat IV. Usertsen IV. Sebek-neferu-Ra.
Eighteenth Dynasty.
Aahmes I ^
3tep I J
.C. 1600.
B.C. 1550.
B.C. 1450.
Amen-hetep
Thothmes I Thothmes II Hatshepset thothmes III
Amen-hetep II, B.C. 1500. Thothmes IV Amen-hetep III
Amen-hetep IV 1 (or Khu-en-Aten) j Tutankh-Amen r^B.C. 1400. Ai I
Heruemheb J
Nineteenth Dynasty. Rameses I
c *.• T r l'-*^'- 1350.
heti 1 ' ^-^
Rameses II, B.C. 1330. Meren-Ptah.
Amenmeses, B.C. 1250.
Sa-Ptah.
Seti II.
Arsu, the Syrian.
288
1, 1ST Ol'- I'RIMII'AI, KINGS.
Twentieth Dynasty.
Set-nekht.
Rameses III, i'..c. 1200. Rameses IV. Rameses V. Rameses VI. Rameses VII. Rameses VIII. Rameses IX. Rameses X, B.C. 11 33. Rameses XI. Rameses XII.
Twenty-first Dynasty.
B.C. I 100.
At Taiiis. Xes-Ba-neb-Tettet. Pasebkhanut I. A men-em-apt. Sa-Amen. Pasebkhanut II.
At Thebes. Her-Heru. Paiankh. Pai-Netchem I. Men-kheper-Ra. Pai-Xetchem II.
Twenty-second Dynasty.
ii.r. 966.
1 Huiu-uaua, the founder.]
Shashanq I (Shishak). Uasarken I. Thekeleth I. Uasarken II. Shashanq II. Thekeleth II. Uasarken I II. Thekeleth III. Shashanq III. Pamai. Shashanq W .
Twenty-third Dynasty.
B.C. 750.
Peta-Ba.st. Uasarken IV. Tafnekht I.
Twenty-fourth Dynasty.
Bocchoris. Tafnekht II.
Twenty-fifth Dynasty.
B.C. 700.
Kashta.
Picinkhi.
Shabaka (Sabaco).
Shabataka.
Taharqa (Tirhakah).
Tanuath-Amen.
Twenty-sixth Dynasty.
B.C. 66(-).
Psemthek I (Psammetichus) Xckau (Xecho). Psemthek II. Uahab-Ra (Hophra). .\ahmes II (Amasis). P.semthek III.
Twenty-seventh • Dynasty.
Amv
Naif:
Haki Psan
lie Tchf Nekl
B.C.
:>-/■
Camb}'ses.
Darius I (H}-staspes.j
Xerxes I,
Artaxerxes,
Darius II.
LTSr OF PRINCIPAL KINGS.
:89
Twenty-eighth Dynasty.
Amyrtaios.
Twenty-ninth Dynasty.
B.C. 399.
Naifaanit.
Haker.
Psamut.
Thirtieth Dynasty.
B.C. 378.
Nekht - Heru - heb (Nekta-
nebes). Tchehra (Teds). Xekht-nebf (Nektanebos).
Thirty-first Dynasty. Darius III, B.C. ^^6.
Macedonians.
B.C. 340.
xMexander the Great. Philip Arrhidaeus. Alexander II.
Ptolemies.
B.C. 305-30.
Ptolemy I. Ptolemy II. Ptolemy III. Ptolemy IV. Ptolemy V. Ptolemy VI. Ptolemy VII. Ptolemy VIII. Ptolemy IX. Ptolemy X. Ptolemy XI. Ptolemy XII. Ptolemy XI 11.^ Cleopatra. j
Ptolemy XIV. Ptolemy XV. Ptolemv XVI.
290
CARTOUCHES OF THE PRINCIPAL KINGS OF
EGYPT.
m CM] M CmiJ M CS^]
MenA. Sem-ti
Semsu, or
Mer-ba-pen. (Mer-p-ba.)
CI] CZ2D
Ti^ ( ^ I ^^^ ("'' Xekht)?
CT3 CH '■' asn
NeTER-BAIU, Z.t'.,
Besh,
Betchau.
Ka-kau.
|\^ [*^j™]
Ba-en-neter.
Per-Ab-sen.
H ( p ^ q]
SentA.
-W^
Tcheser.
J sdD-MCMii]
Itu
Nefer-ka-Ra, Senekeru. Tet-f-Ra.
Q,umxnU|LjLJ j
Men-kau-Ra. (Mycerinus.)
TetA. (Hen-nekht.)
son of the Sun,
TchesertetA.
HUNI.
Khufu. (Cheops.)
Kha-f-Ra. (Chephren.)
m(%-^i
Shepses-ka-f.
0
Sebek-ka-Ra.
CARTOUCHES OF KINGS OF EGYPT. 291
I-EM-HETET.
mi
o
USR-KA-F.
Sah-u-Ra.
Usr-en-Ra,
MuiM \J\J j men-kau-Heru.
AssA,
TetA-mer-en-Ptaij. (Teta l)eloved of Ptah.)
}'
Meri-Ra,
0 <=
Mer-en-Ra,
II o J U
Nefer-ka-Ra,
Ra-meri-Ab,
son of the Sun, G
son of the Sun,
son of the Sun, Pepi (IL).
Ra-mek-en-Tchefau-em-sa-f.
o
son of the Sun,
KltATI.
292
CARTOUCHES OF KINGS OF EGYPT.
Ra-ka-meki.
KKPA Ha Antef-A
The Erpa and Ha, Antef-A
[G]
/^
Neb-^apt-Ra,
]
r^^^^
^
Neb-taui-Ra,
Neb-^ap-Ra,
D
O
f
son of the Sun. O
son of the Sun, O
son of the Sun, O
Menth-hetep.
1^""^
g^
Mexth-hetep.
jmi^
^
Menth-hetep.
Mer-ankh-R.\, son of the Sun,
I AAftAAA
ci D
MC^Plu] ¥
Se-ankh-ka-Ra,
sun (if the Sun,
o
Menthu-hetep. Mextiiu-hetei'.
RA-SESHESH-HER-yER-MAAT, son of the Sun,
o
A.\TEF-AA (I.).
son of the Sun, Antef-aa (H.).
O
V
I
Ci c^
Ra-seshesh-Apu-maat, son of the Sun,
c^ <==. \ _/_I JJ
Antek-aa (HI.). son of the Sun, Axtef-.aa (IV.).
,'"SlilS^\
Xub-kheper-Ra,
^\^( ofl^O
D
O
son of the Sun, O
Q AAAAAA ^\l
Antef.
AAAAAA ^t-T^t ^^
Setjetep-Ab-Ra, son of the Sun,
Amen-em-ij.^t (I.).
CARTOUCHES OF KINGS OF EGYPT. ^ O
293
o M U
Khei'er-ka-Ra,
Nub-kau-Ra,
Khei'er-kha-Ra,
O Q
uu u
Kha-kau-Ra,
M (^ ° =^.
£ri -^ \ /^wsA'
Maat-en-Ra,
r
0
Maa-kheru-Ra,
Ra-Au-Ab,
Khu-taui-Ra.
son i)f the Sun,
son of the Sun, O
son of (he Sun,
son of the Sun, O
son of the Sun, O
son of the Sun, O
son of the Sun, Sebek-neferu-Ra.
usertsen (i.). (Sesonchosis.)
t*-"^^
rj\r'j\/\r\ rv \^ (O
Amen-em-ijat (II.).
UsERTSEN (II.).
USERTSEN (III.).
jUXU^
_S
^AAAAA
Amen-em-hat (III.). Amen-em-hat (IV.).
^
2^
Her.
^3
1 J
o 0_
a =====
son of the Sun, Heku-nest(?)-taui(?)
1^
'"^'^^/^ A.a-Ab
AWVSA
o
CMll]
Neter nefer Aa-Ab-taui-Ra, son of the Sun, Beautiful god,
ApepA.
1 \
G A
^
Netcr nefer Aa-qene>'-Ra, son of the Sun,
ApepA.
294
CARTOUCHES OF KINGS OF EGYrT. O
'^^tJ
Aa-pe9-ti-Set,
Se-user-en-Ra,
n
A ;_g
Seqenen-Ra,
o
Seqenen-Ra,
M
Seqenen-Ra, O
Uatch-kheper-Ra,
i-ggg^i
Ra-sekhent-neb,
M S CiMJ
H (_o ^ u j
Tcheser-ka-Ra,
\
O
Aa-kheper-ka-Ra,
U
o
Aa-kheper-en-Ra,
] ■ ¥ C^lMl
son of the Sun, O
son of the Sun, O
son of the Sun,
son of the Sun, O
son of the Sun, O
son of the Sun, O
son of the Sun, O
Neb-pehti-Ra, son of the Sun,
O
son of the Sun,
son of the Sun, O
NUBTI (?)
G
Khian.
I I I 1. ^ 1 Tau-aa.
I I I
31
Tau-aa- A A.
^ C)
A L-_/1
Tau-aa-qen.
'\
u
I
I (HP
Kames.
O
R.l-SEXEKHT-EX.
I
.y
Aahmes. (Amasis I.)
a
Amen-hetep. (Amenophis I.)
Teijuti-mes. (Thothmes I.)
ila
son of the Sun, Nefer-khau-Tehuti-mes. (Thothmes il.)
Maat-ka-Ra,
CARTOUCHES OF KINGS OF EGPYT 0
295
son of the Sun, Hat-shepset-khnem-Amen. (Queen Hatshepsu.)
O 1^^^^
a ¥
Men-kheper-Ra, son of the Sun,
O
Teijuti-mes. (Thothmes III.)
mc^ml
jujxm,
Aa-kheperu-Ra,
son of the Sun, Amen-hetep neter heq
Annu. (Amenophis il.)
I] ¥ (AM
jiij
Men-kheperu-Ra, son of the Sun, Tehuti-mes-kha-khau.
(Thothmes IV.)
mQ4
Neb-maat-Ra,
son of the Sun, Amen-hetep ijeq Uast.
(Amenophis III.)
I
SUTEN HEMT
]^^''4
Thi. (A Mesopotamian wife of Amenophis III.)
o
^
r^^
Nefer-kheperu-Ra-ua- son of the Sun, Amen-hetep neter heq en-Ra, Uast. (Amenophis IV.)
I /VV\A/V\ ^^5^^^ /VWAAA I
^ Q -^ J
Khu-en-Aten.
I ^ * Cf±fflMM3
SUTEN HEMT URT NEFER NEFERU-ATEN NeFERTI-ITH.
Royal wife, great lady.
m(3m
2-U
_8jJ
Ankh-kheperu-Ra, son of the Sun, Seaa-ka-nekht-kheperu- a.
CARTOUCHES OF KINGS OF ECiVPT
i> o
SSM]
Neb-kheperu-Ra,
O'
son of the Sun, Tut-ankh-Amen ijeq
Annu resu.
(^imm
Kheper-kheperu-maat- son of the Sun, Atf-neter Al NETER Ari-Ra, ijeq Uast.
V^ I AA/VW\
•')' O
\^ I wwv n J^^ " ^3Z? ^
Tcheser-kheperu-Ra- son of the Sun, Amen-meri-en Heru-
setep-en-Ra,
O ^ i" " " 'i ^ <=» TMen-pehtet-Ra
Men-maat-Ra,
I'
son of the Sun, O
O
MW
Ra-messu. (Rameses I.)
\m
son of the Sun, Ptah-meri-en-Seti. "(Seti I.)
Usr-maat-Ra setep-en-Ra, son of the Sun, Ra-messu-meri-Amen.
(Rameses II.)
MO
5R-
or I
O
o
¥
cMD
I D I
P
Usr-maat-Ra setep- son of Amen mer-Ra-meses. en-Ra. the Sun,
fe?
^
Ba-Ra-meri-en-Amen, son of the Sun, PxAy-MERi-EN-^ETEP-
tlER-MAAT.
(Menephthah.)
USR-KKEPERU-RA
Usr-kkeperu-Ra-meri-Amen, son of Seti-meri-en-Ptah
the Sun, (Seti II.)
Men-mA-Ra setep-en-Ra, son of Amen-meses-ijeq-Uast.
the Sun, (Amen-meses.)
I
CARTOUCHES OF KINCS OF EGVI'T.
?97
mGMI^] ^ &^Z£\
Khu-en-Ra SETEP-EN-RA, son of the Sun, Ptah-meri-en-Sa-Ptah.
(Menephthah II.)
a
Uf7 I -\'s 'o Kr'^^ 111 ^'i^J
o
o
V-H-
Usr-khau-Ra setep-en-Ra son of the Ra-meri Amen-merer meri-Amen, Sun, Set-nekht.
u
o
11 ^14
Usr-maat-Ra-meri-Amen, son of the Sun, Ra-meses-heq-Annu.
(Rameses III.)
O
iiilP
Usr-maat-Ra setep-en- son of the Sun, Ra-meses-meri-Amen- Amen, Ra heq ma7\t.
(Rameses IV.)
m CMBJ
o
-ii|_lH
Usr-maat-Ra s-kheper- son of the Sun, Ra-mes-meri Amen- en-Ra, Amen suten-f.
(Rameses V.)
O
O
o-
m
Ra-Amen-maat- son of the Sun, Ra-Amen-meses neter
MERI-NEB, liEQ AnNU.
1? O
(Rameses VI.)
Ra-usr-maat-Amen- son of the Sun, Ra-Amen-meses-ta
meri-setep-en-Ra, neter-heq-Annu.
(RAME.SES VII.)
MGISI]
m CMl^rJ
iDip
Ra-maat-usr-khu-en- son of the Sun, Ra-Amen-meses-meri- Amen, Amen".
(Rameses VIII.)
I Q ^ i^AA^y^ QUI V ^1 o L^A^
Neb ta S-kha-en-Ra Meri- neb khau Ra-meses-sa-Ptah.
Lord of the Amen, lord of crowns, (Rameses IX.) land,
>98
CARTOUCHES OF KINCIS OF EGYPT.
MCflBD' ^ C*113
Nefer-kau-Ra setep- son of the Sun, Ra-meses-merer-Amen- en-Ra, kha-Uast.
(Rameses X.)
V"*"' f
O
fe]
o
m
Ra-kheper-maat setep- son of the Ra-iMES suten (?) Amen. en-Ra, Sun, (Rameses XI.)
Men-maat-Ra setep- son of the EN-RA, Sun,
G^
%
M
Ra-meses-merer-Amen kha
Uast neter yEQ Annu.
(Rameses XII.)
1JS(o7f^
Q
r^
*^
0
Ra-hetch-kheper- son of the Amen-mer-Nes-ba-nek-Tettetet.
SETEP-EN-R.A,
Sun,
(Smendes. )
v. 1 AAAAA \ /
Ra-aa-kheper setep- son of the en-Mentu, Sun,
Amen-meri Pa-seb-kha- Nu. (Pasebkh.\nu I.)
J>L?C
Neter-hen-tep-en-AMEN, son of the Prophet first of Amen. Sun,
Her-Heru-sa-Amen. (Her-Heru.)
mH
o
J
Kheper-hetch-Ra Setep-en-Ra,
O
son of the
Sun,
QgMMT]
Amen-meri-Shashanq. (Shishak I.)
i^QM] ¥ COM
Sekhem-kheper-Ra setep-en-Ra,
son of the Sun,
Amen-meri UasArken. (Osorkon I.)
MRMfrl ¥ CC-j?isl
Ra-usr-Maat- Amen-setep-en,
son of the Sun,
Amen-meri-sa-Ast. Thekeleth.
^n^^
R.l-USR-MAAT SETEP-EN-
Amen,
son of the Sun,
Amen-meri sa-Bast
Uasarken.
(Osorkon II.)
-1
CARTOUCHES OF KINGS OF EGYPT.
299
^
[J
Seshesh-kheper-Ra setep-en-Amen,
son of the Sun,
Amen-Ra-meri
Shash[anq].
(Shishak II.)
J
Hetch-Ra-setep-en-Amen, son of neter heq Uast, the Sun,
m ( o^i^in
r^
&
O
m
Amen-meri Aset-meri
Thekeleth.
(Takeleth II.)
m Ci£i
zl
ni
Usr-maat-Ra setep-en-Ra,
son of the Sun,
Amen-meri-Shashanq heq neter Annu. (Shishak III.)
Usr-maat-Ra setep- son of en-Amen, the Sun,
Amen-meri Pa-mAi. (Pa-mAi.)
Aa-kheper-Ra,
mQS^I
o
son of the Sun, 0
Hi! liM
A
Shashanq. (Shishak IV.)
Q A I] E
1
Se-her-Ab-Ra,
son of the Sun, Peta-sa-Bast.
O
i^CSMr] ¥ CHgfi^ig
Aa-kheper-Ra setep-en-Amen,
son of Ra-Amen-meri UasarkenA. (he Sun, (OsoRKON IV.)
m(Jlu} ¥ c
o
Ua9-ka-Ra,
%^
son of the Sun,
Bakenrenf.
\
yWVAAA
Suten King
Cy3
Kashta. Kashta.
MO°D°fW ¥ Gl
Amen-meri P-ankhi, son of the Sun, P-ankhi.
300
o
CARTOL'CHES OF KINGS OF F(;vp-1 O
dVi
Men-kheper-Ra, son of the Sun, P-ankhi.
O
0
UJJ
= ^U
Nefer-ka-Ra, son of the Sun, Shahaka. (Sabaco.)
Tet-KAU-Ra, son of the Sun,
LH ^ u
Shabataka.
M C!l4.°^]
ra ^
Ra-nefer-tem-khu, son of the Sun, Tahrq, or,
m
.Saszl
©l^U
Taharqa (Tirhakah). S 111
f (]"=-=■ fill
Ra-ba-ka, son of lord of Amen-ta-nuath.
the Sun, Crowns,
°"k
u
Ua^-Ab-Ra, son of the Sun, Psemthek. (Psammetichus I.)
Jl
U^em-Ab-Ra, son of the Sun, Nekau. (Necho II.
M(ZEI ^ (ZH
Nefer-Ab-Ra, son of the Sun,
PSEMTHEK. (PSAMMETICIIfS II.)
I;Iaa-Ab-Ra, son of llie Sun, Uaij-Ab-Ra. (Ai'ries.
O
13 ¥ CtJJ
Khnem-Ab-Ra, son of the Sun, Aahmes-sa-Net. (Amasis II.)
\ 1 /VX^A/VA J\
Pk
Ankh-KA-EN-Ra, son of the Sun, PsEMTHEK.
(PSAMMETICHIS IIl.l
M -P^]
i^ i^A
Skttu-Ra
CARTOUCHES OF KINGS OF EGYPT.
0 son of the Sun,
son of the Sun,
?OI
ill]
Mesuth-Ra,
KembAthet. (Cambyses.)
Antarhisha. (Darius Hystaspes.
aMqui^-TM^
Lord of two lands,
}:
Khshaiarsha. O
TTD ^X!
Senen-en-Ptaij-Tanen- son of the SETEP, Sun,
.Ba.
® T»T<T T^T^T
Artakhshashas. (Artaxerxes.)
Ra-meri-Amen,
M
m [^o^MJ
son of the Sun,
to
Ba-en-Ra neteru- son of the Sun,
MERI,
o
Khnem-MAAT-Ra, son of the Sun,
Ra-usr-setep-en-Ptai5, son of the Sun,
(Xerxes the Great.)
(Khabbesha. )
ia.
■s.)
Antheriru [SHA. (Darius Nothus.)
^ J)g^(g 111
Naifaaurut.
ra %k ^ -^
Haker.
Psamut.
S-netchem-Ab-Ra son of the Nekht-PIeru-hebt-meri-Amen
SETEP-EN-AMEN, Sun, (NEICTANEBftS.)
" Variants,
wm£\- (l^m^Tl
302
CARTOUCHES OF KINGS OF EGYPT.
O
^.
=>^
mC
Ra-ari-en-Maat, son of the Sun, Tche-hra-setep-en-An-her.
o
u
J
O ^ _g3S
MCl
Kheper-ka-Ra, son of the Sun, Nekht-neb-f.
(Nektanebos.)
O "~
J
:£a»;
g
bETEP-EN-RA-MERi- son of the Sun, AleksAntres
Amen, (Alexander the Great.)
neb taui Setep-en-Ra- meri-Amen,
O'
o
son of the Sun,
O
Phiuliupuas (Philip Arrhidaeus).
Ra-qa-Ab-setep-en-Amen, son of the Sun,
Setep-en-Ra-meri Amen,
AleksAntres. (Alexander II.)
son of the Sun, Ptulmis.
(Ptolemy I. Soter I.)
CSF^
Ra-usr-ka-meri-Amen, son of the Sun, Ptulmis.
(Ptolemy II. Philadelphus.)
^'
if
E]
Neterui-perui-aa-en-Ptah-setep-en-Amen-Ari-Maat-Ra-sekhem-ankh.
o
_£^
Wf
son of the Sun, Ptualmis ankh tchetta Ptah meri.
Ptolemy (IX. Euergetes II.), living for ever, beloved of Ptah.
Ck::^^
■^ D
Nebt taui Lady of two lands.
Qlapetrat tchettu-nes Trapenet. Cleopatra, called Tryphaena.
?a
Q
Ra sa
son of the
Sun,
III
neb khau
lord of
diadems,
'_g^^
O
KiSERES ANKH TCHETTA PtAJI ASET MERI
Ci^'iSAR, living for ever, of Ptai? and Isis beloved.
1
303
INDEX.
226,
Aa '
Aa-ab, King
Aa-ab-taui-ka
Aah-hetep, Queen...
Aalimes I, 115, 153, 227, 228, 287,
Aahmes II ... ... 260, 288,
Aahmes-nefeit-Aii...
Aa-kheper-en-Ra ...
Aa-kheper-ka-Ra ...
Aa-kheper-Ra
Aa - kheper - Ra .setep-en - Amen
_ (Osorkon IV)
Aa-khe]ier-Ra setep-en-Menthu ...
Aa-khepeiu-Ka
Aamu ... ... 206, 210,
Aa-peh (Nubti) Aa-pehti-Set Aa-qenen-Ra (Apepa II) Aasith, goddess
Aati..
Aa-user-Ra, King ... Ab-aa, King Abiii, River Ab-ast
'Abbasid Khalifas ... 'Abd-Allah bin Sa'ad 'Abdal-Latif 'Abd as-Salam
Abhat
Abraam, stele of ...
Abrasax
Abraxas
Abt
Abu, Elephantine, island Abukir, lake of Abu Roash, pyramids of Abu-Simbel, temple of Abu-.Sir, 17, 203, 204
of.;. ... ' ...
Abydos, 145, 188, 215 ; tablets of,
208, 240, 245 ; temple of Abyssinia ... ... ... 20,
73,
of I, 16
73. 108, pyramids
Acacia Achoris Acrobats Adam
89,
17 293 293 227 294 300 164
294 294
299
299 298
295 211 225 294 293 ^31
16 225 223
II 203 285 283 162 285 232 284 282 282
16 ,85
5 170 242
240 280 138 264
87 i6s
Adramiya, cataract of
Addresses of Horns
Acgyptus ...
Aelius Gallus
Afa, relief of
Affidavits, Coptic
Africans
Africanus, Julius
Afu-Ra
Agricultural implements
Agriculture ...
Aha, tomb of
Ahnas
Ai
Aiguptos Akabah
Akerblad ...
Akhaemenes
Akhet, season of
Akhmim
Al-Arish
Albert Nyanza
Alexander I the G
Alexander II Alexandria, 19, 277, 280;
266 ; patriarch of Alexandrian Library and Alexandres ..,
Al-Hibah
Al-Kab
Al-Kes
Al-Khargah, Oasis of Al-Kusiyah ... Al-Lahun, 215; pyramid: Al-Mamun ...
Alpha
Alphabet, the Egyptian
Altar stands
Altars, stone
Aiwa
Amamu, coffin of ...
Am-Annu ...
Am-Antchet
Amarah
13 67
4
275
203
284
20
85, 208, 264 ... 66 ... 96 22, 92 ... 188 16, 209 287, 296 ... 4 4
... 44 ... 263 ... 182 16, 100, 164
4 II
162, 266,
289, 302 266, 289, 302 founded,
283
Museum 268 ... 270 ... 16 16, 234 ... 16 262, 263 ... 16 170, 172 ... 201 282, 284 49, 50, 270 ... loi ... 222 ... 283 58, 178 ... 126 ... 1 26 ••■ 73
if
304
IXDl.X.
I'AGE
Amasis I ... ... ... 227, 228
Amasis II, 260 ; and see Aalimes. Amen, god, 129 ; incarnation of,
232 ; temple of, founded ... 232
Amenaitas, Queen... 115, 256, 257
Anien-a.sru, King ... ... ... 235
Amen-em-ant, stele of ... ... 246
Amen-em-Apt, King, 251, 288;
stele of ... ... ... ... 229
Amenemhat I, 172, 212, 213, 287,
293; instructions of ... 68,213 Amenemhat II, 172.214,215,287,293 Amenemhat III 172, 255, 287, 293
Amenemhat IV ... 219. 287 Amenemhat, an official Amenemhat, a royal kinsman Amen-em-hat, stele of Amen-eni-heb, a scribe Amen-hetep I Amen-hetep II, 153,
293 215
221
238
251
229, 287, 294 51, 232, 255, 287, 295
Amen-hetep III, 72. 153, 164, 179,
232-236, 287. 295 Amen-hetep I\', 1 15, 179, 233, 236, 237, 287, 295 ; and see Khu- en-Alen. .\nien-hetep, a high-priesi ... 250
Amen-hetep, an Erpa .. ... 235
Amen-hetep, an officer ... 232
Amen-hetep, a scribe ... ... 261
Amen-hetep, son of I lap ... ... 235
Ameni, an official ... ... ... 214
Ameni, figure of ... ... ... 221
Ameni, I'rince ... ... ... 219
Ameni, slele of ... ... ... 221
Ameni, the builder ... ... 217
Amen-men, stele of ... ... 229
Amen-mes, King, 248; palette of 55 Amen-me.ses ... ... 287, 296
Amen-Ra, god, 123, 129, 266 ; boat
of, 70; priests of, 226, 238, 251,
252; temple of, at Karnak, 231 :
temple of, at Khargah, 263;
temple of, at Napata
Amen-Ra-mes, slele of
Amen-rut-meri-Amen
Anient, Amentet
Amentarit, Queen
Amend
Am-f-khent...
-\m-f-peh
.\m-hetch-paar
Am-ilet-Serqet
Am-Het-ur-Ra
Am-Khent ...
Am-mit
Am-Neter-het
Am-peh
'Amr ibn al-Asi
263, J7,
257 248 264 239 ••• 275 ... 139 ... 16 ... 16 ... 126 ... 126 ... 126 16, 17 140, 144 ... 126 16, 17 ... 27S
Am-Sah
Amset ... ... ... 123,
Amsu, 123, 128, 238 ; and see Menu.
Am-Tep
Amuiets, 53, 100, 179; list of, 147-
126 161
120
150; pre-dynaslic, 148; Gnostic Am-Unnu-meht xAm-Unnu-resu Amusements Amyrtaios ...
An
Anaemia
Anaitis
Anatomj-
Ancestors, worship of
Aneb-hetch ...
Anebni. statue of ...
.\nhai, papyrus of ...
An-her-nekht, 217 ; stele of
Ani, maxims of, 146 ; papyrus of,
53> 59 ; shrine of
Animal food
Anit
Ankarib Ankh amulet An-kheft-ka, statue of Ankh-f-en-Khensu...
Ankh-haf
Ankh-ka-en-Ra Ankh-kheperu-Ra ... Ankhnes-nefer-ab- Ra, sarcopha
of
Ankh-p-khart, statue of ...
.\nkh-sen-Amen, (^ueen ...
Anna, stele of
.\nnals of kings
Annihilation of the wicked
Annu (On, Heliopolis)
Anpu (Anubis), 127 ; of
_ 212 ; brother of Batau .
Anqet
Antef (dynasty XI), King.
Antef, inscription of
Antef, an official ...
Antef, a priest
Antef, statue of
Antef (Nub-kheper-Ra), relief of
226, 292 .\ntef I'ah ankh, King Anlefa, the Erpa ... Antef-aa I ... Antef-aa II Antef-aa III Antef-aa, coffin of, 226
of...
Antef-Aqer-ankh-klui
Antelope
Anthat
Anthony, St., the (ireai
282 126
1 26
84ffi 263, 264, 289 203, 287, 291
73
248
32,72 189
17
231
61, 146, 153 221
•■■ 239
... 82
... 125
... 90
... 149
114, 203
152
... 203
... 300
295
260 ... 262 ... 238 ... 239
• •■ 73 ... 144 ... 17 .Sepau,
69, 70
125, 129 ... 210
212, 222
73. 210, 212
... 221
214
292
209. 2IO, 292
210. 226, 292
... 292
])yr
amid
125, 130, ... 16:;,
292
226 224 82 248 280
INDEX. |
305^ |
||||
PAGE |
PAGE |
||||
Anthretha |
... 130 |
Asar (Osiris) |
124, 127 |
||
Anti (myrrh) |
21, 211 |
Asar-Hap (Serapis) |
124, 268 |
||
Antimony ... |
... 81 |
Aset, Queen |
... 230 |
||
Antinoopolis |
... 277 |
Ashmunen ... |
... 16 |
||
Antinous |
... 277 |
A.shur-bani-pal |
257, 258 |
||
Antiochus the Great |
... 270 |
Aspelta |
... 261 |
||
Antkes, tablet for offerings of |
... 207 |
Ass |
■■ 95. |
||
Antoninus ... |
... 279 |
Assa... 68, 87, |
203, |
204 |
287, 291 |
Antony |
... 272 |
Assessors, the Forty- |
two |
... 141 |
|
Antuf, song of |
••• 75 |
Assis |
... 225 |
||
Anubis (see Anpu),.. |
123, 127 |
Assyria |
97, 257 |
||
Apachnas, King ... |
... 225 |
Assyrians occupy iVIemp |
his, |
257 ; |
|
Apakene, St. |
... 283 |
sack Thebes |
... 258 |
||
Apep 3I' |
142, 267 |
Ast(Isis) |
125, 127 |
||
Apepa I 218, |
225, 293 |
Astaboras ... |
... 13 |
||
Apepa H |
226, 293 |
Astapos |
... II |
||
Apepi |
... 67 |
Astasobas |
... 13. |
||
Apepi, king of Avari> |
... 74 |
Ast-em-khebit |
■■■ 253 |
||
Apes, dog-headed .. |
... 21 |
Astharethit ... |
... 130 |
||
A|)esh |
... 132 |
Astronomy ... |
71, 80 |
||
Aphroditopolis |
... 16 |
Aswan, 16, 18, 285 |
; the |
Dam at, |
|
Apis Bull 93, 131, |
191, 263 |
13 ; tombs at |
... 173 |
||
Apis Chapels |
... 234 |
Asyut, 16, 18, 139, |
209 |
i'Pr |
inces |
Apit |
... 131 |
of .■ |
... 208 |
||
Apni, stele of |
... 23^ |
Ata |
189, 286 |
||
Apollinopolis Magna |
... 16 |
Atab, King |
190, 286 |
||
Apophis, King |
... 22s |
Atbara |
... 13 |
||
Apries (Hophra) ... |
259, 300 |
Atchab, King |
... 1 90 |
||
Apse |
... 283 |
Atefthit |
... 18. |
||
Apshait |
... 132 |
Aten, the solar di.sl |
> '3 |
0 ; hymn |
|
Apt, a measure |
... 98 |
to, 27 ; prayers to, |
238 |
cul |
and |
Apu (Panopolis) |
16, 99 |
temple of... |
••• 237 |
||
Apu, figure of |
... 23S |
Atet (dynasty I) ... |
... 189^ |
||
Ap-uat-em-sau-f, King |
... 224 |
Ateth |
189, 286 |
||
Aqer, stele of |
... 212 |
Atfih |
... 16 |
||
Aqleq |
.•■ 257 |
Athanasius |
... 163 |
||
Arab Period |
... 2S2 |
Athenians ... |
... 263 |
||
Arabia |
22,98 |
Athi, 17 ; stele of ... |
... 214 |
||
Arabic language, spread of |
... 282 |
Athribis |
17, |
224, 245 |
|
Arabs conquer Egypt |
... 278 |
Athu, stele of |
... 232 |
||
Arch, the elliptical |
... 103 |
Athyr, month of ... |
... 183, |
||
Archaic Period |
.. 193 |
Atmu |
... 124 |
||
Archangels, the Six |
... 282 |
y\u-ab-Ra, King ... |
287, 293 |
||
Architecture |
103 ff. |
Auputh |
■■. 253 |
||
Ari, relief of |
... 203 |
Autoba |
... 18 |
||
Ariel |
82, 85 |
Auuaruath, Prince . . . |
.. 256 |
||
Ari-neferu, figure of |
... 238 |
Avaris |
74, |
225, 228- |
|
Ar-Rafah |
4 |
Ayyubid Khalifas ... |
... 285 |
||
Arrows, flint-tipped |
... 86 |
Axe |
178, 188 |
||
Arsaphes |
••. 245 |
Axe-handle of Sekhe |
Ti-sur |
tch- |
taui- |
Arsinoe, Queen, 269 ; city of |
... 269 |
Ka |
... 223 |
||
Arsu |
249, 287 |
A-Zande |
157, 158- |
||
Artatama ... |
... 232 |
Azhar |
... 28s |
||
Artaxerxes I ... 263, |
288, 301 |
||||
Artaxerxes II |
266, 301 |
||||
Artaxerxes III |
266, 288 |
Ba (Ram -god) |
... 131 |
||
Artemidorus, mummy of, |
163; |
Baal |
131, 242 |
||
stele of ... ... ...' |
... 279 |
Bab al-Mandib |
... 22 |
||
Asa-ankh ... |
... 205 |
Babylonia ... |
.. 22, 97, 98 0 |
3o6
INDEX.
Jiachis Bull 93. 131
Jiack-bone anuilel ... ... ... I49
Had-Face ... ... ... .■• 141
.Ba-en-neter 286, 290
Ba-en-Ka-neteru meri 302
Bagrawir, 17 ; pyramids of ... 170
Bahariyah, Oasis of ... ... 5
Baherah ... ... ■■. ••• 18
Bahnassa ... ... ■■ .• 16
Bahr al-Abyad 11
Bahr al-Gebel il
.Eahr al-Ghazal, province of 19, 228
Bahr ^'usuf 6
Bairtha (Beltis) 131
Bakaa, stele of 246
Ba-ka-Ra 3°°
Bakenrenf ... 256
Bal-er loi
Bakha (Bachis Bull) 131
Bakhet 145
Bakkarah 93
Bakt 283
Balance, the Great... ... ... 140
Balbillus, F. Claudius 277
Balls 7^
Ban-aa, stele of 239
iBa-nefer ... ... ... ... 53
Bangle ... ... ... ... 179
Bankes, Mr. 45
Bantu 157
Baptism 281
Bar (Baal) ... 131, 242
Ba-Ra-meri-en-Amen ... ... 296
Barber 101
Barges ... ... ... ... 102
Barley 22, 82
IBa 'ley-beer ... ... ... ... 83
Barrage at Al-]\Ianashi, 14; at Asyut, 13; at Esna ... 14
Barter 98
Barihelemy ... ... ... 44
Baskets 99
Basket-weaver ... ... ... 99
■J5as-relief no
liasl, 128, 132; temple of ... 254
Batau, brother of Anpu . . . 69, 70
Batau-anth ... ... ... ... 245
Battle-axe 121
Ba-ur-tet 204
Beads' 179
Beans ... ... ... ... 82
Bear 85
Beard, the pointed ... ... 21
Bebi. King 193,286
Bedsteads ... ... ... ... 90
Beer, bailey, 83 ; honey ... ... 83
Beer-house ... ... ... ... 87
Beetle, granite ... ... ... zji,
Beetle amulet ... ... ... 147
PAGE
132 214 265 214 18 207
Beetle-god ...
Begig
Behbit al-Hagarah.
Behen
Behent
Behenu, relief of
Bekhten
Bekt
Bells
Beltis
Belzoni
Benben
Benha
Beni Hasan
Beni-.suvvef ...
Bennu
Beon, King...
Berber, province of
Berenice, Queen,
240 ; £tele of Berenice Troglodvtica Berut Bes, god
Besh, King 117, 150, 191, 2S6, 293 Bel al-Wali, temple of ... 241,242 .189, 190, 286, 290
270 ; city of,
... 18 87, 178 ... 131
199, 245 ... 236 18, 245 ... 172 ... 18
124, 132 ... 225 19
^74
... 268
70, 242
124, 129
if
"4. 195 ••• 193 ... 211
165, 285 ... 18 ••• 73 ■■• 5
158, 162
edict against, 216 :
(I'tah)
277.
Betchau, King r.etchmes, statue Bet Khallaf... Bier ...
Bier-cloth ... Biiak (I'hilae) Biography . . . Hirkat al-Kurun Bishuri tribes Bitter Lakes Bitumen Blaeks, 120
land of Blacksmith ... Hlacksmith-god Blemmyes ... ... 20,
Block of slaughter .. .
lilood of Isis
Blue Nile, province of
Boat-builder
Boats ol different kinds ...
Bocchoris (Bak-en-ren-f) 256,
Body, the material, 155;
glorified ... ... • ...
Biiheiric dialect
Bok
Bolt-lock
Bone-selling
Book of Breathings
Hook of coming forth by day
Book of Keel sia^iicus
Book of gates, 66, 142 ; vignette
Book of '■ May my name flourish "
Book of Opening the Mouth
215
100
119
27S
... 144
... 149
... 19
... lOI
102
288, 299
the
I43> 155 ••■ 35 ... 18 ... 91
62 58 69 141 64 64
INDEX.
]07
Book of overthrowing Apepi
Book of Proverbs ...
Book of the Dead, 178; editing of, 189 ; recensions of
Book of the Two Ways . .
Book of I raversing eternity
B.jok of what is in the Tuat
Books of Magic
Boomerangs ... ..21, 85,
Boon
Borers, flint...
Botany
Boussard ... ... ... 44,
Bow and arrows ... ... 86, 98,
Bowls, earthenware, stone, wood, etc. ... ... ... 92,
Boxes ... ... ... 91,
Bracelets ... ... ... 179,
Bran
Bread, bread-cakes, 82; imperish- able
Breastplate...
Brick, invention of, 103 ; brick- making, 22 ; brickmaker
Bricks, inscribed ... ... 230,
Brugsch, Dr. H.
Bubastis, 17, 216, 224,245; temple of
Buffoons
Buhen
Buiu-uaua ...
Bull, Apis 93. 131
67 69
58 ff". 65 63 66
74 ,238
72 270 178
178
1 78
253 82
143 179
100
231 186
254
87
121
253
93, 131, 191 ; Bachis, Mnevis, 93, 131, 191 ;
of Amen-tet, 93; worship of ... 93
Bdrlus, lake of .-. . ... ... 5
Burraburiyash, letter of ... ... 236
Eusiris ... ... ... ... 17
Bu-tchamui ... ... ... ... 16
Buto, 17, 138, 267 ; temple of ... 74
Buzzard 85
Caesar, Julius
Caesarea
Caesarion ...
Cairo, IQ; Old
Calendar, 32, 270; year ...
Calendars, 71; of lucky and
lucky days Cambyses ... ... 74. 261,
Camel
Canal in First Cataract
Candace ... ... 170,
Canopic jars
Canopus, 160, 279 ; decree of
Cap, the soldiers' ...
Caracalla
Cardinal points
272, 302 ... 185 ... 272 ... 285 ... 184 un- ... 182
262,
288, 301
■•• 95
... 216
271;, 276
160, 177
... 270
... 1 20
... 277
... 145
of
91
Carding instruments
Carians
Caricatures ...
Carpenter ...
Carpets
Cartography
Cartonnage cases ...
Cartouche, 45, 191 ; origin
Cassia
Cat, 78, 132 ; hunting
Cat-goddess
Cataract, Canal in the First
Cataracts, the Six on the Nile
Cattle-breeding, 92 ; men,
Sudani Cedar oil Censers Censorinus ... Chairs
Chamj-iollion Chapter of the Heart Chariot Cheese Cheops Chephren Cheruhs ( himney
Choiak, season of Chosroes Christianity in Egypt, 2
Nubia
Christians, persecution of.. Chroni' les of Africanu
Eusebius ... Chronography Chronology, 71, 184 ; systt Churches in the Sudan Clay sealings Cleopatra, the Queens
... 50, 19^ 171, I99> 23:
77
I'.\GE
258 112 100 91 71 162 117 159 ... 85 ... 132 ... 216 ... 13 93;
92,93 ... 160 ... 198 ... 186 , 98, 178
45, 270 ... 178 ... 121
... 82
286, 290
287, 290
165 92
183
278
280 277
185 '85 187
283
and
ms of
71, 27:
Cleopatra's Needle... Clepsydra ... Clerestory ...
Clubs
Coffins, classes of . . .
Coinage
Collar, amulet, 149 ; gold
Colleges
Colonnade ...
Colossi, the ...
Colour-pot ...
Comb
Cone, 81 ; memorial
Confectioner
Confession ...
Conscience ...
Conslantine...
Ctmtracts, Coptic ...
Cooking-pots
289, 302
231
266, 267
273 86
273
262
81
79 105
277 178 178 223
lOI
281 149 278 284 92
177:
234, 236.
9I:
O 2
3o8
IXDF.X.
Copper, 98 ; mines, 204, 240 ;
vases Coppersmith Coptic, dialects of. 35; inscriptions.
39. 226,
56 ; language Coptos ... ... 16,
Copts, 45 ; doctrine of
Corn, export of, 97 ; bin, 92 ;
grinder Cornelius Callus ... Coronation, stele of Corvee, the celestial Cosmogony... Cosseir Couches ... ... ... 98,
Counters
Court of temple
Cow of Hathor
Cow, worship ot
Creation of the gods, 135 ; of men,
136 ; of trie world ... 74,
Crete Crocodile amulet, 148 ; god, 131 :
lake, 5 ; mummies, 218 ; wax,
71 ; worship of in modern limes
Cross, the
Crosses, Coptic-
Crow
Crown, the White ..
Crucifixion ...
Cubit, the little, 98
Cucumbers ...
Cupboards ...
Curds
Currency
Cush...
Cushiles
Cylinder seals
Cymbals
Cyprus
164, 280,
the royal
20,
... 87, 70, 97, 98,
191 100
280
231 280
92
275 261
151 79 204 178 178 105 262 94
134 249
85 284 284
85
190
282
98
82
91
92
98
214
20
219
178
249
1 20, >y ram ids
Dagger
Dahshur, 172, 196, 217
of... Dailah, Oasis of ... Daily Ritual of the Divine Cult Dakhaliyah...
Dakhlah, Oasis of
Dakkah
Damanhur ... Damietta ... ...•
Dance of the god ... ])ancing, 31, 86; women Daphnae
Dar Fur Darius I Darius 1 1 Darius 1 1 1
178
170
5 67 18
5
243, 268, 270 iS
19 204
87
258
92
87
262, 288,
263. 288,
301 289
277,
Dates 8z
David, 253 ; a monk ... ... 281
Days, lucky and unlucky, 32, 182 ;
the five epagomenal Dead, eater of Death, univeisal Decius
De Guignes... Dekans, the Thirty-six
Delta
Demoniacal possession Demotic writing ... Denderah 16, 207, 230, 268, 272 Der al-Bahari, temples at, 210,
230 ; royal mummies found ai Deserts of Egypt ... Destruction of Mankind ... Determinatives
Devil
Dliurra
Dialogue between a man and his
soul ... ... . . ... 28
Dice 87, 178
Diocletian 277, 278, 281
Diodorus Siculus 20, 98, 160, 19S, 242
Dioskle 56
Dioskoros ... ... ... ... 56
Diospolis Magna, 17 ; I'arva ... 16
Disk amulet 150
Doctrine of retriliution ... ... 142
Dodekaschoinos ... ... 18,277
Dog-god ... ... ... ... 132
Dog River ... ... ... ... 242
Dog-star 184, 186
Dogs, hunting ... ... ... 86'
Dolls 78, loi, 178
182
14a
274
281
... 44
71- 175
5, 138, 140
... 70
37
273
254
6.7
74
51
133
82
Dominoes . . .
Dongola, 4, 278 ; province of Door, wooden, 239 ;. socket Doomed Prince, story of . . . Double (K.^) Dove
Draughtboards and Draughts
Dream, stele of the Dress Drum
Drunkard . . . Duck Dulgo
Du Theil ... Dyer
Dynasties, Arab, 285 ; Egyptian, 1 88,
87 19
215
70
•■ 155
83, 164
draughtsmen... 87
87, 178
258
8off.
87
Eagle
Ears, on stele Eater of the Dead, shades
140, 144
of
88 >
83 240-
44
lOI
286-
85. 239-
I4i>
INDEX.
509
I'AGK
Ebers Papyrus ... ..._ ... 72
Ebony, 21, 98 ; tablets of Aha ... 189 Ecclesiaslicus ... ... ... 30
Edfii, 16, 68, 231, 240, 268, 271 ; temple of ... ... 104, 270
Edku, lake of ... ... ... 5
Education ... ... ... ... 78
Egg-plant ... ... ... ... 82
Egypt, gods of 122 ; history of, 188 ff.; land and divisions of, I ff. ; peoples of, 20 ; popula- tion of ... ... ... ... 35
Egyptian, deci[)herment,4l ff. ; lan- guage and writing, 35 ff- ; Travels of an ... ... ... ... 70
Egyptians, African origin of, 20 ;
manners and customs of ...76ff.
Eihannes ... ... ... ... 56
Eileithyiaspolis ... ... ... 16
Elephant, 78, 85, 86 ; city, 85 : hunts ... ... ... ... 270
Ellephantine, city and island of, I, 16, 85, 173, 206, 215,
216, 258, 277 Embalming, methods of ... iSSff.
Embalmment, ritual of ... ... 64
Embroidery... .. ... ... 164
Enamelling... ... ... ... 100
Enchorial writing ... ... ... 37
Enemies of Osiris and Ra... ... 143
Enneads ... ... ... ... 123
En-neter, King ... ... ... 191
Epilepsy 73
Epiphanes ... ... ...39,44,270
Epiphi, month of ... ... ... 183
Equatorial Africa, Negro tribes of 20 Era of martyrs ... .. ... 281
Ergamenes ... ... ... ... 270
Erpa... ... ... ... ... 117
Erta-Antef-tatau, stele of... 73, 221 Erta-en-ankh, false door of ... 207
Esarhaddon .. ... ... ... 257
Esna, 4, 5, 92, 231, 268, 272; church of... ... ... ... 283
Ethiopia ... ... ... 13, 214
Euergetes I... ... ... 39, 269
Euergetes II ... ... 271, 302
Euonymos, stele of ... ... 273
Eupator ... ... ... ... 271
Euphrates ... ... 86, 234, 259
Euripides ... ... ... ... 56
Eusebius ... ... ... ... 185
Eve 165
Eye amulet, 149 ; of Horus, 149 ; of Ra, 149; -paint, 81, 91,
159 178
Eyes on stele ... ... ... 239
Exodus ... ... ... ... 247
Exports ... ... ... ... 97
■•• 195 166, 193
14. 97 82, 98
••• 5
... 92
... 89
... 281
... 285
... 82
71 211 140 120 120 102
63
14 123
73
Fairies ... ... ... ■•■ I33
Fakus ... ... ... ... 17
Falcon 85
False door, 173 ; gods, 142 ; pyra- mid
Famine, a seven years'
Famines
Fan
Fardfrah, Oasis of...
Farmer
Farmhouse ...
Fasts
Fatimid Khalifas ...
Fattening, artificial
Fayyiim, 6, 18, 214, 268, 269 ; dialect of, 36 ; map of ...
Feast, funeral
Feather, symbol of Maat ...
Feathers
Fellah
F"erry-boat ...
Festival songs of Isis and Nephthys
Festivals, 281 ; of the Nile
Fetishes
Fever
F"iction
Field of Peace, 140, 143; of Reeds 140
Figs ••'. ..; 82, 143
Figures, magical ... ... ... 31
F"inger, a measure, 98 ; rings
Fingers amulet
Fire, 92; Lake of, 144; stick ...
Fish, 82 ; eaters of unclean, 82 ; amulet, 148; gods and goddesses, 133; hooks, 84; ponds, 89; spears
Fishing
Fist, a measure
Flame
Flax
Fleets of Rameses III, 249 Nekau
Flints, fire struck from
Flowers
Fluid of life
Flute
Followers of Horus ... 139, 153
Food 82
Forced labour ... ... 152, 153
Forks ... ... ... . . 92
Fort St. Julien ... ... ... 44
Forts ... ... ... ... 121
F'ostat 285
Foundation deposits ... ... 258
Fowling ... ... ... ... 84
Fox 85
Fractions ... ... ... ... 181
Frog amulet ... ... ..-ISO
Frontinus ... ... ... ... 280
179
149
92
85 ... 84 ... 98 ... 142
99. 164
: of ... 258 ... 92 ... 89
117, 223 ... 87
310
INDEX.
Fruits
Fuel...
Furniture
, 82
92
, 100
82,
165,
river ... amulet, 149
wall
Gabriel, Duke
Gall bladder, god of
Games with counters
Gap ...
Gardens
Garlic
Gazelle
Gazelle River
(iazirat al-Malik ...
Gebel Barkal, 232, 261 ; pyramid of
Gebel Dosha
Gebel Sahaba
Gebel Zabara
Geese, various kinds of
Geography ...
Geometry ...
George, St
George the Monk
Gergorios . . .
Germanos ...
Gharbiyah . . .
Gilukhipa ...
Giraffe, 86
Girdle, 81
Girgah
Gizah, 18 ; pyramids of .
Glass, 100 ; glass bead glass makmg, 100 ; jug
Glaze for pottery ...
Gnostic amulets
Gnostics
Goat
God, Egyptian word for .
Gods, companies of, 126; creation of, 135 ; dance of the, 204 ; enneads of, 123; number of, 133 ; triads of
Gold, brought from the Sudan, 214, 215 ; export of to Assyria, 97, 98; green, 21 ; map of gold mines, 71; mines, 240; gold rings, 179; gold ring-money, 21, 98 ; trade
Goliath beetle
Gondokoro ...
Goose
Goose-goddess
Granary
Granaries, 217 ; of Josepl
Grant of land
Grapes
( irasshopper-god
Graves, predynastic
279 161
145
170, 179;
82
234
177
4
83
132
97 172 206
82 132 165
Gravestones, Kuf i ... Great House of the Six ... Great House (Pharaoh) ... Cireek language and writings 39 Greeks, 268 ; settle in Naukratis Green gold ...
Green water in the Nile ... Gulf of Akabah, 4 ; of Solum
82
85
13
216
170 216
4
240
180
71
71
284
185
57
56
18
233 13
109 18
196
194 282 282
. 95 126
285 207 117 , 268 258
Ha
Ha Prince ...
Haa-ab-Ra Uah-ab-Ra, King 259,
Hades, god ...
Hadrian ... ... ... 277,
Haggi Kandil
Hair, modes of wearing ...
Hair-pins ...
Hair tweezers ... ... 91,
Haker, King ... 264, 289,
Halfah Province ... Halicarnassus, vase of Xerxes from Hall, hypostyle Hall of columns ... ... 106,
Ham
Hamites
Hammamat, quarries of ... 213,
Hand, a measure ...
Hand drum...
Handicrafts...
Hanes
Hannek Cataract ...
Hap (Apis Bull) ... 93
Hap (l.lapi) son of Horus 124
Hap (llapi), the Nile-god, 9,
131.
, 129,
124,
127,
Hap-mcn, sarcophagus of
Hare
Harmachis ...
Harness
Harp
Harper, .Song of the
Harpokrates-Anien
Harpoons ...
Harris Papyrus, No. i, 28, 74
No. 500 ... llarua, figure of Harvest Hathor ... 108, 125', 12S,
Ilatmehit ...
Hatshepset, Queen, 21, 102, 179, 230,
Hau
Hawarah 172, 218 ; pyramids
Hawk
Hawk amulet Hawk-god ... Headdress ...
205, 214,
107, 287,
16 118 300 268 281 237
81 178 178 301
19 263 io6- 243
2&
20.
217
9& 87 98 16 13. 191 161
254 262
^5 236
ICO
7S 261
74
IIS
97"
239
17
295
16
I70'
85 149 132
81
I
INDEX.
^It
i6i
177,
J57
Head-rest amulet ...
Hearst Papyrus
Heart, 155; god of the,
weighed in the balance... Heart amulet Heart scarab Heaven, position of Hebennu
Heb-peri, stele of ... Hebt, city of
Hehu
Hehut
Hekair
Helene, stele of Heliopolis, 17, 93, 203, 237
bull-god of, 191 ; high-priest of, Hen measure Hen period... Henbiu-gods Henna plant
Hen-nekht, King ... 193, 286,
Hennu, expedition of, to Punt Hent-taui, Cj)ueen ... Heptanomis Hep-ur Heq-at
Heqt, goddess Her, King ... Her-abu, stele of ... Heraclius ... Herakleopolis Magna
210, 216, 245; princes of Heretic king Her-Ileru, priest-king,
201, 219,
150,
287,
16, 209,
61,
149
72
140
147 179 144 16 207 265 135 136 149 283
119
98 181
151
81
290
211
252
15
9
17
212
293
273 278
208 115
251, 288,
Heriu-sha ...
Her-khuf in the Sudan ... 95,
Hermopolis Magna, 16; gods of...
Hermopolis, Minor
Hermonthis... ... ... 16, 93,
Herodotus quoted ... 26, 160, 198,
Heron
I ieru, an architect...
Heru (Horus) ... ... 127,
Heru, papyrus of ... Heru-Behutet, Wars of Heru-em-heb, King, 287, 296 ;
papyrus of, 61, 62 ; stele of ... Herui Herukhuti-Khepera-Ra-Temu, the
Sphin.x-god Heru-nest (?)-taui (?), King Heru-neich-tef-f, coffin of... Heru-pa-khart (Harpokrates) Heru-sa-atef, cast of stele of 74, Heru-sherit ... Herutataf ... ... ... 59,
Heru-ur Hesbet
213 206
135
17
231
218
85 239 13S
62
74
239 16
232 293 71 124 261
245
201
116
17
I93>
i77>
191, 125,
liesepti. King
lies- Petan-Ast, coffin of ...
Het-Benben
Hetchcfa, King ...
Hetch-Ra-setep-en-Amen. . .
Hetch-kheper-Ra setep-en-Ra
Iletep-heres
Hetep-neteru, stele of
Hetep-sekhemui, King
Het-Heru (see Uathor)
Het-ka-Ptah (Memphis) ...
Het-khent
Ilet-suten ...
Het-ta-her-abt (Athribis)
Hezekiah
Hi rakonpolis
Hiera Sykaminos ... ... 18,
Hieratic writing Hieroglyphic writing Hippopotamus, 84, 85, 262; amulet
148; goddesses, 131; relief of. .. History, 73; of Egypt ... i5
Hiitites 73> 239,
Hoe
Holy water ...
Homer
Honey, 72 ; used in embalming ...
Honey-beer...
Hooks, fi.shing
Hophra (Apries) ...
Horse 95,
Horus, birth of, 74 ; death of, 75 ;
resurrection of, 75 ; followers of,
153 ; four sons of Horus name H orus of gold name House of Books House of Eternity ... 1 louse-painter Houses llu, Kmg ... Hui, stelae of Ilu-nefer, papyrus of Huni, King ... Hunting, 84 ; cat, 85 Hyaena
Hyksos, 218, 223 ff. ; period of . Hymn in praise of learnmg Hymnology Hypselis
190, 286,
59, 193, 286, scenes
189 273
237 286
299^ 298 198. 224 280 128-
4 iS 1 6'
17
257 1 6.
277 36. 36-
211
;8ft; 241
86
57 270 162 83 84 288 121
129 ii^ iifr 68 166
lOO'
:8ff,
29a
229-
241
290
195
8s
22 s
6f>
67
16.
Ibex
Ibis
Ibis-god Ibrim
Ichneumon-god Ideographs ...
... 85 ... 85 ... 132: 18, 213 ... 132 ... 50'
IMJKX.
I-em-hctep 129. 287, 291
Imports ... ... ... 97, 98
Inaro.s ... ... ... ... 263
Incense ... ... ... ... 237
India ... ... ... ... 98
Ink, 55 ; green, 31 ; ink-]K)t ... 55 Inlaying ... ... ... ... 100
/lis/ it 11/ Na/iona/ ... ... ... 44
Instructions of Amen-em-hat I ... ()8 Intestines, gods of ... ... ... 161
Inundation of the Nile, cause of, 3 ;
period of... ... ... 105, 183
lonians ... ... ... ... 258
Iron sky ... ... ... ... 145
Irrigation works ... ... ...218
Isak 56
Isis, 14, 125, 127, 161 ; history
of, 138 ; temples of, closed, 27S ;
wanderings of ... ... ... 75
Islam 282
Isos, stele of ... ... ... 283
Israelites ... ... ... 74, 247
Issus, battle of ... ... ... 266
luaa 233
lusaa.set ... ... ... ... 129
Ivory, 21, 189; carver ... ... toi
Kabasos
Kadashman-Bel (or Kadashnian-
17
lackal Jackal-god ... Jacob, 160 ; the M facobites jah |
moph) |
.site |
« |
^5 132 281 280 282 |
Jazirat al-Malik |
121 |
|||
Jeroboam |
253 |
|||
Jerusalem ... |
253 |
|||
Jewel-boxes... |
lOI |
|||
Jeweller, the |
100 |
|||
Jewellery Jews, 271 ; in Egy John, St., church c |
3t f |
179 268 283 |
||
John the Deacon ... |
tl |
|||
lonias. King |
||||
Jo])pa, legend of cajHure c |
f |
74 |
||
Joseph, granaries of |
170 |
|||
Josephus Klavius ... |
224 |
|||
Josiah, king of Judah Judgment, the Julian the Apostate Julius Africanus |
•S5. |
208, |
2S« 140 281 264 |
|
Julius Caesar |
272, |
302 |
||
Jupiter Ammon, Oasis of |
•• 5' |
262. |
266 |
|
Justinian |
278 |
Xa, 155 ; Ka-chamber, 155 ; Ka- chapel, 169 ; Ka-figure of Rameses II, 244 ; Ka-priest, 'i55, 169; Ka-statues ... ... 177
191,
Enlil)
Kadesh
Ka-heseb
Kahraka
Ka-kau, King
KaLibshah ...
Kalyubiyah ...
Ka-meri-Ka, King...
Ka-mes, King
Ka-mes, a king's messenger
Kamesu, figure of ...
Ka-nefer, stele of ...
Ka-nekht-kha-em-Uast, King
Kantarah
Ka-Qam
Kaqemna, Precepts of ... ;;
Karaduniyash
Karama, Queen
Karbaniti ...
Karei
Karkemish ...
Karnak, 16, 102, 2
of, 230 ; tem])le of Kasa Kasemt Kash (Nubia) Kashta
Kassala, province of Ka-tep, statue of ...
Keb
Kebti
Kekui
Kekuit
Kembathet ...
Kemen, stele of
Kena
Kent, goddess
Kerasher, papyrus of
Kerb
Kerhit
Kesem Kesi ... Ket, a measure
Key
Khaau
Kha-ba
Khabbesha ...
Kha-em-hra
Kha-em-Uast, the magician, figure
.uf "1x5,
Kha-f-Ra (Chephren) 199, 232, 255, 287, l\ha-kau-Ra, King Khalifa, meaning of the name Khalig Canal
Kha-nefer-Ra (Sebek-hetep) 203, 223,
■^ii, 236
240, 242
... 17
... 183
286, 290
... 241
... 18
... 209
227, 294
■•• 234
... 238
... 196
... 256
98
17
... 30.68,83 ... 233, 236
254
257
234
... ... 259
obelisks ... 230, 231 ff.
16
17
214
256, 288, 299
>9
... 177, 197 124, 128
16
136
136
301
218
. .. 18, 98, 204 ... 131, 248
62
136
136
17
16
98
91
286
203
301
39
188,
263,
246
290
293 28s
14 287
I
INDKX.
313
Khargah, Oasis of... ... 5, 262
Khart-eu - Khennu, tablet for offL'rings of ... ... ... 207
Khartum, 85, 231, 277 ; province
of.. 19
Kha-sekhemui, King ... ... igo
Khasut 17
Khati, King ... ... ... 209
Khati, Prince of Siut ... 209, 291 Khemennu ... ... ... ... 16
Khennu ... ... ... ... 201
Khensu ... 124, 129
Khensu-hetep, door of, 239 ; Pre- cepts of ... ... ... 30,77,88
Khensu-user, stele of ... ... 211
Khent, King 189
Khent-abt 17
Khenti Amenti 206
Khenti-em-semti ... ... ... 215
Khenti-em-semt-ur, a priest ... 215
Khent-kaut-s 170
Khent-khat-ur 215
Khepera, god 124, 12S, 147, 273
Kheper-kaRa (Usertsen I) ... 293
Kheper-ka-Ra (Nektanebos) ... 302 Kheper-kha-Ra, King ... ... 293
Kheper-kheperu-Maat-ari-Ra ... 296 Kheper-Maat-Ra setep-en-Ra ... 298 Khejihren, see.Chephren. Kherp, pyramid ... ... ... 215
Kheru-ahau... ... ... ••■ 151
Kheta ' 73, 239, 241, 242
Khian, lion of 225, 226
Khnem-ab-Ra, King ... ... 300
Khuemab-Ra-men, statue of ... 261 Khnem-maat-Ra ... ... ... 301
Khnemu 15, 96, 124, 128, 135, 150,214; temple of ... ... 234
Khnemu-hetep, 172; false door of,
205 ; stele of 221
Khnoumis ... ... ... ... 282
Khu, 156; stele of 221
Khu-en-Aten(Amen-hetepIV) 237, 295
Khu-en-Ra Setep-en-Ra 297
Khufu (Cheops), 59, 72, 78, 196,
201, 255, 286, 290 Khufu-ankh, sarcophagus of ... 198
Khut 196
Khut-Aten, city of 236,237
Khu-taui-Ra, King _ ... ... 293
King, his divinity, Il6f. ; his five names, 117; his power... ... 208
King Lists -^S.t 71, 185
Kings, cartouches of the, 290 ;
Tombs of the 231
Ivitchen utensils ... ... ... 92
Kite 85
Kneading stone ... ... ... 92
Knives 92
Kohl
Kom Ombo... Kordofan, province of Korosko Krophi
PAGE
81 , 279
19 213
7
Kua-tep, Canopic jars of, 161 ; coffin of, 86 ; pillow of... ... 91
Kubban ... ... ... ... 18
Kufi writing, 2S5 ; inscription in 165
Kuft 16
Kulla 170
Kummah ... ... i, 121, 216, 219
Kurkur, Oasis of ... ... ... 5
Kurnah, temple of ... ... 240
Kurru, pyramids of ... ... 170
Kusae ... ... ... ... 16
Kuser 21, 98, 204
Kynonpolis .. ... ... ... 16
Labyrinth ... |
... 218 |
Ladder amulet |
... 149 |
Ladder of heaven ... |
•■' 145 |
Lake Abakir |
... 5 |
Lake Albert |
... II |
Lake Albert Edward |
... II |
Lake Biuliis |
... s |
Lake Edku ... |
... 5 |
Lake, Fiery |
... 144 |
Lake Mareotis |
... 5 |
Lake Menzalah |
... 5 |
Lake Moeris |
6, 217 |
Lake No |
... II |
Lake .Sana ... |
... II |
Lake, the Temple ... |
... 108 |
Lake Timsah |
... 5 |
Lake Victoria |
... II |
Lamentations of Isis and Nephthys 62 Lamp ... ... ... ... 91
Land of the Blacks ... .... 215
Land of the .Spirits ... ' 204, 206
Lapis-lazuli paste ... ... ... 98
Lark 85'
Lasso ... ... ... ... 86
Latus 133
Leap-year ... ... ... ... 270
Leather-worker ... ... ... 100
Lebanon ... ... ... ... 98
Leeks 82
Legal documents ... ... ... 75
Legends, mythological ... ... 74
Lelat al-Nuktah 14
Lentils ... 82
Leopard, 85 ; skins ... ... 21
Lepidotus 133
Letopolis ... ... ... ... 17
Letters, Coptic 284
Libation bowl, 262 ; tank ... 207
Library, Alexandrian ... ... 268
o 3
314
INDKX.
Library, the Temple
Libya
Libyans
Life amulet, 149; fluid of, 117,
223 ; tree of Lighters Linen, 80 ; export of, 97 ; weavers
of
Linen mummy swathings, inscribed 178
PAGE
106
247 20
143 102
99
Linenwork
Linnet
Lion, 85 ; gods, 132
the Hyksos Lions, red granite ... Lisht, pyramids of... Litany of Osiris Litanies of Seker ... Liturgy
Liturgy of funerary offering: Liver, god of
Lock
Loin cloth ... Long-strider Lotus Lungs, god of
Lute
Luxor, temple of ... Lykopolis ... Lynx Lynx-goddess
281
85
hunts, 232 ;
226
235
170, 172, 213
67
63
... 283 ... 65 ... 161 ... 91 21, 81 ... 141 ... 130 ... 161 ... 87 16, 243 ... 16 ... 85
Maa-kheru-Ra, King ... ... 293
Maa-Ra-ur-neferu, Hittite princess 242 Maamet ... ... ... ... 18
Maat, the godde.ss, 125, 130 ; the
divine plant, 143, 151 ; symbol of 153 Maati goddesses ... ... ... 150
Maat-en-Ka, King... ... ... 293
Maat-ka-Ra (Hatshepset) 295
Maat-ka-Ra, Princess ... ... 252
Maat-ka-Ra, wife of Osorkon I ... 254
Maat-kha 20I
Madhiat al-Fayyum ... ... 18
Madinat Ilabii, 105, 230 ; temple of... ... ... ... ... 249
Maeotes ... ... ... ... 133
I\Laftc- 132
Magic, books of ... ... ... 74
Magical figures ... ... 151, 152
Magicians, stories of ... ... 71
Mahes 132
Mahetch 16
Mahu, figure of, 248; statue of, 1 19; stele of ... ... ... 239
Mai-sheraui... ... ... ... 78
.Mait 212
M-amluks, ]5ahrite, 2S5 ; Circas- sian 285
PAGE
Man, Creation of 135)136
Man-god ... ... ... 129, 153
Man-battu 157
Manetho, King List of, 185, 190,
208, 222, 264, 269
Mankind, Destruction of .
Mansurah ...
Mantis-god...
Manu
Maniifiyah ...
Marcianus ...
Marcus Aurelius
Marea
Mareotis, lake of ...
Mark, St
Marriage, 76 ; contracts of
Martyrs, Era of
Maruat
Mary, stele of
Masaherth ...
Mastaba tomb
Master of the robes
Matar
Matariyah ... Matchaiu
Maten
Mats
Matthaios, a priest... Matting
Meae
Measures
Meat, eaters of raw
Mechir, month of ...
Medicine, 32, 72; book of
.Mediterranean .Sea...
Medum, pyramid of
Megiddo
Mehit
Meht-en-usekht Mehurit
Mekha
.Vlekhu
Mekkah
.Melkites
Memnon, 232 ; the vocal Memnonium
... 74 ... 18
... 132
... 145
... 18
... 278
... 277
... 258
... 5
277, 279
... 75
... 281
... 17
... 284
... 251
167, 194
... 221
... 15
... 17
... 213
... 16 98, 99
... 56
... 99
... 18
... 98
... 261
... 183
... 190
... 97 195, 203, 218
230, 258 ... 18 .■• 253 ... 130
188, 286 ... 207 ... 285 .. 281 ... 234
234, 242
Memphis, 17, 93, 206, 213, 225 ; council of, 44 ; decree of, 270 ; founding of, 189; government removed from, 209 ; high-priest of, 119; occupied by Assyrians, 257 ; by Persians
Mend (Ments) ...185, 188, 286, 290
Men-ast 204
Menat amulet
Menat-birds
Mendes, 17; kings of, 264: ram of 191
Menelaus ... .,. ... ... 160
261
236
181
I
INDEX.
15
Menephthah I (see Mei-en-Plah) 234
Afenes 185, 188, 286, 290
Menhet 125
Men-ka-Ra, King 208
Men-kau-IIeiu, King 203, 2S7, 291 Men-kau-Ra (Mykerinos), 59, 2CO,
287, 290 Men-kheper-Ra (dynasty XVIII) 295 Men-kheper-Ra (dynasty XXI), 251, 288, Men-kheperuRa ... Men-Maat-Ra (Seti I) ... Men-Maat-Ra Setep-en-Ra Men-ma-Ra Setep-en-Ra ... ^len-pehtet-Ra Men-nefert ... Menruil
Menthii, 130, 242; temple of Menthu-aa, statue of Menthu-hetep I
300
295 296 298 296 296
17 129
234 212 210, 287, 292 210, 287, 292 210, 287, 292 210, 287, 292 210, 287, 292
287 287
211 124, 231 9:
Menthu-hetep II Menthu-hetep III Menthu-hetep IV Menthu-hetep V Menthu-hetep VI
Menthu-hetep VII
Menthu-hetep, coffin of, 58 ; an
official, 211 ; a prince ... Menthu-Ra... Menti Menu (Amsu) •■•123, 128, 238, 248
Meniif 18
Menu-X'efer, stele of ... ... 215
Menzalah, lake of ... ... ... 5
Mer-ankh-Ra 292
Merawi (Napata, or Gebel Barkal) i Merbapen, King ... ... 190,290
Mer-en-IIeru, King ... ... 208
Mer-en-Ptah I 247, 296
Mer-en-Ptah II 218, 297
Mer-en-Ptah hetep-her-Maat ... 296 Mer-en-Ra I ... 205, 287, 291
Mer-en-Ra II ... 205, 287, 291
Meri-mes, prince of Gush ... ... 234
Meri-Ra (Pepi I) 2C5, 292
Meroe, island of i, 17, 275
Meroitic inscriptions, 277; king- dom Merpeba
Mer-Seker, Queen . . . Mer-shesu-Heru, stele of
Mert
Mert-tefs
Merul
Mer-ur (Mncvis Bull) Mes, a KA-priest ...
Meskhenit ... 130
Mesopotamia ... ... 86, 103
Mesore, month of ... ... ... 183
•• 275
190, 286, 290
... 224
... 211
.. 125, 212
196
129
94, 131, 213
Messnau, stele of
Mestha
Mesuth-Ra ...
Metal-caster
Metal-working
Metelis
Metternich stele
Military service
Milk
Millet
Minyah
Mirror
Mitani
Mit-Rahinah
Mizraim
Mnevis, Bull
Moeris, Lake
Monasteries
Money, stamped ...
Mongalla, province ot
Monkeys
Monophysites
Monotheism
Month, the calendar
Months, the twelve
Moon amulet
Mophi
Moral aphorisms ... Mother Isis... Mother, power of the Muhammad the Prophet ...
Mu-Hapi
Mulberries ... Mummies, the royal
PAGE
231
129, 161
... 288, 301
lOI
22, 191
17
75
"9
82
82
18
82, 178 232, 233, 236
17
... 20
93, 131, 191, 213
6, 217
28c
,.. 19
... 21
... 280
... 134
... 181
... 182
... 149
... 7
... 75
... 149
... 77
... 278
... 7
... 82 252
Mummification, dynastic, 154, 159,
160; predynastic ... ... 161
Mummy, 158; chamber, 169;
portraits, 162; swathings ... 164
Museum, Alexandrian ... ... 268
Music 31
Muslims 282
Mut, goddess 125, 129, 232, 253,
277 ; temple of ... ... ... 234
Mut-em-uaa, Queen 232
Mut-hetep, papyrus of ... ... 61
Mut-Nefert, Queen 230
Mu-ur (Moeris) 217
Mykerinos 200, 287, 290
Myrrh 21, 98, 159, 211
Nahr al-Kalb 242
Naifaaurut I ... 264, 289, 301
Nails, stained with henna ... 81
Nakhal (Nile) ..'. 9
Name 7^
Name-day ... ... ... ... 7^
Name, the good 207
Names, magical ... ... ... 3^
i6
INDEX.
N-Antef-aqer, prayer of
Napata ... i, 17, 229, 232, 235
Napoleon ...
Napt (Napata)
Nar-mer
Narses
Nastasen, stele of .
Natron Lakes
Naukratis ...
Navy
Neba, stele of
Neb-hap- Ra I
255> 257, 261
258.
84, no, III, 210, 229, 230,
Neb-hap-Ra II 210,
Nebka-Ra ... Neb-khau, King Neb-kheperu-Ra ...
Neb-Maat-Ra
Neb-pehti-Ra
Nebpu-Usertsen, stele of ... Nebseni, papyrus of .. 53, 59,
Neb-taui-Ra, King ... 210,
Nebt-het (Nephthys) ... 125,
Nebti name Nebuchadnezzar II ... 259,
Necho 258, 288,
Necklaces ...
Nefer amulet, 149; pyramid, 204 ;
stele of ...
Nefer-Abt
Nefer- Ament Nefer-ari, figure of... Nefer-ari-ka-Ra, King. 201, 203, Nefer-ari-ka-Ra (dynasty VIII),
King
Nefcr-hat, stele of... Nefcr-hi, s-tatue of... Nefer-hra, statue of Nefer-ka Hcru, King Nefer-ka-Ra (dynasty II) 193,
Nefer-ka-Ra (dynasty III) 286,
Nefer-ka-Ra (dynasty VIII)
Nefer-ka-Ra (Huni)
Nefer-ka-Ra (Pepi II) 205, 206, 287,
Nefer-ka-Ra (Shabaka)
Nefer-ka-Ra Khentu, King Nefer-ka-Ra Nebi, King ... Nefer-ka-Ra Pepi scnb. King Nefer-ka-Ra Tererl, King Nefer-ka-.Seker ... ... 193,
Nefer-kau-IIeru, King Nefer- Kau-Ra, King Nefcr-kau-Ra setep-en-Ra Nefer-khepcr-Ra-ua-cn-Ra Nefcr-renpit, stele of
Nefer-Senna ...
Ne'fert-ari, head of figure of
PAGE
212
, 276 44 17
, 191 278
74 5 259 121 224
292 292 286 203 296
295 294 218 146 292 127 116 260 300 179
214
17
17
224
287
208 232 114 246 208 286 290 208 193
291 300 208 208 208 208 286 208
2C8
298
295 239
207 229
130
Nefer-Tem ... ... ... 124,
Nefertith, Queen of Amen-hetep
^IV '238, 29s
Nefert-ilha ... ... ... ... 229
Neferttu, stele of ... ... ... 212
Negative Confession ... ... 141
Nehau 18
Neheb 188,286
Neilos ... ... ... ... 9
Neiih, 126, 128. 136, 161, 258; shrine of ... ... ... ... 262
Neka-ankh ... ... ... ... 205
Nekau, King ■ ... 258, 288, 300
Nekau, governor of Sais ... ... 258
Nekheb ... ... ... 16, 205
Nekhebit 125, 128, 191
Nekht, King, 190, 290; papyrus of 53 Nekhta, stele of ... ... ... 221
Nekht- Amsu, figure of ... ... 238
Nekht-Heru-hebt, 264, 265, 289, 301 ; sarcophagus of ... ... 66
Nekht-Menu, figure of ... ... 238
Nekht-neb-f ... ... 266, 302
Nekht-neb-tep-nefer, King 210, 287 Nektanebes... ... 264, 289, 301
Nektanebos 264, 289, 302
Nemareth, 253 ; bracelets of ... 179 Nemmes bandlet ... ... ... 199
Neolithic Period 188
Nepherites ... ... ... ... 264
Nephthys 125, 127, 161
Nero_ ... ... ... 277, 279
Nes-Amsu, bowl of, 256 ; papyrus
of 267
Nes-Ba-neb-Tet 288, 298
Nesi-Khensu ... ... ... 252
Nes-qetiu, sarcophagus of... ... 262
Nessu-ba-neb-Tet ... ... ... 251
Net (Neith)... ' 126,128
Netchem, stele of ... ... ... 231
Netchemet, 252 ; papyrus of ... 61
Neter-baiu 286, 290
Neter-en, King ... ... ... 191
Neter-ka-Ra, King 208
Neterui amulet ... ... ... 150
Nets, fishing ... 84
Ni 234
Night of the Drop, 14; of the Tear 14 Nile, the river, course of, altered, 189; described, 7 ff ;' festivals, 14; gods of, 8, 9; inundation of, 13; length of, 1 1 ; levels, 218; tributaries of ... ... 13
Nile, Blue 11
Nile, Upper 11
Nile, Victoria ... ... ... 11
Nile, White 11
Nile boils ,.. ... ... ... 73
I
Nile, Red Sea Canal
258, 263
INDEX.
117
Nilus
N-ka-Ra, King
Nit-aqert, high-priestess
Nitokris
Nitria
Noa
Nobadae
Nome gods, list of...
Nomas of Egypt, list of
Nu, 127 ; papyrus of
Nilba
Nubi
Nubia, 20, 214, 229, invaded by Arabs, Romans, 275 ; kings of
Nubians, 20 ; funeral customs
Nub-kau-Ra
Nub-kheper-Ra
Nubti
Numbers
Nunneries ...
Nuri, pyramids of ...
Nut
Nut-ent-bak
Nyam-Nyam
234,
283;
9
208 260 260 280
278, 283 16, 17 16, 17
53. 59 ... 18 ... 283
280; by
253 276 ... 293 ... 292
225, 294 ... 180 ... 280 ... 170
126, 128 ... 16 ... 157
of,
214
Oases, the seven, 5, 140 ; Christi anity in . . .
Obelisk from Sinai...
Obelisk, the
Obelisks 105, 107,
Obelisks of Nekht-I.Ieru-IIebt
Octavianus ...
Offerings, Canonical list of, tablet for...
Oil
Oils
Omar, Khalifa
'Omayyad Khalifas
Omega
On (Heliopolis), city ot
One embracing All
Oneness of God
Onias
Onion, city of
Onions
Onnos
Opening the Mouth, ceremony of, represented
Ophthalmia...
Ornaments ...
Orontes
Oryx, 85 ; amulet ...
Osiris, 14, 27, 123, 127 ; enemies of, 143 ; history of, 138 ; king- dom of, 140; resurrection of ...
Osiris- Apis ...
Osiris Christ
280 222 231 230 265 272 90;
207, 222
... 72
82, 178
... 278
... 285
282, 284
17, 126, 145
... 282
134, 237
... 271
... 271
... 82
205
239
••■ 73
80 ff.
240, 242
74 268 282
144
239
254, 288, 298
254, 288, 298
255, 288, 299 288
56
H5,
208
Osiris-Khenti-Amenti Osorkon I Osorkon II Osorkon III Osorkon IV Ostraka
Ostrich feathers Osymandyas Other World, Book of the Ouanafre Ounaref
Ox
Oxen
Oxyrhynchus, 16, 280 ; the fish
Pa-Ahu-neb-Ament Pa-ari, tomb of Pa-Asar Paash-birds... Pa-Ba-neb-Tet Pa- Bast Pachomius ... Pachons, month of. Paheri
Pahomo, stele of . Pai, stele of Paiankh
Pai-nehsi, stele of . Painetchem I Painetchem II Painetchem III Pa-Khen-en-Amen. Palaeolithic Period
P-alek
Palermo, stele of .. Palestine
Palette
Pallas
Palm, a measure
Palm-tree ...
Pamai
Pa-Matchet)
Pa-mer-ahau, 45
Pa-neb-Amt
Pa-nebset ...
Panehsi, statue of ..
Panopolis ... 16,
Panther
Pantheism ..
Paoni, month of ..
Paophi, month of ..
Papremis
Papyri, painted
Papyrus, the plant, 53 ; amulet,
149 ; cases for the dead, 162 ;
export of... Papyrus Abbott Papyrus D'Orbiney
299 279
25I1
251. 25I;
242
66 57 56 82
94 133
17 234
17 181
17
17
280
183 134 283 251 288 224 288 288 251 17 188
70,
185, 188, 195 239, 240, 253 ... 53, 178 57
figure of
288, 299
... 16
... 248
17
18
246
100, 164, 280, 284
85
133
14
183
263
no
250
248
3i8 |
INDEX. |
||||||
PAGE |
PAGE |
||||||
Papyrus Harris |
250 |
Pharaoh's Bed |
. 276 |
||||
l*apyrus Mathematical |
225 |
Pharmuthi, month of |
. 183 |
||||
Papyrus Prisse |
193 |
Pharos |
. 269 |
||||
Parchment ... |
100 |
Pharsalia, battle .. |
. 272 |
||||
Pa-ren-nefcr, stele of |
229 |
Philadelphus |
268, 302 |
||||
Pasebkhanut I |
251, |
288 |
298 |
Philae, island of, 7, ic.8, 214, |
266 |
, |
|
Pasebkhanut II |
251, |
288, |
298 |
268, 272, 275 ; obelisk of |
■ 45 |
||
Paser, figure of |
246 |
Philip Arrhidaeus ... 266, |
289, 302 |
||||
Pa-ser, a chit f mason |
248 |
I'hilistia |
• 249 |
||||
Pa-ser, statue of ... |
235 |
Philometor ... |
• 271 |
||||
Pashet, hymn of, to Res |
ipu, |
239; |
Philopator ... |
. 270 |
|||
stele of ... |
238 |
Phoenicia ... |
• 97 |
||||
Pa-shet, .stele of |
229 |
Phoenissae ... |
• 56 |
||||
Pa-suten-sa, shrine of |
218 |
Phoenix |
. 132 |
||||
Pat-birds |
181 |
Phoenix Period |
. 182 |
||||
Pa-Tehuti |
17 |
Physician ... |
. lOI |
||||
Pa-Tem, Pa Temu |
17, |
243 |
Piankhi, 255, 275, 288, |
299 |
|||
Patumos |
17 |
invades Egypt, 253 ; stele of . |
• 74 |
||||
Pa-Uatchet |
17 |
Piankhi Seneferef-Ra |
. 164 |
||||
Paul the Anchorite |
280 |
Pibeseth |
• 17 |
||||
Pavilion |
249 |
Pig |
^2,95 |
||||
Payni, month of ... |
183 |
Pigeon |
83,85 |
||||
Peas |
82 |
Pila'^ter |
. 108 |
||||
Pectoral |
178, |
179 |
Pillar |
. 108 |
|||
Pefa-Net, statue of... |
260 |
Pillar-altar |
• 279 |
||||
Peh-Qennes |
17 |
Pillars of the sky ... |
• 145 |
||||
Peka |
145 |
Pillow ... ' ... |
..9 |
[, 9 |
S, 178 |
||
Pekhth |
132 |
Pillow amulet |
■ 149 |
||||
Pelican |
85 |
Pi-Menth |
. 261 |
||||
Pelusium |
258 |
261 |
Pit of the tomb |
. 169 |
|||
Pena, false door of... |
207 |
Pithom |
7, 243 |
||||
Pendants |
179 |
Pithom, recorder of |
■ 255 |
||||
Penta-urt, poem of... |
74, |
242 |
Planets, lists of |
■ 71 |
|||
Pepi I |
287, |
291 |
Plague |
. 178 |
|||
Pepi II |
287, |
291 |
Plates |
• 92 |
|||
Pepi-nekht |
...3c |
,78, |
207 |
Pleinos, stele of |
. 281 |
||
Per-aa (Pharaoh) . . |
117 |
Plough |
■ 96 |
||||
Perabsen, King ..191, |
193. |
286, |
290 |
Plumes amulet |
• 150 |
||
Per-em-hru |
58 |
Plutarch quoted |
. 138 |
||||
Per-em-us ... |
170 |
Pnups ... |
. 18 |
||||
Persia |
86 |
Poetry |
• 75 |
||||
Persians, 261, 278; in Egj-pt, |
262, |
263 |
Politta, stele of ... |
• 279 |
|||
Pert, season of |
182 |
Polygamy ... |
. 76 |
||||
Pertinax |
279 |
Polytheism ... |
• ^33 |
||||
Peseshkef amulet ... |
150 |
Pomades |
. 82 |
||||
Pet names ... |
78 |
Pomegranates |
. 82 |
||||
Peta-Amen-apt, tomb of |
176 |
Pompey |
. 272 |
||||
Peta-Bast, King 31 |
255, |
288, |
299 |
Pontyris |
. 18 |
||
Peta-Bast, an official, stele of |
274 |
Porcelain, Egyptian |
. 100 |
||||
Peten-Heru |
18 |
Portico |
. 104 |
||||
Pe-Tep |
267 |
Portrait figures |
■ 113 |
||||
Peter, deacon |
283 |
Portraits |
. 162 |
||||
Phagrus fish |
133 |
Port Sa'id |
• 19 |
||||
Phakussa ... |
17 |
Potter |
. 98 |
||||
Phamenoth, month of |
183 |
Potter's Wheel |
9J |
^, 135 |
|||
Pharaoh, friend of... |
200 |
Precepts of Ptah-hctep, |
"68 |
; c |
f |
||
Pharatih Ilophra ... |
153, |
259 |
Kaqemna |
. 68 |
|||
Pharaoh, meaning of the title |
117 |
Prescriptions, medical |
• 72 |
||||
Pharaoh Necho |
258 |
Priesthood, the |
• "9 |
1
INDEX. |
319 |
|||||||
PAGE |
PAGE |
|||||||
Priest-kings, the ... |
251 |
Pyramid, meaning of the |
wore |
... |
170 |
|||
Priests of Amen-Ra |
229 |
Pyramid, Medum ... |
195 |
|||||
Prisse papyrus |
193 |
Pyramid, Prison ... |
206 |
|||||
Prison pyramid |
206 |
Pyramids of Gizah, 196 ; |
miniature |
239 |
||||
Proverbs |
30 |
|||||||
Psammetichus I |
■153. |
258 |
288, |
300 |
||||
Psammeticluis II . |
259 |
288, |
300 |
Qa, King, 190 ; pyramid |
213 |
|||
Psammetichus III . |
261 |
288, |
300 |
Qa-ab-Ra setep-en-Amen |
302 |
|||
Psamut |
264 |
289, |
301 |
Qaha, stele of |
239, |
248 |
||
Psemthek I... |
258 |
288, |
300 |
Qarta, false door of |
206 |
|||
Psemihek II |
259 |
28S, |
300 |
Qebh, King .. |
190, |
286, |
290 |
|
Psemthek III |
261 |
288, |
300 |
Qeblisennuf... |
124, |
129, |
161 |
|
P-shere-en-Ptah |
274 |
Qehet |
212 |
|||||
Ptah, 68, 124, '128 ; tern |
pie of, at |
(^)em, or Qemt |
4 |
|||||
ISieiiiphis... |
245 |
Qen-nefer, figure of, 239 |
statue of |
118 |
||||
Ptah-em-uaa, stele of |
246 |
Qer-IIapi ... |
7 |
|||||
Ptah-hetep, false door of |
207 |
Qerti' |
141 |
|||||
Ptah-hetep, precepts of |
30, 68, 1; |
,84 |
Qetesh |
125, |
130 |
|||
Ptah-mai, stele of ... |
238 |
Qetesh, relief ot |
246 |
|||||
Ptah-mes, stele of ... |
248 |
Quail |
85 |
|||||
Ptah-Nefert |
218 |
Queen, her titles ... |
117 |
|||||
Ptah-Sankh, stele of |
224 |
|||||||
Ptah-Seker ... |
124 |
|||||||
Ptah-Seker-Asar figures |
153 |
Ra, 128; enemies of, 143 |
; poison- |
|||||
Ptah-shepses |
11>, |
201 |
ing of, 74 ; worship of |
203 |
||||
Ptah-Socharis-Osiris |
153 |
Ra-ari-en-Maat |
302 |
|||||
Ptolemaic Period ... |
268 |
Rachel |
283 |
|||||
Ptolemy I, Lagus, Soter, |
266, |
268, |
Radassiyah, temple of |
240 |
||||
289 ; Decree of ... |
74 |
Radishes |
82 |
|||||
Ptolemy II, Philadelphus... |
185; |
Rafts |
102 |
|||||
268, |
289 |
Ra-Harmakhis |
124, |
199 |
||||
Ptolemy III, Euergetes I |
97 |
179, |
Ra-IIeru-khuti |
124 |
||||
268, |
2S9 |
Ra-I^etep, King |
224 |
|||||
Ptolemy IV, Philopator |
269, |
289 |
Ra-hetep of Medimi, |
78, |
III ; |
|||
Ptolemy V, Epiphanes |
236 |
270, |
289 |
relief of ... |
203 |
|||
Ptolemy VI, Eupator |
271, |
289 |
Ra-ka-meti, King ... |
292 |
||||
Ptolemy VI [, Philometoi |
271, |
289 |
Ram of Amen, 96 ; of |
Khnemu, |
||||
Ptolemy VIII |
271, |
289 |
96; of Mendes ... |
191 |
||||
Pt(3lemy IX, Euergetes |
271, |
289 |
Ram -god ... ... |
131 |
||||
Ptolemy X ... |
272, |
289 |
Ra-maat-neb-meri Amen |
297 |
||||
Ptolemy XI |
272, |
289 |
Ra-meri (Pepi I) ... |
205, |
206 |
|||
Ptolemy XII |
272, |
289 |
Ra-meri-ab ... |
291 |
||||
Ptolemy XIII |
272, |
289 |
Ra-meri- Amen |
301 |
||||
Ptolemy XIV |
272, |
289 |
Rameses I ... |
239, |
287, |
296 |
||
Ptolemy XV |
272, |
289 |
Rameses II 98, 218 |
241- |
-245, |
|||
Ptolemy XVI |
272, |
289 |
252, 287, 296 ; King List of .\. |
185 |
||||
Pumice-stone |
91 |
Rameses III 153, 249, |
250, |
288, |
297 |
|||
Pumpkins ... |
82 |
Rameses IV |
250, |
288, |
297 |
|||
Punishment, everlasting |
144 |
Rameses V 153, |
250, |
288, |
297 |
|||
Punt, 20, 21, 98, 204, 206; |
-'.\pe- |
Rameses VI |
250, |
288, |
297 |
|||
ditions to, 211, 215 |
230 |
Rameses VII |
250, |
288, |
297 |
|||
Punts |
lOI |
Rameses VIII |
250, |
288, |
297 |
|||
Purgatory ... |
144 |
Rameses IX |
250, |
288, |
297 |
|||
Pygmies |
87 |
Rameses X . . . |
250, |
288, |
298 |
|||
Pygmy |
204 |
206 |
Rameses XI |
250, |
288, |
298 |
||
Pylon |
105 |
106 |
Rameses XII |
250, |
288, |
298 |
||
Pyramid, Antef-aa . |
226 |
Ramesseum... |
242, |
243 |
||||
Pyramid, False |
195 |
Ra-neb, King |
191 |
|||||
Pyramid, Great |
, |
196, |
197 |
Ra-nefer-Tem-khu . . . |
... |
300 |
320
INDEX
.124, 131, 239
PAGE
Raphia, batlle of 270
Ka-sekhent-cn 294
Ra-seshesh-apu-Maat ... ... 292
Ra-seshesh-her-hei-Maal .. ... 292
Reaping 97
Rebecca 283
Recognition of friends in the Tuat 146 Red Sea — Nile route, 98; province
of 19
Reed-pens ... ... ... ... 55
Reed pipe ... ... ... ... 87
Reels 165
Remmosh ... ... .. ... 57
Renaissance ... ... 115, 261
Renenet 126, 130
Repentance...
Rerit
Reservoir ...
Reshpu
Re-stau
Resurrection, the, 139 ; amulet of
Rhind Papyrus
Rhinoceros ...
RhinocoUjra
Righteous, rewards of, 142 ; spirits
and souls of Ring-money Rings, finger Ritual of Embalmment River of Egypt River of the Tuat . . . Rock-salt ... Romances, historical Rome
Roof, portion of stone Ropes
Ro.setta Stone Rosetta, temple of Rouge Royalists Rui, figure of Ruma, stele ot Rutchek, a libationcr
142
131 217 248 141 150 71 86
4
143 21, 98 ... 179 ... 64 ... 9 ■■• 145 ... 83 ... 74 ... 270 ... 207 ... 99 41, 270 ... 258 ... 81 ... 281 ... 248 ... 241 ... 200
■Sa (Tanis)
Sa, the
Sau-ka-nekhl-khepcru-Ra . . . Sa-Amen, King Sa-Anher, stele of ...
Sa ankh
Sabaco
Sabben
Sabina, Empress .. Sabiniis Sacrifices Saddenga ... Sahal, island of Sa-Hfithor^ stele of
25I:
17 198
295 2S8
221
223
256, 288, 3CO
207
277
279
237
234
14, 193 215
Sahidic dialect ... ... ... 35
Sahu 155
Sahu-Ra, King ...201, 203, 287, 291 Sailor, the shipwrecked ... ... 70
Sais, 17, 136, 145, 256, 262 ; kings
of, 258 264
Saite Period ... ... ... 261
.Sakkarah, pyramids and mastabas of, 166, 170, 205; step pyramid
of, 193 ; tablet of 185
Salatis, King ... ... ... 225
Salt 83
Salted bodies ... ... ... 161
Saluki dog ... ... ... ... 86
Sam-Behutet ... ... ... 17
Sa-Menthu, an official ... ... 73
Sa-Menthu, a scribe ... ... 215
Sa-Menthu, stele of ... ... 211
Sammanvid ... ... ... ... 17
San, 17 ; sphin.xes of ... ... 218
Sandals ... ... 81, 99, 143, 178
Sa-Nehat ... ... ... ... 70
Sanekht ... ... ... ... 286
Sankh-ab-taui, King ... ... 210
Sankh-ka-Ra, King ... 210, 292
Sankh-taui ... ... ... ... 223
Sapalul ... ... ... ... 239
Sapi Meht 17
Sapi-Rest ... ... ... ... 17
Sa-Ptah Mer-en-Ptah 248, 287, 297
Sara... ... ... ... ... 283
-Sarabit al-Khadim, antiquities from 195, 214, 215, 217, 222, Sarcophagi, classes of Sa-Renput, statue of ... 215, Sargon
Sa-ta
Satet
Sati ...
Satit '
Satiu
Saut 16
Scales
Scales, the Great ...
Scarab amulet
Scarab, the heart ...
Scarab, with human face ...
Scarabs, 207, 220, 226, 233 ; neck- lace ol ...
Scents
Sceptre
School exercises
Schools
Science
Scorpion-god
Scorpion-goddesses, the Seven
Scrapers, flint
Scribe, figure of the
Scrib? t>f the gods
245 177 216 256 132 126 214 129 213
. 17
98
140
147 177
179 82
178 79 79 71
132
75 188 203 140
I
INDEX.
?2I
Scribes, power of the, 79 ; roya
Seal, Solomon's
Sea power ...
Seasons, the three
Seb 124,
Sebek 124, 131,
Sebek-aa, stele of ... ... iii,
Sebek-aaiu, stele of
Sebek-em-sa-f, King
Sebekemsaf, scarab of
Sebek-her-heb, stele of
Sebek-hetep, cone of, 223 ; stele of... ... ... ... 216,
Sebek-hetep, scribe of the wine- cellar
Sebek-hetep Kha-nefer-Ra, King
Sebek-hetep Sekhem - snatch - taui- Ra ■
Sebek-ka-Ra ... ... 287,
Sebek-neferu-Ra ... ... 287,
Sebek-neferut-Ra, cylinder seal of
Sekek-nekht, statue of
Sebek-unnu...
Sebennytus... ... 17,264,
Sebta, figure of ... ... 119,
Second birth
Sefekh-abui...
Seher-ab-Ra
Sehetep-ab ...
Sehetep-ab, stele of
Sehetep-ab- Ra
Selia 188,
Seker ... ... 65, 125, 129,
Sekhem ... ... ... 17,
Sekhem-ab, King
Sekhem-ka-Ra, King
Sekhem- Kheper-Ra selep-en-Ra
Sekhem-khu-taui-Ra, King
Sekhem - uatch - taui - Ra, statue of
Sekhent-neb-Ra
Sekhet, 126, 130, 253 ; statues of
Sekhet-Aaru
Sekhet-hetep
Sem priest ...
Semempses... ... ... 190,
Semliki River
Semnah, i, 121, 216 ; tcm])le of...
Semsu ... ... ... 190,
Semti ... 59, 189, 193, 286,
Sen, King ... ... ... 190,
Sen, coffin of Sen-atef, stele of ... Senb, tablet for offerings of Seneferab-Ra Senefer-Ra, King ... Senefer-ka Annu, King ... .Seneferu ... 193, 195, 208, 286, .Seneferu, an official
119 282 249 182 128 218 211 221 223 179 218
217
239 223
223 291
293 219 III
214 266 248
150 126
299 211 215 292 286 153 156 191 223 298 224
223 294
234 140 140 246 205
II 257 290 290 286
66 215 207 219 208 208 290 215
' PAGE
j Seneferu, stele of ... ... ... 215
Senen-en-Ptah Tanen-setep-en ... 301
Senmut, architect ... ... ... 230
Sennaar, province of ... ... 19
Sennacherib ... ... ... 256
Sennu, false door of ... ... 207
Sent, King... ... 191, 192, 286
Senta, King ... 191, 192, 290
Sepa, coffin of ... ... ... 146
Sepau ... ... ... ...212
Sept 16, 17, 184
Septimius Severus ... ... 234,277
Septuagint ... ... ... ... 269
Sepulchral stelae ... ... ... 68
Seqenen-Ka I Tau-aa ... 226, 294
Seqenen-Ra II Tau-aa- aa... 226, 294
Seqenen-Ra III Tau-aa-qen 226, 294
Serapeuni ... ... ... ... 258
Seraphim ... ... ... ... 165
Serapis 268, 272, 279
Serdab 169
Serpent amulet, 150; stone, 273;
talking 70
Serqet ... 126, 161
Service books
Se.shesh
Seshe.sh-kheper-Ra setep-en-Ra
126,
Sesheta
Sesostris (Rameses II)
Sesostris (Usertsen II)
Set ... 16, 95, 125, 127, 138, 225
Set-name ... ... ... ... 191
Set-period
67 16 299 130 241 215
181 251 246 286 302
Setau, coffin of Setau, stele of Setches, King ... ... 193,
Setep-en-Ra meri Amen (Philip) Setep-en-Ra meri Amen
(Ptolemy I) 302
Seth 138
Seti I, 152, 153,240,241,252,255;
King List of, 185; planoftombof 174 Seti II Mer-en-Ptah 245, 248, 296
Set-nekht, King ... 234, 248, 249
Settu-Ra 301
Seven years" famine ... ... 166
Seweneh ... ... ... ... I
Shaaru, father of Cheops ... 196,286 Shabaka 68, 256, 288, 3CX)
Shabatuka ... Shabliikah cataract Shabti figure Shadow
Shaduf
Shait en Sensen Shambi Sharkiyah ... Sharuhen Shashanq I ...
257
253, 2!
300 • 13
.. H2
.. 156 89, 96 .. 62 '• 277 .. 18 .. 228
8, 298
322 |
IXDl'.X. |
|||
■.\( . K |
PAGE |
|||
Shashanq 11 |
288, |
299 |
Smer-uat |
... 118 |
Shashanq III |
289, |
299 |
Smetsmet |
... 262 |
Shashanq IV ... 255 |
280, |
299 |
Snake god ... |
... 132 |
Shashanq, an official |
115' |
273 |
Snetchem-ab-Ra .. |
... 301 |
Shashanq, higli-priest |
254 |
So ... |
... 256 |
|
Sha^-hetep ... |
16 |
Sobat, river... |
... 13 |
|
Shasu, 240 ; governors of... |
224 |
Soil of Kgypt |
4 |
|
Shat, season of |
182 |
Soldiers, equipment of |
... 120 |
|
Sheep |
22;82 |
.95 |
Soleb, temple of ... |
231, 232 |
Sheets, padded linen |
90 |
Solomon, 95, 253 ; seal of |
... 282 |
|
Shekh al-Balad, statue of... |
203 |
Solum, gulf of |
... 4 |
|
Shemu, season of ... |
182 |
Somaliland ... |
... 21 |
|
Shen amulet |
150 |
Somerset, river |
... II |
|
Shennu |
117, |
191 |
Son of Ra name |
117, 203. |
Shep-en-Apt I |
256 |
Song of Antuf |
... 75 |
|
Shep-en-Apt II |
256 |
Song of the Harper |
28,75 |
|
Shepherd kings |
224, |
225 |
Songs |
... 75 |
Shepherds, dynasties <-f ... |
222, |
223 |
Soter |
268, 302 |
Shep.seskaf, King ... 201 |
287, |
289 |
Sothic Period, 182. 184; Vear |
, 182, 184 |
Shepses-ka-Ra ... 203 |
287, |
291 |
Sothis |
1S4, 186 |
Shepuit |
131 |
Soul, 156; symbolized by the heart 140- |
||
Sherd, a Ka-priest... |
192, |
193 |
Sow ... |
... 96 |
Shesha, stele of |
198 |
Sowing of crops |
... 96 |
|
Shesmu |
144 |
Sparrow |
... 85. |
|
Sheta |
132 |
Spear |
... 178 |
|
Shield, green slate, 191, 195; |
with |
Spells |
... 31 |
|
badge |
120 |
Sphinx, 198, 199; repaired. |
277; |
|
Shirt |
81, |
120 |
sand cleared from, 232 ; temple |
|
Shishak 179, 253 |
288, |
298 |
ofthe |
104 |
Shrine |
106, |
272 |
Sphinx (Thothmes IK) ... |
... 231 |
Shu |
128 |
Sphinxes, 105 ; avenue of. |
230; |
|
Shutarna |
233 |
from San ... |
... 218 |
|
Shutb |
16 |
Spice |
83,98 |
|
Sickle |
97 |
Spinach |
... 82 |
|
Silko |
278 |
Spindle whorls |
... 165 |
|
Silurus |
133 |
Spindles |
... 165 |
|
Silver rings ... |
179 |
Spirit |
... 156 |
|
Sinai, peninsula of, 4, 203, |
205, |
Spirits, 133: Land of |
... 204 |
|
206, 208, 210, 214, 217, |
219. |
Spoons |
... 92 |
|
222, 240 ; conquest of . . . |
195 |
Spiing ... |
... 183 |
|
Sin |
140 |
-142 |
Stafif, inscribed, 178; ofoffict. |
... 81 |
Sins, the lorty-lwo |
142 |
Staircase to tombs |
... 173 |
|
Sini^ing |
31 |
Stars |
... 145 |
|
Sirius |
184 |
Statues for the Ka ... |
... 177 |
|
Sistrum |
S7, |
178 |
Statues painted |
no, 113. |
Siut |
209 |
Stele of 400 years, 225 ; of the dream 258 |
||
Slwah, Oasis of |
5 |
Stelae, sepulchral ... |
... 220 |
|
Six, ("neat House of |
207 |
Step pyramid |
166, 193 |
|
Skeletons of pygmies |
205 |
Steps amulet ... ^•... |
... 150 |
|
Skemiophris |
219 |
Steps, god of the ... |
... 189. |
|
Skha-en-Ra meri Amen ... |
297 |
Stibium |
... 81 |
|
Skins of animals ... |
98 |
Stick, walking |
... 81 |
|
Skulls of Egyptians |
158 |
Stole |
... 164 |
|
Sma amulet... |
150 |
Stomach, god of ... |
... 161 |
|
Sma-taui |
21 1 |
Stone-cutting ... |
... 191 |
|
Smendes |
251. |
298 |
Stonemason |
... 100 |
Smen-IIeru... |
16 |
Stools |
91, 178 |
|
Smer |
118 |
Strabo quoted 11,13,242: |
||
Smerkha, King |
190, |
286 |
Succolh |
... 17 |
INDIiX.
323
Sudan, 73, 204, 205, 206, 221, 228, 230, 237, 239, 240, 262 ; conquests of, 195, 213, 283 ; Roman centurions in, 277 ; the 13 nomes of ... ... ... 17
Sudan, Modern, provinces of ... 19
Suez, 19, 98; isthmus of, 22; Canal ... ... ... 6, 259
Suhak, iS ; church of, 284; dialect
■ of.; 35
Sulb, 232, 234, 235 ; temple of ... 231 Summer ... ... ... ... 183
Sun amulet... ... ... ... 149
Sundial ... ... ... 72, 273
Sunk-relief ... ... ... ... no
Sunnu ... ... ... ... I
Sunrise, mountain of ... ... 145
Sunset, mountaip. of ... ... 145
Sunt I
Superstition Sururu, stele of Suser-en-Ra, King...
Sutekh
Suten-abu, relief of Suten Bat name Suten-Henen, 16, 209 : Suten rekh title Suten ta hetep prayer
Suti...' ■
Sutui, an architect
Swallow
Swallow-goddes.s ...
Sweetmeats...
Swine
Syene i, 172, 206,
Syncellus, the
SyTJa, 7I5 240 ; wars in,
garrisons cf Sj'rups
Ta-Ahet, Oasis of ... Tabah Tables
Tablet of .Sakkarah Tablet for offerings Tablets of Abydos . . . , Tablets, sepulchral Tachos Taenterert ... Tafnekht I Tafnekht 11 Taharqa
Tail
Tails of animals worn by
Ta-Kens
Ta-Kenset ...
Ta-Khart-Ast, statue of
Takhaiiath ...
Tale of the two brothers
... 234 226, 294 225, 226 ... 194 ... 116 princes of 2c8 ... 221 220, 221 ... 225 ... 239 ... 85 ... 132 ... 82 ... 82 285 264
268, 275, 29, 232 ;
82
71 =
257. 288,
... 5 4 91, 178 71, 185 ... 169 185 177 266 16 288 288 300 81
... 16 216 ... 261 ... 260 69, 70
i7>
257, 252;
188 226 226
126,
Tallal-Maskhutah
Tall Eastah
Tambourine
Ta-Mera
Tandamanie
Tanis, 17, 216, 225, 243
sphinxes of Tankasi, pyramids of Tanta
Tanuath-,\men 257, 258, 288
Tashermut, a priestess Tashet-Khensu Tasitia Taskmasters Tata-aa, stele of ... Ta-tenen
Tati-ankef, stele of Tattoo markings ... Tau ...
Tau-aa (Seqenen-Ra I) Tau-aa-aa (Seqenen-Ra II Tau-aa-qen (Seqenen-Ra III) 226,
Ta-Uatchet
Taurt (Thoueris) ... Taxes levied by priests Tcha, King... Tchaa, stele of
Tchal
Tchat
Tchatchai ...
Tchatchaiu ...
Tchefau-em-.sa-f I
Tchefau-em-sa-f II
Tcliehra
Tcheka
Tcheser
Tcheser-ka-Ra
Tcheser-kheperu-Ra
Tcheser-sa, King
Tcheser-Tcheseru
Tcheser-Teta, King
Tcheserteta...
Tchesti, Oasis of .
Teb
Teben, a measure .
Tebu
tefnut
Tehuti
Tehuti-aa, stele of.
Tehuii-hetep, wall paintings of
Tehutimes, stele of
Tehuti-.sat ...
Tell al-Amarna, tablets of
Tell al-Yahudiyyah
Temple, the
Temu
Ten ...
Ten, King ...
'I'enat, a measure
••• 193
205
266, 289
14, 166, 193
setep-en-Ra
17, 125
129
243 17
87
4
258
218 170
18
, 30^'
273
254
18
151
248
130
219
82
286
, 294
, 294
294
18
131
250
189
216
17 117 286
151 , 291
291
, 302
17
, 286
294
296
•93 230
193 290
5
16 98 16
128 , 128 , 224
222
239 , 164 , 236 , 250 . 104 ,258 i6
286 98
JNDEX.
Tenauit ... ... ... ... 219
Teni 16
Tenk (pygmy) ... ... ... 204
Tentyris ... ... ... ... 16
Teo.s.. 266, 289
Tep-Ahel 16
Terenoulhis ... ... ... 268
Tes-Heru ... ... ... ... 16
Tet .' 125
'fet amulet ... ... ... ... 149
Tela (dynasty I) 189
Teta (dynasty II) 286
Tela (dynasty VI) 205
Teta (I.len-nekht) 286, 290
Teta-Khart, Queen ... 113,114
Teta Mei-en Ptah 287, 291
Tet-f-Ra, King ... 199, 286, 290
Tet-ka-Ra - , King ... 208
Tet-Ka-Ra A.ssa ... 203, 287, 29 r
Tet-kau-Ra 300
Tetun 129
Teucharis ... ... ... ... 283
That-I-tm-hetcp, stele of... 29, 274
Thebaid ' 269, 279
The bans 209
Thebes, 16, 216, 226 ; high priest
of, 119; princes of, 208, 209;
sacked, 258 ; triad of Theb-neter ... Thekaut
Thekeleth I
Thekeleth II Thekeleth III Thent-Kheta Theodosius ...
The.sh 188,
Thetha, 200 ; relief of, 205 ; stele of Thet-taui
Thi, Queen 233-236,
This, city of ... ... 16,
-33>
254, 256,
288,
288,
Thoth, god, inventor of writing 55, 75, 128, 135, 139, 140, 183 Tholh, the Twice-Great Thothmes I
Thothmes II Thothmes III
IV
164, 179,
Thothm Thoueris Threshing lloor Thuaa Thunurei Thuthu, stele of Thulhu, stele and libation Tiberius Tiles, glazed Time, divisions of -Timekeepers Timsah, lake
;29, 287, '■30, 287, 30, 231, 287, 198, 232, 287,
tank
234 17 17 298 299 299 260 278 286 210
213 295 188
196 265 294 294
295 295 126
97 233
71 238
239
277
193
181
151 5
1'.\i;k
Tin 98
Tirhakah 257, 288, 300
Tmai al .Amdid ... ... ... 17
Tnouba ... ... ... ... 56
Tof 102
Toilet box, 178: requisites ... 91
Tomb of Osymandyas ... ... 242
Tomb, the pyramid, 166 ; the mastaba, 167 ; the rock-hewn. 172; endowment of, 175 : equip- ment
Tombs of the kings ... 173 ft,
Top-dressing
Toys 78, loi.
Trade
Trajan
Travel
Tree of life ...
Tree-trunk amulet ...
Triads
Trois
Tuamutef 125, 129,
Tuat, or Other World
Tfilunid Khalifas ...
Tumblers
Tura, quarries of
Turin Papyrus ... ... yi.
Turquoise ...
Turquoise mines
Turtle-god . . .
Tushratta
Tut-I-em-hetep
Tutankh-Amen
Two-horns ...
Tybi, month of
198,
98, 233, :235,238, 287",
178 231 151 178
97
279
b<)
143 149
123 283 161
145 285
87 217 185 215
204 132
23()
3" 29(1 142 183
Uah-ab-Ra (Ilophra) Uah-ab-Ra, statue of Uah-ankh, King ... Uah-ka-Ra (Bocchoris) Uaht-rest, Oasis of Uamemti Uasarken I . . . Uasarken II 217, 218 Uasarken III Uasarken 1\'
Uast
Ualch-ant ... Uatchet
Uatch-kheper-Ra Uatch-nar ... Uatchnes, King Uauaiu Uhem-ab-Ra Ukhedu disease Unim Darman
Una
Unas, King, 203 le<:end (if
I S3, 288
JIO,
254,
, 254,
255>
16,
120, 05, 287, 291 :
300 261 292 ... 299
••■ 5
... 142
288, 298
288, 298
288, 299
288, 29q
... 16
188, 286
126, 128
... 294
188, 28b
191, 286
... 213
■ • ■ 300
... 190
4
206
I I
74
PUBLICATIONS
OF THE
DEPARTMENT OF EGYPTIAN AND ASSYRIAN ANTIQUITIES.
THE BOOK OF THE DEAD.
Photographs of the Papyrus of Nebseni in the British Museum. 1876. Unmounted 21. 2s. (Mounted copies and copies in portfolios may be obtained on special terms.)
The Papyrus of Ani, the Book of the Dead. Facsimile. Second edition. 1894. Fol. Portfolio or half bound. 2/. lO.s.
The Papyrus of Ani, the Book of the Dead. The Egyptian Text, with interlinear transliteration and translation, a iiinning translation, introduction, etc. By E. A. Wallis Budge, Litt.D. 1895. 4to. 1/. lOs.
Facsimiles of the Papyri of Hunefer, Anhai, Kerasher, and Netchemet, with supplementary text from the Papyrus of Nu. With transcripts, ti-anslations, etc. By E. A. Wallis Budgu, Litt.D. 1899. Fol. 21. 10.s.
Egyptian Texts of the Earliest Period, from the coffin of Amamu. 32 coloured plates. 1886. Fol. 21. 2s.
EGYPTIAN PAPYRI, ETC.
Facsimile of the Rhind Mathematical Papyrus in the British Museum. 21 plates. 1898. Fol. 18.?.
Inscriptions in the Hieratic and Demotic Character. 1868. Fol. 1/. Is. 6d.
Coptic and Greek Texts of the Christian Period, from Ostraka, Stelse, etc., in the British Museum. By H. K. Hall. 100 plates. 1905. Foolscap. 21.
IXDKX.
325
Unguents ...
Unt..
Unu-Amen, travels of
Upholsterer
Upper Nile, province of ...
Ur
Uraeus
Ur-ari-en-Ptah, mastaba of
Ur-heka
Ur-kherp-liem
Ur-maau
Urt-Hekau
User, stele of
User-en-Ra
User-en-Ra An
Userkaf, King, 201, 203, 205,
User-ka-Ra, King...
User-ka-Ra Ati
User-ka-Ra meri Amen
User-Kheperu-Ra meri Amen
User-Maat-Ra Amen-meri Setep-
en-Ra ... ... ...
User-Maat-Ra Khu-en-Amen User-IMaat-Ra-sekheper-en-Ra . . . User - Maat - Ra Setep - en - Amen
(Rameses III) ... User - Maat - Ra Sete[j-en-.\men
(Rameses IV) ... ...
User-Maat-Ra Setep-en-Ra Amen
(Osorkon II) ...
User - Maat - Ra Setep - en - Amen
( Pamai
119:
287, 287,
User - Maat - Ra Setep - en - Ra
(Rameses II) User - Maat - Ra Setep - en - Ra
(Shishak III)
User-Ra-setep-en Ptah
Usertsen I ... 73, 172, 213, 287,
Usertsen II 172, 215, 287,
Usertsen III, 73, 115-117, 121, 172, 216, 217, 255, 257, 287, Usertsen IV ... 219, 287,
Usertsen, a prince ... Usertsen-senbu, stele of ... Ushabti figure ... ... 152,
Utcha-IIer-resenet... ... 262,
Utchat amulet Uthenaa, false door of
Valley of the Acacia Vegetables ...
Veil
Vespasian ...
Vessels, funerary ...
Victor, a priest
Victor.
Victoria Nyanza
Vines ... ... ... ... He
Vulture, 85; amulet, 149; goddess 132
178 16 70
100
19 199
179
207
65 274 119 126 212 204 291 291 205 287 302 296
297 297 297
297
297
298
299
296
299
293
293
293 293 222 218
263 149 207
70 82
77 279 178
56 283
214,
22, 196,
Wad Ba-Nagaa
Wadi al-Hamar cataract
Wadi l.iaifah ... 4,
Wadi Halfah camp
Wadi llammamat ...
Wadi Magharah ...195,
Wadi 'Ulaki
Warburton ...
Watchers
Water-fowl ...
Water-melons
Water supply
Wax, used for magical figure
Wa.'c figures
Weaving, art of
Weights
Weston
Wheat
White Crown
White Nile, province of ...
Whorls
Wicked, annihilation of ... Wife, status of
Wigs
Wild-dog
Winding-sheet Window
Wine
Wine, imperishable Wine-jars, sealings of Winnowing of grain
Winter
Witches ...
Wolf
Wolf-god
Wood-carver Wool-work ... Words of power
Writing ...
Writing, art of introduced Writing reeds
... 231
... 13
216, 240-
4
204, 20^,
206 214
240, 243
■■ 44
.. 144
.. 180
.. 82
.. 90
31 .. 67 .. 99 .. 98 •• 44 22, 82 .. 190 19 165 ■ 144 ■■ 77 81, lOI
.. 85
.. 164
■■ 273
•■ 83
• 143
.. 189.
97 .. 183 ■• 31 ■■ 85 .. 132 .. lOI .. 165 I, 149
22 •• 194 ■• 53
Xerxes 1, the Great 263, 267, 288, 301 Xois 17, 222
Year, the calendar, 184; the lunar, 182 ; the primitive, 182 ; the solar, 1S2; the Sothic, 182; the vague
Young, Thomas ... ... 44,
184 270
Zael 57
Zakazik 18
Zawyet al-'Aryan, pyramids of ... 170
Zcdekiah 259, 260
Zobah 253.
Zodiac 71
Zoega ... .. •■■ ■•■ 44
Zuma, pyramids of
170-
i,
BABYLONIAN AND ASSYRIAN TEXTS, ETC.
Inscriptions in the Cuneiform Character, from Assyrian Monuments discovered by A. H. Layard, D.C.L. 1851. Fol. 1/. Is.
The Cuneiform Inscriptions of Western Asia, Vol. III. Pre- pared for publication by Major-General Sir H. C. Rawlinson, K.C.B., assisted by George Smith, Department of Antiquities, British Museum. 1870. Fol. 1/.
The Sculptures and Inscription of Darius the Great on the Rock of Behistt)n, in Persia. A new collation of the Persian, Susian, and Bal>ylonian Texts, with English transla- tion, plates, etc. 1907. 8vo. 1/.
Cuneiform Texts from Babylonian Tablets, etc., in the British Museum. Parts I.-V., VII.-XXIIL, 50 plates each ; Part VI.,
49 plates. 1896-1906. Foolscap. 7.?. 6^7. each part. Part XXIV.
50 plates. 1908. Foolscap. 10.^.
Annals of the Kings of Assyria. Cuneiform Texts, with translations, etc. By E. A. Wallis Budge, Litt.D., and L. W. King, M.A. Vol. I. 1903. 4to. 1/.
Photograph of a Babylonian Tablet (Sp. 3, 2). 1895. Is. (jd.
The Tell el-Amarna Tablets in the British Museum. Auto- type Plates. 1892. 8vo. 1/. 8s.
Catalogue of Cuneiform Tablets in the Kouyunjik Col- lection. By C. Bezold. Vol. I, 8vo, 1889, 15s.; Vol. II., 8vo, 1891, 15s.; Vol. Ill, 8vo, 1894, 15s.; Vol. IV., 8vo, 1896, 1/.; Vol. v., 8vo, 1899, 1/. 3s.
GUIDE BOOKS.
Guide to the Egyptian Collections. With 53 plates and 180 illustrations. 1909. 8vo. Is.
Guide to the First and Second Egyptian Rooms. With 32 plates and 28 illustrations. Second edition. 1904. 8vo. Is.
Guide to the Third and Fourth Egyptian Rooms. With 8 plates and 131 illustrations. 1904. 8vo. Is. 6^/.
Guide to the Babylonian and Assyrian Collections. 2nd edition. With 45 plates and 45 illustrations. 1908. 8vo. Is.
HIMYARITIC & PHCENICIAN INSCRIPTIONS.
Inscriptions in the Phcenician Character, discovered on the site of Carthage during researches by Nathan Davis, 1856-58. 1863. Fol. H. 5s.
Inscriptions in the Himyaritic Character, discovered chiefly in Southern Arabia. 1863. Fol. 1/. 4s.
HAKklSON" AND SON^,
I'RIxNTERS IN ORDINARY TO HIS iMAJESlT,
ST. martin's lane, LONDON.
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